Administration

Federal Aviation

2008 U.S. Commercial

Space Transportation

Developments and Concepts:

Vehicles, Technologies,

and Spaceports

January 2008

HQ-08368.INDD
2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts About FAA/AST

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation i

The Federal Aviation Administration’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST) 

licenses and regulates U.S. commercial space launch and reentry activity, as well as the operation of 

non-federal launch and reentry sites, as authorized by Executive Order 12465 and Title 49 United States

Code, Subtitle IX, Chapter 701 (formerly the Commercial Space Launch Act). FAA/AST’s mission is to

ensure public health and safety and the safety of property while protecting the national security and foreign

policy interests of the United States during commercial launch and reentry operations. In addition, FAA/AST

is directed to encourage, facilitate, and promote commercial space launches and reentries. Additional 

information concerning commercial space transportation can be found on FAA/AST’s web site at

http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/.

About the Office of Commercial Space Transportation
About FAA/AST 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

ii Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

NOTICE

Use of trade names or names of manufacturers in this document does not constitute an official endorsement of such

products or manufacturers, either expressed or implied, by the Federal Aviation Administration.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Space Competitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Expendable Launch Vehicle Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Reusable Launch Vehicle Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Enabling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Regulatory Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Significant 2007 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Space Competitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Google Lunar X PRIZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

X PRIZE Cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

America’s Space Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Centennial Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Expendable Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Current Expendable Launch Vehicle Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Atlas V – United Launch Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Delta II – United Launch Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Delta IV – United Launch Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Minotaur I – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Pegasus XL – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Taurus – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Zenit-3SL – Sea Launch Company, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

ELV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

ALV – Alliant Techsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Aquarius – Space Systems/Loral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Eagle S-series – E’Prime Aerospace Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

FALCON SLV – Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Nanosat Launch Vehicle – Garvey Spacecraft Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Sprite SLV – Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Minotaur IV and V.– Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

QuickReach – AirLaunch LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Taurus 2 – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Z-1 – Zig Aerospace, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Zenit-3SLB – Sea Launch Company, LLC, and Space International Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

NASA Exploration Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Ares I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Ares V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Sounding Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Oriole – DTI Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Terrier-Orion – DTI Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Hybrid Sounding Rocket Program – Lockheed Martin-Michoud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Hybrid Test Rocket – Lockheed Martin-Michoud and Nammo AS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

SpaceLoft XL – UP Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Reusable Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Commercial RLV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Tiger & Cardinal – Acuity Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

MOD – Armadillo Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Contents

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation iii

Table of Contents
BSC Spaceship – Benson Space Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

New Shepard – Blue Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Sea Star – Interorbital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Neptune – Interorbital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

XA 1.0 – Masten Space Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Crusader LL – Micro-Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Crusader HTS – Micro-Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Volkon – Paragon Labs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Silver Dart – PlanetSpace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Rocketplane XP – Rocketplane Global . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

K-1 – Rocketplane Kistler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

SpaceShipTwo – Scaled Composites, LLC/The Spaceship Company/Virgin Galactic . . . . . . . . .27

Dream Chaser – SpaceDev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Skyhopper – Space Access, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Falcon 1 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Falcon 9 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Laramie Rose – SpeedUp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Michelle-B – TGV Rockets, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Crew Transfer Vehicle – Transformational Space LLC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Burning Splinter – Unreasonable Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Xerus – XCOR Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Government RLV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Space Shuttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Fully-Reusable Access to Space Technology Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

International Space Station Crew and Cargo Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

SpaceX Dragon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Other Commercial Crew and Cargo Transport Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Commercial Orbital Habitat Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Enabling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Friction Stir Welding – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Composite Tanks – Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Solid Engines – Alliant Techsystems, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Liquid Engines – AirLaunch LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Liquid Engines – Garvey Spacecraft Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Liquid Engines – Northrop Grumman Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Liquid Engines – Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Liquid Engines – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

Liquid Engines – XCOR Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Liquid RCS Thruster – Orion Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Liquid RCS Thruster – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Launch Abort System – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Scramjet Propulsion – Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Propellant Production – Andrews Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Air Launch Method – Air Launch LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Thermal Protection System – Andrews Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Thermal Protection System – Boeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Stage Recovery System – Alliant Techsystems, Inc. & United Space Alliance LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Contents 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

iv Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Non-Federal Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Blue Origin West Texas Launch Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

California Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Cape Canaveral Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Kodiak Launch Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Mojave Air and Space Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Oklahoma Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Federal Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

Edwards Air Force Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

NASA Kennedy Space Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Reagan Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Vandenberg Air Force Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

Wallops Flight Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

White Sands Missile Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Proposed Non-Federal Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Cecil Field Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Chugwater Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

South Texas Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Spaceport Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Spaceport America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

Spaceport Sheboygan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Spaceport Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

West Texas Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

Regulatory Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

Private Human Space Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

Experimental Launch Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

Eligibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

Experimental Permit Compared to a License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

Safety Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

Operating Area Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

Key Flight-Safety Event Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Anomaly Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Guidance Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Amateur Rocket Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

What the FAA Proposed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Class 1-Model Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Class 2-Large Model Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Class 3-High-Power Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Class 4-Advanced High-Power Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

Information Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

Photo Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Contents

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation v
AADC Alaska Aerospace Development

Corporation

ACES Air Collection and Enrichment System

AFB Air Force Base

AGL Above Ground Level

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory

ALV ATK Launch Vehicle

ARCTUS Advanced Research and Conventional

Technology Utilization Spacecraft

AST Office of Commercial Space

Transportation (within the FAA) 

ATK Alliant Techsystems

ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle

AWOS Automated Weather Observing System

BLS Boeing Launch Service

BRAC Base Realignment and Closure

BSC Benson Space Company

CALVEIN California Launch Vehicle Initiative

CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

CEV Crew Exploration Vehicle

CONUS Continental United States

COTS Commercial Orbital Transportation

Services

CSIA Clinton-Sherman Industrial Airpark

CSULB California State University, Long Beach

CSLAA Commercial Space Launch

Amendments Act

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects

Agency

DoD U.S. Department of Defense

EAFB Edwards Air Force Base

EELV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

ELTR Eastern Launch and Test Range

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle

ESA European Space Agency

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FALCON Force Application and Launch from

CONUS

FAST Fully-Reusable Access to Space

Technology

FASTT Freeflight Atmospheric Scramjet Test

Technique

GEM Graphite-Epoxy Motor

GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit

GPS/INS Global Positioning System/Inertial

Navigation System

GSC Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

GSLV Geosynchronous Satellite Launch

Vehicle

GTO Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit

HTHL Horizontal Takeoff, Horizontal Landing

HTP High-Test Peroxide

HTPB Hydroxyl Terminated Polybutadiene

HTR Hybrid Test Rocket

HTS Horizontal Test Stand

HX Hydrocarbon X

HYSR Hybrid Sounding Rocket

ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

IPD Integrated Powerhead Demonstration

IPF Integrated Processing Facility

ISS International Space Station

ISRO Indian Space Research Organization

ITAR International Traffic in Arms

Regulations

Acronyms 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

vi Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

List of Acronyms
JAA Jacksonville Aviation Authority

LAS Launch Abort System

KLC Kodiak Launch Complex

KSC Kennedy Space Center

LAP Launch Assist Platform

LAS Launch Abort System

LASR Large Array of Small Rockets

LC Launch Complex

LEO Low Earth Orbit

LOX Liquid Oxygen

MARS Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

MDA Missile Defense Agency

MEMS Microelectromechanical Systems

MEO Medium Earth Orbit

MRTFB Major Range and Test Facility Base

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center

MTA Mojave Test Area

NASA National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

NG-LLC Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander

Challenge

NLV Nanosat Launch Vehicle

NPRM Notice of Proposed Rulemaking

NRO National Reconnaissance Office

O/M Oxygen-Methane

ONR Office of Naval Research

ORS Operationally Responsive Spacelift

OSIDA Oklahoma Space Industry Development

Authority

OSP Orbital/Suborbital Program

OTV Orbital Test Vehicle

OV Orbital Vehicle

PDR Preliminary Design Review

PSLV Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

PWR Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne

R&D Research and Development

RCS Reaction Control System

RFP Request for Proposals

RLV Reusable Launch Vehicle

RP-1 Rocket Propellant 1

RSRM Reusable Solid Rocket Motor

RSTS Range Safety and Telemetry System

RTS Reagan Test Site

SBIR Small Business Innovation Research

SLC Space Launch Complex

SLF Shuttle Landing Facility

SLV Small Launch Vehicle 

SSI Spaceport Systems International

SS/L Space Systems / Loral

SSME Space Shuttle Main Engine

SSO Sun-synchronous Orbit 

STEREO Solar Terrestrial Relations

Observatories

STS Space Transportation System

t/LAD Trapeze-Lanyard Air Drop

TBD To Be Determined

TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

ULA United Launch Alliance

USAF United States Air Force

VAB Vehicle Assembly Building

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Acronyms

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation vii
VAFB Vandenberg Air Force Base

VaPaK Vapor Pressurization

VTS Vertical Test Stand

VCSFA Virginia Commercial Space Flight

Authority

WAA Wisconsin Aerospace Authority

WIRED Workforce Innovation in Regional

Economic Development

WFF Wallops Flight Facility

WSMR White Sands Missile Range

XA eXtreme Altitude

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

viii Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Introduction

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 1

2007 was a year of continued steady progress

across the broad spectrum of technology sectors

that together constitute the commercial space industry. Worldwide orbital launches occurred in numbers closely mirroring those of the previous two

years, demonstrating that the industry’s recovery

from the sharp downturn in launch activity earlier

in the decade has stabilized. Additionally, development and testing of new expendable and reusable

launch vehicles continued, with several vehicles

taking considerable steps toward operability.

The space tourism industry also came into

greater definition in 2007. Virgin Galactic surpassed its mark of 100 committed suborbital spaceflight passengers, and had garnered some $31 million in revenues from ticket sales as the year

closed. Other companies and private financiers

funded exploration of alternative space tourism

vehicle and spaceport concepts. And in April 2007,

American software developer Charles Simonyi

became the fifth orbital space tourist to visit the

International Space Station (ISS) aboard a Soyuz

flight sponsored by Space Adventures Ltd. 

Finally, commercialization initiatives proceeded apace. Following its award of $500 million to

Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) and

Rocketplane Kistler (RpK) in 2006 for the agency’s

Commercial Orbital Transportation Services

(COTS) program, NASA in 2007 withdrew the

$174 million remaining in its award to RpK and

began a process of recompeting it among other

vehicle developers. New Mexico again hosted the

X PRIZE Cup, where private vehicle developers

competed a second time for X PRIZE Foundation

and NASA Centennial Challenges awards. And the

United States Department of Defense (DoD), via a

host of initiatives, continued to fund development

of new vehicle families able to launch quickly and

inexpensively, as well as be versatile enough to

serve both military and commercial needs.

This report explores these developments and

other major events that defined U.S. commercial

space transportation in 2007. It showcases current

and planned U.S. commercial or commercially-oriented activities. It also addresses space competitions, reusable launch vehicles (RLVs), expendable

launch vehicles (ELVs), reentry vehicles and inspace technologies, enabling technologies such as

propulsion and launch configurations, the evolving

array of U.S. spaceports, and new developments in

the regulatory arena.

Whether new developments are highly publicized occurrences or gradual changes, commercial

space transportation remains a dynamic industry.

Providing a broad understanding of today’s commercial launch sector requires examining a wide

range of topics. Information presented in this report

was compiled from open sources and through direct

communication with academic, federal, civil, and

corporate organizations. Because many of the statements herein are forward-looking, the most current

information should be obtained by directly contacting the organizations mentioned in this report.

Space Competitions

In September 2007, a significant new international space prize competition was announced

encouraging the private exploration of the Moon.

The Google Lunar X PRIZE was organized by the

X PRIZE Foundation with sponsorship from

Google, along with strategic partnerships with

SpaceX, the SETI Institute, the Saint Louis Science

Center, and the International Space University.

The second X PRIZE Cup took place October

27-28, 2007, at Holloman Air Force Base’s Air and

Space Expo, near Alamogordo, New Mexico. The

Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge was

held, featuring several rocket flights by Armadillo

Aerospace under an FAA-issued experimental permit. Like the competition held in 2006, none of the

registered participants successfully completed the

challenge criteria. However, promising technologies

were flown and static displays provided interactive

education for the general public.

In 2007, the first prize money was awarded

for the Centennial Challenge program: one prize for

$200,000 was awarded for space technology (astronaut gloves). Although participants fell short in

other Centennial Challenges they attempted, several

were determined to try again in 2008, and their

efforts showed promising technological progress.

Introduction
Expendable Launch Vehicle Industry

In 2007, U.S. ELVs—with one notable exception—maintained launch tempos comparable to the

year prior. The Atlas V, Delta II, Delta IV, Minotaur

I, Pegasus XL, and other ELVs conducted numerous launches, all successful. The Taurus vehicle did

not launch in 2007, but two Taurus launches are

scheduled for 2008. The Sea Launch Zenit-3SL

booster—a major commercial launch provider—

suffered a launch failure in January 2007 that

derailed its use for the remainder of the year.

However, the Zenit-3SL is expected to return to

flight and fully resume its commercial launch

tempo in 2008.

In addition, UP Aerospace conducted the first

successful commercial launch of its SpaceLoft XL

suborbital rocket. The launch was the first successful mission launched from New Mexico’s Spaceport

America.

Several companies continued to develop new

ELV concepts in 2007, including the Alliant

Techsystems (ATK) Launch Vehicle; Aquarius by

Space Systems Loral; Eaglet by E’Prime

Aerospace; Falcon Small Launch Vehicle (SLV) by

Lockheed Martin; Nanosat Launch Vehicle by

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation (GSC); Eagle SLV

by Microcosm; QuickReach by AirLaunch LLC; Z1 by Zig Aerospace, LLC; and the Zenit-3SLB

vehicle being developed by Sea Launch. Most of

these designs focus on the small payload market.

Additionally in 2007, NASA further refined

plans for the Ares I and Ares V vehicles, which will

leverage Space Shuttle and Apollo-era technologies

toward future manned and unmanned missions. In

July, NASA awarded Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne

a $1.2-billion contract to develop the Ares I upper

stage engine, and in August 2007, the agency

selected Boeing to build the Ares I upper stage

itself. Planning for the Ares V was ongoing, with

detailed technical specifications for the vehicle yet

to be announced.

Reusable Launch Vehicle Industry

Several RLV efforts enjoyed notable successes in 2007. On the heels of the first FAA-permitted

flight of Blue Origin’s New Shepard rocket in late

2006, the company performed two follow-on test

flights on March 22 and April 19, 2007. Additionally, the

second Falcon 1 launch, designated Demo Flight 2,

took place on March 20, 2007. Although the vehicle

failed to reach orbit because of an upper stage control anomaly causing the engine to shut down prematurely, SpaceX has taken several steps to resolve

the problem, and a third Falcon 1 flight is expected

in 2008.

Armadillo Aerospace received an experimental permit for its MOD-1 vehicle in 2007. Under

this permit, on October 20, MOD-1 performed a

low-altitude flight test at the Oklahoma Spaceport

to demonstrate it was capable of performing the

flight profile needed to win Level One of the Lunar

Lander Challenge. MOD-1 then made four flights

at the 2007 X PRIZE Cup in an effort to win the

competition. The vehicle successfully flew the first

leg of the Level One challenge on the afternoon of

October 27, but during the return suffered a “hard

start” of its engine causing a shut down as the vehicle hovered over the landing pad. Despite this

minor setback, Armadillo plans to continue test

flights in 2008.

Other companies pursued ongoing tests of

their respective RLVs in 2007. Among the highlights, Masten Space Systems’ XA 0.1 began tethered flight tests, with larger prototype, the XA 0.2,

currently under development; and Rocketplane

Global unveiled a new design for the Rocketplane

XP suborbital vehicle.

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space

Technologies

The NASA Vision for Space Exploration,

along with the planned 2010 retirement of the

Space Shuttle, has prompted the need for new reentry vehicles and in-space technologies to support

future manned and unmanned missions. To maintain mission capability after the Shuttle is retired,

NASA is developing the Orion Crew Exploration

Vehicle to carry people and pressurized cargo into

space. At the end of missions, Orion will also serve

as the atmospheric reentry vehicle. It will reenter

the atmosphere using a newly-developed thermal

protection system. Unmanned abort testing of this

reentry vehicle is slated to begin in 2008.

Among notable other initiatives in this technology sector, Bigelow Aerospace followed its sucIntroduction 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

2 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
cessful 2006 Genesis I mission with a second

orbital habitat demonstration mission, Genesis II, in

2007, as well as preparation of the larger Galaxy

and Sundancer inflatable modules. Galaxy will be a

ground-tested module, though it was originally

planned to be launched into orbit during 2008.

Enabling Technologies

Department of Defense (DoD) needs

remained a primary driver of enabling technology

development in 2007. In July 2007, for example,

DARPA and the USAF jointly agreed to fund Phase

2C of AirLaunch LLC engine tests at a value of

$7.6 million. These Vapor Pressurization (VaPak)

upper stage engines for the AirLaunch QuickReach

Small Launch Vehicle (SLV) would facilitate delivery of a 450-kilogram (1,000-pound) payload to

low Earth orbit (LEO) for $5 million per launch

with a response time of less than 24 hours—an

application useful to operationally responsive space

and other defense needs.

In addition, a large number of private companies are developing cryogenic fuel tanks, in-flight

propellant collection systems, advanced liquid-fuel

engines, hybrid rocket motors, more sophisticated

propulsion systems, new launch methodologies

such as air launch, and other technologies and techniques. These enabling technologies can be leveraged for a wide variety of defense and other space

access applications.

Spaceports

In 2007, federal and non-federal spaceports

alike sought to expand their capabilities to entice an

emerging responsive and suborbital space tourism

market. These spaceports continued to carry out

launches at similar tempos as in recent years while

implementing infrastructure improvements as funding allowed and exploring whether and how to

position themselves within the commercial marketplace.

Regulatory Developments

2007 was also a year of ongoing regulatory

enhancements. The FAA continued to refine its regulations in three primary areas: private human

spaceflight, experimental launches, and amateur

rockets.

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Introduction

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 3
January 11: China demonstrates a major new military space capability by successfully testing an antisatellite weapon that destroys the aging Chinese

weather satellite Fengyun 1C. The test creates considerable orbital debris and draws formal protests

from the United States, Australia, Canada, Japan,

South Korea, and other nations.

January 30: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL rocket

explodes upon liftoff, destroying the vehicle and its

payload, the NSS 8 communications satellite, as

well as damaging the Odyssey Launch Platform.

Russian and Ukrainian authorities identify a foreign

object in an engine turbopump as the likely cause

of the failure.

February 21: NASA Ames Research Center and

space tourism company Virgin Galactic sign a

memorandum of understanding to cooperate on

developing various technologies including spacesuits, thermal protection systems, hybrid propulsion

systems, and hypersonic vehicles.

March 20: Space Exploration Technologies

(SpaceX) conducts the second launch of its Falcon

1 rocket from Kwajalein Atoll in the Pacific Ocean.

The vehicle lifts off successfully and climbs to an

altitude of approximately 300 kilometers (183

miles). However, at five minutes into the flight the

rocket’s second stage experiences a roll control

anomaly and fails to achieve orbit. SpaceX concludes that the anomaly caused propellants to centrifuge away from tank outlets, leading the engine

to shut down prematurely. Although the rocket does

not reach orbit, SpaceX considers the flight a success that demonstrated the viability of about 90 percent of the technologies used in the vehicle.

April 3: Voters in New Mexico’s Doña Ana County

approve a sales tax increase designed to raise an

estimated $49 million toward funding Spaceport

America, the future headquarters of Sir Richard

Branson’s Virgin Galactic suborbital space tourism

company.

April 7: The Soyuz ISS 14S mission lifts off from

Baikonur in Kazakhstan carrying the fifth orbital

space tourist to the International Space Station

(ISS). Charles Simonyi, a software architect formerly with Microsoft, spends 13 days in space in a

trip organized by the space tourism company Space

Adventures, Ltd. before returning safely to the

Earth on April 21.

April 23: India conducts its first commercial

launch as a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

lifts off from Satish Dhawan Space Centre carrying

AGILE, an Italian astrophysics satellite. The launch

is marketed by Antrix, the commercial arm of the

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).

April 28: UP Aerospace conducts the first successful commercial launch of its Spaceloft XL suborbital rocket, lofting a Celestis capsule carrying the

cremains of actor James Doohan (the character

“Scotty” from Star Trek), astronaut Gordon Cooper,

and others to an altitude of 115 kilometers (72

miles) before coming down at White Sands Missile

Range. It is the first successful mission launched

from Spaceport America.

May 22: The European Commission and the

European Space Agency (ESA) formally adopt the

first official European Space Policy, a landmark

policy document resulting from nearly three years

of European Space Council meetings involving

consultation with 29 member and observer states. It

expresses that space will play an increasing role in

the security and prosperity of Europe, that

European space assets must be protected from disruption, and that Europe must maximize its return

on investment in space.

June 7: A Boeing Delta II launches the COSMOSkyMed 1 remote sensing satellite from

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB).

July 20: Northrop Grumman Corporation, which

had previously held a 40 percent stake in Scaled

Composites, LLC, announces its acquisition of the

Mojave, California-based developer of the

SpaceShipOne vehicle that captured the Ansari X

Prize in 2004. Both companies state the acquisition

will have no effect on Scaled Composites’ arrangement to provide a fleet of SpaceShipTwo vehicles

to Virgin Galactic.

Significant 2007 Events 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

4 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Significant 2007 Events
July 26: A nitrous oxide flash explosion at Mojave

Air and Space Port, California, kills three Scaled

Composites employees and injures three others. The

accident prompts Mojave Air and Space Port and

Scaled Composites officials to review preventive

safety procedures at the launch facility.

September 6: A Proton rocket carrying the

Japanese communications satellite JCSAT 11 does

not reach orbit when the booster’s second stage

fails to separate, causing it to crash in Kazakh territory downrange from the Baikonur launch site. An

investigation by a Russian State Commission concludes the failure was caused by a defective cable

that prevented the firing of the explosive bolts used

in stage separation. The Proton vehicle returns to

flight on October 26. 

September 13: The X PRIZE Foundation and the

Internet search engine company Google unveil the

$30-million Google Lunar X PRIZE competition.

Under the terms of the competition, Google will

award $20 million to the first company to develop a

lunar rover that can soft-land on the Moon, rove at

least 500 meters, and return a series of high-resolution images and videos. A $5-million prize will be

awarded to the second company to achieve the feat.

The remaining $5 million will fund bonus prizes,

such as discovering lunar water ice. The X PRIZE

Foundation will administer the competition, whose

cash prize expires at the end of 2014.

September 18: A Boeing Delta II launches the

WorldView 1 remote sensing satellite from VAFB.

October 18: NASA terminates an existing agreement with Rocketplane Kistler (RpK) to help fund

development of a reusable launch vehicle after the

30-day notice of termination the agency had given

RpK in September expires. The company was one

of two to win Commercial Orbital Transportation

Services (COTS) demonstration awards. RpK had

taken over the development of the K-1 vehicle originally proposed by Kistler Aerospace, but had

missed several milestones in its agreement due to

the company's difficulty raising an estimated $500

million from the private sector. NASA announces

plans to hold a competition to award the remaining

money in the RpK award, $174.7 million, with

results to be announced in 2008.

October 27-28: The 2007 X PRIZE Cup is held at

Holloman Air Force Base’s Air and Space Expo in

New Mexico. An estimated 85,000 people over two

days attend this second X PRIZE Cup, an air and

space expo conceived to highlight the emerging

personal spaceflight industry and stage technology

competitions such as the Northrop Grumman Lunar

Lander Challenge. 

November 6: Striking machinists involved with

Space Shuttle operations at the Kennedy Space

Center (KSC) reach an agreement with their

employer, United Space Alliance, on a new threeyear contract providing workers with a substantial

portion of the wage increases they had sought and

more limited concessions on benefits. 

November 22: Russia announces plans for a new

spaceport, the Vostochny (“Eastern”) cosmodrome,

in the Amur region located in the Far East of the

country. The precise location of the spaceport will

be decided by 2010, with unmanned launches slated

to begin from there by 2015, followed by manned

missions in 2018.

November 24: European Union (EU) member

nations reach an agreement on funding the Galileo

satellite navigation system after deciding to divide

development of the constellation into six contracts

and prohibit any one company from winning more

than two of them. The proposal will fund Galileo at

€2.4 billion (US$3.5 billion) using unspent agricultural subsidies.

December 6: Odyssey Moon, a newly established

international lunar enterprise based in the Isle of

Man, announces it will seek the $30-million Google

Lunar X PRIZE, making the company the first team

to complete registration for entry into the competition.

December 8: A Boeing Delta II launches the

Cosmo-Skymed 2 remote sensing satellite from

VAFB.

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Significant 2007 Events

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 5
The U.S. space community has a number of prize

competitions that promote the development of commercial spaceflight technology. Various technologies and services are being competed in order to

increase the capability of private spacefaring entities to access and operate within suborbital space,

orbital space, and beyond. These competitions aim

to create commercial space launch services (and

other space capabilities) with lower costs, better

quality, and more efficient processes than the

options currently available. The four sets of currently active prize competitions are the Google Lunar X

PRIZE, the X PRIZE Cup, America’s Space Prize,

and NASA’s various Centennial Challenges.

Google Lunar X PRIZE

In September 2007, the X PRIZE Foundation

announced a new international space prize competition to encourage the private exploration of the

Moon. The Google Lunar X PRIZE calls for privately funded teams to land a robot on the surface

of the Moon, explore the surface by traveling at

least 500 meters, and return two packages of highresolution video and imagery (called “Mooncasts”)

back to the Earth. The first place winner will claim

$20 million if the prize is won by the end of 2012,

or $15 million if the prize is won in 2013 or 2014.

A second place prize valued at $5 million is available for the second team to complete the contest

criteria before the end of 2014; it may also be

awarded in place of the first place prize if the first

team partially completes the mission. Additional

bonus prizes worth a total of $5 million will be

available for successfully completing certain complex lunar exploration tasks, bringing the total

Google Lunar X PRIZE purse to $30 million.1

The contest will require teams to use a private

launch, thereby pushing forward commercial launch

vehicle capability and potentially increasing launch

demand.

X PRIZE Cup

The X PRIZE Cup is an annual event to

advance new concepts and technologies that enable

commercial human spaceflight by providing awards

and cash prizes. A secondary priority for the competition is to promote education and awareness in

the general population about advancements in

spaceflight technology. The public has the opportunity to view competitions between providers of

commercial space technology and interact with

aerospace industry pioneers who are working to

reduce the cost and increase the safety and viability

of commercial human space travel. Thus far, two

Cups have been held, plus the “Countdown to the X

PRIZE Cup” in 2005. At both Cups, $2 million in

prizes have been offered as part of the Northrop

Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge, a prize competition funded by NASA’s Centennial Challenges

program. The eventual goal of the event is to have

teams compete in several categories of human

spaceflight to win the overall X PRIZE Cup, as

well as hold other individual competitions and

Rocket Racing League events. Conceptual Cup categories include: fastest turnaround time between a

vehicle’s first launch and second landing, maximum

number of passengers per launch, total number of

passengers during the competition, maximum altitude, and fastest flight time. Current vehicle development timelines will not allow for these types of

competitions for several years, though other significant activities have taken place at the annual event.

The second X PRIZE Cup took place October

27-28, 2007, at Holloman Air Force Base’s Air and

Space Expo, near Alamogordo, New Mexico. The

Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge (see

the Centennial Challenges section) was held, which

featured several rocket flights by Armadillo

Aerospace under an FAA-issued experimental permit. Like the competition held in 2006, none of the

Space Competitions 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

6 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Space Prize Competitions

Lunar rover mockup at the 

introduction of the Google Lunar X PRIZE
registered participants successfully completed the

challenge criteria, but promising technologies were

flown and static displays provided interactive education for the general public.3

America’s Space Prize

Bigelow Aerospace has proposed a commercial spaceflight competition, America’s Space Prize,

to develop affordable spacecraft that could service

their future space complexes. This prize challenges

entities to design a spacecraft without government

funding that is capable of carrying passengers into

orbit with the eventual goal of transporting humans

to Bigelow Aerospace’s expandable space habitats.

According to the rules, competitors will be required

to build a spacecraft capable of carrying a five-person crew to an altitude of 400 kilometers (240

miles) and completing two orbits of the Earth at

that altitude. They must then repeat that accomplishment within 60 days. Both flights must carry

passengers, and the second flight must carry a crew

of at least five. The spacecraft will have to dock

with a Bigelow Aerospace space complex or, at a

minimum, demonstrate relevant docking capability.

In addition, no more than 20 percent of the spacecraft can consist of expendable hardware. With the

successful launch and ongoing operation of the

Genesis I and Genesis II pathfinder spacecraft, as

well as the company’s current plans for future habitable complexes, Bigelow Aerospace is aggressively continuing to build demand for the transportation

systems outlined in the America’s Space Prize competition. The competition deadline is January 10,

2010, with a cash prize of $50 million, funded fully

by Bigelow Aerospace.4

Centennial Challenges

NASA’s Innovative Partnerships Program

(IPP) uses Centennial Challenges to advance the

development of space technologies through prize

competitions, bringing important government

encouragement to commercial efforts. Centennial

Challenges was previously located within the

Exploration Systems Mission Directorate, but was

moved to IPP at the beginning of fiscal year 2007.

This program creates specialized competitions to

stimulate progress on specific technologies related

to exploring space and other NASA missions.

NASA uses funding outlets beyond the standard

procurement process and collaborates with nonprofit organizations to sponsor, promote, and operate the competitions. There are seven Centennial

Challenges currently active, six of which support

space technology. All of these are open for competition between U.S. non-governmental entities. Not

all of the competitions deal directly with commercial space transportation technologies, but they do

spur technology development for use in future

space missions, and can drive the demand for

spaceflight. The first award of Centennial

Challenges prize money was made in 2007 for

space technology. Other Centennial Challenge

attempts, while not winning prize money, have

shown promising technological progress.5

The NASA prize competition that correlates

most directly with rocket-powered commercial

space transportation is the Northrop Grumman

Lunar Lander Challenge (NG-LLC). This competition is administered and executed by the X PRIZE

Foundation, who received funding to cover administrative costs from Northrop Grumman in

exchange for naming rights of the competition. The

rules of the NG-LLC call for a rocket-propelled

vehicle with an assigned payload mass to demonstrate its ability to takeoff vertically, fly for a minimum amount of time during which it must reach a

certain altitude, travel

horizontally to a designated landing area, land

vertically at the landing

area, and complete a

similar return trip within

a set timeframe. The

flight characteristics are

tested at two different

difficulty levels that

have separate prizes

based on increasingly

difficult requirements.

During the 2007 NGLLC held at the X

PRIZE Cup, Armadillo

Aerospace was the only

participant to fly a lunar

lander concept, though nine teams had originally

registered to compete.6 Armadillo made four flight

attempts to win the first-level competition using its

MOD-1 vehicle. The team was unable to win the

prize money and did not make an attempt at the

higher-level difficulty requirements, but the team,

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Space Competitions

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 7

Flight of Armadillo

Aerospace’s MOD-1 

vehicle for the 2007

Northrop Grumman 

Lunar Lander Challenge
as in 2006, showed its technological progress

through flight attempts. The total prize money,

$500,000 for level one and $1,500,000 for level

two, will transfer to 2008 when the challenge will

be held again.

The other space-focused Centennial

Challenges, not including the Personal Air Vehicle

Challenge administered and executed by the

Comparative Aircraft Flight Efficiency Foundation,

promote future space mission technologies that

could increase the likelihood for spaceflight and

possibly commercial space transportation. The

Astronaut Glove Challenge (run by Volanz

Aerospace/Spaceflight America) was won in 2007

by Peter Homer for his glove’s best rating in

strength, flexibility, and comfort categories.7 The

contest paid $200,000 and will continue in 2008

with a total of $400,000 in prize money. The first

two Centennial Challenges ever held, and which

will continue in 2008, are the Tether and Beam

Power Challenges (conducted by the Spaceward

Foundation) encouraging the development of high

strength-to-weight materials and wireless power

distribution technologies. The 2007 competitions

were held at the Space Elevator Games on October

19-21 near Salt Lake City, Utah.8 There has yet to

be a winner of these two challenges, so the prize

money will continue to accumulate, increasing in

2008 to $900,000 for each competition. The

Regolith Excavation Challenge, conducted in 2007

with four teams but no winner, and Moon Regolith

Oxygen Extraction Challenge (both run by the

California Space Education and Workforce

Institute) are also active. These Challenges have

prizes amounting to $750,000 and $1 million,

respectively, for future lunar exploration excavation

and oxygen extraction technologies.9 Together, all

these competitions are meeting NASA’s goals of

promoting and publicizing private space technology

development through the investment of non-governmental resources, ingenuity, and innovation.

The President’s Fiscal Year (FY) 2008 Budget

Request asks for $4 million per year for Centennial

Challenges for FY 2008 through FY 2012 as a part

of the IPP.10 The FY 2008 omnibus budget bill

passed by Congress in December 2007 provides no

new funding for Centennial Challenges.11 Despite

the fact that the program’s budget was zeroed out in

FY 2007 by the continuing resolution and in FY

2008 by the omnibus budget bill, the extant competitions are fully-funded and the prize purses are

becoming significantly larger. The funding exists

because NASA has not experienced large associated

program costs to present, which is a result of

administrative and operational cost-shifting through

collaborations with non-profit organizations, and

because unearned prize money has rolled over from

one year to the next. Provided additional appropriations are agreed upon, NASA plans to expand the

number of Centennial Challenges, with more competitions dealing with space exploration, science,

and transportation.

Space Competitions 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

8 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
This survey of U.S. ELVs is divided into four sections. The first reviews the ELVs currently available to serve a wide range of commercial and government payloads. The second reviews a number of

proposed commercial ELVs under study or development. Many of these are designed to launch

small satellites at lower costs and quicker than

existing vehicles. The third discusses the new

launch vehicles being developed exclusively to support the U.S. Vision for Space Exploration. The

final section reviews suborbital sounding rockets

manufactured and operated by U.S. companies.

Current Expendable Launch Vehicle

Systems

Table 1, on the next page, lists the ELV systems available in the United States today for commercial, government, or both, missions. The

Minotaur is restricted to government payloads, and

Boeing is currently marketing the Delta IV only to

government customers. Atlas V, Delta II, Pegasus,

and Taurus vehicles are available for commercial

and U.S. government launches; the Zenit-3SL is not

available for U.S. government missions.

Atlas V – United Launch Alliance 

The Atlas V is one of two launch vehicles

developed as part of the U.S. Air Force’s Evolved

Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program in the

late 1990s. The Atlas V was developed by the

Lockheed Martin Corporation; since December

2006 it has been produced by United Launch

Alliance (ULA), a joint venture between The

Boeing Company and

Lockheed Martin. The Atlas

V is made available for commercial launches by

Lockheed Martin

Commercial Launch

Services.

The Atlas V is available

in the 400 and 500 series and

accommodates 4-meter

(13.1-foot) and 5.4-meter

(17.6-foot) fairings and up to

five strap-on solid rocket

motors. The Atlas 400 series

can place payloads between 4,950 and 7,640 kilograms (10,910 and 16,843 pounds) into geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). The Atlas 500 series

can place payloads between 3,970 and 8,670 kilograms (8,750 and 19,120 pounds) into GTO. The

Atlas V launches out of Cape Canaveral Air Force

Station (CCAFS) in Florida and Vandenberg Air

Force Base (VAFB) in California.

Since its introduction in 2002 the Atlas V has

performed 12 launches. In 2007 four Atlas V

launches took place, all non-commercial. On a June

15 launch, the vehicle placed the classified NRO L30 payload into a lower-than-planned orbit. The

divergence from the planned orbit was traced to a

leaky fuel valve in the Centaur upper stage that

caused the Centaur engine to shut down early. That

valve has been replaced with a proven older

model.12 Up to seven Atlas V launches, including

one commercial mission, are planned for 2008.

Delta II – United Launch Alliance 

The Delta II launch vehicle, in service since

1989, traces its heritage to the Thor missile program of the 1950s. Since

December 2006 the Delta II

has been produced by ULA,

and is marketed commercially by Boeing Launch

Services (BLS). The Delta II

has the capability to launch

payloads of 900 to 2,170

kilograms (1,980 to 4,790

pounds) to GTO, and 2,700

to 6,100 kilograms (5,960 to

13,440 pounds) to low Earth

orbit (LEO), and can launch

from either CCAFS or

VAFB.

There were eight Delta II launches in 2006,

including commercial launches of the CosmoSkymed 1, WorldView-1, and Cosmo-Skymed 2

satellites in June, September, and December,

respectively, from VAFB. As many as nine Delta II

launches, including three commercial missions, are

planned for 2008.

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 9

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Expendable Launch Vehicles

Atlas V

Delta II
Delta IV – United Launch Alliance

The Delta IV is one of two launch vehicles

developed for the EELV program in the 1990s. The

Delta IV was designed by Boeing, and since

December 2006 has been produced by ULA.

Originally developed for both commercial and 

government applications, the Delta IV is currently

marketed only to U.S. government customers.

The Delta IV is available in five versions,

four Medium versions, with varying payload fairing

sizes and number of strap-on boosters, and one

Heavy version, which uses three

common booster core stages

instead of one. Payload capacities

to LEO range from 9,150 kilograms (20,170 pounds) for the

Medium to 22,560 kilograms

(49,740 pounds) for the Heavy.

Geosynchronous transfer orbit

capacities range from 4,300 to

12,980 kilograms (9,480 to 28,620

pounds). The Delta IV operates

from CCAFS and VAFB.

10 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Delta IV Heavy

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Medium

Vehicle Minotaur Pegasus XL Taurus XL Delta II Delta IV Atlas V Delta IV Heavy Zenit-3SL

Company

Orbital 

Sciences

Orbital 

Sciences

Orbital 

Sciences

ULA ULA ULA ULA Sea Launch

First Launch 2000 1990 1994 1990 2002 2002 2004 1999

9,150 kg

(20,170 lb)

(Delta IV M)

12,500 kg

(27,560 lb)

(Atlas V 402)

13,360 kg

(29,440 lb)

(Delta IV M+ (5,4))

20,520 kg 

(45,240 lb) 

(Atlas V 552)

7,510 kg 

(16,550 lb)

(Delta IV M)

7,095 kg 

(15,640 lb)

(Atlas V 402)

11,300 kg

(24,920 lb)

(Delta IV M+ (5,4))

14,095 kg

(31,075 lb)

(Atlas V 552)

4,300 kg 

(9,480 lb) 

(Delta IV M)

4,950 kg 

(10,910 lb)

(Atlas V 401)

7,020 kg 

(15,470 lb) 

(Delta IV M+ (5,4))

8,670 kg 

(19,120 lb)

(Atlas V 551)

12,980 kg 

(28,620 lb)

6,100 kg 

(13,500 lb)

CCAFS, VAFB CCAFS, VAFB Pacific 

Ocean

22,560 kg 

(49,740 lb) N/A

22,560 kg 

(49,740 lb) N/A

2

Intermediate Heavy

2 2 3

CCAFS, VAFB

Small

4 3

1,590 kg

(3,505 lb)

860 kg

(2,000 lb)

(SSO)

VAFB

430 kg

(950 lb)

CCAFS, VAFB

6,100 kg

(13,440 lb)

VAFB, 

Wallops

Stages 4 3

640 kg

(1,410 lb)

440 kg

(970 lb)

Payload 

Performance 

(LEO)

2,170 kg

(4,790 lb)

3,600 kg

(7,930 lb)

Payload 

Performance

(LEO polar)

Launch Sites

340 kg

(750 lb)

(SSO)

190 kg

(420 lb)

(SSO)

VAFB, 

Wallops, 

CCAFS

Payload 

Performance 

(GTO)

N/A N/A

Table 1: Currently Available Expendable Launch Vehicles
The Delta IV has flown seven times since its introduction in late 2002. One Delta IV Heavy launch,

of the DSP 23 satellite, took place in 2007. Up to

four Delta IV launches, including one FAA-licensed

mission, are planned for 2008.

Minotaur I – Orbital Sciences Corporation

Under the U.S. Air

Force’s Orbital/Suborbital

Program (OSP), Orbital

Sciences Corporation has

developed the Minotaur family of launch vehicles, starting with the Minotaur I, to

launch small government

payloads. The Minotaur I

booster uses a combination

of rocket motors from

decommissioned Minuteman

2 ICBMs and upper stages

from Orbital’s Pegasus

launch vehicle. The first two

stages of the Minotaur are Minuteman 2 M-55A1

and SR-19 motors, while the upper two stages are

Orion 50 XL and Orion 38 motors from the Pegasus

XL. 

The Minotaur I entered service in 2000 and

has performed seven launches to date, including the

launch of the NFIRE satellite in 2007 from the

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS) in

Virginia. A Minotaur I is scheduled to launch the

TacSat-3 satellite in 2008, also from MARS. The

Minotaur I has previously performed launches from

VAFB, and can operate from CCAFS and Kodiak

Launch Complex, Alaska.

Pegasus XL – Orbital Sciences Corporation

The Pegasus XL is an air-launched booster

designed for small payloads, primarily to low Earth

and sun-synchronous orbits. Introduced in 1994, the

Pegasus XL is a derivative of the original Pegasus

rocket, with stretched first and second stages. (The

original Pegasus, first launched in 1990, was retired

in 2000.) The Pegasus XL, with three solid-propellant stages and an optional hydrazine monopropellant upper stage, is deployed from an Orbital

Sciences L-1011 aircraft named “Stargazer.” The

air-launched nature of the Pegasus XL allows missions to be staged from a variety of sites, including

Edwards Air Force Base (EAFB) and VAFB in

California; CCAFS and KSC in Florida; NASA

Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) in Virginia;

Kwajalein Missile Range, Marshall Islands; and

Gando Air Force Base (GAFB), Canary Islands.

The Pegasus XL performed one launch in

2007, launching NASA’s Aeronomy of Ice in the

Mesosphere (AIM) mission out of VAFB. Two

Pegasus XL missions are scheduled for 2008.

Taurus – Orbital Sciences Corporation

The Taurus is a groundlaunched vehicle based on

the air-launched Pegasus.

Orbital Sciences developed

the Taurus under the sponsorship of the Defense

Advanced Research Projects

Agency (DARPA). The goal

was to develop a standard

launch vehicle that could set

up quickly in new locations

and launch small satellites

that are too large for the

Pegasus XL. The Taurus uses

the three stages of a Pegasus

(without wings or stabilizers)

stacked atop a Castor 120

solid rocket motor. The

Castor 120 serves as the first

stage of the Taurus. The

Taurus is available in standard and XL versions.

The Taurus successfully completed six of seven

launch attempts since entering service in 1994. No

Taurus launches took place in 2007, but two are

scheduled for 2008.

Zenit-3SL – Sea Launch Company, LLC

The Zenit-3SL is a Ukrainian-Russian launch

vehicle operated by Sea Launch Company, LLC, a

multinational joint venture featuring four partners.

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 11

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Minotaur I

Pegasus XL

Taurus
Ukrainian sister companies SDO Yuzhnoye and PO

Yuzhmash provide the first two stages, the same as

those used on the Zenit 2 launch vehicle. A Russian

company, RSC Energia, provides the third stage, a

Block DM-SL upper stage. The Norwegian shipbuilding company, Aker, designed and built the two

Sea Launch vessels and contracts marine operations. The Boeing Company provides the payload

fairing and interfaces, as well as operations and

business management.

The Zenit-3SL launches from the Odyssey

Launch Platform, which travels from its Sea

Launch Home Port in Long Beach, California, to a

position on the equator in the Pacific Ocean for

each mission. Launch operations are remotely controlled from a separate vessel, the Sea Launch

Commander, which is positioned approximately 6.5

kilometers (about 4 miles) uprange from the platform during launch operations. Sea Launch conducts commercial launches with a license from

FAA. Under current U.S. space transportation policy, the mostly foreign-manufactured Zenit-3SL

vehicle is not available for

launch of U.S. government

payloads.

The first Zenit-3SL

launch of 2007 ended in failure on January 30 when the

vehicle lost thrust moments

after ignition of the first

stage engine, destroying the

vehicle and its payload, the

NSS-8 satellite. An investigation concluded that metallic

debris became lodged in the

liquid oxygen turbopump in

the engine, initiating combustion in the chamber, and leading to the destruction of the engine and launch vehicle.13 The Sea

Launch team has since taken measures to prevent

the problem from recurring, and also repaired and

recertified the Odyssey, which suffered minor damage, including the loss of its flame deflector. The

Zenit-3SL is scheduled to return to flight with the

launch of the Thuraya-3 satellite in January 2008,

part of a full manifest of up to five launches scheduled for the year.14

ELV Development Efforts 

A number of efforts by both established corporations and startups are currently in progress to

develop new ELVs. The majority of these designs

focus on the small LEO payload sector of the

launch market, and reducing launch costs is a key

goal.

ALV – Alliant Techsystems

In October 2006, ATK of Edina, Minnesota,

announced it was developing a small launch vehicle, the ATK Launch Vehicle (ALV). The ALV is

based on existing rocket stages developed by the

company. ATK carried out a successful “pathfinder”

for the ALV by assembling the vehicle on the pad at

MARS in 2006. The first

launch of the two-stage ALV,

a suborbital flight designated

ALV X-1 and carrying two

NASA experimental hypersonic and reentry research

payloads, is scheduled for

2008 from MARS in

Virginia. ATK plans to offer

a larger orbital version of the

ALV for government and

commercial customers seeking responsive launches of

small satellites in 2010 and

beyond.15

Aquarius – Space Systems/Loral

Space Systems/Loral of Palo Alto, California,

has proposed Aquarius, a low-cost launch vehicle

designed to carry small, inexpensive payloads into

LEO. This vehicle’s mission will consist primarily

of launching inexpensive-to-replace bulk products,

such as water, fuel, and other consumables, into

space. As currently designed, Aquarius will be a

single-stage vehicle 43 meters (141 feet) high and 4

12 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: ATK Launch Vehicle

Developer: Alliant Techsystems

First Launch: 2008 (suborbital); 2010 (orbital)

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 1,360 kg (3,000 lb) suborbital

Launch Site: MARS

Markets Served: Responsive launches of small satellites for civil, commercial, and military customers

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Zenit 3SL

ALV
meters (13.1 feet) in diameter, powered by a single

engine using liquid hydrogen and oxygen propellants. The vehicle is floated in the ocean before

launch to minimize launch infrastructure and will

be able to place a 1,000-kilogram (2,200-pound)

payload into a

200-kilometer

(125-mile), 52-

degree orbit.

Located in the

base of the vehicle, the payload

will be extracted

by an orbiting

space tug for

transfer to its

ultimate destination. When used

for small satellite launch,

Aquarius can dispense multiple satellites into 200-

kilometer (125-mile) orbits at any desired inclination. It can do this because launching at appropriate

ocean locations virtually eliminates range constraints on the trajectory. After payload deployment

is completed, the vehicle will de-orbit and be

destroyed. Planned launch costs are $1-2 million

per flight.

Previous work on Aquarius includes a study

of the launch concept funded by the California

Space Authority in 2002. Space Systems/Loral, in

conjunction with Aerojet, a GenCorp Company

based in Sacramento, California, and ORBITEC of

Madison, Wisconsin, has performed studies on a

vortex combustion cold wall engine, using LOX

and liquid hydrogen propellants that would be used

on Aquarius. Research on the Aquarius concept

includes studies of propellant transfer, analyses of

floating launch, and development and testing of an

engine with 133,000 to 445,000 newtons (30,000 to

100,000 pounds-force) of thrust.16

Eagle S-series – 

E’Prime Aerospace Corporation

E’Prime Aerospace of Falls Church, Virginia,

is developing a family of launch vehicles, called the

Eagle S-series, based on the LGM-118A

Peacekeeper ICBM design. Like the Peacekeeper,

this vehicle will be ejected from a ground-based

silo, using a compressed gas system. At an altitude

of 61 meters (200 feet), the engines will ignite. The

smallest vehicle, the Eaglet, could launch 580 kilograms (1,280 pounds) into LEO. A somewhat larger

version, the Eagle, could put 1,360 kilograms

(3,000 pounds) into LEO.

Both vehicles will use solid

propellant lower stages and

liquid propellant upper

stages. E’Prime has also proposed larger vehicles, designated S-1 through S-7, with

the ability to place considerably larger payloads into

LEO and to add a geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO)

capability. The Eagle S-series

concept dates back to 1987

when the company signed a

commercialization agreement

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 13

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Vehicle: Aquarius

Developer: Space Systems/Loral

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1

Payload Performance: 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) to LEO (52o)

Launch Site: TBD

Markets Served: ISS and spacecraft resupply, small

satellite launch

Aquarius mission profile

Aquarius

Eaglet and Eagle

Vehicle: Eaglet/Eagle

Developer: E’Prime Aerospace

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 580 kg (1,280 lb) to LEO

(Eaglet); 1,360 kg (3,000 lb) to LEO (Eagle)

Launch Site: MARS

Markets Served: Small satellite launch
with the U.S. Air Force to use Peacekeeper technology for commercial launch vehicles. In August

2007 E’Prime Aerospace announced that it had

selected MARS as its primary launch site and will

develop infrastructure there to support its vehicles.

The company also started the process of obtaining a

launch license from FAA, and in November 2007

was notified that the application had cleared an

interagency policy review, removing any government obstacles to its use of its Peacekeeper-derived

motors.17

FALCON SLV – 

Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations

Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations of New

Orleans, Louisiana, was awarded one of four

DARPA Force Application and Launch from

CONUS (FALCON) contracts in September 2004.

This $11.7 million contract tasks Lockheed Martin

to develop concepts for a low-cost launch vehicle.

Lockheed Martin’s FALCON SLV approach uses

all-hybrid propulsion and a mobile launch system

that can launch from an unimproved site with limited infrastructure on 24 hours notice, placing up to

840 kilograms (1,855

pounds) into LEO. In

2005, Lockheed conducted two test firings of the

hybrid rocket motor that

will be used on the upper

stage of the SLV. Though

Lockheed did not win a

Phase 2B Falcon contract

from DARPA in late

2005, the company continues work on the FALCON SLV, focusing on the

development and testing of the second stage of the

vehicle.18

Nanosat Launch Vehicle – 

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation (GSC), based

in Long Beach, California, is a small research and

development (R&D) company, focusing on the

development of advanced space technologies and

launch vehicle systems. As part of the California

Launch Vehicle Initiative (CALVEIN), GSC and

California State University, Long Beach (CSULB)

jointly conduct preliminary R&D tasks to establish

the foundation for development of a two-stage, liquid propellant, Nanosat Launch Vehicle (NLV).

Capable of delivering 10 kilograms (22 pounds) to

a 250-kilometer (155-mile) polar orbit, the NLV

will provide low-cost, dedicated launch services to

universities and other research organizations that

traditionally depend on secondary payload opportunities to access space. Their current work builds

upon flights that the team

conducted using several of

its LOX/ethanol Prospector

research vehicles. The company’s most visible accomplishments include the firstever flight of a composite

LOX tank, conducted in partnership with Microcosm,

Incorporated; the first-ever

powered flights of a liquidpropellant aerospike engine;

and the launch and 100 percent recovery of several prototype reusable test vehicles. 

On September 15, 2007, the GSC/CSULB

team launched the Prospector 8A (P-8A) rocket

from the Mojave Desert in California. The rocket

featured the first flight of a new 20,000-newton

(4,500-pounds-force) engine designed for future

prototypes of the NLV. The loss of the P-8A’s tail

fins four seconds into the flight caused the vehicle

to tumble out of control.19 GSC is incorporating

14 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: Nanosat Launch Vehicle

Developer: Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 10 kg (22 lb) to LEO (polar orbit)

Launch Site: TBD

Markets Served: Nanosatellite launch

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Vehicle: FALCON SLV

Developer: Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 840 kg (1,855 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: TBD

Markets Served: Small satellite launch, responsive

space operations

FALCON SLV

Prospector 8A
design lessons from that flight into its next vehicle,

the Prospector 9 (P-9), currently under development

under a Phase 2 Small Business Innovation

Research from the USAF. GSC and its research

partner, CSULB, plan five launches in the next year

of the P-9 and two other vehicles, Prospectors 10

and 12.20

Sprite SLV – Microcosm, Inc.

Microcosm, Incorporated, of Hawthorne,

California, has been developing the Scorpius family

of ELVs. Several versions are under consideration,

and two prototype suborbital test models, SR-S and

SR-XM-1, flew successfully from White Sands

Missile Range, New

Mexico, in 1999 and

2001, respectively.

Eventually, Microcosm

plans to market up to

five Scorpius variants.

Each Scorpius variant is

based on a scalable modular design featuring

simple, LOX/Jet-A, pressure-fed engines without

turbopumps and low-cost avionics equipped with

GPS/INS (global positioning system/inertial navigation system). The thick propellant tanks provide

added durability during flight and ground handling.

The orbital variants have three stages.

The suborbital variant, the SR-M, which is

essentially one of seven nearly identical “pods” of

the Sprite orbital vehicle, has been built and has a

maximum payload of 1,089 kilograms (2,400

pounds). Four orbital variants are planned. The

Sprite Small Launch Vehicle (SLV) is projected to

loft up to 481 kilograms (1,060 pounds) to LEO.

Microcosm's light-, medium-, and heavy-lift

Scorpius variants will deploy payloads to LEO and

to GTO with an upper stage. The Liberty Light-Lift

vehicle would loft up to 1,924 kilograms (4,240

pounds) to LEO and up to 757 kilograms (1,670

pounds) to GTO. The Exodus Medium-Lift vehicle

would deploy up to 8,938 kilograms (19,700

pounds) to LEO and up to 3,518 kilograms (7,760

pounds) to GTO. Specifications for the heavy-lift

Space Freighter are not yet available.

Microcosm received one of four contracts,

valued at $10.5 million, from DARPA in September

2004 for Phase 2 of the Falcon small launch vehicle

program to support development of the Eagle SLV.

However, the company was notified in August 2005

that it had not been selected for further work on the

program. The company had been continuing development of the Scorpius vehicle concept under a

separate DoD contract, but that funding ran out in

September 2006, forcing Microcosm to work on the

project under corporate funding, which continues at

present, while looking for additional funding to

restart development of the Sprite SLV.21

Minotaur IV and V – 

Orbital Sciences Corporation

Under a contract with the USAF Space and

Missile Systems Center, Orbital Sciences Corporation is

currently developing the Minotaur IV launch vehicle for U.S. government payloads. The Minotaur IV

is derived from the Peacekeeper ICBM, using three

Peacekeeper solid-propellant

stages and an Orion 38 motor

for the fourth stage. The

Minotaur IV uses a standard

234-centimeter (92-inch)

payload fairing also used on

Orbital’s Taurus rocket. The

first Minotaur IV launch is

scheduled for late 2008,

when it will launch the Space-Based Surveillance

System (SBSS) satellite for the USAF.

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 15

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Vehicle: Eagle SLV

Developer: Microcosm, Inc.

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 3

Payload Performance: 481 kg (1,060 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: VAFB, WFF, CCAFS

Markets Served: Small satellite launch, responsive

space operations

Sprite SLV

Vehicle: Minotaur IV and V

Developer: Orbital Sciences Corporation

First Launch: 2008 (Minotaur IV); TBD (Minotaur V)

Number of Stages: 4 (Minotaur IV); 5 (Minotaur V)

Payload Performance: 1,750 kg (3,860 lb) to LEO

(Minotaur IV); 675 kg (1,495 lb) to GTO (Minotaur V)

Launch Site: MARS, VAFB

Markets Served: Small satellite launch and responsive

space operations for U.S. government-sponsored payloads

Minotaur IV
Orbital is also developing a derivative of the

Minotaur IV, called the Minotaur V, for payloads

launched to orbits beyond LEO. The Minotaur V

features the same three Peacekeeper-based lower

stages, but uses a Star 48 fourth stage and Star 37

fifth stage, allowing it to put 678 kilograms (1,495

pounds) into GTO and 440 kilograms (970 pounds)

on a translunar injection trajectory. The Minotaur V

shares many of the same subsystems as the

Minotaur IV, requiring only an additional $10 million in non-recurring engineering expenses to complete its development.22

QuickReach – AirLaunch LLC

AirLaunch LLC, based in Kirkland,

Washington, is leading the development of a small,

low-cost, air-launched vehicle for defense and other

applications. The two-stage rocket is carried aloft

inside a cargo aircraft, such as a C-17A or other

large cargo aircraft. The rocket is released from the

aircraft at an altitude of

7,600 to 10,700 meters

(25,000 to 35,000 feet)

and fires its liquid-propellant engines to ascend

to orbit. The vehicle is

designed to place a 450-

kilogram (1,000-pound)

payload into LEO for

less than $5 million,

with a response time of

less than 24 hours.

In July 2006, AirLaunch LLC conducted the

safe release of a full-scale dummy rocket from an

Air Force C-17 cargo airplane. The demonstration

was a follow-on to two prior drop tests. AirLaunch

LLC did not perform further drop tests in 2007.

During 2007 AirLaunch completed work on

Phase 2B of the DARPA/USAF Falcon small

launch vehicle program, including numerous tests

of its liquid oxygen/propane vapor pressurization

(VaPak) system. AirLaunch achieved the longestever burn of a VaPak engine system with a 191-second engine firing on a test stand at Mojave Air and

Space Port, California, in April 2007. In June 2007

AirLaunch received a $7.6-million contract for

Phase 2C of the Falcon program. The contract covers continued development and testing of the VaPak

system.23 Phase 2 is anticipated to conclude with the

test launch of a QuickReach rocket in approximately 2010.24

Taurus 2 – Orbital Sciences Corporation

In 2007, Orbital Sciences Corporation

announced that it had begun a study of a new

launch vehicle, the Taurus 2, designed to serve

medium-class payloads for U.S. government and

commercial customers. The Taurus 2’s first stage

would be powered by a pair of Aerojet AJ26-58

engines, a version of the NK-33 engine developed

for the Soviet Union’s N-1 lunar rocket in the

1960s; Orbital has not disclosed any information

about the vehicle’s upper stages. The Taurus 2

would be able to place 6,000 kilograms (13,225

pounds) into LEO and 3,700 kilograms (8,150

pounds) into sun-synchronous orbit. Enhanced versions of the Taurus 2 could be used to launch payloads of up to 3,000 kilograms (6,600 pounds) into

GEO. Orbital plans to make a decision on developing the Taurus 2 in 2008, with the first launch projected to occur in mid-2010.25

Z-1 – Zig Aerospace, LLC 

Zig Aerospace of King George, Virginia, is

developing the Z-1 small launch vehicle. Intended

to launch nanosatellites and similar small payloads,

Z-1 has a maximum payload capacity of five kilograms (11 pounds) to LEO. The two-stage vehicle,

powered by hybrid propellants, is intended to cost

less than $200,000 per launch. Zig Aerospace is in

16 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Vehicle: QuickReach

Developer: AirLaunch LLC

First Launch: 2010

Number of Stages: 3 (including the launch aircraft)

Payload Performance: 450 kg (1,000 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: Air launched

Markets Served: Small satellite launch, responsive

space operations

QuickReach

Vehicle: Taurus 2

Developer: Orbital Sciences Corporation

First Launch: 2010

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 6,000 kg (13,225 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: TBD

Markets Served: Medium-class payloads for government

and commercial customers
the midst of a 3-year development program. Once

the Z-1 vehicle enters operations, the company

expects to be able to conduct launches as frequently

as once a month.26

Zenit-3SLB – 

Sea Launch Company, LLC, and Space

International Services

The Sea Launch Board of Directors voted on

September 30, 2003, to offer launch services from

the Baikonur Space Center in Kazakhstan, in addition to its sea-based launches at the Equator. The

new offering, Land Launch, is based on the collaboration of Sea Launch Company and Space

International Services, of Russia, to meet the launch

needs of commercial customers with medium

weight satellites. The Land Launch system uses a

version of the Sea Launch Zenit-3SL rocket, the

Zenit-3SLB, to lift commercial satellites in the

2,000 to 3,600-kilogram (4,410 to 7,940-pound)

range to GTO and heavier

payloads to inclined or lower

orbits. The three stages on

the Zenit-3SLB are the same

as those on the Sea Launch

Zenit-3SL; the fairing is the

only significant difference

between the two vehicles. A

two-stage configuration of

the same rocket, the Zenit2SLB, is also available for

lifting heavy payloads, or

groups of payloads, to LEO.

Payloads and vehicles will be processed and

launched from existing Zenit facilities at the

Baikonur launch site. The first Land Launch mission is scheduled for 2008. To date, Sea Launch,

which manages marketing and sales for this new

offering (in addition to its sea-based missions), has

received seven commercial orders for the Land

Launch service.27

NASA Exploration Launch Vehicles 

On September 19, 2005, NASA announced its

planned mission architecture for crewed lunar missions. The plan calls for the development of two

new launch vehicles, the Crew Launch Vehicle

(since renamed the Ares I) and the Cargo Launch

Vehicle (renamed the Ares V). Both vehicles are

designed to leverage Shuttle and even Apollo-era

technologies to launch crewed and uncrewed spacecraft required to carry out the Vision for Space

Exploration. 

Ares I 

The Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle is a twostage vehicle designed principally to launch

NASA’s Orion CEV into LEO and may also be

used to launch cargo spacecraft to the ISS. The first

stage of the Ares I is a five-segment reusable solid

rocket motor (RSRM) derived from the four-segment boosters used in the Space Shuttle program.

The second stage is a

new design powered by

a single J-2X engine,

based on the J-2S engine

developed at the end of

the Apollo program in

the early 1970s; it uses

LOX and liquid hydrogen propellants. The

Orion spacecraft, along

with an escape rocket,

will be mounted on top

of the second stage.

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 17

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Vehicle: Zenit-3SLB

Developer: Space International Services

First Launch: 2008

Number of Stages: 3

Payload Performance: 3,600 kg (7,940 lb) to GTO

Launch Site: Baikonur

Markets Served: Commercial GEO satellite launch

Vehicle: Ares I

Developer: NASA

First Launch: 2009 (suborbital); 2014 (orbital)

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 22,700 kg (50,000 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: KSC

Markets Served: Crew launches for exploration and ISS

missions

Vehicle: Z-1

Developer: Zig Aerospace, LLC

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 5 kg (11 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: TBD

Markets Served: Nanosatellite launch, responsive space

operations

Zenit-3SLB Ares I
Development of the Ares I is currently in

progress. In July 2007 NASA awarded Pratt &

Whitney Rocketdyne a $1.2-billion contract for the

J-2X engine.28 In August 2007, NASA selected

Boeing to build the upper stage of the Ares I.29

NASA also awarded Boeing a contract in December

2007 for the instrument unit avionics for the Ares I,

the last major component of the launch vehicle to

be assigned to a contractor.30 The first test flight of

the Ares I, designated Ares I-X and planned for

2009, will be a suborbital launch with an inert second stage. The Ares I is scheduled to enter service

no later than 2014.

Ares V 

The Ares V Cargo Launch Vehicle is a twostage, heavy-lift vehicle that NASA will use to

carry out human missions to the Moon and other

destinations. The Ares V uses two, five-segment

RSRMs similar to those developed for the Ares I

vehicle, attached to either side of a core propulsion

stage. The core stage

features five RS-68

engines, the same LOX

and liquid hydrogen

engines as those now

used on the Delta IV

family of vehicles.

Under the current exploration architecture, an

Ares V vehicle would

place a lunar module and Earth departure stage into

LEO, where the module would dock with an Orion

spacecraft launched separately by an Ares I. The

combined vehicle would then leave Earth orbit for

the Moon. Detailed development of the Ares V is

not expected to begin until the end of the decade.

Sounding Rockets

In addition to orbital launch vehicles, a number of suborbital ELVs, or sounding rockets, are in

use today. These vehicles, which primarily use solid

propellants, support a variety of applications,

including astronomical observations, atmospheric

research, and microgravity experiments.

Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace Limited

Over 1,000 Black Brant rockets have been

launched since 1962, when manufacturing of the

vehicle began. Versions of the Black Brant can

carry payloads ranging from 70 to 850 kilograms

(154 to 1,874 pounds) to altitudes from 150 to more

than 1,500 kilometers (93 to 932 miles), and can

provide up to 20 minutes of microgravity time during a flight. The Black Brant and Nikha motors

used on some Black Brant versions are manufactured in Canada by Bristol Aerospace Limited (a

Magellan Aerospace Company). Terrier, Talos, and

Taurus motors used on other Black Brant versions

are built in the United States. The launch operator

integrates these vehicles. In the United States,

NASA has been a frequent user of Black Brant

vehicles. 

