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Communicating

in a Crisis:

Risk Communication

Guidelines for Public

Officials

2002

U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services

Substance Abuse and Mental Health

Services Administration

Rockville, MD
NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE

CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION

Communicating in a Crisis: Risk Communication

Guidelines for Public Officials.

Washington, D.C.: Center for Mental Health

Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health

Services Administration, 2002.

Includes bibliographical references.

1. Crisis Intervention – methods.

2. Communication.

3. Public Relations.

4. Administrative Personnel.

I. Center for Mental Health Services (U.S.)

02NLM: WM 401 C734 2002

Suggested citation:

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Communicating in a Crisis: Risk Communication

Guidelines for Public Officials. Washington, D.C.:

Department of Health and Human Services,

2002.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This document was prepared by the U.S. Department of

Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental

Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health

Services, and Widmeyer Communications of Washington,

D.C. Work by Widmeyer Communications was performed

under Contract No. 02M009086 and 02 M00908601D.

Robert DeMartino, M.D., served as the government project

officer.

PUBLIC DOMAIN NOTICE

All material appearing in this document is in the public domain and may be reproduced or copied without permission

from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

However, this publication may not be reproduced or distributed for a fee without specific, written authorization of

the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Citation of the source is appreciated.

OBTAINING ADDITIONAL COPIES OF PUBLICATION

Copies may be obtained, free of charge, from the Substance

Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s Mental Health Services Clearinghouse. Please contact

SAMHSA’S National Mental Health Information Center,

at 1-800-789-2647, reference document number

SMA 02-3641.

ELECTRONIC ACCESS TO PUBLICATION

This publication can be accessed electronically through the

Internet connection listed below.

http://www.riskcommunication.samhsa.gov

ORIGINATING OFFICE

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

5600 Fishers Lane, Room 17C-26

Rockville, MD 20857

November 2002

v

COMMUNICATING IN A CRISIS:

RISK COMMUNICATION GUIDELINES

FOR PUBLIC OFFICIALS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. PREFACE .............................................. 1

II. INTRODUCTION .................................. 3

1. Communications Before, During,

and After a Crisis Situation .................. 3

2. First Do No Harm ............................... 4

III. COMMUNICATION

FUNDAMENTALS ................................. 9

1. Developing Goals and Key Messages .... 9

2. Staying on Message .......................... 11

3. Delivering Accurate and Timely

Information ....................................... 13

IV. COMMUNICATING COMPLEX,

SCIENTIFIC, AND TECHNICAL

INFORMATION ................................... 15

1. Acknowledging Uncertainty ................ 17

2. Understanding Public Perceptions

of Risk .............................................. 19

3. Factors Influencing Risk Perception ...... 21
vi

V. MYTHS, PRINCIPLES, AND

PITFALLS ............................................. 23

1. Risk Communication Myths and

Truths ............................................... 23

2. Earning Trust and Building

Credibility ........................................ 25

3. Building Support................................ 27

4. Avoiding Pitfalls ................................ 28

5. Managing Hostile Situations ............... 33

VI. UNDERSTANDING AND WORKING

WITH THE MEDIA ............................... 35

1. The Media Perspective – Facts ............ 35

2. Space and Time ................................ 37

3. Working With Reporters and

Avoiding Problems ............................. 40

4. Using the Interview to its Fullest

Advantage........................................ 42

5. Rules of the Road............................... 44

6. Planning and Preparation ................... 44

7. Before, During, and After an

Interview: Do’s and Don’ts .................. 47

VII. CORRECTING ERRORS AND

RUMOR CONTROL ............................. 53

VIII. ASSESSING PERSONAL STRENGTHS

AND WEAKNESSES ............................ 57

Table of Contents
vii

IX. PRESENTING INFORMATION AT

PUBLIC MEETINGS.............................. 61

1. Before the Meeting ............................ 61

2. The Opening Presentation .................. 62

3. Presentation Aids and Guidelines ........ 65

4. Presentation Reminders ...................... 66

5. Answering Questions ......................... 68

6. Sample Questions.............................. 69

X. RECOGNIZING OPPORTUNITIES

TO SPEAK OUT ................................... 75

XI. SUGGESTED READINGS AND

RESOURCES ........................................ 77

XII. REFERENCES ....................................... 81

Table of Contents

1

The tragedies of September 11, 2001 and theemerging threat of bioterrorism have reemphasized the need for public officials to communicate

effectively with the public and the media to deliver

messages that inform without frightening and

educate without provoking alarm.

The purpose of this primer is to provide a resource

for public officials on the basic tenets of effective

communications generally and on working with the

news media specifically. The primer is not encyclopedic in nature, but rather an easy-to-use pocket

guide on the basic skills and techniques needed for

clear, effective communications, information dissemination, and message delivery.

Its content focuses on providing public officials with

a brief orientation and perspective on the media

and how they think and work, and on the public as

the end-recipient of information; concise presentations of techniques for responding to and cooperating with the media in conveying information and

delivering messages, before, during, and after a

public health crisis; a practical guide to the tools of

the trade of media relations and public communications; and strategies and tactics for addressing the

probable opportunities and the possible challenges

that are likely to arise as a consequence of such

communications initiatives.

Although this primer identifies principles relevant to

and consistent with effective risk communication

I. PREFACE
2

practices, it is neither the definitive nor the final

word on the subject. Differing circumstances may

raise unique questions that must be dealt with in

unique ways. And while this primer cannot provide

you with all the answers, it can prepare you to make

the decisions that will lead you to effective answers.

Charles G. Curie, M.A., A.C.S.W.

Administrator, Substance Abuse and

Mental Health Services Administration

Preface
3

1. COMMUNICATIONS BEFORE,

DURING, AND AFTER A CRISIS

SITUATION

Sound and thoughtful risk communication can assist

public officials in preventing ineffective, fear-driven,

and potentially damaging public responses to

serious crises

such as

unusual

disease

outbreaks

and bioterrorism.

Moreover,

appropriate

risk communication procedures foster the trust and confidence

that are vital in a crisis situation (Covello et al.,

2001; Maxwell, 1999). There are steps public

officials can take in advance of any incident to

better prepare communities, risk managers, government spokespersons, public health officials, the

news media, physicians, and hospital personnel to

respond to the challenges of managing such crises

(O’Toole, 2001). Plan for communicating to the

public and the news media by asking yourself the

following questions:

What information is crucial to convey in initial

messages in order to prompt appropriate public

responses after a crisis situation?

II. INTRODUCTION
4

Introduction

What are the messages to be delivered prior to,

during, and after an incident?

What are the obstacles to effective communications and how can they be minimized?

RISK COMMUNICATION: An interactive process of

exchange of information and opinion among

individuals, groups, and institutions; often

involves multiple messages about the nature of

risk or expressing concerns, opinions, or reactions to risk messages or to legal and institutional

arrangements for risk management.

What are the opportunities for effective communications and how can they be maximized?

What questions can we anticipate from the

public in these risk situations?

What are the news media’s responsibilities and

how can you help reporters meet them?

2. FIRST DO NO HARM

The cardinal rule of risk communication is the same

as that for emergency medicine: first do no harm. A

threatening or actual crisis often poses a volatile

equation of public action and reaction.
5

This destabilized information environment makes it

very important that you give thought to what it is you

are about to say before making any public comment—

be it a 30-second statement to a news person or a 30-

minute news conference to a roomful of media representatives. In preparing for this speaking opportunity:

Assess the environment into which you are

introducing information. Gain a sense of the

public’s general attitude toward the situation and

tailor your presentation accordingly. Are they

worried and in need of reassurance? Are they

sanguine and in need of a warning? Are they

angry and in need of calming?

Introduction

Review your remarks to gauge the probable

impact that your words will have on the situation

and adjust them as necessary; e.g., are you

using words, like “crisis,” “life-threatening,” or

“extremely” and can other, less dramatic words

be substituted?

Understand your audience. If it is a reporter,

appreciate the demands and constraints under

which reporters work and recognize the risks those

constraints pose to you as a communicator.

Crisis + heightened public emotions + limited

access to facts + rumor, gossip, speculation,

assumption, and inference = an unstable information environment.
6

Don’t speak unless you are comfortable doing so.

