AM 67-8 

DIAGNOSTIC TESTS OF COLOR DEFECTIVE VISION 

Annotated Bibliography, 1956-66 

Approved by 

~~ J. ROBERT DILLE, M.D. 

CHIEF, CiviL AEROMEDICAL 

INSTITUTE 

Mark F. Lewis, Ph.D. 

Faye K. Ashby 

May 1967 

Released by 

~AM> P. v. SIEGEL, M.D. 

FEDERAL Am SuRGEON 

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION 

Office of Aviation Medicine 
Qualified requestors may obtain Aviation Medical Reports from Defense Documentation 

Center. The general public may purchase from Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific 

and Technical Information, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Springfield, Va. 22151 
FOREWORD 

This annotated bibliography of recent literature on diagnostic tests for 

color defect is presented as a scientific service of the Civil Aeromedical Institute. The aims of the publication are: (a) to provide interested researchers 

with source material and (b) to provide medical examiners with material 

relevant to the diagnosis of color defect. 

In achieving these aims, bibliographic listings such as the present one 

are necessarily limited in scope. However the survey is not limited to the 

years listed. Papers from years prior to 1956 concerning tests that are currently available commercially have been included and one reference is included from 1967. No attempt is made to evaluate the scientific worth of a 

given article. 

References 23, 24, and 83 have recently been translated. Copies of the 

translations of these papers only may be obtained by writing to: Medical 

Librarian, HQ-640, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C. 

20553. Please provide the librarian with the complete reference information. 
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS OF COLOR DEFECTIVE VISION 

Annotated Bibliography, 1956-1966 

1. BAILEY, R. W. Color VlSWn deficiencies in army 

fliers. USAARU Report No. 65-2. April, 1965, 

Fort Rucker, Alabama. 

This paper deals with a review of some color tests 

and a testing procedure employed to determine the 

number of color anomalous fliers in army aviation. 

Data collected indicate that the color requirements 

may be unnecessary and that a new approach is 

overdue. 

2. BAKER, H. D. Single-variable anomaloscope matches 

during recovery from artificial red blindness. J. 

Opt. Soc. A mer., 56 :686-689, 1966. 

An anomaloscope was designed so that full amounts 

of its red and green primaries could be adjusted to 

match yellow. 

3. BARON, J., CABAU, A., & PARllfENTIER-BELOUX, M. 

Application du test de Farnsworth 100 hue dans 

l'examen de la vision color~e. Le Presse Jied., 

64 :561-562, 1956. 

The Farnsworth 100 Hue test was examined and 

compared with other tests. The authors concluded 

that the Farnsworth 100 Hue test was good for 

diagnosing the anomalies of color vision and also 

for diagnosing difficulties in color discrimination. 

4. BELCHER, S. J., GREENSHIELDS, K. W., & WRIGHT, 

W. D. Color vision survey using the Ishihara, 

Dvorine, Bostrom, Bostrom-Kugelberg, and American-Optical Hardy-Rand-Rittler tests. Brit. J. 

OphthaL, 42 :355--359, 1958. 

Five hundred subjects were tested with five different 

sets of pseudo-isochromatic plates. The tests were 

compared for division of subjects between normal 

and defective and for screening efficiency of each 

plate. 

5. BOYNTON, R. M. & WAGNER, M. Two-color threshold 

as a test of color vision. J. Opt. Soc. Amer., 

51 :429--440, 1961. 

The two-color threshold is obtained by finding the 

just visible luminance of a test flash of one color 

seen against the background of another color. An 

examination of green-on-red thresholds plotted 

against red-on-green thresholds reveals a separation 

of normal subjects from the color defective. Within 

the color defective group, the test seems to provide 

a quantitative assessment of the degree of color 

defect. 

6. BURNHAM, R. W. & CLARK, J. R. A color memory 

test. J. Opt. Soc. A mer., 44 :658-659, 1954. 

A test for color memory has been developed using 

chips from the Farnsworth-Munsell hue series. The 

observer selects from a hue circle of color samples 

1 

the one which most resembles a test sample presented a short time before. This procedure is repeated for a number of test samples. 

7. CAMERON, R. G. Rational approach to color vision 

testing. Aerospace Med., 38:51-59, 1967. 

A rational approach to color vision testing demands 

the elucidation of three points: whether a color 

vision defect is actually present, what it is, and 

whether the defect is compatible with the requirements of the examining service. Testing of 5,141 

pilot candidates indicates 5.17% defectives. This 

indicates that about 2%% of the defectives were 

self-eliminated, and the rejection of 3.9% of all 

candidates can be regarded as an average figure. 

The paper offers a plea for uniformity of definition, 

of methodology, and particularly of terminology. 

8. CHAPANIS, A. A comparative study of five tests of 

color vision. J. Opt. Soc. A mer., 38 :626-649, 1948. 

This study compares the American Optical Company, 

Ishihara, Meyrowitz, Bostrom, and Bostrom-Kugelberg color vision tests. The author reports that 

the Bostrom-Kugelberg test is the best all around 

test of color deficiency evaluated in the study. The 

Ishihara was next best. The author found the 

Bostrom and Meyrowitz plates to be unsatisfactory. 

The author reports that neither visual acuity nor 

age is related to performance on the tests used in 

this study. 

9. CHAPANIS, A. Diagnosing types of color deficiency 

by means of pseudo-isochromatic tests. J. Opt. 

Soc. A mer., 39 :242-249, 1949. 

Five pseudo-isochromatic tests of color vision (the 

American Optical Company, Ishihara, Meyrowitz, 

Bostr!im, and Bostrom-Kugelberg) were evaluated 

for their ability to differentiate two kinds of color 

deficient individuals. The Bostrom plates were 

found to be worthless for this purpose, the Meyrowitz plates somewhat better, and the Ishihara plates 

best. None of the plates in the other two tests was 

found to be diagnostic. 

10. CoLE, B. L. Misuse of the Ishihara test for color 

blindness. Brit. J. Physiol. Opt., 20:113-118, 1963. 

This paper examined the weaknesses of the Ishihara 

test for color blindness and suggested two wof•king 

rules for its use: (1) A patient who misreads three 

plates or less is almost certain to have normal color 

vision. If he misreads between three and six plates, 

he can be considered to be normal, provided some of 

the errors are not typical of the errors that the 

color defective makes. (2) No reliable quantitative 

assessment of the severity of the defect can be ex-
pected from the Ishihara test although between six 

and fifteen errors may indicate a mild defect. 

11. COLLINS, W. E., CASOLA, A. S., & ZEGERS, R. T. The 

performance of color-blind subjects on the color 

aptitude test. J. Gen. Psychol., 64 :245-250, 1961. 

The paper compared the performance of color deficient subjects on the Color Aptitude test with 

performance on the Hardy-Rand-Rittler plates. The 

results show that the color defectives had poor 

scores on all color series of the Color Aptitude test. 

There was some evidence that lower scores on the 

red series may indicate a protan-defect, while lower 

scores on the green series may indicate a deutandefect. 

12. CoLOMBI, A., VITALI, G., & CARTA, F. Impiego di 

una funzime discriminante nella valutazime della 

capacta diagnostica delle favole di Ishihara. 

Annal. Ottal. Olin. Ocul., 91 :954--961: 1965. 

This paper described the use of a discriminative 

function in the evaluation of the diagnostic efficiency 

of the Ishihara plates. 

13. ORA w:FoRD, A. A description of an anomaloscope. 

Brit. J. Physiol. Opt., 8 :173-175, 1951. 

This paper described a simple filter anomaloscope. 

14. CRAWFORD, A. The Dvorine pseudo-isochromatic 

plates. Brit. J. Psychol., 46 :139-143, 1955. 

This is a review of the second edition of the Dvorine 

pseudo-isochromatic test. The reviewer concluded 

that the test is an effective screening test for separating color defectives from color normals. 

15. CRONE, R. A. Clinical study of color vision. Brit. 

J. Ophthal., 39:170-173, 1955. 

This paper described a modification of the Xagel 

anomaloscope, which permitted determination of 

(1) relative luminous efficiency of spectral light, 

(2) thresholds of wavelength discrimination in the 

spectrum, (3) thresholds of saturation discrimination in the spectrum, and ( 4) trichromatic coeffiicients of spectral colors. 

16. CRONE, R. A. Quantitative diagnosis of defective 

color vision: . A comparative evaluation of the 

Ishihara test, the Farnsworth dichotomous test, 

and the Hardy-Rand-Rittler polychromatic plates. 

Amer. J. Ophthal., 51 :298-305, 1961. 

The paper compared the pseudo-isochromatic plates 

of Ishihara with the Hardy-Rand-Rittler plates and 

the Farnsworth Dichotomous test. The threshold 

of wavelength discrimination at 590nm was taken 

as a measuring rule. The Ishihara plates proved 

excellent for differentiation between normals and 

abnormals but were unsuitable for quantitative differentiation. The H-R-R plates, on the contrary, 

were unsuitable for differentiating between normals 

and abnormals, but were very good for quantitative 

differentiation. For the latter, the Farnsworth 

Dichotomous test was also usable though to a lesser 

degree. 

17. DIMMICK, R. L. & WIENKE, R. E. How red is red? 

Amer. J. Psychol., 71 :298-304, 1958. 

Selected portions of the red end of the spectrum 

were evaluated. The results indicated that the use 

of different primaries in anomaloscopes will result 

2 

in slightly. different red-green ratios. The results 

indicated that the red-green ratio is a function of 

the luminance level of the yellow comparison stimulus. The authors suggested that more rigorous 

results may be obtained in anomaloscopic examinations if the yellow comparison stimulus is at a fixed 

luminance level. 

18. DvoRINE, I. Quantitative classification of the color 

blind. J. Gen. Psychol., 68 :255-265, 1963. 

A comparative study of 34 color vision defectives 

disclosed that 19 of them were diagnosed alike with 

the Dvorine, H-R-R, and Tokyo Medical College 

tests; the Dvorine and TMC tests were in agreement 

quantitatively in 27 of 34 cases; the Dvorine and 

the H-R-R were in agreement quantitatively in 25 

of 34 patients; and the H-R-R and TMC were in 

agreement quantitatively in 20 of 34 cases presented. 

The author concluded that failure ~to pass a color 

vision test which is based on progressive increase 

of chroma in polychromatic plates (H-R-R and 

TMC) would seem less effective an indicator of the 

extent of color vision defect than the estimation of 

the deficiency from the number of missed plates or 

errors on the Dvorine test. 

19. DvoRINE, I. The importance of color vision i.n the 

military services. Optom. Wkly., 54:1191-1195, 

1963. 

The author described the various types of color 

vision tests in use. He recommended the pseudoisochromatic test above all other types, but suggested that the armed services must have their own 

set of plates designed for their exclusive use. 

20. FARNSWORTH, D. The Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue 

and dichotomous tests for color vision. J. Opt. 

Soc. A mer., 33 :568-578, 1943. 

This paper described the construction and use of the 

Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue test and the Farnsworth Dichotomous test for color vision. 

21. FARNSWORTH, D. Testing for color deficiency in 

industry. A.M.A. Archs. Ind. Hlth., 16:100-103, 

1957. 

A four-part classification of color vision was suggested based upon whether applicants pass or fail 

pseudo-isochromatic plates, the Farnsworth Lantern, 

or the Farnsworth D-15 Dichotomous test. An applicant who passed all three tests was described as 

normal. An applicant who passed the lantern and 

the Dichotomous test but failed the plates was 

classified as a mild defective. An applicant who 

passed the Dichotomous test but failed the plates 

and the lantern was described as moderate defective. An applicant who failed all three tests was 

classified as a severe defective. 

22. FARNSWORTH, D. & FOREMAN, P. Development and 

trial of the New London Navy lantern as a selection test for serviceable color vision. BuMed 

Project X-457 (AV-241-K), Color Vision Rpt. No. 

12, 6 May 1946. U.S. Submarine Base, New London, Connecticut. 

A color vision testing lantern was designed which 

was intended to be as quick and convenient to give 

as pseudo-isochromatic plates or other standard 
tests, which would be more reliable in its pass-fail 

criteria and less dependent upon the training and 

personal interpretation of the examiner. A model 

of the proposed Navy Lantern, called the New London Prototype Model, was tested on over 2,000 individuals and compared with other standard tests for 

color vision. 

23. FLEKKEL, A. B. Differential diagnosis of color vision. 

(in Russian) Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR., 100:57-60, 

1955. 

This paper compared the performance of color defectives on the Rabkin plates and on the Rautian 

anomaloscope in distinguishing color signal lights. 

The paper concluded that Rayleigh equations are an 

inadequate index of color defect. 

24. FLEKKEL, A. B. An experiment in the application 

of Yustova's tables for investigation of color 

vision. (in Russian) Biojizika, 1:708-712, 1956. 

This paper described the Yustova plates for color 

vision testing and their use. 

2.5. FREY, R. G. Welche pseudoisochromatischen Tafeln 

sind fur die Pmxis am besten geeignet? Albrecht 

v. Graefes A1·ch. Ophthal., 160:301-320, 1958. 

This paper compared the Bostrom, Bostrom-Kugelberg, H-R-R, Ishihara, Rabkin, and Stilling color 

plate tests. 

26. FREY, R. G. Zur Vereinfachung der Farbensinnpriifung. Wien. Klin. Wschr., 73 :852-854, 1961. 

In order to reduce the time spent in testing color 

vision and, at the same time, to make reliable tests, 

it is necessary to combine pseudo-isochromatic plates 

with high selectivity and usefulness. The author 

recommended use of the following four plates: 

Farnsworth's tritan plate, Bostrom's plate 10, Bostrom-Kugelberg's plate R, and Rabkin's plate 14. 

27. FREY, R. G. Die Trennsch"arfe einiger pseudoisochromatischer Tafelproben. Alb1·echt v. Gmefes 

Arch. Ophthal., 165 :20-30, 1962. 

This paper compared the pseudoisochromatic plate 

tests of Dvorine, Velhagen, and Polack. The author 

recommended the Dvorine without changes. He 

concluded that the Velhagen test becomes more useful when restricted to the 17 plates of raised selectivity. He concluded that a selection of only 14 

plates from the Polack test is useful. 

28. FREY, R. G. Zur Differentialdiagnose der angeborenen Farbensinnstorungen mit pseudoisochromatischen Tafeln. Ophthalmologica (Basel), 145 :34-

48, 1963. 

A collection of pseudo-isochromatic plates was examined to determine their differential diagnostic 

possibilities and the results were compared with 

anomaloscope findings. It was possible to a certain 

extent to determine whether a protan or deutan 

disturbance existed. The Rabkin tables produced 

a correct qualitative diagnosis in 97.4% of the cases, 

Dvorine in 94%, Hardy-Rand-Rittler in 90.1%, Polack in .88%, Ishihara in 82.7% and the Tokyo 

Medical College col01· vision test in 65.2%. The 

quantitative diagnosis in all cases varied considerably from the findings of the anomaloscope. More 

3 

particularly those cases which would be classified 

as "mild" by the Hardy-Rand-Rittler tables ur by 

the Tokyo Medical College test should probably be 

classified as ·anomalous trichromats. From examinations made with the TMC no certain conclusions 

can be .drawn as to the nature and extent of the 

color disturbance. 

29. FREY, R. G. Zur Wahl der geeigneten Beleuchtung 

fur die Farbensinnprufung mit pseudoisochromatischen Tafeln. Wien. Klin. Wschr., 76:170--172, 

1964. 

This paper enumerated the illumination and color 

temperature of the illuminants required by various 

pseudo-isochromatic plates. The author emphasized 

the need for holding illumination constant in the 

testing of subjects. 

30. FREY, R. G. Erfahrungen mit der 7. Aufiage der 

polychromatischen Tafeln J. B. Rabkins. (Ex· 

periences with the seventh edition of the J. B. 

Rabkin polychromatic tables). Klin. Mbl. Augenheilk, 145 :97-106, 1964. 

The seventh edition of the "Polychromatic charts" 

of Rabkin were used to test two groups of 170 

persons each, who had been examined with the 

anomaloscope and classified accordingly into one 

group with normal color sense and another with 

defective color sense. In an abridged form, this 

collection can be recommended for the rapid and 

reliable detection of persons with defective color 

VlSlon. A positive differential diagnosis cannot be 

established by means of these charts. The charts 

for the examination of the color vision of children, 

charts which were enclosed for the first time in 

this edition, need to be improved. 

31. GALLAGHER, J. R. & GALLAGHER, C. D. Color vision 

screening of preschool and first grade children. 

Arch. Ophthal., 72 :200-211, 1964. 

Observations relevant to the color vision testing of 

preschool and first grade children were reported. 

About 3% of each of the two groups studied appeared to have a color vision defect of sufficient 

degree to constitute a practical handicap in cor· 

rectly discriminating colors. A simple screening 

method for detecting significant degrees of color 

vision deficiency in preschool and first grade children was described. It is based on a selected number of AO H-R-R plates. 

32. GoLDSTEIN, A. G. & BRooKs, R. A red-green color 

vision test employing transparencies. Percept. 

Motor Skills, 11 :229-230, 1960. 

A red-green color vision test employing transparencies was described and data for 18 subjects were 

presented. The authors recommended continuing 

research to determine whether correctly exposed 

transparencies may be employed for group color 

vision testing. 

·33. HAEFNER, R. A decade of research in color blindness. Psychol. NewsUr., N.Y.U., 8:128-148, 1957. 

This is a survey article reviewing the literature on 

color defects from 1946 to 1955, inclusive. All aspects of color defect, including color testing, were 

reviewed. 
34. HARDY, L. H., RAND, R., & RITTLER, M. C. Test for 

the detection and analysis of color blindness. III. 

Rabkin test. J. Opt. Soc. A mer., 35 :481-491, 1945. 

From an examination of the second edition of the 

Rabkin test the authors concluded that, properly 

administered, the test affords a good device for 

screening the color defective from the color normal 

if 75 is taken as the critica: uerformance score. The 

test taken as a whole affords an excellent means of 

classifying red-green dichromats into the two groups: 

protanopic and deuteranopic; it also provides for 

classification of red-green anomalous trichromats 

into two groups: deuteranomalous and protanomalous. The test is not adequate to differentiate between anomalous trichromasy and dichromasy. 

35. HARDY, L. H., RAND, G., & RITTLER, M. C. The 

H-R-R polychromatic plates. I. A test for the 

detection, classification, and estimation of the 

degree of defective color vision. A.M.A. A.rch. 

Ophthal., 51 :216-228, 1954. 

The paper described the construction, administration, validation, and reliability of the H-R-R rolychromatic plates. 

36. HARDY, L. H., RAND, G., & RITTLER, M. C. -The 

H-R-R polychromatic plates. II. Comparison of 

qualitative and quantitative classifications by 

H-R-R plates and other tests. A.M.A. Arch. 

Ophthal., 52 :353-368, 1954. 

This paper presented further validation and reliability information concerning the H-R-R polychromatic plates. It presented a comparison of the 

qualitative and quantitative diagnoses yielded by 

the H-R-R plates with performances on other tests 

of color vision. 

37. HARDY, L. H., RAND, G., & RITTLER, M. C. 

polychromatic plates. J. Opt. Soc. Amer., 

523, 1954. 

H-R-R 

44:509-

This paper presented approximately the same information as the two previous papers. 

38. HIOKI, R. & NAKAMURA, Y. Hioki's polarization 

anomaloscope. A mer. J. Ophthal., 40 :559-562, 1955. 

This paper described construction of a polarization 

version of the Nagel anomaloscope. 

39. HoMRERG, L. The distribution and reliability of 

certain color vision data as measured by the 

Pickford-Nicolson anomaloscope. Psychol. Res. 

Bull., 3 :7pp., 1963. 

This paper presented the standardization data for 

the Pickford-Nicolson anomaloscope. The instrument 

was found to be a valuable and sensitive tool for 

color vision testing as well as for psychophysical 

investigation. 

40. HooGERHEIDE, J. Considerations about the acceptability of mild color defective trichromats in 

flying personnel. Aeromea. Acta, 7 :17-23, 1959, 

1960. 

The author recommended testing flying personnel 

with the Hardy-Rand-Rittler plates. He also recommended passing those people who make no mistakes in the medium and strong plates. The author 

suggested that pilots with mildly anomalous color 

vision do not pose any danger. 

4 

41. JosHI, V. G. Brightness contrast as a source of 

error in the Ishihara test for color blindness. 

Brit. J. Physiol. Opt., 18 :239-242, 1961. 

Plates of the Ishihara test for color blindness were 

photographed in black and white by so modifying 

the technique of exposure that the color sensitivity 

of the film emulsion was made uniformly constant 

to all spectral colors. The older the edition, the 

greater the visibility of the numerals in the photographs. Factors of "color contrast" and "brightness 

contrast" appeared to be of comparative importance 

in the Ishihara test. 

42. KATAvrsTo, M. Pseudo-isochromatic plates and artificial light. Acta Ophthal. ( Kobenhavn), 39 :377-

390, 1961. 

Thirty persons with normal color vision and 50 

with defective color vision were tested with Bostrom 

II, Ishihara, and Stilling pseudo-isochromatic plates 

in daylight, and by the light of tungsten lamps and 

flourescent tubes with high color temperature. Similar results were obtained with the Bostrom plates 

with each of these three sources of light, and with 

the Ishihara plates in daylight 'and in the light of 

flourescent tubes. The results obtained with Stilling 

plates were reliable only in daylight. Thus, the 

Bostrom and Ishihara plates are well suited for 

tests of color vision by light of flourescent tubes, 

which can be recommended as a standard illuminant 

during the dark winter months. 

43. KATAvrsTo, M. Vaariaistin tutkimisesta pseudoisokromaattisilla tauluilla. (Color sensitivity examination with pseudo-isochromatic tables). (in 

Finnish) Suom. Laaklehti, 17 :121-126, 1962. 

The principles for use of pseudo-isochromatic tables 

and the reliability of obtained results were surveyed 

by making comparisons between the Stilling, Bostrom (liB), Ishihara, and Tokyo Medical College 

tests. The latter was recommended as a rapid 

screening test for mass examinations of color vision. 

The importance of an accurate sense of color in 

certain professions was stressed and, hence, it was 

proposed that the testing of color vision be included 

in vocational guidance. 

44. KrRSCHEN, M. The color rator: a new instrument 

for the assessment of .color aptitude in industry. 

A mer. J. Optom., 36:137-143, 1959. 

An instrument was described for the determination 

of color aptitude or color discrimination with the 

red and green portions of the spectrum. The matching principle was used. An additional advantage 

of this instrument was that the procedure as outlined was sufficiently simple for its administration 

by a lay person at the employment level of industry. 

Criteria for its use were proposed from a preliminary study of 21 subjects. Range of settings at 

various wavelengths was adopted as principle criterion for pass or fail decisions. 

45. LAKOWSKI, R. Testing of colour vision in prospective printers' apprentices and the problems this 

presents in selection. Brit. J. Physiol. Opt., 

22 :10-32, 1965. 
The performance of the printers' apprentices (boys 

between the ages 14-17) on all the color vision 

tests used in this study was different 'from that of 

the control group. This difference appeared as differences in the most frequent type of response accepted by the members of each of the two populations, and as differences in the variability of such 

performances. This was best seen in the anomaloscope, where there was a difference in terms of 

mid-matching points accepted by the two groups 

and this applied also to variability of their matching 

ranges. There was a decidedly higher incidence of 

subjects with minor color deficiencies in the experimental group. There were twice as many deuteranopes as found in other studies. The author suggested that perhaps ages 14 through 16 are the best 

times to test color vision for vocational purposes, 

for at this stage any latent weakness will be indicated. 

46. LINKSZ, A. The Farnsworth panel D-15 test. Amer. 

J. Ophthal., 62 :27-37, 1966. 

This paper discussed the principles and uses of the 

Farnsworth panel D-15 test. Extending its use for 

diagnosing tetartan and achromatic defects was also 

discussed. 

47. MAJIMA, A., AwAYA, S., & TANABE, S. Evaluation 

on Ishihara plates (numeral and winding-line 

plates), H-R-R plates, and T.M.C. plates for 

screening tests. (in Japanese) J ap J. Olin. Ophthal., 18 :493-496, 1964. 

The authors reported that the Ishihara is an excellent test for screening, while the H-R-R plates 

proved unsatisfactory for this purpose. 

48. McCuLLocH, C., TuRNOUR, ~. C., & SMILEY, J. R. 

A field study of Hardy-Rand-Rittler color vtswn 

plate test. Amer. J. Ophthal., 48 :124-129, 1959. 

This paper compared the H-R-R color vision test 

with the American Optical Company pseudo-isochromatic plate test used by the RCAF and with the 

RCAF lantern. The authors suggested that with 

the Hardy-Rand-Rittler test a simplified form can 

be used and subjects may record their own responses. 

49. MuNTEANU, M. Examination of the colour sense in 

the navy. The chromatoscope. Rev. Int. F!erv. 

Sante. ArmJes., 38:361-363, 1965. 

This paper described a form of color lantern and its 

use in the te~ting of color vision. 

50. NAKAJIMA, A., .ICHIKAWA, H., ~AKAGAWA, 0., MAJIMA, A., & WATANABE, M. Ishihara test in color 

vision defects. Studies on a statistical method 

for evaluation of the screening efficiency of several 

plates. Amer. J. Ophthal., 49 :921-929, 1960. 

A set of Ishihara test plates (25 plates from the 

thirteenth edition) was used for the screening of 

color vision defects in 3,033 school children aged 

six to ten yean;, along with three other plates for 

tritanopes and anomaloscopic examination for defectives picked up by the screening. Using the 

number of misread plates as criterion, this set of 

Ishihara test plates could separate red-green defectives very clearly from normals. Analysis of the 

distribution of misreadings by statistical methods 

5 

was presented. The Poisson law can be used for 

the approximation of the observed distribution, and 

efficiency in error of screening can be estimated on 

this basis. 

51. P~CHOUX, R., RESS~GUIER, J., DEFAYOLLE, M., & RAYMOND, R. Etude d'une batterie d'epreuves pour la 

d~tection des anomalies de la vision des couleurs 

dans les centres de sel~ction. Bull. Gent. Etude 

Rech. Psychotech., 6 :171-182, 1957. 

This paper compai·ed Beyne's lantern with the orthorater and the Ishihara test. The author recommended that all subjects be examined with the orthorater. Those who obtain scores of eight or more 

on the scale of ten should be considered normal. 

Those who score seven or less should undergo the 

simplified Ishihara test. Those who score exactly 

eight in the Ishihara test should be considered 

n·ormal. Those whose score on the Ishihara is less 

than or equal to seven should be examined by 

Beyne's lantern. 

52. PERDRIEL, G. L'examen de la vision des couleurs en 

pratique com·ante. Annee Ther. Olin. Ophthal., 

11 :221-237, 1960. 

This article surveyed existing color vision tests. It 

has brief descriptions of the tests but no comparisons were made among them. 

53. PERDRIEL, G. Le test de Farnsworth 100 hue. Ann. 

Oculist. (Paris), 195:120-130, 1962. 

This paper described the principles and uses of the 

Farnsworth 100 Hue test. 

54. PETERS, G. The new Dvorine color perception tl'st. 

Optom. Wkly., 45:1801-1803, 1954. 

This paper presented some normative data for the 

second edition of the Dvorine color perception test. 

55. PETERS, G. Diagnostic sensitivity of color perception 

tests. Optom. Wkly., 46 :136-137, 1955. 

This paper compared the second edition of the 

Dvorine color perception test with the American 

Optical Company color perception test. The author 

concluded that the second edition of the Dvorine 

test was a more sensitive diagnostic instrument for 

the detection of color defects than was the American 

Optical Company color test (18 plate selection). 

56. PETERs, G. A color-blindness test for use in vocational guidance. Optom. Wkly., 48:1171-1173, 1957. 

A quantitative classification table was presented as 

an aid in the interpretation of the Dvorine color 

perception test. This provides a classification as to 

degree of defect, the percentages of color blindness 

that may be found in the general population for 

each degree of defect, and an estimate of the vocational limitation resulting from such defects. 

57. PICKFORD, R. W. Test for color blindness. Brit. 

llied. Bull., 9 :82, 1953. 

This is a review of the tenth , dition of the Ishihara 

test. The author suggested that the tenth edition 

was less reliable than the eighth, and that the ninth 

edition fell between them. 

58. PICKFORD, R. W. A practical anomaloscope for testing color vision and color blindness. Brit. J. 

Physiol. Opt., 14 :2-26, 1957. 

A simple filter anomaloscope for testing red-green 
and yellow-blue color vision was described. The 

technique for using the anomaloscope and norms 

for normal color vision and for color defective vision 

were provided. 

59. PICKFORD, R. W. & LAKOWSKI, R. The PickfordNicolson anomaloscope for testing and measuring 

colour sensitivity and colour blindness, and other 

tests and experiments. Brit. J. Physiol. Opt., 

17 :131-150, 1960. 

An anomaloscope based on a simple colorimeter 

was described that permits red-green and blue-yellow 

tests. 

60. RAND, G. & RITTLER, i\1. C. An evaluation of the 

AO H-R-R pseudo-isochromatic plates. A test for 

detecting, classifying, and estimating the degree 

of defective color vision. A.M.A. Arch. Ophthal., 

56:736-742, 1956. 

The paper evaluated the AO H-R-R rseudo-isochromatic plates and compared them with the prototype 

H-R-R tests. 

61. RAUTIAN, G. N. A new anomaloscope. (in Russian) 

Biojizika, 2 :734-742, 1957. 

This paper desct·ibed an anomaloscope that permits 

three tests of color discrimination in addition to 

the usual Rayleigh anomaloscope test. 

62. Rru, R. Le probfume de la perception des signaux 

colores et du Daltonisme dans la marine. Rev. 

:Med. Nav., 11 :7-35, 1956. 

This paper presented the design for the Beyne 

chromoptemetric lantern. This lantern was designed 

to present lights equivalent to the color signal lights 

used in aviation, in the navy, or on railroads. 

Stimuli are variable in brightness, size, and duration. The lantern was compared with the lantern 

currently in use in the French Navy. 

63. RoTH, A. Le test 28 hue selon Farnsworth. Bull. 

Soc. Ophthal. Fr., 66:231-238, 1966. 

This paper descriJ?ed a test using 28 hues taken 

from the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue test and presented together as in the Farnsworth Dichotomous 

(Panel D-15) test. It was claimed that the test 

can isolate protans, deutans, tritans, tetartans, and 

achromats with scotopic vision. 

64. SAWA, J. Note on the color vision tests with pseudoisochromatic test plates. (in Japanese) Jap. J. 

Olin. Ophthal., 18:1207-1211, 1964. 

This paper described several pseudo-isochromatic 

test plates and assessed their individual characteristics. The author concluded that the Ishihara 

was the most reliable for screening subjects. He 

reported that other charts, especially the H-R-R and 

the TMC, gave equivocal results in borderline cases. 

For classifying color deficient subjects, the author 

found the H-R-R charts superior to the TMC charts. 

He found none of the available charts satisfactory 

for the determination of the severity of the color 

deficiency. 

65. SCHMIDT, I. Comparative evaluation of the New 

London Navy lantern for testing color perception. 

Project No. 21-29-009. August, 1951. USAF Sch. 

Aviat. Med., Randolph Field, Texas. 

The New London Navy lantern test for color per6 

ception was evaluated. The author recommended 

that subjects be adapted to room illumination for 

one-half hour before testing and that the number 

of retests in any one series be fixed. 

66. ScHMIDT, I. Some problems related to testing color 

vision with the Nagel anomaloscope. J. Opt. Soc. 

Amer., 45 :514-522, 1955. 

Topics dealt with include: elimination of training 

effects and determination of the total number of 

readings required to detect minimum practical differences between individuals; application and frequency distribution of the anomalous quotient; 

determination of the normal matching range of mixtures and of comparison yellow; and test-retest reliability of the Nagel anomaloscope. 

67. SEEFELT, E. R. An evaluation of the validity and 

reliability of the AOC 15-plate pseudo-isochromatic 

test in routine testing. A mer. J. Optom., 41 :371-

381, 1964. 

This paper compared the classification of 409 airmen 

by the AOC 15-plate test with the classification determined by the anomaloscope. The author concluded that the AOC 15-plate test lacked the necessary validity and reliability to make it possible to 

obtain proper color vision classification by a single 

administration of the test under mass testing 

conditions. 

68. SEEFELT, E. R. A comparison of the AOC and the 

Dvorine pseudo-isochromatic tests in color vision 

testing. A mer·. J. Optom., 42 :250-255, 1965. 

Color vision classifications of 210 airmen were determined by the AOC and the Dvorine tests as well 

as by the anomaloscope. Test results indicated the 

Dvorine test was a superior dichotomous test when 

compared to the AOC test. The contention that the 

Dvorine test might be used quantitatively did not 

seem to be supported by the data. 

69. SEKI, R., 0HTA, Y., TAJIRI, K., KuRATA, K., & FuKUDA, T. The results on color vision tests by the 

panel D-15. (in Japanese) Acta Soc. Ophthal. 

Jap., 68:1312-1323, 1964. 

This paper reported the study of color vision testing 

using the panel D-15 on normal subjects, congenital 

and acquired color dehcient subjects. Many congenital deuteranomalous and protanomalous subjects 

passed the test with no errors. Many acquired color 

deficient subjects were classified tritan. 

70. SLOAN, L. L. Evaluation of the To >yo Medical College color vision test. A mer. J. O.'>hthal., 52 :650-

659, 1961. 

The Tokyo Medical College color vision test was 

described and evaluated by comparisons with the 

Ishihara test, twelfth edition, and a special group 

of 16 plates. The TMC test agreed, with one exception, with a classification determined by the 31 

plates of the two other tests. 

71. SLOAN, L. L. & HABEL, A. Tests for color deficiency 

based on the pseudo-isochromatic principle. A 

comparative study of several new tests. A.M.A. 

Arch. Ophthal., 55 :229-239, 1956. 

This paper compared the Ishihara, Dvorine, and 

AO H-R-R tests. All tests detected the great rna-
jority of those with deficient color perception for 

red and green. Each of these tests, however, occasionally failed to detect mild degrees of red-green 

deficiency. Misclassification of normal subjects as 

color deficient was more likely to occur with the 

AO H-R-R screening plates than with either the 

Ishihara or the Dvorine screening tests. 

72. STAMS, A. Controversial results in examinations of 

the colour sense by employment of customary 

methods. Klin. Jfbl. Augenheilk, 147 :261-264, 1965. 

When color testing was done with the StillingVelhagen tables, the florcontrast and the anomaloscope controversial results were obtained. Relevant 

factors were mentioned. 

73. ToPLEY, H. Sight testing for the merchant navy. 

Brit. J. Physiol. Opt., 16 :36-46, 1959. 

This paper described a lantern test for color vision 

and its use in the screening of applicants for seaman. 

74. TsuTSUMI, S. A new color vision test. (in .Japanese) J. Olin. Ophthal., 18:605-610, 1964. 

An attempt was made to convert normal color vision 

into artificial color defective states corresponding 

to protanomaly, deuteranomaly, and tritanomaly by 

wearing cyan, magenta, or yellow filters respectively. 

The ability for color discrimination was tested under 

these states; it was found that the chromatic discrimination pattern for red-purple, purple, and bluepurple plates could serve as a guide in determining 

the kind and degree of eolor anomaly. 

75. UMAZUNE, K., SEKI, R., and OBI, S. Trial manufacture of new colour vision test plates. Report 1. 

(in Japanese) Acta Soc. Ophthal. Jap., 58:732-735, 

1954. 

This is a report of the test manufacture of the color 

plates for the Tokyo Medical College color test. 

76. VIes, I. I. A clinieal evaluation of color testing 

and color perception. Amcr. J. Optom., 43 :582-592, 

1966. 

This paper discussed the use of several color tests 

for detecting color defects among school children. 

77. WALLS, G. How good is the H-R-R test for color 

blindness? Amer. J. Optom., 36:169-193, 1959. 

This is a highly critical review of the AO H-R-R 

test. The author reported that as a normal-abnormal 

screening device, the test was perhaps as good as 

the Ishihara and the Dvorine. The author reported 

that the test made 18% incorrect red-green diagnoses. 

He concluded that the te,;t is an adequate normalabnormal screen; he recommended, for serious work, 

the construction of a simple and inexpensive anomaloscope. 

78. WALRAVEN, P. L. & LEEBEEK, H. J. Recognition of 

color code by normals and by color defectives at 

several illumination levels. An evaluation study 

of the H-R-R plates. A me!·· .J. Optom., 37:82-92, 

1960. 

This paper reported the number of errors in color 

code readings as a function of illumination for subjects grouped according to classification on the 

H-R-R color plates. For all groups, the number of 

mistakes dec·reased as illumination increased. At 

all illuminations there were more mistakes the more 

7 

severe the defect according to the H-R-R plates, 

except at the two highest illuminations where the 

normals and those with mild defects made equal 

numbers of mistakes. 

79. WALRAVEN, P. L., LEEBEEK, H. J. & BOUMAN, M. A. 

ISCC color aptitude test-The interpretation of 

some testing results. Report No. WW1956-:-10. 

Instituut voor Zintuigfysiologie-R.V..O.-T.N.O. August, 1956. 

This paper compared the scores of forty-eight normals and fifty-three color deficient subjects on the 

Color Aptitude test. The results indicate many 

color defectives with scores as high as those obtained by normals. The authors, therefore, questioned the value of the CAT as a test for color 

discriminating ability. 

80. WILLIS, :\f. P. & FARNSWORTH, D. Comparative 

evaluation of anomaloscopes. Bu:Med Project NM 

003 041.2601. Med. Res .. Lab. Rpt. No. 190, 18 

August, 1952. U.S. Xavy Submarine Base, New 

London, Connecticut. 

This study examined six anomalosco~es. It attempted to discover whether one type of instrument 

was better than another, and to determine the relation of anomaloscope scores to scores from other 

color vision tests. A combination score was proposed which reduces range and deviation to one 

figure and which gives an estimate of degree of 

color deficiency. This scoring method can be used 

with a comparative scaling technique that can be 

applied to all anomaloscopes to give comparable 

scores. 

81. WRIGHT, W. D. Diagnostic tests for color vision. 

Ann. R. Call. Surg., 20:177-191, 1957. 

This is a survey of various tests for color vision. 

The author concluded that, except for the colorimeter, there was no single test capable of diagnosing 

all types of defects with certainty. The author 

suggested that an effective battery of tests should 

include one of the confusion chart tests, the Nagel 

anomaloscope, and the Farnsworth-:Munsell 100 Hue 

test. 

82. YAMAMOTO, T. A new qualitative test for color 

vision. (in Japanese) J. Olin. Ophthal., 16:383-

387, 1962. 

This paper described a color test plate based on 

discrimination of chroma. It is used for the classification of protanopic and deuteranopic color defective vision and for quantitatively classifying these 

defects. 

83. YosHIHARA, :i\1. Study of objective measurement of 

color vision (report # 2). (in Japanese) Folia 

Ophthal. Jap., 13 :598-610, 1962. 

This paper reported measurement for color defect 

based on the optokinetic nystagmus produced by 

movement of a specially designed color tablet. Results indicated that the electro-nystagmograms of 

color-blind subjects were irregular in type and height 

of waves and in frequency and amplitude of oscillation. With this technique the author claimed success in screening and classifying the degrees of 

color blindness. 
AUTHOR INDEX 

Each author's name is followed by the identification number of the reports on which his name 

appears. 

Awaya, S.-47 

Bailey, R. W.-1 

Baker, H. D.-2 

Baron, J.-3 

Belcher, S. J.-4 

Bouman, M:. A.-79 

Boynton, R. l\I.-5 

Brooks, R.-32 

Burnham, R. W.-G 

Cabau, A.-3 

Cameron, R. G.-7 

Carta, F.-12 

Casola, A. S.-11 

Chapanis, A.-8, 9 

Clark, J. R.-6 

Cole, B. L.-10 

Collins, W. E.-11 

Colombi, A.-12 

Crawford, A.-13, 14 

Crone, R. A.-15, 16 

Defayolle, :\f.-51 

Dimmick, R. L.-17 

Dvorine, I.-18, 19 

Farnsworth, D.-20, 21, 22, 80 

Flekkel, A. B.-23, 24 

Foreman, P.-22 

Frey, R. G.-25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 

Fukuda, T.-69 

Gallagher, C. D.-31 

Gallagher, J. R.-31 

Goldstein, A.-32 

Greenshields, K. W.-4 

Habel, A.-71 

Haefner, R.-33 

Hardy, L. H.-34, 35, 36, 37 

Hioki, R.-38 

Romberg, L.-39 

Hoogerheide, J.-40 

Ichikawa, H.-50 

.Joshi, V. G.-41 

Katavisto, M.-42, 43 

Kirschen, M.-44 

Kurata, K.-69 

Lakowski, R.-45, 59 

Leebeek, H. J.-78, 79 

Linksz, A.-46 

l\iajima, A.-47, 50 

McCulloch, C.-48 

:\iunteanu, M.-49 

~akagawa, 0.-50 

Xakajima, A.-50 

Nakamura, Y.-38 

Obi, S.-75 

Ohta, Y.-69 

Parmentier-Beloux, M.-3 

P~choux, R.-51 

Perdriel, G.-52, 53 

Peters, G.-54, 55, 56 

Pickford, R. W.-57, 58, 59 

Rand, G.-34, 35, 36, 37, 60 

Rautian, G. N.-61 

8 

Raymond, R.-51 

Resseguier, J.-51 

Rittler, l\f. C.-34, 35, 36, 37, 60 

Riu, R.-62 

Roth, A.-63 

Sawa, J.-64 

Schmidt, 1.-65, 66 

Seefelt, E. R.-67, 68 

Seki, R.-69, 75 

Sloan, L. L.-70, 71 

Smiley, J. R.-48 

Starns, A.-72 

Tajiri, K.-69 

Tanabe, S.-47 

Topley, H.-73 

Tsutsumi, S.-74 

Turnour, N. C.-48 

Umazune, K.-75 

Vies, I. I.-76 

Vitali, G.-12 

Wagner, M.-5 

Walls, G.-77 

Walraven, P. L.-78, 79 

Watanabe, l\1.-50 

Wienke, R. E.-17 

Willis, l\f. P.-80 

Wright, W. D.-4, 81 

Yamamoto, T.-82 

Yoshihara, M.-83 

Zegers, R. T.-11 
TEST INDEX 

Each test is followed by the identification numbers o:f the reports within which the test IS discussed. 

Anomaloscope (unspecified)-28, 72, 83 

See also: 

Baker Anomaloscope 

Bausch & Lomb Anomaloscope 

Crawford Anomaloscope 

Dimmick Anomaloscope 

Double Dichroic Polaroid Anomaloscope 

Double Wedge Anomaloscope 

Hech t-Shlaer Anomaloscope 

Hioki Anomaloscope 

Nagel Anomaloscope 

Pickford AnomaloscoJe 

Pickford-Nicolson Anomaloscope 

Rautian Anomaloscope 

AOC Plates-6, 8, 9, 21, 22, 34, 35, 36, 37, 48, 54, 55, 65, 

67, 68, 71, 77, 80 

AO H-R-R Plates (includes Prototype H-R-R)-4, 11, 16, 

18, 21, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 40, 47, 48, 

50, 60, 64, 70, 71, 76, 77, 78, 81 

B-20 Test 

See: Farnsworth Dichotomous Tests 

Baker Anomaloscope-2 

Bausch & Lomb Anomaloscope-80 

Beyne's Chromoptometric Lantern-51, 62 

Bostrom Plates (various editions)-4, 8, 9, 25, 29, 42, 43, 

81 

Bostrom-Kugelberg Plates-4, 7, 8, 9, 25, 26, 29, 35, 36, 

37, 70, 71, 81 

Chromatoscope-49, 62 

Cibis Test (1 & 2)-65 

Color Aptitude Test 

See: Inter Society Color Council Color Aptitude Test 

Color Memory Test-6 

Color Rator-44 

Color Temperature Meter Anomaloscopes 

See: Dimmick Anomaloscope 

Double Wedge Anomaloscope 

Color Threshold Tester 

See: SAM-CTT 

Crawford Anomaloscope-1B, 14 

D-15 Test 

See: Farnsworth Dichotomous Tests 

Dimmick Anomaloscope (Single Wedge)-17, 22, 80 

Double Dichroic Polaroid Anomaloscope-80 

Double Wedge Anomaloscope-80 

Dvorine Pseudoisochromatic Plates (two editions)-4, 5, 

14, 18, 26, 27, 28, 29, 33, 45, 54, 55, 56, 68, 70, 71, 76, 

77, 81 

9 

Eastman Color Temperature Meter Anomaloscope 

See: Dimmick Anomaloscope 

Double Wedge Anomaloscope 

Edridge-Green Lantern-73 

Farnsworth Dichotomous Tests (B-20, D-15, F-20)-

16, 20, 21, 22, 33, B4, 35, B6, 37, 46, 60, 63, 69, 70, 71, 

80, 81 

Farnsworth Lantern (New London Xavy Lantern)-

19, 21, 22, 33,35, 36, 37, 60, 65,80 

Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue Test-3, 5, 6, 20, 34, 45, 53, 

63, 69, 71, 81 

Farnsworth Tritan Plate-26 

Florcontrast-72 

Hecht-Schlaer Anomaloscope-80 

Hioki Anomaloscope-38, 50 

Holmgren Wool Test-19 

100 Hue Test 

See: Farnsworth-i\Iunsell 100 Hue Test 

Inter Society Color Council Color Aptitude Test (ISCC 

CAT)-11, 79 

International 16 Plate Selection (Sloan Selection)-70 

Ishihara Plates (various editions)-4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 

14, 16, 18, 21, 25, 26, 28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 42, 43, 

45, 47, 50, 51, 57, 60, 62, 64, 65, 70, 71, 73, 76, 77, 80, 

81, 83 

Lantern Tests 

See: Beyne's Chromoptometric Lantern 

Chromatoscope 

Edridge-Green Lantern 

Farnsworth Lantern 

::\1artin Lantern 

RCAF Lantern 

RC~ Lantern 

SAl\f-CTT 

::\Iartin Lantern-7 

Maxwell's Spot-81 

l\Ieyrowitz Plates-8, 9 

Kagel Anomaloscope (Schmidt-Haensch)-1, 5, 7, 15, 16, 

33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 50, 60, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 77, 

80, 81 

Xew London Navy Lantern 

See: Farnsworth Lantern 

Xystagmus-83 

Okayasu Tritan Plate-50 

100 Hue Test 

See: Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue Test 

Optokinetic Xystagmus 

See: Nystagmus 
Orthorator-51 

Pickford Anomaloscope-58, 59 

Pickford-Nicolson Anomaloscope-39, 45, 59 

Polack Plates-26, 27, 28, 29, 33, 70, 71 

Pseudo-Isochromatic Plate Tests 

See: AOO Plates 

Bostrom Plates 

Bostrom-Kugelberg Plates 

Dvorine Pseudoisochromatic Plates 

International 16 Plate Selection 

Ishihara Plates 

Meyrowitz Plates 

Polack Plates 

Rabkin Plates 

Sloan-Habel International 20 Plate Selection 

Stilling Plates 

Tokyo l\Iedical College Color Test 

Yustova Plates 

Rabkin Plates-23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34 

Rautian Anomaloscope-23, 61 

- 10 

ROAF Lantern-48 

RON Lantern~8, 22 

SAM-OTT (School of Aviation Medicine Color Threshold 

Tester)-35, 36, 37, 60, 65, 70, 71 

Schmidt~Haensch Anomaloscope 

See: Nagel Anomaloscope 

Sloan-Habel International 20 Plate Selection-71 

Sloan Selection 

See: International 16 Plate Selection 

Stilling Plates (Velhagen)-7, 25, 27, 42, 43, 72 

Tokyo Medical College Color Test (TM0)-18, 26, 28, 29, 

43,47, 64, 70, 75,83 

28 Hue Test-63 

Two-Color Threshold-5 

Velhagen Plates 

See: Stilling Plates 

Wool Test 

See: Holmgren Wool Test 

Yamamoto Color Test Plates-82 

Yustova Plates-24