2009 U.S. Commercial

Space Transportation 

Developments and Concepts: 

Vehicles, Technologies, 

and Spaceports

January 2009

Administration

Federal Aviation

HQ-09744.INDD
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2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • About FAA/AST

About the Office of Commercial Space Transportation

The Federal Aviation Administration’s Office of Commercial 

Space Transportation (FAA/AST) licenses and regulates U.S. commercial space 

launch and reentry activity, as well as the operation of non-federal launch and 

reentry sites, as authorized by Executive Order 12465 and Title 49 United States 

Code, Subtitle IX, Chapter 701 (formerly the Commercial Space Launch Act). 

FAA/AST’s mission is to ensure public health and safety and the safety of property 

while protecting the national security and foreign policy interests of the United 

States during commercial launch and reentry operations. In addition, 

FAA/AST is directed to encourage, facilitate, and promote commercial space 

launches and reentries. Additional information concerning commercial 

space transportation can be found on FAA/AST’s web site at 

http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/. 

NOTICE

Use of trade names or names of manufacturers in this document does not 

constitute an official endorsement of such products or manufacturers, either 

expressed or implied, by the Federal Aviation Administration.
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2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Contents

Table of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Space Competitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Expendable Launch Vehicle Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Reusable Launch Vehicle Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Enabling Technologies.......................................... 3

Commercial Human Spaceflight Training........................ 3

Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Regulatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Significant 2008 Events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Space Competitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Google Lunar X PRIZE............................................ 9

America’s Space Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Centennial Challenges......................................... 10

Expendable Launch Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Current Expendable Launch Vehicle Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

AtlasV – United Launch Alliance.................................... 13

Delta II – United Launch Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Delta IV – United Launch Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Falcon 1 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation................. 15

Minotaur I – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Pegasus XL – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Taurus – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Zenit-3SL – Sea Launch Company, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

ELV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

ATK Launch Vehicle – Alliant Techsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Athena III – PlanetSpace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Eagle S-series – E’Prime Aerospace Corporation....................... 19

Falcon 9 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation................. 20

FALCON SLV – Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Nanosat Launch Vehicle – Garvey Spacecraft Corporation............... 21

Minotaur IV and V – Orbital Sciences Corporation..................... 22

QuickReach – AirLaunch LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Taurus II – Orbital Sciences Corporation............................. 23

Upper Stage – SpeedUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

NASA Exploration Launch Vehicles............................. 24

Ares I......................................................... 24

Ares V......................................................... 25

Sounding Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
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Oriole – DTI Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Terrier-Orion – DTI Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

SpaceLoft XL – UP Aerospace, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Reusable Launch Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Commercial RLV Development Efforts........................... 29

Tiger & Cardinal – Acuity Technologies............................... 29

QUAD & MOD-1 – Armadillo Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

New Shepard – Blue Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Sea Star – Interorbital Systems..................................... 31

Neptune – Interorbital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

XA-1.0 – Masten Space Systems.................................... 33

Silver Dart – PlanetSpace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Rocketplane XP – Rocketplane Global............................... 34

SpaceShipTwo – The SpaceShip Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Dream Chaser – SpaceDev........................................ 35

SkyhopperTM – SPACE ACCESS®, LLC............................... 36

Laramie Rose – SpeedUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

M.I.C.H.E.L.L.E.-B – TGV Rockets, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Ignignokt – TrueZer0............................................. 37

Burning Splinter – Unreasonable Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Lynx – XCOR Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Government RLV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Space Shuttle................................................... 39

Fully-Reusable Access to Space Technology Program.................... 39

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

International Space Station Crew and Cargo Transport ..... 43

Dragon – SpaceX................................................ 44

Taurus II/Cygnus – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Other Commercial Crew and Cargo Transport Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle ....................................... 46

Commercial Orbital Habitat Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Enabling Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Friction Stir Welding – Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Composite Tanks – Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

High Performance Pressurization System (HPPS) – 

Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

VASIMR Engine – Ad Astra Rocket Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Solid Rocket Motors - Alliant Techsystems, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Liquid Engines – AirLaunch LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Liquid Rocket Engines and associated technologies – 

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
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2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Contents

Liquid Rocket Engines – Northrop Grumman Corporation.... 52

Liquid Rocket Engines – Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, Inc. . . . . . 53

Liquid Rocket Engines – Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Ablative Engines – Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Liquid RCS Thruster – Space Exploration Technologies 

Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Launch Abort System – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . 55

Scramjet Propulsion – Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, Inc........ 56

Air Launch Method – AirLaunch LLC............................ 56

Stage Recovery System – Alliant Techsystems, Inc. & 

United Space Alliance, LLC....................................... 57

Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

Non-Federal Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Blue Origin Launch Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

California Spaceport ............................................. 60

Kodiak Launch Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport.................................... 62

Mojave Air and Space Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Oklahoma Spaceport............................................. 64

Spaceport America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Federal Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station................................... 66

Edwards Air Force Base........................................... 66

Kennedy Space Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Reagan Test Site................................................. 68

Vandenberg Air Force Base........................................ 69

Wallops Flight Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

White Sands Missile Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Proposed Spaceports............................................ 72

Cape Canaveral Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Cecil Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Chugwater Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

South Texas Spaceport ........................................... 75

Spaceport Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Spaceport Sheboygan............................................. 76

Spaceport Washington............................................ 77

West Texas Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Commercial Human Spaceflight Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Aurora Aerospace............................................... 79

Barrios Technology............................................ 80

Civilian Aero and Space Training Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
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Executive Aerospace Physiology Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

National Aerospace Training and Research Center ............ 82

Orbital Commerce Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Project Odyssey – Space Florida and Andrews Institute........ 83

Space Medicine Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Starfighters Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

United Space Alliance LLC and USA Space Operations LLC . . . . . . . 84

Wyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Zero Gravity Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Regulatory Developments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Amateur Rockets............................................... 89

Classification of Amateur Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Upper Limit for High-Power Rockets................................ 90

Separation Distances from Amateur Rocket Activities................... 90

Notice Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Information Required 45 Days Before Rocket Activities, and 

Estimated Number of Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Photo Credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

List of Acronyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
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2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Introduction

Introduction

The year 2008 was one of steady progress in the commercial space transportation 

industry. Existing launch service providers performed 69 orbital launches in 2008, 

28 of which were commercial. Both established companies and entrepreneurial 

ventures advanced new expendable and reusable launch vehicles currently under 

development. Companies exploring new markets, such as personal spaceflight, 

continued to sign up customers and furthered their plans to enter service in 

the near future. Additionally, these and other companies pursued innovative 

technologies needed to support new vehicles being designed, while spaceports 

strategized to create new infrastructure needed to support the industry.

While this steady progress may not seem much like change, in fact it is the basis 

for revolutionary improvements in commercial space transportation: increased 

reliability and safety, decreased costs, and new capabilities. Existing and new launch 

vehicles, the key technologies needed for these vehicles to operate successfully, 

and spaceports that these vehicles can operate from, are essential to the future of 

the U.S. commercial space transportation industry. This combination can help the 

industry more effectively serve existing customers while opening up new markets, 

such as personal spaceflight and commercial resupply of the International Space 

Station (ISS).

This report explores major developments and other events that defined U.S. 

commercial space transportation in 2008. It showcases current and planned 

U.S. commercial or commercially-oriented activities. It also addresses space 

competitions, reusable launch vehicles (RLVs), expendable launch vehicles (ELVs), 

reentry vehicles and in-space technologies, enabling technologies such as propulsion 

and launch configurations, the evolving array of U.S. spaceports, commercial human 

spaceflight training, and new developments in the regulatory arena.

Whether new developments are highly publicized occurrences or gradual changes, 

commercial space transportation remains a dynamic industry. Providing a broad 

understanding of today’s commercial launch sector requires examining a wide range 

of topics. Information presented in this report was compiled from open sources 

and through direct communication with academic, federal, civil, and corporate 

organizations. Because many of the statements herein are forward-looking, the most 

current information should be obtained by directly contacting the organizations 

mentioned in this report.

Space Competitions

A major milestone in space competitions took place in 2008 when Armadillo 

Aerospace won first prize in Level One of the Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander 

Challenge (NG-LLC). Armadillo’s vehicle, MOD-1, successfully carried out a pair 

of 90-second test flights to win the $350,000 Level One prize purse provided by 

NASA’s Centennial Challenges program ($1.65 million in additional prize money 

remains to be won). For the first time in the competition’s three-year history a 
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second team, TrueZer0, competed in the event. Several other teams made progress 

on vehicles they hope to fly in future competitions.

A number of other competitions under the Centennial Challenges umbrella are 

ongoing with events planned in 2009, including demonstrations of power beaming, 

tether strength, and regolith excavation. In the private sector, the Google Lunar X 

PRIZE gained momentum in 2008, with 16 teams registered by the end of the year 

to compete for $30 million in prize money.

Expendable Launch Vehicle Industry

The year 2008 was one of continued success and new progress for the ELV industry 

in the U.S. United Launch Alliance (ULA) and Orbital Sciences Corporation 

enjoyed a number of successful launches of their families of launch vehicles, 

including several commercial missions for government and commercial customers. 

Sea Launch returned its Zenit-3SL vehicle to flight in early 2008 and had an active 

year. The company also introduced a land-based version, the Zenit-3SLB, which 

had its successful inaugural flight from Kazakhstan in April 2008.

In the ELV development realm, SpaceX celebrated the successful launch of its 

Falcon 1 launch vehicle in September 2008. Less than two months previously a 

Falcon 1 launch attempt ended in failure. The company also made key progress on 

its larger Falcon 9 vehicle, including a series of static engine tests of the vehicle’s 

first stage. Orbital Sciences Corporation, meanwhile, ramped up development of 

its Taurus II vehicle, winning a funded Space Act Agreement with NASA to help 

develop the vehicle for launching cargo spacecraft to the ISS.

Reusable Launch Vehicle Industry

As in the last few years, the most progress in the RLV industry has been in the 

development of suborbital RLVs designed principally to serve the emerging 

personal spaceflight market. Virgin Galactic and Scaled Composites rolled out 

in July 2008 the first WhiteKnightTwo aircraft, which will serve as the air launch 

platform for the SpaceShipTwo suborbital vehicle under development. In March 

2008, XCOR Aerospace revealed its plans to develop a suborbital spaceplane, the 

Lynx. On the same day that Armadillo Aerospace won first prize in Level One of 

the NG-LLC, the company announced a partnership with Rocket Racing Inc. and 

the state of New Mexico to develop a vertical takeoff and landing vehicle to serve 

the personal spaceflight market.

Other companies continued work on suborbital RLVs. A particularly active area 

of work was in the development of vehicles to compete in the NG-LLC that could 

also serve as precursors of full-fledged suborbital RLVs.
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2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Introduction

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technology

The year saw continued progress in developing both government and commercial 

vehicles designed to carry cargo and crews to the ISS and potentially other 

destinations in low Earth orbit. NASA and its industry partners continued 

developing the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle, including tests of the capsule’s 

parachute system and the motors for its abort system. SpaceX worked on its 

Dragon capsule, supported by a Space Act Agreement under NASA’s Commercial 

Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program. The first Dragon demonstration 

mission is planned for 2009. SpaceX also announced plans to develop a free-flying 

version of Dragon, called DragonLab, that can be used for flying experiments or 

deploying small satellites. Orbital Sciences Corporation won a COTS Space Act 

Agreement in February 2008 to develop the Cygnus spacecraft and Taurus II 

launcher for delivering cargo to the ISS. The first Cygnus demonstration mission is 

planned for launch in late 2010. In December, both Orbital Sciences Corporation 

and SpaceX won NASA contracts to deliver cargo to the ISS through 2016.

Beyond the ISS, Bigelow Aerospace worked on a scaled-up version of the Genesis 

inflatable modules the company launched in 2006 and 2007. Sundancer, planned 

for launch in 2010, will be capable of supporting crews. It will also serve as the basis 

for a larger orbital habitat with the addition of more modules in the future. Bigelow 

let several contracts for Sundancer, including the spacecraft’s attitude control and 

propulsion systems.

Enabling Technologies

The progress seen in the ELV and RLV industries rests on developing new 

technologies that provide improved operability, reliability, and performance at 

lower cost. Efforts continued in this arena in 2008, particularly in the area of 

engines. Several companies, from SpaceX and Garvey Spacecraft Corporation to 

Northrop Grumman and Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, demonstrated progress 

on a number of engines and thrusters of varying sizes, for uses ranging from main 

propulsion on launch vehicles to attitude control on piloted spacecraft. Other 

companies continued work on a diverse portfolio of technologies from composite 

propellant tanks to stage recovery systems.

Commercial Human Spaceflight Training

An emerging need for the U.S. commercial space transportation industry is 

training for those who will pilot the new generation of suborbital and orbital 

RLVs and spacecraft under development. A number of training providers, some 

of whom are focused exclusively on space, offer a wide range of services to prepare 

people for the rigors of spaceflight. The FAA published a listing of these training 

providers and the services they offer in February 2008. In the year since that 

initial report’s publication, a number of developments have taken place in this 

field. Companies have enhanced their offerings and new companies have entered 

this field, providing services ranging from medical testing and physiological 
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training to high-performance jet flights and zero-gravity simulations. This updated 

information is included in this report.

Spaceports

The nation’s commercial and federal spaceports had an active year, supporting ELV 

launches as well as laying the groundwork for supporting future commercial ELV 

and RLV missions. Space Florida reached an agreement with the U.S. Air Force to 

operate Launch Complex 36 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS); Space 

Florida plans to convert the launch site into a facility that supports various classes 

of vertically-launched vehicles. The Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS) in 

Virginia reached an agreement with Orbital Sciences Corporation in June 2008 to 

host launches of Orbital’s new Taurus II from a new launch facility at the spaceport.

Other spaceports are proceeding with their development plans. Spaceport America 

in New Mexico finalized its development plans and started construction of an 

access road to the site, and received its FAA launch site operator’s license in 

December. Cecil Field, a former Naval Air Station in Florida, is also in the process 

of applying for an operator’s license. Other spaceports have continued to make 

plans for future operations as well.

Regulatory

In December 2008, the FAA published a new amateur rocket rule. This rule 

provides a new definition of what is considered an “amateur rocket” by the FAA 

and codifies separation distances for amateur rocketry activities, air traffic control 

notice requirements, and other information required by the FAA to permit amateur 

rocket activities.
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2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Significant 2008 Events

Significant 2008 Events

January 15: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL lifts off from the Odyssey Launch Platform 

on the Equator in the Pacific Ocean and places the Thuraya 3 satellite into 

geosynchronous orbit (GSO).

January 23: Virgin Galactic and Scaled Composites unveil the design of their 

suborbital piloted spacecraft, SpaceShipTwo, and its carrier aircraft, WhiteKnightTwo, 

at a press conference in New York City.

February 19: NASA signs a funded Space Act Agreement with Orbital Sciences 

Corporation as part of the agency’s Commercial Orbital Transportation Services 

(COTS) project. The $170-million agreement will support development of the 

Cygnus cargo spacecraft and Taurus II launch vehicle.

February 21: The X PRIZE Foundation introduces the first ten teams registered 

in the $30-million Google Lunar X PRIZE competition. This competition will 

reward the first company to send a privately-developed rover to the Moon.

March 19: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL lifts off from the Odyssey Launch Platform 

and places the DIRECTV 11 satellite into GSO.

March 19: Space Adventures acquires Zero Gravity Corporation (ZERO-G), a 

provider of parabolic flight services that simulate microgravity, for an undisclosed 

sum. ZERO-G will continue operations as a business unit of Space Adventures.

March 26: XCOR Aerospace announces plans to develop a suborbital piloted 

spacecraft, the Lynx. The two-seat vehicle, capable of flying to an altitude of over 

60 kilometers, will be ready for test flights as early as 2010.

April 9: UP Aerospace signs a ten-year agreement with the New Mexico 

Spaceport Authority to conduct suborbital sounding rocket launches from 

Spaceport America.

April 12: Garvey Spacecraft Corporation (GSC) and its research partner, 

California State University Long Beach (CSULB), launched the Prospector 14 

rocket on a low-altitude flight from the Mojave Desert in California. The launch 

tested a new liquid oxygen-methane engine developed by CSULB students.

April 14: A United Launch Alliance (ULA) Atlas V 421, operated by Lockheed 

Martin Commercial Launch Services, lifts off from Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station (CCAFS) and places the ICO G1 satellite into GSO.

April 22: Voters in Sierra County, New Mexico, which includes the city of Truth 

or Consequences, approve a gross receipts tax increase to help fund development of 

Spaceport America.
• 6 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

April 28: A Zenit-3SLB rocket, operated by Land Launch, a joint venture of Sea 

Launch and Space International Services, lifts off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome 

in Kazakhstan and places the Amos 3 satellite into GSO. The launch is the first for 

Zenit-3SLB, a land-based version of the Zenit-3SL.

April 16: An Orbital Sciences Corporation Pegasus XL launches from its 

L-1011 carrier aircraft near Kwajalein Atoll in the central Pacific, carrying the 

Communications/Navigation Outage Forecasting System (C/NOFS) satellite for 

the U.S. Air Force (USAF). The launch is performed under an FAA/AST license.

May 21: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL lifts off from the Odyssey Launch Platform and 

places the Galaxy 18 satellite into GSO.

June 9: Orbital Sciences Corporation announces that it will use the Mid-Atlantic 

Regional Spaceport (MARS) for its new Taurus II launch vehicle, with the first 

launch from there scheduled for late 2010.

June 11: Space Adventures announces that it has reached an agreement with 

the Russian Space Agency for the first private mission to the International Space 

Station (ISS), scheduled for the second half of 2011. The company also announces 

that Google co-founder Sergey Brin has invested in Space Adventures and will 

join its “Orbital Mission Explorers Circle,” giving him preferential access to future 

spaceflight opportunities.

July 15: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL lifts off from the Odyssey Launch Platform and 

places the EchoStar XI satellite into GSO.

July 28: Virgin Galactic and Scaled Composites roll out the first WhiteKnightTwo 

carrier aircraft, the VMS Eve, at Mojave Air and Space Port in California.

August 3: A SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket lifts off from Omelek Island, part of Kwajalein 

Atoll, carrying the Jumpstart payload for the Operationally Responsive Space 

(ORS) Office and two smaller satellites for NASA. The payloads fail to reach orbit 

when the rocket’s first stage recontacts the second stage after stage separation.

August 7: The U.S. Air Force (USAF) agrees to license Launch Complex 36 at 

CCAFS to Space Florida, which plans to convert the facility into a multi-use 

vertical launch complex for commercial users.

August 22: An Alliant Techsystems (ATK) experimental launch vehicle, the ATK 

Launch Vehicle (ATV) X-1, lifts off from MARS on a suborbital flight carrying 

two NASA hypersonic flight experiments. The vehicle veers off course and is 

destroyed 27 seconds into the flight.

September 6: A ULA Delta II 7420, operated by Boeing Launch Services (BLS), 

launches from Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) and places the GeoEye 1 

satellite into orbit.
• 7 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Significant 2008 Events

September 24: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL lifts off from the Odyssey Launch 

Platform and places the Galaxy 19 satellite into GSO.

September 28: A SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket lifts off from Omelek Island and places 

a demonstration payload into orbit. The launch is the first successful flight of the 

Falcon 1.

September 30: Space Adventures announces that Charles Simonyi, who flew to the 

ISS as a space tourist in 2007, will make a return flight in spring of 2009, making 

him the first commercial customer to make a repeat trip to space.

October 12: A Soyuz rocket launches the Soyuz TMA-13 spacecraft on a mission 

to the ISS. The spacecraft’s crew includes space tourist Richard Garriott, a computer 

game developer and son of former NASA astronaut Owen Garriott.

October 24: A ULA Delta II 7420, operated by BLS, launches from VAFB and 

places the COSMO-Skymed 3 satellite into orbit.

October 24: Armadillo Aerospace wins first prize in Level One of the Northrop 

Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge at Las Cruces International Airport in New 

Mexico with their MOD-1 vehicle. Armadillo receives $350,000 in prize money 

from NASA’s Centennial Challenges prize program.

October 24: Armadillo Aerospace and Rocket Racing Inc. announce a joint 

venture to develop vertical takeoff and landing suborbital piloted vehicles. The 

state of New Mexico agrees to provide $3 million to help the joint venture establish 

development and test facilities in Las Cruces, New Mexico.

November 4: Voters in Otero County, New Mexico, which includes the city of 

Alamogordo, narrowly reject a gross receipts tax increase that would have helped 

fund development of Spaceport America.

November 22: SpaceX conducts a nine-engine “mission duty cycle” static 

test firing of the first stage of its Falcon 9 launch vehicle at its test facility in 

McGregor, Texas.

December 2: XCOR Aerospace announces its first customer for its Lynx vehicle, 

Danish investment banker Per Wimmer, and that tourism company RocketShip 

Tours will be selling tickets for Lynx flights.

December 2: SpaceX announces that it has added two missions to its manifest for 

DragonLab, a reusable free-flying laboratory developed by SpaceX for research and 

technology demonstration applications.

December 15: The FAA issues to the New Mexico Spaceport Authority a launch 

site operator license for Spaceport America. The license covers suborbital vertical 

launches from the planned facility.
• 8 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

December 23: NASA awards ISS Commercial Resupply Services contracts to 

Orbital Sciences Corporation and SpaceX. The contract with Orbital is for eight 

launches at a cost of $1.9 billion, while the contract for SpaceX is for 12 launches 

at a cost of $1.6 billion.
• 9 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Space Competitions

Space Competitions

Space prize competitions have become an effective method of promoting 

innovation and developing commercial spaceflight technology. The end goal of the 

competitions is to create available commercial space launch (and other commercial 

space capabilities) with lower cost, improved quality, and more efficient processes 

than the options currently available. The three sets of currently active prize 

competitions are the Google Lunar X PRIZE, America’s Space Prize, and NASA’s 

various Centennial Challenges.

Google Lunar X PRIZE

The Google Lunar X PRIZE is a fairly new international prize competition to 

reward the privately funded teams that can land a robotic craft on the surface of 

the Moon, roam about the surface for at least 500 meters, and collect and transmit 

digital data back to Earth in the form of images and videos (called “Mooncasts”). 

Active since September 2007, the Google Lunar X PRIZE is the joint effort of 

the X PRIZE Foundation and Google to encourage private enterprise and the 

exploration of the Moon. The largest prize amount is $20 million and is awarded 

to the first team to complete the mission by December 31, 2012. The prize money 

drops to $15 million if the competition is not won until 2013 or 2014. The 

second team to complete the mission by the end of 2014 is awarded $5 million. 

Additionally, a total of $5 million is available to win in bonus prizes by successfully 

completing additional tasks while exploring the lunar surface.1

Space Florida is offering an additional $2 million solely 

to the first place team if they successfully launch from 

the State of Florida. The Google Lunar X PRIZE has 

made significant developments since its announcement 

in 2007. The competition has received more than 560 

expressions of interest from over 53 countries. The X PRIZE 

Foundation introduced the first 10 fully registered teams 

in February 2008, including teams from Romania, Italy, 

Texas, Southern California, and many more innovative and 

diverse organizations.2

 In December 2008, two new teams 

registered for the competition: Euroluna, from Denmark 

and Italy and SELENE, from China and Germany.3

America’s Space Prize

Bigelow Aerospace has proposed a commercial spaceflight competition, America’s 

Space Prize, to develop commercial human spacecraft. This prize challenges entities 

within the United States to design a reusable vehicle, without government funding, 

capable of carrying passengers into orbit, with the eventual goal of transporting 

humans to Bigelow Aerospace’s expandable space modules. According to the rules, 

participants will be required to build a spacecraft capable of taking a crew of five 

people to an altitude of 400 kilometers (240 miles) and completing two orbits of 

Lunar rover mockup of the Google Lunar X PRIZE
• 10 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

the Earth at that altitude. They must then repeat that accomplishment 

within 60 days. The first flight attempt allows for just test pilots and 

an established mass for passengers, but the second flight must carry a 

crew of at least five. The spacecraft will have to demonstrate the ability 

to dock with Bigelow’s inflatable space station and remain docked for 

a minimum of six months. Additionally, no more than 20% of the 

vehicle can be composed of expendable hardware.4

With the successful launch and ongoing operation of Genesis I and 

Genesis II and the proposed Sundancer, planned for launch early 

in the next decade, Bigelow Aerospace is continuing development 

towards future commercial space habitats.5

The competition deadline is January 10, 2010, with a cash prize of 

$50 million, funded fully by Bigelow Aerospace. To date, there has 

been very little in the way of publicly available information regarding 

the number of competition participants or if any progress has been 

made toward the competition.

Centennial Challenges

NASA’s Innovative Partnerships Program Office uses the Centennial Challenges 

program to advance development of space technologies through prize competitions, 

bringing important government support to commercial spaceflight development. 

This program creates specialized competitions to further the exploration of space 

through specific technological development, using funding outlets beyond the 

standard procurement process. 

There are seven currently funded Centennial Challenges, each of which is managed 

by an outside organization. Some of the competitions do not directly relate to 

commercial space transportation technologies, but all seven challenges develop 

technologies important to future commercial spaceflight.6

The Centennial Challenge that relates most directly with commercial spaceflight 

is the Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge (NG-LLC). This competition 

is managed for NASA by the X PRIZE Foundation, who received funding to 

cover administrative costs from Northrop Grumman. The NG-LLC was held as 

part of the X PRIZE Cup in 2006 and 2007. In 2008, the challenge was a standalone event that was not open to the general public but was broadcast live over the 

internet. This year’s competition was the first time a competing team won a prize 

purse by successfully flying their vehicle.

The NG-LLC is divided into two levels that have separate prizes based on 

increasingly difficult requirements. Level 1 is completed if a team’s constructed 

vehicle is able to take off vertically, reach an altitude of at least 50 meters and 

land precisely at the target landing area, having remained airborne for at least 90 

seconds. They must complete a similar return trip and transport the vehicle back to 

the starting point within 50 minutes. The more difficult Level 2 requires the vehicle 

Armadillo Aerospace’s module descends 

to a landing
• 11 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Space Competitions

to remain airborne for twice as long and land on a simulated lunar surface.7 Each 

Level awards prizes for 1st and 2nd place.

On October 24, 2008 at the Las Cruces International Airport in Las Cruces, New 

Mexico, Armadillo Aerospace, a team that made attempts the previous two years of 

the NG-LLC, successfully completed Level 1 with its MOD-1 vehicle and earned 

$350,000 for first place in that level of the competition. The 2008 NG-LLC marks 

the first time a team successfully completed a part of the challenge and Armadillo’s 

$350,000 win is the largest single prize awarded within any of the Centennial 

Challenges. The team competed unsuccessfully for Level 2 the following day. 

Although nine teams were registered to compete, only one other team participated 

in the competition. TrueZer0 team, new to the LLC this year, was unable to 

complete Level 1. The total unclaimed prize money, $1,650,000, reserved for Level 2 

and second place for Level 1, will transfer to 2009 when the challenge will be held 

again.8

Aside from the General Aviation Technology Challenge managed by the 

Comparative Aircraft Flight Efficiency Foundation, the other five Centennial 

Challenges are space-related and promote further space mission technologies. 

•	 The Astronaut Glove Challenge, conducted by Volanz Aerospace Inc., tests 

participants on the dexterity, flexibility, and overall development of a spacesuit 

glove. The Challenge will be held in 2009 and includes some variations to the 

2007 competition. The teams must provide a complete glove including the 

thermal micrometeoroid garment (TMG), unpowered bladder and bladderrestraint sections. 

•	 The Tether and Beam Power Challenges, conducted by the Spaceward 

Foundation, are tentatively scheduled for February – March 2009. The 

purpose of these challenges is to further the development of high strength-toweight materials and wireless power distribution technologies. Since neither 

competition has awarded any prizes to date, the prize purse continues to rise; 

in 2009 it will be $2 million for each competition. 

•	 Two other currently active space competitions are the Regolith Excavation 

Challenge, conducted in 2007 and 2008 with sixteen teams but no winner, 

and the Moon Regolith Oxygen Extraction Challenge (both organized by the 

California Space Education and Workforce Institute). These challenges award 

prizes of $750,000 and $1 million, respectively, for future lunar exploration 

excavation and oxygen extraction technologies. 

Whether prize purses are awarded or not, the Centennial Challenges Program 

is considered a success in meeting NASA’s goals of promoting private space 

technology development and encouraging innovation in private enterprise.9

The President’s Fiscal Year (FY) 2009 Budget Request asks for $4 million per year 

for the Centennial Challenges for FY 2009 through FY 2012 as a part of the IPP.10

Although the program’s budget was zeroed out in FY 2008, funding of the purses 
• 12 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

for the competitions mentioned above was obligated using FY 2005 funds. If new 

funding is appropriated, NASA plans to introduce new Centennial Challenges 

competitions.
• 13 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

Expendable Launch Vehicles

This survey of U.S. Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs) is divided into four 

sections. The first reviews the ELVs currently available to serve a wide range of 

commercial and government payloads. The second reviews a number of proposed 

commercial ELVs under study or development—many of which are designed 

to launch small satellites at lower costs, greater responsiveness, and with shorter 

turnaround times than existing vehicles. The third discusses the new launch vehicles 

being developed exclusively to support NASA’s Vision for Space Exploration. 

Finally, the fourth section reviews suborbital sounding rockets manufactured and 

operated by U.S. companies.

Current Expendable Launch Vehicle Systems

Table 1 on the next page lists the ELV systems available in the United States today 

for commercial or government missions. The Minotaur is restricted to government 

payloads. The Delta IV, while available to both US government and commercial 

customers, has thus far been mainly used by the government. The Atlas V, DeltaII, 

Pegasus, and Taurus vehicles are available for commercial and U.S. government 

launches. The Zenit-3SL is available only to commercial customers.

AtlasV – United Launch Alliance

The Atlas V is one of two launch vehicles developed as 

part of the U.S. Air Force’s Evolved Expendable Launch 

Vehicle (EELV) program in the late 1990s. The Atlas V 

was developed by the Lockheed Martin Corporation; since 

December 2006 it has been produced by United Launch 

Alliance (ULA), a joint venture between The Boeing 

Company and Lockheed Martin. The Atlas V is made 

available for commercial launches by Lockheed Martin 

Commercial Launch Services.

The Atlas V is available in the 400 and 500 series and 

accommodates 4-meter (13.1-foot) and 5.4-meter (17.6-

foot) fairings and up to five strap-on solid rocket motors. 

The Atlas 400 series can place payloads between 4,950 and 

7,640 kilograms (10,910 and 16,843 pounds) into geosynchronous transfer orbit 

(GTO). The Atlas 500 series can place payloads between 3,970 and 8,670 kilograms 

(8,750 and 19,120 pounds) into GTO. The Atlas V launches from Cape Canaveral 

Air Force Station (CCAFS) in Florida and Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) in 

California.1

Since its introduction in 2002, the Atlas V has performed 14 launches. In 2008, two

Atlas V launches took place, including the commercial launch of the ICO G1

satellite.

Up to five Atlas V launches are planned for 2009.

Atlas V
• 14 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Table 1: Currently Available Expendable Launch Vehicles

SMALL MEDIUM INTERMEDIATE HEAVY

Vehicle Falcon 1 Minotaur Pegasus 

XL Taurus XL Delta II Atlas V Delta IV Delta IV Heavy Zenit-3SL

Company SpaceX Orbital 

Sciences

Orbital 

Sciences

Orbital 

Sciences ULA ULA ULA ULA Sea Launch

First Launch 2008 2000 1990 1994 1990 2002 2002 2004 1999

Stages 2 4 3 4 3 2 2 2 3

Payload 

Performance 

(LEO)

420 kg 

(925 lb)

640 kg

(1,410 lb)

440 kg 

(970 lb)

1,590 kg 

(3,505 lb)

6,100 kg 

(13,440 lb)

12,500 kg 

(27,560 lb) 

(Atlas V 402) 

20,520 kg 

(45,240 lb) 

(Atlas V 552)

9,150 

kg(20,170 

lb)(Delta IV 

M) 13,360 

kg (29,440 

lb) (Delta IV 

M+ (5,4))

22,560 kg 

(49,740 lb) N/A

Payload 

Performance 

(LEO polor)

420 kg 

(925 lb)

640 kg

(1,410 lb)

190 kg 

(420 lb)

(SSO)

860 kg 

(2,000 lb)

(SSO)

3,600 kg 

(7,930 lb)

7,095 kg 

(15,640 lb) 

(Atlas V 402) 

14,095 kg 

(31,075 lb) 

(Atlas V 552)

7,510 kg 

(16,550 lb) 

(Delta IV M) 

11,300 kg 

(24,920 lb) 

(Delta IV 

M+ (5,4))

22,560 kg 

(49,740 lb) N/A

Payload 

Performance 

(GTO)

N/A N/A N/A 430 kg 

(950 lb)

2,170 kg 

(4,790 lb)

4,950 kg 

(10,910 lb)

(Atlas V 401) 

8,670 kg 

(19,120 lb)

(Atlas V 551)

4,300 kg 

(9,480 lb) 

(Delta IV M) 

7,020 kg 

(15,470 lb) 

(Delta IV 

M+ (5,4))

12,980 kg 

(28,620 lb)

6,100 kg 

(13,500 

lb)

Launch Sites RTS, 

CCAFS

VAFB, 

Wallops

VAFB, 

Wallops, 

CCAFS

VAFB CCAFS, VAFB CCAFS, VAFB CCAFS, VAFB CCAFS, VAFB Pacific 

Ocean
• 15 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

Delta II – United Launch Alliance

The Delta II launch vehicle, in service since 1989, traces its 

heritage to the Thor missile program of the 1950s. Since 

December 2006, the Delta II has been produced by ULA 

and is marketed commercially by Boeing Launch Services 

(BLS). The Delta II has the capability to launch payloads of 

900 to 2,170 kilograms (1,980 to 4,790 pounds) to GTO, 

and 2,700 to 6,100 kilograms (5,960 to 13,440 pounds) to 

low Earth orbit (LEO). The vehicle can launch from either 

CCAFS or VAFB.2

There were five Delta II launches in 2008, including the 

commercial launches of GeoEye 1 and Cosmo-Skymed 3. As many as seven Delta II 

launches, including one commercial mission, are planned for 2009.