The smallest version of the Black Brant family is the single-stage Black Brant 5, which is 533

centimeters (210 inches) long and 43.8 centimeters

(17.24 inches) in diameter. The rocket produces an

average thrust of 75,731 newtons (17,025 poundsforce). The Black Brant 5

motor is used as the second

or third stage in larger, multistage versions of the Black

Brant. The most powerful of

the line, Black Brant 12, is a

four-stage vehicle that uses

the Black Brant 5 motor as

its third stage. This vehicle

can launch a 113-kilogram

(250-pound) payload to an

altitude of at least 1,400 kilometers (870 miles), or a 454-

kilogram (1,000-pound) payload to an altitude of at least

400 kilometers (250 miles).31

Oriole – DTI Associates 

SPACEHAB’s Astrotech Space Operations

developed the Oriole sounding rocket in the late

1990s to provide launch services for commercial

and scientific payloads. Oriole was both the first

privately-developed sounding rocket in the United

States and the first new U.S. sounding rocket in 25

18 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Vehicle: Ares V

Developer: NASA

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 131,500 kg (290,000 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: KSC

Markets Served: Cargo launches for exploration 

missions

Ares V

Black Brant
years. The Oriole is a single-stage vehicle with a

graphite-epoxy motor manufactured by Alliant

Missile Products Company of Rocket Center, West

Virginia. It is 396 centimeters (156 inches) long, 56

centimeters (22 inches) in diameter, and generates

an average thrust of 92,100 newtons (20,700

pounds-force). The vehicle provides payloads with

six to nine minutes of microgravity during flight.

Additionally, it can be combined with other motors

to create two-stage sounding rockets, with the

Oriole serving as the second stage. 

The first Oriole launch took place from

NASA WFF on July 7, 2000. That launch used a

two-stage configuration, with the Oriole serving as

the second stage and a Terrier Mk 12 motor serving

as the first stage. The Oriole

sounding rocket reached a

peak altitude of 385.6 kilometers (229 miles) 315 seconds after launch during the

ten-minute test flight. In July

2001, SPACEHAB’s

Astrotech Space Operations

sold the Oriole program to

DTI Associates of Arlington,

Virginia, which integrates the

vehicle and offers it commercially. A production run of 15

Oriole rockets was scheduled

for delivery in late 2007.

Terrier-Orion – DTI Associates 

The Terrier-Orion is a two-stage, spin-stabilized sounding rocket, which uses a Terrier Mk 12

Mod 1 engine for its first stage and an improved

Orion motor for its second stage. The Terrier Mk 12

Mod 1 is a surplus U.S. Navy missile motor; Orion

is a surplus U.S. Army missile motor. The TerrierOrion is 10.7 meters (35.1 feet) long. The Terrier

stage is 46 centimeters (18 inches) in diameter, and

the Orion is 36 centimeters (14 inches) in diameter.

The Terrier-Orion can loft payloads weighing up to

290 kilograms (640 pounds) to altitudes up to 190

kilometers (118 miles).

A more powerful version of the Terrier-Orion

rocket uses the Terrier Mk 70 motor as its first

stage. This version was used for two FAA-licensed

suborbital launches performed by Astrotech Space

Operations/DTI at the Woomera Instrumented

Range in Australia in 2001

and 2002. The third flight, in

July 2002, successfully flew

the HyShot scramjet engine

experiment. DTI Associates

of Arlington, Virginia, now

markets and offers integration services for the TerrierOrion after purchasing all

intellectual property rights to

the rocket from SPACEHAB

in July 2001. Six TerrierOrion rockets were launched

in 2006.

Hybrid Sounding Rocket Program – Lockheed

Martin-Michoud 

Lockheed Martin-Michoud is developing a

hybrid sounding rocket (HYSR) program with

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). A

Space Act Agreement between NASA MSFC and

Lockheed Martin-Michoud Operations enabled collaboration on this new technology. Development

ground testing (hardware qualification) occurred at

NASA Stennis Space Center between 2000 and

2001. This testing concluded with a successful

demonstration flight of a prototype sounding rocket

from NASA WFF in December 2002. The flight

demonstration vehicle was a 17-meter (57-foot)

long sounding rocket using liquid oxygen and solid

fuel, a rubberized compound known as hydroxyl

terminated polybutadiene (HTPB). The rocket generated 267,000 newtons (60,000 pounds-force) of

thrust during a burn time of 31 seconds, and

reached an altitude of approximately 43 miles.

In 2004, further testing of the HYSR motors

occurred at NASA Stennis Space Center. These

tests demonstrated the structural integrity of

Lockheed Martin-Michoud’s fuel-grain design and

are facilitating development of advanced state-ofthe-art hybrid rocket motors. 

Hybrid Test Rocket – Lockheed MartinMichoud and Nammo AS

Lockheed Martin-Michoud partnered with a

Norwegian company, Nammo Raufoss AS, to build

the Hybrid Test Rocket (HTR), a single-stage

hybrid-propulsion sounding rocket. Lockheed

Martin-Michoud provided the design, engineering

schematics, and vehicle assembly plan, with the

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 19

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Oriole

Terrier Orion
actual production of the rocket performed by

Nammo AS. The HTR uses liquid oxygen and rubberized HTPB as fuel, has a 31,000-newton (7,000-

pound-force) thrust, and a burn time of 30 to 35

seconds. Its peak altitude is designed to be between

55 and 75 kilometers (34 and 57 miles). Lockheed

Martin-Michoud obtained an International Traffic in

Arms Regulations (ITAR) Manufacturing License

Agreement from the U.S. Government in order to

gain approval for the 17-month design and handoff

project. On May 3, 2007, the HTR flew successfully from the Andøya Rocket Range in Norway.

Nammo AS considered the HTR a test vehicle only,

giving the company expertise in the development

and operation of hybrid propulsion systems.32

SpaceLoft XL – UP Aerospace, Inc. 

UP Aerospace, Incorporated, headquartered in

Farmington, Connecticut, with business and engineering offices in Highlands Ranch, Colorado, has

developed the SpaceLoft XL sounding rocket for

research and commercial applications. The rocket, 6

meters (20 feet) tall and 25 centimeters (10 inches)

in diameter, can carry up to 50 kilograms (110

pounds) of payload to an altitude of 225 kilometers

(140 miles). A smaller version, the SpaceLoft, can

carry 9 kilograms (20 pounds) to an altitude of 130

kilometers (80 miles). UP Aerospace is marketing

the SpaceLoft family of vehicles to serve educational and research markets, such as microgravity

and atmospheric sciences experiments, as well as

commercial applications, including product marketing and novelty promotion. 

The first successful SpaceLoft XL launch

took place on April 28, 2007, from Spaceport

America in New Mexico.33 The rocket reached a

peak altitude of 117.5 kilometers (72.7 miles), landing in a mountainous region of the approved landing zone at White Sands Missile Range, New

Mexico. The rocket carried over 50 student experiments as well as commercial payloads from several

companies.34

20 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Spaceloft XL
This section describes active and emerging RLV

programs in the United States. Emphasis is placed

on vehicles developed by private companies without the assistance of the government. Many of these

companies are developing space hardware for the

first time. Government RLV programs are also

included to provide context, particularly since the

Space Shuttle is considered a first-generation RLV.

Experiences gained by operating the Space Shuttle

for more than 20 years have helped solve, as well

as highlight, crucial problems related to the design

of efficient RLV systems. The first subsection

addresses commercial RLV projects underway or in

development. The second subsection features government RLV efforts.

Commercial RLV Development Efforts

Tiger & Cardinal – Acuity Technologies

Acuity Technologies of Menlo Park,

California, has been developing the Tiger and

Cardinal vehicles to compete in the two levels of

the Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge

competition. Both vehicles are vertical takeoff and

vertical landing designs powered by isopropyl alcohol and 59-percent concentration hydrogen peroxide. The vehicles are

designed to maneuver

autonomously and can

also be controlled from

the ground via a standard remote control aircraft radio link. Neither

vehicle was ready to

enter the 2007 competition but may participate

in future competitions.35

MOD – Armadillo Aerospace

Armadillo Aerospace, a former competitor for

the Ansari X Prize, is developing a family of vehicles designed for suborbital and, eventually, orbital

flight opportunities. In 2007, Armadillo developed

the MOD-1 vehicle, a variant of the Quad vehicle

Armadillo built in 2006 to compete for the Northrop

Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge. The MOD-1

consists of a single pair of propellant tanks (the

Quad design featured two pairs of tanks) above a

LOX/ethanol engine, with payload and electronic

boxes on top of the tanks. The vertical-takeoff, vertical-landing vehicle is supported by four large

landing legs.

Armadillo received an experimental permit

for MOD-1 in 2007 and performed flights of the

vehicle under that permit during the year. On

October 20, MOD-1 performed a low-level flight

test at the Oklahoma Spaceport to demonstrate it

was capable of performing the flight profile needed

to win Level One of the Lunar Lander Challenge.

MOD-1 then made four flights at Holloman Air

Force Base, New Mexico, during the 2007 X

PRIZE Cup in an effort to win the competition. The

vehicle successfully flew the first leg of the Level

One challenge on the afternoon of October 27, but

during the return leg suffered a “hard start” of its

engine; the engine shut down with about seven seconds remaining in the flight as it hovered over the

landing pad. On the morning of October 28,

Armadillo made another attempt to win the prize

with the MOD-1, flying the initial leg of the flight

profile successfully. On the return trip, however, the

engine suffered another hard start and made a powered abort several seconds after ignition. A final

attempt to win the prize on the afternoon of

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 21

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Reusable Launch Vehicles

Vehicle: Tiger & Cardinal

Developer: Acuity Technologies

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m (165 ft) 

Launch Site: TBD

Targeted Market: Lunar Lander Challenge competition

Vehicle: MOD

Developer: Armadillo Aerospace

First Launch: 2007

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m (165 ft) 

Launch Site: Oklahoma Spaceport, Holloman Air Force

Base

Targeted Market: Lunar Lander Challenge competition,

future suborbital and orbital launch applications

Tiger and Cardinal
October 28 failed when the engine suffered another

hard start, blowing off the engine chamber and

starting a fire before the vehicle could lift off.36

After diagnosing and resolving these engine

problems, Armadillo plans to continue development

of the MOD-1, using it as the basis for a series of

increasingly-powerful modular vehicles. Future

plans call for testing vehicles that use two or more

MOD-1 vehicles in combination. A “six-pack” variant using six modules would be capable of carrying

a payload on a suborbital trajectory to 100 kilometers (62 miles) altitude and could begin flight tests

in 2008. Even larger vehicles, using dozens of identical modules, could be used to launch small payloads into orbit.37

BSC Spaceship – Benson Space Company

Benson Space Company (BSC), of Poway,

California, was established by former SpaceDev

CEO Jim Benson in September 2006 to develop

and operate vehicles to serve the suborbital space

tourism market. BSC originally planned to operate

a suborbital version of the Dream Chaser spacecraft

proposed by SpaceDev. However, in May 2007,

BSC unveiled a new vehicle concept, the BSC

Spaceship. The vehicle is an amalgam of several

previous NASA and

USAF aircraft and rocketplanes, including the

X-2, X-15, and T-38. The

BSC Spaceship will take

off vertically using

hybrid motors; after

reaching a peak altitude

of at least 105 kilometers (65 miles), the vehicle

will perform a low-g “carefree” reentry—using an

approach called variable ballistic coefficient slowing—and land on a runway. BSC believes the BSC

Spaceship will be faster and less expensive to construct than previous designs, allowing it to enter

commercial service as early as 2009.38

New Shepard – Blue Origin

Blue Origin is developing the New Shepard

Reusable Launch System, a suborbital, verticaltakeoff, vertical-landing RLV for commercial passenger spaceflights. The vehicle will consist of a

crew capsule, capable of carrying three or more

people, mounted on top of a propulsion module.

22 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Vehicle: New Shepard

Developer: Blue Origin

First Launch: no later than 2010

Number of Stages: 1-2

Payload Performance: 3 people to 100 km (62 mi) 

Launch Site: Culberson County, Texas 

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism

MOD-1 on the pad at the 2007 X PRIZE Cup

Vehicle: BSC Spaceship

Developer: Benson Space Company

First Launch: 2009

Number of Stages: 1

Payload Performance: 6 people to at least 105 km 

(65 mi)

Launch Site: TBD

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism

BSC Spaceship

Blue Origin's Goddard prototype vehicle 
Engines using high-test peroxide (HTP) and

kerosene will power the vehicle. The flights would

take place from a private facility operated by Blue

Origin in Culberson County, Texas.

As part of the New Shepard development

process, Blue Origin plans to build several prototype vehicles, which will be tested and flown from

their Texas facility. The first such vehicle, named

Goddard, is powered by an HTP monopropellant

engine and is intended to perform flights to altitudes of about 600 meters (2,000 feet) and lasting

no longer than 1 minute. In September 2006, the

FAA granted Blue Origin an experimental permit to

perform those flight tests. The first permitted flight

took place on November 13, 2006, followed by

flights on March 22 and April 19, 2007.

Sea Star – Interorbital Systems

Interorbital Systems of Mojave, California, is

developing the Sea Star for microsatellite payloads

weighing up to 26 kilograms (58 pounds) and as a

testbed for its larger Neptune orbital launch vehicle.

These vehicles are constructed for design simplicity. The vehicle consists of a booster module with

four rocket engines, a sustainer module with four

additional engines as well as propellant tanks and

guidance control systems, and a satellite module

that contains the payload and one small rocket

engine. All the engines use a combination of storable hypergolic propellants: white fuming nitric

acid (WFNA) and “hydrocarbon X” (HX), a company-proprietary fuel. The main structures of the

rocket, including the outer shell and propellant

tanks, will use carbon composite materials. Sea Star

does not require land-based launch infrastructure.

Taking advantage of design elements derived from

submarine-launched ballistic missiles, this vehicle

will float in seawater and launch directly from the

ocean. Initial test launches of the vehicle are

planned for the second quarter of 2008.39

Neptune – Interorbital Systems

Neptune is a scaled-up version of Interorbital

Systems’ Sea Star rocket and is intended to carry

passengers into orbit. The Neptune uses a design

similar to the Sea Star vehicle, with a booster module that has four high-thrust rocket engines and a

sustainer module with four medium-thrust engines.

The vehicle can place 3,175 kilograms (7,000

pounds) into a 51-degree, 400-kilometer (250-mile)

orbit.

A unique aspect of the

Neptune is that the main rocket

structure, once in orbit, can act as

a small space station. A conical

crew module attached to the top

of the rocket, carrying up to five

people, would undock, turn 180

degrees, and dock nose-first with

the orbital station module. The

tanks of the module, spheres 6

meters (20 feet) in diameter,

would be purged of any remaining propellant, then pressurized

to serve as habitation modules.

The company has built a fullsized, six-person crew module

5.2 meters (17 feet) in diameter

and outfitted it for crew and passenger training at

its Mojave, California, facility.40

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 23

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Vehicle: Sea Star

Developer: Interorbital Systems

First Launch: 2nd quarter 2008

Number of Stages: 2.5

Payload Performance: 26 kg (58 lb) to LEO 

Launch Site: Pacific Ocean west of Long Beach,

California 

Targeted Market: Microsatellite launches

Vehicle: Neptune

Developer: Interorbital Systems

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1.5

Payload Performance: 3,175 kg (7,000 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: Pacific Ocean west of Long Beach,

California

Targeted Market: Orbital space tourism

Sea Star

Neptune
XA 1.0 – Masten Space Systems

Masten Space Systems of Mojave, California,

is developing the eXtreme Altitude (XA) series of

suborbital RLVs, initially designed to carry small

research payloads. The first in the series, the XA

1.0, is a vertical-takeoff, vertical-landing vehicle

powered by LOX and isopropyl alcohol engines.

The XA 1.0 is designed to carry a 100-kilogram

(220-pound) payload to an altitude of at least 100

kilometers (62 miles), performing several such

flights per day at a cost per flight of $20,000 to

$30,000. The company is selling payload space on

the vehicle for as little as $99 for a 350-gram (12-

ounce) “CanSat.” Beyond the XA 1.0, the company

has proposed the XA 1.5, which could carry a 200-

kilogram (440-pound) payload to 500 kilometers

(310 miles), and the XA 2.0, which would be able

to carry 2,000 kilograms (4,400 pounds) or five

people to 500 kilometers.

As part of the development of the XA 1.0,

Masten is building several prototype vehicles. The

first, the XA 0.1, began tethered flight tests in

2007; the vehicle was destroyed during one such

test flight in December 2007.41 A larger prototype,

the XA 0.2, is currently under development, with

plans to fly the vehicle in the 2008 Lunar Lander

Challenge.

Crusader LL – Micro-Space

Micro-Space of Denver, Colorado, is developing the Crusader LL vehicle to compete the

Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge competition. The vehicle is a

vertical takeoff and vertical landing design powered by a set of engines

using methyl alcohol and

hydrogen peroxide. The

modular design allows

for scaled-up vehicle

designs capable of suborbital spaceflight and

actual lunar lander vehicles. While Micro-Space

was not able to compete in the 2007 competition,

the company is preparing to participate in future

events.42

Crusader HTS – Micro-Space

Micro-Space of Denver, Colorado, is developing the Crusader HTS vehicle to compete the

Google Lunar X PRIZE competition as well as for

human transportation uses. This vehicle is a vertical

takeoff and vertical landing design powered by a

set of engines using methyl alcohol and hydrogen

peroxide. This high mass ratio system, coupled with

the higher performance of rocket motors in vacuum, will permit the vehicle not only to compete in

Level 2 of the Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander

Challenge but also to actually land a spacesuit-clad

24 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Vehicle: XA 1.0

Developer: Masten Space Systems

First Launch: 2008

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 100 kg (220 lb) to 100 km 

(62 mi) 

Launch Site: Mojave Air and Space Port

Targeted Market: Suborbital research payloads

XA 1.0

Vehicle: Crusader LL

Developer: Micro-Space

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1

Payload Performance: 25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m (165 ft)

Launch Site: TBD

Targeted Market: Lunar Lander Challenge 

competition

Vehicle: Crusader HTS

Developer: Micro-Space

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1

Payload Performance: 120 kg (265 lb) to 50 km (31 mi)

Launch Site: TBD

Targeted Market: Space diving, human lunar landing,

Google Lunar X PRIZE

Crusader LL
astronaut on the Moon. This design positions a

standing human between two clusters of fuel tanks.

A compact rover will be substituted for the Google

Lunar X PRIZE competition. Parachute-fitted users

can easily dive from the launch vehicle at a wide

range of altitudes above the Earth. The lunar applications assume commercial launch services to lift

the landers, payload, and transstage to orbit. MicroSpace has also developed a range of short and long

term life support systems for lightweight human

spaceflight.43

Volkon – Paragon Labs

Paragon Labs, of Denver, Colorado, is building the Volkon vehicle to compete in the Northrop

Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge. The vehicle is

a vertical takeoff, vertical landing vehicle powered

by an engine using liquid oxygen and E85 ethanol,

the first known use of E85 in a bipropellant rocket

engine. Volkon was not ready to compete in the

2007 competition, but Paragon Labs plans to continue development of the vehicle in order to participate in future competitions.44

Silver Dart – PlanetSpace

PlanetSpace, headquartered in Chicago,

Illinois, is developing the Silver Dart reusable

spacecraft for missions

to LEO. The Silver Dart

is based on the FDL-7

hypersonic glider design

originally proposed by

the U.S. Air Force Flight

Dynamics Laboratory in

the late 1950s. The vehicle design features an all

metal thermal protection

system to enable flight in all weather conditions.

The Silver Dart has a glide range of 40,000 kilometers (25,000 miles), or one orbit of the Earth, and a

cross range of over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles),

allowing the vehicle to leave LEO at any time and

still land in the continental U.S. PlanetSpace proposed to launch the Silver Dart with an expendable

rocket called Nova, also under development, from a

proposed spaceport in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia.45

Rocketplane XP – Rocketplane Global

Rocketplane Global, a subsidiary of

Rocketplane Inc. of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, is

developing the Rocketplane XP suborbital RLV.

The vehicle will take off under jet power. At an altitude of at least 12,200 meters (40,000 feet), it will

ignite a single AR-36 rocket LOX and kerosene

rocket engine provided by Polaris Propulsion for a

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 25

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Vehicle: Rocketplane XP

Developer: Rocketplane Global

First Launch: 2010

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 6 people to 100 km (62 mi)

Launch Sites: Oklahoma Spaceport 

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism, microgravity

research

Vehicle: Volkon

Developer: Paragon Labs

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1

Payload Performance: 25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m (165 ft)

Launch Site: TBD

Targeted Market: Lunar Lander Challenge competition

Volkon

Vehicle: Silver Dart

Developer: PlanetSpace

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 3

Payload Performance: TBD

Launch Site: Cape Breton Space Port, Nova Scotia,

Canada

Targeted Market: Passenger and cargo missions to LEO

Silver Dart
70-second burn. The Rocketplane XP will fly to an

altitude of at least 100 kilometers (62 miles) before

reentering and landing, either under jet power or

unpowered, at the same site as takeoff.

In October 2007, Rocketplane Global

unveiled a new design for the Rocketplane XP. The

previous design, based on a highly-modified Learjet

fuselage, was replaced with a larger cabin capable

of carrying one pilot and five passengers. The jet

engines were upgraded to the more powerful J-85

version. The V-tail of the previous design has been

replaced with a T-tail, and the landing gear with a

model based on the gear used for the F-5 aircraft.

Rocketplane Global estimates that over 200,000

person-hours went into developing the new design.

The company anticipates beginning flight tests in

2010, contingent on raising sufficient capital to

fund vehicle development.46

K-1 – Rocketplane Kistler

Rocketplane Kistler (RpK), a subsidiary of

Rocketplane Inc. of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, is

developing the K-1 orbital RLV. The K-1, whose

design dates back to the mid-1990s, is a two-stage

RLV capable of placing up to 5,700 kilograms

(12,500 pounds) into LEO. Originally developed

primarily to launch satellites into LEO and other

orbits, the K-1 is now being developed to serve the

ISS cargo and crew resupply market as well as

satellite launch and other applications.

The first stage of the K-1, called the Launch

Assist Platform (LAP), is powered by three

LOX/kerosene GenCorp Aerojet AJ26-58/-59

engines, capable of generating 4.54 million newtons

(1.02 million pounds-force) of thrust. After launch,

the LAP separates from the second stage and

restarts its center engine to put the stage on a return

trajectory to a landing area near the launch site,

using parachutes and air bags. The second stage,

called the Orbital Vehicle (OV), continues into

LEO, powered by a single Aerojet AJ26-60 engine

with a thrust of 1.76 million newtons (395,000

pounds-force). At the end of its mission, a LOX and

ethanol thruster performs a deorbit burn. The OV

lands near the launch site using a parachute and

airbag combination similar to the LAP. Initial

flights of the K-1 are planned to take place from

Spaceport Woomera in South Australia, with later

flights staged from a U.S. site to be determined.

RpK was formed in

early 2006 with the merger

of Rocketplane Ltd. with

Kistler Aerospace

Corporation, which had been

developing the K-1 concept

since the 1990s but had suspended work because of

financial problems. In August

2006, RpK was one of two

companies to receive a funded COTS award from NASA

to help develop the K-1 to

service the ISS. The company achieved several milestones outlined in the

Space Act agreement with NASA for the COTS

program through early 2007, including a system

requirement review for the K-1.47 However, the

company failed to achieve a financial milestone of

the COTS agreement requiring it to raise several

hundred million dollars of private capital to fully

fund the development of the K-1. In October 2007,

NASA announced it had terminated the COTS

agreement with RpK after awarding the company

only $32.1 million of the original $207 million.48

26 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

K-1

Rocketplane XP

Vehicle: K-1

Developer: Rocketplane Kistler

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 5,700 kg (12,500 lb) to LEO

Launch Sites: Woomera, Australia; U.S. site TBD

Targeted Market: ISS crew and cargo resupply, satellite

launch, orbital space tourism
SpaceShipTwo – 

Scaled Composites, LLC/The Spaceship

Company/Virgin Galactic

Scaled Composites, LLC, and Virgin Galactic,

LLC a subsidiary of the Virgin Group of

Companies, announced the formation of a joint

venture, called The Spaceship Company (TSC),

LLC, in July 2005. The purpose of TSC is to oversee development and production of SpaceShipTwo,

a commercial suborbital spacecraft based on technology developed for SpaceShipOne. TSC will produce the first five SpaceShipTwo vehicles for

Virgin Galactic, which plans to put them into commercial service once test flights are completed,

offering suborbital space flights for private individuals, science research, and payload. The venture

will also develop a carrier aircraft,

WhiteKnightTwo, that will be used to air-launch

SpaceShipTwo in much the same manner that the

original White Knight aircraft air-launched

SpaceShipOne.

During 2007, Virgin Galactic’s first 100 customers were invited to undertake g-force training at

the NASTAR training center outside Philadelphia.

The resulting unique dataset is now being used by

the company as it develops its policies for future

customer training and safety.

In January 2008, Virgin Galactic and Scaled

Composites unveiled the designs for WhiteKnightTwo

and SpaceShipTwo before the start of the test flight

program for both vehicles scheduled for 2008.49

Dream Chaser – SpaceDev

Dream Chaser is an RLV under development

by SpaceDev to serve suborbital and orbital applications. The design of this vehicle is based on the

NASA HL-20 spaceplane concept from the early

1990s, which was itself inspired by the successfully

launched Soviet BOR-4 spaceplane from the early

1980s. Dream Chaser

has been expanded from

the original HL-20 by

10% to an overall length

of 9.6 meters (31.5 feet)

and wingspan of 8

meters (26.2 feet). The

Dream Chaser is capable of transporting 6-9 passengers, compared to the original HL-20’s capacity

of 6-10. For suborbital flights, the vehicle will

launch vertically, using hybrid engines. On orbital

flights, the vehicle will launch on top of existing

launch vehicles. In both scenarios, the vehicle will

glide to a runway landing.

The Dream Chaser concept was one of the

finalists in the original round of NASA’s COTS

competition, and was resubmitted as a bid for the

COTS-2 competition. In June 2007, NASA and

SpaceDev signed an unfunded Space Act agreement

(SAA) where NASA will provide technical support

and other information to SpaceDev to aid in the

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 27

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

SpaceShipTwo

Vehicle: SpaceShipTwo

Developer: Scaled Composites

First Launch: 2010

Number of Stages: 2 

Payload Performance: 8 people to minimum of 100 km

(62 mi) 

Launch Sites: Mojave Air and Space Port, Spaceport

America 

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism

Vehicle: Dream Chaser

Developer: SpaceDev

First Launch: 4th quarter 2009 (suborbital), 2nd quarter 2011 (orbital)

Number of Stages: 2 (suborbital), 3 (orbital)

Payload Performance: 6-9 people

Launch Site: Spaceport America (suborbital), CCAFS

(orbital)

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism, ISS crew

and cargo resupply, orbital space tourism, military missions

Dream Chaser
ongoing development of Dream Chaser.50 SpaceDev

has completed two technical milestones to date

under the unfunded SAA. In addition, SpaceDev

signed a memorandum of understanding with ULA

in April 2007 to study the use of the Atlas 5 to

launch Dream Chaser on orbital missions.51

SpaceDev is also working with ATK to study the

integration of the Dream Chaser on an Ares 1-

derived launch vehicle.

Skyhopper – Space Access, LLC

In December 2007, Space Access, LLC, of

Huntertown, Indiana, announced its plans to develop a suborbital RLV called Skyhopper. The vehicle

would take off and land on a conventional runway,

and use ejector ramjet engines with liquid hydrogen

fuel, as opposed to conventional rocket engines.

Space Access anticipates Skyhopper will reach

speeds of up to Mach 7 and altitudes in excess of

100 kilometers (62 miles). The company plans on

building up to eight Skyhopper vehicles and operate

up to 15 flights per day. Suborbital flight operations

are scheduled to begin in 2011, initially from a

facility to be developed south of Corpus Christi,

Texas. Orbital flights, using a variant of Skyhopper,

are projected to begin as soon as 2014.52

Falcon 1 – 

Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

SpaceX of Hawthorne, California, has developed the partially reusable Falcon 1 launch vehicle,

that can place up to 475 kilograms (1,050 pounds)

into LEO for about $7 million. The first stage of

this vehicle is designed to parachute into the ocean.

It can then be recovered, refurbished, and reused.

SpaceX privately developed the entire two-stage

vehicle from the ground up, including the engines,

cryogenic tank structure, and guidance system. The

first stage engine, known as

Merlin, uses pump-driven

LOX and kerosene. The second stage engine, called

Kestrel, uses a pressure-fed

LOX and kerosene system.

The Falcon 1e, an enhanced

version of the Falcon 1 with

a stretched first stage and

larger payload fairing, is

slated to enter service in

2009; it will be able to place

up to 725 kilograms (1,600

pounds) into LEO for $8.5

million.53

The second Falcon 1 launch, designated

Demo Flight 2, took place on March 20, 2007, from

Omelek Island in the Kwajalein Atoll in the Pacific

Ocean. The vehicle failed to reach orbit because of

an upper stage control anomaly that coupled with

slosh in the stage’s LOX tank. This caused a rolling

motion that centrifuged the propellants away from

the tank outlets and caused the engine to shut down

prematurely. SpaceX has taken several steps to

resolve the problem, including installing slosh baffles in the second stage LOX tank.54 Falcon 1 will

return to flight in early 2008, carrying a number of

small payloads, to be followed by the first Falcon 1

commercial launch, of the Malaysian remote sensing spacecraft Razaksat. 

28 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Vehicle: Falcon 1

Developer: Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

First Launch: 2006

Number of Stages: 2 

Payload Performance: 475 kg (1,050 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: Kwajalein Atoll, VAFB 

Targeted Market: Small satellite launch

Vehicle: Skyhopper

Developer: Space Access, LLC

First Launch: 2011

Number of Stages: 1

Payload Performance: TBD

Launch Site: Near Corpus Christi, Texas

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism

Skyhopper

Falcon 1
Falcon 9 –

Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

The Falcon 9 vehicle is a two-stage RLV

designed to launch large spacecraft as well as cargo

and crew resupply missions to the ISS. The first

stage uses nine Merlin 1C engines, the same engine

as used on the first stage of the Falcon 1. The second stage, a shortened version of the first stage,

uses a single Merlin engine. Both

stages are designed to be recovered

and reused. The Falcon 9 can place

up to 9,900 kilograms (21,820

pounds) into LEO and 4,900 kilograms (10,800 pounds) into GTO. A

variant, the Falcon 9 Heavy, uses

two additional first stages as strapon boosters, like the Delta IV

Heavy, and can place up to 27,500

kilograms (60,600 pounds) into

LEO and 12,000 kilograms (26,500

pounds) into GTO.55 Launch costs

range from $35 million for the

medium version to $90 million for

the heavy version, in 2007 dollars.56

The first Falcon 9 launch, a demonstration

mission, is scheduled for the fourth quarter of 2008.

SpaceX will perform three launches in 2008 and

2009 as part of its COTS agreement with NASA;

other Falcon 9 customers include MacDonald,

Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. of Canada, Bigelow

Aerospace, and Avanti Communications, which

signed the first contract for the Falcon 9 launch of a

commercial communications satellite in September

2007.57 In November 2007, SpaceX broke ground

on new launch facilities for the Falcon 9 at Space

Launch Complex 40, a former Titan 4 launch pad at

CCAFS. The facility will be ready to support the

first Falcon 9 launch in late 2008.58

In August 2006, SpaceX won a COTS demonstration award from NASA with a maximum value

of $278 million. Under terms of the award, SpaceX

will perform three Falcon 9 launches of its Dragon

reusable spacecraft in late 2008 and early 2009 to

demonstrate its ability to ferry cargo to and from

the ISS.

Laramie Rose – SpeedUp

SpeedUp of Laramie, Wyoming, is developing

the Laramie Rose vehicle to compete in the

Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge competition. The vehicle, being built in partnership with

Frontier Astronautics of Chugwater, Wyoming, is a

vertical takeoff and vertical landing design powered

by an engine using 90-percent concentration hydrogen peroxide. The vehicle is also designed to be a

technology testbed for future rocket-powered recreational vehicles planned by the company. While

Laramie Rose was not able to compete at the 2007

competition, the vehicle

hardware is 99-percent

complete and SpeedUp

has performed static

engine tests, and the

company plans to compete in the 2008 competition.59

Michelle-B – TGV Rockets, Inc.