Most communications mistakes are made by

those who are not prepared to speak but feel

compelled to do so anyway. If confronted with a

demand for a quick answer, have the confidence to

say, “I would like to answer that question later.”

Don’t assume you’re not in need of help, and don’t

be shy about asking for it. Always take advantage of whatever professional communications

Introduction

The middle of a looming crisis is not the occasion to say “No comment.” “No comment”

should almost never be used by a public speaker,

particularly in a risk communications situation.

The phrase suggests a lack of candor, conveys a

sense of secrecy and connotes that you know

something that you are either not willing or not

allowed to share with the public, creating

skepticism and mistrust.

Photo by FEMA
7

support is available to you. If you have access to

a public affairs office, use it. You can also hire a

local public relations consultant or ask a corporate public relations executive to volunteer to help

you meet your challenges.

Watch, read, and listen to the news; analyze

how it is presented; critique the communications

skills of others; learn from their successes as well

as from their mistakes.

Introduction

9

III.

1. DEVELOPING GOALS AND KEY

MESSAGES

People often fail to effectively communicate due to a

lack of clear communications goals and key messages to support them. Setting such goals and identifying support

messages are

decisions that

should be

made prior to

the issuing of

any public

comment and

are especially

important in a

crisis.

A communications goal

of “educating

the public on

the complexities of bioterrorism and preparing them for any eventuality” is

not realistic; informing the public of the problem

and specific dangers, providing guidance on

appropriate responses, and easing concerns are

achievable goals. Messages in support of these

COMMUNICATIONS

FUNDAMENTALS
10

goals must also be direct and effectively speak to the

audience.

Communications Fundamentals

RISK MESSAGE: A written, verbal, or visual

statement containing information about risk; may

or may not include advice about risk reduction

behavior; a formal risk message is a structured

written, audio, or visual packaged developed

with the express purpose of presenting information about risk.

A discussion of statistical probabilities and how they

translate into a “relatively minimal-risk scenario for

the average citizen” might be fine for scientists, but

for the general public such a discussion will only

confuse the issue and fail to meet the goals of

informing and easing concerns. If the risk is low,

say, “the risk to the public is low.”

Goal #1: Ease public concern

Messages

• The risk is low.

• The illness is treatable.

• It is not easily contracted.

• Symptoms are easily recognized.
11

Goal #2: Give guidance on how to

respond

Messages

• Take these precautions.

• If possibly exposed, contact physician.

• If symptomatic, contact physician.

• Note possible symptoms in others.

2. STAYING ON MESSAGE

Once goals and messages have been established,

the challenge becomes one of delivery and ensuring

that messages are heard and goals are met. The

method for accomplishing this is what has come to

be known as being “on message” and is, essentially,

a form of artful repetition.

If the goal is to ease concern and the message in

support of that goal is, “the risk to the public is low,”

that message should be clearly stated at the outset

and returned to as often as possible:

“I want to begin by first saying that the risk to

the public is very low . . . .”

“As I said a moment ago, the risk to the public is

low . . . .”

Communications Fundamentals
12

“That’s an important question, but before I

answer it I want to again stress that the fact

remains that the risk to the public is low.”

“Before I close I want to remind everyone that

the risk is low.”

Raise your points often enough that your audience leaves with a clear understanding of the

message you wanted them to hear.

Communications Fundamentals

Take opportunities to begin or end statements

with a reiteration of your message.

Don’t be so repetitious with a single message that

you appear to be trying to convince people of

something that isn’t true.

Don’t repeat your messages word-for-word every

time you answer a question.

Photo by FEMA
13

Another aspect of staying on message is to exercise

some control over the conversation you are having,

be it an interview, press conference, or questions from

an audience. Don’t allow the conversation to be led

down paths that are not pertinent to your goals or

message—no matter how persistent the questioner

might be in pursuing a line of inquiry.

3. DELIVERING ACCURATE AND TIMELY

INFORMATION

In a risk communications situation there is a constant

tension between providing accurate information and

providing information quickly. Both demands pose

dangers.

To wait for all information to be complete and

verified before releasing it to the public can create

an information vacuum that will almost certainly be

filled with rumor and speculation. To release information that has not been double-checked and which

turns out to be inaccurate, however, runs the risk of

misleading the public and undermining your credibility as a spokesperson.

Communications Fundamentals

• Goals and messages should be simple,

straightforward, and realistic.

• Information should be delivered with brevity,

clarity, and effectiveness.
14

The best way to address this challenge is to establish

regular briefings with the media (in person or via

conference call) at which time all information can be

delivered, explained, and updated. If information is

an estimation, it can be presented as such and its

preliminary nature stressed to the media. This approach, combined with the fact that the information

will be updated in the near term, keeps information

in its proper context and prevents it from becoming

etched in stone before it is fully and finally verified.

It also keeps the media attentive to the changing

nature of the issue with which they are dealing and

attuned to the need for maintaining contact with you

in order to keep their stories accurate and up to date.

If you hold regular briefings, do so at a time that

meets the deadline needs of the media.

Be prepared to explain the meaning behind

evolving information; e.g., “Concerning the

increase in this number, that is a reflection of our

having increased the number of people tested, it

is not a reflection of an increase in what we have

always recognized as the population-wide

average.”

If you suspect that the next information update

will drastically change a story, give reporters a

sense that such may be the case.

Always provide statistics and key information to

the media in written form.

Always know how information was gathered and

conclusions reached.

Communications Fundamentals
15

COMMUNICATING

COMPLEX,

SCIENTIFIC, AND

TECHNICAL

INFORMATION

Scientific information will be more useful to the

audience and greater communication success

will be achieved if the information provided is

relevant and easily understood (Frewer, 1999; and

Bean, 1988). To help audiences understand the

issues, create well-targeted messages. Also be sure

to use clear, non-technical language to discuss risks

and other specific information indicating the nature,

form, severity, or magnitude of the risk.

Ways to better communicate complex scientific or

technical information:

Use consistent names and other terms throughout

a crisis situation (e.g., switching from parts per

million to parts per billion can result in alarm

because the higher numbers may be noticed, but

not the unit of measure).

Avoid acronyms and jargon (e.g., excess lifetime

cancer risk) and provide careful definitions in

advance.

IV.
16

Carefully consider what types of visuals the news

media may want, be sure all information is

explained fully, and use these visuals to clarify

and support key communications points.

Answer not only the question, “How much?”, but

also the question “Will it hurt me?” to ensure the

information is relevant.

Use familiar frames of reference to explain how

much, how big or how small and try to create a

mental picture of such measures as “parts per

billion” or “tons per day.”

Communicating Complex, Scientific, and Technical Information

Numeric analogies—e.g., the U.S. produces

enough garbage in a day to fill 100 football fields

14 feet deep—are much more meaningful to

average listeners than talking about 250,000 tons

of garbage per day. However, examples should

not be trite or condescending or overly dramatic.

Take the time to develop meaningful examples and

calculations.

Indicate the level of certainty of your information, for

example, “We are 95% certain, but we are conducting

RISK COMMUNICATOR/MESSAGE SOURCE: The

individual or office sending a risk message or

interacting with other individuals, groups, or

organizations in a risk communication process;

may also be the risk manager, risk message

preparer, risk analyst or other expert.
17

Communicating Complex, Scientific, and Technical Information

more studies to improve the accuracy.” Recognize

that the public and reporters generally do not

appreciate uncertainty expressed in numeric terms

and that this may require more detailed explanation.

1. ACKNOWLEDGING UNCERTAINTY

Recognizing and admitting uncertainty is simply the

reality of most risk communication situations (Plough

et al., 1988; and Chess, 1989). Unfortunately,

scientific uncertainty is a complicating point in

satisfying the public’s demand for reliable and

meaningful information for many hazards and risks.

Public health officials frequently face the dilemma of

having to acknowledge and explain uncertainty to a

public that thinks scientific findings are precise,

repeatable, and reliable. Moreover, the public often

associates correlation and association as being the
18

same as causality. As a result, officials often face the

additional task of trying to explain the data’s

limitations and uncertainties.