Delta IV – United Launch Alliance

The Delta IV is one of two launch vehicles 

developed for the EELV program in the 

1990s. The Delta IV was designed by Boeing, 

and since December 2006 has been produced 

by ULA. Originally developed for both 

commercial and government applications, 

the Delta IV is currently only available to 

government customers.

The Delta IV is available in five versions: four 

medium-class versions, with varying payload 

fairing sizes and number of strap-on boosters, 

and one heavy-class version, which uses three common booster core stages instead 

of one. The vehicle’s payload launch capacities to LEO range from 9,150 kilograms 

(20,170 pounds) for the Delta IV Medium to 22,560 kilograms (49,740 pounds) 

for the Delta IV Heavy. Geosynchronous transfer orbit capacities range from 

4,300 to 12,980 kilograms (9,480 to 28,620 pounds). The Delta IV operates from 

CCAFS and VAFB.3

The Delta IV has flown seven times since its introduction in late 2002. Up 

to four Delta IV launches, including Delta IV Heavy launch of the National 

Reconnaissance Office (NRO) satellite NRO L-26 as well as one FAA-licensed 

mission, are planned for 2009.

Falcon 1 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

SpaceX of Hawthorne, California, has developed the partially reusable Falcon 1 

launch vehicle, which can place up to 475 kilograms (1,050 pounds) into LEO 

for about $7 million. The first stage of this vehicle is designed to parachute into 

the ocean. It can then be recovered, refurbished, and reused. SpaceX privately 

developed the entire two-stage vehicle from the ground up, including the engines, 

Delta II

Delta IV
• 16 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

cryogenic tank structure, and guidance system. The first 

stage engine, known as Merlin, uses pump-driven LOX and 

kerosene. The second stage engine, called Kestrel, uses a 

pressure-fed LOX and kerosene system.

The Falcon 1 performed three launches before achieving 

success. The first, in March 2006, suffered an engine failure 

29 seconds into flight due to a fuel leak. The second, in 

March 2007, failed to reach orbit. The third, in August 

2008, experienced a stage separation problem. However, on 

September 28, 2008, Flight 4 of the Falcon 1 achieved total 

success. It is now in full operation, and is expected to perform at least two launches 

of commercial payloads in 2009.4

The Falcon 1e, an enhanced version of the Falcon 1 with a stretched first stage and 

larger payload fairing, is also slated to enter service in 2009; it will be able to place 

up to 725 kilograms (1,600 pounds) into LEO for $8.5 million.5

Minotaur I – Orbital Sciences Corporation

Orbital Sciences Corporation developed the 

Minotaur family of launch vehicles under the U.S. 

Air Force’s Orbital/Suborbital Program (OSP). 

The first vehicle of the series, Minotaur I, is used to 

launch small government payloads. The Minotaur I 

booster uses a combination of rocket motors from 

decommissioned Minuteman II ICBMs and upper 

stages from Orbital’s Pegasus launch vehicle. The 

first two stages of the Minotaur I are Minuteman II 

M-55A1 and SR-19 motors, while the upper two 

stages are Orion 50 XL and Orion 38 motors from 

the Pegasus XL.

The Minotaur I entered service in 2000 and has 

performed seven launches to date. No Minotaur I 

missions took place in 2008, but the vehicle did 

launch the NFIRE satellite in 2007 from the MidAtlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS) in Virginia. 

A Minotaur I is scheduled to launch the TacSat-3 satellite in 2009, also from 

MARS. The Minotaur I has previously performed launches from VAFB, and can 

operate from CCAFS and Kodiak Launch Complex, Alaska.

Pegasus XL – Orbital Sciences Corporation

The Pegasus XL is an air-launched booster designed for small payloads, primarily 

to low Earth and sun-synchronous orbits. Introduced in 1994, the Pegasus XL is 

a derivative of the original Pegasus rocket, with stretched first and second stages. 

(The original Pegasus, first launched in 1990, was retired in 2000.) The Pegasus XL, 

with three solid-propellant stages and an optional hydrazine monopropellant upper 

Falcon 1

Minotaur 1
• 17 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

stage, is deployed from an Orbital Sciences L-1011 aircraft named 

“Stargazer.” One advantage of the fact that the Pegasus XL is airlaunched is the flexibility to stage missions from a variety of sites, 

including Edwards Air Force Base (EAFB) and VAFB in California; 

CCAFS and Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida; NASA 

Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) in Virginia; Kwajalein Missile 

Range, Marshall Islands; and Gando Air Force Base (GAFB), 

Canary Islands.

The Pegasus XL performed two launches in 2008: the FAA-licensed 

launch of the U.S. Air Force (USAF) C/NOFS satellite, and the 

launch of NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). At least 

one Pegasus XL mission is scheduled for 2009.

Taurus – Orbital Sciences Corporation

The Taurus is a ground-launched vehicle based on 

the air-launched Pegasus. Orbital Sciences developed 

the Taurus under the sponsorship of the Defense 

Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The 

goal was to develop a standard launch vehicle that 

could be set up quickly in new locations to launch 

small satellites that exceed the lift capacity of the 

Pegasus XL. The Taurus uses the three stages of a 

Pegasus XL (without wings or stabilizers) stacked 

atop a Castor 120 solid rocket motor. The Castor 

120 serves as the first stage of the Taurus. The Taurus 

has successfully completed six of seven launch 

attempts since entering service in 1994. No Taurus 

launches took place in 2008, but at least two are 

scheduled for 2009.

Zenit-3SL – Sea Launch Company, LLC

The Zenit-3SL is a Ukrainian-Russian launch vehicle operated by Sea Launch 

Company, LLC, a multinational venture of four partners. Ukrainian sister 

companies SDO Yuzhnoye and PO Yuzhmash provide the first two stages, the same 

as those used on the Zenit 2 launch vehicle. A Russian company, RSC Energia, 

provides the third stage, a Block DM-SL upper stage. The Norwegian shipbuilding 

company, Aker, designed and built the two Sea Launch vessels and contracts marine 

operations. The Boeing Company provides the payload fairing and interfaces, as 

well as operations and business management.

The Zenit-3SL launches from the Odyssey Launch Platform, which travels from its 

Sea Launch Home Port in Long Beach, California, to a position on the Equator in 

the Pacific Ocean for each mission. Launch operations are remotely controlled from 

a separate vessel, the Sea Launch Commander, which is positioned approximately 

6.5 kilometers (about 4 miles) uprange from the platform during launch operations.

A Pegasus XL rocket is air-launched

Taurus
• 18 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

After a first-stage engine explosion destroyed the Zenit-3SL just after ignition on 

January 30, 2007, no further launches took place in 2007. On January 15, 2008, the 

Zenit-3SL returned to flight with the successful launch of 

the communications satellite Thuraya 3. In all, five Zenit3SL launches took place in 2008. At least three Zenit-3SL 

launches are planned in 2009.

In addition to the Zenit-3SL, Sea Launch offers the Zenit3SLB through its Land Launch service. The Zenit-3SLB 

is designed to lift commercial satellites in the 2,000 to 

3,600-kilogram (4,410 to 7,940-pound) range to GTO and 

heavier payloads to inclined or lower orbits. The three stages 

on the Zenit-3SLB are the same as those on the Sea Launch 

Zenit-3SL; the fairing is the only significant difference 

between the two vehicles. A two-stage configuration of 

the same rocket, the Zenit-2SLB, is also available for launching heavy payloads, or 

groups of payloads, to LEO.

Payloads and vehicles for the Land Launch Zenit-3SLB are processed and launched 

from existing Zenit facilities at the Baikonur launch site. Following its single launch in 

2008, the Zenit-3SLB vehicle is scheduled to perform up to four launches in 2009.6

ELV Development Efforts

A number of efforts by both established corporations and startups are currently in 

progress to develop new ELVs. Many of these designs focus on the small payload 

sector of the launch market, with the goal of placing payloads as small as a few 

hundred pounds into LEO.

ATK Launch Vehicle – Alliant Techsystems

In October 2006, ATK of Edina, Minnesota, announced 

it was developing a small launch vehicle, the two-stage 

ATK Launch Vehicle (ALV). The ALV is based on 

existing rocket stages developed by the company. ATK 

carried out a successful “pathfinder” for the ALV by 

assembling the vehicle on the pad at 

MARS in 2006.

The first launch of the ALV, a 

suborbital flight designated ALV 

X-1 carrying two NASA hypersonic 

flight experiments, took place on 

August 22, 2008. The vehicle lifted 

off as expected from MARS in 

Virginia, but veered off course 17 

seconds into flight, prompting range 

safety officials to trigger the selfdestruct mechanism. The vehicle 

Zenit 3SL lifts off from Odyssey launch platform

Vehicle ATK Launch Vehicle

Developer Alliant Techsystems (ATK)

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 2

Payload 

Performance

1,360 kg (3,000 lb) 

suborbital

Launch Site MARS

Markets 

Served

Responsive launches of 

small satellites for civil, 

commercial, and military 

customers ATK Launch Vehicle
• 19 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

achieved an altitude of between 3,300 and 3,600 meters (11,000 and 12,000 feet) 

before the flight was terminated.7

 In January 2009, an investigation panel released 

preliminary findings that the likely cause of the failure was a software problem.8

While the failure of the suborbital test destroyed the ALV prototype, ATK plans 

to continue development of a larger orbital version of the ALV that would serve 

government and commercial customers seeking responsive launches of small 

satellites.9

Athena III – PlanetSpace

In late 2007, PlanetSpace announced a partnership with Lockheed 

Martin and ATK to design a new launch vehicle in pursuit of the 

NASA ISS Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract. In 2008, 

this group of companies added a fourth member, Boeing, to their 

team. Together, the PlanetsSpace-led consortium proposed the 

development of the Athena III booster.

The Athena III design centers around a 2.5-segment first-stage 

propulsion system derived from the Space Shuttle’s 4-segment solidrocket booster system. The vehicle’s seconds stage design would employ 

the ATK Castor 120 engine currently used on the Taurus I launch 

vehicle. The third stage of the vehicle would use an ATK Castor 30 

engine, atop with there would be a liquid-propelled Orbit Adjust 

module and the Boeing/Lockheed Martin Orbital Transfer Vehicle designed to 

ferry cargo to the ISS.

In November 2008, the PlanetSpace team submitted its ISS CRS proposal, which 

called for 10 to 12 flights to the ISS from 2009 to 2015. In December 2008, NASA 

announced that the ISS CRS contract had been awarded to Orbital Sciences 

Corporation and Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX), rather 

than to the PlanetSpace team.10 Nevertheless, PlanetSpace announced earlier in 

2008 it planned to proceed with the Athena III design regardless of the outcome of 

the CRS bid process.11

Eagle S-series – E’Prime Aerospace Corporation

E’Prime Aerospace of Colorado is developing a family of 

launch vehicles named the Eagle S-series, based on the LGM118A Peacekeeper Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) 

design. The Eagle S-series concept dates back to 1987 when 

the company signed a commercialization agreement with the 

U.S. Air Force to use Peacekeeper technology for commercial 

launch vehicles. Like the Peacekeeper, Eagle S-series vehicles 

would be ejected from a ground-based silo, using a compressed 

gas system. At an altitude of 61 meters (200 feet), the engines 

will ignite. The smallest vehicle, the Eaglet, could launch 

580 kilograms (1,280 pounds) into LEO. A somewhat larger 

version, the Eagle, could put 1,360 kilograms (3,000 pounds) 

Vehicle Athena III

Developer Planetspace with ATK, 

Boeing, and Lockheed Martin

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 3

Payload 

Performance TBD

Launch Site CCAFS

Markets 

Served ISS resupply

Cutaway view of Eaglet 

and Eagle
• 20 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

into LEO. Planned follow-on vehicles, the S1 and S2, would be 

medium-lift boosters with launch capability of 2,948 kilograms 

(6,500 pounds) and 4,536 kilograms (10,000 pounds) to LEO. 

E’Prime has also proposed larger hot pad vehicles, designated 

S-3 through S-7, with the ability to place larger payloads into 

LEO and to add a geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) lift 

capability.

The Eagle-S series would use solid propellant lower stages and 

liquid propellant upper stages. E’Prime is exploring upgrading 

the solid propulsion systems to use safer, more storable, and 

higher-performance microcellular solid fuels.

In August 2007, E’Prime Aerospace announced that it had 

selected MARS as its primary launch site and will develop 

infrastructure there to support its vehicles. In November 2007, the company 

was notified that its proposed vehicle had cleared an interagency policy review, 

removing government obstacles to its use of its Peacekeeper-derived motors.12

Development of the Eagle S-series continued in 2008 as E’Prime Aerospace 

underwent a change in management.13

Falcon 9 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

The two-stage Falcon 9 vehicle is 

designed to launch large spacecraft 

as well as cargo and crew resupply 

missions to the ISS. The first stage 

uses nine Merlin 1C engines, the same 

engine as used on the first stage of 

the Falcon 1. The second stage, a shortened version of the first stage, uses a single 

Merlin engine. Both stages are designed to be recovered and reused. The Falcon 9 

can place up to 9,900 kilograms (21,820 pounds) into LEO and 4,900 kilograms 

(10,800 pounds) into GTO.

The first Falcon 9 launch, a demonstration mission, is scheduled 

for 2009.14 In addition to the demonstration flight, four other 

Falcon 9 launches are planned for 2009. Two are NASA COTS 

demonstration missions, in which SpaceX will used its Dragon 

reusable spacecraft to demonstrate the Falcon 9’s ability to ferry 

cargo to and from the ISS. The other two are on behalf of the 

commercial customers MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates 

Ltd. of Canada and Avanti Communications—which signed 

the first contract for the Falcon 9 launch of a commercial 

communications satellite in September 2007.15 Falcon 9 will 

launch from Space Launch Complex 40, a former Titan IV 

launch pad at CCAFS.16

In 2008, SpaceX also announced plans to develop the Falcon 

9 Heavy. With a capacity of over 28,000 kilograms (62,000 

Vehicle Falcon 9

Developer Space Exploration 

Technologies Corporation

First Launch 2009; Heavy version first 

launch in 2010

Number of 

Stages 2

Payload 

Performance

Up to 9,900 kilograms 

(21,820 pounds) to LEO and 

4,900 kilograms (10,800 

pounds) into GTO; for Heavy 

version, up to 27,500 kg 

(60,600 lb) to LEO, 12,000 

kg (26,500 lb) to GTO

Launch Site Kwajalein Atoll, CCAFS

Markets 

Served

Launch of medium and 

large satellites, ISS crew and 

cargo resupply

Quarter section of Falcon 9 fairing

Vehicle Eaglet/Eagle/S1/S2

Developer E’Prime Aerospace

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages

2 (Eaglet and Eagle); 3 (S1 

and S2)

Payload 

Performance

580 kg (1,280 lb) to LEO 

(Eaglet); 1,360 kg (3,000 

lb) to LEO (Eagle); 2,948 

kg (6,500 lb) to LEO (S1); 

4,535 kg (10,000 lb) to 

LEO (S2)

Launch Site MARS

Markets 

Served Small satellite launch
• 21 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

pounds) to LEO, and over 12,000 kg (26,000 pounds) to GTO, the Falcon 9 

Heavy will be among the largest commercial launchers available. The design of the 

Falcon 9 heavy features a standard Falcon 9 with two additional Falcon 9 first stages 

serving as liquid strap-on boosters. The first launch of the Falcon 9 Heavy is slated 

for 2010.17

Launch cost estimates for the Falcon 9 range from $35 million for the medium 

version to $95 million for the heavy version.18

FALCON SLV – Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations

Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations of New Orleans, Louisiana, 

was awarded one of four Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(DARPA) Force Application and Launch from CONUS (FALCON) 

contracts in September 2004. This $11.7 million contract tasked 

Lockheed Martin to develop concepts for a low-cost operationally 

responsive launch vehicle. Lockheed Martin’s FALCON Small 

Launch Vehicle (SLV) approach featured environmentally friendly 

hybrid propulsion and a mobile launch system able to launch from 

an unimproved site with limited 

infrastructure on 24 hours notice, 

placing up to 840 kilograms (1,855 

pounds) into LEO.

In 2005, Lockheed conducted two successful 

test firings of the SLV second stage hybrid rocket 

motor. The second test lasted 120 seconds 

and confirmed the motor port design and 

the combustion stability technology. Though 

Lockheed did not win a Phase 2B Falcon contract 

from DARPA in late 2005, since then company 

has continued to mature the FALCON SLV and 

remains in discussions about the vehicle with 

potential customers.19

Nanosat Launch Vehicle – Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation (GSC), based in Long Beach, 

California, is a small research and development (R&D) company, 

focusing on the development of advanced space technologies and 

launch vehicle systems. As part of the California Launch Vehicle 

Initiative (CALVEIN), GSC and California State University, Long 

Beach (CSULB) jointly conduct preliminary R&D tasks to establish 

the foundation for development of a two-stage, liquid propellant, 

Nanosat Launch Vehicle (NLV). Capable of delivering 10 kilograms 

(22 pounds) to a 250-kilometer (155-mile) polar orbit, the NLV will 

provide low-cost, dedicated launch services to universities and other 

research organizations that traditionally depend on secondary payload 

opportunities to access space. Their current work builds upon flights 

Artist conception of Falcon SLV

Vehicle FALCON SLV

Developer Lockheed Martin Michoud 

Operations

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 2

Payload 

Performance 840 kg (1,855 lb) to LEO

Launch Site TBD

Markets 

Served

Small satellite launch, 

responsive space operations

Vehicle Nanosat Launch Vehicle

Developer Garvey Spacecraft 

Corporation

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 2

Payload 

Performance

10 kg (22 lb) to LEO 

(polar orbit)

Launch Site TBD

Markets 

Served Nanosatellite launch
• 22 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

that the team conducted using several of its LOX/ethanol Prospector 

research vehicles. The company’s most visible accomplishments include 

the first-ever flight of a composite LOX tank, conducted in partnership 

with Microcosm, Incorporated; the first-ever powered flights of a liquidpropellant aerospike engine; and the launch and 100 percent recovery of 

several prototype reusable test vehicles. 

As a preliminary step in developing the NLV, GSC and its research partner, 

CSULB, is continuing development of the P-9 and two other vehicles, 

Prospectors 10 and 12.20 On April 12, 2008, the GSC and CSULB team 

jointly staged a test flight of the Prospector 14 (P-14LM) vehicle. The 

P-14LM airframe is a refurbished version of the original Prospector 1 

prototype flown in 2001. It features a 4,500-newton (1000-pounds-force) 

LOX-methane engine developed by CSULB students as part of their senior 

design course.21

GSC conducted three other test flights in 2008. In June 2008, GSC 

launched a prototype of the Prospector 11A (P-11A) under a Phase 1 SBIR 

contract for NASA Ames. In August 2008, GSC performed a test launch of 

Prospector 9A (P-9A) as part of a demonstration program for the Air Force Research 

Laboratory (AFRL). Finally, in October 2008, GSC flew the Prospector 12A 

(P-12A)–a refurbished version of P-11A—as a demonstration test for the California 

Space Authority and U.S. Department of Labor. In addition to testing technologies 

planned for eventual use on the NLV, a primary project objective of these missions 

was to provide mentoring opportunities for future launch vehicle engineers and also 

show the vehicle’s capacity to carry academic payloads.

Minotaur IV and V – Orbital Sciences Corporation

Under a contract with the USAF Space and Missile 

Systems Center, Orbital Sciences Corporation is 

currently developing the Minotaur IV launch vehicle 

for U.S. government payloads. The Minotaur IV is 

derived from the Peacekeeper ICBM, using three 

Peacekeeper solid-propellant stages 

and an Orion 38 motor for the 

fourth stage. The Minotaur IV uses 

a standard 234-centimeter (92-inch) 

payload fairing also used on Orbital’s 

Taurus rocket. The first Minotaur 

IV launch is scheduled for 2009, 

when it will launch the Space-Based 

Surveillance System (SBSS) satellite 

for the USAF. As of the end of 2008, 

Orbital had finalized eight publicly 

announced Minotaur IV launch 

contracts.22

Orbital is also developing a derivative 

Prospector-11A 

test flight

Vehicle Minotaur IV and V

Developer Orbital Sciences Corporation

First Launch 2009 (Minotaur IV), TBD 

(Minotaur V)

Number of 

Stages

4 (Minotaur IV), 

5 (Minotaur V)

Payload 

Performance

1,750 kg (3,860 lb) to LEO 

(Minotaur IV), 678 kg (1,495 

lb) to GTO (Minotaur V)

Launch Site MARS, VAFB

Markets 

Served

Small satellite launch and 

responsive space operations 

for U.S. governmentsponsored payloads Minotaur IV
• 23 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

of the Minotaur IV, called the Minotaur V, for payloads launched to orbits beyond 

LEO. The Minotaur V features the same three Peacekeeper-based lower stages, but 

uses a Star 48 fourth stage and Star 37 fifth stage, allowing it to put 678 kilograms 

(1,495 pounds) into GTO and 440 kilograms (970 pounds) on a translunar 

injection trajectory. The Minotaur V shares many of the same subsystems as the 

Minotaur IV, requiring only an additional $10 million in non-recurring engineering 

expenses to complete its development.23

QuickReach – AirLaunch LLC

AirLaunch LLC, based in Kirkland, Washington, is developing the 

QuickReachTM vehicle, a small, low-cost, air-launched rocket for defense 

and other applications. The vehicle is being developed with assistance 

from the DARPA/Air Force FALCON SLV program. The twostage rocket is carried aloft inside a cargo aircraft, such as a C-17A or 

other large cargo aircraft. The rocket is released from the aircraft at an 

altitude of 7,600 to 10,700 meters (25,000 to 35,000 feet) and fires its 

liquid-propellant engines to ascend to orbit. The vehicle is designed 

to place a 450-kilogram 

(1,000-pound) payload 

into LEO for less than 

$5 million.

On February 5, 2008, AirLaunch 

announced it had achieved a major 

hardware milestone as part of Phase 2C 

of the FALCON program: completion 

of the upgraded Horizontal Test Stand 

(HTS-2). The HTS-2 features new 

hardware and additional sensors and 

instrumentation systems. Upon completion, AirLaunch received approval from 

the FALCON program to proceed with its series of engine tests on the HTS-2. 

AirLaunch conducted 30 test firings on the new horizontal test stand during July 

and August 2008.24

DARPA and the Air Force collectively invested approximately $38 million in 

AirLaunch during the course of the FALCON SLV Program, covering Phases 1, 

2A, 2B and 2C. Although the Falcon SLV program concluded on 

November 3, 2008, development of the QuickReachTM vehicle for 

commercial use remains ongoing.25

Taurus II – Orbital Sciences Corporation

In 2007, Orbital Sciences Corporation announced that it had 

begun study of a new launch vehicle, the Taurus II, designed to 

serve medium-class payloads for U.S. government and commercial 

customers. On February 19, 2008, NASA awarded Orbital a three-year 

cooperative agreement. Under the agreement, NASA will invest $170 

million in Orbital Sciences Corporation, while Orbital will contribute 

Vehicle QuickReach

Developer AirLaunch LLC

First Launch 2010

Number of 

Stages

3 (including the launch 

aircraft)

Payload 

Performance 450 kg (1,000 lb) to LEO

Launch Site Air launched

Markets 

Served

Small satellite launch, 

responsive space operations

Horizontal Test Stand (HTS-2)

Vehicle Taurus II

Developer Orbital Sciences Corporation

First Launch 2010

Number of 

Stages

2 (with optional third 

stage)

Payload 

Performance

5,400 kg (11,900 lb) to 

LEO

Launch Site WFF, VAFB, CCAFS

Markets 

Served

Medium-class payloads for 

government and commercial 

customers
• 24 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

$150 million to the Commercial Orbital Transporation Services (COTS) 

initiative. The $150 million investment by Orbital also represents an 

investment by the company in its own Taurus II vehicle. The agreement 

provides for the Taurus II vehicle to perform a LEO flight demonstration 

of its commercial cargo delivery capacity. This initial demonstration flight 

is planned for 2010.26

The Taurus II’s first stage will be powered by a pair of Aerojet AJ26-58 

engines, a version of the NK-33 engine developed for the Soviet Union’s 

N-1 lunar rocket in the 1960s. The second stage of the vehicle will use an 

ATK Castor-30 solid motor with thrust vectoring; its design will be based 

on the Castor-120 motor. The Taurus II will also allow for an optional 

third stage that includes an Orbital Raising Kit (ORK) integrated into 

the 3.9-meter (12.8-foot) payload fairing. The ORK will feature a heliumpressure regulated bi-propellant system fueled by nitrogen tetroxide and 

hydrazine; its design heritage will be based on the Orbital STAR bus.27

The Taurus II would be able to place 5,400 kilograms (11,900 pounds) into LEO. 

While the initial Taurus II demonstration flight is slated to launch from Wallops 

Flight Facility (WFF), the vehicle will also be compatible with facilities at VAFB 

and CCAFS.28

Upper Stage – SpeedUp

In addition to its Laramie Rose prototype (discussed in the 

reusable launch vehicles section), SpeedUp is developing a 

modular expendable upper stage to increase the altitude or 

payload mass capability of other launch providers’ unmanned 

sounding rockets. The rocket is powered by a hybrid engine 

using 98-percent concentration hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer. 

Prototype construction is underway, and SpeedUp plans to 

perform static engine firings in 2009 and captive carry 

tests on other launch providers’ rockets beginning 

in 2010.29

NASA Exploration Launch Vehicles

On September 19, 2005, NASA announced its planned mission architecture for 

crewed lunar missions. The plan calls for developing two new launch vehicles, the 

Crew Launch Vehicle (since renamed the Ares I) and the Cargo Launch Vehicle 

(renamed the Ares V). Both vehicles are designed to leverage Shuttle and even 

Apollo-era technologies to launch crewed and uncrewed spacecraft required to 

carry out the Vision for Space Exploration.

Ares I

The Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle is a two-stage vehicle designed principally to 

launch NASA’s Orion CEV into LEO and may also be used to launch cargo 

spacecraft to the ISS. The first stage of the Ares I is a five-segment reusable solid 

Taurus II

Vehicle Upper Stage

Developer SpeedUp

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 0

Payload 

Performance

50 kg (110 lb) to 2600 m/s 

delta-v

Launch Site TBD

Markets 

Served

unmanned sounding rocket 

payloads
• 25 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

rocket motor (RSRM) derived from the four-segment boosters used in 

the Space Shuttle program. The second stage is a new design powered 

by a single J-2X engine, based on the J-2S engine developed at the 

end of the Apollo program in the early 1970s; it uses LOX and liquid 

hydrogen propellants. The Orion spacecraft, along with an escape 

rocket, will be mounted on top of the second stage development of 

the Ares I is currently in progress. In July 2007, NASA awarded Pratt 

& Whitney Rocketdyne a $1.2-billion contract for the J-2X engine.30

In August 2007, NASA selected Boeing to build the upper stage of 

the Ares I.31 NASA also awarded Boeing a contract in December 2007 

for the instrument unit 

avionics for the Ares I, the 

last major component of the launch 

vehicle to be assigned to a contractor.32

In November 2008, the J-2X engine 

successfully completed its critical 

design review.33 Also in November, the 

Upper Stage Simulator for the first test 

flight of the Ares I rocket, designated 

Ares I-X, arrived at KSC from Glenn 

Research Center (GRC).34 A suborbital test launch of the vehicle with an inert 

second stage, the Ares I-X flight, is planned in the third or fourth quarter of 2009.35

The operational orbital version of the Ares I vehicle is scheduled to enter service no 

later than 2014.

Ares V

The Ares V Cargo Launch Vehicle is a two-stage, heavy-lift vehicle that 

NASA will use to carry out human missions to the Moon and other 

destinations. The Ares V uses two five-and-a-half segment RSRMs 

similar to those developed for the Ares I vehicle, attached to either 

side of a core propulsion stage. The core 

stage features six RS-68 engines, the same 

LOX and liquid hydrogen engines as those 

used currently on the Delta IV family of 

vehicles. Under the current exploration 

architecture, an Ares V vehicle would place a 

lunar module and Earth departure stage into 

LEO, where the module would dock with an 

Orion spacecraft launched separately by an Ares I. The 

combined vehicle would then leave Earth orbit for the 

Moon.

Detailed development of the Ares V is not expected to 

begin until the end of this decade. The first test flight of 

the vehicle is scheduled to take place around 2018.36

Vehicle Ares I

Developer NASA

First Launch 2014

Number of 

Stages 2

Payload 

Performance

22,700 kg (50,044 lb) 

to LEO

Launch Site KSC

Markets 

Served

Crew launches for 

exploration and ISS missions

Artist conception of Ares I

Vehicle Ares V

Developer NASA

First Launch 2018

Number of 

Stages 2

Payload 

Performance

131,500 kg (289,904 lb) 

to LEO

Launch Site KSC

Markets 

Served

Cargo launches for 

exploration missions

Artist conception of Ares V
• 26 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Sounding Rockets

In addition to orbital launch vehicles, a number of suborbital ELVs, or sounding 

rockets, are in use today. These vehicles, which primarily use solid propellants, differ 

from amateur rockets in that they typically climb to higher altitudes and primarily 

carry out missions on behalf of specific commercial, government, or non-profit 

(including scientific missions and academic) clients. Sounding rockets support a 

variety of applications, including astronomical observations, atmospheric research, 

and microgravity experiments.

Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace Limited

Over 1,000 Black Brant rockets have been launched since 1962, when 

manufacturing of the vehicle began. Versions of the Black Brant can 

carry payloads ranging from 70 to 850 kilograms (154 to 1,874 pounds) 

to altitudes from 150 to more than 1,500 kilometers (93 to 932 miles), 

and can provide up to 20 minutes of microgravity time during a flight. 

The Black Brant and Nikha motors used on some Black Brant versions 

are manufactured in Canada by Bristol Aerospace Limited (a Magellan 

Aerospace Company). Terrier, Talos, and Taurus motors used on other 

Black Brant versions are built in the United States. The launch operator 

integrates these vehicles. In the United States, NASA has been a frequent 

user of Black Brant vehicles.

The smallest version of the Black Brant family is the single-stage Black 

Brant V, which is 533 centimeters (210 inches) long and 43.8 centimeters 

(17.24 inches) in diameter. The rocket produces an average thrust of 

75,731 Newtons (17,025 pounds-force). The Black Brant V motor is used as 

the second or third stage in larger, multi-stage versions of the Black Brant. The 

most powerful of the line, Black Brant XII, is a four-stage vehicle that uses the 

Black Brant V motor as its third stage. This vehicle can launch a 113-kilogram 

(250-pound) payload to an altitude of at least 1,400 kilometers (870 miles), or 

a 454-kilogram (1,000-pound) payload to an altitude of at least 400 kilometers 

(250 miles).37

Oriole – DTI Associates

SPACEHAB’s Astrotech Space Operations developed the 

Oriole sounding rocket in the late 1990s to provide launch 

services for commercial and scientific payloads. Oriole was 

both the first privately-developed sounding rocket in the 

United States and the first new U.S. sounding rocket in 25 

years. The Oriole is a single-stage vehicle with a graphiteepoxy motor manufactured by Alliant Missile Products 

Company of Rocket Center, West Virginia. It is 396 

centimeters (156 inches) long, 56 centimeters (22 inches) 

in diameter, and generates an average thrust of 92,100 

Newtons (20,700 pounds-force). The vehicle provides 

payloads with six to nine minutes of microgravity during 

Black Brant sounding rocket

Oriole sounding rocket
• 27 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

flight. Additionally, it can be combined with other motors to create two-stage 

sounding rockets, with the Oriole serving as the second stage.

The first Oriole launch took place from NASA WFF on July 7, 2000. That launch 

used a two-stage configuration, with the Oriole serving as the second stage and a 

Terrier Mk 12 motor serving as the first stage. The Oriole sounding rocket reached 

a peak altitude of 385.6 kilometers (229 miles) 315 seconds after launch during the 

ten-minute test flight. In July 2001, SPACEHAB’s Astrotech Space Operations 

sold the Oriole program to DTI Associates of Arlington, Virginia, which integrates 

the vehicle and offers it commercially.

Terrier-Orion – DTI Associates

The Terrier-Orion is a two-stage, spin-stabilized sounding 

rocket, which uses a Terrier Mk 12 Mod 1 engine for its 

first stage and an improved Orion motor for its second 

stage. The Terrier Mk 12 Mod 1 is a surplus U.S. Navy 

missile motor; Orion is a surplus U.S. Army missile motor. 

The Terrier-Orion is 10.7 meters (35.1 feet) long. The 

Terrier stage is 46 centimeters (18 inches) in diameter, 

and the Orion is 36 centimeters (14 inches) in diameter. 

The Terrier-Orion can loft payloads weighing up to 290 

kilograms (640 pounds) to altitudes up to 190 kilometers 

(118 miles).

A more powerful version of the Terrier-Orion rocket uses 

the Terrier Mk 70 motor as its first stage. This version 

was used for two FAA-licensed suborbital launches 

performed by Astrotech Space Operations/DTI 

at the Woomera Instrumented Range in Australia in 2001 and 2002. 

The second flight, in July 2002, successfully flew the HyShot scramjet 

engine experiment. DTI Associates of Arlington, Virginia, now markets 

and offers integration services for the Terrier-Orion after purchasing all 

intellectual property rights to the rocket from SPACEHAB.

SpaceLoft XL – UP Aerospace, Inc.

UP Aerospace, Incorporated, headquartered in Farmington, Connecticut, 

with business and engineering offices in Highlands Ranch, Colorado, has 

developed the SpaceLoft XL sounding rocket for research and commercial 

applications. The rocket, 6 meters (20 feet) tall and 25 centimeters 

(10 inches) in diameter, can carry up to 50 kilograms (110 pounds) of 

payload to an altitude of 225 kilometers (140 miles). A smaller version, 

the SpaceLoft, can carry 9 kilograms (20 pounds) to an altitude of 130 

kilometers (80 miles). UP Aerospace is marketing the SpaceLoft family of 

vehicles to serve educational and research markets, such as microgravity 

and atmospheric sciences experiments, as well as commercial applications, 

including product marketing and novelty promotion. Spaceloft XL

Terrier Orion 

sounding rocket
• 28 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

The first successful SpaceLoft XL launch took place on April 28, 2007, from 

Spaceport America in New Mexico.38 The rocket reached a peak altitude of 

117.5 kilometers (72.7 miles), landing in a mountainous region of the approved 

landing zone at White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. The rocket carried over 

50 experiments created by high school students from across America as well as 

commercial payloads from several companies.39

No SpaceLoft XL launches took place in 2008. At least one SpaceLoft XL launch is 

planned for 2009.40
• 29 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

Reusable Launch Vehicles

This section describes active and emerging reusable launch vehicle (RLV) programs 

in the United States. It is divided into two subsections. The first features vehicles 

developed by private companies without government assistance—many of which 

are developing space hardware for the first time. The second discusses government 

RLV programs, with particular focus on the Space Shuttle, which is considered a 

first-generation RLV. The flight experience of the Space Shuttle, in operation for 

nearly 30 years, has helped highlight and resolve problems with implications not 

only for that vehicle, but for other RLVs as well.

Commercial RLV Development Efforts

Tiger & Cardinal – Acuity Technologies

Acuity Technologies of Menlo Park, California, has been developing 

the Tiger and Cardinal vehicles to compete in the two levels of 

the Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge (NG-LLC) 

competition. Both vehicles feature vertical 

takeoff and landing designs powered by 

methanol and a 59-percent concentration 

of hydrogen peroxide. The vehicles are 

designed to maneuver autonomously and 

can also be controlled from the ground via a 

standard remote control aircraft radio link.

Although test prototypes of the Tiger and 

Cardinal vehicles—“Hop” and “Hover”—were entrants 

in the 2008 NG-LLC competition, neither vehicle flew 

in the competition.1

 The vehicles may participate in 

future competitions.

QUAD & MOD-1 – Armadillo Aerospace

Armadillo Aerospace, a former competitor for the Ansari X PRIZE, is developing a 

set of vehicles designed for suborbital and, eventually, orbital flight opportunities: 

QUAD and MOD-1.

QUAD is a four-tank vertical takeoff and landing 

vehicle. On October 25, 2008, Armadillo flew a 

prototype of QUAD, named Pixel, in an effort to 

win Level Two of the NG-LLC. Level Two requires a 

vehicle to hover for twice as long as in Level One (180 

seconds versus 90 seconds) before landing precisely 

on a simulated rugged lunar surface. Shortly after 

ignition, when Pixel was commanded from hovering 

to full throttle for liftoff, the fuel valve moved slower 

than the oxygen valve, resulting in a very hot engine. 

Vehicle Tiger & Cardinal

Developer Acuity Technologies

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 1

Payload 

Performance

25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m 

(165 ft)

Launch Site TBD

Markets 

Served

Lunar Lander Challenge 

competition

Tiger prototype

MOD-1 in flight
• 30 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

The additional heat caused the side of the engine to melt and 

diverted some of the thrust sideways causing the Pixel vehicle 

to overturn. Armadillo opted to withdraw from the Level 

Two competition, with plans to re-compete at the 2009 Lunar 

Lander Challenge.2

In 2007, Armadillo developed a variant of the QUAD vehicle, 

the MOD-1 vehicle, for competition in Level One of the NGLLC. The MOD-1 consists of a single pair of propellant tanks 

(the QUAD design featured two pairs of tanks) above a LOX/

ethanol engine, with payload and electronic boxes on top of the 

tanks. The vertical-takeoff, vertical-landing vehicle is supported 

by four large landing legs.

In 2007, Armadillo received an experimental permit for 

MOD-1 from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation (AST). To date, Armadillo has 

conducted eight launches of the MOD-1 vehicle in pursuit of the NG-LLC 

cash prize.

The MOD-1 narrowly fell short of the prize in 2007. After diagnosing and 

resolving the engine problems it experienced during the 2007 NG-LLC, Armadillo 

continued developing the MOD-1 throughout 2008. On October 24, 2008, 

MOD-1 flew again at Las Cruces International Airport in New Mexico, where it 

successfully achieved the NG-LLC Level One competition rules by performing 

two 90-second flights between pads 100 meters apart. The first 2008 flight failed 

to remain in the air for the required 90 seconds. The second launch, flown in 

the morning, was deemed a successful first leg of the competition; however, the 

required return flight was interrupted by airspace restrictions at the airport. Judges 

allowed Armadillo to complete the return leg with the remaining 64 minutes 

of their allotted two-and–a-half hour competition time in the afternoon. By 

completing this third flight, Armadillo won the $350,000 first prize for NG-LLC 

Level One.3

Armadillo expects MOD-1 to provide the basis for a series of increasingly-powerful 

modular vehicles. In August 2008, Armadillo announced that its engines would be 

used in vehicles participating in the Rocket Racing League, a proposed competition 

featuring races between rocket-powered aircraft. Armadillo also plans to collaborate 

with the Rocket Racing League to develop a vertical takeoff, vertical landing 

suborbital vehicle. Additional future plans call for testing vehicles that use two 

or more MOD-1 vehicles in combination. A “six-pack” variant using six modules, 

MOD-6, with the ability to higher suborbital altitudes, is also being considered.4

New Shepard – Blue Origin

Blue Origin is developing the New Shepard Reusable Launch System, a suborbital, 

vertical-takeoff, vertical-landing RLV for commercial passenger spaceflights. The 

vehicle will consist of a conical crew capsule, capable of carrying three people, 

mounted on top of a propulsion module. Engines using high-test peroxide (HTP) 

Vehicle Pixel (QUAD Prototype) and 

MOD-1

Developer Armadillo Aerospace

First Launch 2007

Number of 

Stages 1

Payload 

Performance

25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m 

(165 ft)

Launch Site

Oklahoma Spaceport; 

Holloman Air Force Base; 

Las Cruces International 

Airport

Markets 

Served

Lunar Lander Challenge 

competition, future 

suborbital and orbital 

launch applications
• 31 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

and kerosene will power the vehicle. The flights would take place from a private 

facility operated by Blue Origin in Culberson County, Texas.

As part of the New Shepard 

development process, Blue Origin 

has several prototype vehicles for 

flight testing at the company’s 

Texas facility. The first such vehicle, 

named Goddard, is powered by an 

HTP monopropellant engine and 

is intended to perform 

flights to altitudes of 

about 600 meters (2,000 

feet) and lasting no 

longer than 1 minute. In 

September 2006, the FAA granted Blue Origin an experimental permit 

to perform those flight tests. The first permitted flight took place on 

November 13, 2006, followed by flights on March 22 and April 19, 

2007. All three test flights of the Goddard prototype were successful.5

In 2008, Blue Origin continued to develop the New Shepard vehicle. 

The company aims to perform its first launch no later than 2010.6

Sea Star – Interorbital Systems

Interorbital Systems of Mojave, 

California, is developing the Sea Star 

for microsatellite payloads weighing 

up to 26 kilograms (58 pounds) and as 

a testbed for its larger Neptune orbital 

launch vehicle. The vehicle is aimed at 

launching multi-manifested missions 

of between 12 and 15 microsatellites 

at a price of approximately $500,000 

per mission. To attract this market 

of academic microsats, Interorbital 

in November 2008 unveiled its new 

launch service, “Broad Operational Opportunity for Space Transport 

of University Payloads (BOOST UP).”7

The Sea Star is constructed for design simplicity. The vehicle consists 

of a recoverable half-stage booster module with four rocket engines, 

a sustainer module with four additional engines as well as propellant 

tanks and guidance control systems, and a satellite module that 

contains the payload and one small rocket engine. All the engines use 

a combination of storable hypergolic propellants: white fuming nitric 

acid (WFNA) and “Hydrocarbon X” (HX), a company-proprietary 

fuel. The main structures of the rocket, including the outer shell and 

propellant tanks, will use aluminum and carbon composite materials.

Blue Origin’s Goddard prototype vehicle

Vehicle New Shepard

Developer Blue Origin

First Launch 2010

Number of 

Stages 2

Payload 

Performance

3 120-kg (265-lb) 

passengers or cargoes to 

100 km (62 mi)

Launch Site Culberson County, Texas

Markets 

Served Suborbital space tourism

Vehicle Sea Star

Developer Interorbital Systems

First Launch 4th quarter 2009

Number of 

Stages 2.5

Payload 

Performance 26 kg (58 lb) to LEO

Launch Site Pacific Ocean west of Long 

Beach, California

Markets 

Served Microsatellite launches

Sea Star
• 32 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Sea Star does not require land-based launch infrastructure. If a customer requires 

a land launch, a mobile truck-based tilt-up launch unit carries the rocket to the 

desired launch location. The vehicle is designed to launch primarily from the 

ocean using a minimal infrastructure that includes a launch tube and a ballast unit 

that enables the rocket to float vertically in the ocean. The ballast unit is dropped 

following liftoff, then recovered for reuse.8

In 2008, Interorbital Systems completed construction of the Sea Star flight 

demonstrator’s propellant tankage, and readied for Sea Star flight tests slated 

for 2009. The company expects commercial launch of the vehicle will begin in 

late 2009.9

Neptune – Interorbital Systems

Neptune is a proposed scaled-up version of Interorbital Systems’ partially reusable 

Sea Star rocket, and is designed to feature the same recoverable/reusable half-stage 

booster unit as its counterpart. Neptune would be much larger than Sea Star, and 

would be designed to carry passengers 

into orbit. In February 2008, 

Interorbital Systems publicly unveiled 

the design of the Neptune. The vehicle 

features a modular design similar to 

that of the Sea Star, with a booster 

module that includes four high-thrust 

rocket engines and a sustainer module 

with four smaller engines.10 The vehicle 

is designed to place 3,175 kilograms 

(7,000 pounds) into a 51-degree, 

400-kilometer (250-mile) orbit.

A unique aspect of the Neptune is that a portion of the main rocket structure, once 

in orbit, could act as a small space station or an orbital station module (OSM). 

The main “room” of the OSM would consists of the adaptively 

reused pressurant tank of the Neptune rocket. The OSM is 

planned to measure 4.2 meters (14 feet) in diameter and 6.1 

meters (20 feet) in length. It would be purged of any remaining 

pressurant gases and then re-pressurized and outfitted to serve as 

a large habitation module with both private and public zones. A 

conical crew module attached to the top of the rocket, carrying 

up to six people, would be capable of serving as an orbiting 

hotel. The module would also serve as the crew’s return vehicle.

In 2008, Interorbital Systems completed a mockup of its 

planned six-person crew module measuring 5.2 meters (17 feet) 

in diameter. The module is outfitted for crew and passenger 

training at the company’s Mojave, California, facility.11

Vehicle Neptune

Developer Interorbital Systems

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 2.5

Payload 

Performance 3,175 kg (7,000 lb) to LEO

Launch Site

Pacific Ocean west of Long 

Beach, California; Pacific 

Ocean adjacent to Kingdom 

of Tonga for equatorial 

launches

Markets 

Served Orbital space tourism

Neptune design concept
• 33 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

XA-1.0 – Masten Space Systems

Masten Space Systems of Mojave, California, is developing the eXtreme 

Altitude (XA) series of suborbital RLVs, initially designed to carry 

small research payloads. The first in the series, the XA-1.0, is a verticaltakeoff, vertical-landing vehicle powered by LOX and isopropyl 

alcohol engines. The XA-1.0 is designed to carry a 100-kilogram 

(220-pound) payload to an altitude of at least 100 kilometers 

(62 miles), performing several such flights per day at a cost per flight 

of $20,000 to $30,000. The company plans to sell payload space on 

the vehicle for as little 

as $99 for a 350-gram 

(12-ounce) “SODAsat.” 

Beyond the XA-1.0, the 

company has proposed the XA-1.5, 

which would be capable of carrying a 

200-kilogram (440-pound) payload 

to 500 kilometers (310 miles), and the 

XA-2.0, which would be able to carry 

2,000 kilograms (4,400 pounds) or five 

people to 500 kilometers.

As part of the development of the 

XA-1.0, Masten is building several prototype vehicles. The first, the XA-0.1, 

began tethered flight tests in 2007. However, the vehicle was destroyed during 

one such test flight in December 2007.12 Several follow-on prototypes, including 

the XA-0.1B, are currently in development. Tethered flights of these prototypes 

were facilitated by a 2008 FAA/AST license waiver providing for the company to 

perform vehicle tests.13

Masten Space Systems opted not to participate in the 2008 NG-LLC. The 

company plans to focus on further testing of the XA-0.1B as a stepping stone 

toward development of the XA-1.0.14 In September 2008, Masten resumed hot 

testing of the XA-0.1B engines, successfully verifying the operability of two of its 

four engines.15

Silver Dart – PlanetSpace

PlanetSpace, headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, is developing the Silver 

Dart reusable spacecraft for missions to LEO. The Silver Dart is based on 

the FDL-7 hypersonic glider 

design originally proposed 

by the U.S. Air Force Flight 

Dynamics Laboratory in 

the late 1950s. The vehicle 

design features an all metal 

thermal protection system 

to enable flight in all 

weather conditions.16 The 

Vehicle XA-1.0

Developer Masten Space Systems

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 1

Payload 

Performance

100 kg (220 lb) to 100 

km (62 mi)

Launch Site Mojave Air and Space Port

Markets 

Served Suborbital research payloads

XA-1.0 design concept

Silver Dart

Vehicle Silver Dart

Developer PlanetSpace

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages

3 (1-stage vehicle deployed 

by 2-stage rocket)

Payload 

Performance TBD

Launch Site Cape Breton Space Port, 

Nova Scotia, Canada

Markets 

Served

Passenger and cargo 

missions to LEO
• 34 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Silver Dart is planned to have a glide range of 40,000 kilometers (25,000 miles) 

and a cross range of over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles), allowing the vehicle to 

leave LEO at any time and still land in the continental U.S. PlanetSpace proposes to 

launch the Silver Dart with a two-stage expendable rocket called Nova, also under 

development, from a proposed spaceport in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia.17

Rocketplane XP – Rocketplane Global

Rocketplane Global, a subsidiary of Rocketplane 

Inc. of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, is developing 

the Rocketplane XP suborbital RLV. The vehicle 

will take off under jet power. At an altitude of at 

least 12,200 meters (40,000 feet), it will ignite a 

single AR-36 rocket LOX and kerosene rocket 

engine provided by Polaris Propulsion for a 

70-second burn. The Rocketplane XP will fly to 

an altitude of at least 100 kilometers (62 miles) 

before reentering and landing, either under jet 

power or unpowered, at the same site as takeoff.

In late 2007, Rocketplane Global unveiled a new design for the Rocketplane XP. 

The previous design, based on a highly-modified Learjet fuselage, was replaced with 

a larger cabin capable of carrying one pilot and five passengers. 

The jet engines were upgraded to the more powerful J-85 

version. The V-tail of the previous design has been replaced with 

a T-tail, and the landing gear with a model based on the gear 

used for the F-5 aircraft. Rocketplane Global estimates that over 

200,000 person-hours went into developing the new design.

In 2008, Rocketplane Global continued conceptual work on the 

Rocketplane XP while seeking capital for its construction.18 The 

company anticipates beginning flight tests in 2011, contingent 

on raising sufficient funds for vehicle development.

SpaceShipTwo – The SpaceShip Company

Scaled Composites, LLC, and Virgin Galactic, 

LLC a subsidiary of the Virgin Group of 

Companies, announced the formation of a 

joint venture, called The Spaceship Company 

(TSC), LLC, in July 2005. The purpose of TSC 

is to oversee development and production of 

SpaceShipTwo (SS2), a commercial suborbital 

spacecraft based on technology developed for 

SpaceShipOne (SS1). TSC is producing the 

first five SS2 vehicles for Virgin Galactic, which 

will put them into commercial service once 

test flights are completed, offering suborbital 

Vehicle Rocketplane XP

Developer Rocketplane Global

First Launch 2011

Number of 

Stages 1

Payload 

Performance

6 people to 100 km (62 

mi)

Launch Site Oklahoma Spaceport

Markets 

Served

Suborbital space tourism, 

microgravity research

RocketPlane XP concept

WhiteKnightTwo
• 35 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

space flights for private individuals, science research, and payload. The 

venture is also developing a carrier aircraft, WhiteKnightTwo (WK2), 

that will be used to air-launch SS2 in much the same manner that the 

original White Knight aircraft air-launched SS1.

In January 2008, Virgin Galactic and Scaled Composites unveiled the 

designs for WK2 and SS2.19 Production of the two craft continued 

throughout 2008. In March 2008, senior officials from Virgin Galactic 

and the Kiruna Spaceport in Sweden announced plans to use 

“Spaceport Sweden” as a second site for SS2. In July 2008, Sir Richard 

Branson, Virgin Group founder, publicly rolled-out the WK2, named 

“Eve” after his mother. In September 2008, representatives from 

Virgin Galactic and NOAA announced discussions to launch NOAA 

climatology instruments aboard SS2 and WK2.20 Finally, on December 21, 2008, 

WK2 made its maiden test flight, reaching the altitude of 4,880 meters (16,000 

feet) as planned.21

As of year-end 2008, Virgin Galactic had signed up 284 customers for its first 

suborbital space tourism flights, scheduled to begin by 2010. Rollout of SS2 is 

expected in April 2009.22

Dream Chaser – SpaceDev

Dream Chaser is an RLV under 

development by SpaceDev to serve 

suborbital and orbital applications. 

The design of this vehicle is based on 

the NASA HL-20 spaceplane concept 

from the early 1990s, which was itself 

inspired by the successfully launched 

Soviet BOR-4 spaceplane from the 

early 1980s. Dream Chaser has been 

expanded from the original HL-20 by 

10 percent to an overall length of 9.6 

meters (31.5 feet) and 

wingspan of 8 meters (26.2 feet). The Dream Chaser is designed to 

transport 6-9 passengers, compared to the original HL-20’s capacity 

of 6-10. For suborbital flights, the vehicle will launch vertically, using 

hybrid engines. On orbital flights, the vehicle will launch on top of 

existing launch vehicles. In both scenarios, the vehicle will glide back 

to a runway landing.

The Dream Chaser concept was one of the finalists in the original 

round of NASA’s COTS competition, and was resubmitted as a bid 

for the COTS-2 competition. However, the vehicle was not selected 

for a funded COTS agreement. In June 2007, NASA and SpaceDev 

signed an unfunded Space Act agreement (SAA) where NASA will 

provide technical support and other information to SpaceDev to aid in 

the ongoing development of Dream Chaser.23

Vehicle SpaceShipTwo

Developer

The SpaceShip Company 

(Virgin Galactic and Scaled 

Composites)

First Launch 2010

Number of 

Stages 2

Payload 

Performance

8 people to minimum of 

100 km (62 mi)

Launch Site Spaceport America

Markets 

Served Suborbital space tourism

DreamChaser concept

Vehicle Dream Chaser

Developer SpaceDev

First Launch

4th quarter 2009 

(suborbital), 2nd quarter 

2011 (orbital)

Number of 

Stages 2 (suborbital), 3 (orbital)

Payload 

Performance 6-9 people

Launch Site Spaceport America 

(suborbital), CCAFS (orbital)

Markets 

Served

Suborbital space tourism, ISS 

crew and cargo resupply, 

orbital space tourism, 

military missions
• 36 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

With NASA’s October 2008 certification that SpaceDev had successfully 

performed its Internal Space Vehicle Propulsion Module Preliminary Design 

Review (PDR), SpaceDev has completed three technical milestones to date under 

the unfunded SAA. SpaceDev has also signed a memorandum of understanding 

(MoU) with United Launch Alliance (ULA) in April 2007 to study the use of 

the Atlas V to launch the Dream Chaser on orbital missions, and is collaborating 

with ATK to study the integration of the Dream Chaser on an Ares I-derived 

launch vehicle.24

SkyhopperTM – SPACE ACCESS®, LLC

In December 2007, SPACE ACCESS®, LLC, of Miami, 

Florida announced its plans to develop a suborbital RLV called 

SkyhopperTM. The vehicle would take off and land horizontally 

on a conventional runway, and use ejector ramjet engines with 

liquid hydrogen fuel—as opposed to conventional rocket 

engines—to reach suborbital altitudes. SPACE ACCESS® 

anticipates SkyhopperTM will reach speeds of up to Mach 5 and 

altitudes in excess of 100 kilometers (62 miles). The company 

plans on building up to 

eight SkyhopperTM vehicles 

and operate up to 15 flights 

per day. Suborbital flight 

operations are scheduled to 

begin in 2013 from facilities to be developed 

in Florida and Texas. Orbital flights, using a 

variant of SkyhopperTM, are projected to begin 

as soon as 2016. In 2008, SPACE ACCESS® 

announced plans to construct a fleet of up to 

eight vehicles for the suborbital flights.25

Laramie Rose – SpeedUp

SpeedUp of Laramie, Wyoming, is developing 

the Laramie Rose vehicle to compete in 

the NG-LLC. The vehicle, being built in 

partnership with Frontier Astronautics of 

Chugwater, Wyoming, is a 

vertical takeoff and vertical 

landing design powered by 

an engine using 90-percent 

concentration hydrogen 

peroxide. The vehicle is also 

designed to be a technology 

testbed for future rocket-powered recreational vehicles planned 

by the company. SpeedUp chose not to compete at the 2008 

NG-LLC; however, the Laramie Rose vehicle did perform 

its first tethered hover test in April 2008, and development 

Vehicle Skyhopper

Developer Space Access, LLC

First Launch 2012 (suborbital); 2015 

(orbital)

Number of 

Stages 1

Payload 

Performance TBD

Launch Site Near Corpus Christi, Texas

Markets 

Served Suborbital space tourism

Skyhopper concept

Vehicle Laramie Rose

Developer SpeedUp

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 1

Payload 

Performance

25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m 

(165 ft)

Launch Site TBD

Markets 

Served

Lunar Lander Challenge 

competition

Laramie Rose
• 37 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

continues.26 In July, 2008, SpeedUp announced plans to sell peroxide-compatible 

propellant tanks that are part of its plan to develop an expendable upper stage.27

M.I.C.H.E.L.L.E.-B – TGV Rockets, Inc.

TGV Rockets, Inc. (TGV) is developing the Modular 

Incremental Compact High Energy Lowcost Launch Example 

(M.I.C.H.E.L.L.E.)-B, a fully reusable, remotely-piloted suborbital 

vehicle, designed to carry up to 1,000 kilograms (2,200 pounds) 

to an altitude of 100 kilometers (62 miles). This vehicle is designed 

to perform vertical take-off and landing, with a drag shield to assist in 

deceleration during landing. M.I.C.H.E.L.L.E.-B will provide up to 

200 seconds of microgravity, while not exceeding 4.5 Gs during any 

phase of flight. Using existing optical 

packages, the vehicle is designed to 

provide 60-centimeter (24-inch) 

oblique imagery. Six pressure-fed 

LOX and JP-8 engines for use on ascent and 

landing power the vehicle. TGV’s design is 

intended to enable high reusability, require 

minimal ground support, and allow the vehicle 

to return to flight within a few hours of landing. 

The company has completed a preliminary design 

review of the M.I.C.H.E.L.L.E.-B and, in the 

second quarter of 2007, performed three tests of 

its “workhorse” engine for the vehicle. In 2008, 

the company continued work to complete a 

prototype engine based on the lessons learned 

from those tests.28

Ignignokt – TrueZer0

TrueZer0 of Chicago, Illinois is a four-person team that developed 

the Ignignokt vehicle to compete in the 2008 NG-LLC. The 

Ignignokt is a 215-kilogram (475-pound) vertical takeoff, vertical 

landing vehicle that produces 2,900 Newtons (650 pounds-force) 

of thrust fueled by hydrogen 

peroxide and nitrogen. The 

Ignignokt was the only 

vehicle besides Armadillo 

Aerospace’s MOD-1 to 

attempt a flight in the 2008 

Level 1 NG-LLC. The vehicle 

crashed 18.8 seconds after 

takeoff in its only flight attempt.29 As of 

year-end 2008, the TrueZer0 team was 

examining the causes of the crash. The 

TrueZer0 team had not decided whether 

M.I.C.H.E.L.L.E.-B concept

Vehicle M.I.C.H.E.L.L.E.-B

Developer TGV Rockets

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 1

Payload 

Performance

1,000 kg (2,200 lb) to 100 

km (62 mi)

Launch Site TBD

Markets 

Served

Remote sensing; science, 

including microgravity 

research; national security 

applications

Ignignokt and team

Vehicle Ignignokt

Developer TrueZer0

First Launch 2008

Number of 

Stages 1

Payload 

Performance

25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m 

(165 ft)

Launch Site Las Cruces International 

Airport

Markets 

Served

Lunar Lander Challenge 

competition
• 38 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

to continue its vehicle development efforts, but was awaiting new rules from the X 

PRIZE Foundation regarding the 2009 Lunar Lander Challenge.30

Burning Splinter – Unreasonable Rocket

Unreasonable Rocket of Solana Beach, 

California, is a father-son team developing 

the Burning Splinter vehicle to compete in 

the NG-LLC. The vertical takeoff, vertical 

landing vehicle is powered by four engines using 

liquid oxygen and ethanol propellants. The 

team completed the vehicle 

hardware and performed 

several tethered launches. 

The Unreasonable Rocket 

team was not satisfied with 

the peroxide decomposition 

and demonstrated thrust levels during testing and chose not to 

compete in the 2008 NG-LLC. Unreasonable Rocket continues 

to test potential vehicle modifications including the use of a 

solid peroxide catalyst and the use of peroxide and RP-1 for a 

larger Level Two bi-propellant vehicle.31

Lynx – XCOR Aerospace

In March 2008, XCOR Aerospace unveiled 

the design of a suborbital RLV known as 

Lynx. The Lynx will be a two-seat suborbital 

plane designed to take off horizontally from 

a runway under rocket power and fly to an 

altitude of 100 kilometers (62 miles) before 

returning for a horizontal landing. The 

Lynx will enable participants to experience 

weightlessness, obtain a clear view of the stars, 

and see the curvature of the Earth below. The 

firm’s previous concept for a suborbital vehicle 

was known as the Xerus, but the significant 

technical and aerodynamic changes made during the launcher 

design process resulted in a new vehicle designation: the Lynx.32

Since 2006, XCOR has performed fundraising and technical 

development for its suborbital launch vehicle. It was awarded 

a Phase II SBIR from the USAF in connection with the Lynx 

and in August 2008, the company received its first institutional 

investor, Desert Sky Holdings.33 In early December 2008, the 

firm announced a partnership with RocketShip Tours to begin 

selling suborbital space tourism tickets for $95,000 a flight. 

Also in December 2008, XCOR successfully performed its first 

Vehicle Burning Splinter

Developer Unreasonable Rocket

First Launch TBD

Number of 

Stages 1

Payload 

Performance

25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m 

(165 ft)

Launch Site TBD

Markets 

Served

Lunar Lander Challenge 

competition

Burning Splinter prototype

Lynx concept

Vehicle Lynx

Developer XCOR Aerospace

First Launch 2010

Number of 

Stages 1

Payload 

Performance

Two passengers to 

suborbital altitude 

Launch Site Mojave Air and Space Port

Markets 

Served Suborbital space tourism
• 39 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

hot fire of the 5K18 kerosene-LOX engine that will be used on the Lynx. XCOR 

anticipates filing a new FAA launch license application, and expects to perform the 

first Lynx flight by mid-2010.34

Government RLV Development Efforts

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the DoD and NASA conducted several joint and 

independent programs to produce experimental RLVs. These vehicles were intended 

to improve reliability, minimize operating costs, and demonstrate “aircraft-like” 

operations. However, none of these concepts resulted in a fully operational 

vehicle. In recent years, these technology development efforts diminished. The 

U.S. Department of Defense focused on operating its large EELV vehicles and 

developing small responsive launch vehicles, although it is devoting some resources 

to technology development that is relevant to RLVs. NASA has shifted its emphasis 

to developing large ELVs designed to implement the Vision for Space Exploration.

Space Shuttle

Consisting of an expendable external tank, two reusable solid rocket 

boosters, and a reusable Orbiter, NASA’s Space Transportation 

System (STS), commonly referred to as the Space Shuttle, has 

conducted 124 launches since its introduction in 1981. 

The three remaining orbiters—Atlantis, Discovery, and Endeavour—

returned to flight in July 2005 after the loss of Columbia in February 

2003. Today, the Space Shuttle is the 

only available means for completing 

assembly of the ISS. Intending to 

use the Shuttle until 2010, NASA 

is committed to investing in the 

Space Shuttle fleet to maintain 

safety and reliability and extend 

orbiter service life until its role in 

constructing the ISS is complete. 

As of January 1, 2009, nine Space 

Shuttle flights, including one mission to service 

the Hubble Space Telescope, are planned before 

the fleet is retired in 2010. The Space Shuttle’s 

day-to-day operations are managed by United 

Space Alliance, a Boeing-Lockheed Martin joint 

venture in operation since 1996.

Fully-Reusable Access to Space Technology Program

The Fully-Reusable Access to Space Technology (FAST) program is an effort by the 

Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) to develop technologies for use in RLVs 

capable of “aircraft-like” operations. FAST calls for the methodical development 

of these key technologies initially through ground experiments and later in flight 

Vehicle Atlantis, Discovery, and 

Endeavour

Developer

Rockwell International (now 

Boeing); fleet is managed, 

operated, and maintained 

on the ground by United 

Space Alliance, a joint 

venture between Boeing and 

Lockheed Martin

First Launch 1981

Number of 

Stages 1.5

Payload 

Performance

24,900 kg (54,890 lb) 

to LEO

Launch Site KSC

Markets 

Served

Non-commercial payloads, 

ISS access

Space Shuttle from above
• 40 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

tests, with the ultimate goal of flying a ground-launched suborbital vehicle capable 

of flying to speeds of Mach 4 to 7, as well as being capable of reentering at Mach 25 

if launched as the upper stage of another vehicle. This experimental vehicle could be 

later scaled up to larger, operational vehicles. Current plans call for ground-based 

technology tests to continue through 2011, with first flights of the experimental 

suborbital vehicle slated for 2013.35

AFRL has issued contracts with several companies to work on elements of the 

FAST program. In March 2007, AFRL awarded Andrews Space a contract to 

develop the program requirements for a series of technology experiments that 

will be part of the overall effort.36 In November 2007, Lockheed Martin Michoud 

Operations won a $14-million contract to work on airframe technologies, 

including composite structures and thermal protection systems, as a part of the 

FAST program.37 In December 2007, AFRL awarded Northrop Grumman a 

39-month, $5.2-million contract to study responsive ground operations and 

perform experiments and simulations to support the development of a future 

operations control center.38

On December 12, 2008, in support of the FAST Airframe Ground Experiment, 

Lockheed Martin successfully tested an unlined LOX-compatible composite 

tank with a demonstrated cryogenic containment of up to 5,000 micro-strain 

(250 pounds-force per square inch gauge, or psi) of pressure.39
• 41 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • In-Space Technology

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space

Technologies

A number of new orbital transportation systems are being developed by U.S. 

entities. These systems range from government reusable crewed and cargo vehicles 

to commercial habitats. These developments will provide critical manned and 

unmanned orbital operations and transportation in the post-Shuttle era after 2010. 