TGV Rockets, Inc. (TGV) is developing

Michelle-B, a fully reusable, remotely-piloted subFederal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 29

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Vehicle: Falcon 9

Developer: Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

First Launch: 2008

Number of Stages: 2 

Payload Performance: Up to 27,500 kg (60,600 lb) to

LEO, 12,000 kg (26,500 lb) to GTO

Launch Site: Kwajalein Atoll, VAFB 

Targeted Market: Launch of medium and large 

satellites, ISS crew and cargo resupply

Vehicle: Michelle-B

Developer: TGV Rockets

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) to 100 km

(62 mi) 

Launch Site: TBD 

Targeted Market: Remote sensing, science, including

microgravity research; national security applications

Falcon 9

Vehicle: Laramie Rose

Developer: SpeedUp

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m (165 ft)

Launch Site: TBD 

Targeted Market: Lunar Lander Challenge competition

Laramie Rose
orbital vehicle, designed

to carry up to 1,000 kilograms (2,200 pounds) to

an altitude of 100 kilometers (62 miles). This

vehicle uses a vertical

take-off and landing

design, with a drag

shield to assist in deceleration during landing.

Michelle-B will provide up to 200 seconds of

microgravity, while not exceeding 4.5 g during any

phase of flight. Using existing optical packages, the

vehicle can provide 60-centimeter oblique imagery.

Six pressure-fed LOX and kerosene engines for use

on ascent and landing power the vehicle. TGV’s

design is intended to enable high reusability,

require minimal ground support, and allow the

vehicle to return to flight within a few hours of

landing. The company has completed a preliminary

design review of the Michelle-B and, in the second

quarter of 2007, performed a test of their “workhorse” engine for the vehicle. The company is now

working to complete a prototype engine based on

the lessons learned from those tests.60

Crew Transfer Vehicle –

Transformational Space LLC

Transformational Space (t/Space) LLC, of

Reston, Virginia, has proposed developing the Crew

Transfer Vehicle (CXV) reusable spacecraft, capable of carrying several people to the ISS or other

destinations in low Earth orbit. The CXV would be

air-launched by a scaled-up version of the

QuickReach ELV being developed by AirLaunch

LLC. The capsule design is derived from that

developed for the Discoverer/Corona program nearly 50 years ago, and permits a safe reentry regardless of initial orientation even if the capsule’s control systems fail. The CXV is designed to land in

water and be reused after a nominal refurbishment.61

T/Space proposed the CXV during the initial

COTS competition in 2006, but was not selected

for a funded Space Act agreement. The company

did sign an unfunded Space Act agreement with

NASA in February 2007 to guide continued development of the CXV. T/Space submitted a proposal

for the new COTS competition in November 2007.

Burning Splinter – Unreasonable Rocket

Unreasonable Rocket of Solana Beach,

California, is a father-son team developing the

Burning Splinter vehicle to compete in the

Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge. The

vertical takeoff, vertical landing vehicle is powered

by four engines using liquid oxygen and ethanol

propellants. The team completed the vehicle hardware and performed some engine test firings, but

was not able to get the

vehicle ready to fly in

time for the 2007 competition. Unreasonable

Rocket is planning some

modifications to the

design to improve its

performance for future

competitions.62

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

30 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Michelle B

Vehicle: Crew Transfer Vehicle (CXV)

Developer: Transformational Space LLC

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: Three people or 910 kg (2000 lb)

to LEO

Launch Site: TBD (air launched)

Targeted Market: Crew and cargo to the ISS, orbital

space tourism

CXV

Vehicle: Burning Splinter

Developer: Unreasonable Rocket

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1

Payload Performance: 25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m (165 ft)

Launch Site: TBD

Targeted Market: Lunar Lander Challenge competition

Burning Splinter
Xerus – XCOR Aerospace

In July 2002, XCOR Aerospace announced

plans to develop a suborbital RLV, named Xerus.

The Xerus would take off horizontally from a runway under rocket power and fly to an altitude of

100 kilometers (62 miles) before returning for a

runway landing. XCOR plans to use Xerus for a

variety of suborbital missions, including microgravity research, suborbital

tourism, and even the

launch of very small

satellites into orbit.

Xerus is expected to

have the ability to launch

a 10-kilogram (22-

pound) payload to LEO.

In April 2004, XCOR Aerospace received a

license from the FAA to perform flights of an intermediate demonstration vehicle, called Sphinx, from

Mojave Air and Space Port. That license expired at

the end of 2006 with no flights having taken place.

XCOR continues fundraising and technical development for the vehicle and anticipates filing a new

license application for it when ready.

Government RLV Development Efforts

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the DoD

and NASA conducted several joint and independent

programs to produce experimental RLVs. These

vehicles were intended to improve reliability, minimize operating costs, and demonstrate “aircraftlike” operations. However, none of these concepts

resulted in a fully operational vehicle. In recent

years, these technology development efforts diminished. The U.S. Department of Defense focused on

operating its large EELV vehicles and developing

small responsive launch vehicles, although it is

devoting some resources to technology development that is relevant to RLVs. NASA has shifted its

emphasis to developing large ELVs designed to

implement the Vision for Space Exploration.

Space Shuttle

Consisting of an expendable external tank,

two reusable solid rocket boosters, and a reusable

Orbiter, NASA’s STS (Space Transportation

System), commonly referred to as the Space

Shuttle, has conducted 120 launches since its introduction in 1981. 

The three

remaining orbiters—

Atlantis, Discovery,

and Endeavour—

returned to flight in

July 2005 after the

loss of Columbia in

February 2003.

Today, the Space

Shuttle is the only

available means for

completing assembly of the ISS.

Intending to use the

Shuttle until 2010,

NASA is committed

to investing in the

Space Shuttle fleet

to maintain safety

and reliability and

extend orbiter service life until its role in constructing the ISS is complete. Thirteen Space Shuttle

flights, including one mission to service the Hubble

Space Telescope, are planned before the fleet is

retired in 2010. The Space Shuttle’s day-to-day

operations are managed by United Space Alliance,

a Boeing-Lockheed Martin joint venture in operation since 1996.

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 31

Vehicle: Xerus

Developer: XCOR Aerospace

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 10 kg (22 lb) to LEO 

Launch Site: Mojave Air and Space Port 

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism, nanosatellite launch, microgravity research

Space Shuttle

Xerus

Vehicles: Atlantis, Discovery, and Endeavour

Developer: Rockwell International (now Boeing); fleet is

managed, operated, and maintained on the ground by

United Space Alliance, a joint venture between Boeing

and Lockheed Martin

First Launch: 1981

Number of Stages: 1.5

Payload Performance: 24,900 kg (54,890 lb) to LEO 

Launch Site: KSC 

Markets Served: Non-commercial payloads, ISS access
Fully-Reusable Access to Space Technology

Program

The Fully-Reusable Access to Space

Technology (FAST) program is an effort by AFRL

to develop technologies for use in RLVs capable of

“aircraft-like” operations. FAST calls for the

methodical development of these key technologies

initially through ground experiments and later in

flight tests, with the ultimate goal of flying a

ground-launched suborbital vehicle capable of flying to speeds of Mach 4-7, as well as being capable

of reentering at Mach 25 if launched as the upper

stage of another vehicle. This experimental vehicle

could be later scaled up to larger, operational vehicles. Current plans call for ground-based technology tests to continue through 2011, with first flights

of the experimental suborbital vehicle slated for

2013.63

AFRL has issued contracts with several companies to work on elements of the FAST program.

In March 2007, AFRL awarded Andrews Space a

contract to develop the program requirements for a

series of technology experiments that will be part of

the overall effort.64 In November 2007, Lockheed

Martin Michoud Operations won a $14 million contract to work on airframe technologies, including

composite structures and thermal protection systems, as a part of the FAST program.65 In December

2007, AFRL awarded Northrop Grumman a 39-

month, $5.2-million contract to study responsive

ground operations and perform experiments and

simulations to support the development of a future

operations control center.66

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

32 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
A number of new orbital transportation systems are

being developed by U.S. entities. These systems

range from government reusable crewed and cargo

vehicles to commercial habitats. These developments will provide critical manned and unmanned

orbital operations and transportation in the postShuttle era after 2010. A number of technologies

have been demonstrated for these systems during

the past year and show progress towards planned

operational capability.

NASA has development contracts for the

civilian-use Orion crew exploration vehicle and one

active award for commercial ISS crew and cargo

demonstrations through the COTS program, with

additional awards planned. The U.S. Air Force has

plans for a military-use X-37B Orbital Transfer

Vehicle (OTV) that will carry payloads into orbit.

Finally, Bigelow Aerospace is in the process of

developing commercial orbital habitats.

Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle

The U.S. plan for space exploration calls for

continued missions to LEO and later missions to

the Moon, Mars, and beyond. To achieve LEO,

lunar, and other future missions, NASA has initiated the development of the Orion Crew Exploration

Vehicle (CEV) to carry people and pressurized

cargo into space. The spacecraft will consist of a

combined pressurized crew module and service

module that is launched into orbit by the Ares I

crew launch vehicle. The current Orion design has

the capacity to transport up to six crew members to

the ISS or four people on missions to the Moon.

The first flight of Orion carrying humans is to

occur no later than 2015, and the first flight to the

Moon is planned for no later than 2020. For missions to the Moon, an Orion capsule will rendezvous with an Ares V-launched lunar landing

module and Earth departure stage in LEO to conduct its mission. At the end of these missions,

Orion will be the atmospheric reentry vehicle.67

The spacecraft’s conical shape is similar to

the capsules predating the Shuttle, but Orion will

contain state-of-the-art technologies provided by

the contracting team and NASA. The capsule will

reenter the atmosphere using a newly-developed

thermal protection system. Other new technologies

will include computing and electronics, a powered

system for launch abort that will sit atop the Orion

capsule (for which unmanned abort testing will

commence in 2008), and landing technology.68 In

addition, Orion’s 5-meter (16.5-foot) diameter will

allow for more than twice the volume—doubling

crew capacity and increasing interior space—of

Apollo-era modules.

Lockheed Martin is the prime contractor for

the Orion crew vehicle under NASA’s Constellation

Program and led by the Orion Project Office at

Johnson Space Center. NASA announced the prime

contractor selection on August 31, 2006, and work

has proceeded at the NASA centers and contractor

locations. NASA opted for Lockheed Martin’s

design over that of a Northrop Grumman-Boeing

team and awarded an initial seven-year base contract worth just under $4 billion. The contract contains an option worth another $4 billion for production and operational engineering activity up to

2019. Lockheed Martin’s contracting team includes

Honeywell, Orbital Sciences, United Space

Alliance, and Hamilton Sundstrand. Contracts for

the lunar lander and earth departure stage have not

yet been awarded.

Every NASA center has a role in the Orion

mission. For example, Langley Research Center is

the lead for developing the launch abort system,

Glenn Research Center is leading the service module and spacecraft adapter development, and

Marshall Space Flight Center and Kennedy Space

Center will provide the Ares launch vehicles and

Orion launch services, respectively.69 

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 33

In-Space Technology 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technology

Orion CEV
International Space Station Crew and

Cargo Transport

The decision to finish constructing the ISS by

the end of the decade and maintain its operation

with a six-person crew reinforces the demand for

continual transport flights to and from the station.

Several government systems to fulfill this demand

are either operational or planned. The Shuttle will

be the primary American system for bringing new

station components, crew, and cargo to the ISS until

Shuttle retirement, after which Orion will provide

this service. Russia’s Soyuz crew and Progress

cargo vehicles are current robust international systems for replenishing the station. Additional international capacity is planned, including the Japanese

H-2 Transfer Vehicle and European Automated

Transfer Vehicle (ATV) that are both currently in

the development stage, with the first ATV planned

for launch in early 2008.

American commercial vehicles are planned to

supplement these government systems for crew and

cargo transport to the ISS in the future. On August

16, 2006, NASA announced the signing of two

funded Space Act Agreements with American companies to develop and demonstrate the ability to

provide transportation services to the ISS, under the

COTS demonstration program. One of these agreements, with Rocketplane Kistler (RpK), has since

been terminated for failure to meet required milestones related to the development of its K-1 vehicle

planned for orbital crew and cargo transport. The

remaining company, SpaceX, has met its necessary

deadlines and is building the Falcon 9 launcher and

Dragon spacecraft to prove the necessary transport

capabilities under Phase 1 of the agreement, which

calls for three vehicle flights before 2010. 

NASA is conducting a second competition for

a funded COTS Phase 1 agreement to replace the

terminaed 2006 agreement. This second competition commenced in October 2007 with a winner to

be announced in February 2008. A total of $174.7

million—the remaining funds from the original

agreement with RpK—will be made available to

any winning company of the new competition. The

COTS concepts will demonstrate a combination of

pressurized and unpressurized cargo delivery, disposal, and return, as well as the option for crew

transport. Fixed payments will be made to the companies as they achieve milestones for design and

development. Phase 2, a separate contracting opportunity from Phase 1, will consist of a competitive

procurement of cargo services to the ISS with an

option for crew services. In addition to the COTS

agreements, the companies plan to provide their

vehicles for other commercial and government markets.70

SpaceX Dragon

Initiated internally by SpaceX in 2005, the

Dragon spacecraft will be used for the commercial

transportation of cargo and crew to and from LEO.

As part of NASA's COTS program, SpaceX will

conduct a series of three Falcon 9 launches to send

a cargo-carrying Dragon into LEO where it will

demonstrate the ability to maneuver, dock with the

ISS, and return to Earth using a water landing. The

first test flight of Dragon is planned for the second

half of 2008, with subsequent launches over the following years.

The 4-meter (13-foot) diameter Dragon consists of two modules: the trunk and capsule. The

unpressurized trunk module carries solar arrays,

thermal radiators, and stowage area for unpressurized cargo. The capsule module consists of a nose

cone to protect the vessel and docking adaptor during ascent, a pressurized section housing the crew

and/or pressurized cargo, and a service section surrounding the base of the pressurized section and

34 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts In-Space Technology

SpaceX Dragon
containing avionics, reaction control system, parachutes, and other support infrastructure. The structural design of Dragon will be identical for cargo

and crew missions, providing a capacity of over

2,500 kilograms (5,500 pounds) for launch and

return in either configuration. In crew mode, the

vehicle can carry up to seven people, and will be

able to remain at the ISS for six months at a time,

providing emergency return capability for the entire

seven-person ISS crew. SpaceX has constructed

full-scale engineering models of the capsule pressure vessel, heat shield, and other systems.71

Private funding for Dragon will be supplemented with NASA COTS funding through a Space

Act Agreement, as the company achieves vehicle

milestones. The current plan for NASA funding

includes $278 million, which could change as the

demonstration process continues. SpaceX

announced that it also submitted a proposal for the

new COTS competition in late 2007, with the intention of receiving funding for Dragon crewed capability. 

Other Commercial Crew and Cargo Transport

Concepts

NASA signed unfunded Space Act

Agreements with five companies to help develop

various vehicles and technologies that could lead to

orbital crew and cargo missions in the future. These

five companies, along with another that does not

have a current Agreement, have created system

development teams and submitted proposals for the

new COTS Phase 1 competition.72 These systems

are planned to provide transport to the ISS and

other orbital locations.

• Constellation Services International and 

Space Systems Loral (SS/L) have proposed 

a cargo system based on the SS/L LS-1300 

satellite bus.

• PlanetSpace has teamed with Lockheed 

Martin Space Systems, ATK, and the Bank 

of Montreal to develop the Modular Cargo 

Carrier.

• SpaceDev’s Dream Chaser Space 

Transportation System is a lifting body 

RLV that the company conceptually will 

launch on an Atlas V.

• SPACEHAB is proposing its Advanced 

Research and Conventional Technology 

Utilization Spacecraft (ARCTUS) for 

orbital transport.

• Transformational Space (t/Space) is devel

oping the CXV Crew Transfer Vehicle, a 

transport and reentry vehicle based on 

Discoverer and Corona capsule design.

• Andrews Space, which does not have a 

current Space Act Agreement, proposed the 

Andrews Cargo Module logistics system.

X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle

The U.S. Air Force Rapid Capabilities Office

is leading development of an unmanned reusable

space vehicle designated the X-37B Orbital Test

Vehicle (OTV). This new capability will serve as a

platform for science and technology demonstration

and testing. Experiments will be carried in a payload bay, which can open and expose its contents to

the space environment, similar to the bay in the

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 35

In-Space Technology 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Concept of X-37 vehicle, similar to X-37B in development

Concept of SpaceX’s Dragon vehicle with crew
Space Shuttle. This vehicle leverages previous work

NASA, DARPA, AFRL, and Boeing completed for

the X-37 program. As it was for the original X-37

vehicle, Boeing is the prime contractor for the

OTV.

The OTV will launch vertically into orbit on

an expendable rocket and have the ability to deorbit

on command and land horizontally for reuse. Initial

plans call for launching the first OTV from CCAFS

on an Atlas V in 2008. The vehicle will then deorbit

and land on a runway at either VAFB or EAFB in

California.73 The first flights will be used for vehicle testing, after which operational technology

experiment flights will be conducted.

Commercial Orbital Habitat

Development

Bigelow Aerospace is developing next-generation, expandable space habitat technology that is

intended to support a future private-sector-driven

commercial space industry. The company has manufactured, launched, and is operating two technology demonstration spacecraft (Genesis I and Genesis

II) that are validating the fundamental engineering

concepts necessary to construct an expandable

orbital habitat. Bigelow Aerospace is currently

planning to construct and launch larger and more

complex spacecraft over the next few years, all of

which are being designed to support a crewed presence in LEO.

The Genesis II pathfinder spacecraft was

launched on June 28, 2007, less than one year after

the Genesis I launch on July 12, 2006. Both of

these spacecraft were successfully orbited by an

ISC Kosmotras Dnepr rocket launched from facilities at the new Yasny Cosmodrome in the Orenburg

region of the Russian Federation. The two spacecraft are externally similar although internally different; Genesis II was outfitted with additional sensors, cameras, and unique interior payloads. The

size of the demonstrators are approximately 4.4

meters (15 feet) in length and 1.6 meters (5.3 feet)

in diameter at launch, expanding to 2.54 meters (8

feet) in diameter after full deployment is achieved

in orbit. The spacecraft have a usable volume of

11.5 cubic meters (406 cubic feet) and an anticipated orbital lifespan of 3 to 13 years. Bigelow

Aerospace uses its mission control facility in North

Las Vegas, Nevada to operate these spacecraft.

Bigelow Aerospace will next continue its

habitat development with the larger Sundancer

spacecraft. The successful test and demonstration of

technologies on the two Genesis spacecraft and the

increasing cost of orbital launch has led Bigelow

Aerospace to decide to proceed directly with the

Sundancer, the company’s first attempt at producing

a habitat capable of supporting a human presence

on orbit. The planned launch date for Sundancer is

in approximately 2010. The spacecraft is currently

anticipated to weigh around 8,600 kilograms

(19,000 pounds) and offer roughly 180 cubic meters

(6,350 cubic feet) of usable volume. The technologies to be demonstrated and deployed on Sundancer

include environmental control and life support systems; guidance, navigation, and attitude control;

propulsion; power generation; and windows.

Subsequent to Sundancer, Bigelow Aerospace plans

to launch a node/bus combination that will mate

with the Sundancer to form the core of the company’s first space complex. If this activity is successful, Bigelow Aerospace would then launch a full

standard module that will also be attached to the

Sundancer and node/bus complex.

In-Space Technology 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

36 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

External view of Genesis II
Bigelow Aerospace has executed agreements

to explore relationships with various launch

providers including Lockheed Martin and SpaceX

for the possible use of the Atlas V or Falcon 9 vehicles, respectively, for future module and crew or

cargo launches..

A critical issue for Bigelow Aerospace is the

provision of transportation services to bring people

and cargo to and from its platforms in LEO. The

company would benefit from the availability of a

low-cost and reliable commercial human-rated

transportation system that could dock with

Sundancer and future space complexes. For this

reason, the company has created two initiatives to

promote new vehicle development: the $50 million

America’s Space Prize (see the Space Prize

Competitions section) and an offer to place $100

million in escrow to begin contracting for launch

services that could reach a value of $760 million

for twelve initial launches of various Bigelow

Aerospace hardware.74 This contract offer is an

incentive for the development of new commercial

orbital transportation systems, and for Bigelow

Aerospace as it begins to develop plans for the

mass production of its expandable, orbital habitats.75

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts In-Space Technology

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 37

Conception of Bigelow modules
38 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Organizations from industry and the government

have been working to develop launch vehicle components that are substantially simpler, more flexible

and reliable, and less costly than legacy technologies. These efforts research projects in the areas of

air launch technologies, composite cryogenic fuel

tanks, propulsion systems, thermal protection systems, and vehicle recovery systems. This chapter

reviews some of the accomplishments made in

2007 with emphasis given to those organizations

and technologies that have achieved significant testing milestones.

Friction Stir Welding - 

Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation

Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

(SpaceX) uses friction stir welding during the construction of the Falcon 9 launch vehicle. The Falcon

9’s first and second stage walls use a high-performance aluminum-lithium alloy. This is difficult and

disadvantageous to weld with traditional techniques

because the lightweight lithium vaporizes when

melted, changing the alloy composition and producing a joint that is far weaker than the adjoining

material. Friction stir welding forms a metal-tometal joint without melting, using only friction and

pressure. Thus, the alloy composition remains unaffected and retains its strength. This allows for the

creation of some of the lightest and strongest possible metal alloy tanks.76

Composite Tanks - Microcosm, Inc.

In 2007, Microcosm, Inc., of Hawthorne,

California, continued development of a cryogenic

composite LOX tank under SBIR Phase 2 funding.

Microcosm successfully tested a 64-centimeter (25-

inch) diameter, all-composite LOX tank to nearly

four times its operating pressure of 3,790 kilopascals (550 pounds per square inch). Testing occurred

at cryogenic temperatures using liquid nitrogen.

The new materials technology used for the tank

comes from Composite Technology Development

Inc. of Lafayette, Colorado. A month later,

Microcosm announced the successful completion of

final qualification tests on the full-scale, all-composite cryogenic LOX tank for the Sprite SLV. This

time the testing was done for a full-scale, 107-centimeter (42-inch diameter), all-composite, LOX

tank to nearly four times its operating pressure of

3,790-kilopascals (550-pounds per square inch).

Microcosm’s tank design and manufacturing

method prevents gas permeation/leakage, and manages the typical micro-cracking that has always

been the problem with all-composite tanks at cryogenic temperatures. The tank design allows for

reduction in the weight of the propellant tanks for

Sprite and increases the mass to orbit by over 30

percent. Microcosm intends to offer this technology

in a range of sizes as well as custom-made pressure

vessels for industrial applications where ultra-high,

strength-to-weight ratio is important. The composite

tank is scheduled to be flight proven in early

2008.77

Solid Engines - 

Alliant Techsystems, Inc.

ATK was named the prime contractor by

NASA for the development of the Ares I first stage

in December 2005. The design of the Ares I first

Enabling Technologies

Falcon 9 first stage

Microcosm Composite Tanks
stage will primarily use existing Space Shuttle solid

rocket motor technology; however, ATK is developing new components to increase performance.

Improvements under development in 2007 include

an enhanced propellant grain shape in the forward

section of the motor and a larger diameter nozzle

throat. The core tooling used to achieve the new

propellant shape is in manufacturing.78 Two mockups of a section located at the top of the motor

between the first and second stages, called the forward skirt, have been constructed. The forward

skirt mockups will simulate the physical space

available for the avionics and will be used to determine the optimal required space and placement of

the electronics.

In August 2007, ATK was awarded a multiyear $1.8 billion contract for the design, development, test and evaluation of the Ares I first stage.

The multi-year contract extends through June 2013

and includes flight tests beginning in 2009. The

flight test in 2009 designated Ares I-X, will utilize

a modified four-segment Space Shuttle Solid

Rocket Booster with a fifth segment simulator. Five

ground tests of a new five-segment Ares I rocket

motor are scheduled in 2009-2011. Three Ares I

flight tests utilizing the new five-segment first

stages are scheduled in 2012 and 2013.79

Liquid Engines - AirLaunch LLC

AirLaunch LLC, of Kirkland, Washington, is

developing Vapor Pressurization (VaPak) LOX- and

propane-powered upper stage engines for its

QuickReach Small Launch Vehicle (SLV) as part of

the Falcon SLV program..

AirLaunch LLC conducted a 191-second

engine test in March 2007, the longest VaPak

engine burn in history. As of November 2007,

AirLaunch had conducted 55 test firings of its

propulsion system, all using VaPak. The

QuickReach second stage engine has been fired 50

times, totaling over 400 seconds, on the Horizontal

Test Stand (HTS), in addition to several cold flow

tests. Five test fires, totaling 315.5 seconds, have

been performed on the Vertical Test Stand (VTS)

with the QuickReach Integrated Second Stage

(IS2), in addition to several propellant loading and

conditioning tests.80 The IS2 firings incorporated

ground propellant loading operations and flighttype avionics, software, and systems. Transition of

liquid oxygen to gaseous oxygen, a feature of

VaPak, has been observed in test fires on both the

HTS and VTS.

In July 2007, DARPA and the USAF jointly

agreed to fund Phase 2C at a value of $7.6 million.

Phase 2C milestones include upgrades to hardware,

instrumentation, and test stands; and a series of test

fires on the HTS to gather data on engine performance and on the VTS to more comprehensively

characterize second stage performance.81

Liquid Engines – Garvey Spacecraft

Corporation

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation (GSC) is a

small aerospace R&D company, formed in 1993,

that is focusing on the development of advanced

space technologies and launch vehicle systems.

GSC conducts research and development in partnership with a variety of organizations. The most

notable of these partnerships has been the

California Launch Vehicle Education Initiative

(CALVEIN) with California State University, Long

Beach (CSULB). Since getting started in early

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 39

Enabling Technologies 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Five-Segment Motor Test

AirLaunch Hot Fire Test on VTS
2001, the CALVEIN work has resulted in numerous

static fire tests and 15 flight tests, including development of the CSULB aerospike engine as well as

the more recent missions involving the prototype

RLV test bed. 

In September 2007, under the sponsorship of

the U.S. Department of Labor and the California

Space Authority’s Workforce Innovation in

Regional Economic Development (WIRED) program, the launch of Prospector 8A (P-8A) took

place in the Mojave Desert. The primary goal of the

flight was to test the new 20,000-newton (4,500-

pound-force) thrust engine that GSC/CSULB has

been developing for the past year. Programmatic

objectives of the test included the creation of mentoring experiences in hardware development for

aerospace students from CSULB, Stanford, and

other WIRED partners, as well as the manifesting

of payloads from academic, government, and commercial organizations. The flight of Prospector 8A

ended prematurely when excessive fluttering resulted in failure of the stabilization fins. Lessons

learned from the P-8 flight are now being applied

by GSC to the development of the Prospector 9

prototype RLV under a Phase 2 SBIR with the Air

Force. In 2007 GSC began practicing and evaluating water recovery techniques to expand the scope

of their RLV operations. Present plans call for

GSC to conduct a test flight in 2008.82

Liquid Engines – Northrop Grumman

Corporation

Northrop Grumman successfully tested a new

type of rocket engine specifically designed to use

oxygen and methane propellants that range from

all-gas to all-liquid at the inlet to the thruster. The

new engine design was developed under contract to

NASA Glenn Research Center’s Cryogenic

Reaction Control Engine program. The engine,

dubbed the TR408, ensures that the fuel and oxidizer fully vaporize by passing the propellants through

cooling passages located in the thrust chamber wall

before injecting them into the chamber for combustion. This technique ensures consistent performance

and combustion stability. Previous rocket engine

designs using propellant to cool the chamber do not

vaporize any of the propellant or may only vaporize

one of the propellants, typically the fuel. The

TR408 uses a simple design consisting of only two

propellant valves, no moving parts other than the

valves, and contains a built-in spark igniter to initiate combustion of the injected propellants.

Northrop Grumman announced in November

2007 that the TR408 had performed more than 50

separate tests demonstrating operating stability and

an ample design margin for the 440-newton (100-

pounds-force) engine. Upcoming test will attempt

to operate the engine at a steady-state specific

impulse of 340 seconds.83

Liquid Engines – Pratt & Whitney

Rocketdyne, Inc.

NASA awarded Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne,

Inc. (PWR) a $1.2 billion contract in July 2007 to

design, develop, and test a J-2X engine that will

power the upper stage of the Ares I and Ares V

launch vehicles. Powered by liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, the J-2X is an evolved variation of

two historic predecessors: the J-2 upper stage

engine, that propelled the Apollo-era Saturn IB and

Saturn V rockets to the Moon in the 1960s and

1970s, and the J-2S, a simplified version of the J-2

developed and tested in the early 1970s but never

flown. The J-2S turbopumps and related machinery

were demonstrated in the 1990s on the X-33

aerospike engine. The J-2X main injector hardware,

a major component of the engine, is similar to the

J-2 engine injector. Engineers at NASA’s Marshall

Space Flight Center conducted hot-fire tests on subscale injector hardware in 2006 as part of an effort

to investigate design options that would maximize

performance of the J-2X engine for the Ares upper

stages. The J-2X ignition system also will be a

modified version of the system on the J-2 engine.

Tests of an augmented spark igniter were conducted

in 2006 at Marshall.84 In December 2007, NASA

began testing core components of the J-2X on the

A-1 Test Stand at NASA’s John C. Stennis Space

40 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

P-8A Static Fire Test
Center near Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. The tests

focused on the engine’s powerpack a gas generator

and turbopumps that perform the rocket engine's

major pumping and combustion work. During the

test, engineers ran liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen through the powerpack, monitoring its ducts,

valves, and lines to verify the tightness of seals in

the oxidizer lines and pumps. All test objectives

were met with no anomalies noted.85

The J-2X will provide an estimated 1,308,000

newtons (294,000 pounds-force) of thrust to power

the Ares vehicles. The contract includes ground and

test flight engines and extends through December

31, 2012.86 The first integrated J-2X engine systems

test is scheduled for 2010.

Liquid Engines – 

Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation

In 2006, SpaceX began working on the

Merlin 1C engine, a regeneratively-cooled successor to the ablatively-cooled Merlin 1A engine. The

regeneratively-cooled Merlin 1C uses rocket propellant grade kerosene (RP-1), a refined form of jet

fuel, to cool the combustion chamber and nozzle

before combining it with the liquid oxygen to create

thrust. This cooling allows for higher performance

without significantly increasing engine mass. The

Merlin 1C engine will be used in upcoming Falcon

1 launches.87 The Merlin 1C will also be used for

the first and second stage of the Falcon 9. 

During 2007, 125 hot fire tests were conducted on the Merlin 1C engine for a combined run

time exceeding 3,000 seconds. In November 2007,

SpaceX announced that it had completed development of the Merlin 1C.88 In its current Falcon 9

first-stage configuration, the Merlin 1C has a thrust

at sea level of 423,000 newtons (95,000 poundsforce), a vacuum thrust of over 480,000 newtons

(108,000 pounds-force), vacuum specific impulse

of 304 seconds and sea level thrust-to-weight ratio

of 92. In generating this thrust, the Merlin 1C consumes 159 kilograms per second (350 pounds per

second) of propellant. The chamber and nozzle are

cooled by 45 kilograms per second (100 pounds per

second) of kerosene. The kerosene is capable of

absorbing 10 megawatts of heat energy. A planned

turbopump upgrade in 2009 will improve the thrust

by over 20 percent and the thrust to weight ratio by

approximately 25 percent.89

The Merlin 1C engine will power SpaceX’s

next Falcon 1 mission, scheduled to lift off in early

2008. SpaceX’s far

larger Falcon 9 rocket, now in development, will employ

nine Merlin engines

on its first stage. A

vacuum version of

the Merlin 1C, with

a larger bell nozzle

and some additional

features, will be

used on the Falcon

9’s upper stage.90 In

2008, SpaceX targets

to build approximately 50 booster

engines, a number

that exceeds the output of every country

except Russia.91

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 41

Enabling Technologies 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

J-2 Awaits Testing on the A-1 Test Stand

Merlin 1C Test Firing
Liquid Engines – XCOR Aerospace Inc.

XCOR Aerospace, Inc. headquartered in

Mojave, California, specializes in developing

engines and propulsion systems for use on launch

vehicles and spacecraft. In May 2006, XCOR won

a contract from ATK to develop a 33,300-newton

(7,500-pound-force) methane-fueled engine as a

prototype for potential use on NASA’s Orion spacecraft. The ATK-XCOR methane engine, also known

as the 5M15, will build upon XCOR’s existing

engines. According to XCOR, the engine serves

several purposes, including validation of key engine

design elements, such as the regeneratively cooled

chamber/throat assembly, the stability and performance of the injector, and the reliability of ignition.

The 5M15 will incorporate a number of design features for safety and reliability, critical for humanrated applications, that were demonstrated on previous XCOR engine designs. Finally, the design is

modular, facilitating rapid test of new components

during development, and enabling modification for

future exploration applications. Testing of the 5M15

began in Mojave in January 2007.92 In November

2007, Time magazine recognized the potential of

the 5M15 by making the methane-powered rocket

an “Invention of The Year” award winner.93 In

December 2007, XCOR Aerospace and ATK

announced the completion of testing on the 5M15.94

In October 2007 at the X PRIZE Cup, video

was shown of the first test flights of the Rocket

Racing League’s X-Racer vehicle. The X-Racer is

propelled by an XCOR-developed 4K14 engine that

produces 6,700 newtons (1,500 pounds-force) of

thrust. The 4K14 uses a regeneratively-cooled LOX

and pump-fed kerosene system. The X-Racer airframe is based on a Velocity airplane kit.95

Liquid RCS Thruster – 

Orion Propulsion, Inc.

Orion Propulsion, Incorporated, of Huntsville,

Alabama, announced in December 2007, the successful completion of the first series of hot-fire tests

of a 440-newton (100-pound-force) oxygenmethane thruster module. Development of the

thruster is funded by a NASA SBIR Phase 2 grant

awarded in October 2006. The purpose of the

thruster module project is to design, fabricate, and demonstrate the use of

composite cryogenic

tanks integrated into

a propulsion system

that is representative

of future mission

requirements, such

as NASA’s Orion

Crew Exploration

Vehicle, Lunar

Lander, and long

duration space missions. The system

uses NASA-provided composite tanks,

which have undergone extensive cryogenic testing with

multiple cryogenic

fluids, including liquid oxygen, liquid

nitrogen, and liquid

helium. 

This engine offers advantages over existing

RCS thrusters, including flexibility, reusability, and

high performance. The simple configuration and

conventional manufacturing techniques contribute

to cost, weight, and risk reductions.96 The next step

on the thruster module effort is to perform a series

of extended storage tests on the cryogenic tanks.

Orion and NASA will continue hot-fire testing of

the module with gaseous and cryogenic propellants.

The system will be operated under the conditions of

a pressurized propellant system and under the conditions of saturated propellants operating in a blowdown mode.97

42 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

XCOR XR-5M15 Test Fire

Orion Thruster Test
Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 43

Liquid RCS Thruster – 

Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation

SpaceX is developing a spacecraft thruster

called Draco that generates 400 newtons (90

pounds-force) of thrust. The Draco thruster is

fueled by a common aerospace bipropellant combination, monomethyl hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide (MMH/NTO). The SpaceX Dragon crew and

cargo spacecraft will have a total of 18 Draco

thrusters for both attitude control and orbital

maneuvering functions. Draco thrusters will also be

used on the Falcon 9 second stage for maneuvering

and deorbiting. In 2007, SpaceX’s propulsion team

completed the first Draco development engine, and

in 2008 will begin testing at their new MMH/NTO

test facilities in central Texas.98

Launch Abort System – Orbital

Sciences Corporation

Orbital Science Corporation announced in

September 2006 that it will build the Launch Abort

System (LAS) for the NASA Orion CEV. Orbital is

a member of the Lockheed Martin-led team selected to construct the Orion CEV and will receive

approximately $250 million under subcontract to

Lockheed Martin to construct the LAS.99 The LAS

will be composed primarily of solid rocket motors,

separation mechanisms, canards, and an adapter

structure. The LAS will provide escape capability

for the Orion crew from pad operations through

ascent. The new design, using Orbital’s small

launch vehicle technology, will improve flight crew

safety as compared to current human space flight

systems.

On November 14, 2007, NASA broke ground

on a new test launch pad at the U.S. Army’s White

Sands Missile Range, N.M., that will be the site of

a series of tests of a launch abort system for the

Orion CEV. The first of five planned abort tests is

scheduled from the new pad in September 2008.

Two tests are planned to evaluate the performance

of the launch abort system at ground level and three

tests will evaluate its performance at different altitudes.100 The contract calls for a five-year development program. Initial crewed flights to orbit are

planned during the 2012 to 2014 time period, followed by a series of operational missions to the

International Space Station and the Moon.101

Scramjet Propulsion – Pratt & Whitney

Rocketdyne, Inc.

Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, Inc., along with

its X-51A team members, including the U.S. Air

Force, DARPA, NASA, and the Boeing Company,

demonstrated operation and performance of the X-1

scramjet engine in the first simulated flight at Mach

5 of the X-51A. The X-1 demonstrator engine, designated the SJX61-1, is a hydrocarbon-fueled

scramjet featuring X-51A flight hardware. The X51A flight test program plans to demonstrate scramEnabling Technologies 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Draco Thruster

Conceptual Orion Launch Abort System X-1 Scramjet Test
jet engine technology within the Mach 4.5-6.5

range with four flight tests beginning in 2009.

According to PWR, the program will set the foundation for several hypersonic applications including

access to space. Additional tests in early 2008 will

verify engine performance and operability across

the X-51A flight envelope.102

Propellant Production – 

Andrews Space, Inc.

Andrews Space, Inc., of Seattle, Washington,

has developed an in-flight propellant collection system, the “Alchemist” Air Collection and

Enrichment System (ACES), which generates LOX

through the separation of atmospheric air. The

ACES takes high-pressure air from turbofan jet

engines flying at subsonic speeds and cools it by

passing the air through a series of heat exchangers

cooled by both oxygen-depleted air and liquid

hydrogen. Then, using a fractional distillation

process, liquid oxygen is separated and stored in

propellant tanks for use by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen rocket engines. 

In March 2006, DARPA/AFRL awarded

Andrews Space, Inc., additional funding to demonstrate operational capabilities of its Alchemist

ACES. Under the new contract, valued close to

$350,000, Andrews will advance the state-of-the-art

and demonstrate critical ACES components and

operating parameters. This bridge funding is meant

to permit early demonstration of the technologies

required and to make significant program risk

reductions. Development and demonstration of

these technologies offers a hybrid approach to rocket propulsion, which can significantly reduce takeoff gross weight.103 In 2007, Andrews continued

testing of the ACES system and successfully validated that rotary packing material could be used in

the fractional distillation process at forces in excess

of 1-G.104

Air Launch Method – AirLaunch LLC

In July 2006, AirLaunch LLC dropped a fullscale simulated QuickReach rocket, weighing

almost 33,000 kilograms (72,000 pounds) and

measuring 20 meters (66 feet) in length, from an

Air Force C-17 cargo plane as part of the

DARPA/Air Force Falcon SLV Program. The

unmodified C-17A aircraft released the test article

at an airspeed of 600 kilometers/hour (330 knots)

from an altitude of 9,700 meters (32,000 feet). The

drop was third in a series of envelope expansion

tests to verify the ability of the C-17 safely to deliver AirLaunch’s full-scale, full-weight QuickReach

rocket to its operational launch altitude. Previous

tests took place in June 2006 and in September

2005. Each test set a new C-17 record for the

longest and heaviest single item dropped from the

aircraft.105 The initial test in 2005 demonstrated the

QuickReach release technology, including proof

that the nose of the rocket does not hit the roof of

the C-17A airplane as the booster leaves the carrier

aircraft. The Falcon SLV program’s Phase 2C

includes a launch demonstration that could occur in

2008. AirLaunch did not conduct any further tests

of the unique air launch system in 2007, instead

focusing on development of propulsion systems for

the QuickReach as detailed earlier in this chapter.106

Thermal Protection System – 

Andrews Space, Inc. 

In December 2007, Andrews Space, Inc.,

announced the development and testing of new

material for enabling advanced thermal protection

systems. The tests, conducted at the NASA Ames

Research Center arc-jet facility as part of a NASA

44 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Andrews ACES Test

QuickReach Drop Test
Phase 2 SBIR to develop lightweight ballute

designs, identified new materials that can be used

to enable thermal protection systems for non-rigid

aerosurfaces. A ballute is a pressure-stabilized,

inflatable membrane that provides a large, blunt,

high-drag surface for aerobraking systems. Ballutes

offer significant advantages over rigid shells for

aerocapture and reentry of spacecraft by providing

simplified packaging and lower total weight.

Traditional ballute designs use several layers of

Nextel fabric with insulating layers of Kapton and

Kevlar structural backing. Andrews is developing

lighter weight designs using thinner materials and

transpiration cooling. The goal of the transpirationcooled TPS design is to reduce the mass of the ballute TPS system by 20 percent over traditional,

purely insulative solutions. Experimental data will

be used to refine the ballute design and develop a

concept to enable larger operational systems.107

Thermal Protection System – Boeing

Boeing completed a developmental, 5-meter

(16-feet) wide heat shield for NASA’s Orion CEV

in November 2007. The heat shield uses Phenolic

Impregnated Carbon Ablator (PICA) material manufactured by Fiber Materials, Inc. of Biddeford,

Maine, under contract to Boeing. PICA is a modern

TPS material developed by NASA’s Ames Research

Center and has the advantages of low density coupled with efficient ablative capability at high heat

flux. PICA is being considered for Orion’s heat

shield due to its proven performance on NASA’s

Stardust spacecraft heat shield. PICA’s thermal

characteristics will enable the CEV to survive the

high reentry velocity associated with Earth reentry

following a lunar mission.108

Stage Recovery System – 

Alliant Techsystems, Inc. & United

Space Alliance, LLC

ATK and United Space Alliance successfully

tested in 2007 the world’s largest rocket stage

recovery parachute system. In September and

November 2007, the 46-meter (150-foot) diameter,

900-kilogram (2,000-pound) parachute carried a

19,000-kilogram (42,000-pound) weighted test unit

safely to the Earth.109 The parachute is derived

from the 41-meter (136-foot) main parachute currently used on the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket

Boosters. The larger parachute will be used by the

new five-segment solid rocket booster being developed for the Ares I first stage. The first Ares test

flight, Ares I-X, a full-scale launch vehicle with

inert upper stage, will use the new parachute. Ares

I-X is scheduled to launch in April 2009.110

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 45

Enabling Technologies 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Prototype Heat Shield

Parachute Testing at Yuma Proving Ground
Launch and reentry sites—often referred to as

“spaceports”—are the nation’s gateways to and

from space. Although individual capabilities vary,

these facilities may house launch pads and runways

as well as the infrastructure, equipment, and fuels

needed to process launch vehicles and their payloads before launch. The first such facilities in the

United States emerged in the 1940s when the federal government began to build and operate space

launch ranges and bases to meet a variety of national needs.

While U.S. military and civil government

agencies were the original and still are the primary

users and operators of these facilities, commercial

payload customers have become frequent users of

federal spaceports. Federal facilities are not the

only portals to and from space. Indeed, the commercial dimension of U.S. space activity is evident

not only in the numbers of commercially procured

launches but also in the presence of non-federal

launch sites supplementing federally operated sites.

Since 1996, the FAA has licensed the operations of

six launch or reentry sites, some of which are colocated with federal facilities. These spaceports

serve both commercial and government payload

owners.

Table 1 shows which states have non-federal,

federal, and proposed spaceports. Figure 1 shows a

map of U.S. spaceports and launch sites. Non-federal and federal U.S. spaceports capable of supporting launch and landing activities are described. A

subsection detailing state and private proposals for

future spaceports is also included.

Non-Federal Spaceports 

While the majority of licensed launch activity

still occurs at U.S. federal ranges, significant future

launch and landing activity may originate from

spaceports operated by private entities or state and

local governments. For a U.S. person or institution

that is a non-federal entity to operate a launch or

reentry site in the U.S. or U.S. territories, it is necessary to obtain a license from the federal government through the FAA. To date, the FAA has

licensed six non-federal launch sites. Three are colocated with federal launch sites, including the

California Spaceport at Vandenberg Air Force Base,

California; the Cape Canaveral Spaceport at Cape

Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida; and the MidAtlantic Regional Spaceport at Wallops Flight

Facility, Virginia. In addition, Blue Origin utilizes

an exclusive use launch site in western Texas that is

not an FAA licensed spaceport. Similarly, Sea

Launch also does not need an FAA launch site

operator license. The first orbital launch from an

FAA-licensed site occurred on January 6, 1998,

when a Lockheed Martin Athena 2, carrying

NASA’s Lunar Prospector spacecraft, successfully

lifted off from Cape Canaveral Spaceport. Table 2

summarizes the characteristics of non-federal

spaceports. 

Blue Origin West Texas Launch Site

Blue Origin West Texas launch site is a private property owned by Jeff Bezos, the founder of

Amazon.com and Blue Origin, LLC. After purchasing almost 66,800 hectares (165,000 acres) of

desert 40 kilometers (25 miles) north of Van Horn,

in Culberson County, Texas, the entrepreneur

expressed interest in building and operating a private spaceport. Blue Origin proposes to launch

RLVs on suborbital, ballistic trajectories to altitudes

in excess of 99,000 meters (325,000 feet). To conduct these operations, Blue Origin would construct

a private launch site, including a vehicle processing

46 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Spaceports

Table 2: Spaceport Summary by State

State Non-federal Federal Proposed

Alabama

Alaska

California

Florida

Kwajalein

New Mexico

Oklahoma

Texas

Virginia

Washington

Wisconsin

Wyoming

* Blue Origin utilizes an exclusive use launch site located in Texas.
Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 47

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Table 3: Non-federal Spaceports Infrastructure and Status

Spaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development Status

Blue Origin West 

Texas Launch Site

Culberson 

County, Texas

Blue Origin No known infrastructure at this time. Blue Origin plans to construct a private launch 

site, including a vehicle processing facility, 

launch complex; vehicle landing and recovery 

areas; and space flight participant training 

facility. Blue Origin received the first 

experimental permit for a reusable suborbital 

rocket in September 2006 and executed a test 

launch in November 2006. Subsequent flights 

followed in March and April 2007.

California 

Spaceport

Vandenberg 

AFB, California

Spaceport 

Systems 

International

Existing launch pads, runways, payload 

processing facilities, telemetry, and 

tracking equipment.

SLC 8 modified to support Minotaur IV.

Cape Canaveral 

Spaceport

Cape 

Canaveral, 

Florida

Space Florida One orbital launch complex with a 

remote control center, one suborbital 

launch complex with two pads and a 

blockhouse, an off-site solid rocket 

motor storage that includes heavy rail 

access, a 27-m (90-ft) high bay with 

overhead cranes, a storage building, 

and a 5,200-m2 (50,000-ft2) RLV 

support hangar.

The quadra-axial static rocket test stand is 

under construction. It can accommodate 

engines up to 44,500 newtons (10,000 lbf) 

thrust.

Kodiak Launch 

Complex

Kodiak Island, 

Alaska

Alaska Aerospace 

Development 

Corporation

Launch control center, payload 

processing facility, and integration and 

processing facility, orbital and suborbital 

launch pads, and maintenance and 

storage facilities.

In 2006, AADC added eight additional 

redundant telemetry links to its range safety 

and telemetry system. Future expansion plans 

include building a second suborbital launch 

pad and a motor storage facility, and 

increasing fiber-optic bandwidth to the 

continental United States. 

Mid-Atlantic 

Regional Spaceport

Wallops Island, 

Virginia

Virginia 

Commercial Space 

Flight Authority

Two orbital launch pads, payload 

processing and integration facility 

vehicle storage and assembly buildings, 

mobile liquid fueling capability, on-site 

and downrange telemetry and tracking, 

and payload recovery capability.

Site is operational. Currently it is conducting 

the planning and investigation of the 

expansion of capability to include heavier lift in 

support of commercial cargo to LEO 

operations.

Mojave Air and 

Space Port 

Mojave, 

California

East Kern Airport 

District

Air traffic control tower, three runways, 

rotor test stand, engineering facilities, 

high bay building. Easy access to 

restricted airspace. Space zoned 

specifically for rocket motor 

development and testing.

Infrastructure upgrades for 2007 were affected 

by the July 26 explosion. Funding has been 

received for the construction of a more 

reliable water delivery system that includes 

extension and upgrade of the water 

distribution system, as well as construction of 

an additional water storage tank. The 

construction is expected to be completed by 

spring 2008.

Oklahoma 

Spaceport 

Washita 

County, 

Oklahoma

Oklahoma Space 

Industry 

Development 

Authority

A 4,115-m (13,500-ft) runway; 5,200-m2 

(50,000-ft2

) manufacturing facility; 

2,7850-m2

 (30,000-ft2) maintenance and 

painting hangar; 6 commercial aircraft 

hangars, including a 2,787-m2

 (30,000-

ft2

) maintenance and paint facility; 39-

ha (96-a) of concrete ramp, control 

tower, crash and rescue facility; and 

435-km2

 (168-m2) of land available for 

further construction.

The Clinton-Sherman AFB at Burns Flat was 

designated as the future spaceport. OSIDA 

received a Launch Site Operators License 

from the FAA in June 2006. In June 2007, 

Armadillo launched the first flight under the 

new experimental permit rules from Oklahoma 

Spaceport.
facility, launch complex, vehicle landing and recovery area, spaceflight participant training facility,

and other support facilities.111

After reviewing the environmental assessment

and finding of no significant impact for the proposed Blue Origin West Texas launch site, FAA

issued to Blue Origin the first experimental permit

for a reusable suborbital rocket in September 2006.

This type of permit was first authorized by the

Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of

2004. The vehicle to be tested will be unmanned

and will be launched and landed vertically during

tests. The permit granted to Blue Origin is a oneyear, renewable permit, allowing for unlimited

launches. Such permits are intended to allow launch

vehicle developers to flight test their designs.112 The

first flight of Goddard, a subscale protype of the

company’s planned New Shepard vehicle, took

place in November 2006; subsequent flights of

Goddard took place in March and April 2007.

California Spaceport

On September 19, 1996, the California

Spaceport became the first commercial spaceport

licensed by the FAA. The California Spaceport

offers commercial launch and payload processing

services and is operated and managed by Spaceport

Systems International (SSI), a limited partnership

of ITT Federal Service Corporation. Co-located at

VAFB on the central California coast, SSI signed a

25-year lease in 1995 for 0.44 square kilometers

(0.17 square miles) of land. Located at 34o North

latitude, the California Spaceport can support a

variety of mission profiles to low-polar-orbit inclinations, with possible launch azimuths ranging

from 220° to 165°.

Construction of the California Spaceport commercial launch facility began in 1995 and was completed in 1999. The design concept is based on a

“building block” approach. Power and communications cabling were routed underground to provide a

launch pad with the flexibility to accommodate a

variety of launch systems. The current Space

Launch Complex 8 (SLC-8) configuration consists

of the following infrastructure: pad deck, support

equipment building, launch equipment vault, launch

duct, launch stand, access tower, communications

equipment, and Integrated Processing Facility (IPF)

launch control room, as well as the required

Western Range interfaces needed to support a

launch. During 2007, the spaceport has been

upgrading both the IPF and SLC-8 to meet user

requirements, and thus has not been able to support

48 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

California Spaceport

Vandenberg AFB

-Kennedy Space Center

-Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station

-Cape Canaveral Spaceport

Mid-Atlantic

Regional Spaceport

Wallops Flight

Facility

Edwards AFB

Mojave Air and Space Port

White Sands Missile Range

Spaceport America

West Texas Spaceport

♦

• Kodiak Launch Complex

♦

♦

♦

∗

♦

•

•

•

Oklahoma Spaceport

∗

∗

∗

∗

•

♦

Key:

U.S. Federal Spaceport

Non-Federal Spaceport

Proposed Non-Federal Spaceport

South Texas Spaceport

•

Sea Launch Platform

Equatorial Pacific Ocean

•

♦ Reagan Test Site

Kwajalein Atoll, 

Marshall Islands

∗ Spaceport 

Washington

∗

Spaceport Sheboygan

∗

Spaceport Alabama

•

Chugwater Spaceport

∗

Cecil Field Spaceport Blue Origin

Exclusive Use Launch Site

•

California Spaceport

Vandenberg AFB

-Kennedy Space Center

-Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station

-Cape Canaveral Spaceport

Mid-Atlantic

Regional Spaceport

Wallops Flight

Facility

Edwards AFB

Mojave Air and Space Port

White Sands Missile Range

Spaceport America

West Texas Spaceport

♦

• Kodiak Launch Complex

♦

♦

♦

∗

♦

•

•

•

Oklahoma Spaceport

∗

∗

∗

∗

•

♦

Key:

U.S. Federal Spaceport

Non-Federal Spaceport

∗ Proposed Non-Federal Spaceport

•

♦

Key:

U.S. Federal Spaceport

Non-Federal Spaceport

Proposed Non-Federal Spaceport

South Texas Spaceport

•

Sea Launch Platform

Equatorial Pacific Ocean

•

♦ Reagan Test Site

Kwajalein Atoll, 

Marshall Islands

∗ Spaceport 

Washington

∗

Spaceport Sheboygan

∗

Spaceport Alabama

•

Chugwater Spaceport

∗

Cecil Field Spaceport Blue Origin

Exclusive Use Launch Site

•

Figure 1: U.S. Spaceports and Launch Sites
any launches from the SLC-8. The modifications

for SLC-8 to support the Minotaur 4 launch system

included upgrades to SLC-8 Mobile Access Tower

and the Launch Equipment Vault (LEV).113 The

modifications were completed on schedule, in

December 2007. The upgrades have been financed

through USAF government contracts as well as private capitalization projects.114 When fully developed, SLC-8 will accommodate a wide variety of

launch vehicles, including the Minuteman-based

Minotaur and Castor 120-based vehicles such as the

Taurus. 

California Spaceport supports satellite processing for launches at SLC-2, SLC-3, SLC-6, and

SLC-8. Originally, the focus of the California

Spaceport’s payload processing services was on the

refurbishment of the Shuttle Payload Preparation

Room. Located near SLC-6, this large clean room

facility was designed to process three Space Shuttle

payloads simultaneously. Now, the facility is leased

and operated by the California Spaceport as the

IPF; payload-processing activities occur on a regular basis. The IPF has supported booster processing;

upper stage processing; encapsulation; and commercial, civil, and military satellite processing and

their associated administrative activities. The IPF

can handle all customer payload processing needs.

This capability includes Delta II, Delta IV, and

Atlas V payloads as well as smaller USAF and

commercial payloads. During 2007, the spaceport

supported processing of classified payloads in the

IPF. 

In 2001, SSI won a 10-year USAF satelliteprocessing contract for Delta IV class 4- and 5-

meter (13- and 16-foot) payloads. This contract

complements an existing 10-year NASA payloadprocessing contract for Delta II class 3-meter (10-

foot) payloads. SSI is working with several launch

providers for national missile defense support. The

National Reconnaissance Office has contracted with

SSI to provide payload processing until 2015. This

contract covers Delta IV and Atlas V EELV-class

payload processing support for multiple missions to

be launched from VAFB. NASA and commercial

Delta-class payloads are also processed at the IPF

for launch on the Delta II from SLC-2W at VAFB. 

Cape Canaveral Spaceport

Space Florida was created on May 30, 2006,

when then-Florida Governor Jeb Bush approved

Florida House Bill 1489. Space Florida consolidates the state’s previous space and aerospace entities and coordinates all space-related issues in

Florida. Under an arrangement between the federal

government and Space Florida, excess CCAFS

facilities were licensed to Space Florida for use by

commercial launch service providers on a dual-use,

non-interference basis. 

Major infrastructure operated by Space

Florida at CCAFS includes Launch Complex-46

(LC-46), a refurbished Trident missile launch site.

LC-46 has been modified to accommodate a variety

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 49

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

California Spaceport SLC-8

Space Florida SLC-46 MAS
50 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

of small launch vehicles, and has already successfully launched the Athena 1 and Athena 2 rockets.

With further modifications, LC-46 could accommodate vehicles carrying payloads in excess of 1,800

kilograms (4,000 pounds) to LEO. During 2007,

Space Florida refurbished the LC-46 Mobile Access

Structure. This was a $100,000 investment,

financed through government appropriations. 

As part of an overall effort to expand use of

the Cape for research, development, and educational activities, Space Florida obtained a five-year

license from the Air Force to use LC-47. This

launch complex was upgraded to support a significant number of suborbital launch vehicles carrying

academic payloads for research and training purposes. In May 2007, the construction of a quadraaxial static rocket motor test stand started. The

stand will be capable of accommodating motors up

to 30 centimeters (12 inches) in diameter, with a

maximum average thrust of 53,400 newtons

(12,000 pounds-force). The delivery of this system

is expected in the spring of 2008.115

Space Florida’s Strategic Business Plan recommends upgrading and marketing the commercial

launch facilities at LC-46 at the Cape Canaveral

Spaceport, developing a spaceport operating model

to manage the Cape Canaveral Spaceport and other

Florida spaceports, and providing economic incentive options to assist NASA COTS competitors.116

During 2007, Space Florida has contracted with

Reynolds, Smith, and Hills, an architecture, engineering and planning firm, to develop an update of

its five-year Master Plan. The plan will be submitted to the Florida Department of Transportation

(FDOT) and appropriate metropolitan planning

organizations for review of inter-modal impacts and

inclusion of eligible projects in FDOT’s five-year

work program. The update is expected to be completed by March 2008.117

The State of Florida has also developed the

Customer Assistance Service Program for the

Eastern Range (CASPER). This program is meant

to provide no-cost professional consultant guidance

to commercial launch service providers wishing to

operate from the USAF Eastern Range and NASA

Kennedy Space Center. CASPER provides guidance on how to complete requirements documentation and how to navigate the flight safety approval

process in order to receive authorization to fly from

the Eastern Range.118

Although no launches took place from Cape

Canaveral Spaceport in 2007, Space Florida provided incentives to SpaceX as part of their NASA

COTS efforts. The State of Florida was instrumental in SpaceX securing a five-year license from the

USAF for LC-40 at CCAFS. Space Florida has provided over $600,000 worth of assistance to SpaceX

through economic incentives such as office space,

concept of operations design studies, and environmental studies. Using CASPER, Space Florida has

also provided professional consultant services to

SpaceX to guide it in the development of range

documentation and flight safety systems to help it

secure required launch approvals and authorization.119

In the future, Space Florida plans to incorporate a high-expansion foam fire-fighting system into

the RLV support hangar. The Cape Canaveral

Spaceport expects to receive between $7-10 million

in direct appropriations to support its operations

during fiscal year 2008.120

Kodiak Launch Complex 

In 1991, the Alaska state legislature created

the Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation

(AADC) as a public company to develop aerospace-related economic, technical, and educational

opportunities for the state of Alaska. In 2000, the

AADC completed the $40-million, two-year construction of the Kodiak Launch Complex (KLC) at

Narrow Cape on Kodiak Island, Alaska. The first

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

FTG-03 Launch from Kodiak Launch Complex
licensed launch site not co-located with a federal

facility, KLC was also the first new U.S. launch site

built since the 1960s. Owned by the state of Alaska

and operated by the AADC, the KLC received initial funding from the USAF, U.S. Army, NASA,

state of Alaska, and private firms. Today, it is selfsustaining through launch revenues and receives no

state funding; the state of Alaska provides tax-free

status and has contributed the land on which the

spaceport resides.

Kodiak has conducted eleven successful

launches since 1998. Located at 57o North latitude,

Kodiak Launch Complex occupies a 12.4-squarekilometer (4.8-square mile) site 438 kilometers

(272 miles) south of Anchorage and 40 kilometers

(25 miles) southwest of the city of Kodiak. The

launch site itself encompasses a nearly five-kilometer (three-mile) area around Launch Pad 1. Kodiak

provides a wide launch azimuth and unobstructed

downrange flight path. Kodiak’s markets are military launches, government and commercial

telecommunications, remote sensing, and space science payloads weighing up to 1,000 kilograms

(2,200 pounds). These payloads can be delivered

into LEO, polar, and Molniya elliptical orbits.

Kodiak is designed to launch up to Castor 120-

based vehicles, including the Athena 1 and 2, and

has been used on a number of occasions to launch

military suborbital rockets.

The Missile Defense Agency (MDA) conducted target missile launches from KLC in February

2006, September 2006, May 2007, and September

2007. A five-year contract was signed in 2003

between the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) and

AADC to provide launch support services for multiple launches in connection with tests of the

nation’s missile defense system.

Kodiak facilities include the Launch Control

Center; Payload Processing Facility, which includes

a Class-100,000 clean room, an airlock, and a processing bay; Launch Service Structure and orbital

Launch Pad 1; Spacecraft and Assemblies Transfer

Facility and suborbital Launch Pad 2; Integration

and Processing Facility; and Maintenance and

Storage Facility. These facilities allow the transfer

of vehicles and payloads from processing to launch

without exposure to the outside environment. This

capability protects both the vehicles and the people

working on them from exterior conditions and

allows all-weather launch operations. Future expansion plans include building a second suborbital

launch pad and a motor storage facility, and

increasing fiber-optic bandwidth to the continental

United States.

The KLC Range Safety and Telemetry System

(RSTS) was delivered in September 2003 and

upgraded in 2005. This RSTS consists of two fully

redundant systems: one for on-site, the other for

off-axis. Each part of the RSTS consists of two 5.4-

meter (17.7-foot) dishes with eight telemetry links

featuring command destruct capabilities. The

Kodiak RSTS number 1 system will be located on a

newly constructed multi-elevation antenna field that

also supports customer-unique instrumentation.

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

The Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

(MARS) is designed to provide “one-stop-shopping” for space launch facilities and services for

commercial, government, scientific, and academic

users. From its location on the Atlantic coast, this

spaceport can accommodate a wide range of orbital

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 51

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

NFIRE satellite mission launched from MARS
inclinations and launch azimuths. Optimal orbital

inclinations accessible from the site are between

38° and 60°; other inclinations, including Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO), can be reached through inflight maneuvers. 

The FAA issued a launch site operator’s

license to the Virginia Commercial Space Flight

Authority (VCSFA) in December 1997. In July

2003, Virginia and Maryland created a bi-state

agreement to operate, conduct future development

of, and promote the spaceport. The agreement also

renamed the spaceport, previously called the

Virginia Space Flight Center, to MARS. 

MARS received $100,000 in July 2007 as fiscal year 2008 appropriation from Virginia. In addition, MARS benefits from the following incentives:

state sales and use tax exemptions on all goods

used, consumed or launched from MARS; state and

local personal property tax exemption on machinery

and equipment used as part of value added process

for vehicles and payloads launched from MARS;

state sponsored workforce training grants for new

employees of aerospace companies working at or

with MARS; state- and local-sponsored access to

flex space in the industrial park adjacent to MARS;

tort liability exclusion in Virginia courts resulting

from personal space flight activities at MARS; state

enterprise zone established at MARS to enable

rapid access to infrastructure development grants.

Also, VCSFA/MARS has bonding authority to issue

state tax exempt development bonds.

CSC-DynSpace LLC currently operates

MARS. In 1997, VCSFA signed a Reimbursable

Space Act Agreement with NASA to use the WFF

infrastructure to support commercial launches. This

30-year agreement allows MARS access to NASA’s

payload integration, launch operations, and monitoring facilities on a non-interference, cost reimbursement basis. NASA and MARS personnel work

together with commercial customers to facilitate

use of MARS facilities and services.

MARS has an official development plan,

approved by the VCSFA Board of Directors. The

plan was expanded in February 2007 to include the

capability to process and launch heavier payloads

and vehicles, such as those being developed in support of the NASA COTS initiative.121 The spaceport

is actively pursuing partnerships with space tourism

companies and has an interest in supporting future

RLVs, possibly using its launch pads or three runways at WFF.122

MARS has two launch pads. Launch pad 0-B,

its first launch pad, was designed as a “universal

launch pad,” capable of supporting a variety of

small and medium ELVs with gross liftoff weights

of up to 283,000 kilograms (624,000 pounds) that

can place up to 4,500 kilograms (9,900 pounds)

into LEO. The Mobile Service Structure offers

complete vehicle enclosure, flexible access, and can

be readily modified to support specific vehicle

operations. The site also includes a complete command, control, and communications interface with

the launch range. In March 2000, MARS acquired a

second pad at WFF, launch pad 0A. MARS started

refurbishing launch pad 0A and its 25-meter (82-

foot) service tower in June 2000. Launch pad 0A

will support launches of small ELVs with gross

liftoff weights of up to 90,000 kilograms (198,000

pounds) and that can place up to 1,350 kilograms

(3,000 pounds) into LEO. 

MARS is cooperating with NASA WFF in the

construction a $4-million logistics and processing

facility in the Wallops Research Park that includes

high bay and clean room environments. In conjunction with WFF, MARS constructed a mobile Liquid

Fueling Facility capable of supporting a wide range

of liquid-fueled and hybrid rockets. In 2007, MARS

completed the upgrade of the class-100,000 high

bay 1 of the new multi-purpose processing facility,

as well as added environmental control systems to

the launch pad 0-B Movable Service Structure.

While the improvements to the high bay were in

majority financed by the Federal government, the

launch pad construction was financed from the

spaceport revenue and cost approximately

$100,000.123 Future infrastructure improvement

plans include enhanced capability for pad 0-B

Movable Service Structure to accommodate additional launch vehicles. 

Highlights for 2007 include the two orbital

launches from launch pad 0-B within a four-month

period. The first launch, of the USAF Space

Development and Test Wing (SDTW)

SDTW/AFRL TacSat 2 satellite, took place in

December 2006, while the second one, of a USAF

SDTW/MDA NFIRE satellite, happened in April

2007. The first launch was performed with only a

52 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts
Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 53

five month call-up period for a launch vehicle never

before launched from MARS (Minotaur I). MARS

also contracted with NASA and the U.S. Air Force

for the NASA ALV-X1 launch in February 2008

and for USAF SDTW/AFRL TacSat 3 launch in

June 2008.124 Another highlight for 2007 is the passing of the Spaceflight Liability and Immunity Act,

Code of Virginia, Chapter 3, Title 8.01-227.8 et.al.

in April of 2007. 

Mojave Air and Space Port

Mojave Air and Space Port (formerly Mojave

Airport) in Mojave, California, became the first

inland launch site licensed by the FAA on June 17,

2004, allowing Mojave Air and Space Port to support suborbital launches of RLVs. The Kern

County, California, government established the

Mojave Airport in 1935. The original facility was

equipped with taxiways and basic support infrastructure for general aviation. A short time after its

inception, the Mojave Airport became a Marine

Auxiliary Air Station. The largest general aviation

airport in Kern County, Mojave Air and Space Port

is owned and operated by the East Kern Airport

District (EKAD), which is a special district with an

elected Board of Directors and a General Manager. 

Infrastructure at the Mojave Air and Space

Port includes an air traffic control tower with class

D airspace and three runways with associated taxiways. Runway 12-30 is the primary runway for

large air carrier jet, high-performance civilian and

military jet aircraft, and horizontal launch spacecraft. An extension of runway 12-30 from 2,896

meters (9,502 feet) long to 3,810 meters (12,500

feet) was declared ready for use on December 5,

2006. Runway 8-26 is 2,149 meters (7,050 feet)

long and is primarily used by general aviation jet

and propeller aircraft. Runway 4-22 is 1,202 meters

(3,943 feet) long and is used by smaller general

aviation propeller aircraft and helicopters. The

extension of runway 12-30 and over $250,000

worth of repairs to the airfield and taxiways were

completed in November 2006. The cost of infrastructure upgrades totaled $10.5 million with 95

percent of the funding provided by the FAA and 5

percent by EKAD.125

Mojave Air and Space Port serves as a

Civilian Flight Test Center with access to R-2508

restricted airspace. The airport has 162 hectares

(400 acres) of land available for immediate construction. In addition, over 121 hectares (300 acres)

are zoned specifically for rocket motor testing and

development. Currently six companies are actively

developing and testing rocket motors. 

Infrastructure upgrades planned for 2007 were

affected by the July 26 explosion during a coldflow test of a nitrous oxide propellant system for

SpaceShipTwo. The spaceport however received

funding from the Economic Development

Administration (EDA) to provide a more reliable

water delivery system for fire protection beyond a

single event occurrence. Such system includes

extension and upgrade of the water distribution system as well as construction of an additional water

storage tank. The construction is expected to be

completed by spring 2008.

At the same time, Mojave is in the process of

upgrading its Automated Weather Observing

System (AWOS). The spaceport is also considering

plans for a crash fire rescue response facility that

would provide immediate support for RLVs that

land with technical difficulties or crew medical

emergencies.

Major facilities at the Mojave Air and Space

Port include the terminal and industrial area,

hangars, offices, maintenance shop, fuel services

facilities, aircraft storage, and reconditioning facilities. Numerous large air carrier jet aircraft are

stored and maintained at the Mojave Air and Space

Port. The airport is home to a variety of organizations, including AVTEL, BAE Systems, Fiberset,

General Electric, Interorbital Systems, Masten

Space Systems, the National Test Pilot School,

Scaled Composites, Orbital Sciences, and XCOR

Aerospace. 

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Mojave Air and Space Port
54 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Mojave Air and Space Port has been part of

two record-breaking events in this decade.

SpaceShipOne rocketed past the boundary of space

on September 29, 2004, and again on October 4,

2004, to win the $10 million Ansari X Prize. In

December 2005, the EZ-Rocket made a record-setting point-to-point flight, departing from the

Mojave Air and Space Port and gliding to a touchdown at an airport in neighboring California City.126

Oklahoma Spaceport

After seven years of development, in June

2006 the Oklahoma Spaceport became the sixth

commercial spaceport licensed by the FAA. In

1999, the Oklahoma state legislature created the

Oklahoma Space Industry Development Authority

(OSIDA). Directed by seven governor-appointed

board members, OSIDA promotes the development

of spaceport facilities and space exploration, education, and related industries in Oklahoma. Currently,

the state of Oklahoma provides 100 percent of the

operational funding for OSIDA, but the organization expects to be financially independent in the

future, particularly now that it holds a commercial

launch site operator license. Still, direct financial

support varies with specific needs for facility

upgrades or operations. OSIDA intends to submit a

request for one-time capital expenditures for facility

upgrades and expects to receive the support during

fiscal year 2008. Infrastructure development plans

for fiscal year 2008 include additional fencing for

the spaceport and development of a Fight

Operations Control Center, located in the OSIDA

headquarters. Besides state funding, NASA issued a

$915,000 grant to OSIDA for aerospace education

programs. 

The FAA license allows OSIDA to provide

launch and support services for horizontallylaunched suborbital RLVs at the Clinton-Sherman

Industrial Airpark (CSIA) launch site, located near

Burns Flat. On December 5, 2006, the city of

Clinton conveyed ownership of the CSIA to

OSIDA. Existing infrastructure includes a 4,100-

meter (13,500-foot) runway, large maintenance and

repair hangars, utilities, a rail spur, and 12.4 square

kilometers (4.8 square miles) of open land. Existing

buildings could serve to house spaceplanes, manufacturing facilities, and even a passenger terminal.127

On July 13, 2007, the Oklahoma State Legislature

approved $2 million in funding for upgraded security fencing and control tower improvements. Future

development plans include enhancing the facility’s

operational control room and hosting phased-array

radar tests.

Oklahoma’s site license clears the spaceport

for suborbital flights in a 110- x 270-kilometer (70-

x 170-mile) corridor of the prairie, with clearance

for launch vehicles to rise to the edge of outer

space.128 In June 2006, OSIDA signed a letter of

agreement with Fort Worth Air Route Traffic

Control Center that provides procedures for the

integration of licensed launch operations into the

National Airspace System from the Oklahoma

Spaceport.129 Thus, this launch site became the first

U.S. inland spaceport with an established fight corridor for space operations in the national airspace

system clear of military operating areas or restricted

airspace. This arrangement means that space vehicles will not need military permission to operate

because the spaceport will have its own air space.

The spaceport license was granted for five years.

The Oklahoma Department of Commerce

offers several incentives to attract space-related

businesses. For example, a jobs program provides

qualifying companies with quarterly cash payments

worth up to five percent of its new taxable payroll

for up to ten years. Organizations also may qualify

for other state tax credits, tax refunds, tax exemptions, and training incentives. Rocketplane Inc. and

TGV Rockets, Inc. have located in Oklahoma for

their launch vehicle developments. As the first corporation that meets specific qualifying criteria,

including equity capitalization of $10 million and

creation of at least 100 Oklahoma jobs, Rocketplane

qualified for an $18-million, state-provided tax

credit. Another company pursuing space-related

activities in Oklahoma, Armadillo Aerospace, conducted tethered operational testing at the Oklahoma

Spaceport with the vehicle that was used for the

Oklahoma Spaceport
2006 Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander competition.130 On June 2, 2007, Armadillo launched the

first flight under the new experimental permit rules

from a licensed spaceport. This flight performed a

complete Lunar Lander Challenge Level 1 (LLC1)

operational profile.

Federal Spaceports

Since the first licensed commercial orbital

launch in 1989, the federal ranges have continually

supported commercial launch activity in addition to

handling government launch operations. The importance of commercial launches is evident in the

changes taking place at federal launch sites. Launch

pads have been developed with commercial, federal, and state government support at the two major

federal sites for U.S. orbital launches for the latest

generation of the Delta and Atlas launch vehicles.

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and VAFB host

pads for the Delta II, Delta IV, and Atlas V. 

Recognizing that the ranges are aging, the

U.S. government is engaged in range modernization. This effort includes the ongoing Range

Standardization and Automation program, a key

effort to modernize and upgrade the Eastern Launch

and Test Range at CCAFS and the Western Range

at VAFB. The U.S. Air Force, Department of

Commerce, and FAA signed a Memorandum of

Agreement in January 2002 that established a

process for collecting commercial sector range support and modernization requirements, communicating them to the U.S. Air Force, and considering

them in the existing U.S. Air Force requirements

process. Table 3 summarizes the characteristics of

federal spaceports. 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

The 45th Space Wing, headquartered at

Patrick AFB, conducts launch operations and provides range support for military, civil, and commercial launches at CCAFS. The 45th Space Wing is

the host organization for Patrick AFB, CCAFS,

Antigua Air Station, Ascension Auxiliary Air Field,

and many mission partners. The Wing is part of Air

Force Space Command at Peterson AFB, Colorado,

and reports to the 14th Air Force at VAFB. 

The 45th Space Wing manages the Eastern

Launch and Test Range (ELTR). The ELTR is used

to gather and process data on a variety of East

Coast launches and

deliver it to range

users. To accomplish

this task, the range

consists of a series

of tracking stations

located at CCAFS,

Antigua Air Station,

and Ascension

Auxiliary Air Field.

The range also uses

the Jonathan

Dickinson and the

Malabar Tracking

Annexes on the

Florida mainland.

These stations may

be augmented with a

fleet of advanced range instrumentation aircraft as

well as a site located in Argentia, Newfoundland.131

Users of CCAFS include the USAF, Navy,

NASA, and various private industry contractors.

The ELTR also supports Shuttle launches from

NASA KSC. With its mission partners, CCAFS

processes a variety of satellites and launches them

on Atlas V, Delta II, and Delta IV ELVs. The spaceport also provides support for the Space Shuttle

program and U.S. Navy submarine ballistic missile

testing. 

During 2007, CCAFS supported Atlas V

launches of Orbital Express, NRO L-30, WGS 1,

and NRO L-24; the Delta II launches of THEMIS

1, Phoenix, Dawn, and NAVSTAR GPS 2RM-4 and

2RM-5; and one Delta IV Heavy launch of DSP 23.

Edwards Air Force Base

The original landing site for the Space

Shuttle, Edwards Air Force Base (EAFB),

California, is the home of more than 250 first

flights and about 290 world records. The first two

Shuttle flights landed on Rogers Dry Lake, a natural, hard-pack lakebed, measuring about 114 square

kilometers (44 square miles). Today, NASA uses

KSC as the primary landing site for the Space

Shuttle and uses EAFB as a backup site. EAFB is

the DoD’s premier flight test center, leading in

unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), electronic warfare,

directed energy test capabilities, and testing of

future hypersonic vehicles.

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 55

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Cape Canaveral 

Air Force Station
Within the last 10 years, EAFB has been the

home of more than 10 experimental projects,

among them the X-33 airplane. The X-33 launch

site consisted of an X-33-specifc launch pad; a control center to be used for launch monitoring and

mission control; a movable hangar where the vehicle was housed and serviced in a horizontal position; and hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen storage

tanks. In 2006, three glide tests were successfully

completed on the DARPA-sponsored X-37

autonomous research vehicle.

56 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Spaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development Status

Cape Canaveral 

Air Force Station 

(CCAFS)

Cape 

Canaveral, 

Florida

U.S. Air Force Telemetry and tracking facilities, jet 

and Shuttle capable runways, 

launch pads, hangar, vertical 

processing facilities, and assembly 

building.

Site is operational.

Edwards AFB California, near 

Mojave

U.S. Air Force Telemetry and tracking facilities, jet 

and Shuttle capable runways, 

reentry corridors, operations control 

center, movable hangar, fuel tanks, 

and water tower.

Site is operational.

Kennedy Space 

Center

Cape 

Canaveral, 

Florida

NASA Launch pads, supporting Space 

Shuttle operations, the Vehicle 

Assembly Building (VAB), and the 

Shuttle Landing Facility.

Environmental assessment underway for the 

utilization of the Shuttle Landing Facility for 

commercial suborbital and orbital spaceflight, 

special purpose aviation, and other compatible 

uses. During 2007, NASA signed a Space Act 

Agreement with Starfighters Inc. for simulated 

suborbital flight missions. Such missions would 

generate data relevant for the analysis of the 

environmental impact of suborbital and orbital 

commercial spaceflight from the SLF. 

Reagan Test Site Kwajalein 

Island, 

Republic of the 

Marshall 

Islands

U.S. Army Telemetry, radars, and optical 

tracking systems, ship based 

telemetry/safety system, mission 

control facility, wideband CONUS 

connectivity, multiple safety 

systems and launch facilities, 

runway, warehouse and industrial 

use space, user and engineering 

office space. 

Site is operational. New launch pad on Omelek 

Island completed in 2006.

Vandenberg AFB Vandenberg 

AFB, California

U.S. Air Force Launch pads, vehicle assembly and 

processing buildings, payload 

processing facilities, telemetry and 

tracking facilities, control center 

engineering, user office space, and 

Shuttle-capable runways.

Site is operational.

Wallops Flight 

Facility

Wallops Island, 

Virginia

NASA Telemetry and tracking facilities, 

heavy jet-capable runway, launch 

pads, vehicle assembly and 

processing buildings, payload 

processing facilities, mobile liquid 

fueling facility under development 

range control center, blockhouses, 

large aircraft hangars, and user 

office and lab space.

Final certification of the Wallops Mobile Liquid 

Fueling Facility will be completed. Continued 

development of Payload Processing Facility 

High Bay is planned. Upgrades to MARS Pad 0-

B to accommodate larger vehicles is under 

consideration.

White Sands 

Missile Range

White Sands, 

New Mexico

U.S. Army Full telemetry and tracking facilities, 

runway engine and propulsion 

testing facilities, class-100 clean 

room for spacecraft parts.

Site is operational. 

Table 4: Federal Spaceports Infrastructure and Status
Edwards completed an environmental assessment for reentry corridors to EAFB for lifting entry

vehicles like the X-38 configuration.132 An additional environmental assessment is being developed for

corridors that will allow flight tests within the

atmosphere for ranges of 741 kilometers (400 nautical miles) and 1,528 kilometers (825 nautical

miles). 

NASA Kennedy Space Center

Established as NASA’s Launch Operations

Center in July 1962, Kennedy Space Center today

serves as the primary launch site for NASA’s

manned space missions. Major KSC facilities

include Launch Complex 39, supporting Space

Shuttle operations; the Vehicle Assembly Building

(VAB), where the Shuttle is integrated; and the

Shuttle Landing Facility. NASA KSC provides

oversight of NASA’s expendable launch vehicles

that are flown primarily from CCAFS and VAFB

with support from the USAF. 

In September 2006, NASA KSC issued a

Request for Proposals (RFP) for the selection of a

master developer for a 129-hectare (319-acre) technology and commerce park at Kennedy Space

Center. The Exploration Park will be established to

enable and grow private sector participation in

space exploration, support commercial space transportation, and promote commercial development of

technologies for application in space and on

Earth.133

Non-NASA use of KSC’s Shuttle Landing

Facility (SLF) increased during the last couple of

years. In January 2006, the SLF was used by the

GlobalFlyer airplane for a successful attempt to set

a new world record for the longest flight made by

any aircraft.134 NASA and ZERO-G signed an

agreement in April 2006 that will allow ZERO-G to

conduct up to 280 weightless flights annually in its

modified Boeing 727-200 aircraft from the SLF.135

In September 2006, NASA issued a request for

information from prospective commercial and other

non-NASA users of the SLF to support an environmental assessment of commercial suborbital and

orbital spaceflight, support, and special purpose

aviation, and other compatible uses of the SLF. In

2007 NASA and Starfighters Inc. signed a cooperative Space Act Agreement to enable the company’s

F-104 aircraft to fly simulated suborbital flight missions from the spaceport’s space shuttle runway.

The purpose of these flights is to gather data to support NASA’s assessment of expanding uses of the

SLF. The first in this series of pathfinder test missions took place in April 2007 and the flights generated “test data to validate sonic boom assumptions

about the potential impacts of suborbital and orbital

commercial spaceflight from the SLF. NASA is

assessing the environmental impact of such

flights.”137 

Reagan Test Site 

Located at Kwajalein Atoll, part of the

Republic of the Marshall Islands, the U.S. Army’s

Reagan Test Site (RTS) is part of the DoD Major

Range and Test Facility Base (MRTFB). The

advantages of RTS include its strategic geographical location, allowing launch in virtually all

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 57

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Shuttle landing at Edwards Air Force Base

KSC launches Space Shuttle Discovery
azimuths; unique instrumentation; and ability to

support ballistic missile testing and space operations. RTS is completely instrumented to support

space launch customers with radar, telemetry,

optics, and range safety systems. As a U.S. Army

DoD MRTFB, RTS receives annual federal funding

in addition to direct cost reimbursement from customers.

A new launch pad on Omelek Island was constructed in 2006 to support space launch missions.

The Army began deployment of a fiber optic communications system to the continental United

States, to be completed in late 2009, along with a

Huntsville, Alabama, Mission Control Center that

supports net-centric distributed operations.138

With nearly 40 years of successful support,

RTS provides a vital role in the research, development, test and evaluation effort of America’s missile defense and space programs. At least 17 organizations, representing the military, academia, civil

government, and commercial interests, use RTS.139

Among the users, there are U.S. Army, Navy, Air

Force, NSA, DOE, NRO, DARPA, Orbital

Sciences, and SpaceX. The SpaceX launches of

March 2006 and March 2007 were successfully

supported at RTS, although payloads did not reach

orbit. A Pegasus XL launch is scheduled from

Kwajalein in 2008.

Vandenberg Air Force Base

In 1941, the U.S. Army activated this site near

Lompoc, California, as Camp Cook. In 1957, Camp

Cook was transferred to the Air Force, becoming

the nation’s first space and ballistic missile operations and training base. In 1958, it was renamed in

honor of General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, the Air

Force’s second Chief of Staff. VAFB is currently

the headquarters of the 30th Space Wing and the

Air Force Space Command organization responsible for all DoD space and ballistic activities for the

West Coast. The 30th Space Wing Western Range

Operations Control Center provides flight safety,

weather, scheduling, instrumentation control, vehicle designation information, and tracking data to

and from inter- and intra-range sensors in real or

nearly real-time for ballistic and space launch support. Range tracking capabilities extend over the

Pacific Ocean as far west as the Marshall Islands.

Boundaries to the north stretch as far as Alaska and

as far south as Central America. Vandenberg is host

to the 14th Air Force Headquarters and the Joint

Functional Component Command. Space infrastructure used for space launches at VAFB includes a

4,500-meter (15,000-foot) runway; boat dock; rail

lines; launch, booster, and payload processing facilities; tracking radar; optical tracking and telemetry

facilities; and control centers. The 400-square-kilometer (155-square-mile)

base also houses numerous

government organizations

and contractor companies.

VAFB hosts a variety of

federal agencies and attracts

commercial aerospace companies and activities, including the California Spaceport

effort. The 30th Space Wing

supports West Coast launch

activities for the USAF,

DoD, NASA, MDA and

various private industry

contractors. VAFB is

upgrading its range instrumentation and control centers to support the space

launch industry. Scheduled

for completion by 2010,

these upgrades will automate the Western Range and

provide updated services to

the customer. For the development of launch infrastructure for the EELV program,

VAFB has partnered with

Boeing and Lockheed

Martin.

58 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Interceptor launched from Meck2 at Reagan Test Site

Delta II preparing for

launch at VAFB
Boeing has renovated Space Launch Complex

6 (SLC-6) from a Space Shuttle launch pad into an

operational facility for Delta IV. Construction at

SLC-6 has included enlarging the existing mobile

service tower and completing the construction of

the West Coast Horizontal Integration Facility,

where the Delta IV is assembled. 

Lockheed Martin converted SLC-3E from an

Atlas 2 launch pad into an operational facility for

Atlas V. The upgrades started in January 2004,

which include adding 9 meters (30 feet) to the

existing 61-meter (200-foot) mobile service tower

to accommodate the larger rocket. A crane capable

of lifting 20 tons was replaced with one that can lift

60 tons. Current space launch vehicles supported by

VAFB include Delta II, Delta IV, Atlas V, Taurus,

Minotaur, Pegasus XL, and Falcon 1. During 2007,

VAFB supported three Delta II launches and one

Pegasus XL launch. Orbital Sciences’ Taurus is

launched from 576E. Pegasus XL vehicles are

processed at Orbital Sciences’ facility at VAFB then

flown to various worldwide launch areas.

Vandenberg supports numerous ballistic programs,

including Minuteman and numerous MDA test and

operational programs. SpaceX maintains a launch

pad at SLC-3 West for its Falcon 1 rocket, and

plans future developments for its larger Falcon 9

rocket for sending commercial and government

payloads into polar and other high inclination

orbits.

Vandenberg Air Force Base has active partnerships with private commercial space organizations in which VAFB provides launch property and

launch services. The private companies use the government or commercial facilities to conduct launch,

payload, and booster processing work. VAFB houses three commercially owned complexes: Boeing’s

Horizontal Integration Facility, Spaceport Systems

International’s (SSI) California Spaceport and

Payload Processing Facility, and Astrotech’s

Payload Processing Facility.140

Wallops Flight Facility 

The predecessor of NASA, the National

Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, (NACA),

established an aeronautical and rocket test range at

Wallops Island, Virginia, in 1945. Since then, over

15,000 rocket launches have taken place from the

Wallops Flight Facility (WFF), which is operated

for NASA by the Goddard Space Flight Center,

Greenbelt, Maryland. 

WFF’s primary mission is to serve as a

research and test range for NASA, supporting scientific research, technology development, flight

testing, and educational flight projects. WFF, however, also heavily supports the DoD and commercial industry with flight projects ranging from small

suborbital vehicles to orbital launch vehicles. In

addition to rockets, WFF’s integrated Launch

Range and Research Airport enables flight operations of UAVs and other experimental craft. WFF

frequently serves as a downrange site for launches

conducted from Cape Canaveral.

MARS is co-located at WFF as a tenant, and

the organizations collaborate on certain projects to

provide mission services, particularly focusing on

small commercial ELVs. Jointly, WFF and MARS

offer two orbital and several suborbital launchers, a

range control center, three blockhouses, numerous

payload and vehicle preparation facilities, and a full

suite of tracking and data systems. In support of its

research and program management responsibilities,

Wallops also contains numerous science facilities, a

research airport, and flight hardware fabrication and

test facilities.

WFF has continued a significant range modernization and technology program that began in

2002. WFF engineers are also actively pursuing

new range technologies that will increase responsiveness and lower costs, such as space-based communications systems and an autonomous flight termination system.141 The Payload Processing Facility

is operational and being used. The class-100,000

certification testing for the entire facility is pending,

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 59

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Wallops Flight Facility
as only half the facility obtained this certification.

The new project support facility, providing auditorium capabilities for large gatherings, including premission reviews and observation of the launch, was

completed in 2007.142 The new engineering facility

hosting WFF engineering staff and laboratories was

also finished in 2007.143 Final certification of the

Wallops Mobile Liquid Fueling Facility is still to be

completed. Future plans include a barge dock

improvement to enable water transport between the

Mainbase and the Island campuses.

During 2006, WFF’s Research Range supported 30 rocket tests. WFF is heavily engaged in supporting both DoD and commercial interests in the

emerging small ELV community, such as those supported by the DARPA Falcon program. During

2007, twelve suborbital and orbital rocket tests

were conducted from WFF. WFF supported MARS

with two orbital missions: the launch of the USAF

and NASA TacSat 2 satellite in December 2006,

and the NFIRE satellite in April 2007, each using a

Minotaur I.

White Sands Missile Range 

Once exclusively military, White Sands

Missile Range (WSMR) today attracts other government agencies, foreign nations, and private

industry to its world-class test facilities. The largest

overland test range in America, WSMR is operated

by the U.S. Army and used by the Army, Navy, Air

Force, Marine Corps, and MDA. It is also home to

the NASA White Sands Test Facility. Situated 26

kilometers (16 miles) northeast of Las Cruces, New

Mexico, this range covers 8,100 square kilometers

(3,127 square miles). 

Since establishment in 1945, the range has

fired more than 44,500 missiles and rockets. Almost

1,200 of those were research and sounding rockets.

WSMR has seven engine test stands and precision

cleaning facilities, including a class-100 clean room

for spacecraft parts. After KSC and EAFB, White

Sands is the Space Shuttle’s tertiary landing site.

This landing site consists of two 11-kilometer (6.8

mile) long gypsum-sand runways.144 Test operations

are run out of the new J.W. Cox Range Control

Center. This $28-million facility was designed to

meet current and future mission requirements with

state-of-the-art networking, computing, and communications for effective interaction between test

operations and customers. 

In 2002, the U.S. Army, WSMR, and state of

New Mexico signed a Memorandum of Agreement

supporting the development of the Southwest

Regional Spaceport, which was renamed Spaceport

America in 2006. WSMR provided range support

for the first suborbital rocket launch from Spaceport

America in October 2006. WSMR provided tracking, communication and other services to support

the suborbital space launch conducted by UP

Aerospace in April, 2007.145 Initially WSMR will

provide a diversity of support services for

Spaceport America, including flight safety, radar,

optical tracking, and airspace and ground space for

touchdown and recovery. 

Proposed Non-Federal Spaceports

Several states plan to develop spaceports

offering a variety of launch and landing services.

Two common characteristics of many of the proposed spaceports are inland geography – a contrast

to the coastal location of all but two present-day

U.S. spaceports – and interest in hosting RLV operations. Table 5 describes specific efforts to establish

non-federal spaceports, which are in various stages

of development. 

Cecil Field Spaceport

Originally developed as a Naval Air Station

with one 3,810-meter (12,500-foot) runway and one

1,160-meter (3,800-foot) runway, Cecil Field was

proposed for closure by the Base Realignment and

Closure (BRAC) process in 1993. Five years later,

based on the recommendation of the Base Reuse

Commission, Jacksonville Aviation Authority

(JAA) took ownership of 3,240 hectares (8,000

60 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

White Sands Missile range
Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 61

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Table 5: Proposed Non-federal Spaceports Infrastructure and Status

Spaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development Status

Cecil Field 

Spaceport

Jacksonville, 

Florida

Jacksonville Aviation 

Authority

One 3,810-m (12,500-ft) runway, three 

2,440-m (8,000-ft) runways, 175 

buildings totaling 270,000-m2

 (2.9 millionft2

), 8 aircraft hangars, operating air 

traffic control tower, warehouse, 

industrial and general use space totaling 

more than 40,000-m2

 (425,000-ft2) and 

general office and support facilities of 

over 21,000-m2

 (225,000-ft2).

The environmental assessment for spaceport 

operations was completed in 2007. FAA 

reviewed it and instructed JAA to initiate the 

launch site operator's licensing process. 

Discussions are currently underway to establish 

Airspace Agreements with FAA and the U.S. 

Navy. The Jacksonville Aviation Authority 

expects to submit an application for a launch 

site operator license in 2008.

Chugwater 

Spaceport

Platte County, 

Wyoming

Frontier Astronautics No complete infrastructure at this time. Three launch pads and a 2,225,000-n (500,000-

ft·lbf) flame trench are being refurbished. 

Environmental assessment for site approval is in 

progress and expected to be completed in 2008. 

South 

Texas 

Spaceport

Willacy 

County, Texas

Willacy County 

Development 

Corporation for 

Spaceport Facilities

Road, as an extension to the road to the 

airport, 6-in water line with fire hydrant, 

18 x 25 x 5-m (60 x 80 x 16-ft) metal 

building with concrete slab.

The final Texas Spaceport site is in Port 

Mansfield, near Charles R. Johnson Airport. The 

interior of the building was finished in 2007.

Spaceport 

Alabama

Baldwin 

County, 

Alabama

To be determined No infrastructure at this time. The master plan Phase 1 has been completed 

and Phase 2 is under development. While no 

land has been acquired for Spaceport Alabama, 

a green field site is under consideration in 

Baldwin County, across the bay from the city of 

Mobile.

Spaceport 

America

Upham, New 

Mexico

New Mexico 

Spaceport Authority

Major components of the proposed 

Spaceport America include two launch 

complexes, a landing strip, an aviation 

complex, and support facilities.

Plans for this site include a spaceport central 

control facility, an airfield, a maintenance and 

integration facility, a launch and recovery 

complex, a flight operations control center, and a 

cryogenic plant. Construction to begin in third 

quarter of 2007. Environmental and business 

development studies conducted. First suborbital 

launch took place in September 2006, with 

another one following in April 2007.

Spaceport 

Sheboygan

Sheboygan, 

Wisconsin

Owner: City of 

Sheboygan; Operator: 

Rockets for Schools

A vertical pad for suborbital launches in 

addition to portable launch facilities, 

such as mission control.

Plans for developing additional launch 

infrastructure are ongoing and include creation 

of a development plan that includes support for 

orbital RLV operations. Wisconsin Aerospace 

Authority legislation was signed into law in 2006.

Spaceport 

Washington

Grant County 

International 

Airport, 

Washington

Port of Moses Lake 4,100-m (13,452-ft) main runway and a 

3,200-m (10,500-ft) crosswind runway.

A 12,100 ha (30,000-a) potential vertical launch 

site has been identified. An Aerospace Overlay 

Zone has also been established in the Grant 

County Unified Development Code. The site is 

certified as an emergency-landing site for the 

Space Shuttle. Additional infrastructure 

development is pending launch customers and 

market responses.

West Texas 

Spaceport

Pecos County, 

Texas

Pecos County/West 

Texas Spaceport 

Development 

Corporation

Greasewood site has an air conditioned 

control center, an industrial strength 

concrete pad, and a 30 x 30-m (100 x 

100-ft) scraped and level staging area. 

Broadband Internet on site, controlled 

fenced access, and a 1,295-km2

 (500 

mi2

) recovery area. Airport has 5 

runways (2,286 x 30-m, or 7,500 x 100-

ft) with hangar space.

Development plan approved by State of Texas in 

2005. State has provided $175,000 in 2005 for 

planning studies. Future infrastructure plans 

include 1,070-m (3,500-ft) runway, static engine 

testing facility, and balloon hangar. 
62 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

acres), including the runways, hangars, and support

infrastructure, and has operated the airport for

maintenance and repair operations, general aviation

activity, and limited military operations. The airport

was identified as a potential launch site in the feasibility study of a Florida commercial spaceport.

Space Florida has been instrumental in providing

guidance and direction for the development of the

Cecil Field Spaceport.146 The JAA is pursuing a

launch site operator’s license. The environmental

assessment needed for the issuance of the license

was completed in 2007. The JAA expects to submit

an application for a launch site operator license in

2008.

The existing infrastructure of this airfield is

conducive to spaceport operations, including one

3,810-meter (12,500-foot) runway, three 2,440-

meter (8,000-foot) runways, 175 buildings totaling

270,000 square meters (2.9 million square feet),

eight aircraft hangars, an operating air traffic control tower, warehouse, industrial and general use

space totaling more than 40,000 square meters

(425,000 square feet), and general office and support facilities of over 21,000 square meters

(225,000 square feet). The long runway, together

with its location in a sparsely populated area and

the proximity to the coast, make this site attractive

for future commercial space activities. During

2007, JAA performed roof rehabilitation on six

hangars and the terminal, structural upgrades and

renovation of the air traffic control tower, and

development of a new taxiway and an approach

lighting system. JAA also conducted rehabilitation

of the airfield

electrical system, security

fencing, and airfield pavement,

as well as

improvement in

the stormwater

drainage and fire

suppression

waterline. The

construction and

rehabilitation

work JAA completed required

an investment of

over $9 million

that came from FAA Discretionary Funds and

Annual General Aviation Entitlements, as well as

from the Florida Department of Transportation and

JAA.

The plan is for Cecil Field Spaceport to use

facilities that currently exist at the site. Future

infrastructure planned for the facility includes pavement, fencing, stormwater plan, parking, access

road improvements, and design and construction of

an additional apron and of two additional hangars,

each of 14,000 square meters (150,000 square feet).

The hangars are scheduled for completion in 2008.

The proposed spaceport operations, including horizontal launches and launch recoveries, will be conducted using Runway 18L/36R, which measures

3,810 meters (12,500 feet) in length and 60 meters

(200 feet) in width.147

An official development plan focusing solely

on the economic growth and operation of the Cecil

Field Spaceport is currently being considered for

development. The Cecil Field Airport Master Plan

and Airport Layout Plan Update were completed in

September 2007. These documents are currently

under review by FAA, FDOT, and the City of

Jacksonville, Florida.

Chugwater Spaceport

The Chugwater Spaceport was originally an

Atlas E missile base outside of Chugwater,

Wyoming, built in 1960 and decommissioned in

1965. Designed to store and launch a complete

Atlas E ICBM, the facilities are designed with

many special amenities for rocketry. In March

2006, Frontier Astronautics bought the property and

began renovation to use it as a launch site.

Since the last change in ownership, maintenance work has been performed to get original military equipment operational. During 2006, three horizontal engine tests of a LOX and kerosene Viper

33,360-newton (7,500-pound-force) engine took

place at the Chugwater site. During 2007, several

dozen test firings of rocket engines have occurred,

as well as a completed flight vehicle test (the

SpeedUp Laramie Rose Lunar Lander Challenge

vehicle). All of these have taken place over the

instrumented flame trench. The tests were possible

because Frontier Astronautics obtained an exception

to a countywide fire ban. 

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Cecil Field Aerial View
So far, almost $600,000 has been invested in

the site, all from private sources. The environmental assessment is expected to be completed in 2008

and Chugwater Spaceport will apply for an FAA

license in 2008. No direct financial support is

expected from the state. In 2007 X-L Space

Systems has set up facilities in the spaceport and

has started producing rocket-grade hydrogen peroxide for sale to other space companies. Plans for

future infrastructure include a functioning

2,225,000-newton (500,000-pound-force) vertical

test stand for engine testing, up to three vertical

launch pads, on-site machine shop, and shooting

range. An additional horizontal engine test area is

in development. The planned configuration of the

spaceport launch site is vertical launch pads with

water acoustic suppression system.148

South Texas Spaceport

Willacy County Development Corporation

was created in 2001 to manage the spaceport site

evaluation and other technical and administrative

elements of the project under a Texas Aerospace

Commission grant. Willacy County Development

Corporation for Spaceport Facilities is the owner of

the spaceport. 

The designated spaceport site is a 40.5-

hectare (100 acre) undeveloped site in Port

Mansfield, adjacent to the Charles R. Johnson

Airport, approximately 150 kilometers (93 miles)

south of Corpus Christi and 65 kilometers (40

miles) north of Brownsville. The site initially may

support the suborbital and small orbital launch systems currently in service or being developed for

service in the near future, with a long-term focus on

RLVs. All launches will be from spoil islands or

barges in the Mansfield ship channel in the Laguna

Madre or Gulf of Mexico.

During 2006, almost $200,000, including inkind contributions, was invested in building new

infrastructure. All the new developments in 2006

happened with the assistance of government funding. Preliminary spaceport construction was completed. A new road was installed, an extension to

the road to the airport. A 15-centimeter (6-inch)

water line with fire hydrant was added to the new

18 x 25 x 5 meter (60 x 80 x 16 feet) metal building with concrete slab. During 2007, the interior of

the building with offices and bathrooms was completed. The State of Texas financed these efforts,

which totaled to approximately $25,000. The

launch barge for all launches still needs to be purchased. 

Spaceport Alabama 

Proposed as a next-generation spaceport,

Spaceport Alabama will be a full-service departure

and return facility, supporting orbital and suborbital

space access vehicles. Spaceport Alabama is in the

planning phase under direction of the Spaceport

Alabama Program Office at Jacksonville State

University in Alabama. Phase 1 of the Spaceport

Alabama master planning process is now complete,

and phase 2 has commenced. Upon completion of

the Spaceport Alabama master plan, a proposal will

be presented to the Alabama Commission on

Aerospace Science and Industry and the Alabama

Legislature for formal adoption. Under the current

plan, the Alabama Legislature would establish the

Spaceport Alabama Authority, which would oversee

development of Spaceport Alabama. While no land

has been acquired for Spaceport Alabama, a green

field site is under consideration in Baldwin County,

across the bay from the city of Mobile. This site is

seen as ideal for supporting government and commercial customers, operating next-generation

reusable flight vehicles that are designed for access

to LEO, MEO (medium Earth orbit), and GEO.149

Under the current spaceport development

plan, a spaceport facility could become operational

within 10 years, depending on market demand. This

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 63

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Chugwater Aerial View
plan calls for the establishment of a “total spaceport

enterprise” concept, consisting of a departure and

return facility, processing and support facilities, and

full support infrastructure. An R&D park, a commerce park, supporting community infrastructure,

intermodal connectivity, and other services and

infrastructure necessary for providing a turnkey

capability in support of space commerce, R&D,

national security, science, and related services are

also included in this plan. Given that the site currently under consideration is adjacent to the Gulf of

Mexico, Spaceport Alabama would service primarily RLVs; however, some suborbital ELVs involving

scientific and academic missions could be supported. The spaceport hopes to continue development as

industry opportunities emerge.

Spaceport America

The state of New Mexico continues to make

significant progress in the development of

Spaceport America, known as Southwest Regional

Spaceport prior to July 2006. In December 2005,

Richard Branson decided to establish the headquarters of Virgin Galactic in New Mexico and use

Spaceport America as its primary operating base.

He also entered into a partnership with the state of

New Mexico to build the spaceport. While the state

would build the spaceport, Virgin Galactic would

sign a 20-year lease agreement with annual payments of $1 million for the first 5 years. The state

government would pay about half of the construction cost, with the difference to come from local

and federal governments.150 The spaceport is

planned to receive $140 million as direct financial

support from the state and $58 million as direct

financial support from local government, beginning

with 2008.151

Spaceport America is being developed for use

by private companies and government organizations

conducting space activities and operations. In

March 2006, New Mexico passed a bill that created

one entity, New Mexico Spaceport Authority, to

oversee the spaceport. Spaceport America is currently taking steps to obtain an FAA launch site

operator license. The state owns and operates the

spaceport and will lease the facilities to the users.

Currently, agreements are being developed with different organizations.152 In January 2006, New

Mexico state officials signed an agreement that

gives the planned spaceport north of Las Cruces

access to nearly 6,070 hectares (15,000 acres) of

state trust land to begin developing the site.153 The

spaceport is a 70-square-kilometer (27- squaremile) parcel of open land in the south central part

of the state, near the desert town of Upham, 72

kilometers (45 miles) north of Las Cruces and 48

kilometers (30 miles) east of Truth or

Consequences, at approximately 1,430 meters

(4,700 feet) above sea level. This location was

selected for its low population density, uncongested

airspace, and high elevation.154

During 2006, temporary facilities added to the

site include a launch pad, a weather station, rocket

motor storage facilities, and trailers. This infrastructure is worth $450,000; the funding came from private and government sources. Major components of

the proposed Spaceport America include two launch

complexes, a landing strip, an aviation complex,

and support facilities. The spaceport has an officially approved development plan that includes beginning construction in third quarter of 2008, and having a full-fledged spaceport to support vertical

launches, vertical landings, and horizontal landings

by 2010.155 Currently, DMJM/AECOM, an architecture and engineering contractor, is designing the

facilities with inputs from the spaceport users, as

the final configuration will be customer driven. 

New Mexico provides several tax and business incentives for the spaceport-related industrial

activities, including gross receipt deductions,

exemptions from compensating taxes, R&D incentives, industrial revenue bonds, and investment and

job training credits. The state has also passed legislation that allows counties and municipalities to

impose, upon voter approval, a regional spaceport

gross receipt tax in increments of one-sixteenth percent, not to exceed one-half percent.156

64 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Cutaway View of Spaceport America facility
The first launch from the spaceport took place

on September 25, 2006, when UP Aerospace

launched an amateur-class vehicle. On April 28,

2007 UP Aerospace launched another amateur-class

vehicle, SL-2. The commitment in building the

spaceport, the recent activities there, and state

incentives to locate space-related businesses in New

Mexico have made the state an attractive location

for rocket activity, such as Starchaser Industries, the

X PRIZE Cup, and the Rocket Racing League.

Spaceport Sheboygan

On August 29, 2000, the Wisconsin

Department of Transportation officially approved

creating the Spaceport Sheboygan, located on Lake

Michigan in Sheboygan, Wisconsin. The city of

Sheboygan owns the spaceport, which strives to

support space research and education through suborbital launches for student projects. 

Suborbital sounding rocket launches to altitudes of up to 55 kilometers (34 miles) have been

conducted at the site. Additionally, Rockets for

Schools, a student program founded in Wisconsin

by Space Explorers, Incorporated, and developed

by the Aerospace States Association, has conducted

suborbital launches at Spaceport Sheboygan since

its inception in 1995. Each year, hundreds of students from Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, and Michigan

participate in these launches, which took place most

recently in May 2007. Rockets for Schools is a program of the Great Lakes Spaceport Education

Foundation. 

The spaceport’s existing infrastructure

includes a vertical pad for suborbital launches in

addition to portable launch facilities, such as mission control, which are erected and disassembled as

needed. The pier, which the city leased from the

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for spaceport

launches and citizens’ enjoyment (i.e., walking and

fishing), was widened and strengthened in 2004. In

May 2007, under the Rockets for Schools program,

more than 45 rockets were launched off of the pier.

In 2006 some structures were removed to clear

space for the construction of a proposed mission

control and education center. Past construction has

been financed through municipal, state, and federal

agencies. The State of Wisconsin contributed to the

development of the spaceport with site preparation

of coastline and access roads. No new infrastructure

was constructed during 2007.

Legislation for the creation of the Wisconsin

Aerospace Authority (WAA) was signed into law in

2006. WAA will meet for the first time in January

2008. WAA will design, develop, and operate the

spaceport. The board was created to market the

state to the aerospace industry, develop space-related tourism, and work with educators to promote

math and science classes with a greater focus on

aeronautics and engineering.157 The legislation

authorizes the WAA to develop spaceports, spacecraft, and other aerospace facilities in Wisconsin;

provide spaceport and aerospace services; allow use

of spaceport and aerospace facilities by others; promote the aerospace industry in Wisconsin; and provide public-private coordination for the aerospace

industry in Wisconsin.158 In addition to designing,

developing, and operating the spaceport, WAA is

authorized to sell up to $100 million in revenue

bonds.159

The spaceport establishment project has several phases. The first phase refers to the development of the Great Lakes Aerospace Science and

Education Center at Spaceport Sheboygan and is

currently underway. A preliminary business plan for

the center has already been developed. The second

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 65

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Rocket launch from Spaceport Sheboygan
phase for the project includes proposing legislation

for the development and operational plans of the

Spaceport Sheboygan. Once the legislation is

approved, WAA will conduct site evaluation, feasibility, and environmental impact studies. Project

supporters are in the initial stages of obtaining an

FAA launch site license.160 Future projects include

adding orbital launch capabilities for RLVs, including a horizontal and vertical launch site.

Spaceport Washington 

Spaceport Washington, a public and private

partnership, has identified Grant County

International Airport in central Washington, 280

kilometers (174 miles) east of Seattle, as the site of

a future spaceport. The airport (formerly Larson Air

Force Base and now owned and operated by the

Port of Moses Lake) is used primarily as a testing

and training facility. Spaceport Washington proposes to use Grant County International Airport for

horizontal and vertical take-offs and horizontal

landings of all classes of RLVs. This airport has a

4,100-meter (13,452-foot) main runway and a

3,200-meter (10,500-foot) crosswind runway and is

certified as an emergency landing site for the Space

Shuttle. The spaceport does not have an official

development plan yet, but the intended configuration of the spaceport launch site will either be vertical launch and horizontal recovery or horizontal

launch and recovery.161

An approximately 121-square-kilometer

(30,000-acre) potential vertical launch site has been

identified with multiple owners (both public and

private). The spaceport has also established an

Aerospace Overlay Zone within the Grant County

Unified Development Code. This zone protects the

air and land space around the area proposed for use

as an aerospace launch and retrieval facility from

obstructions or hazards and incompatible land uses

in the proximity of the Grant County International

Airport. Additional infrastructure development

depends on launch customers’ needs and market

responses.162 At present, Spaceport Washington is

seeking launch operators. It will not apply for an

FAA launch license until it has viable operations

and a business plan.163

West Texas Spaceport 

The Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport

Development Corporation, established in mid-2001,

is moving forward with the development of a

spaceport 29 kilometers (18 miles) southwest of

Fort Stockton, Texas. Spaceport infrastructure will

include a launch site with a 4,570-meter (15,000-

foot) safety radius, an adjacent recovery zone (193

square kilometers or 500 square miles), payload

integration and launch control facilities, and the

Pecos County Airport runway (2,310-meters or

7,500 feet) and hangar complex. The site has access

to over 1,740 square kilometers (4,500 square

miles) of unpopulated land and over 3,860 square

kilometers (10,000 square miles) of underutilized

national airspace. The West Texas Spaceport is

mainly an R&D site for UAVs and suborbital rockets. The primary users of this spaceport currently

are operators of unmanned air systems.

A joint project with the school district has

made a technology center available for Pecos

County Aerospace Development Center users. The

Technology Center has multiple monitors, highspeed Internet service, and full multiplexing capability. The Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport

Development Corporation has access to optical

tracking and high-speed video capability that can

record a vehicle’s flight up to tens of thousands of

feet (depending upon the size of the vehicle)

regardless of its speed.164 For the past two years,

Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport Development

Corporation has been involved in educational activities, under the framework of Texas Partnership for

Aerospace Education, to promote and support academic programs in aero-science and rocketry.

Spaceports 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

66 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceport Washington Aerial View
Future infrastructure plans include the development of a privately-funded 1,077-meter (3,500-

foot) runway, a static engine test facility, and a

hangar for balloon and wind sensitive activities.

Other projects pursued by the Pecos County/West

Texas Spaceport Development Corporation include

the Blacksky DART program, intended to characterize the performance of an innovative aerospike

nozzle on a solid rocket motor.165

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 67
Regulatory Developments 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

68 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

In 2007, the FAA continued to enhance and refine

its regulations in three primary areas—private

human spaceflight, experimental launches, and

amateur rockets—in ways that balanced promotion

of a vigorous U.S. commercial space industry with

the need to safeguard the public. This section

reviews the most recent regulatory developments in

these three areas. As this section is a summary, the

FAA recommends that readers interested in further

details consult the regulatory documents in their

entirety, available online at http://ast.faa.gov.

Private Human Space Flight

On December 23, 2004, the President signed

into law the Commercial Space Launch Amendments

Act of 2004 (CSLAA). The CSLAA promotes the

development of the emerging commercial space

flight industry and makes the Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA) responsible for regulating

commercial human space flight. Recognizing that

this is a fledgling industry, the law required a

phased approach in regulating commercial human

space flight, with regulatory standards evolving as

the industry matures.

On December 15, 2006, the FAA issued regulations establishing requirements for crew and

space flight participants involved in private human

space flight. The new rules, which became effective

on February 13, 2007, maintain FAA’s commitment

to protect the safety of the uninvolved public and

call for measures that enable space flight participants to make informed decisions about their personal safety. The CSLAA characterizes what is

commonly referred to as a passenger as a “space

flight participant.” The statute defines this person to

mean “an individual, who is not crew, carried within a launch or reentry vehicle.” This characterization signifies that someone on board a launch or

reentry vehicle is not a typical passenger with typical expectations of transport, but instead someone

going on an adventure ride.

The regulations require launch vehicle operators to provide certain safety-related information

and identify what an operator must do to conduct a

licensed launch with a human on board. In addition,

launch operators must inform passengers of the

risks of space travel generally and the risks of space

travel in the operator’s vehicle in particular. These

regulations also include training and general security requirements for space flight participants.

The regulations also establish requirements

for crew notification, medical qualifications and

training, and requirements governing environmental

control and life support systems. In particular, the

regulations require a pilot of a launch or reentry

vehicle to possess and carry an FAA pilot certificate

with an instrument rating. Each crew member with

a safety-critical role must possess and carry an FAA

second-class airman medical certificate. The regulations require an operator to verify the integrated

performance of a vehicle’s hardware and any software in an operational flight environment before

allowing any space flight participant on board.

Verification must include flight testing.

Since the human space flight regulations were

issued, the FAA has begun to develop advisory circulars or guidance documents in the areas of human

space flight crew training and environmental control and life support systems (ECLSS) for suborbital missions. These documents will provide guidance and acceptable means of meeting some of the

human space flight regulations pertaining to crew

training and ECLSS.

Finally, the regulations establish financial

responsibility and waiver of liability requirements

to human space flight and experimental permits in

accordance with the CSLAA. The CSLAA requires

crew and space flight participants to enter into a

reciprocal waiver of claims with the U.S. government. Furthermore, the CSLAA expressly excludes

space flight participants from eligibility for indemnification against third party claims. Launches and

reentries performed pursuant to a permit are also

excluded from eligibility for indemnification.

Experimental Launch Permits

A number of entrepreneurs are committed to

the goal of developing and operating reusable

launch vehicles for private human space travel. In

order to promote this emerging industry and to create a clear legal, regulatory, and safety regime, the

Regulatory Developments
Regulatory Developments 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

69 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2004 CSLAA also established an experimental permit category for launching developmental reusable

suborbital rockets on suborbital trajectories.i The

FAA issued regulations implementing this alternative to a license on April 6, 2007. This section

details eligibility requirements for experimental

permits, notes how they differ from licenses, and

discusses how they are implemented and administered.

Eligibility

To be eligible for an experimental permit, an

applicant must propose to fly a reusable suborbital

rocket for the following purposes:

• Research and development to test new 

design concepts, new equipment, or new 

operating techniques;

• Demonstration of compliance with require

ments as part of the process for obtaining a 

license; or

• Crew training before obtaining a license 

for a launch or reentry using the design of 

the rocket for which the permit would be 

issued.

Experimental Permit Compared to a License

An experimental permit differs from a license

in several ways, including the following:

• The FAA must determine whether to issue 

an experimental permit within 120 days of 

receiving an application. For a license, it is 

180 days.

• Under a permit, a reusable suborbital 

rocket may not be operated to carry 

property or human passengers for 

compensation or hire. No such restriction 

applies for a license.

• Damages arising from a permitted launch 

or reentry are not eligible for “indemnification,” the provisional payment of claims 

under Chapter 701. Damages caused by 

licensed activities, by contrast, are eligible 

for the provisional payment of claims to 

the extent provided in an appropriation law 

or other legislative authority.

• A permit must authorize an unlimited 

number of launches and reentries for a 

particular reusable suborbital rocket 

design. Although a license can be 

struc-tured to authorize an unlimited 

number of launches, no statutory mandate 

to do so exists.

• Under a permit, a launch operator is not 

required to demonstrate that the risk from a 

launch falls below specified quantitative 

criteria for collective and individual risk. 

Under a license, a launch operator must.

• Under a permit, a launch operator is not 

required to have a separate safety 

organization or specific safety personnel. 

Under a license, a launch operator must. 

Safety Measures

The experimental permit regulations include a

variety of safety measures to protect the public.

The most important is an applicant-derived hazard

analysis. A hazard analysis is a system safety engineering tool that identifies and characterizes hazards and qualitatively assesses risks. An applicant

for a permit must perform a hazard analysis and

provide the results to the FAA. A permit applicant

uses this analysis to identify its risk elimination and

mitigation measures to reduce risk to an acceptable

level. An applicant must show that selected risk

elimination and mitigation measures will work.

Applicants may demonstrate this through providing

flight demonstration test data; component, system,

or subsystem test data; inspection results; or analysis.

Using the hazard analysis, most safety solutions are derived by the launch operators themselves. The regulations do, however, contain a numi The CSLAA defines a suborbital rocket as a vehicle, rocket-propelled in whole or in part, intended for flight on a suborbital

trajectory, whose thrust is greater than its lift for the majority of the rocket-powered portion of ascent. A suborbital trajectory is

defined in the CSLAA as the intentional flight path of a launch vehicle, reentry vehicle, or any portion thereof, whose vacuum

instantaneous impact point does not leave the surface of the Earth.
Regulatory Developments 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

70 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

ber of operating requirements that the FAA believes

are too important to omit. These include:

• Rest rules for vehicle safety operations per

sonnel

• Pre-flight and post-flight operations

• Operating area containment

• Key flight-safety event limitations

• Landing and impact locations

• Agreements with other entities involved in 

a launch or reentry

• Collision avoidance analysis

• Tracking a reusable suborbital rocket

• Communications

• Flight rules

• Anomaly recording and reporting

• Mishap reporting, responding, and investi

gating

Operating area containment, key flight safety

event limitations, and anomaly reporting are discussed below.

Operating Area Containment

Central to the experimental permit approach is

containment of the reusable suborbital rocket within

one or more defined operating areas. A permit

applicant must define an acceptable operating area,

and must demonstrate to the FAA that it can contain

its reusable suborbital rocket’s instantaneous impact

point (IIP)ii within the operating area and outside

any FAA-defined exclusion area.iii

An operating area is a three-dimensional

region meeting the following criteria:

• Must be large enough to contain each 

planned trajectory and all expected vehicle 

dispersions;

• Must contain enough unpopulated or 

sparsely populated area to perform key 

flight-safety events, discussed below;

• May not contain or be adjacent to a dense

ly populated area or large concentrations of

members of the public; and

• May not contain or be adjacent to signifi

cant automobile traffic, railway traffic, or 

waterborne vessel traffic.

The above criteria are designed to prohibit the

operation of a reusable suborbital rocket over areas

where the consequences of an uncontrolled impact

of the vehicle or its debris would be catastrophic.

Note that agreements with FAA Air Traffic Control

would also influence the size and location of an

operating area. Although conditions on the ground

may be favorable for flight test, airspace concerns

may limit the feasibility of an otherwise acceptable

operating area.

During the application process, an applicant

must identify and describe the methods and systems

used to contain its reusable suborbital rocket’s IIP

within the operating area and outside any exclusion

area. Acceptable methods and systems would

include but not be limited to:

• Proof of physical limitations on a vehicle’s 

ability to leave the operating area; and

• Abort procedures and safety measures 

derived from a system safety process.

Proof of physical limitations on a vehicle’s

ability to leave the operating area could be obtained

through an analysis that showed that the maximum

achievable range of the reusable suborbital rocket

from the launch point was within the boundaries of

the operating area, assuming the rocket flew a traii An IIP is an impact point, following thrust termination of a launch vehicle, calculated in the absence of atmospheric drag

effects.

iii An exclusion area is an FAA defined area on the ground that warrants special protection for safety or policy purposes.
Regulatory Developments 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

71 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

jectory optimized for range and that all safety systems failed.

An applicant could use its hazard analysis to

determine safety measures to keep a reusable suborbital rocket’s IIP within its operating area.

Alternatively, an applicant could perform a separate

and more comprehensive system safety analyses

solely for containment. Specific safety measures

obtained from a system safety process could

include a dedicated flight safety system or systems

and procedures that, while not dedicated exclusively to flight safety, help to protect the public.

Key Flight-Safety Event Limitations

Operating within an acceptable operating area

and implementing safety measures obtained from a

hazard analysis are only part of what would be necessary to maintain public safety. Because of the

uncertainty in operating developmental reusable

suborbital rockets, a permittee must conduct “key

flight-safety events” over unpopulated or sparsely

populated areas. A key flight-safety event is a permitted flight activity that has an increased likelihood of causing a failure compared with other portions of flight. Events such as rocket engine ignition, staging, and envelope expansion have historically had the highest probability of catastrophic

failure for rocket-propelled vehicles.

Anomaly Reporting 

Analyses of mishaps often show that clues

existed before the mishap in the form of anomalies

during the project life cycle. Examination and

understanding of launch vehicle system and subsystem anomalies throughout the life cycle can warn of

an impending mishap and can provide important

information about what conditions need to be controlled to mitigate public risk. Because of this, the

FAA has placed special emphasis on anomaly

reporting in the experimental permit regime.iv

A launch operator must record anomalies and,

after analyzing the root cause of each anomaly,

implement corrective actions for those anomalies.

This would promote informed safety decisions by a

launch operator. An operator must also report to the

FAA certain safety-critical anomalies.

Guidance Documents

The FAA has developed a number of guidance

documents to assist permit applicants. These

include the following:

• AC 437.55-1, Hazard Analysis for the 

Launch or Reentry of a Reusable 

Suborbital Rocket Under an Experimental 

Permit (April 20, 2007) 

• AC 437.73-1, Anomaly Reporting and 

Corrective Action for a Reusable 

Suborbital Rocket Operating Under an 

Experimental Permit (April 20, 2007)

• Sample Experimental Permit Application 

for a Vertical Launch and Landing 

Reusable Suborbital Rocket, Version 1.1, 

April 2007 

• Guide to Software Safety Analysis, Version 

1.0, June 2006

Summary

The FAA has attempted to craft a regulatory

regime that is conducive to developmental rocket

test flights but still protects public safety. Although

streamlined compared to a license, the experimental

permit regime places great emphasis on a hazard

analysis to identify hazards and reduce risks, operating area containment, limitations on the most hazardous activities, and tracking of anomalies.

Amateur Rocket Classes

Although the term amateur rocket conjures

images of young children and their parents launching model rockets from baseball fields, in fact the

FAA definition also includes rockets of considerably more weight and impulse, some capable of flying to altitudes of 7,600 meters (25,000 feet) or

higher. FAA Order 7400.2F provides the Office of

Commercial Space Transportation authority to

review rocket activities where the maximum altiiv An anomaly is an apparent problem or failure that affects a system, a subsystem, a process, support equipment, or facilities,

and that occurs during verification or operation.
Regulatory Developments 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

72 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

tude achieved is greater than 7,600 meters (25,000

feet) above ground level (AGL). Under this order,

the FAA has the responsibility to regulate

unmanned rockets to ensure the safety of aircraft

flying nearby and the safety of persons and property on the ground.

The FAA issued the first regulations applying

to unmanned rocket operations in 1963. These regulations required amateur rocket operators to provide

advance notice to the FAA, and made such launches

subject to FAA approval. Amateur rockets have

grown bigger and now fly higher and farther compared to when those first regulations were published. They now have a greater potential of creating hazards beyond their launch points. As rocket

technologies have changed, regulations have been

amended to accommodate them—first in 1988, and

later in 1994.

The most recent round of amateur rocket regulatory changes was set in motion on June 14,

2007, when the FAA published a Notice of

Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) in the Federal

Register. This action proposed a number of changes

in FAA’s regulations for unmanned rockets aimed at

preserving the safety of amateur rocket activities,

addressing inconsistencies in the current regulations, and improving the clarity of the regulations.

The public was invited to comment on the proposed

changes. As of late 2007, the FAA was considering

the public comments it received to determine how

and when it may issue a final rule.

What the FAA Proposed

Under the June 2007 NPRM, the FAA proposed adding two new categories of amateur rocket

operations and amending the definitions of the

existing two categories. As such, the new category

structure would be numbered from Class 1 to Class

4. The two new categories would be Class 3 (highpowered rockets) and Class 4 (advanced highpower rockets). These two new categories capture

amateur rockets that require significant analyses on

the part of the FAA to determine if they can be

safely launched and what operational constraints

might be necessary to preserve public safety. The

Class 1 and Class 2 rocket categories, meanwhile,

would be slightly modified to incorporate more current definitions of model rocket and large model

rocket, respectively. Further description of these

categories follows below.

Class 1–Model Rockets

The proposed Class 1-Model Rockets would

be defined as amateur rockets using less than 125

grams (4.4 ounces) of slow-burning propellant,

made primarily of paper, wood, or breakable plastic, containing no substantial metal parts, and

weighing no more than 454 grams (16 ounces),

including the propellant. This updated definition

differs from the existing definition in two ways:

maximum propellant weight and operating limitations. The maximum propellant weight would be

increased from the existing 113 grams (4 ounces) to

125 grams (4.4 ounces). Additionally, Class 1-

Model Rockets would have to be “operated in a

manner that does not create a hazard to persons,

property, or other aircraft.”

Class 2–Large Model Rockets

The proposed definition of Class 2-Large

Model Rockets would only differ from Class 1 in

terms of maximum total weight. Class 2 would continue to allow rockets weighing up to 1,500 grams

(53 ounces), including propellant, in contrast to the

454 grams (16 ounces) covered by Class 1.

Class 3–High-Power Rockets

Class 3-High-Power Rockets would be

defined as amateur rockets other than model rockets

or large model rockets that are propelled by a motor

or motors having a combined total impulse of

163,840 N-sec (36,818 lb-sec) or less. In terms of

motor class, this qualifies as a “Q motor.” The FAA

would use total impulse as the distinguishing criterion for high-power rockets because total impulse is

a good measure of the size, power, and performance

of the rocket.

Rockets that would be considered Class 3

under the new definition currently operate under the

provisions for Large Model Rockets. These limitations would remain unchanged, but two more limitations codifying current practice would be added.

The first of the new limitations would be that a person at least 18 years old must be present and in

charge of ensuring the safety of the operation. The

second new limitation would require reasonable
Regulatory Developments 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

73 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

precautions be available to report and control a fire.

(Although this is a current practice, it would be

codified under the proposed rulemaking.)

Class 4–Advanced High-Power Rockets

Class 4-Advanced High-Power Rockets

would include any amateur rockets that do not fall

under one of the other three classes definitions. In

general, these would be rockets with a combined

total impulse above 163,840 N-sec (36,818 lb-sec),

that is, a Q motor. However, the regulation would

be written such that other, unforeseen operations or

advancements in amateur rocket technology will be

captured as Class 4.

The risk to the public from launches of this

category is often higher due to the larger amount of

propellant or stored energy within the vehicle. This

higher risk factor requires greater scrutiny. As

such, Class 4 would capture rockets more powerful

than those typically launched at amateur highpower rocket events.

The proposed rule does not impose any additional limitations on operating Class 4-Advanced

High-Power Rockets; however, the FAA may specify operating limitations necessary to ensure that air

traffic is not adversely affected and public safety is

not jeopardized.

Information Requirements

Information requirements define data required

by the FAA to determine if a rocket can be safely

launched. Due to the low risk posed by Class 1 –

Model Rockets, operators of this class of rocket

would continue to be exempt from information

requirements. Operators of Class 2 – Large Model

Rockets would continue to provide Air Traffic

Control with their names and addresses, the highest

anticipated altitude, the location of the launch, and

the date, time, and duration of the launch event. Air

Traffic Control would then be in a position to notify

aircraft flying nearby of the rocket launches.

Under the NPRM, the FAA has proposed to

codify reporting practices for the new categories of

Class 3 and Class 4 rockets. Rockets in these classes currently file for a waiver to conduct their

launches. They are then exempt from launch license

regulations. Once the FAA receives the waiver

application, they usually contact the operator for

additional information. However, under the NPRM,

all information would be gathered during the initial

waiver application. Thus both the FAA and the

operators could save time and expense.

Next Steps

The FAA is now reviewing the comments

received on the NPRM. Some of these contain suggestions for changes that amateur rocket operators

and others wish to see implemented before the rule

becomes final. When and if these proposed new

amateur rocket rules become final, the FAA will

publish them in the Federal Register.
1 Google Lunar X PRIZE Competition Guidelines webpage. X PRIZE Foundation. Accessed 19 November

2007. http://www.googlelunarxprize.org/lunar/competition/guidelines.

2 Communication with SpaceX, 27 November 2007.

3 “Armadillo Aerospace Nearly Wins Northrop

Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge.” 28 October 2007.

X PRIZE Foundation press release. Accessed 19

November 2007. http://www.xprize.org/llc/pressrelease/armadillo-aerospace-nearly-wins-northropgrumman-lunar-lander-challenge.

4 Communication with Bigelow Aerospace, 7 December

2007. Also see America’s Space Prize webpage.

Bigelow Aerospace. Accessed 20 November 2007.

http://www.bigelowaerospace.com/multiverse/space_pri

zeb.php.

5 Centennial Challenges webpage. Updated 8 November

2007. NASA. Accessed 19 November 2007.

http://www.ip.nasa.gov/cc/index.htm.

6 “X PRIZE Foundation Announces Competitors for

Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge.” 20 June

2007. X PRIZE Foundation. Accessed 29 November

2007. http://space.xprize.org/lunar-landerchallenge/assets/FINAL_Wirefly_X_PRIZE_Cup_Tea

ms_Release_6-20-07.pdf.

7 Peter Homer was subsequently contracted by a commercial spacesuit developer, Orbital Outfitters, for

work on their spacesuit. See Brian Berger,

“Commercial Spacesuit Tailors Hire NASA Contest

Winner.” 16 November 2007. SPACE.com, Accessed

18 December 2007.

http://www.space.com/news/0711116-private-spacesuits.html.

8 “NASA's Centennial Challenges to Advance

Technologies.” 28 August 2007. NASA press release

07-182. Accessed 19 November 2007.

http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/aug/HQ_0718

2_Space_Elevator_Games.html.

9 “Centennial Challenges Descriptions and Resources.”

Updated 16 May 2007. NASA. Accessed 19 November

2007. http://www.ip.nasa.gov/cc/cc_challenges.htm.

10 “FY 2008 Budget Estimates.” NASA President’s Fiscal

Year 2008 NASA Budget Request. CASP-43. Accessed

19 November 2007. http://www.nasa.gov/about/budget/index.html.

11 Division B – Commerce, Justice, Science and Related

Agencies Appropriations Act, 2008.” Text of the House

Amendments to Senate Amendment to H.R. 2764 –

State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs

Appropriations Act, 2008 (Consolidated Appropriations

Act, 2008). U.S. House of Representatives Committee

on Rules website. Accessed 20 December 2007.

http://www.rules.house.gov/110/text/omni/jes/jesdivb.p

df. Page 113.

12 Ray, Justin. “Confident Atlas rocket team ready to

launch again”. Spaceflight Now, 7 October 2007.

http://www.spaceflightnow.com/atlas/av011/071007preview.html. Accessed 6 November 2007.

13 Sea Launch press release. “Sea Launch Concludes

Investigation of Launch Failure”. 11 June 2007.

http://www.sealaunch.com/news_releases/nr_070611.html. Accessed 6

November 2007.

14 Communication with Sea Launch Company, 7

November 2007.

15 Communication with ATK, 2 January 2008.

16 Communication with Space Systems/Loral, 27

November 2007.

17 E’Prime Aerospace Corp. press release. “E'Prime

Aerospace Corporation Receives Launch Site Policy

Review Approval”. 5 November, 2007.

http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release.do?id=788716.

Accessed 5 November 2007.

18 Communication with Lockheed Martin Michoud

Operations, 13 October 2006.

19 Garvey Spacecraft Corporation. “Latest News”.

http://www.garvspace.com/News.htm. Accessed 5

November 2007.

20 Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, 7

November 2007.

21 Communication with Microcosm, Inc., 13 November

2007.

22 Schoneman, Scott et al. “Minotaur V Space Launch

Vehicle for Small, Cost-Effecive Moon Exploration

Missions”. 21st Annual AIAA/USU Conference on

Small Satellites, paper SSC07-III-2, 2007.

23 AirLaunch LLC press release. “AirLaunch LLC,

DARPA, and U.S. Air Force Kickoff Phase 2C”. 16

July 2007.

http://www.airlaunchllc.com/AirLaunch%20Press%20R

elease%20Kickoff%20Phase%202C%20071607%20Fin

al.pdf. Accessed 5 November 2007.

24 Communication with AirLaunch LLC, 6 November

2007.

25 Berger, Brian. “Taurus 2 Coming into Focus.” Space

News, September 24, 2007, p. 1.

26 Communication with Zig Aerospace, 17 October 2006.

27 Communication with Sea Launch Company, 7

November 2007.

28 NASA press release. “NASA Awards Upper Stage

Engine Contract for Ares Rockets”. 16 July 2007.

http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/jul/HQ_C070

30_J2X_Contract.html. Accessed 5 November 2007.

74 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Endnotes 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Endnotes
29 NASA press release. “NASA Selects Ares I Upper

Stage Production Contractor”. 28 August 2007.

http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/aug/HQ_C070

40_Ares_1_Upper_Stage_Contract.html. Accessed 5

November 2007.

30 Boeing press release. “Boeing Selected to Build

Instrument Unit Avionics for NASA's Ares I Crew

Launch Vehicle”. 12 December 2007. http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2007/q4/071212d_nr.html.

Accessed 21 December 2007.

31 Communication with Magellan Aerospace Corporation,

9 November 2007.

32 Nammo AS press release. “NAMMO successfully

launches Hybrid Test Rocket from Andøya”. 8 May

2007.

http://www.nammo.com/templates/page.aspx?id=406.

Accessed 5 November 2007.

33 UP Aerospace press release. “UP Aerospace, Inc.

Successfully Flies Multi-faceted Space Mission.” 2

May 2007.

http://www.upaerospace.com/DigitalPressKit/UP_Aeros

pace_Inc_Post-Launch_Press_Release.pdf. Accessed 5

November 2007.

34 Communication with UP Aerospace, 7 November 2007.

35 X PRIZE Foundation. “Acuity Technologies”

http://space.xprize.org/lunar-landerchallenge/team_profile_acuity.php. Accessed 20

December 2007.

36 Armadillo Aerospace release. “We failed.” 30 October

2007.

http://www.armadilloaerospace.com/n.x/Armadillo/Ho

me/News?news_id=350. Accessed 19 November 2007.

37 Communication with Armadillo Aerospace, 20

November 2007.

38 Benson Space Company press release. “Benson Space

Improves Design of Its Spaceship”. 25 May 2007.

http://www.bensonspace.com/press_details.php?id=2.

Accessed 15 November 2007.

39 International Space Fellowship. “Interorbital Talk with

the Space Fellowship about Their New $1.2 Million

Satellite Mission and Joining Forces with Vision One”.

27 November 2007.

http://spacefellowship.com/News/?p=3806. Accessed

19 December 2007.

40 Interorbital Systems. “Neptune”. http://www.interorbital.com/Neptune%20Page_1.htm. Accessed 19

December 2007.

41 Masten Space Systems. “XA-0.1 R.I.P.” 17 December

2007. http://masten-space.com/blog/?p=128. Accessed

19 December 2007.

42 X PRIZE Foundation. “Micro-Space”.

http://space.xprize.org/lunar-landerchallenge/team_profile_micro_space.php. Accessed 20

December 2007.

43 Communication with Micro-Space, 2 January 2008.

44 X PRIZE Foundation. “Paragon Labs”.

http://space.xprize.org/lunar-landerchallenge/team_profile_paragon_labs.php. Accessed 20

December 2007.

45 PlanetSpace. “Orbital Space Flight”. http://www.planetspace.org/lo/osf.htm. Accessed 20 December 2007.

46 Rocketplane Global press release. “Rocketplane

Unveils New Suborbital Vehicle Design”. 26 October

2007.

http://www.rocketplaneglobal.com/press/20071026a.ht

ml. Accessed 16 November 2007.

47 Rocketplane Kistler press release. “Rocketplane Kistler

Completes NASA-COTS Milestone Ahead of

Schedule.” 13 February 2007. http://www.rocketplanekistler.com/newsinfo/pressreleases/070213%20-

%20PRESS%20RELEASE%20-

%20RpK%20Meets%20NASA%20Milestone%20Ahea

d%20of%20Schedule%200207.pdf. Accessed 17

November 2007.

48 NASA press release. “NASA to Open New

Competition for Space Transportation Seed Money”. 18

October 2007.

http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/oct/HQ_0722

8_COTS_competition.html. Accessed 17 November

2007.

49 Communication with Virgin Galactic, 17 December

2007.

50 SpaceDev press release. “SpaceDev Signs Space Act

Agreement with NASA for Development of

Commercial Access to Space.” 18 June 2007.

http://www.spacedev.com/press_more_info.php?id=205.

Accessed 17 November 2007.

51 SpaceDev press release. “SpaceDev and United Launch

Alliance to Explore Launching the Dream Chaser

Space Vehicle on an Atlas V Launch Vehicle.” 10 April

2007.

http://www.spacedev.com/press_more_info.php?id=5.

Accessed 17 November 2007.

52 Space Access LLC press release. “Space Access Offers

Major Expansion of Space Tourism Beginning January

2008”. 20 December 2007.

http://www.individual.com/story.php?story=75237159.

Accessed 20 December 2007.

53 SpaceX. Falcon 1 Launch Vehicle Payload User’s

Guide, Rev. 6. April 2007.

http://www.spacex.com/Falcon%201%20Payload%20U

sers%20Guide.pdf. Accessed 17 November 2007.

54 SpaceX. “Demo Flight 2 Flight Review Update”. 15

June 2007. http://www.spacex.com/F1-DemoFlight2-

Flight-Review.pdf. Accessed 17 November 2007. 

55 SpaceX. “Falcon 9 Data Sheet” 6 April 2007.

http://www.spacex.com/F9%20Data%20Sheet.pdf.

Accessed 17 November 2007.

56 Communication with SpaceX, 27 November 2007.

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 75

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Endnotes
57 SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Signs Deal for First

Commercial Geostationary Satellite Launch”. 14

September 2007.

http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=29. Accessed

17 November 2007.

58 SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Breaks Ground at Cape

Canaveral’s Space Launch Complex 40”. 1 November

2007. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=31.

Accessed 17 November 2007.

59 SpeedUp. “News”.

http://www.speedupworld.com/news.html. Accessed 20

December 2007.

60 Communication with TGV Rockets, 19 November

2007.

61 t/Space. “Projects: Crew Transfer Vehicle (CXV)”.

http://www.transformspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=projects.view&workid=CCD3097A-96B6-175C97F15F270F2B83AA. Accessed 20 December 2007.

62 X PRIZE Foundation. “Unresaonable Rocket”.

http://space.xprize.org/lunar-landerchallenge/team_profile_unreasonable_rocket.php.

Accessed 20 December 2007.

63 Doupe, Cole, et al. “Fully Reusable Access to Space

Technology FAST”. 13 March 2007.

http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgibin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA467945&Location=U2&doc=

GetTRDoc.pdf. Accessed 17 November 2007.

64 Andrews Space press release. “Andrews Space to Work

with US Air Force on FAST Program”. 19 March 2007.

http://www.andrews-space.com/news.php?subsection=MjMw. Accessed 19 December 2007.

65 Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations. “Lockheed

Martin Awarded $14 Million Contract on U.S. Air

Force Research Lab FAST Program.” 12 November

2007.

http://www.lockheedmartin.com/data/assets/ssc/michou

d/PressReleases/LOCKHEEDMARTINAWARDED$14MILLIONCONTRACTONU.S.AIRFORCERESEARCHLABFASTPROGRAM11-12-07.pdf.

Accessed 19 December 2007.

66 Northrop Grumman Corporation. “Northrop Grumman

to Help Air Force Develop, Demonstrate Technologies

for Reusable Launch Vehicles”. 10 December 2007.

http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/news_releases.html?d=132818. Accessed 19 December 2007.

67 Orion Crew Vehicle webpage. Updated 5 November

2007. NASA Constellation Program. Accessed 29

November 2007.

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/orion/

index.html.

68 “Constellation Program: Astronaut Safety in a Launch

Emergency. The Orion Launch Abort System.” NASA

Facts. FS-2007-07-136-LaRC. Accessed 29 November

2007.

69 “Constellation Program: America’s Spacecraft for a

New Generation of Explorers. The Orion Crew

Exploration Vehicle”. NASA Facts. FS-2006-08-022-

JSC. Accessed 29 November 2007.

70 “NASA to Open New Competition for Space

Transportation Seed Money.” 18 October 2007. NASA

press release 07-228. Accessed 28 November 2007.

http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/oct/HQ_0722

8_COTS_competition.html.

71 Communication with SpaceX, 27 November 2007.

72 See company press releases and information for the

new COTS Phase 1 system proposal information:

Constellation Services International: 

“Constellation Services International and Space 

Systems Loral Team On NASA COTS Proposal 

Using a U.S. Version of CSI’s LEO EXPRESS 

Cargo System.” 11 December 2007. CSI news 

release. Accessed 19 December 2007. 

http://www.constellationservices.com/

Press_Release_20071211.pdf.

PlanetSpace: “PlanetSpace, Lockheed Martin and 

ATK team up to bid on NASA COTS.” 21 

November 21, 2007. PlanetSpace press release. 

Accessed 19 December 2007. 

http://www.planetspace.org/pdf/

PressRelease112107.pdf.

SpaceDev: SpaceDev Advanced Systems web

page. Accessed 19 December 2007. 

http://www.spacedev.com/

spacedev_advanced_systems.php

SPACEHAB: “SPACEHAB Responds to NASA

RFP Seeking Commercial ISS Resupply Means.” 

29 November 2007. SPACEHAB press release. 

Accessed 19 December 2007. http://www.space

hab.com/news/2007/07_11_29.htm.

t/Space: “t/Space enters COTS second round .” 

November 29, 2007. t/Space News and Media 

webpage. Accessed 19 December 2007. 

http://www.transformspace.com/index.cfm?fuseac

tion=news.view&newsid=8D34F05A-E7F7-11C1-

74E37AB2DBDA99CC.

Andrews Space: “Andrews Space Reveals Cargo 

Vehicle Design Work.” 12 December 2007. 

Andrews Space press release. Accessed 19 

December 2007. http://www.andrewsspace.com/news.php?subsection=Mjk3.

73 Lopez, C. Todd Staff Sgt., USAF. “Unmanned vehicle

provides reusable test capabilities in space.” 17

November 2006. Air Force Print News online.

Accessed 28 November 2007.

http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123032226.

76 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Endnotes 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts
74 Shiga, David. “Bigelow Aerospace to offer $760 million for spaceship.” 25 October 2007. New Scientist

Space online. Accessed 22 November 2007.

http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn12836-bigelowaerospace-to-offer-760-million-for-spaceship.html.

75 Communication with Bigelow Aerospace, 7 December

2007.

76 Communication with Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation, 27 November 2007.

77 Communication with Microcosm, Inc., 27 November

2007.

78 Communication with ATK, Inc., 3 January 2008.

79 ATK press release. “ATK Receives $1.8 Billion

Contract to Develop and Support Test Flights for

NASA's Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle First Stage” 13

August 2007.

http://atk.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&item=739. Accessed 4 January 2008.

80 Communication with AirLaunch LLC, 23 November

2007.

81 AirLaunch LLC press release. “AirLaunch LLC,

DARPA, and U.S. Air Force Kickoff Phase 2C.”

AirLaunchLLC, 16 July 2007. http://www.airlaunchllc.com/News.htm. Accessed 13 November 2007.

82 Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation,

19 November 2007.83 Northrop Grumman press

release. “Northrop Grumman Demonstrates New

Rocket Engine Design Using Oxygen and Methane

Propellants.” Northrop Grumman Corporation, 14

November 2007.

http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/news_releases.html?d=131378. accessed 13 December 2007.

84 NASA Facts Sheet. “The J–2X Engine”. Doc.

#FS–2007–08–111–MSFC8–328472, 2007.

http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/187393main_j2x_fact_sheet.pdf. Accessed 27 November 2007. 

85 NASA press release. “NASA's J-2X Powerpack Testing

Status Report #1” NASA. 19 December 2007.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/news/releas

es/2007/07-143.html. Accessed 20 December 2007.

86 Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne press release. “Pratt &

Whitney Rocketdyne Awarded $1.2 Billion NASA

Contract for J-2X Ares Rocket Engine”. 18 July 2007.

http://www.pw.utc.com/vgn-exttemplating/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2e35288d1c83c010V

gnVCM1000000881000aRCRD&prid=e480c230314d3

110VgnVCM100000c45a529f. Accessed 20 November

2007.

87 SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Completes

Development of Merlin Regeneratively Cooled Rocket

Engine.” SpaceX, 12 November 2007.

http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/google/index.j

sp?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20071112005019

&newsLang=en. Accessed 13 November 2007.

88 SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Completes

Development of Merlin Regeneratively Cooled Rocket

Engine.” SpaceX, 12 November 2007. 

89 SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Completes

Development of Merlin Regeneratively Cooled Rocket

Engine.” SpaceX, 12 November 2007.

http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/google/index.j

sp?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20071112005019

&newsLang=en. Accessed 13 November 2007.

90 Communication with Space Exploration Technologies,

27 November 2007.

91 SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Completes

Development of Merlin Regeneratively Cooled Rocket

Engine.” SpaceX, 12 November 2007.

http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/google/index.j

sp?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20071112005019

&newsLang=en. Accessed 13 November 2007.

92 NASA feature. “Methane Blast.” Science@NASA

website, 4 May 2007.|

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/04may_methan

eblast.htm. Accessed 13 November 2007.

93 Grossman, Lev. “The Best Inventions of The Year.”

Time Magazine, 12 November 2007, p. 78.

94 XCOR Aerospace press release. “ATK and XCOR

Successfully Complete Test Series

for NASA's 7,500 lbf-thrust LOX/Methane Workhorse

Engine”. XCOR Aerospace. 12 December 2007.

http://www.xcor.com/press-releases/2007/07-12-

12_ATK_and_XCOR_complete_LOX_methane_testing.html. Aaccessed 18 December 2007.

95 Boyle, Alan. “Rocket Racer Revealed”. Cosmic Log. 7

November 2007.

http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2007/11/07/45

4487.aspx. Accessed 25 November 2007.

96 Orion Propulsion Inc. press release. “Latest News -

October 2006.” Orion Propulsion Inc., October 2006.

http://orionpropulsion.com/latestnews.php. Accessed 11

October 2006.

97 Orion Proulsion Inc. press release. “Latest News:

Innovative Thruster Module Successfully Tested” Orion

Propulsion Inc. 7 December 2007. http://www.orionpropulsion.com/. Accessed 20 December 2007.

98 Communication with Space Exploration Technologies,

27 November 2007.

99 Orbital press release. “Orbital To Provide Launch Abort

System For NASA’s Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle”

1 September 2006.

http://www.orbital.com/newsinfo/release.asp?prid=570.

Accessed 26 November 2007.

100 NASA press release. “NASA to Break Ground for

Orion Test Pad at White Sands, N.M.” 8 November

2007.

http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/nov/HQ_M07

158_ESMD_White_Sands_Groundbreaking.html.

Accessed 4 January 2008.

101 Orbital fact sheet. “Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle

Launch Abort System (LAS)” Orbital Sciences

Corporation. 2006.

http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/Publications/LAS_Fa

ct.pdf#search="launch abort system. Accessed 26

November 2007.

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 77

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Endnotes
102 Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne press release. “Pratt &

Whitney Rocketdyne’s Revolutionary Scramjet Engine

Successfully Powers First X-51A Simulated Flight”

Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne. 30 April 2007.

http://www.pw.utc.com/vgn-exttemplating/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2e35288d1c83c010V

gnVCM1000000881000aRCRD&prid=0c8381dc89e22

110VgnVCM100000c45a529f____. Accessed 13

December 2007.

103 Andrews Space Inc. press release. “Andrews Awarded

DARPA/AFRL Contract to Demonstrate In-Flight

Propellant Generation For Advanced Space

Transportation.” Andrews Space, Inc., 27 March 2006.

http://www.andrews-space.com/news.php?subsection=MjA1. Accessed 16 October 2006.

104 Communication with Andrews Space, Inc. 21

December 2007.

105 Air Launch LLC press release. “Operational C-17A

Used to Break Another Record with Air Launch in

DARPA/Air Force Falcon Small Launch Vehicle

Program.” Air Launch LLC, 27 July 2006. www.californiaspaceauthority.org/images/pdfs/pr060801-1.pdf.

Accessed 10 October 2006.

106 Communication with AirLaunch LLC., 23 November

2007.

107 Andrews Space press release. “Andrews Space

Develops Advanced Thermal Protection Materials for

Reentry Applications”. Andrews Space. 20 December

2007. http://www.andrews-space.com/news.php?subsection=Mjk4. Accessed 20 December 2007.

108 Boeing press release. “Boeing Completes Prototype

Heat Shield for NASA Orion Spacecraft” Boeing, 13

November 2007.

http://www.boeing.com/ids/news/2007/q4/071113a_nr.h

tml. Accessed 20 November 2007.

109 NASA press release. “Success for Second Ares Main

Parachute Test” 15 November 2007.

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/multimedia/photos07-126_2.html. Accessed 20 December

2007.

110 Alliant Techsystems press release. “World’s largest

Rocket Stage Recovery Parachute Test is Successful” 2

October 2007.

http://atk.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&item=752. Accessed 14 November 2007.

111 “Final Environmental Assessment for the Proposed

Blue Origin West Texas Launch Site.” FAA/AST,

August 2006.

http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offic

es/ast/media/20060829_Blue_Origin_EA_Signed.pdf.

Accessed 08 November 2006.

112 “AST Issues First Experimental Permit for a Reusable

Suborbital Rocket to Blue Origin.” FAA/AST, 25

September 2006.

http://ast.faa.gov/Exper_Permit_Blue_Origin.htm.

Accessed 8 November 2006

.113 Communication with California Spaceport, 21

November 2007.

114 Ibid.

115 Communication with Space Florida, 26 November

2007.

116 Ibid.

117 Ibid.

118 Ibid.

119 Ibid.

120 Ibid.

121 Communication with Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport,

8 November 2007.

122 Ibid.

123 Ibid.

124 Ibid.

125 Communication with Mojave Airport, 17 October 2006.

126 David, Leonard. “XCOR Rocket Plane Soars into

Record Book.” SPACE.com, 3 December 2005.

http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/051203_xcor_fl

ight.html. Accessed 28 December 2005.

127 Boyle, Alan. “Regulators OK Oklahoma Spaceport.”

MSNBC, 13 June 2006.

http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13304491. Accessed 2

November 2006.

128 Ibid.

129 Communication with Oklahoma Space Industry

Development Authority, 26 October 2006.

130 Ibid.

131 Communication with Cape Canaveral Air Force

Station, 30 September 2005.

132 Department of the Air Force, Edwards Air Force Base.

“Memorandum for Government Agencies, Public

Officials, Libraries, Public Groups, and Interested

Individuals.” U.S. Air Force, December 2002.

http://www.ealev.com. Accessed 7 November 2006.

133 NASA Press Release (58-06). “NASA Requests

Proposals for Exploration Park Developer.” NASA, 1

September 2006.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2006/release-20060901.html. Accessed 3 November

2006.

134 NASA Press Release (04-06). “GlobalFlyer Aircraft

Arrival Set for This Week.” NASA, 9 January 2006.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2006/release-20060109.html. Accessed 3 November

2006.

135 NASA Press Release (06-132). “NASA and ZERO-G

Agree on Regular Shuttle Runway Use.” NASA, 4

April 2006.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2006/release-20060404.html. Accessed 3 November

2006.

78 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Endnotes 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts
136 NASA RFI-SLF-1. “Request For Information

Supporting an Environmental Assessment of

Commercial and other uses of the Shuttle Landing

Facility.” NASA, 29 September 2006. http://procurement.nasa.gov/cgibin/eps/sol.cgi?acqid=122399#Other%2001, Accessed

3 November 2006.

137 “KSC Hosts Private Jet's Suborbital Pathfinder

Flights.” 12 April 2007.

http://www.vmaxmarketing.com/news/nasa1.htm.

Accessed 3 January 2008.

138 Communication with Reagan Test Site, 6 November

2007.

139 Communication with Reagan Test Site, 20 October

2006.

140 Communication with Vandenberg Air Force Base, 7

October 2005.

141 Communication with NASA Wallops Flight Facility, 11

October 2005.

142 Communication with Wallops Flight Facility, 15

November 2007.

143 Ibid.

144 Communication with White Sands Missile Range, 6

October 2005.

145 Communication with White Sands Missile Range, 1

December 2007.

146 Communication with Cecil Field Spaceport, 20

November 2007.

147 Ibid.

148 Communication with Chugwater Spaceport, 14

December 2007.

149 Communication with Aerospace Development Center,

23 September 2004.

150 Reid, T.R. “N.M. Plans Launchpad for Space Tourism.”

The Washington Post, 15 December 2005.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/14/AR2005121402340.html. Accessed 3

November 2006.

151 Communication with Office for Space

Commercialization, New Mexico Economic

Development Department, 21 November 2007.

152 Ibid.

153 “Pact Clears the Way for New Spaceport Site. New

Mexico Signs Agreement on Access to 15,000 acres of

State Trust Land.” Associated Press, 11 January 2006.

http://msnbc.msn.com/id/10807954. Accessed 3

November 2006.

154 David, Leonard. “New Mexico Inks Spaceport Funding

Package.” SPACE.com, 2 March 2006.

http://www.space.com/news/060302_newmexico_updat

e.html. Accessed 3 November 2006.

155 Communication with Office for Space

Commercialization, New Mexico Economic

Development Department, 21 November 2007.

156 Ibid.

157 Communication with Space Explorers, 21 November

2007.

158 2005 Senate Bill 352. Wisconsin State Legislature, 28

September 2005.

http://www.legis.state.wi.us/2005/data/SB-352.pdf.

Accessed 21 November 2006.

159 Egan, Dan. “With All Systems Go, Sheboygan Shoots

for the Moon with Spaceport.” The Milwaukee Journal

Sentinel, 12 May 2006.

http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4196/is_20

060512/ai_n16370976/print. Accessed 7 November

2006.

160 Communication with Space Explorers, 21 November

2007.

161 Communication with Port of Moses Lake, 6 October

2006.

162 Communication with Spaceport Washington, 27

September 2005.

163 Communication with Port of Moses Lake, 6 October

2006.

164 Pecos County Aerospace Development Center

Technical Description. Pecos County West Texas

“Westex” Spaceport Development Corporation, 2006.

http://www.aerospacetexas.com/uguide/index.html.

Accessed 21 November 2006.

165 Communication with Pecos County West Texas

“Westex” Spaceport Development Corporation, 10

October 2005.

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Endnotes

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 79
Page 6

Lunar rover mockup at launch of Google Lunar X

PRIZE, courtesy of the X PRIZE Foundation

Page 7

Flight of Armadillo Aerospace’s MOD-1 vehicle for the

2007 Northrup Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge,

courtesy of Armadillo Aerospace

Page 9

Atlas V, courtesy of United Launch Alliance

Delta II, courtesy of United Launch Alliance

Page 10

Delta IV Heavy, courtesy of United Launch Alliance

Page 11

Minotaur, courtesy of Orbital Sciences Corporation

Pegasus XL, courtesy of Orbital Sciences Corporation

Taurus, courtesy of Orbital Sciences Corporation

Page 12

Zenit-3SL, courtesy of Sea Launch Company, LLC

ALV, courtesy of Alliant Techsystems

Page 13

Aquarius vehicle illustration, courtesy of Space

Systems/Loral

Aquarius mission profile, courtesy of Space

Systems/Loral

Eaglet and Eagle, courtesy of E’Prime Aerospace

Corporation

Page 14

FALCON SLV, courtesy of Lockheed Martin

Corporation

Prospector 8A, courtesy Joe Mullen/Garvey Spacecraft

Corporation

Page 15

Sprite SLV, courtesy of Microcosm, Inc.

Minotaur IV, courtesy of Orbital Sciences Corporation

Page 16

QuickReach, courtesy of AirLaunch, LLC

Page 17

Zenit-3SLB, courtesy of Sea Launch Company, LLC

Ares I, courtesy of NASA

Ares V, courtesy of NASA

Page 18

Black Brant, courtesy of Bristol Aerospace Limited

Page 19

Oriole, courtesy of DTI Associates

Terrier-Orion, courtesy of DTI Associates

Page 20

SpaceLoft XL, courtesy of UP Aerospace

Page 21

Tiger and Cardinal, courtesy of Acuity Technologies

Page 22

MOD-1, courtesy of Armadillo Aerospace

BSC Spaceship, courtesy of Benson Space Company

Blue Origin’s Goddard prototype vehicle, courtesy of

Blue Origin

Page 23

Sea Star, courtesy of Interorbital Systems

Neptune, courtesy of Interorbital Systems

Page 24

XA 1.0, courtesy of Masten Space Systems

Crusader LL, courtesy of Micro-Space

Page 25

Volkon, courtesy of Paragon Labs

Silver Dart, courtesy of PlanetSpace

Page 26

Rocketplane XP, courtesy of Rocketplane Global

K-1, courtesy of Rocketplane Kistler

Page 27

SpaceShipTwo, courtesy of Virgin Galactic

Dream Chaser, courtesy of SpaceDev

Page 28

Skyhopper, courtesy of Space Access LLC

Falcon 1, courtesy of Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation

Page 29

Falcon 9, courtesy of Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation

Laramie Rose, courtesy of SpeedUp

Page 30

Michelle-B, courtesy of TGV Rockets, Inc

Crew Transfer Vehicle, courtesy of t/Space

Burning Splinter, courtesy of of Unreasonable Rocket

80 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Photo Credits

Photo Credits
Page 31

Xerus, courtesy of XCOR Aerospace, Inc.

Space Shuttle, courtesy of NASA

Page 33

Orion CEV, courtesy of Lockheed Martin Corporation

Page 34

SpaceX Dragon, courtesy of Space Exploration

Technologies Corporation

Page 35

SpaceX Dragon crew concept, courtesy of Space

Exploration Technologies Corporation

X-37 concept, courtesy of NASA

Page 36

External view of Genesis II with the Earth in the background, courtesy of Bigelow Aerospace

Page 37

Bigelow module concept, courtesy of Bigelow

Aerospace

Page 38

Falcon 9 first stage, courtesy of Space Exploration

Technologies Corporation

Microcosm composite tanks, courtesy of Microcosm,

Inc.

Page 39

Five-segment motor test, courtesy of Alliant

Techsystems

AirLaunch hot fire test, courtesy of AirLaunch LLC

Page 40

P-8A static fire test, courtesy of Garvey Spacecraft

Corporation

Page 41

J-2 test, courtesy of NASA

Merlin 1C test firing, courtesy of Space Exploration

Technologies Corporation

Page 42

XCOR XR-5M15 test fire, courtesy of XCOR

Aerospace, Inc.

Orion thruster test, courtesy of Orion Propulsion, Inc.

Page 43

Draco thruster, courtesy of Space Exploration

Technologies Corporation

Conceptual Orion launch abort system, courtesy of

Orbital Sciences Corporation

X-1 scramjet test, courtesy of Pratt & Whitney

Rocketdyne, Inc.

Page 44

Andrews ACES test, courtesy of Andrews Space, Inc.

QuickReach Drop Test, courtesy of AirLaunch LLC

Page 45

Prototype heat shield, courtesy of The Boeing

Company

Parachute testing at Yuma Proving Ground, courtesy of

NASA

Page 49

California Spaceport SLC-8, courtesy of California

Spaceport

Space Florida SLC-46 MAS, courtesy of Space Florida

Page 50

FTG-03 Launch from Kodiak Launch Complex, courtesy of the U.S. Missile Defense Agency

Page 51

NFIRE launch from Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport,

courtesy of Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

Page 53

Mojave Air and Space Port, courtesy of Mojave Air and

Space Port

Page 54

Oklahoma Spaceport, courtesy of Oklahoma Space

Industry Development Authority

Page 55

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, courtesy of U.S. Air

Force/Master Sgt. Jack Braden

Page 57

Shuttle landing at Edwards Air Force Base, courtesy of

Edwards Air Force Base

Lauch of Space Shuttle Discovery mission STS 114,

courtesy of NASA

Page 58

Interceptor launched from Meck2 at Reagan Test Site,

courtesy of Reagan Test Site

Delta II preparing for launch, courtesy of Vandenberg

Air Force Base

Page 59

Wallops Flight Facility, courtesy of Wallops Flight

Facility

Page 60

White Sands Missile Range, courtesy of White Sands

Missile Range

Page 62

Cecil Field aerial view, courtesy of Cecil Field

Spaceport

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 81

Photo Credits 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts
Page 63

Chugwater aerial view, courtesy of Chugwater

Spaceport

Page 64

Cutaway view of Spaceport America facility, courtesy

of Spaceport America

Page 65

Rocket launch from Spaceport Sheboygan, courtesy of

Rockets for Schools

Page 66

Spaceport Washington aerial view, courtesy of

Spaceport Washington

Photo Credits 2008 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

82 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation