F I L E D

United States Court of Appeals

Tenth Circuit

MAR 3 1998

PATRICK FISHER

Clerk

PUBLISH

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

TENTH CIRCUIT

FRANCIS D. BROWN; MICHAEL A.

OLSEN; and KIRK D. SMITH, Wyoming

residents, suing on behalf of themselves

and all other individuals similarly situated,

Plaintiffs-Appellants,

v.

ROYAL MACCABEES LIFE

INSURANCE COMPANY, a Michigan

Corporation, and a member of Royal

Insurance Group,

Defendant-Appellee.

No. 96-8119

APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE DISTRICT OF WYOMING

(D.C. No. 95-CV-45)

Glenn E. Smith, Glenn E. Smith & Associates, Cheyenne, Wyoming, for PlaintiffsAppellants.

Keith R. Verges (Mark T. Davenport, Figari & Davenport, L.L.P., Dallas, Texas; and

William M. McKellar and Peter K. Michael, Boley & McKellar, P.C., Cheyenne,

Wyoming, with him on the briefs), Figari & Davenport, L.L.P., Dallas, Texas, for

Defendant-Appellee.

Before PORFILIO, MCKAY, and LUCERO, Circuit Judges.
1The parties agreed to postpone certification pending resolution of the contract

issues discussed in this opinion.

- 2 -

PORFILIO, Circuit Judge.

Francis Brown, Michael Olsen, and Kirk Smith, named plaintiffs in an uncertified

class action,1 appeal a district court order granting summary judgment for defendant

Royal Maccabees Life Insurance Company (Maccabees). This appeal requires us to

answer the following question of state law: 

Under Wyoming law, is an illustration used to sell a universal life insurance

policy considered part of the insurance contract when the illustration and

the policy contain conflicting provisions and the insured party relied on the

illustration in entering the insurance contract? 

We must also determine whether, under Wyoming law, the provisions of a Maccabees

insurance policy control over the provisions contained in an illustration used to sell the

policy. Finally, given the undisputed facts presented here, we must determine whether,

under Wyoming law, Maccabees is estopped from asserting certain provisions of a

universal life insurance policy, based on plaintiffs’ alleged detrimental reliance on the

provisions of an illustration used to sell the policy. We ultimately conclude (1) an

illustration is not considered part of an insurance contract under Wyoming law simply

because the insured party relied on the illustration in entering the insurance contract and
2A universal life insurance policy explicitly separates death benefit and investment

functions. Premium payments on the policy therefore serve two purposes. The premiums

are applied first to the cost of maintaining the stated death benefit coverage. Any

remaining funds are applied to a separate account, constituting the “accumulated value”

of the policy, and the insured earns a yearly interest upon the funds in the accumulated

value portion of the policy. During the life of the policy, the insured may return the

policy to the insurer and obtain the accumulated value, less any surrender charges or other

fees for which the policy provides. See generally Eric M. Holmes & Mark S. Rhodes,

Holmes’s Appleman on Insurance § 1.25, at 128 (2d ed. 1996).

- 3 -

the policy and illustration contain conflicting provisions; (2) the provisions of the

Maccabees insurance policy control over the provisions of the illustration used to sell the

policy; and (3) Maccabees is not estopped from enforcing the provisions of the insurance

policy. We therefore affirm the district court’s order granting summary judgment for

Maccabees.

I. BACKGROUND

Maccabees sold a universal life insurance policy known as the Diplomat,2 which

required an initial premium payment of approximately $8,000 and provided a Specified

Benefit Amount of $1,000,000. The policy further provided “[a]ny decrease in the

Specified Benefit Amount during the first ten Policy Years or during the ten year period

after an increase will be subject to a pro-rata Surrender Charge.” According to the

policy’s terms, the Accumulated Value would increase on a periodic basis by the amount

of any additional premiums paid and by any periodic interest earned and decrease by the

periodic cost of maintaining the Specified Benefit Amount and by the amount of any

Surrender Charges which might be imposed. As with most universal life insurance
3The insurance agency, an authorized Maccabees agent, is not a party in this action. 

For purposes of this appeal, we have assumed plaintiffs’ allegations regarding the Agent’s

conduct are true. 

- 4 -

policies, the insured was entitled to surrender the policy in full at any time for the

Accumulated Value of the policy minus any Surrender Charges or other fees associated

with the surrender. The policy also permitted the insured to reduce the Specified Benefit

Amount, subject to a “pro-rata” Surrender Charge against the Accumulated Value of the

policy.

To assist its sales agents in illustrating the Diplomat’s performance, Maccabees

developed a computer program which could provide an individualized projection, based

on a potential buyer’s particular actuarial situation. The program generated a table

projecting the Accumulated Value, Surrender Value, and Death Benefit provided each

year by the policy under an assumed interest and a guaranteed interest. Although the

program correctly accounted for a Surrender Charge upon total surrender of the policy, it

contained a programming error and failed to reflect the pro-rata Surrender Charge upon

coverage reduction expressly described in the policy. 

A Wyoming insurance agency (the Agent) enlisted this programming flaw in its

sales efforts3 and generated policy projections and illustrations for its customers

representing an extremely favorable performance by the Diplomat policy. Because the

program did not levy a coverage reduction Surrender Charge against the policy’s

Accumulated Value, it was possible to create policy illustrations which reflected a
- 5 -

coverage reduction from $1,000,000 to $50,000 in the second year, a $50,000 death

benefit coverage for fourteen years thereafter, and an ultimate Surrender Value of

approximately $14,000 in the fifteenth year. If the program had imposed a Surrender

Charge in the manner which Maccabees contends the policy provides, the computergenerated illustrations would have reflected a complete depletion of Accumulated Value

upon the coverage reduction in the second year and a subsequent lapse in coverage absent

additional premium payments. 

The Agent used the favorable computer-generated illustrations to sell Diplomat

policies to each of the plaintiffs in this action. In addition, the Agent offered each

plaintiff a financing arrangement, under which the plaintiff would pay the initial

premium, the Agent would subsequently loan the plaintiff an amount equivalent to the

premium paid, and the plaintiff would correspondingly give the Agent a nonrecourse

note, securing the loan solely with the Diplomat policy. As the plaintiffs understood the

arrangement, if they reduced their coverage in the second year, as described in the

illustrations, no further premiums were required to maintain the $50,000 death benefit,

thus they could surrender the policy at the end of fifteen years, and obtain sufficient funds

to repay the Agent for the nonrecourse loan. The ultimate effect of the arrangement was

to give the plaintiffs $50,000 worth of life insurance for fifteen years, “free of charge,”

with no personal liability on the loan. One hundred and twenty people, the putative class

action plaintiffs in this case, purchased Diplomat policies from the Agent on these terms.
- 6 -

Each plaintiff completed applications for the Diplomat policy, which the Agent

forwarded to Maccabees. After the applications were approved, each plaintiff received a

copy of the policy containing a cover letter which stated “This Policy is a legal contract

between the Policy Owner and the Company . . . . READ YOUR POLICY

CAREFULLY.” The cover letter also informed each plaintiff he or she had a “TEN

DAY RIGHT TO EXAMINE POLICY” and return it if they were not satisfied. An

attached page entitled “SCHEDULE OF BENEFITS AND INITIAL MONTHLY

EXPENSE CHARGES” indicated the “FIRST YEAR SURRENDER CHARGE” would

be $20,350. Finally, the Policy contained an integration clause entitled “THE

CONTRACT,” which provided: 

This Policy, the attached application for this Policy, any attached riders, any

additional applications for increases in the Specified Benefit Amount, and

any Specification Endorsements make up the entire contract between the

parties. 

....

Any change or waiver of any provision of this Policy must be in writing and

signed by an officer of the Company.”

 

Plaintiffs admit they did not read their policies upon receipt and did not avail themselves

of the ten day examination period. 

A year later, plaintiffs, through the Agent, began to submit coverage reduction

requests to Maccabees (in accordance with the computer-generated illustrations). For the

first several reduction requests, the Agent told Maccabees the insured parties wished to

reduce their coverage because they had financial difficulties. Maccabees imposed a
- 7 -

nominal $100 Surrender Charge for the first ten reductions. However, upon recognizing

that an unusually high number of reduction requests were coming through the same

Agent, Maccabees began applying the full coverage reduction Surrender Charge pursuant

to the policy provisions, retroactively applying the charge to the initial ten reduction

requests as well. The Surrender Charges consumed the Accumulated Values in the

policies and, because no additional premiums were paid to maintain the death benefit

coverage, the policies lapsed. 

Plaintiffs brought a class action suit and agreed to submit the central contract

issues in the case to the district court prior to seeking certification. The district court

granted summary judgment for Maccabees, holding the illustrations were not part of the

contract between the plaintiffs and Maccabees and holding the use of illustrations to sell

the policies did not estop Maccabees from imposing the pro-rata Surrender Charges. 

Plaintiffs appeal this order.

II. DISCUSSION

A. Plaintiffs’ Claims On Appeal

We review a summary judgment order de novo, applying the same standard used

by the district court. Osgood v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 848 F.2d 141, 143 (10th

Cir. 1988). The parties agree there are no disputed issues of fact, therefore, we must

affirm the district court’s order if Maccabees is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. 

Fed. R. Civ. P. 56(c) (Summary judgment “shall be rendered [if the record shows] there is
- 8 -

no genuine issue as to any material fact and ... the moving party is entitled to a judgment

as a matter of law.”). Because this is a diversity action, the issues before us are governed

by Wyoming law, and we must apply Wyoming law or, if Wyoming law is silent, rule as

we believe the Wyoming Supreme Court would rule. Fields v. Farmers Ins. Co., 18 F.3d

831, 834 (10th Cir. 1994). We conclude Maccabees is entitled to judgment as a matter of

law and therefore affirm.

Plaintiffs allege they relied on Maccabees’ illustrations when they purchased the

life insurance policies and believed Maccabees would not impose a Surrender Charge if

they chose subsequently to reduce their Specified Benefit Amount. Plaintiffs argue

“insurers are bound by inaccurate or misleading policy illustrations, brochures,

pamphlets, advertising material, or other sales aids if they are relied upon by the insured

to purchase a policy of insurance, in spite of contrary language set forth in the policy.” 

Plaintiffs provide no Wyoming or Tenth Circuit precedent to support this claim; rather,

they cite over fifteen cases from other jurisdictions, each holding, on various grounds of

contract and estoppel, an insurer was bound by the provisions of promotional materials

used in the sale of an insurance policy. Vogel v. American Warranty Home Serv., 695

F.2d 877 (5th Cir. 1983) (applying Mississippi law); Leonard v. Cuna Mut. Ins. Co., 665

F. Supp. 759 (W.D. Mo. 1987) (applying Missouri law); Sparks v. Republic Nat’l Life

Ins. Co., 647 P.2d 1127 (Ariz. 1982); Providential Life Ins. Co. v. Clem, 403 S.W.2d 68

(Ark. 1966); Lawrence v. Providential Life Ins. Co., 385 S.W.2d 396 (Ark. 1965); Lewis
- 9 -

v. Continental Life & Accident Co., 461 P.2d 243 (Idaho 1969); Jensen v. USAA

Property & Cas. Ins. Co., 614 N.E.2d 1361 (Ill. App. Ct. 1993); Dobosz v. State Farm

Fire & Cas. Co., 458 N.E.2d 611 (Ill. App. Ct. 1983); Palsce v. Guarantee Trust Life

Ins. Co., 588 N.E.2d 525 (Ind. 1992); Continental Cas. Co. v. Smith, 617 S.W.2d 48

(Ky. 1980); Aker v. Sabatier, 200 So.2d 94 (La. 1967); Behr v. Blue Cross Hosp. Serv.

Inc., 715 S.W.2d 251 (Mo. 1986); General American Life Ins. Co. v. Barrett, 847

S.W.2d 125 (Mo. Ct. App. 1993); Morris v. Travelers Ins. Co., 546 S.W.2d 477 (Mo. Ct.

App. 1977); Crawford v. Mid-America Ins. Co., 488 S.W.2d 255 (Mo. Ct. App. 1972);

Weinberg v. Insurance Co., 388 N.Y.S.2d 69 (N.Y. App. Div. 1976); Craver v. Union

Fidelity Life Ins. Co., 298 N.E.2d 918 (Ct. C.P. Ohio 1973); Barth v. State Farm Fire &

Cas. Co., 257 A.2d 671 (Super. Ct. Pa. 1969); Romano v. New England Mut. Life Ins.

Co., 362 S.E.2d 334 (W. Va. 1987). As the plaintiffs’ extensive list of authorities

indicates, there is indeed a “growing trend in the law to give binding effect to sales and

promotional materials provided to insureds by the insurer.” Romano, 362 S.E.2d at 339-

40. However, our duty is not to blindly follow this growing trend or even to evaluate the

trend’s merits. Instead, we must determine whether the Wyoming Supreme Court would

find the cited cases persuasive and choose to follow the trend. 

Plaintiffs also present contract and estoppel claims. In their contract claims,

plaintiffs argue the illustrations must be considered part of the insurance contract and

contend, because courts traditionally construe contracts against the party drafting the
- 10 -

agreement, the illustration’s no-surrender charge depiction must control over the

Surrender Charge provisions of the policy. In their estoppel claims, plaintiffs assert the

illustrations represent a clear and definite agreement between the parties to enter into an

insurance contract without Surrender Charges, and because the plaintiffs reasonably

relied on this agreement, Maccabees is estopped from enforcing the pro-rata coverage

reduction Surrender Charges provided in the policy. Plaintiffs are not suing in tort, nor

do they seek monetary damages; rather, plaintiffs seek specific performance of the

contract in accordance with their proffered interpretation of the illustrations’ terms.

B. Applicable Wyoming Law

We begin our discussion by examining applicable Wyoming law. First, we

consider Poling v. North American Life & Cas. Co., 593 P.2d 568 (1979), which

involved a factual setting and an argument similar to the one plaintiffs present here. 

Second, we identify the Wyoming rules of construction applicable to insurance contracts. 

1. Poling v. North American Life & Cas. Co. 

The central question in Poling was “whether a certificate of insurance furnished to

an insured under a group policy for credit life insurance should control over the

provisions of the policy if the terms of the two instruments conflict.” Poling, 593 P.2d at

569. Mrs. Poling, the beneficiary of a group insurance policy, claimed a certificate of

insurance contained a liberal provision regarding the coverage allowed in the event the

insured person committed suicide. Mrs. Poling contended both the master policy and the
- 11 -

certificate of insurance comprised the contract between the parties and “rules of contract

construction entitle[d] her to the most favorable interpretation,” namely, enforcement of

the more liberal representation found in the certificate. Id. at 572. The certificate of

insurance, however, contained a disclaimer which specifically stated the certificate was

not part of the insurance contract. In addition, the master policy contained an integration

clause providing “This Policy and the application of the Policyholder, ... and the

applications, if any, of the Insured Persons, will constitute the entire contract between the

parties.” Id. at 569. The master policy also contained a corollary provision, reiterating

the certificate’s disclaimer: “[A] Certificate will not constitute a part of this Policy nor

will it change, modify or invalidate any of the terms and conditions of this Policy.” Id. at

568. The Wyoming Supreme Court rejected Mrs. Poling’s argument and held the

certificate of insurance was not part of the insurance contract and the provision in the

certificate would not control over the conflicting provisions of the master policy: 

We adopt ... the rule that the certificate of insurance is evidence of coverage

only. [citing cases]. In this regard it is important to note that the certificate

of insurance ... provides in part as follows:

... Certificates ... will not constitute a policy nor change,

modify or invalidate any of the terms or conditions of the

Group Policy.

Given the previously quoted [integration clause and disclaimer] of the

master insurance policy, we hold that in such a situation any conflict

between the terms of the certificate and the master policy results in the

terms of the master policy being applied to determine the rights and

obligations of the parties.

Id. at 572 (citations omitted). 
4Plaintiffs argue Poling is inapposite because the illustrations in this case do not

contain an express disclaimer, such as the disclaimer in Poling. Plaintiffs, however,

overstate the Poling court’s reliance on the certificate’s disclaimer. In reaching its

(continued...)

- 12 -

Although we recognize Poling is not dispositive in this case, we believe Poling

provides important guideposts for our inquiry. First, Poling clearly holds a certificate of

insurance will not control over a master policy in the group insurance context, and, to the

extent plaintiffs’ cases hold to the contrary, we are justified in finding them unpersuasive.

See Leonard, 665 F. Supp. at 763 (holding provisions of certificate of insurance

controlled over provisions of group life insurance master policy); Morris, 546 S.W.2d at

486 (same). Second, given Poling reflects an unwillingness to provide special

consideration for the group insurance context, to the extent plaintiffs’ cited cases involve

a group insurance context, we should approach them with caution. See Clem, 403 S.W.2d

at 69 (application and student group insurance policy); Lawrence, 385 S.W.2d at 938

(pamphlet and student group insurance policy); Lewis, 461 P.2d at 247-48 (explanatory

booklet and group life insurance policy); Palsce, 588 N.E.2d at 527 (brochure and student

group insurance policy); Smith, 617 S.W.2d at 51 (promotional material and group

income protection insurance); Crawford, 488 S.W.2d at 260 (application and student

group insurance policy); Romano, 362 S.E.2d at 340 (promotional materials and group

life insurance policy). Finally, given Poling’s express reliance on the policy’s integration

clause in excluding the certificate of insurance from the insurance contract, we believe we

must attach similar weight to the Diplomat’s integration clause. 4
4

(...continued)

ultimate holding — that the provisions of the master policy should control over the

provisions of the certificate — the court expressly relied on the language of the master

policy, i.e., the master policy’s integration clause and disclaimer. See Poling, 593 P.2d at

572 (“Given the previously quoted language of the master insurance policy, we hold ....”). 

In addition, the illustrations before us do contain language which would counsel caution

in a reader. The illustration is titled an “ILLUSTRATION OF PROJECTED VALUES

AND BENEFITS,” suggesting the information provided was tentative. Each page warns

the reader to “[s]ee Page 2 for essential notes explaining this proposal.” Furthermore, the

illustration notifies the reader the assumed interest rate may vary. The illustration

therefore clearly communicates the idea it was not a contract, and the policy’s integration

clause clearly states that the policy itself constitutes the contract. We find Poling on

point, therefore, as it relates to the role of an integration clause in the current factual

setting. 

- 13 -

2. Wyoming Rules of Construction for Insurance Contracts

Wyoming law instructs us to construe insurance policies according to the

traditional rules of contract construction. Doctors’ Co. v. Insurance Corp., 864 P.2d

1018, 1023 (Wyo. 1993) (“Our established rules of contract interpretation apply to

insurance policies.”); St. Paul Fire & Marine Ins. Co. v. Albany County Sch. Dist., 763

P.2d 1255, 1257 (Wyo. 1988) (“An insurance policy is a contract, and the general rules of

contract construction apply to insurance agreements.”). Under these rules of

construction,

the parties have the right to employ whatever lawful terms they wish and

the courts will not rewrite them. In other words, the terms must not conflict

with pertinent statutes or public policy. Such [insurance] contracts should

not be so strictly construed as to thwart the general object of the insurance. 

To this should be added the concept that the words used will be given their

common and ordinary meaning. The intention of the parties is the primary

consideration and is to be ascertained, if possible, from the language

employed in the policy, viewed in the light of what the parties must

reasonably have intended. Absent ambiguity, there is no room for
- 14 -

construction and the policy will be enforced according to its terms. Neither

will the language be “tortured” in order to create an ambiguity.

McKay v. Equitable Life Assur. Soc., 421 P.2d 166, 168 (Wyo. 1966) (internal citations

omitted); see also Sinclair Oil Corp. v. Republic Ins. Co., 929 P.2d 535, 539-40 (Wyo.

1996) (quoting and reaffirming McKay’s insurance contract construction rules while

considering certified question of law). Under these rules, we must begin with the

“language employed in the policy” and attempt to discern “the intention of the parties.”

As previously noted, the Diplomat policy contains an integration clause, which

identifies the policy, the application, and attached riders as the “entire contract” between

the parties. Under Wyoming’s ordinary rules of insurance contract construction, our

interpretation of the contract’s terms would be limited to the materials identified in the

Diplomat’s integration clause. Therefore, unless the cases cited by plaintiffs contain a

justification which the Wyoming Supreme Court would adopt for departing from its

traditional approach to an integrated contract, we cannot find the illustrations to be part of

the insurance contract between the plaintiffs and Maccabees. 

C. Are the Illustrations Part of the Insurance Contract? 

Plaintiffs have identified an extensive list of authorities holding that an insurer’s

promotional materials are binding and control over the conflicting provisions of a policy. 

These cases present three distinct rationales which might support a decision to disregard

the integration clause in the present case. We must consider each of the rationales and

decide whether Wyoming would find them persuasive. 
- 15 -

1. Proposed Rule #1: Insurance Contracts Require Special Rules of Construction.

The majority of the plaintiffs’ cases are based on the proposition that insurance

contracts are unusually complex and insured parties, as a practical matter, tend not to read

their policies. These features of insurance contracting, the cases hold, justify applying a

special rule of construction in the insurance context. This reasoning has been described

influentially as follows: 

[F]ortunately the courts, beginning to realize the realities of the relationship

between the parties, particularly that the contract as set forth [in] the

insurance policy often is practicably unintelligible and generally never read,

whereas brochures and other material given out by the insurer are read and

relied upon, are now enforcing the contract expected by the insured, that is

the contract set out in the brochure or pamphlet. 

John A. Appleman & Jean Appleman, Insurance Law & Practice § 7534, at 130 (1976). 

Most of the plaintiffs’ cases explicitly adopt this rationale. See Leonard, 665 F. Supp. at

763 (relying in part on Appleman, supra); Sparks, 647 P.2d at 1134 (citing Appleman,

supra); Lewis, 461 P.2d at 245 (“[W]e have long recognized that ‘it is a matter of

common knowledge insurance contracts are not entered into as other contracts generally

are.’”); Jensen, 614 N.E.2d at 1365 (following Dobosz); Dobosz, 458 N.E.2d at 614-15

(“[I]n recognition of the complications of insurance policy provisions, it is not too much

to ask of the insurer who markets its policies by the use of attractive and illustrative

brochures to give fairly equal prominence to exclusions and coverages. Given these

principles, we construe this policy with the brochure ....”); Palsce, 588 N.E.2d at 526

(relying on “prominent trend” described in Appleman, supra, to hold provisions of
- 16 -

brochure controlled over provisions of master policy); Barrett, 847 S.W.2d at 130

(quoting Appleman, supra, as a description of “the reality of the relationship between

parties to an insurance contract”); Crawford, 488 S.W.2d at 258 (citing Appleman, supra,

as authority for the “modern trend” which will not permit the insurer to “assert the more

stringent provisions of the policy” when the insured relies on the representations of

promotional materials); Weinberg, 388 N.Y.S.2d at 70 (citing Appleman, supra, as

authority for the proposition, “the developing rule, adopted by the appellate courts of

other jurisdictions, is to consider the representations in the brochure as part of the

insurance contract, binding upon the insured”); Romano, 362 S.E.2d at 339 (citing

Appleman, supra). 

Two of plaintiffs’ cases, Lewis v. Continental Life & Accident Co., 461 P.2d 243

(1969), and Barth v. State Farm Fire & Cas. Co., 257 A.2d 671 (Super. Ct. Pa. 1969),

describe this rationale in particularly compelling terms. In Lewis, the court observed,

“[i]nsurance policies, while in the nature of written contracts, are not

prepared after negotiations between the parties, to embrace the terms at

which the parties have arrived in their negotiations. They are prepared

beforehand by the insurer, and the company solicitors then sell the

insurance idea to the applicant. Normally, the details and provisions of the

policy are not discussed, except that the particular form of policy is best

suited to give the applicant the protection he seeks. If he reads the policy he

is generally not in a position to understand its details, terms, and meaning

except that, in the event against which he seeks insurance, the company will

pay the stipulated sums. He seldom sees the policy until it has been issued

and is delivered to him. He signs an application blank in which the policy

sought is described either by form number or by a general designation, pays

his premium, and in due course thereafter receives, either from the agent or

through the mails, his policy. Many of its terms and all of its defenses and
- 17 -

super-refinements he has never heard of and would not understand them if

he read them.”

Lewis, 461 P.2d at 246 (quoting with approval Browning v. Equitable Life Assurance

Soc., 72 P.2d 1060, 1073 (1937)). Similarly, in Barth, the court quoted with approval the

following passage: 

“It must be presumed, ordinarily, that persons are familiar with the terms of

written contracts to which they are parties, and in the absence of fraud they

are justly bound by the provisions therein, but the rule should not be strictly

applied to insurance policies. It is a matter almost of common knowledge

that a very small percentage of policy holders are actually cognizant of the

provisions of their policies and many of them are ignorant of the names of

the companies issuing the said policies. The policies are prepared by the

experts of the companies, they are highly technical in their phraseology,

they are complicated and voluminous--the one before us covering thirteen

pages of the transcript--and in their numerous conditions and stipulations

furnishing what sometimes may be veritable traps for the unwary. The

insured usually confides implicitly in the agent securing the insurance, and

it is only just and equitable that the company should be required to call

specifically to the attention of the policyholder such provisions as the one

before us. The courts, while zealous to uphold legal contracts, should not

sacrifice the spirit to the letter nor should they be slow to aid the confiding

and innocent. ...” Indeed, “the applicant usually tells the insurer's agent of

his coverage necessities and relies on the agent for a policy in accordance

therewith. ... We conclude an insurance company which in its policy has

written the generally broad coverage may be estopped to defend by reason

of an exclusionary clause not within the terms the insured ordered and

coverage which he was led to believe was contained therein.”

 

Barth, 257 A.2d at 674-75 (quoting Farmers Mut. Auto Ins. Co. v. Bechard, 122

N.W.2d 86 (S.D. 1963)); see also Craver v. Union Fidelity Life Ins. Co., 298 N.E.2d

918, 921 (Ct. C.P. Ohio 1973) (emphasizing insurance policies are “designed to be sold to
- 18 -

the ordinary person” and must be “given their ordinary meaning to an average person not

the meaning they might have to the highly wary or to someone skilled in the law”). 

Wyoming precedent will not support the premise which underlies these cases, that

is, the complexity of insurance policies and the insured’s general failure to read his or her

policy justifies special rules of construction for an insurance contract. On the contrary,

the Wyoming Supreme Court has been quite firm in its refusal to accord special rules of

construction for insurance policies. See, e.g., Sinclair Oil Corp., 929 P.2d at 539, 540

(“Our precedent in Wyoming establishes that an insurance contract is to be examined in

fashion similar to any other contract.... [W]e have been consistent in holding that the

usual and established rules of contract construction apply to insurance policies.”);

Squillace v. Wyoming State Employees' & Officials' Group Ins. Bd., 933 P.2d 488, 491

(Wyo. 1997) (“An insurance policy is a contract and should be construed in accordance

with general principles of contractual interpretation.”). Furthermore, to the extent these

cases rely on an insured’s tendency not to read his or her policy, they conflict with

Wyoming law which expressly imposes a duty to read on the insured. See, e.g., Feather

v. State Farm Fire & Cas., 872 P.2d 1177, 1181 (Wyo. 1994) (rejecting plaintiff’s claim

he had been “misled” by his renewal and premium notices because he had “failed to fulfill

his duty to read” them); St. Paul Fire & Marine Ins. Co., 763 P.2d 1255, 1263 (Wyo.

1988) (“We will not absolve the parties to an insurance policy from the duty to read the

policy.”); National Farmers Union Property & Cas. Co. v. Zuber, 824 F. Supp. 1017,
5Of course, this would not apply to a person who reads the policy but does not

understand it. This is not the situation here, however.

- 19 -

1021 (D. Wyo. 1993) (“Wyoming law states that the insured has a duty to read his or her

policy”); Darlow v. Farmers Ins. Exch., 822 P.2d 820, 828-29 (Wyo. 1991) (citing

Zuber). Given Wyoming precedent has repeatedly affirmed the rule that insurance

contracts are governed by the general rules of contract construction and given Wyoming

law “will not absolve the parties to an insurance contract from the duty to read the

policy,” we conclude the Wyoming Supreme Court would not be persuaded to consider

non-policy promotional materials as part of an insurance contract simply because

insurance policies tend to be complex or because insured parties generally do not read

their policies.5 Therefore, to the extent plaintiffs’ proffered rule relies on these rationales,

it must fail.

 2. Proposed Rule #2: When promotional materials contain essential 

 terms without which the policy cannot be understood, 

 they must be considered part of the contract.

A few of plaintiffs’ cited authorities hold that promotional materials will be

considered part of an insurance contract when essential terms of the insurance policy

cannot be understood except by reference to the express provisions of the promotional

materials. See Behr, 715 S.W.2d at 255 (“When the brochure is read together with the

other documents it becomes apparent that the brochure contains provisions found

nowhere else which are essential to a complete contract,” e.g., explicit examples of
- 20 -

covered situations and the definition of a key term); Barrett, 847 S.W.2d at 130

(“Materials supporting and explaining an insurance policy, such as the certificate and

descriptive brochures, which contain essential provisions to the contract found nowhere

else are considered to be part of the insurance contract.”). Plaintiffs argue such a rule is

applicable here because “[t]he policy illustration used to sell the Diplomat policy to each

of the Plaintiffs contains vital information necessary to interpret understand, apply and

implement the actual contract of insurance.” In particular, plaintiffs claim the

Accumulated Value of each insurance policy, the Surrender Charge to be imposed upon

actual surrender, and the Surrender Charge to be imposed upon a reduction in coverage,

cannot be determined by reference to the policy alone, but require reference to the

illustration. According to this theory, because the illustrations are necessary to

understand the essential terms of the policy, they must be considered part of the contract. 

We need not decide whether Wyoming would adopt a rule holding that promotional

materials which contain essential terms not included in a policy are part of an insurance

contract because, even under this rule, plaintiffs’ argument would fail. 

The Surrender Charge upon actual surrender, the pro-rata Surrender Charge upon

coverage reduction, and the Accumulation Value of the Policy are each readily

discernible from the policy itself. A “SCHEDULE OF BENEFITS AND INITIAL

MONTHLY EXPENSE CHARGES” and a “TABLE OF GUARANTEED VALUES”

were attached to each plaintiff’s policy. As attached riders, these documents became part
- 21 -

of the policy, pursuant to the policy’s integration clause. The Schedule of Benefits and

the Table of Guaranteed Values provide a First-Year Surrender Charge of $20,350. 

Furthermore, the Table of Guaranteed Values sets forth the Maximum Surrender Charge

to be imposed for each year through the first twenty years. Plaintiffs need do no more

than read their policies to ascertain these amounts. 

The policy also clearly defines the Surrender Charge to be paid upon a reduction in

coverage:

The Specified Benefit Amount of this Policy may be increased or decreased

upon written request by the Owner subject to the following conditions:

.....

3) Any decrease in the Specified Benefit Amount during the first ten Policy

Years or during the ten year period after an increase will be subject to a prorata Surrender Charge.

We disagree with plaintiffs’ assertion this language is unclear. The passage contemplates

the imposition of a pro-rata Surrender Charge upon a reduction in coverage. In other

words, a reduction in coverage would result in a Surrender Charge equivalent to a prorated portion of the Surrender Charge which would be due upon a total surrender, i.e., the

Maximum Surrender Charge. Expressed mathematically, the pro-rata Surrender Charge

would be
6Plaintiffs argue the illustrations must be considered part of the contract because

the previously quoted policy language expressly refers to an “illustrative report.”

(continued...)

- 22 -

Because each plaintiff was provided with the Maximum Surrender Charge to be imposed

on his or her policy, and each plaintiff would know the Initial Specified Benefit Amount

and the Specified Benefit Amount after a planned reduction in coverage, each plaintiff,

simply by reading his or her policy, could determine the Surrender Charge to be imposed

upon a reduction in coverage. The illustrations are not necessary to this determination. 

Similarly, under the heading of “ACCUMULATION VALUE,” the policy

provides a detailed description of the method used to calculate the policy’s monthly

Accumulation Value. Each of the variables required to calculate the Accumulation Value

is defined under subsequent bolded and capitalized headings. No recourse to the

illustrations is required to calculate the Accumulation Value of the policy.

Finally, for those policyholders who do not wish to conduct the calculations

themselves, the policy states:

The Company will provide an illustrative report of projected future

insurance Proceeds and Cash Values which will be sent to the Owner upon

request. The Company may charge a reasonable fee for providing such a

Report. However, the first report for each calendar year will be free of

charge.

Therefore, under the policy’s express terms, each plaintiff was entitled to receive upon

request a yearly projection of their policy’s performance at no cost to themselves. Once

again, no recourse to the illustrations at issue here is required.6
6

(...continued)

However, plaintiffs do not assert the illustrative reports referred to in the Policy are

equivalent to the illustrations upon which they rely. Nor do plaintiffs assert they obtained

the illustrations upon which they rely pursuant to this policy provision. This argument

therefore fails.

- 23 -

The illustrations do not contain essential terms of the insurance contract without

which the policy cannot be understood. Plaintiffs’ claims under this rule would therefore

prove unavailing. As a result, we do not decide whether Wyoming would adopt the rule

described in Barrett and Behr.

 3. Proposed Rule #3: An insurer should be estopped from asserting, as part

 of an insurance contract, the provisions of an insurance policy where the 

 insured party has relied on conflicting representations contained in the 

 insurer’s promotional materials.

Many of the cases plaintiffs cite in support of their contract claims hold an insurer

is estopped from asserting provisions contained in promotional materials when the

insured party has relied on the promotional materials to his or her detriment. These courts

hold, in such circumstances, the provisions of the promotional materials are binding on

the insurer. See Vogel, 695 F.2d at 880-81; Clem, 403 S.W.2d at 69-70; Lawrence, 385

S.W.2d at 939; Lewis, 461 P.2d at 245; Dobosz, 458 N.E.2d at 615; Palsce, 588 N.E.2d at

526-27; Smith, 617 S.W.2d at 51; Weinberg, 388 N.Y.S.2d at 70; Barth, 257 A.2d at

675-76. Plaintiffs urge us to accept these proffered authorities as persuasive support for

the conclusion the illustrations in this case are a binding part of their insurance contract

with Maccabees. 
7

In addition, because the proffered cases do not require, as Wyoming precedent

does, a “clear and definite agreement” for promissory estoppel, we do not view them as

particularly persuasive or relevant to the plaintiffs’ promissory estoppel claims, discussed

below. 

- 24 -

The proffered cases, however, represent nothing more than variations on the theme

of promissory estoppel. See, e.g., Lewis, 461 P.2d at 247 (“All of the elements of

estoppel are present. A promise, reliance, detriment to the insured person, and

consequential profit to the company. We must, therefore, [hold the insurer to the

provisions of the promotional materials].”); Barth, 257 A.2d at 676 (“[T]he

representations in the brochure, if they have been reasonably relied upon by the insured,

may be considered terms of the contract.”); Romano, 362 S.E.2d at 340 (W. Va. 1987)

(“We, therefore, conclude that where an insurer provides sales or promotional materials to

an insured ... which the insurer should know will be relied upon by the insured, any

conflict between such materials and the master policy will be resolved in favor of the

insured.”). Given Wyoming has a fully developed law of promissory estoppel and given

Wyoming’s insistence an insurance contract be interpreted according to the language of

its policy, we do not believe the Wyoming Supreme Court would hold that provisions

contained in a promotional illustration become part of an insurance contract simply

because an insured party relies on them in entering the contract.7 We therefore do not

consider these cases to be relevant to the issue of whether the illustrations are part of the

insurance contract in this case.
- 25 -

D. Plaintiffs’ Contract Claims

In our opinion, plaintiffs have failed to present a rationale, which the Wyoming

Supreme Court would accept, for departing from Wyoming’s traditional approach to

integrated insurance contracts. Accordingly, we conclude the illustrations are not part of

the insurance contracts between the plaintiffs and Maccabees. Therefore, we determine

whether the illustrations may be considered on the ground the contracts are ambiguous

regarding the imposition of a pro-rata Surrender Charge upon a planned reduction in

coverage. We may consider extraneous materials to interpret an ambiguous contract

provision. St. Paul Fire & Marine Ins. Co, 763 P.2d at 1258. However, mere

disagreement between the parties as to the meaning of a contract does not create an

ambiguity. Id. 

We see no ambiguity here regarding the imposition of a Surrender Charge upon a

planned reduction in coverage. The “DEFINITIONS” page of the policy warns the

reader “[a] portion of the Surrender Charge may be deducted if ... the Specified Benefit

Amount is reduced.” The provision entitled “CHANGES IN SPECIFIED BENEFIT

AMOUNT” informs the readers “[a]ny decrease in the Specified Benefit Amount ... will

be subject to a pro-rata Surrender Charge.” As we noted above, there is no ambiguity in

this provision, and the plaintiffs could discern the meaning of these provisions simply by

reading their policies. In fact, the plaintiffs readily understood these terms themselves

when the passages were brought to their attention during depositions. Like the plaintiff in
8Maccabees argues, as a matter of Wyoming law, promissory estoppel cannot be

used in claims for expanded coverage under an insurance contract, citing St. Paul Fire &

Marine Ins. Co. v. Albany County Sch. Dist., 763 P.2d 1255, 1261 (Wyo. 1988). 

Although true, this proposition is inapplicable here because we are not concerned with the

scope of insurance coverage, but the respective contractual liabilities of the parties when

the insured elects to reduce his or her coverage, an issue to which Wyoming will apply

(continued...)

- 26 -

Feather, 872 P.2d at 1181, plaintiffs “failed to fulfill [their] duty to read” their Policies

respecting the Surrender Charge issue. Because there is no ambiguity in the Diplomat

policy regarding the presence or amount of a Surrender Charge to be imposed upon a

reduction in coverage, we hold the illustrations may not be considered for the purpose of

interpreting the insurance contract on the Surrender Charge issue. McKay, 421 P.2d at

168 (“Absent ambiguity, ... the policy will be enforced according to its terms.”). 

D. Plaintiffs’ Promissory Estoppel Claims

Under Wyoming law, a plaintiff asserting promissory estoppel must demonstrate

“(1) a clear and definite agreement; (2) proof that the party urging the doctrine acted to its

detriment in reasonable reliance on the agreement; and (3) a finding that the equities

support the enforcement of the agreement.” Davis v. Davis, 855 P.2d 342, 347 (Wyo.

1993). Upon the undisputed facts before us, we conclude no “clear and definite

agreement” existed between the parties, plaintiffs’ reliance on the illustrations was

unreasonable, and the equities do not support enforcement of the alleged agreement. 

Accordingly, we affirm the district court’s summary judgment on the issue of promissory

estoppel.8
8

(...continued)

promissory estoppel. See, e.g., Sowers v. Iowa Home Mut. Cas. Ins. Co., 359 P.2d 488,

493 (Wyo. 1961) (“Although the doctrines of waiver and estoppel extend to practically

every ground on which an insurer may deny liability .... they are not available as a rule, to

bring within the coverage of a policy risks not covered by its terms or risks expressly

excluded therefrom.” (citing 29A Am.Jur. Insurance § 1014 (1960)).

- 27 -

Wyoming courts will not find a clear and definite agreement where the language of

a purported promise is precatory or a “mere expression of hope” occurring in an

“obviously preliminary negotiation context.” See Inter-Mountain Threading, Inc. v.

Baker Hughes Tubular Serv., Inc., 812 P.2d 555, 559 (Wyo. 1991) . Plaintiffs argue the

illustrations cannot be considered precatory or a mere expression of hope because the

illustrations are written, not oral, and contain specific and detailed representations

regarding the Diplomat’s performance. However, as we have stated, the illustrations

contain multiple signals indicating they are conditional and inchoate representations. The

illustration identifies itself as a mere “proposal,” does not speak to most of the contract’s

most vital provisions, and does not provide any specific guidance regarding the manner in

which Surrender Charges, clearly contemplated, are to be imposed. See Rialto Theatre,

Inc. v. Commonwealth Theatres, Inc., 714 P.2d 328, 334 (Wyo. 1986) (“By its clear and

unambiguous language, this portion of the lease agreement is merely an agreement to

agree in the future.... In this case, the parties’ agreement provides no guidance as to the

terms which are to be enforced. Unless the essential terms of such a future agreement are

defined with reasonable certainty, there is no contract for the court to enforce.”); Baker
- 28 -

Hughes, 812 P.2d at 559 (citing Rialto Theatre as relevant precedent on the issue of

whether a “clear and definite agreement” exists in the context of promissory estoppel).

Furthermore, there is no “clear” promise in the illustrations to refrain from

imposing a pro-rata Surrender Charge upon a planned reduction in coverage. The only

explicit reference to a “Surrender Charge” in the illustrations is a statement which reads

“Surrender Values are the accumulation values less any surr. charges.” Plaintiffs argue

we can infer from this statement and the table of values provided in the illustrations that

no Surrender Charge would be imposed upon a reduction in coverage. However, this

claim is clearly wrong, given plaintiffs profess the ability to calculate the maximum

coverage reduction Surrender Charge using the same inferential process. An inferential

process which alternately yields a promise to impose no Surrender Charge and a promise

to charge a small, specific Surrender Charge cannot be said to have produced a “clear and

definite agreement” on the point. Finally, a whole host of terms, conditions, and

exclusions covered by the policy itself are not mentioned, referred to, or even outlined in

the illustration. Plaintiffs could not have “agreed” to the terms of the illustrations because

there are no terms with which to agree, merely a set of numerical projections for two sets

of potential events (“Assumed Interest” and “Guaranteed Interest”). Because the

illustrations are inherently inchoate, clearly contemplate the imposition of Surrender

Charges, and do not present a clear agreement on Maccabees’ part to refrain from

imposing Surrender Charges, we cannot conclude, even viewing the evidence in the light
- 29 -

most favorable to the plaintiffs, that Maccabees clearly and definitely agreed to refrain

from imposing a pro-rata Surrender Charge upon a reduction in coverage.

Turning to the second element of promissory estoppel, we find plaintiffs’ reliance

on the illustrations unreasonable. Plaintiffs’ could not have reasonably believed the

illustrations provided adequate information regarding their policies’ potential

performance. In addition to the numerous indications the illustrations were tentative,

many essential terms of the contract — the manner in which the interest rate is to be

determined, the monthly cost of a particular coverage level, the fees and charges which

might attend changes in coverage — are not mentioned in the illustrations. Plaintiffs

knew a comprehensive, written document which would explain these vital terms (their

policies) would follow after submission of their applications. Each of the plaintiffs

planned to reduce their coverage in the second year and hoped thereby to avoid the need

to pay subsequent premiums. Given their plans depended entirely upon receiving no or

only a nominal Surrender Charge for such a planned reduction in coverage and given

plaintiffs could not have believed the illustrations adequately described the terms of their

insurance agreement, we conclude plaintiffs’ reliance on the illustrations was

unreasonable. See Baker Hughes, 812 P.2d at 560 (concluding reliance was

unreasonable and unforeseeable where “[i]t is clear from the evidence that Baker Hughes’

business relationships under either form of agreement would not have been simple

arrangements free of details. Either contemplated relationship would have bound the
- 30 -

parties for a substantial period of time and would have involved substantial sums of

money. Considering what is at stake ..., it is important that the relationship and

commitment of the parties, each to the other, be carefully expressed in a formally

executed document.”).

We also conclude the equities do not support enforcement of the agreement. “The

doctrine of promissory estoppel can only be invoked when it is necessary to avoid

injustice.” Davis, 855 P.2d at 349. No injustice currently exists, nor will any be avoided

by enforcing the contract according to the plaintiffs’ claims. Plaintiffs are suing for

specific enforcement of what amounts to a “free” insurance contract. They have already

received one year of insurance coverage, at no cost to themselves, and, to date, plaintiffs

have lost no money and have assumed no personal obligation as a result of this

transaction. In addition, plaintiffs failed to avail themselves of the ten day examination

period expressly provided by the policy. Plaintiffs could have quickly determined the

policy was unsatisfactory and returned it for a refund simply by reading the policy, as

Wyoming law requires them to do; they did not choose to do so. Finally, it is undisputed

the miscalculation in the illustrations resulted from an inadvertent programming error in

Maccabees’ promotional software. Under these circumstances, we cannot conclude the

equities would support enforcement of the agreement. Because plaintiffs have not

demonstrated any of the required elements of promissory estoppel, their estoppel claims

must fail. 
- 31 -

The judgment of the district court is AFFIRMED.