A number of technologies have been demonstrated for these systems during the 

past year and show progress towards planned operational capability. 

NASA has development contracts for the Orion crew exploration vehicle and 

two active awards for commercial ISS crew and cargo demonstrations through the 

Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program. NASA awarded 

additional contracts for ISS Cargo Resupply Services in December of 2008. 

Additionally, the U.S. Air Force is developing a military-use X-37B Orbital Transfer 

Vehicle (OTV) that will carry payloads into orbit. Finally, Bigelow Aerospace is in 

the process of developing commercial orbital habitat.

Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle 

The U.S. plan for space exploration calls for continued 

missions to LEO and later missions to the Moon, Mars, 

and beyond. To maintain this mission capability after 

retiring the Shuttle in 2010, NASA is developing a new 

Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV), the Orion, as part of the 

Constellation Program. The current Orion design has the 

capacity to transport up to six crew members to the ISS or 

four people on missions to the Moon. Orion’s first crew 

transport to the ISS is planned for no later than 2015, while 

the first lunar flight is currently scheduled for 2020.1

The spacecraft will consist of a combined pressurized crew 

module and service module launched into orbit by the 

Ares I crew launch vehicle. For missions to the Moon and 

Mars, NASA will precede the Ares I launch with an Ares 

V cargo launch vehicle. Ares V, the “heavy lifter” of the fleet, that will deliver the 

Altair lunar lander and the Earth departure stage to LEO. Orion will then dock 

with these “parked” payloads, and the Earth departure stage will propel Orion and 

its crew and the Altair lander to the Moon.

Once in lunar orbit, Altair will undock from Orion and carry the astronauts to the 

Moon’s surface. At the end of the mission, a lunar ascent module will return the 

crew to the orbiting Orion craft. The crew will then use the service module main 

engine to break out of lunar orbit and return to Earth, where Orion’s crew module 

will reenter the atmosphere and parachute to the surface. 

Artist rendition of the Orion CEV approaching the ISS
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Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

The spacecraft’s conical shape is similar to the Apollo capsules that predated 

the Shuttle, but Orion will incorporate 21st century technology in computers, 

electronics, life support, propulsion, landing technology, and a newly developed 

thermal protection system for Earth re-entry. A powered system for launch abort 

will sit atop the Orion capsule, and is designed to pull the crew module away from 

the Ares I launch vehicle in an emergency situation on the launch pad or during the 

first 91,400 meters (300,000 feet) after launch. In addition, 

Orion’s 5-meter (16.5-foot) diameter will allow for more 

than twice the volume—doubling crew capacity and 

increasing interior space—of Apollo-era modules.

Lockheed Martin is the prime contractor for the Orion 

CEV. NASA selected Lockheed Martin in August of 2006, 

awarding them a seven-year base contract worth just under 

$4 billion. The contract contains an option worth another 

$4 billion for production and operational engineering 

activity up to 2019. Lockheed Martin’s contracting team 

includes Honeywell, Orbital Sciences, United Space 

Alliance, and Hamilton Sundstrand. Contracts for the 

Altair lunar lander and earth departure stage have not yet 

been awarded. NASA is developing conceptual designs for 

Altair and is currently seeking input from industry experts 

towards that effort. Hardware and test concepts are targeted 

for the 2009 - 2011 timeframe.

The overall Constellation Program is managed out of the Johnson Space Center in 

Houston, Texas. Every other NASA center has a role in the mission, and many have 

been actively involved in testing the Orion and Ares vehicles and their subsystems. 

For instance, the Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California leads the 

development of Orion’s thermal protection systems. Langley Research Center is 

the lead for integrating the launch abort system. In October of 2008, the Dryden 

Flight Research Center in Edwards, California conducted mass properties tests 

on the Orion test crew module, in preparation for the launch abort system flight 

tests scheduled for 2009.2

 In November of 2008, ATK successfully conducted the 

first full-scale test fire of the abort system’s motor at their launch systems facility in 

Promontory, Utah.3

Additional testing in 2008 included a failed parachute test conducted by 

NASA in July. A mock-up of the Orion crew module was dropped from 7,600 

meters (25,000 feet) by a C-17 aircraft above the U.S. Army’s Yuma Proving 

Grounds. A test set-up parachute — which was only used to orient the mockup for the drop and would not be part of the overall re-entry system — did 

not inflate properly, resulting in failure of the entire parachute system.4 Test 

milestones for 2009 include the launch abort system flight test in White Sands 

New Mexico, and the first test flight of the Ares I (the Ares I-X).5

Artist rendition of Orion during parachute landing
• 43 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • In-Space Technology

International Space Station Crew and Cargo Transport 

The decision to finish constructing the ISS by the end of the decade and maintain 

its operation with a six-person crew reinforces the demand for continual transport 

flights to and from the station. Several government systems are either operational or 

planned to fill this demand. Until it is retired in 2010, the Space Shuttle will be the 

primary American system for bringing new station components, crew, and cargo to 

the ISS. Orion will start providing crew transport by 2015. 

This five-year gap can be filled by using the services of existing and developing 

international ISS transport vehicles. Russia’s Soyuz crew and Progress cargo vehicles 

are frequently used to support the station and are currently the most robust 

international ISS supply systems. However, other international systems are making 

progress to fill that role as well. In March of 2008, the European Space Agency 

conducted the maiden voyage of their Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) for 

ISS cargo supply. The “Jules Verne” ATV delivered supplies, fuel, and oxygen to 

the crew and remained docked with the ISS for six months and performed orbital 

reboosts. The ATV eventually offloaded 21⁄2 tons of waste from the ISS before 

returning to Earth in a controlled destructive re-entry.6 The ESA has contracted 

industry to produce four more ATVs to be flown through 2015.7 Additionally, the 

Japan Aerospace Exploration Administration ( JAXA) is currently developing the 

H-2 Transfer Vehicle (HTV), with plans to conduct a test flight in 2009.8

American commercial vehicles are planned to supplement these government 

systems for crew and cargo transport to the ISS. To that end, NASA established 

the Commercial Crew & Cargo Program Office (C3PO) at the Johnson Space 

Center. This office will help stimulate the U.S. commercial space transportation 

industry through technical assistance as well as direct investment through the 

COTS demonstrations project. In August 2006, NASA announced the signing 

of two funded Space Act Agreements with U.S. companies under Phase 1 of the 

COTS program. Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) and Rocketplane/

Kistler (RpK) collectively received nearly $500 million in funding to develop and 

demonstrate the ability to provide transportation services to the ISS. However, the 

agreement with RpK was terminated and re-competed in 2007 due to RpK’s failure 

to meet required financial and technical milestones related to developing its K-1 

vehicle. In February of 2008, NASA selected Orbital Sciences Corporation as a 

new funded partner and awarded them approximately $170 million in funding.9

In Phase One of the COTS program, the bidding companies were required to 

demonstrate one or more of four capabilities:

•	 external, unpressurized cargo delivery and disposal;

•	 internal, pressurized cargo delivery and disposal;

•	 internal, pressurized cargo delivery and return;

•	 an option for crew transportation. 

Fixed payments will be made to the winning companies as they achieve milestones 

for design and development, including conducting three vehicle flights before 2010. 
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Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Phase Two of the program culminated in the December 2008 awarding of two ISS 

Cargo Resupply (ISS-CRS) contracts, which went to SpaceX and Orbital Sciences. 

The contracts call for the delivery of a minimum of 20 metric tons of upmass cargo 

to the space station, with flights taking place between 2010 and 2016. NASA 

initially ordered 12 flights valued at about $1.6 billion from SpaceX, and eight 

flights valued at about $1.9 billion from Orbital Sciences.10 

Dragon – SpaceX

Initiated internally by SpaceX in 2005, the Dragon spacecraft will be used for 

the commercial transportation of cargo and crew to and from LEO. The 4-meter 

(13-foot) diameter Dragon consists of an unpressurized trunk module and the 

capsule itself. The trunk module carries the solar arrays and thermal radiators, and 

can also store any unpressurized cargo. The Dragon capsule 

comprises three elements: the nosecone, which protects the 

vessel and docking adaptor during liftoff; the pressurized 

crew and cargo section; and the service section, which 

contains support infrastructure such as avionics, parachutes, 

and the reaction control system (RCS). 

The structural design of Dragon will be identical for cargo 

and crew missions, providing a capacity of over 2,500 

kilograms (5,500 pounds) for launch and return in either 

configuration. In crew mode, the vehicle can carry up to 

seven people, and will be able to remain attached to the 

ISS for six months at a time, providing emergency return 

capability for the entire ISS crew. SpaceX has constructed full-scale engineering 

models of the capsule pressure vessel, heat shield, and other systems.11

The initial plan for NASA funding under COTS Phase One includes $278 million, 

which could change as the demonstration process continues. In 2008, SpaceX 

reached several COTS milestones, including two firings of the Falcon 9 with its full 

complement of nine Merlin 1C engines at its Texas test facility.12 That was followed 

in November by a successful “mission-length” test firing lasting 178 seconds. SpaceX 

plans to conduct two COTS demo flights of the Falcon 9 in 2009, and a full cargo 

mission in 2010, which will include an actual berthing of 

an empty Dragon vehicle with the ISS, and return to Earth 

via water landing. All flights are scheduled for launch from 

SpaceX’s Space Launch Complex 40 at Cape Canaveral, 

Florida.13 NASA also has the option to extend the 

agreement with SpaceX to include three demonstrations of 

crew transport to and from the ISS. Those demonstrations 

would be conducted 18-24 months after the execution of 

that option.14

SpaceX is also pursuing the commercial market with 

the DragonLab spacecraft. Introduced in November of 

2008, DragonLab’s potential uses include small spacecraft 

Concept of SpaceX’s Dragon vehicle crew version

Depiction of the Dragon vehicle berthed with the ISS
• 45 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • In-Space Technology

deployment, recovery of pressurized and some unpressurized payloads, and inspace experimentation and research projects. SpaceX is marketing the DragonLab 

system as able provide for all aspects of in-orbit operation and re-entry, including 

propulsion, power, environmental control, avionics, communications, thermal 

protection, flight software, navigation and control, entry, landing and recovery.15 

Based on the positive response from prospective customers at DragonLab’s 

unveiling, SpaceX immediately added two DragonLab missions to its launch 

manifest, scheduled for 2010 and 2011.16

Taurus II/Cygnus – Orbital Sciences Corporation

On February 18, 2008, Orbital Sciences Corporation of Dulles, Virginia won the 

re-competed RpK COTS agreement. NASA and Orbital Sciences signed a funded 

Space Act Agreement worth approximately $170 million 

in federal funds to supplement Orbital’s private funding 

for the Taurus II launch vehicle and the Cygnus advanced 

maneuvering spacecraft. 

The Taurus II will have a payload capacity of 4,750 to 6,250 

kilograms (10,470 to 13,780 pounds) to LEO. The Cygnus 

spacecraft will be capable of delivering up to 2,300 kilograms 

of pressurized or unpressurized cargo to the ISS, and will be 

capable of returning up to 1,200 kilograms of cargo from ISS 

to Earth. Orbital will also develop several interchangeable 

modules for pressurized and unpressurized cargo. The 

development, production, and integration of Cygnus and 

these cargo modules will take place at Orbital’s facilities 

in Dulles as well as Greenbelt, Maryland. The first COTS 

demonstration is scheduled to take place in late 2010 from 

Wallops Flight Facility, and Orbital is preparing to conduct 

several operational COTS missions in 2011 and as many as 

eight operational ISS cargo flights a year in 2012.17

Other Commercial Crew and Cargo Transport Concepts

NASA currently has signed unfunded Space Act Agreements with three companies 

to help them develop various vehicles and technologies that could lead to orbital 

crew and cargo missions in the future. While these companies do not receive 

funding for their projects, NASA does provide them technical assistance in order 

to facilitate compatibility with ISS and future programs. These systems potentially 

could provide transport to the ISS and other orbital locations. 

•	 PlanetSpace has teamed with Lockheed Martin Space Systems, ATK, and 

Boeing to develop, produce, launch, and operate modular Orbital Transfer 

Vehicles (OTV’s) that can serve as the cargo carriers to the ISS.18 In 2008, the 

PlanetSpace team proposed this vehicle to NASA as part of the COTS Phase-2 

funding for the ISS-CRS project.

Artist rendition of Orbital’s Cygnus spacecraft 

approaching the ISS
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Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

•	 SpaceDev’s Dream Chaser Space Transportation System is a lifting body RLV 

based on the NASA HL-20 lifting body spaceplane. The vehicle conceptually 

will launch on a man-rated Atlas V rocket. 

•	 Transformational Space (t/Space) is developing the CXV Crew Transfer 

Vehicle, a transport and reentry vehicle based on Discoverer and Corona 

capsule design. 

Another unfunded partner, SPACEHAB, had proposed its Advanced Research 

and Conventional Technology Utilization Spacecraft (ARCTUS) for orbital 

transport during the COTS Phase 1 process. In 2008, they allowed their Space Act 

Agreement partnership expire. 

X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle 

The U.S. Air Force Rapid Capabilities Office is leading development of an 

unmanned reusable space vehicle designated the X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle 

(OTV). This new capability will serve as a platform for science and technology 

demonstration and testing. Experiments will be carried in a payload bay, which 

can open and expose its contents to the space environment. This vehicle leverages 

previous work NASA, DARPA, AFRL, and Boeing 

completed for the X-37 program. As it was for the original 

X-37 vehicle, Boeing is the prime contractor for the OTV.

The OTV will launch vertically into orbit on an expendable 

rocket and have the ability to de-orbit on command and 

land horizontally for reuse. The first OTV test flight is 

scheduled to take place in February of 2009, using an Atlas 

V rocket to be launched from Cape Canaveral.19 During 

the test, the OTV is to deploy a gallium arsenide solar array 

to power its flight, then de-orbit and land on a runway at 

Vandenberg AFB. Other flights for the X-37B will be for 

testing advanced thermal protection materials, autonomous 

approach and landing schemes, and orbital and ground 

operations.20

Commercial Orbital Habitat Development 

Bigelow Aerospace is developing next-generation, expandable space habitat 

technology intended to support a future, robust, private-sector-driven commercial 

space industry. The company manufactured and launched two technology 

demonstration spacecraft called Genesis I and Genesis II. These spacecraft are 

currently being used to validate the fundamental engineering concepts necessary 

to construct an expandable orbital habitat. Currently, Bigelow Aerospace is 

constructing a larger and more complex spacecraft designed to support a crewed 

presence in LEO.

Artist’s concept of an X-37 vehicle, similar to the X-37B 

in development
• 47 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • In-Space Technology

The Genesis II spacecraft was launched on June 28, 2007, less than one year after 

the Genesis I launch on July 12, 2006. Both of these spacecraft were successfully 

orbited by an ISC Kosmotras Dnepr rocket launched from facilities at the 

Yasny Cosmodrome in the Orenburg region of the Russian Federation. The two 

spacecraft are externally similar although internally different; Genesis II was 

outfitted with additional sensors, cameras, and unique interior payloads. The size 

of the demonstrators is approximately 4.4 meters (15 feet) in length and 1.6 meters 

(5.3 feet) in diameter at launch, expanding to 2.54 

meters (8 feet) in diameter after full deployment in 

orbit. Both Genesis spacecraft have a usable volume of 

11.5 cubic meters (406 cubic feet). Bigelow Aerospace 

uses its mission control facility in North Las Vegas, 

Nevada for operating these spacecraft, both of which 

have performed as planned, validating Bigelow 

Aerospace’s basic concepts and capabilities.

Because of the success of the Genesis technology 

demonstrators, Bigelow Aerospace has decided to 

proceed directly with developing the larger Sundancer 

spacecraft. Sundancer will be the company’s first attempt 

at producing a habitat capable of supporting a human 

presence on orbit. The spacecraft is currently anticipated 

to weigh around 8,600 kilograms (19,000 pounds) and 

offer roughly 180 cubic meters (6,350 cubic feet) of 

usable volume. The technologies to be demonstrated 

and deployed on Sundancer include environmental 

control and life support systems; guidance, navigation, 

and attitude control; propulsion; power generation; and 

windows, among others. 

In May of 2008, Bigelow Aerospace awarded a $4.8 million contract to Orion 

Propulsion, Inc. to supply the attitude control system for the forward end of 

Sundancer. Also in May, Bigelow Aerospace completed a $23 million deal with 

Aerojet to supply the propulsion system for the aft end of Sundancer.21

External view of Bigelow’s Genesis II spacecraft 

in Earth orbit
• 48 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation
• 49 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Enabling Technologies

Enabling Technologies

Organizations from industry and the government have been working to develop 

launch vehicle components that are substantially simpler, more flexible and reliable, 

and less costly than those based on legacy technologies. These efforts research 

projects in the areas of air launch technologies, composite cryogenic fuel tanks, 

propulsion systems, thermal protection systems, and vehicle recovery systems. 

This chapter reviews some of the accomplishments made in 2008 with emphasis 

given to those organizations and technologies that have achieved significant testing 

milestones.

Friction Stir Welding – Space Exploration Technologies 

Corporation

Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX) 

uses friction stir welding during the construction of the 

Falcon 9 launch vehicle. The Falcon 9’s first and second 

stage walls use a high-performance aluminum-lithium 

alloy. Friction stir welding forms a metal-to-metal joint 

without melting, using only friction and pressure. Thus, 

the alloy composition remains unaffected and retains its 

strength. This allows for the creation of some of the lightest 

and strongest possible metal alloy tanks. Since friction 

stir welding does not melt the metal being worked on, but 

rather, through heat and pressure, plastically deforms the 

metal of a joint and blends it together, metallurgical problems that occur with 

aluminum-lithium alloys featuring fusion welding do not occur.1

 In early 2008, 

SpaceX successfully completed fabrication of the first all-stir-welded first stage 

propellant tanks for the Falcon 9. This tank, featuring both longitudinal and 

circumferential stir welding, was the first launch vehicle pressurized structure ever 

completely assembled with stir welding.2

Composite Tanks – Microcosm, Inc.

In 2008, Microcosm, Inc. (MI) and Scorpius Space Launch 

Company (SSLC) of Hawthorne, California, continued 

developing cryogenic composite LOX tanks for a variety of 

applications and customers. The companies have successfully 

tested a 106.7 cm (42 in.) diameter, all-composite LOX 

tank to four times its operating pressure of 38.7 Kg/cm2

(550 PSI). Testing occurred at cryogenic temperatures using 

liquid nitrogen. New materials and production methods 

are now incorporated in a family of cryogenic and ambient 

propellant tanks as well as higher pressure tanks extending 

the application of all-composite tank structures. Microcosm successfully completed 

the final qualification tests on the full-scale, all-composite cryogenic LOX tank for 

the Sprite Small Launch Vehicle (SLV) and is now proceeding with the design of 

lower mass cryogenic tanks. MI’s tank design and SSLC’s manufacturing method 

Falcon 9 propellant tanks

Family of all-composite propellant and pressure tanks
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Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

prevents gas permeation/leakage, and manages the typical micro-cracking that 

has always been a problem with all-composite tanks at cryogenic temperatures. 

The tank design allows for reducing the weight of the propellant tanks for Sprite 

and increases the mass to orbit by over 30 percent. MI/SSLC offers these tanks in 

a range of sizes as well as custom-made pressure vessels for industrial applications 

where ultra-high, strength-to-weight ratio is important.MI and SSLC continue to 

provide these new technology tanks that are stronger and lower mass to others in 

the aerospace community, as well as customers with other applications.3

High Performance Pressurization System (HPPS) – 

Microcosm, Inc.

Through 2008, Microcosm has continued developing the HPPS the company’s family 

of launch vehicles and upper-stages for other customer applications. The HPPS 

is a Tridyne-based method of using high pressure cold gas. By using a specialized 

catalytic converter, it provides hot gas pressure to use on the propellant tanks while 

also providing heat to replace the normal cooling of the cold gas as the gas is used. 

Microcosm has tested the system in large-scale implementations. The HPPS reduces 

in half the comparable gas required for the typical pressure-fed system, thus lowering 

the cost and mass of launch vehicles and upper stages using the system.4

VASIMR Engine – Ad Astra Rocket Co.

The Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket 

(VASIMR) is an electro-magnetic thruster for spacecraft 

propulsion. The VASIMR engine is not intending to launch 

a vehicle into space from ground-level. Rather, it would be 

an efficient method of propulsion for interplanetary craft. 

It uses radio waves to ionize a propellant and magnetic fields 

to accelerate the resulting plasma to generate thrust. The 

method of heating plasma used in VASIMR was originally 

developed as a result of research into nuclear fusion. 

VASIMR is intended to bridge the gap between high-thrust, 

low-specific impulse propulsion systems and low-thrust, 

high-specific impulse systems. VASIMR is capable of 

functioning in either mode. Scientist and former astronaut Franklin Chang-Diaz 

created the VASIMR concept and has been working on its development since 1979.

On October 28, 2008, Ad Astra announced that the VASIMR engine had reached 

a major milestone in its development. The VASIMR’s Helicon first stage, which 

generates the plasma that is later accelerated by the drive, achieved its full rated 

power of 30 kilowatts on a test stand. This paves the way for further testing.5

 On 

December 8, 2008, an agreement was signed between Ad Astra and NASA to test 

the VASIMR engine aboard the International Space Station at an unspecified date 

in the future.6

VASIMR first stage test-fire
• 51 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Enabling Technologies

Solid Rocket Motors - Alliant Techsystems, Inc.

ATK was named the prime contractor by NASA for the 

development of the Ares I first stage in December 2005. 

The design of the Ares I first stage will primarily use existing 

Space Shuttle solid rocket motor technology; however, ATK 

is developing new components to increase performance. 

The core tooling used to achieve the new propellant shape 

is being manufactured.7

 Two mockups of a section located 

at the top of the motor between the first and second stages, 

called the forward skirt, have been constructed. The forward 

skirt mockups will simulate the physical space available 

for the avionics and will be used to determine the optimal 

required space and placement of the electronics.

In 2008, a series of tests were completed. X-ray imaging of an inert test article 

intended for the Ares I-X was done to verify integrity. Also, a series of test firings 

were conducted using intentionally weakened exhaust nozzles to aid in developing 

failure warning sensors. These intentional failures helped assess the best methods 

for designing and locating error warning sensors.8

 The flight test scheduled in 2009, 

designated Ares I-X, will use a modified four-segment Space Shuttle Solid Rocket 

Booster with a fifth segment simulator. Five ground tests of a new five-segment 

Ares I rocket motor are scheduled in 2009-2011. Three Ares I flight tests using the 

new five-segment first stages are scheduled in 2012 and 2013.9

Liquid Engines – AirLaunch LLC

AirLaunch LLC, of Kirkland, Washington, is developing 

Vapor Pressurization (VaPak) LOX- and propane-powered 

upper stage engines for its QuickReach Small Launch Vehicle 

(SLV) as part of the Falcon SLV program. AirLaunch LLC’s 

QuickReach booster is designed to deliver 450 kilograms 

(1,000 pounds) to low Earth orbit for $5 million per launch, 

with a response time of less than 24 hours.

AirLaunch LLC conducted a 191-second engine test in 

March 2007, the longest VaPak engine burn in history. As of 

November 2007, AirLaunch had conducted 55 test firings of its propulsion system, 

all using VaPak. Fifty of these tests were performed on the original Horizontal 

Test Stand (HTS), and five test fires, totaling 315.5 seconds, have been performed 

on the Vertical Test Stand (VTS) with the QuickReach Integrated Second Stage 

(IS2), in addition to several propellant loading and conditioning tests.10 The IS2 

firings incorporated ground propellant loading operations and flight-type avionics, 

software, and systems. Transition of liquid oxygen to gaseous oxygen, a feature of 

VaPak, has been observed in test firings on both the HTS and VTS.

During 2008, in Phase 2C of the testing cycle, AirLaunch conducted 30 additional 

test firings of the second stage engine on a new and more sophisticated horizontal 

ATK’s December 4, 2008 test of the reusable 

solid rocket motor

AirLaunch’s March 28, 2008 test of the Vapak engine
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Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

test stand. These tests produced the consistent, repeatable test data desired by 

the Falcon SLV program office. AirLaunch also matured its technical and safety 

procedures to enable multiple tests per day. Over the course of the Falcon SLV 

program, the QuickReach propulsion system was fired 82 times, for a total of 

1227.3 seconds of run time.11

Liquid Rocket Engines and associated technologies – 

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation (GSC) is a small aerospace R&D company, 

formed in 1993, that is focusing on the development of advanced space 

technologies and launch vehicle systems. GSC conducts research and 

development in partnership with a variety of organizations. The most 

notable of these partnerships has been the California Launch Vehicle 

Education Initiative (CALVEIN) with California State University, Long 

Beach (CSULB). Since getting started in early 2001, the CALVEIN work 

has resulted in numerous static fire tests and 15 flight tests, including 

development of the CSULB aerospike rocket engine as well as the more 

recent missions involving a prototype RLV test bed and the first-ever flight 

test of a LOX/methane rocket (the P-14) in April 2008 that featured an 

engine developed by CSULB students.

In May of 2008, Garvey Spacecraft supported CSULB in conducting a 

static fire test of a next generation multi-chamber aerospike engine with 

the P-10. In June of 2008, the Prospector 11A (P-11A) was launched as a 

testbed for wireless sensors and networking technologies, under a Phase 1 

SBIR contract for NASA Ames Research Center. In August of 2008, the 

Prospector 9A (P-9A) was launched as part of Garvey Spacecraft’s RLV 

demonstration program for AFRL/RZ and SMC. The vehicle featured 

two composite propellant tanks, procured from Microcosm, as well as a 

number of wireless sensor experiments provided by NASA JSC. This was 

the first such flight of a liquid propulsion rocket with two such composite 

tanks of this design.12 The team then wrapped up the year by reflying the 

refurbished P-11 as the P-12 in October with a series of academic payloads 

recruited and managed by Stanford University. 

Liquid Rocket Engines – Northrop Grumman 

Corporation

Northrop Grumman successfully tested a new type of rocket engine specifically 

designed to use oxygen and methane propellants that range from all-gas to 

all-liquid at injection to the combustion chamber. The new engine design was 

developed under contract to NASA Glenn Research Center’s Cryogenic Reaction 

Control Engine program. The engine, named the TR408, ensures that the fuel 

and oxidizer fully vaporize by passing the propellants through cooling passages 

located in the thrust chamber wall before injecting them into the chamber for 

combustion. This technique ensures consistent performance and combustion 

Garvey Aerospace’s August 

23, 2008 launch of the P-9
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2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Enabling Technologies

stability. Previous rocket engine designs using propellant to cool the 

chamber do not vaporize any of the propellant or may only vaporize one 

of the propellants, typically the fuel. The TR408 uses a simple design 

consisting of only two propellant valves, no moving parts other than the 

valves, and contains a built-in spark igniter to initiate combustion of the 

injected propellants.

In October of 2008, Northrop Grumman announced that it had 

completed manufacture and integration of the TR408 and that testing 

could commence. Upcoming tests will attempt to operate the engine at 

a steady-state specific impulse of 340 seconds.13

Liquid Rocket Engines – Pratt & Whitney 

Rocketdyne, Inc.

NASA awarded Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, Inc. (PWR) a $1.2 

billion contract in July 2007 to design, develop, and test the J-2X engine 

that will power the upper stage of the Ares I and Ares 5 launch vehicles. Powered 

by liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, the J-2X is an evolved variation of two 

historic predecessors: the J-2 upper stage engine, that propelled the Apollo-era 

Saturn 1B and Saturn 5 rockets to the Moon in the 1960s and 1970s, and the J-2S, 

a simplified version of the J-2 developed and tested in the early 1970s but never 

flown. The J-2S turbopumps and related machinery were demonstrated 

in the 1990s on the X-33 aerospike engine. The J-2X main injector 

hardware, a major component of the engine, is similar to the J-2 engine 

injector.14 In December 2007, NASA began testing core components 

of the J-2X on the A-1 Test Stand at NASA’s John C. Stennis Space 

Center near Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. The tests focused on the engine’s 

turbopumps. During the test, engineers ran liquid oxygen and liquid 

hydrogen through the turbopumps, monitoring their ducts, valves, and 

lines to verify the tightness of seals in the oxidizer lines and pumps. All 

test objectives were met with no anomalies noted.15 By November of 

2008, the J-2X had passed its critical design review and was on track to 

commence full-scale testing in 2010.16

The J-2X will provide an estimated 1,308,000-Newtons 

(294,000-pounds-force) of thrust to power the Ares vehicles. The 

contract includes ground and test flight engines and extends through 

December 31, 2012.17

Liquid Rocket Engines – Space Exploration 

Technologies Corporation

In 2006, SpaceX began working on the Merlin 1C engine, a regeneratively-cooled 

successor to the ablatively-cooled Merlin 1A engine. The regeneratively-cooled 

Merlin 1C uses rocket propellant grade kerosene (RP-1), a refined form of jet 

fuel, to cool the combustion chamber and nozzle before combining the fuel with 

Northrop Grumman’s completed 

TR408 LOX-methane engine

The J-2X engine
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Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

liquid oxygen to create thrust. This cooling allows for higher performance without 

significantly increasing engine mass.18

During 2007, 125 hot fire tests were conducted on the Merlin 1C engine for 

a combined run time exceeding 3,000 seconds. In November 2007, SpaceX 

announced that it had completed development of the Merlin 1C. 19 In its current 

Falcon 9 first-stage configuration, the Merlin 1C has a thrust at sea level of 

423,000 Newtons (95,000 pounds-force), a vacuum thrust of over 480,000 

Newtons (108,000 pounds-force), vacuum specific impulse 

of 304 seconds and sea level thrust-to-weight ratio of 

92. In generating this thrust, the Merlin 1C consumes 

159 kilograms per second (350 pounds per second) of 

propellant. The chamber and nozzle are cooled by 45 

kilograms per second (100 pounds per second) of kerosene. 

A planned turbopump upgrade in 2009 will improve the 

thrust by over 15 percent.20

The Merlin 1C engine powered SpaceX’s two Falcon 

1 missions in 2008, with a partially successful launch 

on August 3 and a completely successful launch on 

September 28. SpaceX’s far larger Falcon 9 rocket, now in 

development, will employ nine Merlin engines on its first 

stage. A vacuum version of the Merlin 1C, with a larger bell 

nozzle and some additional features, will be used on the 

Falcon 9’s upper stage.21

Testing of the Merlin 1 C 9-engine installation for the Falcon 9 took place through 

2008. Multi-engine testing began on January 18 and culminated on July 30 with 

the first nine-engine firing of its Falcon 9 launch vehicle at its Texas Test Facility 

outside McGregor. A second firing, conducted on August 1, completed a major 

NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) milestone almost 

two months early. SpaceX reported that all phases of integration and testing went 

smoothly and that all nine engines worked perfectly in concert, generating a total 

of over 3,700,000 Newtons (832,000 pounds force) of thrust.22 On November 22, 

2008, SpaceX conducted a successful full-mission length burn of all nine engines 

working in concert at their test-stand facility in Central Texas.23

Ablative Engines – Microcosm, Inc.

Microcosm has continued enhancing its line of low-cost 

ablatively-cooled pressure fed engines. The 22,000-Newton 

(5000-pounds force) engines have now been successfully 

flown on suborbital vehicles, and the newer 88,900-Newton 

(20,000-pounds force) engines have passed preliminary 

test firings. Microcosm will continue to develop both the 

sea level version engines along with related upper-stage 

configurations.24

Full Mission-length tests of nine Merlin 1-C engines on 

November 22, 2008.

20,000 pounds force ablative engine under test
• 55 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Enabling Technologies

Liquid RCS Thruster – Space 

Exploration Technologies Corporation

SpaceX is developing a spacecraft thruster called Draco that 

generates 400 Newtons (90 pounds-force) of thrust. The 

Draco thruster is fueled by a common aerospace bipropellant 

combination, monomethyl hydrazine and nitrogen 

tetroxide (MMH/NTO). The SpaceX Dragon crew and 

cargo spacecraft will have a total of 18 Draco thrusters 

for both attitude control and orbital maneuvering. Draco 

thrusters will also be used on the Falcon 9 second stage for 

maneuvering and deorbiting. In 2007, SpaceX’s propulsion 

team completed the first Draco development engine.25

In 2008, SpaceX’s propulsion team conducted atmospheric and vacuum level 

testing of Draco thrusters at their new MMH/NTO test facilities in central Texas, 

successfully meeting another milestone in its COTS program to demonstrate 

resupply of the ISS. On March 12, 2008, SpaceX successfully test fired the Draco 

thruster in fulfillment of a NASA COTS program milestone.26 By late 2008, the 

Draco thruster had achieved several thousand seconds of testing, including a 

10-minute continuous burn with a hot restart.27

Launch Abort System – Orbital Sciences Corporation

Orbital Science Corporation announced in September 2006 

that it will build the Launch Abort System (LAS) for the 

NASA Orion CEV. Orbital is a member of the Lockheed 

Martin-led team selected to construct the Orion CEV and 

will receive approximately $250 million under subcontract 

to Lockheed Martin to construct the LAS.28 The LAS will 

be composed primarily of solid rocket motors, separation 

mechanisms, canards, and an adapter structure. The LAS 

will provide escape capability for the Orion crew from pad 

operations through ascent. The new design, using Orbital’s 

small launch vehicle technology, will improve flight crew 

safety as compared to current human space flight systems. 

The contract called for a five-year development program, 

including several planned abort demonstration flights 

beginning in late 2008.29

On November 14, 2007, NASA broke ground on a new test 

launch pad at the U.S. Army’s White Sands Missile Range, 

New Mexico, that will be the site of a series of tests of a launch abort system for 

the Orion CEV.30 The first full-scale test fire took place on November 20, 2008 at 

the ATK Launch Systems facility in Promontory, Utah. This is the first time such a 

test was conducted since the Apollo Program tested its launch escape system in the 

1960s. The demonstration was the culmination of a series of motor and component 

Test of the Draco thruster

The November 20, 2008 test-firing of the 

Lauch Abort System
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Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

tests conducted earlier in 2008 in preparation for a test with a mock-up of the 

Orion crew capsule scheduled for the spring of 2009.31

Scramjet Propulsion – Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, Inc.

By year-end 2007, Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, Inc. (PWR), along with its X-51A 

team members, including the U.S. Air Force, DARPA, NASA, and the Boeing 

Company, demonstrated operation and performance of the 

X-1 scramjet engine in the first simulated flight at Mach 

5 of the X-51A. The X-1 demonstrator, designated the 

SJX61-1, is a hydrocarbon-fueled scramjet featuring X-51A 

flight hardware. The X-51A flight test program plans to 

demonstrate scramjet engine technology within the Mach 

4.5-6.5 range with four flight tests beginning in 2009. 

According to PWR, the program will set the foundation for 

several hypersonic applications including access to space.32

By the end of October 2008, the X-2 scramjet engine, a 

developed version of the X-1, had complete ground testing. 

Flight testing is on track to commence in October of 2009.33

Air Launch Method – AirLaunch LLC

In July 2006, AirLaunch LLC demonstrated the safe release of a dummy rocket 

from an Air Force C-17 cargo airplane. A full-scale simulated AirLaunch 

QuickReach rocket, weighing almost 33,000 kilograms (72,000 pounds) and 

measuring 20 meters (66 feet) in length, was dropped as part of the DARPA/Air 

Force Falcon SLV Program. The unmodified C-17A aircraft released the test article 

at an airspeed of 600 kilometers/hour (330 knots) from an altitude of 9,700 meters 

(32,000 feet). The drop was third in a series of envelope expansion tests to verify the 

ability of the C-17 safely to deliver AirLaunch’s full-scale, full-weight QuickReach 

rocket to its operational launch altitude. Previous tests took place in June 2006 and 

in September 2005. Each test set a new record for the longest and heaviest single 

item dropped from the C-17 aircraft.34 The initial test in 

2005 demonstrated the QuickReach release technology, 

including proof that the nose of the booster does not hit the 

roof of the C-17A as the rocket leaves the carrier aircraft. 

In 2007, AirLaunch did not conduct any further tests of 

the unique air launch system but instead focused efforts 

on developing propulsion systems for the QuickReach as 

detailed earlier in this chapter.35

In March of 2008, AirLaunch received a patent on its Gravity Air Launch air drop 

methodology. A second patent is forthcoming for its “trapeze lanyard” capability, 

originally demonstrated for t/space. DARPA and the Air Force collectively invested 

approximately $38 million in AirLaunch during the course of the Falcon SLV 

Program, covering Phases 1, 2A, 2B, and 2C. The Falcon SLV program concluded 

on November 3, 2008.36

Wind tunnel testing of the X-1 demonstrator engine

Test drop of Quickreach test model
• 57 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Enabling Technologies

Stage Recovery System – Alliant Techsystems, Inc. 

& United Space Alliance, LLC

ATK and United Space Alliance successfully tested the world’s largest 

rocket stage recovery parachute system. In September and November 

2007, the 46 meter (150 foot) diameter, 900 kg (2,000 pound) parachute 

carried a 19,000 kilogram (42,000 pound) weighted test unit safely to 

the Earth.37 The parachute is derived from the 41 meter (136 foot) main 

parachute currently used on the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters. 

The larger parachute will be used by the new five-segment solid rocket 

booster being developed for the Ares I first stage. In July 2008, the 

drogue parachute system was successfully tested, attached to a 10,800-kg 

(24,000-pound) test article.38 The first Ares test flight, Ares I-X, a fullscale launch vehicle with inert upper stage, will use the new parachute. 39

Ares I-X is currently scheduled to launch in June 2009.40

The July 24, 2008 test of the 

Ares drogue parachute
• 58 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation
• 59 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

Table 2: Spaceport summary by state

State Nonfederal Federal Proposed

Alabama x

Alaska x

California x x

Florida x x

Kwajalein x

New Mexico x x

Oklahoma x

Texas x x

Virginia x x

Washington x

Wisconsin x

Wyoming x

Spaceports

Launch and reentry sites – sometimes referred to as 

“spaceports” – are the nation’s gateways to and from space. 

Although individual capabilities vary, these facilities may 

house launch pads and runways as well as the infrastructure, 

equipment, and fuels needed to process launch vehicles 

and their payloads before launch. The first such facilities in 

the United States emerged in the 1940s when the federal 

government began to build and operate space launch ranges 

and bases to meet a variety of national needs. 

While U.S. military and civil government agencies were 

the original and still are the primary users and operators of 

these facilities, commercial payload customers have become 

frequent users of federal launch ranges. Federal facilities 

are not the only portals to and from space. Indeed, the 

commercial dimension of U.S. space activity is evident not 

only in the numbers of commercially procured launches but 

also in the presence of non-federal launch sites supplementing federally operated 

sites. Since 1996, the FAA has licensed the operations of seven launch or reentry 

sites, some of which are co-located with federal facilities. These spaceports serve 

both commercial and government launch operators. 

Table 2 shows which states have non-federal, federal, and proposed spaceports. 

Figure 1 shows a map of U.S. spaceports and launch sites. Non-federal and federal 

U.S. spaceports capable of supporting launch and landing activities are described. A 

subsection detailing state and private proposals for future spaceports is also included.

Figure 1: US spaceports and launch sites
• 60 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Non-Federal Spaceports

While the majority of licensed launch activity still occurs at U.S. federal ranges, 

significant future launch and landing activity may originate from spaceports 

operated by private entities or state and local governments. For a non-federal entity 

to operate a launch or landing site in the United States, it is necessary to obtain 

a license from the federal government through the FAA. To date, the FAA has 

licensed seven non-federal launch sites. Three are co-located with federal launch 

sites, including the California Spaceport at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, 

and the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport at Wallops Flight Facility, Virginia. 

Spaceport America is located near the federally operated White Sands Missile 

Range. In addition, Blue Origin uses an exclusive use launch site in Texas that is 

not an FAA licensed spaceport. Similarly, Sea Launch also does not need an FAA 

launch site operator license. The first orbital launch from an FAA-licensed site 

occurred on January 6, 1998, when a Lockheed Martin Athena 2, carrying NASA’s 

Lunar Prospector spacecraft, successfully lifted off from Cape Canaveral Spaceport.

Blue Origin Launch Site 

Blue Origin West Texas launch site is private 

property. Blue Origin proposes to launch RLVs 

on suborbital, ballistic trajectories to altitudes 

in excess of 99,000 meters (325,000 feet). After 

reviewing the environmental assessment and 

finding of no significant impact for the proposed 

Blue Origin West Texas launch site, FAA issued 

to Blue Origin the first experimental permit for 

a reusable suborbital rocket in September 2006. 

The first flight of Goddard, a subscale prototype of the company’s planned New 

Shepard vehicle, took place in November 2006; subsequent flights of Goddard took 

place in 2007.

In November 2007, Blue Origin reported that its second suborbital space ship was 

undergoing construction at its R&D facility in Kent, Washington. Also reported 

was the planned development of a third vehicle.1

 There was no publicly announced 

launch site activity in 2008.

California Spaceport 

On September 19, 1996, the California 

Spaceport became the first commercial 

spaceport licensed by the FAA. The California 

Spaceport offers commercial launch and 

payload processing services and is operated and 

managed by Spaceport Systems International 

(SSI), a limited partnership of ITT Federal 

Service Corporation. Co-located at VAFB on 

the central California coast, SSI signed a 25-

year lease in 1995 for 0.44 square kilometers 

Blue Origin Launch Site 

Location Van Horn in Culberson County, Texas 

Owner/Operator Blue Origin

Description Private property used by Blue Origin to test 

vertical launch vehicles

Infrastructure Van Horn Ranch is a 66,800 hectare (165,000 

acre) ranch with basic support infrastructure

California Spaceport SLC-8
• 61 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

(0.17 square miles) of land. Located at 34o North 

latitude, the California Spaceport can support 

a variety of mission profiles to low-polar-orbit 

inclinations, with possible launch azimuths 

ranging from 220 ̊ to 165 ̊. California Spaceport 

supports satellite processing for launches at 

VAFB’s SLC-2, SLC-3, SLC-6, and SLC-8. In 

April 2008, the modification to the access tower 

at Level 5 of SLC-8 was completed to provide for 

100K clean room operations.2

In September 2008, Orbital Sciences Corporation announced that preparations 

to launch the Minotaur IV launch vehicle at VAFB were complete.3

 The inaugural 

flight of the Minotaur IV, carrying the SBSS 1 payload, is scheduled to take place 

in early 2009 at the California Spaceport’s launch pad. Two other Minotaur IV 

launches carrying the Hypersonic Technology Vehicles HTV-2a and HTV-2b will 

occur in 2009.4

Kodiak Launch Complex

Kodiak Launch Complex (KLC) is a modern 

spaceport that was designed specifically to 

provide optimal support for space launches 

to polar orbit, as well as to provide support 

for long range ballistic missions. In 1991, the 

Alaska state legislature created the Alaska 

Aerospace Development Corporation 

(AADC) as a public company to develop 

aerospace-related economic, technical, and 

educational opportunities for the state of 

Alaska. In 2000, the AADC completed the $40-million, two-year construction of 

the first phase of KLC at Narrow Cape on Kodiak Island, Alaska. Total investment 

to date in KLC’s infrastructure exceeds $200 million and AADC is finalizing plans 

for a third launch pad and a Rocket Motor Storage Facility.5

The spaceport offers unrestricted launch azimuths from 110o to 220o, and 

unrestricted down range flight corridors that preclude need for energy consuming 

dog leg flight segments. Owned by the state of Alaska and operated by the AADC, 

the KLC received initial funding from the USAF, U.S. Army, NASA, the state of 

Alaska, and private firms. Today, it is self-sustaining 

through launch revenues and receives no state 

funding; the state of Alaska provides tax-free 

status and has contributed the land on which the 

spaceport resides. 

As part of its business plan, AADC emphasizes 

maintaining KLC and keeping the spaceport’s 

infrastructure functional and up to date. 

Infrastructure related developments completed in 

California Spaceport 

Location Vandenberg AFB, California

Owner/Operator Space Systems International (SSI)

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description

Operating through a 25-year lease since 1995, 

California Spaceport offers commercial launch and 

payload processing, and supports a variety of 

mission profiles to low-polar-orbit inclinations.

Infrastructure Launch pads, runways, payload processing facilities, 

telemetry, and tracking equipment.

Kodiak Launch Complex

Kodiak Launch Complex

Location Kodiak Island, Alaska

Owner/Operator Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation (AADC)

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description

KLC was the first commercial launch site 

not collocated with a federal facility. Launch 

site for military, government and commercial 

telecommunications, remote sensing, and space 

science payloads.
• 62 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

the last two years cost more than $5.26 million and included: the Range Safety and 

Telemetry System office, laboratory, and store room construction; IPF roof repair; 

IPF foam installation upgrade; cellular tower installation; gantry system at Launch 

Pad 1 (LSS) electrical modifications; LCC carpet replacement; purchase and 

installation of two large rigid frame vehicle storage buildings; enhancements to site 

security; LSS modifications to accommodate Minotaur IV motor stacks; purchase 

and installation of four large Megadoors; and surface preparation and repainting 

the LSS from floor to ceiling.

In addition, AADC augmented its fleet of support vehicles at KLC by purchasing 

several vehicles that included a new crew transport van, an ambulance, an Oshkosh 

sander/grader, and a fire truck. AADC also initiated contracts for design of a third 

launch pad complex and for a Rocket Motor Storage facility.6

 Contract driven 

activities supported by KLC in fiscal year 2008 included: launch of the FTX-03 

and FTG-05 missions for MDA, completion of a mechanical C-4 pathfinder for 

MDA, and completion of data downlink services for the USAF NFIRE mission.

A Minotaur IV mechanical pathfinder for the USAF is scheduled for spring of 

2009.7

 Following the pathfinder there will be launches of a Minotaur IV carrying 

TacSat 4 and a second Minotaur IV carrying various small satellites for the USAF.

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

The Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS) 

is designed to provide “one-stop-shopping” 

for space launch facilities and services for 

commercial, government, scientific, and 

academic users. Optimal orbital inclinations 

accessible from the site are between 38° 

and 60°; other inclinations, including Sunsynchronous orbit (SSO), can be reached 

through in-flight maneuvers. The FAA issued 

a launch site operator’s license to the Virginia 

Commercial Space Flight Authority (VCSFA) in December 1997. In July 2003, 

Virginia and Maryland created a bi-state agreement to operate, conduct future 

development of, and promote the spaceport. The agreement also renamed the 

spaceport, previously called the Virginia Space Flight Center, to MARS. 

In March 2008, Virginia created the “Zero Gravity, Zero Tax” incentive that 

eliminated taxes on business earnings related to human spaceflight training or 

actual space flights launched from the MARS. The measure became effective July 1, 

2008 for the tax year beginning January 1, 2009.8

In June 2008, Orbital Sciences Corporation (OSC) announced that it will 

launch its Taurus II launch vehicle, currently under development, from MARS. 

OSC aims to conduct its first International Space Station-bound transportation 

demonstration flight by the end of 2010. Pad 0-A will be renovated in order to 

support the Taurus II. Virginia approved a $16 million bond package to help pay 

for the launch pad renovation and other improvements including a new vehicle 

MARS facilities at WFF
• 63 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

integration facility and a fixed liquid fueling system.9

According to OSC, the Taurus II program is 

expected to create 125 jobs split between the Dulles 

and Wallops Island locations.

In 2008, the payload processing and integration 

facility’s class-100,000 high bay was completed. 

Pad 0-B gantry improvements are 60% complete 

and will continue on a non-interference basis 

with launches.10 Long-term development plans 

include developing a new mid-to-heavy class launch 

capability that includes an additional launch pad, 

launch mount, pad water deluge system, large 

capacity liquid fueling storage and transfer facility 

at the pad, a 1,100-square-meter (21,000-square-foot) horizontal integration 

facility, a 230-square-meter (2,500-square-foot) payload propellant fueling facility, 

and the necessary transportation infrastructure to support the launch vehicle 

process flow. These facilities are currently in the design phase with construction 

anticipated to commence in calendar year 2009 and completion in mid calendar 

year 2010.11

In August 2008, MARS supported the launch of the Alliant Tech Systems ALV 

X-1 rocket carrying HYBOLT, SOAREX, and SCRAMP. A Minotaur I carrying 

TacSat 3 will launch in 2009.

Mojave Air and Space Port

Mojave Air and Space Port (formerly Mojave 

Airport) in Mojave, California, became the 

first inland launch site licensed by the FAA on 

June 17, 2004, allowing Mojave Air and Space 

Port to support suborbital launches of RLVs. 

The Kern County, California, government 

established the Mojave Airport in 1935. The 

original facility was equipped with taxiways 

and basic support infrastructure for general 

aviation. A short time after its inception, the 

Mojave Airport became a Marine Auxiliary Air Station. The largest general aviation 

airport in Kern County, Mojave Air and Space Port is owned and operated by the 

East Kern Airport District (EKAD), which is a special district with an elected 

Board of Directors and a General Manager.12

One of the original hangars at Mojave Air and Space Port was demolished in May 

2008 to build a larger structure for the Mojave’s National Test Pilot School. Hangar 

161 was built by the Navy for the Mojave Marine Corps Auxiliary Air Station in 

1942. Recently, it has housed aircraft used by the school for training test pilots and 

flight test engineers.13

In August 2008, the East Kern Airport District qualified for a $1.7-million grant 

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

Location Wallops Island, Virginia

Owner/Operator Virginia Commercial Space Flight Authority

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description

Commercial spaceport co-located with NASA’s 

Wallops Flight Facility that supports vertical 

and horizontal space launch for commercial, 

government, and non-profit users.

Infrastructure

Two orbital launch pads, multiple suborbital 

launching rails, payload processing and integration 

facilities, vehicle storage and assembly buildings, 

class 100,000 clean room, mobile liquid fueling 

capability, on-site and down range telemetry and 

tracking, and payload recovery capability.

Mojave Air and Space Port
• 64 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

from the FAA to build an engine run-up pad 

adjacent to the approach to Runway 30 equipped 

with two tie down points rated to the F-22.14

Runway 30 was recently extended to 3,800 meters 

(12,500 feet) using another FAA grant. The pads 

would allow aircraft engines from F-4 fighters to 

Boeing 747-400 airliners to run-up engines during 

tests. Primary users of the pads would include the 

National Test Pilot School, BAE Flight Systems, 

and CalSpan’s Bicycle Works, which all operate jet 

aircraft. The district also received three other FAA 

grants this fiscal year. For 2009, another project is 

on the way, which includes upgrading the entire 

airport apron from the main control tower south 

to the T-hangars.15

In July 2008, Scaled Composites and Virgin Galactic unveiled the 

WhiteKnightTwo, a flying launch pad to support commercial suborbital space 

travel at the Mojave Air and Space Port.16

Oklahoma Spaceport

After seven years of development, in June 2006 

the Oklahoma Spaceport became the sixth 

commercial spaceport licensed by the FAA. In 

1999, the Oklahoma state legislature created 

the Oklahoma Space Industry Development 

Authority (OSIDA). The FAA license allows 

OSIDA to provide launch and support services 

for horizontally-launched suborbital RLVs 

at the Clinton-Sherman Industrial Airpark 

(CSIA) launch site, located near Burns Flat in 

Washita County. 

The spaceport supports Armadillo Aerospace 

flight testing for their Lunar Lander in 

competition for the Northrop Grumman Lunar 

Lander Challenge.17

In September 2008, the Rocket Racing League 

announced the successful results of the first 

seven test flights of the Bridenstine DKNY 

Rocket Racer. These test flights took place at 

the Oklahoma Spaceport..18

Oklahoma Spaceport

Oklahoma Spaceport

Location Washita County, Oklahoma

Owner/Operator Oklahoma Space Industry Development Authority

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description Provides launch and support services for 

horizontally-launched suborbital RLVs

Infrastructure

A 4,100-meter (13,500-foot) runway; 5,200-squaremeter (50,000-square-foot) manufacturing 

facility; 2,800-square-meter (30,000-square-foot) 

maintenance and painting hangar; 6 commercial 

aircraft hangars, including a 2,800-square-meter 

(30,000-square foot) maintenance and paint 

facility; 39 hectare (96 acre) of concrete ramp, 

control tower, crash and rescue facility; and 435 

square kilometer (168 square miles) of land 

available for further construction.

Mojave Air and Space Port

Location Mojave, California

Owner/Operator East Kern Airport District (EKAD)

License Status

Active FAA launch site operator license. In 

late 2007, the FAA instituted safety-related 

amendments to the license. The FAA approved 

EKAD’s Launch and Recovery Site Boundaries, 

Mission Preparation Areas and Energetic Liquids 

Storage Plan, November 2008.13

Description

An airport being used for flight testing, space 

industry development, and aircraft heavy 

maintenance and storage.

Infrastructure

Air traffic control tower, three runways, rotor test 

stand, engineering facilities, and high bay building. 

Easy access to restricted airspace. Space zoned 

specifically for rocket motor development and 

testing.
• 65 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

Spaceport America

Spaceport America is being developed for use by 

private companies and government organizations 

conducting space activities and operations. The state 

owns and operates the spaceport and will lease the 

facilities to the users. Virgin Galactic is an anchor 

customer that will locate its world headquarters at 

Spaceport America. 

Spaceport development is planned to begin 2009 after receiving a launch site 

operator’s license from the FAA in December 2008. However, bids were collected, 

an award was made, and work on improvements to the road that provides access to 

the Spaceport America site began in September 2008.19 The spaceport is estimated 

to be fully constructed by 2010. To provide economic support for spaceport 

development, Sierra County approved a tax levy in April.20 The addition of Sierra 

County to Doña Ana County’s approval in 2007 allows the creation of a regional 

taxing district that will provide approximately $49 million from Doña Ana and 

$2.4 million from Sierra for construction of the spaceport.21

UP Aerospace and Lockheed Martin conducted 

a successful research test flight in August.22

In April, UP Aerospace, the first company to 

launch a commercial payload from Spaceport 

America, signed a 10-year memorandum 

of understanding with NMSA to use 

Spaceport America for spaceflight operations.23

Microgravity Enterprises, a commercial space 

development company focusing on affordable 

rocket flight for commercial and educational 

purposes, signed an MOU with NMSA in 

April to operate from Spaceport America.24 Lockheed Martin signed an agreement 

in April with NMSA to continue to conduct testing at the spaceport.25 In October, 

Rocket Racing, Inc. and Armadillo Aerospace announced a partnership to offer 

commercial space flights from Spaceport America.26

Federal Spaceports

Since the first licensed commercial orbital launch in 1989, the federal ranges 

have continually supported commercial launch activity in addition to handling 

government launch operations. The importance of commercial launches is 

evident in the changes taking place at federal launch sites. Launch pads have been 

developed with commercial, federal, and state government support at the two 

major federal sites for U.S. orbital launches for the latest generation of the Delta 

and Atlas launch vehicles. CCAFS and VAFB host pads for the Delta II, Delta IV, 

and Atlas V. Recognizing that the ranges are aging, the U.S. government is engaged 

in range modernization. This effort includes the ongoing Range Standardization 

and Automation program, a key effort to modernize and upgrade the Eastern 

Launch and Test Range at CCAFS and the Western Range at VAFB. 

Cutaway view of Spaceport America facility

Spaceport America

Location Upham, New Mexico

Owner/Operator New Mexico Spaceport Authority (NMSA)

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License issued in 

December 2008

Description A commercial spaceport in development that will 

support vertical and horizontal space launch
• 66 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

The 45th Space Wing, headquartered at 

Patrick AFB, conducts launch operations and 

provides range support for military, civil, and 

commercial launches at CCAFS. The 45th 

Space Wing manages the Eastern Launch and 

Test Range (ELTR). The ELTR is used to 

gather and process data on a variety of East 

Coast launches and deliver it to range users. 

Users of CCAFS include the USAF, Navy, NASA, and various private industry 

contractors. The eastern range also supports the Space Shuttle launches and U.S. 

Navy submarine and ballistic missile testing. With its mission partners, CCAFS 

processes a variety of satellites and launches them on Atlas V, Delta II, Delta IV, and 

upcoming Falcon 9. 

SpaceX plans to deliver Falcon 9 hardware to the CCAFS in the fourth quarter 

of 2008.27 The Falcon 9 will launch from the newly refurbished Space Launch 

Complex 40. In May, the Titan service tower at Space Launch Complex 40 was 

demolished to make way for the new Falcon 9 

launch infrastructure.

CCAFS supported a launch in March of a Delta 

II carrying an Air Force GPS satellite, a launch 

in April of an Atlas V carrying a commercial 

communication satellite (ICO G1), and a 

launch in June of a Delta II carrying a gammaray exploration satellite (GLAST) for NASA. 

CCAFS is scheduled to support the March 

2009 launch of a Delta IV Heavy carrying a US 

government payload. CCAFS also supported 

four shuttle launches for NASA in 2008. 

Edwards Air Force Base

The original landing site for the Space Shuttle, 

Edwards Air Force Base (EAFB), California, 

is the home of more than 250 first flights 

and about 290 world records. The first two 

Shuttle flights landed on Rogers Dry Lake, 

a natural, hard-pack riverbed, measuring 

about 114 square kilometers (44 square 

miles). Today, NASA prefers to use KSC as 

the primary landing site for the Space Shuttle 

and uses EAFB as a backup site. EAFB is the DoD’s premier flight test center, 

leading in unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), electronic warfare, directed energy test 

capabilities, and testing of future hypersonic vehicles.

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

Location Cape Canaveral, Florida

Owner/Operator U.S. Air Force

License Status N/A

Description

CCAFS conducts launch operations and provides 

range support for military, civil, and commercial 

launches. Home of the 45th Space Wing which 

oversees the Eastern Range.

Infrastructure

Telemetry and tracking facilities, jet and Shuttle 

capable runways, reentry corridors, operations 

control center, movable hangar, fuel tanks, water 

towers, and launch pads.

Delta IV launch from CCAFS

Space Shuttle lands at Edwards
• 67 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

In February 2008, Edwards AFB hosted a forum and site visit for about 75 private 

land developers and energy groups to introduce Enhanced Use Lease (EUL) 

opportunities on base, including building a 

solar plant. The forum’s purpose was to provide 

information about the Air Force’s EUL process, 

requirements for qualifying, the base’s mission and 

an overview of the project, which included a site 

visit to a proposed solar plant location. Through 

the EUL program, Edwards can lease underused 

land, natural infrastructure, and equipment. 

Consideration for the EUL may be either cash or 

in-kind consideration such as construction of new 

facilities, provision of facilities, and operations 

support. The Air Force identified 3,288 acres of 

underused land on Edwards for lease.28

Edwards completed an environmental assessment for reentry corridors to EAFB 

for lifting entry vehicles like the X-38 configuration.29 An additional environmental 

assessment is being developed for corridors that will allow flight tests within the 

atmosphere for ranges of 741 kilometers (400 nautical miles) and 1,528 kilometers 

(825 nautical miles).

In October 2008, a major runway construction at the Edwards AFB was finished 

ahead of its targeted December 2008 completion. The $118 million project was 

headed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and included work by Joint Venture, 

CH2M Hill Construction, and the Interstate Highway construction team.30

Space Shuttle Endeavour landed at EAFB in November 2008 after being diverted 

from KSC due to bad weather.31 The U.S. Air Force’s X-51 WaveRider vehicle, the 

fastest air-breathing, jet-fueled vehicle built in the U.S., is scheduled to fly from 

EAFB in late 2009.32

Kennedy Space Center

Established as NASA’s Launch Operations Center in July 1962, Kennedy Space 

Center today serves as the primary launch site for NASA’s human spaceflight 

space missions. NASA KSC manages NASA’s requirements for using expendable 

launch vehicles flown primarily from CCAFS and VAFB with support from the 

USAF. NASA KSC and Space Florida are cooperating to establish a technology 

and commerce park at Kennedy Space Center. 

Exploration Park is expected to support 

expanded private sector participation in 

space exploration, support commercial space 

transportation, and promote commercial 

development of technologies for application in 

space and on Earth.33

In 2008, NASA KSC initiated an 

environmental study of potential sites on KSC 

Edwards Air Force Base

Location Edwards AFB, California 

Owner/Operator U.S. Air Force

License Status N/A

Description

Landing site for Space Shuttle. DoD uses EAFB as 

a flight test center for unmanned aerial vehicle 

(UAV), electronic warfare, directed energy test 

capabilities, and testing of future hypersonic 

vehicles.

Infrastructure

Telemetry and tracking facilities, jet and Shuttle 

capable runways, reentry corridors, operations 

control center, movable hangar, fuel tanks, and 

water tower 

Atlantis and Endeavour
• 68 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

for a Commercial Vertical Launch Complex capable of supporting vehicles in the 

heavy class (approximately 2 million pound thrust). NASA is working with the 

USAF to identify potential alternative sites on CCAFS to include in 

the evaluation.34

NASA KSC is actively supporting the 

Commercial Orbital Transportation Services 

(COTS) demonstration. NASA KSC also is 

jointly developing with Space Florida a new 

space experiment platform called FASTRACK 

to use the emerging capabilities of the 

commercial suborbital vehicles and other carriers 

for science and technology experiments. An 

engineering unit of FASTRACK was test flown 

aboard Zero Gravity Corporation’s reduced 

gravity aircraft in September 2008.35

Work on transition of KSC’s Complex 39 to support the Constellation program 

has begun.36 With the upcoming Shuttle retirement in 2010, NASA’s Exploration 

and Systems Mission Directorate has assigned KSC new roles in the Constellation 

program such as final assembly duties for Orion and building the Altair landers.37

In June 2008, NASA selected contractors to provide ground support equipment 

for Constellation and other space programs at KSC. The IDIQ contract has a 

maximum value of $400 million. The contract covers all required management, 

labor, facilities, materials, and equipment to fabricate, mark, package, deliver, clean, 

assemble, precision clean and test equipment, ground systems, and other hardware 

for KSC.38

In June 2008, United Launch Alliance’s launched the Gamma-ray Large Area 

Space Telescope (GLAST) using a Delta II rocket from KSC.39 A total of four 

Space Shuttle launches took place in 2008. KSC will support the launch of NASA’s 

Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), which will launch in 

early 2009. 

Reagan Test Site

Located at Kwajalein Atoll, part of the Republic 

of the Marshall Islands, the U.S. Army’s Reagan 

Test Site (RTS) is part of the DoD Major 

Range and Test Facility Base (MRTFB). The 

first Naval Station was established on Kwajalein 

after World War II. The facilities have gone 

through a series of infrastructure upgrades and 

names resulting in the Ronald Reagan ballistic 

Missile Defense Test Site (RTS), which has 

been operational since 2001.40 The advantages 

of RTS include its strategic geographical location, allowing launch in virtually all 

azimuths, unique instrumentation, and ability to support ballistic missile testing 

and space operations. RTS is completely instrumented to support space launch 

Kennedy Space Center

Location Cape Canaveral, Florida

Owner/Operator NASA

License Status N/A

Description

Primary launch and landing site for NASA’s 

human spaceflight missions and also procures and 

oversees expendable launch vehicle services for 

NASA missions.

Infrastructure

Launch pads, supporting Space Shuttle operations, 

Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), and Shuttle 

Landing Facility

Kwajalein Atoll
• 69 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

customers with radar, telemetry, optics, and range 

safety systems. As a U.S. Army DoD MRTFB, RTS 

receives annual federal funding in addition to direct 

cost reimbursement from customers.

In 2008, development continued on fiber 

connectivity to CONUS and Redstone Arsenal, 

(Huntsville Alabama). The Kwajalein Space 

Operations Control Center (KSPOCC) in 

Huntsville supports limited space operations using 

satellites until the fiber installation is complete in 

early 2010.41 At that time, customers will have the 

flexibility to conduct missions from the Huntsville 

facility or Kwajalein. A launch pad on Omelek Island 

was constructed in 2006 to support space launch 

missions including those conducted by SpaceX. 

In April 2008, the Communication/Navigation Outage Forecasting System 

(C/NOFS) satellite was successfully launched from Reagan Test Site by Orbital’s 

Pegasus vehicle. SpaceX Flight 3 of Falcon 1 launched in August but failed to 

deliver its payloads, Trailblazer, PRESat, and NanoSail-D, to orbit. In September, 

SpaceX Flight 4 of the Falcon 1 launch vehicle was successfully launched and 

achieved Earth orbit, becoming the first privately-developed liquid-fuel rocket to 

orbit the Earth. 

Vandenberg Air Force Base

VAFB is currently the headquarters of the 30th Space Wing and the Air Force 

Space Command organization responsible for all DoD space and ballistic 

activities for the West Coast. All of the U.S. satellites destined for near-polar 

orbit launch from the Western Range at VAFB. The 30th Space Wing Western 

Range Operations Control Center provides flight safety, weather, scheduling, 

instrumentation control, vehicle designation information, and tracking data to 

and from inter- and intra-range sensors in real or nearly real-time for ballistic and 

space launch support. Range tracking capabilities extend 

over the Pacific Ocean as far west as the Marshall Islands. 

Boundaries to the north stretch as far as Alaska and as 

far south as Central America. Vandenberg is host to the 

14th Air Force Headquarters and the Joint Functional 

Component Command for Space.