If information is not known or not available, the

best thing to do is to honestly admit it.

Saying “I don’t know” is an acceptable response

and can actually build credibility.

Audiences need to be provided as much information as possible to help them understand that

uncertainty is part of the process and that the

answers available now may not be the final

answers.

If an audience demands 100% certainty, they are

more than likely questioning the underlying

values and process, not the science. Try to

identify the real concerns behind the demand for

certainty and address them.

Communicating Complex, Scientific, and Technical Information

An audience question such as, “If you’re not

certain, how can we know we’re being protected?” is not a question about data, it’s about

personal and family safety. That is the issue to be

addressed.
19

Communicating Complex, Scientific, and Technical Information

2. UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC

PERCEPTIONS OF RISK

Because the risk communication process is so deeply

embedded in broader social issues, communicators

are faced with many barriers (Bennett, et al., 1999).

A key barrier is the term “risk” itself, how it’s measured, described, and ultimately perceived. Interested parties perceive risk differently, and people do

not believe that all risks are of the same type, size,

or importance.

The perceptions of risk for the technical and lay

audience are often dissimilar (Samet, 1998). For

example, the public health official or scientist uses a

one-in-a-million comparison to convey a specific risk
20

RISKS PERCEIVED TO ...

be voluntary

be under an

individual’s control

have clear benefits

be distributed fairly

be natural

be statistical

be generated by a

trusted source

be familiar

affect adults

risks perceived as

being imposed

risks perceived to

be controlled by

others

risks perceived to

have little or no

benefit

risks perceived to

be unfairly

distributed

risks perceived to

be manmade

risks perceived to

be catastrophic

risks perceived to

be generated by an

untrusted source

risks perceived to

be exotic

risks perceived to

affect children

ARE MORE ACCEPTED

THAN ...

Communicating Complex, Scientific, and Technical Information
21

measurement. Health experts understand this to

mean that, given one million persons, there is one

person who is at risk. To the non-technical person,

however, the one person may be someone they

know. The public will often personalize risk with the

same conviction that most scientists depersonalize it.

Ultimately, the public will decide how much risk is

acceptable and their decision will be based on

personal factors. One goal for the public health

official should be to educate the public on the level

of risk and competing risks. Trying to sell the public

on acceptable risk may be difficult because people

would prefer to live without any health and environmental concerns. However, by listening to and

addressing concerns, the target audience will be

better able to understand and, possibly accept, the

risk.

3. FACTORS INFLUENCING RISK

PERCEPTION

Perceptions of the magnitude of risk are influenced

by factors other than numerical data (Fischhoff, et

al., 1981) (see table on page 20). Understanding

these factors will help you gauge the degree of risk

with which your message may be perceived, and

assist you as you craft your communications strategy.

Communicating Complex, Scientific, and Technical Information

23

V.

Disseminating information without regard for the

complexities and uncertainties of risk is not

effective risk communication. Well-managed communications efforts will help ensure that your messages

are well formulated, effectively transmitted, and

result in the intended public response. Consider how

the process works and some general principles for

improving effectiveness.

1. RISK COMMUNICATION MYTHS

AND TRUTHS

Myths often interfere with the development of an

effective risk communication program. Consider

these myths and prepare to take action to dispel

and overcome them (Chess, et al., 1989).

MYTH: RISK COMMUNICATION IS MORE LIKELY

TO ALARM THAN CALM PEOPLE.

Truth: Not if done properly. Educate and inform,

don’t simply alert and alarm. Give people the

chance to express their concerns, ask questions

and receive accurate answers.

MYTHS,

PRINCIPLES, AND

PITFALLS
24

MYTH: COMMUNICATION IS LESS IMPORTANT

THAN EDUCATION. IF PEOPLE KNEW THE TRUE

RISKS, THEY WOULD ACCEPT THEM.

Truth: Education is achieved through effective

communication. Pay as much attention to your

process for dealing with people as you do to

explaining the content of the information.

MYTH: MANY ISSUES THAT ARISE IN TIMES OF

CRISIS ARE TOO DIFFICULT FOR THE PUBLIC TO

UNDERSTAND.

Truth: No, they aren’t. Part of your job is to help

the public understand these issues no matter how

complex they may be. The public may not make

technical decisions, but their opinions deserve

consideration by those who are making those

decisions.

MYTH: RISK COMMUNICATION IS NOT MY JOB.

Truth: Yes, it is. As a public servant, you have a

responsibility to the public. Integrate communication with the public into your job and help others

do the same.

MYTH: IF WE LISTEN TO THE PUBLIC, WE MAY

DIVERT LIMITED RESOURCES TO CONCERNS THAT

ARE NOT A GREAT THREAT TO PUBLIC HEALTH.

Truth: Listening to and communicating with the

public does not mean that you must set agendas

and priorities based solely on prevailing public

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls
25

concerns. Part of your job is to manage issues and

expectations. The public’s concerns cannot be

ignored, but neither can they necessarily dictate

policy. The better informed people are, the more

likely it will be that the public’s and your opinions

on priorities are aligned.

2. EARNING TRUST AND BUILDING

CREDIBILITY

Your ability to establish constructive communication

will be determined, in large part, by whether your

audiences perceive you to be trustworthy and

believable. Consider how they form their judgments

and perceptions. Key factors in assessing trust and

credibility are: empathy and caring; competence

and expertise; honesty and openness; and dedication

and commitment. (Covello, 1992; Covello, 1993).

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls

Photo by FEMA
26

Five Rules for Building Trust and Credibility:

(Covello and Allen, 1988)

1. Accept and involve the public as a partner.

Work with and for the public to inform, dispel

misinformation and, to every degree possible,

allay fears and concerns.

2. Appreciate the public’s specific concerns.

Statistics and probabilities don’t necessarily

answer all questions. Be sensitive to people’s

fears and worries on a human level. Your

position does not preclude your acknowledging the sadness of an illness, injury, or death.

Do not overstate or dwell on tragedy, but do

empathize with the public and provide

answers that respect their humanity.

3. Be honest and open. Once lost, trust and

credibility are almost impossible to regain.

Never mislead the public by lying or failing to

provide information that is important to their

understanding of issues.

4. Work with other credible sources. Conflicts

and disagreements among organizations and

credible spokespersons create confusion and

breed distrust. Coordinate your information

and communications efforts with those of

other legitimate parties.

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls
27

3. BUILDING SUPPORT

Unless you are assured that the subject to be discussed will be tightly confined to your area of

expertise, it is usually not best to serve as the sole

spokesperson on an issue. Crisis situations have

multiple facets and raise a range of questions.

Having people on hand who can answer those

questions facilitates and speeds the communications

process and better ensures that informational voids

don’t develop. Identify those colleagues and other

officials and experts who can speak to the issues

that are most likely to be raised and rely on their

help when it’s needed. (It is likely that most of the

individuals on your risk communications team will

also be those on whom you rely for spokesperson

support.)

Caution! Make sure goals and messages are

understood and coordinated among participants.

5. Meet the needs of the media. Never refuse to

work with the media. The media’s role is to

inform the public, which will be done with or

without your assistance. Work with the media

to ensure that the information they are providing the public is as accurate and enlightening

as possible.

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls
28

Conflicting information, particularly when it comes

from equally trusted sources, creates confusion and

erodes confidence. Know what other spokespersons

intend to say and support their messages.

If something that you don’t agree with is said, or if

wrong information is presented, do not publicly

contradict the statement or disagree with the spokesperson. Resolve the matter in private and present the

new information to the public as a simple correction

or clarification of a previous statement and not as

one opinion having prevailed over another.

PROBLEM: At a news conference, the city

manager has just cited a statistic that

understates the extent of a problem.

SOLUTION: Immediately after the news

conference raise the issue with the city

manager in private. Then allow the city

manager to provide the new information to

the press along with an explanation of

how the mistake was made.

4. AVOIDING PITFALLS

ABSTRACTIONS – Use examples, stories, and analogies to make your point.

Don’t assume there is a common understanding

between you and your audience (even when you

are using stories and analogies to make your

point).

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls
29

ATTACKS – Respond to issues, not to people. Strive

to end debates, not further them.

Don’t respond to an attack with an attack of your

own.

ATTITUDE/NON-VERBAL MESSAGES – Remain calm,

attentive and polite. Adopt a relaxed, neutral

physical stance.

Don’t let your feelings interfere with your ability to

communicate positively. Never convey disgust,

frustration, indifference, or smugness. Never lose

your temper. Don’t allow your body language,

your position in the room, or your dress to affect

your message.

BLAME – Accept your share of responsibility for a

problem.

Don’t try to shift blame or responsibility to others

and don’t magnify the fault to be found in others

in order to deflect criticism or minimize your

culpability.

COSTS – Focus on the benefits to be derived, not on

the costs entailed. If costs are an issue, voice respect

for the need for responsible stewardship of public

funds.

Don’t discuss issues in terms of their dollar value,

or complain about a lack of funds.

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls
30

GUARANTEES – It is better to offer a likelihood,

emphasizing progress and on-going efforts.

Don’t make comments like, “There are no guarantees in life.”

HUMOR – Avoid it. If used, direct it at yourself.

Don’t use it in relation to safety, or health, or in

describing risk.

JARGON – Define all technical terms and acronyms.

Don’t use language that may not be understood

by even a portion of your audience.

LENGTH OF PRESENTATIONS – Plan, practice and

deliver a cogent 15-minute presentation.

Don’t believe that what you are saying is inherently more interesting than other topics and

therefore warrants more time. By the same token,

don’t end your remarks after 15 minutes if there

are important audience questions in need of

answering.

NEGATIVE ALLEGATIONS – Refute allegations succinctly.

Don’t repeat allegations or refer to them in ways

that give them credibility.

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls
31

NEGATIVE WORDS AND PHRASES – Use positive or

neutral terms.

Don’t cite national problems, or make highlycharged analogies, e.g., “This is not Love Canal.”

“OFF THE RECORD” – Always assume everything

you say and do is part of the public record.

Don’t make side comments or “confidential”

remarks. (The rule is: Never say anything that you

are not willing to see printed on the front page of

a newspaper.)

PERSONAL IDENTITY – Speak for the organization.

Use the pronoun “we.”

Don’t give the impression that you, alone, are the

authority on the issues being raised or the sole

decision-maker. Never disagree with the organization you are representing, e.g., “Personally, I

don’t agree,” or “Speaking for myself . . .,” or “If

it were me . . . .”

PROMISES – It is better to state your willingness to

try. Promise only what you can deliver.

Don’t make promises you can’t keep and never

make a promise on behalf of someone else.

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls
32

RELIANCE ON WORDS ALONE – Use visuals and

hand-outs to emphasize key points.

Don’t rely entirely on the spoken word to explain

your point.

SPECULATION – Stick to the facts of what has, is,

and will be done.

Don’t speculate on what could be done, or on

what might happen, or on possible outcomes

other than the intended one(s), or about worst

case scenarios.

STATISTICS – Use them to illuminate larger points and

to emphasize trends and achievements.

Don’t make them the focus of your remarks, or

overuse them.

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls
33

TECHNICAL DETAILS AND DATA – Focus on empathy,

efforts and results.

Don’t try to fully inform and educate audiences on

the minutia of issues.

5. MANAGING HOSTILE SITUTATIONS

Issues of health and safety can arouse strong emotions, including anger and hostility. Dealing ineffectively with hostility can erode trust and credibility.

Remember, though, public hostility is usually directed

at you as a representative of an organization, not

you as an individual, so don’t take it personally.

DIFFUSING ANGER AND HOSTILITY

Acknowledge the existence of hostility. The worst

thing you can do is pretend it’s not there.

Practice self-management. Send the message that

you are in control.

Control your apprehension. Anxiety undercuts

confidence, concentration, and momentum.

Be prepared. Practice your presentation and

anticipated questions and answers.

Listen. Recognize people’s frustrations—communicate empathy and caring.

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls
34

Assume a listening posture. Use eye contact.

Answer questions thoughtfully. Turn negatives into

positives and bridge back to your messages.

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls
35

VI.

The media are a primary means for communicating with the public. Forming positive relationships

with journalists is crucial to your communications

success.

1. THE MEDIA PERSPECTIVE – FACTS

As a matter of ethics, journalists will not allow

“news” to be defined for them. The advantage of

this is clear: neither government, nor business, nor

anyone can control the news for their own purposes.

The disadvantage, however, is that there are no

absolutes in what constitutes news and issues that are

important to some, or many, may never be addressed

by the media because they fail to meet what is,

essentially, an indefinable standard for attention.

Journalists strive to answer six key questions in their

stories: who, when, where, what, how, and why. All

the information they gather somehow informs,

explains, or elaborates on those six issues and often

raises doubts or breeds confusion when the facts of a

news story are juxtaposed, e.g., “Government sources

said there was no immediate danger; however, local

hospitals have instituted emergency measures.”

UNDERSTANDING

AND WORKING

WITH THE MEDIA
36

The facts of a story also become somewhat relative

when, in upholding the principle of fairness, journalists balance one set of facts with other facts or

opinions, e.g., “Government sources said there was

no immediate danger, but one expert disagreed.”

Although presented in an effort to further illuminate

the subject and present the reader with perspectives

that help provide a truer picture of the whole story, it

poses a relativism that can lead to public confusion

and mistrust.

All of these imponderables of reporting and news

coverage make communicating with and through the

news media an imprecise endeavor. What you say

may not be what is determined to be news. How you

say it may lead to confused and confusing reports

and misinterpretations. Whatever you say is likely to

be balanced against opinions that are different than

yours.

Understanding and Working With the Media

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37

GUIDANCE ON DEALING WITH FACTS AND

INFORMATION

Be sure of your facts.

Be able to cite sources and key statistics, making

sure they add meaningful support to your message (this could be three key statistics or thirty,

but be careful not to overwhelm your message

with statistics).

Have information available in fact sheets and

other concise informational documents specifically prepared for the media’s use.

Familiarize yourself with information and opinions that are contrary to your points and positions and be able to answer the questions they

raise.

2. SPACE AND TIME

Space and time place critical demands and limitations on a journalist’s work. First is the need just to

fill space and time. A newspaper has never failed to

publish or a newscast failed to air because there

was no news on a given day. The news business

demands that every day there be enough news to fill

a certain number of pages or minutes, and that

demand is always met no matter the relative importance of the news to be covered on a “slow news

Understanding and Working With the Media
38

day.” This demand makes for a great deal of

reporting on issues and individuals that may seem

trivial.

This is often the case with stories that dominate the

news over a period of time. The need for continuing

coverage of a major story usually leads to coverage

of aspects of the story that are less important but still

may be of interest to the public; e.g., profiles of

individuals involved in the story, different reactions

to the story, etc. The more you can provide the

media with substantive information that allows for

substantive reporting, the less the chance that

reporting will stray into less important areas.

Parallel to the media’s challenge of having to fill

space, television and radio news face the problem

of having too little time for available news. Competition for time with advertisers and the standard

broadcast features of sports and weather means that

the very longest stories will only be a few minutes in

duration and the shortest as brief as 20 seconds.

While newspapers don’t suffer such extreme limitations, they, too, find space a finite resource and will

frequently cut stories to fit the size of the day’s “news

hole” (the space left to fill in a newspaper after

advertising and standard news and entertainment

features are laid out).

Effective communication comes not in fighting these

limitations, but in adapting to them. If the time that is

given you is limited—as it most certainly will be with

television or radio—make sure that your primary

Understanding and Working With the Media
39

message gets delivered within the time allotted. If

you are given more time to expound and expand on

your message—as you might be in a newspaper

interview—use it, but do not abuse it by overexplaining your points or straying into areas of

comment that do not add to a better understanding

of the topic.

GUIDANCE ON WORKING WITHIN SPACE

AND TIME CONSTRAINTS

Know your communications goals and supporting

messages (see Chapter III, Communications

Fundamentals).

Arrange them in a hierarchy of importance and

develop brief (20-30 second) statements that

explain each one.

Practice delivering your statements in front of a

mirror.

Closely observe how others are quoted by the

media, particularly in radio and television

“sound bites.” Refine your statements so that your

messages can be delivered via such brief quotes.

Understanding and Working With the Media
40

3. WORKING WITH REPORTERS AND

AVOIDING PROBLEMS

What many people see as journalists’ antagonistic

attitudes toward public officials is often simply part

of the basic conflict that exists between someone

who has information and someone who wants it. A

reporter’s job is to gain as much pertinent information as possible to answer the six key questions

entailed in every news story. It’s a job that demands

skepticism and requires that few statements be taken

at face value. Be patient, open, and honest in

fielding questions, no matter how hostile they may

seem. If you run into a conflict with the media, keep

it in perspective and don’t take it personally.

Be sensitive to the full context of reporters’ questions.

Are they confused by the information you’re giving

them, or have they gotten it wrong? Do they seem

Understanding and Working With the Media

Photo by FEMA
41

overly skeptical, frustrated, or even angry? If so, do

not shrug it off. Journalists’ emotions affect their

reporting. It’s your responsibility to remain patient

and work with them to overcome those negatives. (It

helps to remember that most reporters are generalists

who are constantly learning as they go.)

Reporters are not your enemies, but neither are

they your friends. They owe you nothing and you

should not expect any more from them than

fairness and courtesy.

Under no circumstances allow professional

disagreements to turn into personal arguments.

Don’t hold grudges.

The adage is: Never say anything today that you don’t

want to see on the front page of The New York Times

tomorrow. If you say to a reporter, “Well, between you

and me, the guy is an idiot,” you should expect to see

it in a story . . . and you won’t look good. If you call

the reporter to complain, you should expect to see your

complaint in a follow-up story. . . and you still won’t

look good. If you get angry and stop talking to the

reporter, you can expect to see that, too, reflected in

a story . . . and you’ll look even worse.

GUIDANCE FOR INTERVIEW SITUATIONS

Consider yourself the reporter’s guest.

Be courteous and patient when answering (and

re-answering) questions.

Understanding and Working With the Media
42

Adopt the attitude of assisting the reporter in

doing his or her job.

If you tell a reporter you’ll get back to him or her,

do it!

Never be too casual in your conversation.

Remember, whatever you say could end up in a

news story (even if you think it’s off the record). If

you make an ill-considered comment, and it ends

up in the newspaper, it is not the reporter’s fault.

It’s yours.

4. USING THE INTERVIEW TO ITS

FULLEST ADVANTAGE

LISTEN to the question being asked, THINK about

your answer, and always try to deliver and redeliver your message(s).

Discuss what you know, not what you think.

Do not express personal opinions. If you are

compelled to violate this dictate, make certain

that you are very clear in distinguishing opinions

from official positions and policies.

Don’t speculate or try to respond to questions to

which you don’t know the answer.

Don’t show off. This is not the time to display an

impressive vocabulary or present the full extent of

Understanding and Working With the Media
43

your intellect and knowledge. Talk as you might

to your neighbor.

Do not worry about looking stupid. If you are

confused by a question, say so. If you say

something that’s wrong, or misstate a fact, don’t

defend it, admit your error.

Don’t engage in off-the-record discussions.

As a matter of normal conversation, we always

speculate, hypothesize, and offer opinions. But an

interview is not a normal conversation. Be careful of

what you say. And don’t start thinking that just

because a reporter happens to be asking you

questions, your opinions are worth more than the

messages you’re supposed to be delivering.

Understanding and Working With the Media

Photo by FEMA
44

5. RULES OF THE ROAD

Do not lie to a reporter or lead a reporter to

incorrect conclusions. If there is information that

you cannot share, say so.

Never embarrass a reporter.

Do not argue with a reporter.

Never take it personally.

The adage is: Never argue with someone who buys

ink by the barrel and paper by the ton. Reporters get

paid to report the news as they find and interpret it.

They will always have the last word on a subject,

always . . . always.

6. PLANNING AND PREPARATION

Much of the success of effective risk communications

is predicated on the amount of work that goes into

planning and preparing for a crisis event. What

information needs to be in place, who makes

decisions, who gives orders, and who follows them?

What are the procedures for carrying out response

initiatives? A crisis is not the time to begin thinking

about these questions. In fact, it’s the worst time to

do so.

Risk communication efforts should receive the same

preparation as any other possible emergency. Lists

Understanding and Working With the Media
45

of contacts with addresses and phone numbers

should be drawn up (and updated regularly) and

fact sheets and background materials should be

prepared. The tools and information needed to

communicate fully and effectively when a crisis

erupts have to be readily accessible. And, most

importantly, an agreed-to protocol for action must be

in place.

GUIDANCE FOR PLANNING AND

PREPARATION

Form a risk communications team.

Designate a team leader and assign responsibilities to team members.

Develop a risk communications protocol.

– Who decides when a crisis exists, what are

each team member’s responsibilities?

– Who speaks to the media/public on what

subjects and at whose direction?

Develop and maintain lists.

– Primary contacts/experts for key offices and

issue areas.

– Secondary contacts/experts for key offices and

issue areas.

– Media lists. (A media list is a list of print,

broadcast, and electronic media that will allow

your communications team to identify every

possible national, regional, and local outlet

Understanding and Working With the Media
46

and analyze its potential value for reaching

your target audiences.)

Consider logistics.

– Where would a press briefing be held? Is it

easily accessible? Is the room large enough?

Will it accommodate media needs for sound

quality and sufficient power? Will speakers

need chairs, tables, or podiums?

Identify information needs and develop appropriate fact sheets and background materials.

Hundreds of questions—some good, some trivial,

some odd—emerge when a news story is breaking.

The more questions that can be anticipated and

answered

ahead of time

in a fact sheet

the better. This

is especially

true for

information

regarding high

visibility public

health issues

such as might

occur in a bioterrorist event. Readily available

information on these issues will help keep misinformation to a minimum.

Understanding and Working With the Media
47

7. BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER AN

INTERVIEW: DO’S AND DON’TS

(Donovan and Covello, 1989)

BEFORE

Do

✦ Ask who will be conducting the interview.

✦ Ask which subjects they want to cover.

✦ Caution the interviewer on the limits of your

knowledge.

✦ Inquire about the format and duration.

✦ Ask who else will be interviewed.

✦ Suggest other interviewees.

✦ Prepare and practice.

Don’t

✦ allow yourself to be interviewed on a topic

outside of your expertise.

✦ tell the news organization which reporter you

prefer. (You don’t run the newspaper and you

don’t get to dictate who gets assigned what

stories.)

Understanding and Working With the Media
48

✦ request that specific questions be asked.

✦ declare certain subjects out of bounds for

discussion. (By declaring that you won’t discuss

certain things you only invite interest in those

things and appear to have something to hide,

which makes the subject even more interesting.)

✦ ask that your remarks not be edited or that you

be allowed to review an article before it is

published. (It is an insult to the ability and

integrity of the reporter and the editor; again,

you don’t run the newspaper.)

✦ try to dictate who should and should not be

interviewed.

✦ be overconfident or become overly familiar or

comfortable with your interviewer.

DURING

Do

✦ Be honest and accurate.

✦ Deliver and re-deliver your key message(s).

✦ State your conclusions first, then provide

supporting data.

✦ Be forthcoming to the extent you decide beforehand.

✦ Offer to get information you don’t have.

Understanding and Working With the Media
49

✦ Stress the facts.

✦ Give a reason if you can’t discuss a subject.

✦ Correct mistakes by stating you would like an

opportunity to clarify.

✦ Assume that microphones and recording

equipment are turned on.

Don’t

✦ lie or try to cloud the truth.

✦ improvise or dwell on negative allegations.

✦ raise issues you don’t want to see in the story.

✦ answer

questions off

the top of your

head.

✦ speculate,

guess, assume

or hypothesize.

✦ speak for

others.

✦ say “no

comment.”

✦ be led into

other areas of discussion.

Understanding and Working With the Media
50

✦ demand that an answer you have given not be

used. If you say it, you have to live with it. You

can ask that it not be used and explain why you

would prefer that it not be used, but you can’t

demand anything . . . and if the reporter

chooses to use it, there’s little you can do.

AFTER

Do

✦ Remember you are still on the record.

✦ Be helpful. Volunteer to get information. Be

available.

✦ Respect deadlines and deliver whatever additional information you said you would deliver.

✦ Follow-up to see if any additional questions

have emerged.

✦ Watch for and read the resulting report.

✦ Ignore minor reporting errors that don’t affect

the point of the story.

✦ Call the reporter to politely point out if there are

inaccuracies that do effect the point of the story.

Don’t

✦ assume an interview is over or that recording

equipment is turned off.

Understanding and Working With the Media
51

✦ refuse to talk further.

✦ ask, “How did I do?”

✦ ask to review the story before publication or

broadcast.

✦ complain to the reporter’s boss first.

AND IN A CRISIS . . .

Do

✦ Plan now.

✦ Respond quickly—the first 24 hours are critical.

✦ Respond straightforwardly.

✦ Be accurate.

Understanding and Working With the Media
52

✦ Strive to reassure as well as alert and inform

your audience.

Don’t

✦ assume “it will never happen here.”

✦ allow your issues to be defined by someone

else.

✦ think that refusing to discuss a story will allay

public concerns or prevent people from seeking, and finding, information—accurate or

not—elsewhere.

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53

VII.

I

f substantive inaccuracies (i.e., inaccuracies that

have the potential to further a crisis or problem)

occur, you should move very quickly to correct them.

Remember—the longer misinformation remains

viable in the information environment, the more

difficult it becomes to correct.

HOW TO RESPOND TO SUBSTANTIVE

INACCURACIES AND RUMORS:

Move quickly to correct them.

CORRECTING

ERRORS AND

RUMOR CONTROL

Keep the level of your response appropriate to

the level of the problem.

– Overreacting to an isolated mistake will only

attract attention to the very problem you are
54

trying to correct. (A single yet important error

of fact in a newspaper article would probably

be best dealt with by a polite call to the

reporter who made the error.)

– Underreacting to widely reported information

that is not correct will only allow for a compounding of the error. (In this case a public

statement or even a news conference might be

most in order.)

If a damaging rumor is confined to a small

audience, correct it within that group, don’t

create a major public event.

If a damaging rumor is widely known and

spreading—making it difficult for you to reach

your communications goals—you should move

aggressively and very publicly to correct it.

When squelching a rumor, try to anticipate how

the rumor might evolve in response to your efforts

and be as thorough as you can in closing off

possible avenues of future, similar rumors.

For example, if the rumor is that, “The police are

planning to evacuate the downtown area,” your

response should be clear and unequivocal: “There

are NO plans to evacuate any section of the city,”

so that the details of the rumor can’t change into

something like—“The National Guard is planning to

evacuate the city.”

Correcting Errors and Rumor Control
55

Be careful, too, that your comments don’t leave the

wrong impression and are not open to interpretation. In the above example, for instance, care should

be taken to ensure that the statement does not

generate the headline, “Officials Concede City

Lacks Evacuation Plan.” Such a headline could be

avoided by adding a statement that further dispels

the rumor by clarifying the evacuation issue. For

example, “There are no plans to evacuate any

section of the city. We have a long-standing emergency preparedness plan in place, and if it were to

be activated, the public would be given notice

immediately by the Mayor.”

Correcting Errors and Rumor Control

57

VIII. ASSESSING

PERSONAL

STRENGTHS AND

WEAKNESSES

I

ndividual styles and talents affect communications

performance; and while thought and preparation

will improve the

presentation skills

of everyone, they

will not correct all

deficiencies.

Assess your

strengths and

weaknesses.

If you tend to

an academic

presentation

style, work to

present information in more human terms.

– If you would be more prone to say: “As you’ll

see by the data, the incidence of occurrence

of this particular event is, statistically speaking,

relatively low and tends to remain isolated

particularly when compared to similar events

noted in the appendix of the document provided you.”

– Try saying something along the lines of: “The

data show that these kinds of events are rare.

Photo by FEMA
58

They usually affect few groups of people, and

don’t recur.”

If you have a rhetorical style, work to include

substantive supporting data in your presentation.

– If you would be more prone to say: “Our

challenge is to address these issues on a

human scale that recognizes and strives to

preserve an individual’s health and quality of

life.”

– Try saying something along the lines of: “We

want to deal with the quality of life issues

involved here. Based on the research, that

means getting people checked, identifying

those affected, which will be approximately

one in a million people, and getting them

treatment. The statistics show that if we can do

that, we’ll keep xx percent of people well, and

effectively treat xx percent of those few who do

become ill.”

This is not an attempt to achieve a personal makeover. Don’t try to become a great orator or a

professorial lecturer. Simply think about how you

present information, or ask someone you know well

how they think you present information, and see if

you can identify ways to improve your style. But

don’t become so self-conscious of how you present

information that it interferes with delivering your

messages.

If you are uncomfortable in a large group or

news conference setting, try to arrange for

Assessing Personal Strengths and Weaknesses
59

smaller interview sessions (although take care to

provide the same information to each reporter).

If you are uncomfortable with one-on-one interviews, include a colleague or staff member in the

interview whose strengths will make up for your

weaknesses.

Assessing Personal Strengths and Weaknesses

61

IX.

What you do and how you do it will affect youraudiences’ perceptions of you, your organization, and the information you are providing.

Prepare and present effectively.

1. BEFORE THE MEETING

KNOW YOUR

AUDIENCE(S)

Who are they,

where are they

from?

What are their

interests and

concerns?

What are their

likely perceptions and

biases?

Will they be

receptive or

resistant or even hostile?

PRESENTING

INFORMATION AT

PUBLIC MEETINGS

Photo by FEMA
62

If you don’t know the answers to these questions,

find out.

PREPARE YOUR PRESENTATION

Develop a strong introduction.

Develop a maximum of three key messages.

Assemble your supporting data.

Prepare audiovisual aids.

Prepare for answering questions.

Practice.

2. THE OPENING PRESENTATION

A strong opening presentation sets a tone for the

meeting and is crucial in attempting to establish trust

and build credibility. Its elements include the following:

A. INTRODUCTION

A statement of personal concern

A statement of organizational commitment and

intent

A statement of purpose and a plan for the

meeting

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
63

B. KEY MESSAGES

A maximum of three take-home points

Information to support the key messages

C. CONCLUSION

A summarizing statement

INTRODUCTION

Remember that perceived empathy is a vital factor in

establishing trust and building credibility and it is

assessed by your

audience in the

first 30 seconds.

Include the following in your

introduction:

Statement of

personal concern,

e.g., “I can see

by the number of people here tonight that you are as

concerned about this issue as I am.”

Statement of organizational intent, e.g., “I am

committed to protecting the health and safety of the

public. The Mayor and his staff have been involved

with this community for a long time and want to

work with the community on this issue.”

Presenting Information at Public Meetings

Photo by FEMA
64

Statement of purpose and plan for the meeting. For

example, “Tonight, we would like to share with you

the findings of the report for approximately 15

minutes, then we would like to open the floor for

discussion, questions, and concerns. We will be

available after the meeting to answer any additional

questions you might have.”

KEY MESSAGES AND SUPPORTING DATA

The key messages are points you want your public to

have in mind after the meeting. They should address

central issues, and be short and concise, e.g., “We

have performed extensive tests over the past week

which have failed to find any evidence that X

remains in the building. It is now safe to return

there.”

To develop your key messages:

✦ BRAINSTORM. Think freely and jot down all

pieces of information you wish to communicate.

✦ SELECT KEY MESSAGES. Identify the most important ideas. Repeat the process until your list is

down to three items.

✦ IDENTIFY SUPPORTING DATA. Review your brainstorming ideas and background materials for

information that provides support to your key

messages.

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
65

CONCLUSION

Restate verbatim your key messages.

Add a future action statement: What is your organization going to do about this problem in the short

term? Long term?

3. PRESENTATION AIDS AND

GUIDELINES

Audiovisual aids can make your messages easier to

understand. People are more likely to remember a

point if they have a visual association with the

words. More guidance in preparing quality presentations can be found in the book “Loud and Clear:

How to Prepare and Deliver Effective Business and

Technical Presentations” (Morrisey, et al., 1997).

Some aids to consider: charts, illustrations, diagrams, glossaries, maps, posters, photographs,

video/motion pictures, Microsoft PowerPoint (or

equivalent) presentations, lists, fact sheets.

Effective visual aids:

Are able to stand alone.

Illustrate a key concept.

Support only one major idea.

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
66

Use pictures or graphics rather than words

whenever possible.

Conform to six words per line maximum, ten

lines per visual maximum.

Feature short phrases or key words.

Highlight important points with color or contrast.

Represent facts accurately.

Are carefully made—neat, clear, and uncluttered.

Have impact.

4. PRESENTATION REMINDERS

If you use presentation aids be careful not to overdo

it. When planning, practicing, and conducting a

presentation, consider:

ATTIRE/GROOMING – Dress as your audience would

expect you to at your place of work or perhaps

slightly less formally.

DISTRACTIONS – Avoid repetitive gestures such as

constant throat-clearing, checking your watch,

jingling keys or change, and pacing. Take a breath

and relax.

ENUNCIATION/PRONUNCIATION – Speak distinctly

and correctly. Be careful with unfamiliar words. Spell

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
67

and define terms as appropriate, but don’t be

pedantic.

FACIAL EXPRESSIONS/EYE CONTACT – Eye contact is

most crucial. Your mouth, eyes, forehead, and

eyebrows also communicate. Try not to fidget,

glance around or lick your lips.

GESTURES – Gestures can enhance or detract from

your communication. Be aware of yours and make

sure they are appropriate, but don’t be so worried

about not using your hands that you make a poor

presentation.

PACE/RHYTHM/PITCH – Vary your tempo. Speak

slowly to emphasize key messages, pause for

emphasis, vary your voice pattern and length of

phrases. Avoid repeating such words as “ok,” “like,”

“not,” “uh,” and “you know.”

POSTURE – Posture communicates attitude. Try to

have a straight stance with legs slightly apart. Don’t

slouch, but don’t be rigid.

VOLUME – The intensity of your voice reflects your

confidence, competence, and openness. Watch your

audience for feedback. Adjust to your surroundings.

Don’t make your audience strain to hear you but

don’t shout at them either.

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
68

5. ANSWERING QUESTIONS

As with presentations, your responses to individuals’

questions and concerns will affect your success.

Prepare and practice. Consider how to answer

questions in general and how to respond to specific

inquiries.

Be Prepared.

If you know your subject and your audience, most

questions can be anticipated.

Track Your Key Messages.

Use your responses as opportunities to reemphasize

your key messages.

Keep Your Answers Shor t and Focused.

Your answer should be less than 2 minutes long.

Practice Self-Management. Listen.

Be confident and factual. Control your emotions.

Speak and Act with Integrity.

Tell the truth. If you don’t know, say so. Follow up as

promised. If you are unsure of a question, repeat or

paraphrase it to be certain of the meaning.

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
69

6. SAMPLE QUESTIONS

The following questions illustrate what you may

encounter, along with suggested key messages and

tips for responding to them. For a discussion of

different types of tough questions, consult “Encountering the Media: Media Strategies & Techniques”

(McLoughlin, 1998).

Q. As a representative of the county, can

you explain why the county does not

have a program to distribute medicines

during this crisis?

Key Message: We do have a policy to distribute

recommended treatments in concert with State

and Federal authorities. In fact, we ....

Presenting Information at Public Meetings

Photo by FEMA
70

State in a positive manner that you do not agree

with the questioner’s statement. Do not try to

ignore it. Be polite, but firm.

Do not repeat the negative words. Refute without

repeating allegations. Take the opportunity to

restate your position or message.

Q. You’ve told us about the city’s position

on citizens not taking antibiotics at this

time, but are you taking antibiotics?

Key Message: No, I am not taking antibiotics at

this time. I’m also concerned about the seriousness of this situation—not only as an agency

representative, but also as a fellow citizen. We

remain in close contact with medical and public

health experts regarding the use of antibiotics.

Be prepared for personal questions. If you do

not agree with the agency’s position, you should

not act as a spokesperson.

Q. You have stated some conditions under

which you would impose quarantine in

the town. Does the Federal Government

agree with those plans?

Key Message: We follow Federal guidelines and

remain in close contact with Federal authorities

on all questions related to quarantine.

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
71

Refer questions to the appropriate person or

organization. Speak only to what you know and

on behalf of the organization you represent.

Q. Do you know the exact figure on how

much money is being spent on this

problem?

Key Message: I don’t know the exact figure. But if

you will give me your name and number, I will

get that information for you by ....

Say you don’t know. Offer to get the information

by a specified time. Don’t lie or make up an

answer. If you promise to get the information,

follow up.

Q. We’ve heard that your agency and State

regulators have made a deal to provide

antibiotics to government staff and their

family before other citizens. How can

you justify this policy?

Key Message: We have a plan for providing

treatment to all citizens equally and fairly, based

on need. Our goal is to fully protect the safety

and health of the community and to do so in

compliance with all applicable Federal and

State laws and regulations.

Don’t justify or refute a non-existent plan or

policy. Respond with a straightforward statement

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
72

that accurately reflects policy and conveys your

office’s commitment to meet the needs of everyone in the community.

Q. What are your qualifications to respond

to this emergency?

Key Message: I have several years’ experience in

managing emergency programs, and I have a

team of professionals working with me to ensure

that all aspects of the program are carried out

with quality.

Don’t respond with hostility or emotion. Remove

emotional words.

Q. It must be extraordinarily difficult to

manage all of the problems that have

arisen since the outbreak of the epidemic.

Key Message: My training and experience

prepare me to deal with public health and safety

problems and I am here to do the best job I can

for the community.

Don’t buy into the sympathetic approach. You

may ruin your credibility by agreeing. In one-onone interviews don’t allow yourself to be lulled

into casual conversations that might reveal

information that you would prefer be kept

confidential.

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
73

Q. In reference to the possible contamination of City Reservoir, why haven’t you

made a greater effort to ensure the

safety of the drinking water?

Key Message: Efforts are being made and we are

ensuring the safety of the drinking water.

Be polite but firm. Return to your message.

Repeat your statements. Be careful not to repeat

negative phrases such as, “contamination of City

Reservoir.”

Q. What is the worst-case scenario?

Key Message: I would not want to speculate. We

are working hard to ensure the health and safety

of this community. The plans we are making take

into account the number of people that may be

involved, the supply of antibiotics ....

Don’t speculate. Do everything you can to avoid

speculation. If you must, be very, very clear that

what you are saying is merely speculation.

Q. We have heard a rumor that the bacteria involved are genetically engineered.

Key Message: This is the first time I’ve heard this

rumor. The information I have seen does not

indicate that there has been genetic engineering

of the organism that has been identified.

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
74

Put a stop to the rumor, let the public know what

you know.

Q. What would you recommend that your

boss do to address the concerns of the

public on these problems?

Key Message: I believe my boss is doing everything he/she can to effectively deal with these

issues.

Don’t give this kind of advice when talking to the

public or media.

Presenting Information at Public Meetings
75

X.

The discussion of issues surrounding a news eventis not confined to official sources or to a single

forum. News, comment, analysis, and opinion from

innumerable voices enter the information environment by way of newspapers (as news, editorials,

opinion articles, letters to the editor), television and

radio (as news, in special reports, and through talk

shows), and dozens of other sources such as

speeches, newsletters, and web sites.

The appearance of information that is related to

your issues of concern is an opportunity for you to

lend your voice to that particular discussion. Look for

ways to insert yourself into the debate surrounding

RECOGNIZING

OPPORTUNITIES

TO SPEAK OUT

Photo by FEMA
76

your issues and don’t be shy about availing yourself

of those opportunities. A newspaper article might

give you the chance to author an opinion article or

a letter to the editor that would further address the

issue. Speaking before a local civic group is another

means of delivering your message. And appearing

on local talk radio programs is an excellent way to

extend the reach and impact of your messages.

WHAT YOU CAN DO:

Submit letters to the editors of local newspapers.

Contact your local newspaper to find out how to

submit an opinion article.

Call in to local talk radio programs when pertinent topics are being discussed.

Contact local talk-radio producers to solicit an

invitation to appear on their programs.

Contact local civic groups to solicit speaking

opportunities.

If you give a speech, contact local news outlets

and ask them to cover your presentation.

Contact local television news producers to

explore ways they can cover your issues.

Recognizing Oppor tunities to Speak Out
77

NEWS MEDIA

• Allan S, Adam B, and Carter C (editors).

Environmental Risks and the Media. London and

New York (NY): Routledge, December 1999,

ISBN 0415214467; 278 pages.

• Government and Other Agency Roles in Risk

Communication by Amler RW, Tinker T. National

risk communication training program for State

health agency personnel. Atlanta (GA): Agency

for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (US);

1993. Report No.: ATSDR/HS-93/22. 200 p.

Available from: NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB93-

192953.

• Peters GA and Peters BJ. Warnings, Instructions

and Technical Communication. Tucson (AZ):

Lawyers and Judges Publishing Company.

February 1999; ISBN 0913875619; 450 pages.

• Reporting on Risk: A Journalist’s Handbook on

Environmental Risk Assessment. Foundation for

American Communications and the National

Sea Grant College Program. http://www.

facsnet.org/report_tools/guides_primers/risk/

SUGGESTED

READINGS AND

RESOURCES

XI.
78

• Salvador M and Sias PM (editors). The Public

Voice in a Democracy at Risk. Highlands Ranch

(CO): Praeger Publishers. January 1998; ISBN

0275960137, 216 pages.

• Singer E and Endreny PM. Reporting on Risk:

How the Mass Media Portray Accidents, Diseases, Disasters, and Other Hazards. New York

(NY): Russell Sage Foundation. May 1993;

ISBN: 0871548011, 244 pages.

• Willis WJ, Okunade AA, and Willis J. Reporting

on Risks: The Practice and Ethics of Health and

Safety Communication. Highlands Ranch (CO):

Praeger Publishers. July 1997; ISBN:

0275952967, 240 pages.

BOOKS, REPORTS, AND JOURNAL ARTICLES

• Chess C, Salomone KL, Hance BJ. Improving risk

communication in government: research priorities. Risk Anal 1995 Apr;15(2):127-35.

• Chess C, Salomone KL, Sandman PM. Risk

communication activities of State health agencies. Am J Public Health 1991 Apr;81(4):489-

91.

• Covello VT, McCallum DB, Pavlova MT, (editors).

Effective risk communication: the role and

responsibility of government and non-government

organizations. New York (NY): Plenum; 1989.

366 pages.ISBN 0-306-43075-4.

Suggested Readings and Resources
79

• Fisher A, Chen YC. Customer perceptions of

agency risk communication. Risk Anal 1996

Apr;16(2):177-84.

• Fisher A, Chitose A, Gipson PS. One agency’s

use of risk assessment and risk communication.

Risk Anal 1994 Apr;14(2):207-12.

• Hance BJ. Improving dialogue with communities:

a risk communication manual for government.

Trenton (NJ): New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection; 1988.

• Interagency Task Force on Environmental Cancer

and Heart and Lung Disease. Workshop on the

Role of Government in Risk communication and

Public Education. Contemporary Issues in Risk

Analysis, Vol. 4, January 21-23, 1987, Washington, D.C.

• Santos SL, McCallum DB. Communicating to the

public: using risk comparisons. Hum Ecol Risk

Assess 1997 Dec;3(6):1197-214.

• SIS: Specialized Information Services [homepage

on the Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Library

of Medicine (US). Available from: http://

www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/index.cfm

• Sly T. The perception and communication of risk:

a guide for the local health agency. Can J Public

Health 2000 Mar-Apr;91(2):153-6.

Suggested Readings and Resources
80

• Tinker TL. Recommendations to improve risk

communication: lessons learned from the U.S.

Public Health Service. J Health Commun 1996

Apr-Jun;1(2):197-217.

• Tinker TL, Collins CM, King HS, Hoover MD.

Assessing risk communication effectiveness:

perspectives of agency practitioners. J Hazard

Mater 2000 Apr 3;73(2):117-27.

WEB SITES

• Center for Environmental Communication (CEC).

Cook College, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and the Edward J. Bloustein School

of Planning and Public Policy.

http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~cec/home.html

• Institute for Risk Analysis and Risk Communication (IRARC), http://depts.washington.edu/irarc/

• The Risk Communication Network, World Health

Organization Europe (WHO Europe), Centre for

Environmental and Risk Management. http://

www.uea.ac.uk/menu/acad_depts/env/all/

resgroup/cerm/rcninfo.htm

• Risk Communications and Services Center

(Canadian). http://www.rcandsc.com/

• Society for Risk Analysis. http://www.sra.org/

Suggested Readings and Resources
81

Bean, M.C. (1988). Speaking of risk. Civil Engineering (February): 59-61.

Bennett, P., Calman, K. (eds) (1999). Risk Communication and Public Health. New York: Oxford

Press.

Chess, C. (1989) Encouraging effective risk communication in government: suggestions for agency

management. In: Covello VT, McCallum DB and

Pavlova MT (Eds.). Effective Risk Communication.

New York: Plenum Press.

Chess, C., Hance, B.J., Sandman P.M. (1988).

Improving Dialogue with Communities: A Short

Guide to Government Risk Communication. New

Jersey Department of Environmental Protection.

Covello, V. (1992). Risk Communication, Trust, and

Credibility. Health and Environmental Digest, 6

(1):1-4 (April).

Covello, V. (1993). Risk Communication, Trust, and

Credibility. Journal of Occupational Medicine 35:

18-19 (January).

Covello, V., Allen F. (1988). Seven Cardinal Rules of

Risk Communication. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy Analysis, Washington, D.C.

XII. REFERENCES
82

Covello, V, MCCallum, D, Pavlova, M. (1989).

Effective Risk Communication: The Role and

Responsibility of Government and Nongovernment

Organizations. New York: Plenum Press.

Covello, V., Peters, R.G., Wojtecki, J.G., & Hyde,

R.C. (2001). Risk communication, the West Nile

virus epidemic, and bioterrorism: Responding to

the communication challenges posed by the

intentional or unintentional release of a pathogen

in an urban setting. Journal of Urban Health:

Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine,

78, 382-91.

Donovan, E., Covello, V. (1989). Risk Communication Student Manual. Chemical Manufacturers’

Association, Washington, D.C.

Fischhoff, B., Lichtenstein, S., Slovic, P., Keeney, D.

(1981). Acceptable Risk. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press.

Frewer, L.J. Public risk perceptions and risk communication. In: Bennett, P. & Calman, K. (Eds.) (1999).

Risk Communication and Public Health. London:

Oxford University Press.

Lum, M., Tinker T. (1994). A primer on health risk

communication principles and practices. U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services,

Environmental Health Policy Committee, Washington, D.C.

References
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References

Maxwell, R. (1999). The British government’s

handling of risk: Some reflections on the BSE/CJD

crisis. In Bennett, P & Calman, K. (Eds.) (1999),

Risk Communication and Public Health, (pp. 95-

107). London: Oxford University Press.

McLoughlin, B. (1998) Encountering the Media:

Media Strategies & Techniques (Communicate with

Power 2000 Series) Washington, D.C.:

MultiMedia Publishing.

Morrisey, G.L., Sechrest, T.L., Warman, W.B.

(1997). Loud and Clear: How to Prepare and

Deliver Effective Business and Technical Presentations (Fourth Edition). Cambridge, Massachusetts:

Perseus Publishing.

O’Toole, T. (2001). Emerging Illness and

Bioterrorism: Implications for public health. Journal

of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 78, 396-402.

Plough, A., Krimsky, S. (1988) Environmental

Hazards: Communicating Risks as a Social

Process. Westport, Connecticut: Auburn House.

Samet, J.M., Burke, T.A. (1998). Epidemiology and

risk assessment. In: Brownson RC, Petitti DB (Eds.):

Applied Epidemiology: Theory to Practice. New

York: Oxford.

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