In January 2008, construction began on a new facility 

for the incoming 21st Space Operations Squadron. This 

facility will house command and control instruments as 

well as satellite operators to support the space mission. 

These operations included missile warning systems, 

meteorological data, NASA launch and re-entry missions, 

and intelligence related projects. Completion of the facility 

is expected in October 2009.42

Reagan Test Site

Location Kwajalein Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands

Owner/Operator U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command

License Status DoD Spaceport

Description

RTS conducts 24/7 space control operations to 

provide space situational awareness, and protect 

key space assets supporting U.S. Central Command, 

U.S. Pacific Command, and U.S. Northern 

Command. Launch facilities support space launch 

as well as scientific, tactical, and strategic missile 

launches. 

Infrastructure

Telemetry, radars, and optical tracking systems, 

ship-based telemetry/safety system, mission control 

facility, wideband connectivity with the continental 

U.S., multiple safety systems and launch facilities, 

runway, warehouse and industrial use space, user 

and engineering office space.

Atlas V on SLC-3
• 70 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Preparations for the March 2008 launch of 

Atlas V required major modifications to Space 

Launch Complex 3 (SLC-3). The first of these 

modifications was a 10-meter (30-foot) high 

extension to the mobile service tower to house 

the rocket during its construction. In addition, 

there was a 6-meter (20-foot) depth increase in 

the exhaust duct to direct the rocket exhaust. The 

base also built a new 227-metric ton (250-ton) 

platform to carry the weight of the rocket and 

made numerous improvements to the SLC-3 

ground systems and control centers.43

SLC-6 is currently undergoing a series of renovations to enable launching the 

Delta IV Heavy. Currently the pad is configured to launch the standard Delta IV 

Common Core Booster. Additional infrastructure is required to launch the Delta 

IV Heavy. Pad modifications should be complete in 2010.44

In March 2008, the first Atlas V rocket to launch from Vandenberg AFB occurred.45

The launch of the GeoEye-1 satellite aboard Delta II took place from Vandenberg 

Air Force Base in September 2008.46 The base was used as a test site for NASA’s 

Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) satellite.47 Orbital Sciences Minotaur II+ 

target vehicle launched from the Air Force Base in September 23, 2008, to support 

MDA’s missile-observing satellite, Near Field Infrared Experiment (NFIRE).48

In October, VAFB launched a Delta II rocket carrying the Thales Alenia-Space 

COSMO-SkyMed 3 satellite. The 30th Space Wing team supported the United 

Launch Alliance in preparing for the launch from SLC-2 only six weeks after the 

successful launch of the GeoEye-1 satellite in September; normally SLC-2 crews 

have three to four months to prepare for a launch.49 In December 2008, VAFB 

launched an MDA Ground Based Interceptor as part of a missile intercept test.50

Boeing Launch Services won a contract to launch the WorldView-2 commercial 

imaging satellite aboard Delta II for Colorado-based DigitalGlobe from VAFB in 

mid-2009.51 In 2009, VAFB will launch Taurus and in January and June.52 VAFB is 

scheduled to launch an NOAA-N satellite aboard a Delta II in February 2009.53

Wallops Flight Facility

The predecessor of NASA, the National 

Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 

(NACA), established an aeronautical and 

rocket test range at Wallops Island, Virginia, 

in 1945. Since then, over 16,000 rocket 

launches have taken place from the Wallops 

Flight Facility (WFF), which is operated for 

NASA by the Goddard Space Flight Center, 

Greenbelt, Maryland.

Vandenberg Air Force Base

Location Vandenberg AFB, California

Owner/Operator U.S. Air Force

License Status N/A

Description

Headquarters of the 30th Space Wing and the Air 

Force Space Command organizations responsible 

for all DoD space and ballistic activities for the 

West Coast.

Infrastructure

Launch pads, vehicle assembly, and processing 

buildings, payload processing facilities, telemetry 

and tracking facilities, control center, engineering, 

user office space, and Shuttle-capable runways.

Black Brant launch at WFF
• 71 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

NASA has made capital improvements to several of its key integration facilities 

during 2008 to enable support of larger spacecraft and launch vehicle elements. The 

Wallops Research Park is in final planning and approval stages. The park consists of 

a 97-hectare (240-acre) area adjacent to Wallops that will offer space for the growth 

of aerospace, research, education, recreation, and commercial activities.54 A facility 

housing Northrop Grumman is under construction and a hangar/office facility 

supporting BaySys Technologies is planned for construction soon.55 Modifications 

are underway to an existing suborbital launch site to accommodate a technology 

demonstration of an alternative launch abort system concept, known as the Max 

Launch Abort System (MLAS). This system supports NASA’s Constellation 

Program. Improvements to the Wallops Main Base and Wallops Island boat 

basins have been constructed to reestablish capabilities for transporting flight 

systems from main base integration facilities to launch sites.56 As part of Virginia’s 

agreements with Orbital Sciences Corporation supporting Taurus II integration 

and launch operations, the Virginia General Assembly approved a $16-million 

bond package for infrastructure upgrades at Wallops.57 This funding will be used 

to upgrade infrastructure at WFF and the co-located MARS facilities.

Ten total major launches occurred from WFF in 2008, plus numerous uninhabited 

aerial systems missions and launches of DoD targets. Types of launches included 

science, hypersonics, and launch vehicle and payload 

technology demonstrations. Wallops personnel and 

facilities are currently integrating the NASA Max 

Launch Abort System (MLAS) scheduled for launch 

in Spring 2009. Test flights of a two-stage NASA 

Terrier-Orion sounding rocket tested new tracking, 

data processing, payload positioning, power, and 

communications systems. WFF supported the launch 

of the Alliant Tech Systems ALV X-1 rocket carrying 

HYBOLT, SOAREX, and SCRAMP. A Minotaur 

I carrying TacSat 3 will launch from the co-located 

MARS in early 2009.

White Sands Missile Range

Once exclusively military, White Sands 

Missile Range (WSMR) today attracts other 

government agencies, foreign nations, and 

private industry to its world-class test facilities. 

The largest overland test range in America, 

WSMR is operated by the U.S. Army and used 

by the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, 

and MDA. It is also home to the NASA White 

Sands Test Facility. Situated 26 kilometers 

(16 miles) northeast of Las Cruces, New 

Mexico, this range covers 8,100 square 

kilometers (3,127 square miles).

Wallops Flight Facility

Location Wallops Island, Virginia

Owner/Operator NASA

License Status N/A

Description

A federally funded research, development, and 

testing facility supporting vertical launch and 

aircraft based launch.

Infrastructure

Runway, telemetry and tracking facilities, 

integration & testing facilities, Class-100,000 clean 

room for spacecraft. Co-located with Mid-Atlantic 

Regional Spaceport (MARS)

White Sands Missile Range
• 72 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

In June 2008, Lockheed Martin Missile and Fire Control conducted a test to 

launch a GPS-guided rocket from a wheeled launcher to shoot down targets at the 

White Sands Missile Range.58

In September 2008, NASA and Pratt & 

Whitney Rocketdyne tested the methane-fueled 

RS-18 engine at the WSMR. The RS-18 engine 

was built by Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne and 

modified under NASA’s Exploration Technology 

Development Program, which is developing 

rocket engine and propulsion technologies for 

future missions to the Moon and Mars.59

Several demonstration flights for the Orbital 

Science’s Orion abort launch system will take 

place at the White Sands Missile Range at the 

end of 2008.60 As part of Orbital’s indefinitedelivery indefinite-quantity (IDIQ) contract worth $100 million over 10 years 

from the Department of Defense, it will provide launch vehicle engineering services 

to all U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force suborbital programs managed by WSMR.61

Proposed Spaceports

Several states plan to develop spaceports offering a variety of launch and landing 

services. Two common characteristics of many of the proposed spaceports are 

inland geography – a contrast to the coastal location of most present-day U.S. 

spaceports – and interest in hosting RLV operations.

Cape Canaveral Spaceport

Space Florida was created on May 30, 2006, when then-Florida Governor Jeb Bush 

approved Florida House Bill 1489. Space Florida consolidates the state’s previous 

space and aerospace entities and coordinates all space-related issues in Florida. 

Under an arrangement between the federal government and Space Florida, excess 

CCAFS facilities were licensed to Space Florida for use by commercial launch 

service providers on a dual-use, non-interference basis.

In August 2008, the Air Force agreed to 

transfer Cape Canaveral Air Force Station’s 

LC-36 to Space Florida who will operate it as 

a commercial space launch complex as part of 

a larger Commercial Launch Zone. The launch 

complex is part of a plan to develop a duty-free 

trade zone to the International Space Station 

following a $14.5-million appropriation by the 

State of Florida in April 2008. The new facility 

is projected to cost $55 million and would 

White Sands Missile Range

Location White Sands, New Mexico

Owner/Operator U.S. Army

License Status N/A

Description

WSMR provides missile test range facility not just 

for the U.S. military but for other government 

agencies, foreign nations, and private industry. 

After KSC and EAFB, WSMR is the Space Shuttle’s 

tertiary landing site.

Infrastructure

Full telemetry and tracking facilities, runway 

engine and propulsion testing facilities, class-100 

clean room for spacecraft parts.

RLV support hangar
• 73 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

be designed to accommodate multiple launch 

vehicles.In October, Space Florida announced 

environmental assessments would begin for 

LC-36, followed by the build out of Pad A, which 

is scheduled for completion by fall 2010.62 Space 

Florida selected an architecture and engineering 

firm in November 2008 to perform the conceptual 

site design and environmental baseline studies, and 

has been working with the Air Force to develop 

explosive site plans for LC-36. Space Florida must 

finish its license agreement with the Air Force and 

work out design requirements and the concept of 

operations for the Commercial Launch Zone. The 

first commercial launch to take place from LC-36 

is planned for late 2010.63

A high-expansion foam fire-fighting system in 

the RLV support hangar adjacent to the space 

shuttle landing facility runway was finished and 

successfully tested in November 2008. The RLV 

hangar can now accommodate fueled aircraft or 

space tourism vehicles.64

In November 2007, Space Florida teamed with Nevada-based Bigelow Aerospace 

to establish the Florida Space Transportation Initiative, an investment fund of 

both public and private financing that would support the development of new 

orbital space transportation system at the Kennedy Space Center.65 This initiative 

would help finance development and domestic production of commercially built 

orbital transportation systems for moving crew and cargo to and from Low Earth 

Orbit (LEO) and would potentially compliment NASA’s Commercial Orbital 

Transportation Initiative (COTS). Bigelow Aerospace committed up to 

$100 million towards this initiative.

In December 2007, Space Florida partnered with Chicago-based PlanetSpace, a 

consortium of ATK, Lockheed Martin, and Boeing, to respond to NASA’s request 

for proposals for commercial ISS transportation services. 66 PlanetSpace proposed 

to launch a 48-meter (158-foot) solid-fuel rocket by 2011 from Space Florida’s 

Commercial Launch Zone, which includes such facilities as the launch pad at 

LC-36. In addition to the State of Florida’s $14.5 million appropriation, Space 

Florida is seeking bonding authority for additional monies as required. Space 

Florida is working with the other Commercial Resupply Services bidders for a Cape 

Canaveral launch presence as well.

In September 2008, a Super Loki Rocket with a normal dart and meteorological 

payload launched from Cape Canaveral spaceport facilities. The launch was part of 

an educational activity for middle school students.67

Cape Canaveral Spaceport

Location Cape Canaveral, Florida

Owner/Operator Space Florida

License Status

Will be licensed to use certain excess Cape 

Canaveral Air Force Station facilities for 

commercial launch providers on a joint-use basis. 

A five-year license from the Air Force to use 

Launch Complex-47 (LC-47) for suborbital launch 

vehicles carrying academic payloads. Space Florida 

intends to license Launch Complex-36 (LC-36) 

for five-years from the USAF to launch light to 

medium rockets.

Description

Launch site for commercial, civil, and military 

launch vehicles and suborbital launch vehicles 

carrying academic payloads. Space Florida received 

$4 million in direct appropriations to support its 

operations for fiscal year 2009.63

Infrastructure

One orbital launch complex with a remote control 

center, one suborbital launch complex with two 

pads and a blockhouse, an off-site solid rocket 

motor storage facility that includes heavy rail 

access, a 27-m (90-ft) high bay with overhead 

cranes, a storage building; and a 5,200-squaremeter (50,000-square-foot) RLV support hangar 

adjacent to the KSC Shuttle Landing Facility runway.
• 74 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Cecil Field

Originally developed as a Naval Air Station, 

Cecil Field was proposed for closure by the 

Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) 

process in 1993. Five years later, based on 

the recommendation of the Base Reuse 

Commission, Jacksonville Aviation Authority 

( JAA) took ownership. The airport was 

identified as a potential launch site in the 

feasibility study of a Florida commercial 

spaceport. Space Florida has been instrumental 

in providing guidance and direction for 

developing the Cecil Field Spaceport.68 The 

JAA is pursuing a launch site operator’s license. 

The JAA submitted a final application for a launch site operator’s license to the 

FAA in August 2008. The JAA expects to receive approval by February 2009 to 

allow commercial space travel from the airport. If Cecil Field receives approval, the 

first space launch flights could begin as early as 2010.69

The JAA has several new facilities under 

construction or in the planning phase. Hangar 

880, a 2,100-square-meter (23,000-squarefoot) corporate jet maintenance and repair and 

overhaul (MRO) hangar began construction 

in 2008 with completion scheduled in the 

summer of 2009. Hangar 925, a 5,900-squaremeter (64,000-square-foot) MRO hangar 

with 1,500-square-meter (16,000-square-foot) 

shop and office space sized for up to 3 767-

type aircraft for MRO activities, is scheduled 

for construction in the summer of 2009 with 

completion in 2010.

In addition, JAA is constructing a 3,700-square-meter (40,000-square-foot) aircraft 

coating and MRO facility in conjunction with Florida Community College of 

Jacksonville scheduled for operation in the spring of 2010. Alenia-North America is 

also constructing a 30,000-square-meter (327,000-square-foot) aircraft facility and 

hangar complex for assembly of the C-27J Spartan military cargo plane in 2010.

JAA has land available for construction of another hangar facility on the southwest 

side of the airport that we have reserved for space operations when we gain a 

spaceport tenant. JAA can assist with financing for hangar, assembly, and launch 

facilities.70

Cecil Field aerial view

Cecil Field

Location Jacksonville, Florida

Owner/Operator Jacksonville Aviation Authority (JAA)

License Status

Environmental assessment for spaceport operations 

completed in 2007. Jacksonville Aviation Authority 

submitted launch site operator license application 

in 2008. Approval expected in February 2009.

Description

Planned commercial spaceport offering horizontal 

launch for commercial, government, and non-profit 

users. Cecil Field is a retired Naval Air Station.

Infrastructure

Four runways, 175 buildings, 8 aircraft hangars, 

an active air traffic control tower, warehouse, 

industrial, office, general use, and support facilities.
• 75 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

Chugwater Spaceport 

The Chugwater Spaceport was originally an Atlas E 

missile base outside of Chugwater, Wyoming, built 

in 1960 and decommissioned in 1965. Designed 

to store and launch a complete Atlas E ICBM, the facilities are designed with 

many special amenities for rocketry. In March 2006, Frontier Astronautics bought 

the property and began renovation to use it as a launch site. Since the last change 

in ownership, maintenance work has been performed to get original military 

equipment operational. 

South Texas Spaceport 

Willacy County Development Corporation was created in 2001 to manage the 

spaceport site evaluation and other technical and administrative elements of the 

project under a Texas Aerospace Commission grant. The designated spaceport site 

is a 40.5-hectare (100 acre) undeveloped site in Port Mansfield, adjacent to the 

Charles R. Johnson Airport. It lies approximately 

150 kilometers (93 miles) south of Corpus Christi 

and 65 kilometers (40 miles) north of Brownsville. 

The site initially may support the suborbital and 

small orbital launch systems currently in service or 

being developed for service in the near future, with 

a long-term focus on RLVs. All launches will be 

from spoil islands or barges in the Mansfield ship 

channel in the Laguna Madre or Gulf of Mexico.

Chugwater aerial view circa 1960

Chugwater Spaceport 

Location Platte Country, Wyoming

Owner/Operator Private Owner

License Status Environmental assessment for site approval is in 

progress

Description

A private decommissioned Atlas-E launch site used 

by a number of small companies to develop and 

test rocket equipment.

Infrastructure

Plans for future infrastructure include a 

functioning 2,225,000-newton (500,000-poundforce) vertical test stand for engine testing, up 

to three vertical launch pads, on-site machine 

shop, and shooting range. An additional horizontal 

engine test area is in development. The planned 

configuration of the spaceport launch site 

includes vertical launch pads with water acoustic 

suppression system.

South Texas Spaceport 

Location Willacy County, Texas

Owner/Operator Willacy County Development Corporation for 

Spaceport Facilities

License Status Have not applied

Description

A private site designated as a spaceport adjacent 

to the Charles R. Johnson Airport. Launches to 

be conducted from spoil islands or barges in the 

Mansfield ship channel.

Infrastructure Road, fire hydrants, metal building with offices 

and bathrooms, and a concrete slab.
• 76 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceport Alabama

There was no publicly announced activity in 2008

Spaceport Sheboygan

On August 29, 2000, the Wisconsin Department of Transportation officially 

approved creating the Spaceport Sheboygan, located on Lake Michigan in 

Sheboygan, Wisconsin. The city of Sheboygan owns the spaceport, which 

strives to support space research and education through suborbital launches for 

student projects. 

Suborbital sounding rocket launches to altitudes 

of up to 55 kilometers (34 miles) have been 

conducted at the site. Additionally, Rockets 

for Schools, a student program founded 

in Wisconsin by Space Explorers, Inc., and 

developed by the Aerospace States Association, 

has conducted suborbital launches at Spaceport 

Sheboygan since its inception in 1995. Each 

year, hundreds of students from Wisconsin, 

Illinois, Iowa, and Michigan participate in 

these launches, which took place most recently 

in May 2008. Currently, Rockets for Schools 

is a volunteer run program of the Great Lakes 

Spaceport Education Foundation.

Over 1,500 schoolchildren toured the Great 

Lakes Aerospace Science and Education Center 

Spaceport Alabama

Location No land has been acquired but possible location 

in Baldwin County

Owner/Operator Spaceport Alabama Program Office at Jacksonville 

State University

License Status Have not applied

Description

Proposed as a next-generation spaceport, 

Spaceport Alabama will be a full-service 

departure and return facility, supporting orbital 

and suborbital space access vehicles. Under the 

current spaceport development plan, a spaceport 

facility could become operational within 10 years, 

depending on market demand.

Infrastructure

Plans call for developing an R&D park, 

a commerce park, supporting community 

infrastructure, intermodal connectivity, and 

other services and infrastructure necessary for 

providing a turnkey capability in support of space 

commerce, R&D, national security, science, and 

related services are also included in this plan.

Spaceport Sheboygan

Location Sheboygan, Wisconsin

Owner/Operator Owner: City of Sheboygan; Operator: Rockets for 

Schools

License Status Have not applied

Description

Spaceport Sheboygan conducts suborbital sounding 

rocket launches for the purpose of educating 

students and the general public.

Infrastructure

Portable launch pads, equipment, and facilities, 

including mission control. Proposed for renovation 

adjacent to the launch pads, the proposed Great 

Lakes Aerospace Science and Education Center will 

serve as a hands-on space travel-oriented center 

focusing on math and science-oriented education 

and tourism. Plans for developing additional 

launch infrastructure are ongoing and include 

creation of a development plan that includes 

support for additional suborbital and future 

orbital RLV operations.
• 77 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

and 1,000 members of the general public 

took part in educational sessions, including 

a teacher education session. Approximately 

50 rockets were launched as part of the 

Rockets for Schools annual event including 

high power specialty rockets reaching up 

to 3,048 meters (10,000 feet) altitude. The 

Wisconsin Aerospace Authority met in 

late 2008 to discuss updates on the Great 

Lakes Aerospace Science and Education 

Center and to identify aerospace industries 

established throughout Wisconsin.71

Spaceport Washington

Spaceport Washington, a public and private partnership, has identified Grant 

County International Airport in central Washington, 280 kilometers (174 miles) 

east of Seattle, as the site of a future spaceport. The airport (formerly Larson 

Air Force Base and now owned and operated by the Port of Moses Lake) is used 

primarily as a testing and training facility. Spaceport Washington proposes to use 

Grant County International Airport for horizontal 

and vertical take-offs and horizontal landings of 

all classes of RLVs. The spaceport does not have 

an official development plan yet, but the intended 

configuration of the spaceport launch site will 

either be vertical launch and horizontal recovery or 

horizontal launch and recovery.72

Rocket launch from Spaceport Sheboygan

Spaceport Washington aerial view

Spaceport Washington

Location Grant County International Airport, Washington

Owner/Operator Port of Moses Lake

License Status Have not applied

Description

Spaceport Washington, a public and private 

partnership, proposes to use Grant County 

International Airport for horizontal and vertical 

take-offs and horizontal landings of all classes 

of RLVs.

Infrastructure

A 4,100-meter (13,452-foot) main runway and 

3,200 meter (10,500-foot) crosswind runway. A 

12,100-hectare (30,000-acre) potential vertical 

launch site has been identified. An Aerospace 

Overlay Zone has been established in the 

Grant County Unified Development Code. The 

site is certified as an emergency-landing site 

for the Space Shuttle. Additional infrastructure 

development could occur depending on customer 

response.
• 78 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

West Texas Spaceport 

The Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport 

Development Corporation, established in mid2001, is moving forward with developing a 

spaceport 29 kilometers (18 miles) southwest 

of Fort Stockton, Texas. A joint project with 

the school district has made a state-of-theart technology center available for Pecos 

County Aerospace Development Center 

users. The Technology Center has multiple 

monitors, high-speed Internet service, and 

full multiplexing capability. For the past two 

years, Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport 

Development Corporation has been involved 

in educational activities, under the framework 

of Texas Partnership for Aerospace Education, 

to promote and support academic programs in 

aero-science and rocketry.

West Texas Spaceport 

Location Pecos County, Texas

Owner/Operator Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport Development 

Corporation

License Status Have not applied

Description

The Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport 

Development Corporation is developing a 

spaceport at a sparsely populated location with 

underused national airspace. Currently the West 

Texas Spaceport is mainly an R&D site for UAVs 

and suborbital rockets.

Infrastructure

The Greasewood site in Pecos County has an air 

conditioned control center, an industrial strength 

concrete pad, and a 30x30 meter (300x300 feet) 

scraped and level staging area, broadband internet 

on site, controlled fenced access, a 1,300-squarekilometer (500-square-mile) recovery area, and 

access to optical tracking and high-speed video 

capability. The Pecos County Airport has five 

runways with hangar space. Future infrastructure 

plans include developing a privately-funded 

1,100-meter (3,500-foot) runway, a static engine 

test facility, and a hangar for balloon and wind 

sensitive activities.
• 79 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Training

Commercial Human Spaceflight

Training

Introduction

An emerging group of organizations within the United States provide training 

in a variety of areas related to commercial human spaceflight. Some examples of 

training offered include flights in high performance aircraft or simulation devices 

that replicate the stresses of space launch and re-entry or zero-g (gravity) parabola 

flights that simulate microgravity. In February 2008, AST released a report titled 

Commercial Human Spaceflight Crew Training Survey that identified an initial 

list of organizations that currently offer or could offer human spaceflight training 

services. That study supplies the foundation content for this chapter; however, this 

section also focuses on the capabilities and milestones completed in 2008 of only 

the organizations that are developing or offering services tailored for commercial 

human spaceflight training. 

A number of training services focus on rigorous training programs for launch 

vehicle flight crews. Other types of training may be designed to help prepare and 

screen spaceflight participants. Finally, training may be offered as entertainment 

for those seeking to experience simulated spaceflight or the astronaut training 

experience. This chapter includes organizations that may focus on one or more 

types of training.

Aurora Aerospace

Aurora Aerospace is led by Howard Chipman, 

M.D., a board-certified emergency physician 

and certified flight instructor rated in L-39 

jets and gliders. He has attended cosmonaut 

training in Russia and is familiar with the 

training required to enable people to fly into 

space. Aurora Aerospace offers a two- to 

three-day course on spaceflight training and 

medical screening for spaceflight.1

 This course is appropriate for those interested 

in space travel or who have an interest in experiencing some of the training and 

educational aspects involved in spaceflight. Participants have the opportunity to 

fly an L-39 high performance military jet and experience zero gravity in a specially 

configured aircraft. Ground-based training includes centrifuge training for high-g 

environments and spatial disorientation training in a multi-axis disorientation 

machine (“MAD Machine”). 

In addition, Aurora Aerospace 

has a spacecraft simulator where 

students can learn orbital and 

suborbital flight procedures. High 

altitude/hypoxia training is offered 

as a stand-alone training for pilots. 

Medical screening, treatment, and 

Location Tampa Bay, Florida

Company 

Description

Aurora Aerospace is an organization based at the St. Petersburg-Clearwater 

Airport offering commercial spaceflight training and medical screening for 

spaceflight.

Overview of 

Services

High performance jet; zero-G (gravity) flights; centrifuge training, high altitude/

hypoxia training; spatial disorientation training; space simulator training; unusual 

attitude training, high-G (gravity); and high performance glider training.

L-39 aircraft
• 80 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

certification is provided to ensure space flight participants can fly into space safely 

and comfortably. Aurora Aerospace facilities and equipment include an L-39 

Albatross jet, Rockwell 700 Zero Gravity aircraft, centrifuge, “MAD Machine,” and 

a spacecraft simulator with hypoxia/high altitude equipment. 

Barrios Technology

Founded in 1980, Barrios is 

headquartered in Houston, 

Texas, near NASA’s Johnson 

Space Center, where it 

works with NASA’s human 

spaceflight programs. Also, 

Barrios has an office in 

Colorado Springs, Colorado, 

that focuses on space systems 

support for the Department 

of Defense. Currently Barrios primarily uses NASA facilities for training purposes. 

Future business opportunities may enable Barrios to develop their own facilities 

or work out agreements with other organizations to acquire access to spaceflight 

training equipment and facilities.2

Civilian Aero and Space Training Academy

The company began operating out of Washington State on October 4, 2006 

and has plans for Highly Reusable Launch Vehicle operations at the proposed 

Washington Spaceport. In 2008 CASTA entered into a joint venture to use an 

existing centrifuge with multi-RLV platform simulation and spatial disorientation 

training software. CASTA plans to offer a six-day training program, with home 

study, that will include contracted zero-gravity flights and supersonic and training 

jets that provide high-G/high altitude flights, helicopters, gliders, and other light 

aircraft to follow traditional American and Russian training. Each six-day program 

will have one or more lectures and classes conducted by former astronauts or 

cosmonauts with experience in Apollo, Soyuz, Shuttle, and ISS flights and training. 

Medical screening is conducted with a FAA Flight Surgeon before graduation, and 

qualification certificates are issued. 

Location Houston, Texas

Company 

Description Barrios Technology is an aerospace engineering and technology services firm. 

Overview of 

Services

Requirements definition, curriculum development, training products and training 

services for: spaceflight crewmembers, mission/flight controllers, ground systems 

personnel, space vehicle flight simulation and special facilities, and simulation 

planning and execution. Barrios’ instruction products and services follow formal 

instructional systems design with the five elements of analyze, design, develop, 

implement, and evaluate. Using an iterative process with evaluations performed 

throughout the life cycle, training objectives are effectively met.

Location Paine Field, Moses Lake, Washington

Company 

Description

The civilian aero and space training academy (CASTA), under the direction of 

Joseph Sandlin, is developing the civilian aero and space training academy.

Overview of 

Services

Physiological training; psychological training, unusual attitude training; High-G 

(gravity); high altitude flight; high performance jet; flight simulation; space 

flight operations; neutral buoyancy training; survival training; water and 

mountain/wilderness; pressure suit training; and parachute training; FAA medical 

screening.
• 81 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Training

Executive Aerospace Physiology Training

Executive Aerospace began offering 

physiological and high altitude training in 1994. 

Based at IEEM, Presbyterian Hospital of Dallas, 

the Executive Aerospace facilities include 

a classroom and large and advanced hypo/

hyperbaric chamber facilities. The chamber can 

simulate altitudes of 30,048 meters (100,000 

feet) above sea level and simulate depths to 50 

meters (165 feet) below sea level at controlled 

rates of descent and ascent. 

Benjamin D. Levine, M.D., F.A.C.C., Director of IEEM, Presbyterian Hospital 

of Dallas and Professor of Medicine and Cardiology at the University of Texas 

Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, maintains overall responsibility for the 

Executive Aerospace Physiology Program. Dr. Levine has expertise in hypoxia 

physiology and also serves as the Team Leader of Cardiovascular Alterations Team 

for the National Space Biomedical Research Institute. He has served on national 

and international panels advising NASA as to the appropriate screening strategies 

to minimize the risk of cardiovascular disease in astronauts during prolonged space 

flight, as well as the optimal use of a National Lunar Laboratory.3

Under Dr. Levine’s supervision, IEEM investigators have been actively involved 

in almost every dedicated life-sciences mission on the Space Shuttle, as well as the 

largest current medical experiment in the International Space Station.

Executive Aerospace Physiology 

under the supervision of Dr. 

Jeffrey A. Stone has supported the 

NASA Everest Med Ops project 

of evaluating the functionality 

of the G.E. Logiq. e. ultrasound 

machine and the Distance Doc 

video recorder in a hypobaric 

chamber at altitudes of 8,200 

meters (27,000 feet) and 4o Celsius 

(40 o Fahrenheit). These conditions 

simulate broadcasting from Mt. Everest. The results are relayed to a server in New 

York and observed over satellite connection. Dr. Stone is assisted by his colleagues, 

Dr. Laurie Aten and Dr. John Touhey. Dr Aten served as a senior researcher for 

NASA Johnson Space Center. Dr. John Touhey served as Chief of the USAF 

Hyperbaric Medicine Program at the USAF School of Aerospace Medicine as well 

as a consultant to the United States Air Force Surgeon General. All physicians 

assigned to the Executive Aerospace Physiology Program are board certified in 

Aerospace Medicine. Dr. Stone is also certified as a Senior FAA Medical Examiner.

Chamber operations

Location Dallas, Texas

Company 

Description

The Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine (IEEM) consists of 

six physicians and eight technical support staff. Physicians of the IEEM, in 

cooperation with Johnson Space Center, are actively involved with studying 

the cardiological effects of spaceflight on NASA astronauts. As an integral 

part of the IEEM, Executive Aerospace Physiology offers services that include 

high altitude aerospace physiology, high altitude human research, as well as 

high altitude equipment research and testing. Executive Aerospace’s multiplace 

chambers are certified for both hypobaric and hyperbaric operations.

Overview of 

Services

Aerospace physiology; hyperbaric oxygenation; flight physicals; decompression 

sickness; medical evaluation flights; and aerospace medical consults.
• 82 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

National Aerospace Training and Research Center 

The NASTAR Center’s training curriculum and 

equipment configurations can accommodate 

a range of training and research requirements. 

Academic instruction is provided by 

experienced industry professionals using 

simulation technology for “hands on” training. 

Each research program is supported by the 

in-house Institutional Review Board and 

experienced human test subjects. NASTAR 

Center facilities include: classrooms, 

configurable centrifuge, spatial disorientation simulator, hypobaric chamber, and 

night vision training equipment.

The NASTAR Center is the official space training provider for Virgin Galactic. 

Virgin Galactic’s space travelers are currently training for their suborbital space 

flights at the NASTAR Center.4

 In January, NASTAR announced the creation 

of its Air and Space Adventure Programs designed to provide realistic flight 

experiences for astronaut and fighter pilot enthusiasts.5 In August 2008, NASTAR 

Center was awarded the Space Frontier Foundation’s “Vision to Reality” award for 

its efforts developing successful space training programs.6

 In February, NASTAR 

hosted 50 Accredited Space Agents (ASAs) from 14 countries a two-day forum 

designed to update them on 

the Virgin Galactic project 

and to introduce them to the 

NASTAR Center Air and 

Space Adventure Programs 

that are designed to be a 

“try before you buy” for 

prospective space travelers 

onboard Virgin Galactic’s 

suborbital space flights.7

Orbital Commerce Project

Led by George Tyson, OCP has three pilots 

on staff, one who is in the process of receiving 

a trainer’s certificate, one who is a commercial 

pilot, and one who is a private pilot. OCP 

has not determined its final location for 

operations. It had preliminary discussions 

with Mojave Air and Space Port and is 

considering the use of a Federal range. Orbital 

Commerce Project plans to use a piston 

aircraft, a rocket-powered aircraft, a suborbital reusable launch vehicle, simulators, 

a $5-million centrifuge, and a hypobaric chamber for their comprehensive training 

STS-400 and operator

Flight simulator

Location Southampton, Pennsylvania

Company 

Description

The NASTAR Center serves the training and research needs of the aerospace 

community, including military aviation (fixed and rotary wing), civil aviation 

(fixed and rotary wing), space travel (government and private) and medical 

research support and data collection.

Overview of 

Services

Effects of rapid and sustained G acceleration (multi-axis); combined 

environments testing (sustained G forces with vibration); suborbital space launch 

training; altitude exposure; rapid decompression; emergency egress; spatial 

disorientation; aircraft upset recovery training and research; tactical flight 

simulation; other physiological training; and night vision goggle training.
• 83 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Training

program. Training is predicted 

to start in late 2009 or 2010. The 

company has developed preliminary 

prototype simulators and has an 

airframe use agreement, but no other 

hardware and minimal funding. In 

2008, Orbital Commerce Project 

developed an agreement with Masten 

Space Systems to license Masten engine technology.8

Project Odyssey – Space Florida and Andrews Institute

Space Florida and the Andrews Institute 

for Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine 

announced a partnership in December 2008 

to offer medical diagnostic and training 

services to private spaceflight passengers and 

crewmembers.9

 This partnership is an integral 

component of Project Odyssey, a human 

spaceflight research and training program that 

leverages evidence-based medicine, worldclass facilities, state-of-the-art technology, 

and resort-style environs to deliver high-quality results and a strong customer 

experience. The roadmap for implementing Project Odyssey was detailed in a study 

prepared by the Haas Center for Business Research and Economic Development at 

the University of West Florida.10 The list of organizations that are now cooperating 

in support of Project Odyssey includes the Florida Governor’s Office of Tourism, 

Trade, and Economic Development; the Andrews Institute; Space Florida; 

Enterprise Florida; the University of West Florida; the National Flight Academy; 

the U.S. Navy; and the Gulf Coast Center for Innovation and Entrepreneurship. 

Various other public and private entities have expressed interest in participating in 

Project Odyssey.

Project Odyssey aspires to be recognized as a leader in optimizing human 

performance in both orbital and suborbital spaceflight environments. Its mission 

is to capture a large share of the international market for educating and training 

passengers and crewmembers of commercial and civil space flight participants in 

the orbital and suborbital space 

flight markets. Project Odyssey 

training includes biomedical, 

physiological, and psychological 

conditioning, as well as exposure 

to certain environmental factors 

intrinsic to human spaceflight.

Andrews Institute

Location Oviedo, Florida

Company 

Description

Orbital Commerce Project (OCP) was created in 2004 specifically as a training 

provider for commercial suborbital spaceflight. 

Overview of 

Services

Physiological training; hypobaric altitude chamber; unusual attitude training; 

high G training; high altitude flight; pressure suit training; high performance 

glider; and high performance jet.

Location Gulf Breeze, Florida

Company 

Description

In December 2008, the Andrews Institute and Space Florida announced a 

partnership to develop a personal spaceflight medical program. 

Overview of 

Services Biomedical, physiological, and psychological diagnostics and training.
• 84 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Space Medicine Associates

Location Belcamp, Maryland

Company 

Description

An organization of medical professionals offering space medicine and 

bioastronautics consultation, training and oversight services.

Overview of 

Services

Comprehensive medical and bioastronautics expertise, operations training 

and support, risk management and mitigation techniques, medical project 

management, and assistance for all aspects of commercial and industrial space 

activities, from space tourism to space-based solar power. Space Medicine 

Associates plans to use client-based facilities.11

Starfighters Aerospace

Training flights are conducted in supersonic 

capable aircraft, specifically two-seat TF-104G 

Starfighters and two-seat T-38C Talons, both 

highly upgraded and used by NASA for space 

flight training that totaled more than 80 years of 

service.12 The Starfighters F-104 Demonstration 

Team has operated their high performance 

aircraft for 14 years performing at air shows 

and contract flights for the United States Navy 

and Air Force under the direction of President 

Rick Svetkoff. Starfighters has become the first commercial operations organization 

permitted to provide flights from Kennedy Space Center’s Shuttle Landing Facility 

(SLF). The SLF is a perfect venue for training because there is no commercial or 

general aviation traffic to compete with and the airspace is restricted from the 

surface to unlimited altitudes, giving and an almost zero chance of injury to persons 

or property among the 

uninformed public. Stateof-the-art digital classrooms 

and training facilities house 

and provide one of the most 

comprehensive training 

programs in the world for 

suborbital space flight crew 

and participants at the home 

of America’s space program.

United Space Alliance LLC and 

USA Space Operations LLC

Headquartered in Houston, Texas, USA 

was established in 1996 as a limited liability 

company. USA is equally owned by The 

Boeing Company and Lockheed Martin 

Corporation and employs 10,000 people at 

facilities in Texas, Florida, Alabama, and the 

F-104 and Discovery

Location NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida

Company 

Description

Starfighters Aerospace is moving into the commercial spaceflight arena by 

applying for a FAA AST Safety Approval for Suborbital Space Flight Training. 

Starfighters is also partnering with NASA to procure a Space Act Agreement 

between both organizations. Starfighters has become one of the first commercial 

operations organization permitted to provide flights from Kennedy Space 

Center’s Shuttle Landing Facility.

Overview of 

Services

High performance supersonic flight; high altitude flight; high-G flight; unusual 

attitude/upset recovery training; aerospace medical evaluation; flight physiology 

training; hypobaric altitude chamber; aircrew life support and egress/ejection 

systems training; parachute training; pressure suit training.

Flight crew training
• 85 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Training

Washington, D.C. area. USA is NASA’s primary industry partner in human space 

operations associated with the Space Shuttle, International Space Station (ISS), and 

Exploration programs. 

Astronaut training is divided into two categories: astronaut candidate/generic 

training and flight assigned training. The astronaut candidate/generic training 

focuses on generic operations and vehicle systems training and selected specialized 

non-flight specific training (land and water survival, generic extravehicular activity 

(EVA), etc.). The flight assigned training focuses on activities associated with the 

astronaut’s flight assignment. The flight assigned training begins 12-24 months 

before the flight (depending on 

the complexity of the flight). The 

phased training begins with task 

training and advances to fully 

integrated spacecraft/mission 

control center simulations. All of 

this training typically ends three to 

four weeks before the flight. 

The flight assigned training includes all crew training associated with the following 

mission phases/activities:

•	 Pre-launch 

•	 Launch and abort 

•	 Rendezvous, prox ops, docking

•	 Normal on-orbit activities

•	 Payload operations

•	 EVA and IVA

•	 Undocking and deorbit

•	 Entry

•	 Landing and post-landing

USA and its new wholly-owned subsidiary, USA Space Operations, LLC, have the 

following capabilities:

•	 Mission, manifest and trajectory planning and analyses

•	 On-orbit assembly, payload deployment, and servicing

•	 EVA planning and execution

•	 Rendezvous, proximity operations, and docking

•	 Space logistics/supply chain management and operations

•	 Space operations software engineering

•	 Ground system design engineering

•	 Advanced space flight technology

•	 Launch and recovery operations

•	 Launch vehicle, spacecraft, and cargo processing

•	 Mission control operations

•	 Space operations and systems training

•	 Sustaining engineering

Location HQ in Houston, Texas

Company 

Description

The United Space Alliance (USA) is the prime NASA contractor for all astronaut, 

flight controller, and ground support personnel training, except medical training.

Overview of 

Services

Generic skills/proficiency; documentation (mission rules, etc.); simulator 

operations (task and vehicle); ground operations; mission operations; 

microgravity/EVA; pressure suit; land and water survival; parachute training; and 

flight crew equipment training.
• 86 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

•	 Flight crew equipment preparation and maintenance

•	 Large scale integration

USA has an extensive classroom facility used to train USA personnel and selected 

NASA personnel including astronauts. The other facilities and equipment currently 

used to train the astronauts and flight controllers are owned by the government. 

However, these facilities and equipment could be used to train commercial 

spaceflight crews and other personnel on a non-interference basis with required 

NASA training.13

USA has developed a software tool-set, QuestusTM, which is intended to improve 

productivity and lower overall life cycle costs. QuestusTM is an integrated web-based 

tool-set that implements and facilitates key elements of end-to-end operations, 

including those associated with training. One tool, INSTRUTM, is specifically aimed 

at training. It is an immersive, multidimensional tool designed to improve training 

efficiency and effectiveness. In addition, it will allow training to be “owned” by the 

individuals (including crew) responsible for executing the mission.

Wyle

Wyle’s specific commercial spaceflight training 

courses are offered at their facilities at Brooks 

City-Base in San Antonio. Wyle is currently 

under contract to Virgin Galactic, providing 

Chief Medical Officer and medical operations 

and training services.14 Wyle has also supported 

several of the Space Adventures clients who 

have flown to the International Space Station. 

Wyle is the prime contractor for NASA’s Bioastronautics contract. In this 

capacity Wyle provides medical operations, ground and flight research, space 

flight hardware development and fabrication, science and mission integration for 

flight, and habitability and environmental factors in support of the Space Shuttle, 

International Space Station, Constellation, and Human Research programs. 

Wyle is also part of NASA’s Occupational Medicine and Occupational Health 

contract under which Wyle offers clinical and occupational health care for NASA 

personnel and the astronaut corps. In San Antonio, Wyle supports the Air Force 

Research Laboratory to conduct research and develop technologies to enhance the 

performance and safety of U.S. Air Force combat pilots. 

Wyle is the current 

provider of all U.S. medical 

operations and crew health 

care systems training for 

NASA’s astronauts and 

flight controllers under the 

Bioastronautics contract. 

Centrifuge

Location San Antonio, Texas

Company 

Description

Wyle’s life sciences group in Houston, Texas, has 35 years experience in 

life science research, space medical operations, and engineering for the 

enhancement of human performance and safety in air and space. 

Overview of 

Services

Human centrifuge training and medical screening; altitude chamber training 

and medical screening; oxygen systems safety services; decompression sickness 

assessments.
• 87 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Training

Under this contract, Wyle also provides physical training and rehabilitation to 

prepare the astronauts for the rigors of spaceflight. Acceleration training for all 

first-time Shuttle crewmembers is performed on the centrifuge operated by Wyle 

in San Antonio. Wyle also provides training in microgravity operations for medical 

and life science activities using NASA’s C-9 microgravity simulation flights. Wyle 

facilities include an altitude, thermal, and humidity chamber; 20-man hypobaric 

altitude chamber; man-rated centrifuge; oxygen systems safety of flight evaluation 

equipment; instruction and mission simulation facilities; and integrated medical 

simulation facility. 

Zero Gravity Corporation

ZERO-G flies a modified Boeing 727 and has a Space Act Agreement with 

NASA to operate from any NASA center as well as use of NASA Kennedy Space 

Center Shuttle Landing Facility 

and Visitors Center complex.15 Location Las Vegas, Nevada

Company 

Description

Founded in 1993, Zero Gravity Corporation (ZERO-G) is a privately-held space 

entertainment and tourism company. ZERO-G has since flown more than 5,000 

passengers aboard 200 flights.

Overview of 

Services

ZERO-G does not currently train commercial human spaceflight crews but has 

trained human space flight candidates and recently was awarded a contract by 

NASA to continue that service.15 ZERO-G has astronauts and former NASA KC135 employees on staff.
• 88 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation
• 89 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Regulatory Developments

Regulatory Developments

In 2008, the FAA published the final rule, Requirements for Amateur Rocket 

Activities. This rule amends amateur rocket regulations to preserve the level of 

safety associated with amateur rocketry. At the same time, the new regulations align 

FAA rules with advances in the amateur rocket industry. This section reviews the 

new regulation.

Amateur Rockets 

In the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) that the FAA published in the 

Federal Register on June 14, 2007, the FAA redefined amateur rockets to specify an 

unmanned rocket that:

1. is propelled by a motor or motors having a combined total impulse of 

889,600 Newton-seconds (200,000 pound-seconds or less); and 

2. cannot reach an altitude greater than 150 kilometers (93.2 statute miles) 

above the earth’s surface. 

The NPRM also proposed a number of other changes in the regulations for 

unmanned rockets aimed at preserving the safety of amateur rocket activities, 

addressing inconsistencies in the current regulations, and improving the clarity of 

the regulations. The public was invited to comment on the proposed changes. 

During 2008, the FAA reviewed the comments it received, prepared responses to 

those comments and published the final rule on December 4, 2008. In general, 

commenters supported the proposed requirements, but they did suggest several 

changes. The major issues and how the FAA responded are summarized below.

Classification of Amateur Rockets

First of all, commenters looked at the new classes proposed for amateur rockets. The 

FAA defined Class 1 as an amateur rocket using less than 125 grams (4.4 ounces) 

of slow-burning propellant and weighing no more than 454 grams (16 ounces) 

including the propellant. The FAA defined Class 2 as an amateur rocket using less 

than 125 grams (4.4 ounces) of slow-burning propellant and weighing no more 

than 1,500 grams (53 ounces) including propellant. The rocketry associations and 

individual commenters noted that the only difference between Class 1 and Class 

2 was weight. The National Association of Rocketry (NAR) wrote that it had 

conducted computer flight simulations of these two classes of amateur rockets to 

demonstrate the “heavier models have far less velocity and altitude potential.” All 

commenters on this section recommended combining Class 1 and Class 2 into a 

single classification.

The FAA analyzed the performance of proposed large model rockets, in light 

of NAR’s suggestion, and found neither model rockets nor large model rockets 

can affect air traffic if operated in accordance with the regulation. Since local 
• 90 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

ordinances generally cover hazards due to the reckless use of model and large model 

rockets on ground-based property and persons, the FAA agreed to combine the two 

proposed classes. 

Upper Limit for High-Power Rockets

The FAA proposed a new Class 3-High-Power Rocket as an amateur rocket other 

than a model rocket or large model rocket propelled by a motor or motors having a 

combined total impulse of 163,840 Newton-seconds (36,818 pound-seconds) 

or less. 

Several commenters recommended the upper limit for Class 3 be reduced from 

163,840 Newton-seconds to 40,960 Newton-seconds. They stated this reduction 

would place the upper limit at the “O” class, as documented in the Tripoli Rocketry 

Association (TRA) safety code. Some commenters noted that a rocket carrying a 

motor above the “O” class, or 40,960 Newton-seconds, could reach altitudes greater 

than 7,620 meters (25,000 feet). These commenters suggested any rocket with the 

ability to reach greater altitudes belongs in Class 4-Advanced High-Power Rockets.

The FAA agreed. Lowering the dividing line between High-Power and Advanced 

High-Power Rockets better aligns the final rule with the TRA safety code and the 

2008 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1127 Code for High-Power 

Rockets. This code also addresses rockets having total impulse up to 40,960 Newtonseconds (9,208 pound-seconds) or “O” motor class. Most amateur rocket activities 

involve rockets with a total impulse of 40,960 Newton-seconds or less. The High 

Power Rocket class is now defined as having a combined total impulse of 40,960 

Newton-seconds (9,208 pound-seconds) or less.

Separation Distances from Amateur Rocket Activities

The FAA proposed that no person may operate a High-Power Rocket or Advanced 

High-Power Rocket within 457 meters (1,500 ft.) of any person or property not 

associated with the operation. This is the same separation distance specified in the 

former regulation.

Several commenters questioned the requirement regarding proposed separation 

distances. One commenter requested clarification regarding whether uninvolved 

public includes spectators. The commenters noted the 2008 Edition of NFPA 1127, 

Code for High Power Rocketry, specifies differing minimum separation distances 

for spectators and participants that relate to the classifications of rocket motors. 

Commenters recommended the FAA adopt the NFPA standards that establish 

minimum separation distances between the launch point, spectators, and other 

exposed elements of the public. Commenters also noted that both NAR and TRA 

follow the safety requirements of the rocketry-related codes published by NFPA.

In developing the proposal, the FAA considered amateur rocketry events and 

participants involved, their families and friends, and a few casual spectators. Various 

rocketry groups do not include spectators in the 1,500 feet separation distance 
• 91 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Regulatory Developments

for persons or property not associated with the operations. In fact, the 2008 

Edition of NFPA 1127 recognizes this disparity by providing separation distances 

for spectators and participants that are less stringent than the existing FAA 

requirement. 

Most commonly launched amateur rockets are small and their hazards typically 

are also small. No serious accidents or incidents have been reported by NAR and 

TRA. While there have been no reported accidents associated with launches of 

larger amateur rockets, the risk associated with a large amateur rocket launch could 

be considerably greater. Participants and spectators clearly associated with the 

activity are not required to comply with the specified separation. Although the 

FAA did not intend to limit participation at rocketry events, neither did it intend 

to encourage unusually large crowds. The FAA routinely attaches conditions to 

certificates of waiver or authorization for larger amateur rocket launches specifying 

separation distances greater than 1,500 feet applicable to spectators and persons not 

associated with the operation.

The FAA agrees, in principle, with the commenters’ suggestion to adopt the NFPA 

standard. Generally, those engaged in amateur rocket activities have applied the 

457 meters (1,500 ft.) distance requirement to the uninvolved public. As stated in 

the NPRM, the FAA seeks primarily to codify existing practice. Current amateur 

rocket activities, especially those under the auspices of various rocketry associations, 

have not resulted in harm to persons not associated with the operations. The FAA 

believes the 1,500 feet separation distance has served a useful purpose, and retained 

this separation minimum in the final rule for High-Power Rockets and Advanced 

High-Power Rockets.

In consideration of the comments recommending the FAA adopt the NFPA 

1127 separation distance requirements in addition to the proposed 1,500 foot 

minimum separation distance, we will specify a separation distance from any 

person or property not associated with the operation. This decision is based on 

the minimum site dimensions provided in NFPA 1127. This separation distance is 

equal to one quarter of the expected maximum altitude. Under normal conditions, 

this requirement will be adequate to protect public safety. When greater separation 

distances are required to protect spectators, the FAA will specify additional 

operating limitations in any certificate of waiver or authorization it may grant. 

Notice Requirements

The FAA proposed that FAA Air Traffic Control (ATC) must receive notice 

requirement information no less than 24 hours before and no more than 3 days 

before the amateur rocket activities take place.

Commenters expressed concern that this proposed rule means a temporary flight 

restriction (TFR) must be in place before an amateur rocket launch can occur 

and recommended adding clear guidance to prohibit the use of TFRs for amateur 

rocket activities. Commenters also urged that there be no change in the current 

Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) procedures.
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Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

The FAA stressed that the only change proposed was to the timeline for giving 

information to ATC. Operators must still notify ATC no less than 24 hours before 

amateur rocket activities begin. We proposed to change the second half of the 

timeline from ‘no more than 48 hours’ to ‘no more than 3 days’ before amateur 

rocket activities begin. This change synchronizes FAA regulations with the Notice 

to Airmen procedures. The FAA did not propose changes to requirements for 

NOTAMs or TFRs.

Information Required 45 Days Before Rocket Activities, and 

Estimated Number of Rockets

Rocketry associations and individual commenters questioned the need to apply 

for a certificate of waiver or authorization at least 45 days advance notice. Due 

to uncertainties in schedules and weather, among other things, participants in 

rocket launch events involving High-Power Rockets may not know if the event is 

really going to occur, if they are going to attend, and what rockets they are going 

to fly until shortly before the event, the day of the event, or even during the event. 

Last-minute changes occur for bona-fide reasons involving matters such as wind 

direction and speed and cloud cover that cannot be predicted with any assurance. 

Following current practice rocketry associations complete one annual certificate of 

waiver or authorization for all their planned amateur rocket events for a calendar 

year. That certificate describes the types of amateur rockets typically launched 

at these events. The NAR recommended adoption of requirements that reflect 

current practice.

The FAA intended to retain the current practice and modified the language in the 

final rule to do so. The FAA will require each person or organization to provide 

the information requested at least 45 days before the proposed operation when 

requesting a certificate of waiver or authorization. An organization can still submit 

an application for an annual certificate of waiver or authorization, detailing the 

events for the coming year. 
• 93 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

Endnotes

Space Competitions

1. Google Lunar X PRIZE Competition Guidelines webpage. X PRIZE Foundation. Accessed 1 November 2008. http://www.googlelunarxprize.org/lunar/competition/ guidelines.

2. “The X PRIZE Foundation Announces Official Contenders in Private Moon Race.” 21 

February 2008. X PRIZE Foundation. Accessed 11 November 2008. http://space.xprize.

org/press-release/the-x-prize-foundation-announces-official-contenders-in-private-moonrace. 

3. “Two New Teams Announced in Google Lunar X PRIZE.” 16 December 2008. X PRIZE 

Foundation. Accessed 17 December 2008. http://www.googlelunarxprize.org/lunar/

featured-article/two-new-teams-announced-in-google-lunar-x-prize.

4. America’s Space Prize webpage. Astronautix. Accessed 1 November 2008. http://www.

astronautix.com/craftfam/ameprize.htm.

5. “Genesis 1.” 2008. Bigelow Aerospace. Accessed 1 November 2008. http://www.bigelowaerospace.com/genesis_I/.

6. Centennial Challenges webpage. Updated 28 October 2008. NASA. Accessed 1 November 

2008. http://www.ip.nasa.gov/cc/index.htm.

7. “Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge.” 27 October 2008. X PRIZE Foundation. 

Accessed 1 November 2008. http://space.xprize.org/lunar-lander-challenge.

8. “Dueling Murphy.” 27 October 2008. The Space Review. Accessed 1 November 2008. 

http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1240/1.

9. Centennial Challenges webpage. Updated 28 October 2008. NASA. Accessed 1 November 

2008. http://www.ip.nasa.gov/cc/index.htm.

10. “FY 2009 Budget Estimates.” NASA President’s Fiscal Year 2009 NASA Budget Request. 

CASP-43. Accessed 1 November 2008. http://www.nasa.gov/about/budget/index.html.

Expendable Launch Vehicles

1. United Launch Alliance. “Atlas V Fact Sheet.” http://www.ulalaunch.com/docs/product_

sheet/Atlas_Mission_Planner_14161.pdf. Accessed 22 December 2008.

2. United Launch Alliance. “Delta II Fact Sheet.” www.ulalaunch.com/images/product_

sheet/Delta_Product_Sheet_FINAL.pdf. Accessed 22 December 2008.

3. United Launch Alliance. “Delta IV Fact Sheet.” http://www.ulalaunch.com/docs/product_sheet/DeltaIVPayloadPlannersGuide2007.pdf. Accessed 22 December 2008.

4. SpaceX. “Launch Manifest.” http://www.spacex.com/launch_manifest.php. Accessed 13 

November 2008.

5. SpaceX. Falcon 1 Launch Vehicle Payload User’s Guide, Rev. 6. April 2007. http://www.

spacex.com/Falcon%201%20Payload%20Users%20Guide.pdf. Accessed 13 November 

2008.

6. Land Launch.” Sea Launch website. http://www.boeing.com/special/sea-launch/landlaunch/index.html. Accessed 7 January 2009. 
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Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

7. Berger, Brian. “Suborbital Rocket Carrying NASA Experiments Crashes Off Wallops 

Island.” 22 August 2008. http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/080822-sn-wallopsfailure.html. Accessed 7 November 2008.

8. Norris, Guy. “Software Faulted In Failed Hypersonic Test.” Aviation Week. 8 January 2009. 

http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/

Hyper010809.xml&headline=Software%20Faulted%20In%20Failed%20Hypersonic%20

Test. Accessed 9 January 2009.

9. “ATK Launch Vehicle (ALV).” ATK website. http://www.atk.com/Customer_Solutions_

SpaceSystems/cs_ss_ulv_alv.asp. Accessed 22 December 2008.

10. Page, Lewis. “NASA Inks Commercial ISS Cargo Deals.” The Register. 24 December 

2008. http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/12/24/nasa_iss_cargo_deals/. Accessed 24 

December 2008.

11. Couvalt, Craig. “Boeing Joins Commercial Athena III Program.” Aviation Week. 27 

October 2008. http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/ATHENA10278.xml&headline=Boeing%20Joins%20Commercial%20Athena%20III%20

Program&channel=space. Accessed 24 December 2008.

12. E’Prime Aerospace Corp. press release. “E’Prime Aerospace Corporation Receives Launch 

Site Policy Review Approval”. 5 November, 2007. http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release.do?id=788716. Accessed 7 November 2008.

13. E’Prime Aerospace Corporate profile. 9 October 2008. http://investing.businessweek.

com/businessweek/research/stocks/snapshot/snapshot.asp?capId=412704. Accessed 7 

November 2008.

14. SpaceX. “Launch Manifest.” http://www.spacex.com/launch_manifest.php. Accessed 13 

November 2008.

15. SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Signs Deal for First Commercial Geostationary Satellite 

Launch”. 14 September 2007. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=29. Accessed 17 

November 2008.

16. SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Breaks Ground at Cape Canaveral’s Space Launch Complex 

40”. 1 November 2007. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=31. Accessed 17 November 2008.

17. SpaceX website. “Falcon 9 Heavy Overview.” http://www.spacex.com/falcon9_heavy.php. 

Accessed 8 January 2009.

18. SpaceX website. “Falcon 9 Heavy Overview.” http://www.spacex.com/falcon9_heavy.php. 

Accessed 8 January 2009.

19. Communication with Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations, 7 January 2009.

20. Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, 27 October 2008.

21. Garvey Spacecraft Corporation. “What’s New.” http://www.garvspace.com/index.html. 

Accessed 7 November 2008.

22. Orbital Sciences Corporation Press Release. “Orbital Awarded New Minotaur IV Mission 

by U.S. Air Force.” http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/release.asp?prid=668. Accessed 7 

November 2008.

23. Schoneman, Scott et al. “Minotaur V Space Launch Vehicle for Small, Cost-Effecive Moon 

Exploration Missions”. 21st Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, paper 

SSC07-III-2, 2007.

24. AirLaunch LLC website. New Images and Videos. http://www.airlaunchllc.com/index.

htm#. Accessed 7 November 2008.
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2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

25. Communication with Air Launch LLC, 6 November 2008.

26. Orbital Sciences Corporation Press Release. “NASA Selects Orbital To Demonstrate New 

Commercial Cargo Delivery System For The International Space Station.” 19 February 2008. 

http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/release.asp?prid=644. Accessed 7 November 2008.

27. Orbital Sciences Corporation. Taurus II Fact Sheet. http://www.orbital.com/AdvancedSpace/AdvancedLaunchSystems/TaurusII/index.shtml. Accessed 7 November 2008.

28. Orbital Sciences Corporation. Taurus II Fact Sheet. http://www.orbital.com/AdvancedSpace/AdvancedLaunchSystems/TaurusII/index.shtml. Accessed 7 November 2008.

29. Communication with SpeedUp, 2 January 2009.

30. NASA press release. “NASA Awards Upper Stage Engine Contract for Ares Rockets”. 16 

July 2007. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/jul/HQ_C07030_J2X_Contract.

html. Accessed 7 November 2008.

31. NASA press release. “NASA Selects Ares I Upper Stage Production Contractor”. 28 

August 2007. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/aug/HQ_C07040_Ares_1_Upper_Stage_Contract.html. Accessed 7 November 2008.

32. Boeing press release. “Boeing Selected to Build Instrument Unit Avionics for NASA’s 

Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle”. 12 December 2007. http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2007/q4/071212d_nr.html. Accessed 7 November 2008.

33. Coppinger, Rob. “NASA Sets Out Ares V Launch Vehicle Development Plan.” 11 December 2008. http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/12/11/319979/nasa-sets-out-aresv-cargo-launch-vehicle-development-plan.html. Accessed 24 December 2008.

34. FloridaToday.com. “Ares 1-X Upper Stage Arrives at The Cape.” 5 November 2008. http://

www.floridatoday.com/content/blogs/space/2008/11/ares-1-x-upper-stage-arrives-at-cape.

shtml. Accessed 7 November 2008.

35. FloridaToday.com. “Ares 1-X Upper Stage Arrives at The Cape.” 5 November 2008. http://

www.floridatoday.com/content/blogs/space/2008/11/ares-1-x-upper-stage-arrives-at-cape.

shtml. Accessed 7 November 2008.

36. NASA Website. “Overview: Ares V Cargo Launch Vehicle.” http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/aresV/index.html. Accessed 7 November 2008.

37. Communication with Magellan Aerospace Corporation, 9 November 2007.

38. UP Aerospace press release. “UP Aerospace, Inc. Successfully Flies Multi-faceted Space 

Mission.” 2 May 2007. http://www.upaerospace.com/DigitalPressKit/UP_Aerospace_

Inc_Post-Launch_Press_Release.pdf. Accessed 5 November 2007.

39. Communication with UP Aerospace, 7 November 2007.

40. UP Aerospace home page. http://www.upaerospace.us.com/home.html. Accessed 23 

December 2008.

Reusable Launch Vehicles

1. X PRIZE Foundation. “Acuity Technologies.” http://space.xprize.org/ng-lunar-landerchallenge/2008/teams/acuity. Accessed October 31, 2008.

2. Armadillo Aerospace News Archive. http://www.armadilloaerospace.com/n.x/Armadillo/

Home/News?news_id=362. Accessed 24 December 2008.

3. X PRIZE Foundation. “Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge.” http://space.

xprize.org/lunar-lander-challenge. Accessed October 31, 2008.
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4. Armadillo Aerospace News Archive. http://armadilloaerospace.com/n.x/Armadillo/

Home/News?news_id=357. Accessed 13 November 2008.

5. Blue Origin website, “Updates” section. http://public.blueorigin.com/letter.htm. Accessed 

11/13/2008.

6. Blue Origin website, “Updates” section. http://public.blueorigin.com/letter.htm. Accessed 

11/13/2008.

7. “Interorbital Systems’ Sea Star: Providing the ride with BOOST-UP.” The Space Fellowship 

website. http://spacefellowship.com/News/?p=7356. Accessed 13 November 2008.

8. “Sea Star.” Interorbital Systems. http://www.interorbital.com/Sea%20Star%20OLV%20

Page_1.htm. Accessed 24 December 2008.

9. “Interorbital Systems’ Sea Star: Providing the ride with BOOST-UP.” The Space Fellowship 

website. http://spacefellowship.com/News/?p=7356. Accessed 13 November 2008.

10. Interorbital Systems press release. “Interorbital releases Neptune rocket design; readies for 

MSLV flight tests.” http://www.interorbital.com/Press%20Release%20022608.htm. Accessed 12 November 2008.

11. Communication with Interorbital Systems. 5 January 2009.

12. Communication with Masten Space Systems. 5 January 2009.

13. Masten Space System website. “September 2008 update.” http://masten-space.com/

blog/?p=159#more-159. Accessed 13 November 2008.

14. Masten Space Systems website. “Products.” http://www.masten-space.com/products.html. 

Accessed 13 November 2008

15. Masten Space System website. “Return to Hot Testing.” http://masten-space.com/

blog/?p=217. Accessed 23 December 2008.

16. PlanetSpace. “SilverDart.” http://www.planetspace.org/lo/silver_dart.htm. Accessed 13 

November 2008.

17. PlanetSpace. “Orbital Space Flight”. http://www.planetspace.org/lo/osf.htm. Accessed 20 

November 2008.

18. Foust, Jeff. “Is there an economic downturn in space?” VentureBeat. http://venturebeat.

com/2008/10/22/is-there-an-economic-downturn-in-space. Accessed 13 November 2008. 

19. Communication with Virgin Galactic, 29 December 2008.

20. Virgin Galactic website. “News.” http://www.virgingalactic.com/htmlsite/news.php. Accessed 13 November 2008.

21. Communication with Virgin Galactic, 29 December 2008.

22. Coppinger, Rob. “WhiteKnightTwo First Flight, SpaceShipTwo Rollout Dates Tipped.” 6 

December 2008. http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/12/06/319822/whiteknighttwo-first-flight-spaceshiptwo-roll-out-dates-tipped.html. Accessed 24 December 2008.

23. SpaceDev press release. “SpaceDev Signs Space Act Agreement with NASA for Development of Commercial Access to Space.” 18 June 2007. http://www.spacedev.com/press_

more_info.php?id=205. Accessed 13 November 2008.

24. SpaceDev press release. “SpaceDev and United Launch Alliance to Explore Launching the 

Dream Chaser Space Vehicle on an Atlas V Launch Vehicle.” 10 April 2007. http://www.

spacedev.com/press_more_info.php?id=5. Accessed 13 November 2008.

25. Communication with SPACE ACCESS, 7 January 2009.
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2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

26. SpeedUp. “News”. http://www.speedupworld.com/news.html. Accessed 24 December 

2008.

27. Communication with SpeedUp, 2 January 2009.

28. Communication with TGV Rockets, 31 December 2008.

29. TrueZer0 website. http://www.truezer0.com/. Accessed 24 December 2008.

30. Communication with TrueZer0, 7 January 2009.

31. Unreasonable Rocket Blogspot. http://unreasonablerocket.blogspot.com/. Accessed 13 

November 2008.

32. Communication with XCOR Aerospace, 7 January 2009.

33. XCOR Aerospace press release. “Desert Sky Holdings makes first institutional investment 

in XCOR. 20 August 2008. http://www.xcor.com/press-releases/2008/08-08-19_Desert_Sky_Invests_in_XCOR.html. Accessed 13 November 2008.

34. XCOR Aerospace press release. “XCOR Aerospace suborbital vehicle to fly within two 

years.” 26 March 2008. http://www.xcor.com/press-releases/2008/08-03-26_Lynx_suborbital_vehicle.html. Accessed 13 November 2008.

35. Doupe, Cole, et al. “Fully Reusable Access to Space Technology FAST”. 13 March 2007. 

http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA467945&Location=U2&doc=GetT

RDoc.pdf. Accessed 13 November 2008.

36. Andrews Space press release. “Andrews Space to Work with US Air Force on FAST Program”. 19 March 2007. http://www.andrews-space.com/news.php?subsection=MjMw. 

Accessed 13 November 2008.

37. Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations. “Lockheed Martin Awarded $14 Million Contract on U.S. Air Force Research Lab FAST Program.” 12 November 2007. http://www.

lockheedmartin.com/data/assets/ssc/michoud/PressReleases/LOCKHEEDMARTINAW

ARDED$14MILLIONCONTRACTONU.S.AIRFORCERESEARCHLABFASTPROGRAM11-12-07.pdf. Accessed 13 November 2009.

38. Northrop Grumman Corporation. “Northrop Grumman to Help Air Force Develop, Demonstrate Technologies for Reusable Launch Vehicles”. 10 December 2007. http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/news_releases.html?d=132818. Accessed 13 November 2008.

39. NetComposites.com. “Lockheed Martin Successful In Composite Tank Test”. http://www.

netcomposites.com/news.asp?5256. Accessed 8 January 2008.

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technologies 

1. Orion Crew Vehicle webpage. Updated 31 October 2008. NASA Constellation Program. 

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/orion/index.html. Accessed 11 November 2008.

2. “Orion Boilerplate Crew Module Completes Mass Properties Testing at NASA Dryden.” 

3 November 2008. NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/

dryden/home/int_orion_status.html. Accessed 5 November 2008.

3. ATK press release “NASA and Industry Team Successfully Test Orion Launch Abort 

Motor” Alliant Techsystems Inc. 20 November 2008. http://atk.mediaroom.com/index.

php?s=118&item=874. Accessed 28 November 2008. 

4. “NASA Tests Launch Abort Parachute System.” 19 August 2008. NASA Orion Crew 

Vehicle webpage. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/orion/pa_chute_test.

html. Accessed 18 November 2008.
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5. NASA Launch Schedule. Updated 14 November 2008. NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/missions/highlights/schedule.html. Accessed 18 November 2008.

6. European Space Agency press release. “Successful re-entry marks bright future for ATV.” 

European Space Agency. 29 September 2008. http://www.esa.int/esaCP/Pr_41_2008_p_

EN.html. Accessed 18 November 2008. 

7. European Space Agency press release. “Europe launches its first re-supply ship – Jules Verne 

ATV – to the ISS.” European Space Agency. 9 March 2008. http://www.esa.int/esaCP/

Pr_15_2008_p_EN.html. Accessed 18 November 2008. 

8. Torano, Yoshihiko. “Messages from Project Managers.” JAXA H-2 Transfer Vehicle website. http://www.jaxa.jp/projects/rockets/htv/manager_e.html. Accessed 13 November 

2008.

9. “COTS Phase I, Round 2 Selection.” 19 February, 2008. NASA Commercial Crew and 

Cargo Program Office website. http://www.nasa.gov/offices/c3po/home/cots_phase1_

round2.html. Accessed 6 November 2008.

10. NASA press release. “NASA Awards Space Station Commercial Resupply Services 

Contracts.” NASA. 23 December 2008. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/dec/

HQ_C08-069_ISS_Resupply.html. Accessed 24 December 2008.

11. Communication with SpaceX, November 27, 2007.

12. SpaceX press release. “Spacex conducts full thrust firing of Falcon 9 rocket.” SpaceX. 1 

August 2008. http://spacex.com/press.php?page=45. Accessed 14 November 2008.

13. DragonLab Data Sheet. SpaceX. http://www.spacex.com/DragonLab_DataSheet.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2008.

14. “Space Act Agreement, Amendment Two Between National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration and Space Exploration Technologies Corporation for Commercial Orbital 

Transport Services Demonstration (COTS).” 28 February 2008. NASA. http://www.nasa.

gov/centers/johnson/pdf/216459main_spacex_amend_2.pdf. Accessed 22 December 

2008.

15. SpaceX press release. “Spacex introduces DragonLab.” SpaceX. 3 November 2008. http://

spacex.com/press.php?page=20081103. Accessed 18 November 2008.

16. SpaceX press release, “SpaceX Adds Two DragonLab Missions to Manifest.” SpaceX. 1 December 2008. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20081202. Accessed 16 December 

2008.

17. Advanced Space Systems webpage. Orbital Sciences. http://www.orbital.com/AdvancedSpace/COTS/. Accessed 14 November 2008.

18. PlanetSpace press release. “PlanetSpace Adds Boeing to Lockheed Martin/ATK team for 

NASA ISS Commercial Resupply Services Bid.” PlanetSpace. October 22 2008. http://

www.planetspace.org/pdf/PressRelease102208.pdf. Accessed 11 November 2008.

19. Worldwide Launch Schedule. SpaceFlight Now. www.spaceflightnow.com/tracking/index.

html. Accessed 17 November 19, 2008.

20. “USAF To Launch First Spaceplane Demonstrator” 3 August 2008. Aviation Week. www.

aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/aw080408p2.xml&headline=USAF%20

To%20Launch%20First%20Spaceplane%20Demonstrator&channel=awst. Accessed 13 

November 2008.

21. Bigelow Aerospace Latest News. “Aerojet Supplies Aft Propulsion for Sundancer.” 28 May 

2008. http://www.bigelowaerospace.com/news/. Accessed 8 January 2009.
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2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

Enabling Technologies

1. Communication with Space Exploration Technologies Corporation, 27 November 2007.

2. Communication with Space Exploration Technologies Corporation, 20 November 2008.

3. Communication with Microcosm Inc, November 10, 2008.

4. Communication with Microcosm, 22 December, 2008.

5. The Register Online. Plasma Rocket Test Drive in Key Milestone.” http://www.theregister.

co.uk/2008/10/28/vasimr_plasma_first_stage_test/, Accessed October 28 2008.

6. Ad Astra Rocket Company press release, December 12, 2008. http://www.adastrarocket.

com/AdAstra-NASA_PR12Dec08.pdf. Accessed december 15, 2008.

7. Communication with ATK, Inc., 3 January 2008.

8. Ares Quarterly Video update. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/

aresl/index.html Accessed 11/19/2008.

9. ATK press release. “ATK Receives $1.8 Billion Contract to Develop and Support Test 

Flights for NASA’s Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle First Stage” 13 August 2007. http://atk.

mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&item=739. Accessed 4 January 2008.

10. Communication with AirLaunch LLC, 23 November 2007.

11. Communication with AirLaunch LLC, November 6 2008.

12. Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, October 27 2008.

13. Northrop Grumman press release. ”Northrop Grumman Completes ‘Green Propulsion’ Engine for NASA Missions to Moon, Mars and Beyond.” October 28 2008. http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/news_releases.html?d=153433 Accessed November 17, 2008.

14. NASA Facts Sheet. “The J–2X Engine”. Doc. #FS–2007–08–111–MSFC8–328472, 2007. 

http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/187393main_j-2x_fact_sheet.pdf. Accessed 27 November 2007. 

15. NASA press release. “NASA’s J-2X Powerpack Testing Status Report #1” NASA. 19 December 2007. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/news/releases/2007/07-143.

html. Accessed 20 December 2007.

16. Space News International. “Ares J2-X Engine passes Critical Design Review.” Vol. 19. Issue 

45. November 7 2008.

17. Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne press release. “Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne Awarded $1.2 

Billion NASA Contract for J-2X Ares Rocket Engine”. 18 July 2007. http://www.pw.utc.

com/vgn-ext-templating/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2e35288d1c83c010VgnVCM100000

0881000aRCRD&prid=e480c230314d3110VgnVCM100000c45a529f. Aaccessed 20 

November 2007.

18. SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Completes Development of Merlin Regeneratively Cooled 

Rocket Engine.” SpaceX, 12 November 2007. http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/

google/index.jsp?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20071112005019&newsLang=en. 

Accessed 13 November 2007.

19. SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Completes Development of Merlin Regeneratively Cooled 

Rocket Engine.” SpaceX, 12 November 2007. http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/

google/index.jsp?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20071112005019&newsLang=en. 

Accessed 13 November 2007.

20. SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Completes Development of Merlin Regeneratively Cooled 

Rocket Engine.” SpaceX, 12 November 2007. http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/
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google/index.jsp?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20071112005019&newsLang=en. 

Accessed 13 November 2007.

21. Communication with Space Exploration Technologies, 27 November 2007.

22. Communications with Space Exploration Technologies, 19 November 2008. 

23. Space Exploration Technologies Falcon 9 progress update, 22 November 2008. http://

www.spacex.com/updates.php Accessed 15 December 2008.

24. Communication with Microcosm, 20 November 2008

25. Communication with Space Exploration Technologies, 27 November 2007.

26. Communications with Space Exploration Technologies, 19 November 2008.

27. Communications with Space Exploration Technologies, 19 December, 2008.

28. Orbital press release. “Orbital To Provide Launch Abort System For NASA’s Orion Crew 

Exploration Vehicle” 1 September 2006. http://www.orbital.com/newsinfo/release.

asp?prid=570. Accessed 26 November 2007.

29. Orbital fact sheet. “Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle Launch Abort System (LAS)” Orbital 

Sciences Corporation. 2006. http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/Publications/LAS_Fact.

pdf#search=”launch abort system. Accessed 26 November 2007.

30. NASA press release. “NASA to Break Ground for Orion Test Pad at White Sands, N.M.” 8 

November 2007. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/nov/HQ_M07158_ESMD_

White_Sands_Groundbreaking.html. Accessed 4 January 2008.

31. NASA Press Release “NASA To Test Motor For Orion Crew Capsule’s Launch Abort 

System.” November 10 2008. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/nov/HQ_

M08225_ORION_LAS_TEST.html Accessed November 18 2008.

32. Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne press release. “Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne’s Revolutionary Scramjet Engine Successfully Powers First X-51A Simulated Flight” Pratt & Whitney 

Rocketdyne. 30 April 2007. http://www.pw.utc.com/vgn-ext-templating/v/index.jsp?vgne

xtoid=2e35288d1c83c010VgnVCM1000000881000aRCRD&prid=0c8381dc89e22110

VgnVCM100000c45a529f____. Accessed 13 December 2007.

33. Aviation Week Online. “X-51A Scramjet Engine Complete Ground Tests.” http://www.

aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=awst&id=news/aw110308p1.

xml&headline=X-51A%20Scramjet%20Engine%20Completes%20Ground%20Tests. 

Accessed 11/3/2008.

34. Air Launch LLC press release. “Operational C-17A Used to Break Another Record with 

Air Launch in DARPA/Air Force Falcon Small Launch Vehicle Program.” Air Launch 

LLC, 27 July 2006. www.californiaspaceauthority.org/images/pdfs/pr060801-1.pdf. Accessed 10 October 2006.

35. Communication with AirLaunch LLC., 23 November 2007.

36. Communication with AirLaunch LLC, November 6, 2008.

37. NASA press release. “Success for Second Ares Main Parachute Test” 15 November 2007. 

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/multimedia/photos07-126_2.html. 

Accessed 20 December 2007.

38. Ares Quarterly Video update. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/

aresl/index.html Accessed 11/19/2008.

39. Alliant Techsystems press release. “World’s largest Rocket Stage Recovery Parachute 

Test is Successful” 2 October 2007. http://atk.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_

releases&item=752. Accessed 14 November 2007.
• 101 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

40. NASA website. “Pieces Coming Together for First Test Launch of NASA’s New Spacecraft,” December 4, 2008. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/flighttests/aresIx/aresIX_progress.html. Accessed December 15, 2008

Spaceports

1. “A conversation with Amazon.com CEO Jeff Bezos.” CharlieRose.com. http://www.

charlierose.com/shows/2007/11/19/1/a-conversation-with-amazon-com-ceo-jeff-bezos. 

Accessed 19 November 2007.

2. Communication with California Spaceport, 10 December 2008.

3. Orbital Sciences Press Release. “Orbital Completes Minotaur IV Launch Vehicle Pathfinder Operations at Vandenberg Air Force Base”. 16 September 2008. http://www.orbital.

com/NewsInfo/release.asp?prid=667. Accessed 25 November 2008.

4. Coppinger, Rob. “DARPA reveals hypersonic test plans”. Flight International. 30 April 

2008. http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/04/30/223351/darpa-reveals-hypersonic-test-plans.html Accessed 25 November 2008.

5. Communication with Kodiak Launch Complex. 10 December 2008.

6. Communication with Kodiak Launch Complex. 13 November 2008.

7. Communication with Kodiak Launch Complex. 13 November 2008.

8. Virginia SB 286 http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?081+sum+SB286 Accessed 

15 November 2008.

9. Space News. “Orbital Picks Virginia Over Florida as Taurus 2’s Base”.16 June 2008.

10. Communication with Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport. 28 October 2008.

11. Communication with Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport. 28 October 2008.

12. Communication with Mojave Air and Space Port. 10 December 2008.

13. Mojave Desert News. “In May 2008 Mojave hanger made history three times - Figured in 

John DeLorean drug bust”. 5 May 2008.

14. Communication with Mojave Air and Space Port. 10 December 2008.

15. Mojave Desert News. “EKAD’s ‘Git ‘er done’ reputation earns $1.7 million grant”. Accessed 

7 August 2008.

16. Space News. “ Scaled Composites, Virgin Galactic Unveil WhitKnightTwo.” Accesses 4 

August 2008.

17. OSIDA website. http://www.okspaceport.state.ok.us/spaceflightactivites.html. Accessed 

25 November 2008.

18. Rocket Racing League PR. “Rocket Racing League(R) Completes Successful Flight Test 

Campaign at Oklahoma Spaceport”.4 September 2008.

19. Spaceport America Press Release. 18 September 2008. http://www.spaceportamerica.com/

news/press-releases/18-spaceport-press-articles/163-spaceport-america-constructionbegins.html Accessed 28 October 2008.

20. Spaceport America Press Release. 22 April 2008. http://www.spaceportamerica.com/

news/press-releases/18-spaceport-press-articles/110-sierra-county-voters-app-tax.html 

Accessed 28 October 2008.
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21. Spaceport America Press Release. 22 July 2008. http://www.spaceportamerica.com/news/

press-releases/18-spaceport-press-articles/151-dacc-approves-spaceport.html Accessed 28 

October 2008.

22. Spaceport America Press Release. 12 August 2008. http://www.spaceportamerica.com/

news/press-releases/18-spaceport-press-articles/155-up-aerospace-lockheed-martin-launch.

html Accessed 28 October 2008.

23. Spaceport America Press Release. 9 April 2008. http://www.spaceportamerica.com/news/

press-releases/18-spaceport-press-articles/106-upaero-agrees-10year-spdeal.html Accessed 

28 October 2008.

24. Spaceport America Press Release. 10 April 2008. http://www.spaceportamerica.com/

news/press-releases/18-spaceport-press-articles/107-space-biz-commits-education.html. 

Accessed 28 October 2008.

25. Spaceport America Press Release. 15 April 2008. http://www.spaceportamerica.com/

news/press-releases/18-spaceport-press-articles/109-lockheed-m-commits-sp.html Accessed 28 October 2008.

26. Spaceport America Press Release. 24 October 2008 http://www.spaceportamerica.com/

news/press-releases/18-spaceport-press-articles/172-rocket-racing-inc-create-joint-venture.

html Accessed 28 October 2008.

27. SpaceX upcoming missions list. (http://www.spacex.com/) Accessed 3 November 2008.

28. Edwards AFB. “Edwards hosts energy developers for solar EUL project”. 25 February 2008.

29. Communication with Edwards Air Force Base. 12 November 2008.

30. Edwards AFB. “Main runway construction finished ahead of schedule”. 1 October 2008.

31. O’Briend, William. “Space Shuttle Diverted, Land at Edwards”. Air Force Link. 2 December 2008. http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123126191. Accessed 19 December 

2008. 

32. Space News. “NASA Helping U.S. Air Force Gear Up for 2009 X-51 Flights”. Accessed 8 

September 2008.

33. Communication with KSC. 9 December 2008.

34. Communication with KSC. 9 December 2008

35. Space Politics. “Florida state incentives and spaceports”. 7 April 2008 http://www.spacepolitics.com/2008/04/07/florida-state-incentives-and. Accessed 25 November 2008.

36. Space News. “NASA Marks Ares Progress, Could Delay Orion Review. 12 May 2008.

37. Space News. “KSC Expectin High Worker Losses with Shuttle Retirement”. 7 April 2008.

38. NASA KSC Press Release. “NASA Awards Ground Equipment Contract for Kennedy 

Space Center”. 6 June 2008.

39. Orlando Sentinel. “GLAST launch a “success” for NASA and ULA”. http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2008/06/glast-launch-a.html. Accessed 11 June 

2008. 

40. Communication with Reagan Test Site. 17 November 2008.

41. Communication with Reagan Test Site. 17 November 2008.

42. Vandenberg PR. “Facility being built for incoming 21st SOPS”. 28 January 2008.

43. Air Force Print News Today. “Vandenberg Prepares for first Atlas V Launch”. 3 February 

2008.
• 103 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

44. Communication with Vandenberg AFB. 13 November 2008.

45. Vandenberg PR. “Atlas V launch successful”. 13 March 2008.

46. Space News. “GeoEye Launches Satellite; Restates 3 Years of Earnings”. 15 September 

2008.

47. Space News. “IBEX Astronomy Satellite Progress Toward Launch”. 11 August 2008.

48. Space News. “NFIRE Satellite Observes Minotaur Target Launch”. 29 September 2008.

49. Communication with Vandenberg AFB. 13 November 2008.

50. Communication with Vandenberg AFB. 13 November 2008.

51. Space News. “Boeing Delta 2 to Loft WorldView-2 in 2009”. 21 April 2008.

52. Communication with Vandenberg AFB. 13 November 2008.

53. Communication with Vandenberg AFB. 13 November 2008.

54. “Coming Soon: The Wallops Research Park” 28 July 2008. Inside Wallps. Volume XX-08 

Number 26.

55. Communication with Wallops Flight Facility. 26 November 2008.

56. Communication with Wallops Flight Facility. 26 November 2008.

57. “Two States Boost Incentives For Future Spaceport Work” Space News p. 4 . 26 May 2008. 

Volume 19 Issue 21.

58. Space News, “New GPS-Guided Rocket System Downs its Targets”. 2 June 2008.

59. Space News, “NASA, Contractor Test Methane-Fueled Engine”. 8 September 2008.

60. Space News. “Orion Abort System Motor Successfully Test Fired”.14 April 2008.

61. Space News, “Orbital Nabs Contract to Support Suborbital Effort”. 12 May 2008.

62. Space Florida Press Release. “Governor Crist, Space Florida and 45th Space Wing Host 

Launch Complex 36 Dedication”.22 October 2008.

63. Communication with Cape Canaveral Spaceport. 20 November 2008.

64. Communication with Cape Canaveral Spaceport. 20 November 2008.

65. Business Wire. “Space Florida and Bigelow Aerospace Join Forces to Explore Orbital Space Transportation Initiative”. http://www.businesswire.com/portal/site/

google/?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20071101006246&newsLang=en. Accessed 1 

November 2007.

66. Space Florida Press Release. “Space Florida Signs Teaming Agreement with PlanetSpace”. 

Accessed 18 December 2007.

67. Communication with Cape Canaveral Spaceport. 15 December 2008.

68. Communication with Cecil Field Spaceport, 20 November 2007.

69. Szakonyi, Mark. “Space tourism countdown begins” Jacksonville Business Journal. 29 

August 2008.

70. Communication with Cecil Field, 7 January 2009.

71. Communication with Spaceport Sheboygan. 13 November 2008.

72. Communication with Port of Moses Lake, 12 November 2008.
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Commercial Human Spaceflight Training

1. Communication with Aurora Aerospace. 

2. Communication with Barrios. 19 November 2008.

3. Communication with Executive Aerospace. 11 November 2008.

4. Communication with NASTAR. 19 November 2008.

5. NASTAR Center Press Release. “ETC’s NASTAR Center Announces the Launch of 

New Air and Space Adventure Programs”. http://www.etcusa.com/corp/pressreleases/

NR011608.htm Accessed 20 November 2008.

6. NASTAR Center Press Release. “ETC’s NASTAR Center Receives ‘Vision to Reality’ 

Award”. August 2008. http://www.etcusa.com/corp/pressreleases/NR080608.htm Accessed 20 November 2008.

7. NASTAR Center Press Release. “ETC’s NASTAR Center Hosts Inaugural Virgin Galactic 

Accredited Space Agent Global Forum” 20 February 2008. http://www.etcusa.com/corp/

pressreleases/NR022008.htm Accessed 20 November 2008.

8. Communication with Orbital Commerce Project. 20 November 2008.

9. Space Florida Press Release. “Personal Spaceflight Medical Program Announced.” 4 December 2008. http://www.spaceflorida.gov/news/12_04_08.php (Accessed 16 December 

2008).

10. Harper, Rick. “Project Odyssey: Training the Astronaut in Everyone.” Haas Center for 

Business Research and Economic Development, University of West Florida. http://spaceflorida.gov/news/haasstudy.pdf (accessed 15 December 2008).

11. Communication with Space Medicine Associates. 20 November 2008.

12. Communication with Starfighters. 25 November 2008.

13. Communication with United Space Alliance. 17 November 2008.

14. Communication with Wyle. 13 November 2008.

15. Communication with ZERO-G. 17 December 2008.
• 105 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Photo Credits

Photo Credits

Cover art lower image: 

Kennedy Space Center, FLA., courtesy of NASA

Page 9 Lunar rover mockup of the Google Lunar X PRIZE, courtesy of the X PRIZE 

Foundation

Page 10 Armadillo Aerospace’s module descends to a landing, courtesy of the X PRIZE 

Foundation

Page13 Atlas V, courtesy of United Launch Alliance

Page15 Delta II, courtesy of United Launch Alliance

Page 15 Delta IV, courtesy of United Launch Alliance

Page 16 Falcon 1, courtesy of Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX)

Page 16 Minotaur I, courtesy of Orbital Sciences Corporation

Page 17 A Pegasus XL rocket is air-launched, courtesy of Orbital Sciences Corporation

Page 17 Taurus, courtesy of Orbital Sciences Corporation

Page 18 Zenit 3SL lifts off from Odyssey launch platform, courtesy of Sea Launch Company, 

LLC

Page 18 ATK Launch Vehicle, courtesy of ATK

Page 19 Cutaway view of Eaglet and Eagle, courtesy of E’Prime Aerospace

Page 20 Quarter section of Falcon 9 fairing, courtesy of Space Exploration Technologies 

Corporation (SpaceX)

Page 21 Artist conception of Falcon SLV, courtesy of Lockheed Martin Michoud

Page 22 Prospector-11A test flight, courtesy of Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

Page 22 Minotaur IV, courtesy of Orbital Sciences Corporation

Page 23 Horizontal Test Stand (HTS-2), courtesy of AirLaunch LLC 

Page 24 Taurus II, courtesy of Sea Launch Company, LLC

Page 25 Artist conception of Ares I, courtesy of NASA

Page 25 Artist conception of Ares V, courtesy of NASA

Page 26 Black Brant sounding rocket, courtesy of Bristol Aerospace Limited

Page 26 Oriole sounding rocket, courtesy of DTI Associates

Page 27 Terrier Orion sounding rocket, courtesy of DTI Associates

Page 27 Spaceloft XL, courtesy of UP Aerospace

Page 29 Tiger prototype, courtesy of Acuity Technologies

Page 29 MOD-1 in flight, courtesy of Armadillo Aerospace

Page 31 Blue Origin’s Goddard prototype vehicle, courtesy of Blue Origin

Page 31 Sea Star, courtesy of Interobital Systems

Page 32 Neptune design concept, courtesy of Interobital Systems
• 106 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

Page 33 XA-1.0 design concept, courtesy of Masten Space Systems

Page 33 Silver Dart, courtesy of PlanetSpace

Page 34 RocketPlane XP concept, courtesy of RocketPlane XP

Page 34 WhiteKnightTwo, courtesy of The SpaceShip Company

Page 35 DreamChaser concept, courtesy of SpaceDev

Page 36 Skyhopper concept, courtesy of SPACE ACCESS, LLC

Page 36 Laramie Rose, courtesy of SpeedUp

Page 37 M.I.C.H.E.L.L.E.-B concept, courtesy of TGV Rockets

Page 37 Ignignokt and team, courtesy of TrueZer0

Page 38 Burning Splinter prototype, courtesy of Unreasonable Rocket

Page 38 Lynx concept, courtesy of XCOR Aerospace

Page 39 Space Shuttle from above, courtesy of NASA

Page 41 Artist rendition of the Orion CEV approaching the ISS, courtesy of NASA

Page 42 Artist rendition of Orion during parachute landing, courtesy of NASA

Page 44 Concept of SpaceX’s Dragon vehicle crew version, courtesy of Space Exploration 

Technologies

Page 44 Depiction of the Dragon vehicle berthed with the ISS, courtesy of Space 

Exploration Technologies

Page 45 Artist rendition of Orbital’s Cygnus spacecraft approaching the ISS, courtesy of 

Orbital Sciences

Page 46 Artist’s concept of an X-37 vehicle, similar to the X-37B in development, courtesy 

of NASA/MSFC

Page 47 External view of Bigelow’s Genesis II spacecraft in Earth orbit, courtesy of Bigelow 

Aerospace

Page 49 Falcon 9 propellant tanks, courtesy of SpaceX

Page 49 Family of all-composite propellant and pressure tanks, courtesy of Microcosm Inc.

Page 50 VASIMR first stage test-fire, courtesy of Ad Astra Rocket Co

Page 51 ATK’s December 4, 2008 test of the reusable solid rocket motor, courtesy of ATK 

Inc.

Page 51 AirLaunch’s March 28, 2008 test of the Vapak engine, courtesy of AirLaunch LLC

Page 52 Garvey Aerospace’s August 23, 2008 launch of the P-9, courtesy of Garvey 

Spacecraft Corp.

Page 53 Northrop Grumman’s completed TR408 LOX-methane engine, courtesy of 

Northrop Grumman

Page 53 The J-2X engine, courtesy of NASA

Page 54 Full Mission-length tests of nine Merlin 1-C engines on November 22, 2008, 

courtesy of SpaceX

Page 54 20,000 pounds force ablative engine under test, courtesy of Microcosm Inc.
• 107 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Photo Credits

Page 55 Test of the Draco thruster, courtesy of SpaceX

Page 55 The November 20, 2008 test-firing of the Lauch Abort System, courtesy of ATK 

Inc.

Page 56 Wind tunnel testing of the X-1 demonstrator engine, courtesy of NASA

Page 56 Test drop of Quickreach test model, courtesy of AirLaunch LLC

Page 57 The July 24, 2008 test of the Ares drogue parachute, courtesy of ATK Inc.

Page 60 California Spaceport SLC-8, courtesy of California Spaceport

Page 61 Kodiak Launch Comple, courtesy of Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation

Page 62 MARS facilities at WFF, courtesy of NASA

Page 63 Mojave Air and Space Port, courtesy of Mojave Air andSpace Port

Page 64 Oklahoma Spaceport, courtesy of Oklahoma Space Industry Development 

Authority

Page 65 Cutaway view of Spaceport America facility, courtesy Spaceport America

Page 66 Delta IV launch from CCAFS, courtesy USAF

Page 66 Space Shuttle lands at Edwards, courtesy of USAF/Jim Mumaw

Page 67 Atlantis and Endeavour, courtesy NASA/Troy Cryder

Page 68 Kwajalein Atoll, courtesy of the United States Army Space and Missile and Defense 

Command

Page 69 Atlas V on SLC-3, courtesy USAF/Airman 1st Class Christian Thomas

Page 70 Black Brandt launch at WFF, courtesy of NASA

Page 71 White Sands Missile Range, courtesy of White Sands Missile Range

Page 72 RLV support hangar, courtesy Space Florida

Page 74 Cecil Field aerial view, courtesy of Cecil Field Spaceport

Page 75 Chugwater aerial view circa 1960, courtesy of Chugwater Spaceport

Page 77 Rocket launch from Spaceport Sheboygan, courtesy of Rockets for Schools

Page 77 Spaceport Washington aerial view, courtesy of Spaceport Washington

Page 79 L-39 aircraft, courtesy of Aurora Aerospace

Page 81 Chamber operations, courtesy of Executive Aerospace

Page 82 STS-400 and operator, courtesy of NASTAR

Page 82 Flight simulator, courtesy of OCP

Page 83 Andrews Institute, courtesy of Andrews Institute

Page 84 F-104 and Discovery, courtesy of Starfighters Aerospace

Page 84 Flight crew training, courtesy USA

Page 86 Centrifuge, courtesy of Wyle
• 108 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation
• 109 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Acronyms

List of Acronyms

AADC Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation

ACES Air Collection and Enrichment System

AFB Air Force Base

AGL Above Ground Level

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory

ALV ATK Launch Vehicle

ARCTUS Advanced Research and Conventional Technology Utilization Spacecraft

AST Office of Commercial Space Transportation (within the FAA) 

ATK Alliant Techsystems

ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle

AWOS Automated Weather Observing System

BLS Boeing Launch Service

BRAC Base Realignment and Closure

BSC Benson Space Company

CALVEIN California Launch Vehicle Initiative

CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

CEV Crew Exploration Vehicle

CONUS Continental United States

COTS Commercial Orbital Transportation Services

CSIA Clinton-Sherman Industrial Airpark

CSULB California State University, Long Beach

CSLAA Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DoD U.S. Department of Defense

EAFB Edwards Air Force Base

EELV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

ELTR Eastern Launch and Test Range

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle

ESA European Space Agency

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FALCON Force Application and Launch from CONUS

FAST Fully-Reusable Access to Space Technology

FASTT Freeflight Atmospheric Scramjet Test Technique

GEM Graphite-Epoxy Motor

GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit

GPS/INS Global Positioning System/Inertial Navigation System

GSC Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

GSLV Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

GTO Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit
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Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

HTHL Horizontal Takeoff, Horizontal Landing

HTP High-Test Peroxide

HTPB Hydroxyl Terminated Polybutadiene

HTR Hybrid Test Rocket

HTS Horizontal Test Stand

HX Hydrocarbon X

HYSR Hybrid Sounding Rocket

ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

IPD Integrated Powerhead Demonstration

IPF Integrated Processing Facility

ISS International Space Station

ISRO Indian Space Research Organization

ITAR International Traffic in Arms Regulations

JAA Jacksonville Aviation Authority

LAS Launch Abort System

KLC Kodiak Launch Complex

KSC Kennedy Space Center

LAP Launch Assist Platform

LAS Launch Abort System

LASR Large Array of Small Rockets

LC Launch Complex

LEO Low Earth Orbit

LOX Liquid Oxygen

MARS Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

MDA Missile Defense Agency

MEMS Microelectromechanical Systems

MEO Medium Earth Orbit

MRTFB Major Range and Test Facility Base

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center

MTA Mojave Test Area

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NG-LLC Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge

NLV Nanosat Launch Vehicle

NPRM Notice of Proposed Rulemaking

NRO National Reconnaissance Office

O/M Oxygen-Methane

ONR Office of Naval Research

ORS Operationally Responsive Spacelift

OSIDA Oklahoma Space Industry Development Authority

OSP Orbital/Suborbital Program

OTV Orbital Test Vehicle
• 111 •

2009 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Acronyms

OV Orbital Vehicle

PDR Preliminary Design Review

PSLV Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

PWR Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne

R&D Research and Development

RCS Reaction Control System

RFP Request for Proposals

RLV Reusable Launch Vehicle

RP-1 Rocket Propellant 1

RSRM Reusable Solid Rocket Motor

RSTS Range Safety and Telemetry System

RTS Reagan Test Site

SBIR Small Business Innovation Research

SLC Space Launch Complex

SLF Shuttle Landing Facility

SLV Small Launch Vehicle 

SSI Spaceport Systems International

SS/L Space Systems / Loral

SSME Space Shuttle Main Engine

SSO Sun-synchronous Orbit 

STEREO Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatories

STS Space Transportation System

t/LAD Trapeze-Lanyard Air Drop

TBD To Be Determined

TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

ULA United Launch Alliance

USAF United States Air Force

VAB Vehicle Assembly Building

VAFB Vandenberg Air Force Base

VaPaK Vapor Pressurization

VTS Vertical Test Stand

VCSFA Virginia Commercial Space Flight Authority

WAA Wisconsin Aerospace Authority

WIRED Workforce Innovation in Regional Economic Development

WFF Wallops Flight Facility

WSMR White Sands Missile Range

XA eXtreme Altitude
• 112 •

Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation