RECOVERY PLAN

FOR THE

NORTHERN IDAHO GROUND SQUIRREL

(Spermophilus brunneus brunneus)

Region 1

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Portland, Oregon
ii

DISCLAIMER

Recovery plans delineate reasonable actions that are believed to be required

to recover and protect listed species. Plans are published by us, the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service, and are sometimes prepared with the assistance of recovery teams,

contractors, State and Federal agencies, and others. Objectives will be attained and

any necessary funds will be made available subject to budgetary and other

constraints affecting the parties involved, and subject to the need to address other

priorities. Costs indicated for action implementation and time for achievement of

recovery are only estimates and subject to change. Recovery plans do not

necessarily represent the views or the official positions or approval of any

individuals or agencies involved in the plan formulation other than the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service. They represent the official position of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service only after they have been signed by the Regional Director or Director as

approved. Approved recovery plans are subject to modification as dictated by new

findings, changes in species status, and completion of recovery actions.

Literature Citation should read as follows:

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2003. Recovery Plan for the Northern Idaho

Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus brunneus brunneus). Portland, Oregon. 68 pp.

An electronic version of this recovery plan is available at:

• http://pacific.fws.gov/ecoservices/endangered/recovery/default.htm

• http://endangered.fws.gov/recovery/index.html.

Additional copies may be purchased from:

Fish and Wildlife Reference Service

5430 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 110

Bethesda, Maryland 20814-2142

1-800-582-3421 or 301-492-6403; Fax: 301-564-4059

Email: fwrs@mail.fws.gov

Web site: http://fa.r9.fws.gov/r9fwrs

The fee for the recovery plan varies depending on the number of pages in the plan.
iii

PRIMARY AUTHORS

Bruce Haak, Idaho Department of Fish and Game; Rich Howard, U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service; Bill Rautsaw, Payette National Forest; Lon Schultz, Payette

National Forest; Ray Vizgirdas, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Eric Yensen,

Albertson College.

Acknowledgments

The following individuals contributed significant information/assistance

during the recovery plan preparation:

Kimberly Brandel, Payette National Forest 

Phil Delphey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Sue Dixon, Payette National Forest

Shane Jefferies, Deschutes National Forest

Tom Gavin, Cornell University

Bob Giles, Payette National Forest

Floyd Gordon, Payette National Forest

Butch Gould, Payette National Forest

Chuck Harris, Idaho Department of Fish and Game

Mike Henon, Payette National Forest

Faye Krueger, Payette National Forest

Dennis Mackey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Ben Matibag, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Robert Riggs, Boise Corporation

Jeff Rohlman, Idaho Department of Fish and Game

Michael Runge, U.S. Geological Survey

Paul Sherman, Cornell University
iv

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Current Species Status: The northern Idaho ground squirrel (Spermophilus

brunneus brunneus) was federally listed as a threatened species on April 5, 2000

(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000a). This subspecies is known to exist only in

Adams and Valley Counties of western Idaho. The entire range of the subspecies

is about 32 by 108 kilometers (20 by 61 miles), and as of 2002, 34 of 40 known

population sites were extant. The subspecies declined from an estimated 5,000

individuals in 1985, to less than 1,000 by 1998, when it was proposed for listing

under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. The 1985 estimate was

made for populations judged to be in decline. By the year 2000, preliminary

surveys indicated that only about 350 individuals remained at known population

sites. Based on more extensive census data collected in the spring of 2002, the

population was estimated to be 450 to 500 animals. This revised estimate was the

result of more intensive monitoring, habitat enhancement measures, and discovery

of new populations.

Habitat Requirements and Limiting Factors: The northern Idaho ground

squirrel is known to occur in shallow, dry rocky meadows usually associated with

deeper, well-drained soils and surrounded by ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir

forests at elevations of about 915 to 1,650 meters (3,000 to 5,400 feet). Similar

habitat occurs up to at least 1,830 meters (6,000 feet). Consequently, ponderosa

pine/shrub-steppe habitat association with south-facing slopes less than 30

percent at elevations below 1,830 meters (6,000 feet) is considered to be

potentially suitable habitat. The northern Idaho ground squirrel is primarily

threatened by habitat loss due to forest encroachment into former suitable

meadow habitats. Forest encroachment results in habitat fragmentation,

eliminates dispersal corridors, and confines the northern Idaho ground squirrel

populations into small isolated habitat islands. The subspecies is also threatened

by land use changes, recreational shooting, poisoning, genetic isolation and

genetic drift, random naturally occurring events, and competition from the larger

Columbian ground squirrel (S. columbianus).
1

Metapopulation- a network of semi-isolated populations with some level of regular or intermittent

migration and gene flow among them, in which individual populations may go extinct but then be

re-colonized from other populations (Meffe and Carroll 1994). A metapopulation implies that

genetic exchange between population subsites (demes) is occurring through dispersal or linkage

corridors. Populations must be within reasonable dispersal distance from one another. In the case

of northern Idaho ground squirrel, this means less than 1 kilometer (0.6 mile).

2

Effective population size (Ne) - the average size of a population expressed in terms of individuals

assumed to contribute genes to the next generation; generally smaller than the actual size of the

population, depending on variation in reproductive success among individuals (Ricklefs 1990). 

Thus, Ne must be greater than 5,000 individuals. The exact number remains be to calculated. 

v

Recovery Objective: The ultimate goal of this recovery plan is to increase the

population size and establish a sufficient number of viable metapopulations1 of

the northern Idaho ground squirrel so the subspecies can be delisted. It would be

eligible for delisting consideration when populations are self-sustaining, secure,

and meet the criteria listed in Section II of this Plan.

Recovery Priority Number: The recovery priority number for the northern

Idaho ground squirrel is 3C on a scale of 1 to 18 (1 equals highest priority),

indicating that it is: 1) taxonomically a subspecies; 2) facing a high degree of

threat; 3) rated high in terms of recovery potential; and 4) may be in conflict with

construction and recreational development projects or other forms of economic

activity.

Recovery Criteria: Due to the restricted geographic range and low numbers, the

populations must be increased and stabilized. The only historical population level

recorded was approximately 5,000 individuals (Yensen 1985). The 1985 estimate

was made for populations judged to be in decline. Hence, the recovery target

needs to be higher than this historical estimate. The recovery target should be

based on an effective population size (Ne)

2

 greater than 5,000 individuals.

Delisting may be considered when the following recovery criteria have been met: 

1. Of the 17 potential metapopulations that have been identified

within the probable historical distribution, there must be at least

10 metapopulations, each maintaining an average effective

population size of greater than 500 individuals for 5 consecutive

years.
vi

2. The area occupied by a minimum of 10 potential metapopulations

must be protected. In order for an area to be deemed protected, it

must be: (1) owned or managed by a government agency with

appropriate management standards in place; (2) managed by a

conservation organization that identifies maintenance of the

subspecies as the primary objective for the area; or, (3) on private

lands with a long-term conservation easement or covenant that

commits present and future landowners to the perpetuation of the

subspecies.

3. Plans have been completed for the continued ecological

management of habitats for a minimum of 10 potential

metapopulation sites.

4. A post-delisting monitoring plan covering a minimum of 10

potential metapopulation sites has been completed and is ready for

implementation. 

Actions Needed:

1. Protect and increase all extant potential metapopulation sites.

2. Establish additional metapopulations and dispersal corridors.

3. Develop and execute a population and habitat management plan for each

potential metapopulation site.

4. Accelerate and complete habitat enhancement projects on the Payette

National Forest.

5. Develop and implement a transplantation effort to increase genetic

diversity in each metapopulation.

6. Fully implement a long-term intensive and extensive metapopulation and

habitat monitoring plan to evaluate success of recovery efforts.

7. Continue surveying efforts to locate new populations.

8. Conduct research to fill data gaps to ensure recovery.

9. Establish a captive propagation program as a hedge against extinction

while wild populations are being reestablished, to provide an additional

source for increasing genetic diversity of wild populations, provide a

source for establishing new populations, provide research opportunities,

and contribute to public education.
vii

10. Increase efforts to enhance the outreach program for conservation of the

northern Idaho ground squirrel.

11. Develop and maintain a comprehensive database to be used for monitoring

the success of recovery.

12. Establish and maintain an interagency recovery coordinator and technical

working group to coordinate recovery efforts.

Date of Recovery: Because of the high probability of genetic change in existing

populations (Gavin et al. 1999), and because ground squirrels can respond rapidly

to environmental changes either positively or negatively (Runge 1999), it is

imperative that recovery implementation be initiated without delay. The Runge

(1999) population viability model predicts that the subspecies may go extinct

within 7 years under the 1999 demographic trends prior to the subspecies being

listed under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. However,

recovery can also be rapid if recovery actions are implemented. If recovery

actions produce positive responses at each potential metapopulation site, the

delisting could be initiated by 2010. 

Estimated Cost of Recovery: The estimated cost of recovering the northern

Idaho ground squirrel averages $304,600 per year starting in 2003 ($1,523,000 for

2003 through 2007, see Implementation Schedule, p. 43). We estimate the total

cost of delisting to be approximately $2.44 million ($304,600 per year, 2003

through 2010). 
viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION .....................................................1

A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

B. Status and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

C. Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

D. Life History and Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

E. Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

F. Reasons for Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

G. Conservation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

II. RECOVERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

A. Recovery Plan Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

B. Recovery Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

C. Recovery Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1. Restore and Maintain Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2. Conduct Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Population Actions . . . . . 24

3. Monitor Habitat and Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4. Coordinate Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Recovery Program . . . . 26

D. Date of Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

III. RECOVERY ACTION NARRATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

IV. IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

V. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

A. Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

B. Personal Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

APPENDIX A. Stakeholder Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

APPENDIX B. Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

APPENDIX C. Summary of Public, Agency, and Peer Review Comments on the Draft

Recovery Plan for the Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. The Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel ................................2

Figure 2. Range of the Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel .........................4

Figure 3. Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel probable historical distribution map and 

possible metapopulations ......................................5

Figure 4. Summit Gulch population site after a controlled burn in 1999. ............9

Figure 5. Summit Gulch population site 2 years after the controlled burn ............9

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Northern Idaho ground squirrel population sites in the 

Council Ranger District .......................................6

Table 2. Northern Idaho ground squirrel population sites found in the 

New Meadows Ranger District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Table 3. Northern Idaho ground squirrel primary and secondary potential 

metapopulation sites and land ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Table 4. Cross-reference of recovery actions and listing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Overview

We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), listed the northern Idaho ground

squirrel (Spermophilus brunneus brunneus) under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as

amended, as a threatened species on April 5, 2000 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000a). 

The recovery priority number for the subspecies is 3C on a scale of 1 to 18, indicating that

it is: 1) taxonomically, a subspecies; 2) facing a high degree of threat; 3) rated high in

terms of recovery potential; and 4) may be in conflict with construction and recreational

development projects or other forms of economic activity.

The northern Idaho ground squirrel is a relatively small member of the genus

Spermophilus; the mean lengths of the male and female are 23.4 centimeters (9.2 inches)

and 22.6 centimeters (8.9 inches), respectively (Yensen and Sherman 1997). The pelage

(fur) of northern Idaho ground squirrels on the dorsal area appears dark reddish-gray as

the result of a mixture of black unbanded and yellowish-red banded guard hairs. The

subspecies’ eye ring is buffy-white (Figure 1). The northern Idaho ground squirrel has the

most restricted geographical range of any Spermophilus species, and one of the smallest

ranges of any North American mammal (Gill and Yensen 1992). The first specimens were

collected in 1913 by L.E. Wyman, and described by A.H. Howell as a subspecies (Citellus

townsendii brunneus) of the present-day Washington ground squirrel (Spermophilus

washingtoni) (then confused with the Townsend’s ground squirrel, C. townsendii) (Howell

1938). Subsequently, Howell (1938) reclassified the Idaho ground squirrel as a full

species, Citellus brunneus. Hershkovitz (1949) demonstrated that Spermophilus is the

correct name for the genus. The systematics of Spermophilus brunneus were further

investigated by Nadler et.al. (1973) with chromosomal descriptions. Yensen (1991)

determined that Spermophilus brunneus consisted of two subspecies (the northern Idaho

ground squirrel, Spermophilus brunneus brunneus, and the southern Idaho ground

squirrel, Spermophilus brunneus endemicus) based on cranial morphology, pelage, life

history differences, and other characteristics. 
2

 

 U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service

Figure 1. The northern Idaho ground squirrel.
3

B. Status and Distribution

The distribution of the northern Idaho ground squirrel has become

fragmented into what are now very small, isolated populations in Adams and Valley

Counties of west-central Idaho (Figures 2 and 3). Between about 1980 and 1997,

seven populations were known to have become extirpated (Yensen and Sherman

1997). For example, the Mill Creek population located on Payette National Forest

lands was extirpated in 1997, and the Lick Creek population on private land

apparently went extinct in 1999 (Sherman, pers. comm.). The Summit Gulch

population was down to one individual when it was supplemented in 1997. 

Thirty-four of 40 population sites are extant (Tables 1 and 2), 8 of which

have now been extirpated. The occupancy or habitat suitability of 6 sites is

unknown, because they have not been surveyed in recent history. Of the 34 extant

sites, 16 are on National Forest lands (Council and New Meadows Ranger Districts),

13 are on private lands, 1 is on municipal property (in the town of Bear), and 4 are

on a combination of State of Idaho, National Forest, or private lands. For several

years, population sites with the largest numbers of northern Idaho ground squirrels

have been most closely monitored by researchers. These occur within the Payette

National Forest and the privately-owned OX Ranch. Two population sites on the

OX Ranch, Squirrel Manor and Squirrel Valley, have been monitored for the longest

period of time. Sherman and Gavin (1997, 1999) and Sherman and Runge (2002)

documented the decline of the Squirrel Valley population from 120 individuals in

1987, to 10 in 1999, and Squirrel Manor had a population decline from 250

individuals in 1996, to fewer than 50 individuals in 1999. Moreover, each of four

other population sites censussed between 1998 and 1999 declined markedly. The

declines in 1999 may have been largely due to cold, spring conditions (Sherman and

Gavin 1999), whereas the longer-term declines may be related to declining habitat

conditions. In general, long-term habitat fragmentation and population declines have

resulted in small, isolated ground squirrel populations that appear to be prone to

extinction due to naturally occurring factors. In 1985, the total northern Idaho

ground squirrel population at 18 known population sites was approximately 5,000

squirrels (Yensen 1985, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1985). A 2002 estimate,

based on surveys, indicates there are approximately 450 to 500 northern Idaho

ground squirrels at 29 population sites (Haak 2003).
4

Figure 2. Range of the northern Idaho ground squirrel. 

 (Idaho Department of Fish and Game 1997)
5

Figure 3 Northern Idaho ground squirrel probable historical 

distribution map and primary and secondary metapopulation sites

(see also Table 3) (U.S. Forest Service 2003).
1

F is Federal, P is private, M is municipal, and S is State of Idaho.

2

Adjacent to, and likely to be recolonized by, Cottonwood Corral.

*See Glossary.

6

Table 1. Northern Idaho ground squirrel population sites in the Council Ranger District,

Payette National Forest. Key population estimates are based on trapping and marking of

adults and yearlings at intensive* monitoring sites from 1999 to 2001, and are based on

extensive* monitoring on an annual basis at other sites. Where 1999 to 2001 data is not

available, most recent population estimates (year of estimate) are provided.

Population Site Population Complex Population Estimate Land Ownership1

Tree Farm Summit Gulch 64+ (2002) F

Calf Pen Summit Gulch 8+ F

Summit Gulch Summit Gulch 33+ (2002) F

Cottonwood Corral Cottonwood 1 (2002) F

Cottonwood II Cottonwood 02 F

Cottonwood III Cottonwood 02 F

Mill Creek Cottonwood extirpated F

Chipmunk Springs Cottonwood 10+ (2002) F

Halfway Cottonwood 6+ (1998) P

Rocky Comfort Flat Paradise Flat 3+ (2001) P

Riley Ranch Paradise Flat 2+ (1996) P/F

Squirrel Manor Bear Creek 18+ (2002) P

Bear Cemetery Bear Creek 9 (1996) M

Squirrel Valley Bear Creek 6+ (2001) P

Lick Creek Bear Creek extirpated P

Huckleberry Bear Creek 5 P/F

Cold Springs Lick Creek Canyon 26+ (2002) F

Cold Springs East Lick Creek Canyon 5+ F

Cold Springs West Lick Creek Canyon 14+ F

Hoo Hoo Gulch Lick Creek Canyon 10+ F

Fawn Creek Lick Creek Canyon 4+ F

Roadside Lick Creek Canyon unknown F

Greenwood Hornet Creek unknown P

Greenwood II Hornet Creek unknown P
1

F is Federal, P is private, M is municipal, and S is State of Idaho.

*See Glossary.

7

Table 2. Northern Idaho ground squirrel population sites found in the New Meadows

Ranger District, Payette National Forest. Key population estimates are based on trapping

and marking of adults and yearlings at intensive* monitoring sites from 1999 to 2001,

and are based on extensive* monitoring on an annual basis at other sites.

Population Site Population Complex Population Estimate Land Ownership1

Slaughter Gulch

Campground

Lost Valley 200+ (2002) F/S

Lost Lake Lost Valley 3+ F

Lower Mud Creek Mud Creek extirpated P

New Meadow Mud Creek 3+ P

Ridgetop Mud Creek 3+ P

Upper Mud Creek Mud Creek unknown P

Price Valley - Mack Price Valley 32+ (2002) P/S

Price Valley Guard

Station

Price Valley 4+ F

Long Meadow Price Valley unknown P

Price Valley Road Price Valley extirpated P

New Meadows Little Salmon 9+ (2002) P

Van Wyck Long Valley extirpated F

Cascade Long Valley extirpated P

Herrick Corral Round Valley unknown P

Sixty Lane Round Valley extirpated P

Wood's Corral Round Valley extirpated P
8

C. Habitat

Nearly all of the meadow habitats utilized by northern Idaho ground

squirrel are bordered by coniferous forests of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa)

and/or Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). This ground squirrel is not abundant

in meadows that contain high densities of small trees (Sherman and Yensen

1994). The northern Idaho ground squirrel consumes at least 45 to 50 plant

species (Dyni and Yensen 1996). Seeds of forbs, lupines, and composites are

important, while roots, bulbs, leaf stems, and flower heads are a minor component

of their diet. Grasses and seeds are especially important, and it ingests large

amounts of bluegrass (Poa sp.) and other grass seeds to store energy for the

winter (Dyni and Yensen 1996). It often inhabits areas with shorter, sparser

vegetation than the Columbian ground squirrel. Such areas likely contain less

abundant food resources than habitats occupied by Columbian ground squirrels

(Dyni and Yensen 1996).

Between 1997 to 1999, there was an attempt to translocate squirrels into

areas where they had been recently extirpated (Gavin et al. 1998). The Summit

Gulch site (Figures 4 and 5) was intentionally burned, and squirrels were

introduced the following spring. During this first translocation attempt, none of

the squirrels survived. However, in the second year after the prescribed burn,

squirrels were again translocated and during subsequent monitoring of the site,

they appeared to survive and reproduce (Haak 2000). This translocation attempt

helped to establish the need for reintroducing fire as a means to restore and

enhance habitat, and to determine how soon after a treatment squirrels can be

translocated while still assuring survival. 

D. Life History and Ecology

The northern Idaho ground squirrel emerges in late March or early April

and remains active above ground until July or early August (Yensen 1991). 

Emergence during this period begins with adult males, followed by adult females,

and then yearlings. The northern Idaho ground squirrel becomes reproductively

active within the first 2 weeks of emergence (Yensen 1991). Females and males 
9

 Figure 4. Summit Gulch population site after a controlled burn in 1999 

(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1999).

 

 Figure 5. Summit Gulch population site 2 years after the controlled burn 

(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2001).
10

are sexually mature the first spring after birth. They produce one litter per year of

between two and seven pups, depending on the fitness of the female. Females

that survive the first winter live, on average, nearly twice as long as males (3.2

years for females and 1.7 years for males). Individual females have lived for as

long as 8 years. Males normally die at a younger age due to behavior associated

with reproductive activity. During the mating period, males move considerable

distances in search of receptive females and often fight with other males for

copulations, thereby exposing themselves to predation by raptors, such as prairie

falcons (Falco mexicanus), goshawks (Accipiter gentilis), and red-tailed hawks

(Buteo jamaicensis). Significantly more males die or disappear during the 2-week

mating period than during the rest of the 12- to 14-week period of above-ground

activity (Sherman and Yensen 1994). Seasonal torpor or hibernation generally

occurs in early to mid-July for males and females, and late July to early August

for juveniles (Yensen and Sherman 1997).

The northern Idaho ground squirrel often digs burrows under logs, rocks,

or other objects. Nesting burrows are found in soil pockets that are greater than 1

meter (3.28 feet) deep (Yensen et al. 1991, Yensen and Sherman 1997), but dry

vegetation sites with shallow soils of less than 50 centimeters (19.5 inches) depth

above bedrock are used for auxiliary burrow systems (Yensen et al. 1991). 

Although Columbian ground squirrels (Spermophilus columbianus) overlap in

distribution with the northern Idaho ground squirrel (Yensen and Sherman,

unpublished data, Dyni and Yensen 1996), Columbian ground squirrels prefer

moister areas with deeper soils. Sherman and Yensen (1994) reported that the

segregation of the two species is due to competitive exclusion as opposed to

differing habitat requirements.

E. Population Dynamics

As a result of the factors described in the Life History and Ecology

section, and due to the small sizes of the remaining population sites, the northern

Idaho ground squirrel may have little resilience to naturally occurring events. 

Small populations are often vulnerable to climatic fluctuations and catastrophic

events (Mangel and Tier 1994). In 1993, Gavin ran a computer population

viability simulation program using recruitment and death values recorded over 8
11

years from an intensively studied northern Idaho ground squirrel population site

(Gavin et al. 1999; Sherman and Yensen 1994). Variables in the model included

no natural immigration, and began the population viability analysis using 50

individuals, a figure that was 30 individuals lower than the actual population size

of 80 individuals (Sherman and Yensen 1994). The model calculated that all but

1 of 100 population sites would become extinct in less than 20 years. We

contracted with Michael Runge, U.S. Geological Survey-Patuxent Wildlife

Research Center, to develop a population model for the northern Idaho ground

squirrel (1999). The program is designed to allow the user to develop population

projections for a population site or population complex using data collected about

the demographic structure over 3 or more years. Using the assumptions of a

closed population and overwintering survival of the female and pups, this model

predicts population extinction within 7 years using current demographic trends if

no conservation measures are taken. 

F. Reasons for Decline

1. Present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of

habitat or range. The fragmented distribution of the northern Idaho ground

squirrel is a remnant of what may once have been a more continuous distribution

from Round Valley, Valley County, north to New Meadows, west to Bear, and

south to Indian Valley in Adams County, Idaho (E. Yensen, unpublished data). 

All remaining habitat sites for this ground squirrel are small in relation to those of

other species of ground squirrels, ranging from >1 to 44 hectares (>1 to 110

acres), and are threatened primarily by forest encroachment into grassland

meadows. Other threats may include residential construction, development of

recreational facilities such as golf courses, road construction and maintenance,

recreational shooting, and domestic cats.

The primary threat to the northern Idaho ground squirrel is meadow

invasion by conifers (Yensen and Sherman 1997). Fire exclusion and the dense

regrowth of conifers resulting from past logging activities have significantly

reduced meadow habitats suitable for these ground squirrels over the past 40

years (Burns and Zbrorowski 1996). As the amount of suitable meadow habitat

on public and private lands has been reduced (Truska and Yensen 1990), northern
12

Idaho ground squirrel dispersal corridors have been reduced or eliminated, further

constricting the subspecies into smaller isolated areas (Yensen and Sherman

1997). Fire suppression has allowed conifers to invade once suitable meadow

habitats, thereby shrinking the size of forb/grass meadows or closing grassy

dispersal/migration corridors to nearby meadow sites. These changes have

isolated the dry meadows with suitable shallow soils and preferred forage and

burrow habitat where the northern Idaho ground squirrel finds refuge from the

Columbian ground squirrel. Habitat fragmentation and reduced opportunities for

dispersal among habitats prevents gene flow and results in considerable

population differences (Yensen and Sherman 1997, Sherman and Runge 2002).

The loss of dispersal corridors has caused some isolated population sites

to become extirpated in recent years (Sherman and Yensen 1994; U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service 1996). Additionally, small populations at several remaining sites

are likely to become extirpated (Sherman and Yensen 1994; Mangel and Tier

1994).

For the past 70 years, agricultural conversion and rural housing

developments near the communities of Round Valley, New Meadows, and

Council, Idaho, have fragmented some suitable habitat formerly occupied by the

northern Idaho ground squirrel. During this time, extensive use of pesticides may

have reduced the range and population of northern Idaho ground squirrels

(Stoddard 2001). Various other types of developments continue to threaten

remaining occupied sites in Adams and Valley Counties. Following completion

of a golf course and associated housing development, ground squirrels were

eradicated due to their impacts to the fairways and golf greens (Yensen 1985).

A 51.6 kilometer (32 mile) gravel road from Council to Cuprum, Idaho, is

being paved in 2003 (U.S. Department of Transportation 1998). Approximately

6.5 kilometers (4 miles) of this project runs through historic and currently

occupied habitat of the northern Idaho ground squirrel. The project will also

extend seasonal vehicle access to four occupied population sites, which may

subject northern Idaho ground squirrels to increased mortality risk from higher

speeds of vehicular traffic. Recreational shooting from the road may be another

threat. A mitigation plan has been developed for the Council to Cuprum Road
13

paving project, with cooperation from the Federal Highways Administration (U.S.

Forest Service 1997). The plan identifies mitigation actions to attract northern

Idaho ground squirrels away from the paved highway and toward adjacent but

suitable habitat. Funding for this plan allows for monitoring mitigation measures

for a 3-year period after the road improvements have been made. It is uncertain

whether proposed mitigation measures are satisfactory for protecting remaining

populations in the vicinity of the road improvement project.

Currently, there is local interest in enlarging the dam and pool size of the

Lost Valley Reservoir from 1,233.5 hectare/meters to 3,700.5 hectare/meters

(10,000 acre/feet to 30,000 acre/feet) for irrigation. If this expansion occurs, it

would likely flood key habitat currently occupied by northern Idaho ground

squirrels at Slaughter Gulch, the largest known population site. This action would

require section 7 consultation because Federal land managed by the Payette

National Forest would be flooded, necessitating the acquisition of a special use

permit.

Some activities or lack of management practices on private property

appear to pose a threat to northern Idaho ground squirrels. Of the 34 extant

population sites, 13 are entirely on private property , 2 are on both private and

Federal property, and 1 is on both private and State property. Implementing

management or survey activities for northern Idaho ground squirrels requires

cooperation from private landowners. Controlled burning and reseeding are

factors crucial to the continued survival and recovery of northern Idaho ground

squirrels, but are often difficult to implement on private lands. Liability concerns

develop if a controlled fire burned beyond its intended limits. Reseeding with

suitable native forbs and grasses is important to establish appropriate food sources

for ground squirrels and other animals. Access to private lands is often denied to

agency biologists and researchers, which curtails population site monitoring and

habitat restoration activities. The exception to this issue has been the OX Ranch

owners and manager, and another private landowner, Bob Mack, who have

worked cooperatively with us by allowing access to their lands for researchers

and agency biologists to monitor populations and examine habitat conditions.
14

2. Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational

purposes. Recreational shooting has contributed to the decline of northern Idaho

ground squirrels at more than four sites (Yensen, pers. comm.). Sites adjacent to

roads in particular are subject to a high rate of recreational shootings, and several

incidents of shooting northern Idaho ground squirrels have been documented

(Yensen, pers. comm.). Scientific collection of ground squirrels potentially could

adversely impact this subspecies; however, less than 30 were taken during the

past 20 years for museum collections. More recently, no known mortality of

northern Idaho ground squirrels has occurred through live-trapping and relocation

studies by research scientists handling, weighing, or temporarily marking over

1,100 squirrels (Sherman and Yensen 1994; Haak 2000).

3. Disease and predation. Disease is not thought to be a major factor

affecting the northern Idaho ground squirrel. The parasitic nematode (Pelodera

strongyloides) infects the eyes of the northern Idaho ground squirrel (Sherman

and Yensen 1994), but is not currently known to be a cause of mortality in

existing populations (Yensen et al. 1996). Plague (Yersina pestis), a contagious

bacterial disease in rodents, has not yet been found in northern Idaho ground

squirrel populations (Yensen et al. 1996). The disease, once established, could

potentially decimate squirrel populations. Blood analysis to determine whether

diseases are present has not been done on the northern Idaho ground squirrel.

The primary predators of the northern Idaho ground squirrel include

badger (Taxidea taxus), northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), prairie falcon

(Falco mexicanus) ,and occasionally red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis). 

Predators may threaten many of the smaller, more isolated population sites of this

ground squirrel. Badger activity has been noted at several of these sites (Sherman

and Gavin 1997; Haak 2000; Haak 2001; Bangerter, pers. comm.). Badgers are

efficient predators and could potentially eliminate a small population in just a few

days. Domestic cats have contributed to the decline of the northern Idaho ground

squirrel at some sites (Yensen, pers. comm.). Male ground squirrels, due to their

above-ground behavior patterns, are particularly vulnerable to predation during

the mating season. Juveniles are subject to a high degree of predation during their

first year (Sherman and Yensen 1994).
15

4. Inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms. The State of Idaho

recognizes the northern Idaho ground squirrel as a Species of Special Concern

(Idaho Department of Fish and Game 1992). Because of this status, the northern

Idaho ground squirrel is protected from taking (i.e., shooting, trapping, and

poisoning) or possession by State law. In 1997, the Idaho Department of Fish and

Game classified the northern Idaho ground squirrel as a Protected Nongame

Species, making it illegal to collect, harm, or otherwise remove from its natural

habitat (Idaho Department of Fish and Game 1997). Historically, protection from

recreational shooting has not been adequately enforced (Yensen, pers. comm.). 

The Idaho Department of Fish and Game has begun to address this issue and has

recently produced signs prohibiting shooting of northern Idaho ground squirrels. 

Local land use ordinances and other regulations are inadequate for the

protection of this subspecies. For example, in four of the existing population sites

in Adams County, land use regulations allow for single and multiple housing

development under a permit system. There is no consideration under the permit

system for impacts to northern Idaho ground squirrels from housing or recreation

developments in or adjacent to their habitat. With no limitations on development,

it is anticipated that future human population growth and development will

eliminate some existing ground squirrel population sites.

5. Other natural or manmade factors affecting continued existence. Land

ownership patterns, prelisting activities, and existing conservation efforts on

private and public lands affect the conservation of this subspecies. Competitive

exclusion for forage and behavioral displacement by Columbian ground squirrels

are known to cause local population declines of the northern Idaho ground

squirrel (Yensen, pers. comm.; Dyni and Yensen 1996). The northern Idaho

ground squirrel may have been forced into areas of shallower soils due to

competition from Columbian ground squirrels (Yensen, pers. comm.; Sherman

and Yensen 1994). The Columbian ground squirrel is larger and prefers areas

with deeper soils that provide better over-winter protection and higher nutrients. 

Typically their burrow systems are associated with well-drained soils and higher

productivity.
16

Winter mortality may contribute to northern Idaho ground squirrel decline,

especially when juvenile squirrels enter hibernation without sufficient fat

reserves. Soils also tend to freeze to greater depths where snow levels are

insufficient. When this occurs, northern Idaho ground squirrels are unable to

thermoregulate or maintain sufficient fat reserves. Although the relationship

between ground squirrels and weather is complex (Yensen et al. 1992),

population sites may have been adversely affected by drought and over-winter

mortality in the early 1990's. Winter mortality is of special concern since many

remaining sites contain few individuals. High winter mortality combined with

loss of suitable vegetation conditions can result in the permanent loss of isolated

populations.

G. Conservation Measures

1. Federal Programs. Section 7(a) of the Endangered Species Act

requires Federal agencies to evaluate their actions with respect to any species that

is proposed or listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its critical

habitat, if designated. Federal agencies are required to ensure that any activity

they authorize, fund, or carry out is not likely to jeopardize the continued

existence of a listed species or to destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. 

If a Federal action may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the responsible

agency must enter into formal consultation with us. Extant populations of

northern Idaho ground squirrels found on Federal land are managed by the

Payette National Forest. In addition, sections 2(c)(1) and 7(a)(1) of the

Endangered Species Act require Federal agencies to utilize their authorities in

furtherance of the purposes of the Endangered Species Act to carry out

conservation programs for endangered and threatened species.

All other extant populations of northern Idaho ground squirrels are located

on lands owned by the State of Idaho, a municipality, or by private landowners. 

However, projects authorized or funded by various Federal agencies, or requiring

Federal permits could affect the subspecies and are subject to section 7

consultation. Such federally funded projects, including road construction or

maintenance and habitat enhancement projects for northern Idaho ground

squirrels and other rare species, are subject to section 7 review.
17

A cooperative agreement between us and U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Wildlife Services was signed on June 29, 2001, to provide predator control relief

to key populations of northern Idaho ground squirrels. This short-term agreement

expired on September 31, 2001. We may develop a long-term agreement with

U.S.D.A. Wildlife Services, Idaho Department of Fish and Game, and the Payette

National Forest to provide for predator control at essential population sites and

complexes.

A conservation agreement between us and the Payette National Forest was

finalized in July 1996, establishing the Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel

Conservation Committee. The agreement was set for a duration of 5 years (U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service 1996). It was renewed in 2001, and identified

conservation and land management actions that provide habitat favorable to the

northern Idaho ground squirrel. In 2003, we created a Technical Working Group

to further assist with recovery planning and implementation efforts for the

squirrel. These actions, some already in the implementation phase, include

controlled burning of selected meadows to reduce overstory and to improve

forage preferred by the northern Idaho ground squirrel, timber harvest in selected

areas to open meadows where active population sites are found, and timber

harvest to provide dispersal corridors to improve connectivity between active

populations (U.S. Forest Service 2000). For example, 3.3 million board feet of

timber is proposed for harvest in Lick Creek drainage during the next 5 years. 

The sale is designed to reconnect an active population site with other nearby

population sites. It will also expand the size of 12 unoccupied meadow habitats

on Federal lands that are suitable for recolonization by the northern Idaho ground

squirrel. 

In 2000, we funded a 3-year study to determine the protein and lipid

content of northern Idaho ground squirrel key forage plants. Additionally, a

supplemental feeding program was initiated at four sites in 2001, to determine the

feasibility of increasing the weight of northern Idaho ground squirrels prior to

hibernation.

A comprehensive population monitoring program was started by the Idaho

Department of Fish and Game in 1999, and has continued through 2002. The
18

Idaho Department of Fish and Game, through Endangered Species Act section 6

funding, has monitored key population sites and conducted surveys for additional

population sites on an annual basis. Long-term monitoring efforts are expected to

continue for the duration of recovery efforts. Annual monitoring reports are

published. As a result of these and other surveys, nine new population sites have

been found in the past 5 years. 

A Safe Harbor Agreement, authorized under section 10 of the Endangered

Species Act, was finalized in 2000, and covers 1.67 of 4.68 hectares (5 of 14

acres) of one private land parcel (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000c). This has

allowed us to apply various conservation actions to maintain ground squirrels at

the Price Valley-Mack population site. The agreement remains in effect for 20

years and expires on September 17, 2020.

A 5-year Habitat Management Plan is being implemented by the Payette

National Forest to improve habitat at population sites, which will provide higher

quality forage and burrows. Habitat restoration by the Payette National Forest

has had a positive effect on northern Idaho ground squirrel populations. For

example, thinning and burning at Summit Gulch, in 1996, significantly increased

the amount of suitable habitat, and the population of northern Idaho ground

squirrel has increased to 33. At Tree Farm, thinning and burning initiated in

2000, has increased the population from 14 to 64 individuals (Haak 2003). There

are other examples of habitat improvement due to these efforts by the Forest

Service. 

Critical habitat has not been designated for this subspecies because it was

determined that it would not benefit the species. 

2. Non-Federal Programs. Through access and cooperation of the OX

Ranch owners and manager, researchers have intensively studied the demography

of the northern Idaho ground squirrels since 1987, at four population sites: 

Squirrel Manor, Bear Cemetery, Squirrel Valley and Lick Creek (Sherman and

Runge 2002). In 2001, the OX Ranch manager conducted a controlled burn of

about 50 hectares (200 acres) in the area of the Squirrel Valley population site. 

Idaho Department of Fish and Game biologists are monitoring squirrel
19

populations on the OX Ranch in 2003. Other observations and insights about

northern Idaho ground squirrel behavior and population numbers have been

provided to researchers and biologists by the OX Ranch Assistant Manager. A

reintroduction plan, developed by scientists from Cornell University in Ithaca,

New York, and Albertson College of Idaho in Caldwell, Idaho, was initiated in

the spring of 1997, and continued in 1998. A total of 76 northern Idaho ground

squirrels were transplanted to 2 sites that had been treated through burning and

timber harvest (Sherman and Gavin 1997; Gavin et al. 1998). Both treated sites

are on lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service and were selected because they

had recently supported northern Idaho ground squirrels. Results at the Summit

Gulch population site were positive and this population increased to 33

individuals. However, relocation of northern Idaho ground squirrels was not

successful at the Cottonwood Corrals population site, probably due to predators

and improper habitat restoration. Long-term benefits from these relocations will

not be known for several years.
20

II. RECOVERY

A. Recovery Plan Objective

The ultimate goal of this recovery plan is to improve the status of the

northern Idaho ground squirrel so the subspecies can be delisted. It would be

eligible for delisting consideration when populations are self-sustaining, secure,

and meet the criteria listed below.

B. Recovery Criteria

Due to the restricted geographic range and low numbers, the populations

must be increased and stabilized. The only historical population level recorded

was approximately 5,000 individuals (Yensen 1985). This 1985 estimate was

made for populations judged to be in decline based on existing habitat reductions

due to fire suppression and meadow encroachment. After restoration treatments

of burning, for example, ground squirrels quickly populated sites, indicating that

habitat loss had resulted in their decline. Hence, the recovery target needs to be

higher than the conservative historical estimate 5,000 individuals, and is based on

an effective population size (Ne) of greater than 5,000 individuals. 

 Metapopulation sites, encompassing networks of population sites, were

mapped by biologists conducting on-the-ground surveys to delineate elevation,

slope, soil type, and other factors contributing to habitat that could be utilized by

northern Idaho ground squirrels (see Figure 3 and Table 3). All of the known

population sites (Tables 1 and 2) fall within the metapopulation sites identified. 

Metapopulation sites were divided into two categories reflecting the timing, but

not necessarily the priority, of our ability to conduct recovery activities on them

(Table 3). The 12 primary sites are predominantly on lands administered by the

U.S. Forest Service, are currently available for restoration and monitoring

activities, and are managed under the Northwest Forest Plan which makes

recovery of the northern Idaho ground squirrel a high priority. The five

secondary sites are predominantly on private lands where easements, safe harbor

agreements, or other negotiations will need to occur before recovery activities can

begin.
1

Primary metapopulation sites are predominantly on lands administered by the Forest Service, but there are

some State and private lands included. Secondary metapopulation sites are predominantly on private lands

that could be useful in the recovery of the subspecies if landowners are willing to participate in this

conservation effort. 

21

Table 3. Northern Idaho ground squirrel primary and secondary potential

metapopulation sites1 and land ownership (the exact limits of these sites will be

determined and are expected to change as new information becomes available). 

(See also Figure 3.)

Primary Metapopulation Sites Ownership(s)

1. Lost Valley - Slaughter Gulch Federal, State, Private

2. Tree Farm - Calf Pen - Summit Federal

3. Bear Meadows Complex - Rocky Comfort Flat Federal, Private

4. Lick Creek Canyon (Fawn Creek to upper Lick

Creek)

Federal

5. Price Valley Federal, State, Private

6. Paradise Flat - Ditch Creek Road Federal, Private

7. Cottonwood - Halfway - Mill Creek Federal, Private

8. Huckleberry - Mesa Federal, Private

9. Chipmunk Springs Federal

10. Johnson Creek - Pole Creek Federal

11. Warm Springs - Fruitvale Federal

12. West Mountain Federal

Secondary Metapopulation Sites Ownership(s)

1. Mud Creek Private

2. New Meadows Private

3. North Hornet area Private

4. Ecks Flat - Rock Flat - Big Creek Federal, Private

5. Round Valley Private
22

Recovery will be accomplished by protecting and enhancing sufficient

habitat on private and public lands to maintain at least 10 functioning

metapopulations of Ne > 500 each throughout the probable presettlement

distribution in Adams and Valley Counties, Idaho (Figure 3, Table 3). At least 10

metapopulations will allow enough genetic diversity to sustain the subspecies. 

While the Ne for each metapopulation may vary depending on carrying capacity,

an Ne of at least 500 at each would total greater than 5,000, and ensure stability

for the subspeces. 

Delisting may be considered when all of the following conditions have

been met:

1. Of the 17 potential metapopulations that have been identified within the

probable historic distribution, there must be at least 10 metapopulations

(Table 3, Figure 3), each maintaining an average effective population size

of greater than 500 for 5 consecutive years. 

2. The area occupied by a minimum of 10 potential metapopulation sites

must be protected. In order for an area to be deemed protected, it must be: 

(1) owned or managed by a government agency with appropriate

management standards in place; (2) managed by a conservation

organization that identifies maintenance of the subspecies as the primary

objective for the area; or, (3) on private lands with a long-term

conservation easement or covenant that commits present and future

landowners to the perpetuation of the subspecies.

3. Plans have been completed for the continued ecological management of

habitats for a minimum of 10 potential metapopulation sites.

4. A post-delisting monitoring plan covering a minimum of 10 potential

metapopulation sites has been completed and is ready for implementation.
23

C. Recovery Strategy

1. Restore and Maintain Habitat 

Thinning, burning, reseeding, livestock grazing, and other measures are necessary

management tools for habitat restoration and maintenance. Site-specific habitat

management plans for primary metapopulation sites will need to be completed

within 2 years of this Recovery Plan, and as stipulated by the Payette National

Forest in their Land and Resource Management Plan. The following management

tools and sociological considerations should be used to create the habitat at

appropriate stages of ecological succession: 

Development of site-specific management plans for primary metapopulation sites

• Consider compatible human uses;

• Assess potential forestry practices;

• Conduct plant community composition analysis.

Restoration of habitat

• Thinning and burning;

• Reseeding with native grass and forb species; 

• Livestock management.

Maintenance of appropriate habitat

• Prescribed burning at site-specific intervals;

• Vegetation management (e.g., noxious weed control);

• Grazing regimes appropriate to each site.

Implementation of actions to protect known population sites on State of Idaho,

municipal, and private lands

• Seek the cooperation of State of Idaho, private, and municipal

landowners to protect known northern Idaho ground squirrel

population sites;

• Monitor the success of the Safe Harbor Agreement on private

lands. 
24

2. Conduct Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Population Actions 

The following actions should be implemented in coordination with the technical

working group to further the recovery of the subspecies:

Translocation into existing populations

Translocation will almost certainly be necessary to increase genetic diversity

(Gavin et al. 1999). Improved release techniques are needed to ensure higher

survival rates after translocation. Because of the high loss involved in

translocations, a translocation program should be combined with captive

breeding. A translocation program will necessitate a monitoring program to

evaluate methods and success.

Reintroduction (within the probable historic distribution)

Establishing new populations within formerly occupied habitats will be important

to some of the metapopulations.

Captive propagation

Captive breeding may be necessary to curtail extinction of the subspecies due to 

catastrophic events. Captive breeding programs should utilize nationally

established zoological standards, require American Association of Zoos and

Aquariums certification, and be based on research recommendations. This would

ensure a varied gene pool, as well as additional opportunities for research,

education, and public relations. 

Research studies

More information is needed on the following topics to guide recovery:

Habitat

• Nutrient cycling and availability during early succession

(post-fire succession);

• Fire regime at each site;

• Effects of livestock grazing.
25

Ground squirrel ecology

• Diet and nutrition;

• Overwinter survival (weather, supplemental feeding, etc.);

• Diseases, especially plague;

• Contaminants (e.g., pesticides).

Population genetics

• Genetics and dispersal in small, isolated populations;

• Estimation of effective population sizes;

• Captive breeding for population augmentation;

• Evaluation of translocation techniques.

Law enforcement

• Assess threats from recreational shooting;

• Conduct gopher poisoning; 

• Encourage enforcement of existing Payette National Forest

regulations.

Predator management

• Identify site-specific predators;

• Assess seasonal impact of predators on known northern Idaho

ground squirrel populations;

• Implement predator management actions.

Competitor management

• Assess impacts of competitors;

• Implement competitor management actions.

3. Monitor Habitat and Populations

Ground squirrel habitat monitoring

Monitoring of ecological succession and the outcome of habitat restoration

actions will be necessary to assess the implementation, effectiveness, and

validation of recovery efforts. At a minimum, the following actions will be

needed:
26

• Establish vegetation plots and transects;

• Monitor outcome of vegetative treatments (e.g., thinning, burns,

and reseeding efforts).

Ground squirrel population monitoring

Monitoring the implementation, effectiveness, and validation of recovery efforts

will be necessary to assess the outcome of population recovery actions. At a

minimum, the following actions will be needed:

• Refine standardized protocols for metapopulation monitoring

(must be both intensive and extensive);

• Monitor annual population size and trajectory;

• Monitor prehibernation and emergence weight;

• Monitor overwintering survival for each age class and sex;

• Determine sex ratios and age structure;

• Monitor reproduction.

Ground squirrel surveys

Continued surveys will be useful to the recovery effort because additional

populations provide more management options. Surveying will be done within

the probable historical distribution of the subspecies. Methodologies to survey

for squirrels need to be standardized to ensure information collected can be used

for multiple purposes. The following protocols need to be established:

• Survey timing (seasonality);

• Survey intensity for detectability;

• Reporting format.

4. Coordinate the Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Recovery Program

Establishment of an Interagency Program Coordinator

A coordinator will help to integrate ongoing programs, seek funding, develop

grant proposals, promote research and education opportunities, and manage the

database. The coordinator is an ex-officio member of the technical working

group, and helps with implementing recommendations of the group.
27

Maintainance of a Technical Working Group

A technical working group is needed to implement the science-based species

recovery plan. This group should be comprised of scientists from each of the

participating agencies and academia, and should include a range of technical

expertise and resources (e.g., grazing, timber, wildlife, and research). 

Development and evaluation of a public outreach program

• Develop posters for distribution that identify the northern Idaho

ground squirrel, its distribution, and threats;

• Create audio-visual programs that tell the northern Idaho ground

squirrel recovery story;

• Make media contacts for promoting northern Idaho ground squirrel

protection.

Development and maintainance of a central database

Habitat, management (burning, thinning, etc.), monitoring, and Geographic

Information System data are currently being maintained by the U.S. Forest

Service. The Idaho Department of Fish and Game is maintaining northern Idaho

ground squirrel population data. Collecting and maintaining all data in a

consistent format will help ensure productive management of the subspecies. 

Assessment of recovery plan implementation and revision if necessary 

Establishment of northern Idaho ground squirrel as a Payette National Forest

Management Indicator Species for grassland communities
28

D. Date of Recovery

Because of the high probability of genetic change in existing populations

(Gavin et al. 1999), and because ground squirrels can respond rapidly to

environmental changes, either positively or negatively (Runge 1999), it is

imperative that recovery implementation be initiated without delay. The Runge

(1999) population viability model predicted that the subspecies could go extinct

within 7 years under the 1999 demographic trends (prior to the subspecies being

listed under the Endangered Species Act of 1973) if no conservation measures are 

taken. However, recovery can also be rapid if recovery actions are implemented. 

If recovery actions produce positive responses at each metapopulation site, the

delisting could be initiated by 2010. 
29

III. RECOVERY ACTION NARRATIVE

1. Restore and maintain habitat. Numerous actions related to habitat

improvement for northern Idaho ground squirrel are taking place that appear to be

beneficial to the subspecies. The majority of the actions identified here will be

focused on the 12 primary metapopulation sites. 

1.1 Restore and maintain habitat on Federal lands. The majority of

extant squirrel populations currently exist on public land. The Forest

Service should utilize their authorities to further the conservation of the

subspecies. 

1.1.1 Restore Habitat. Utilize a variety of tools to restore

potential, but currently unoccupied, habitats within the probable

historical distribution of the subspecies. 

1.1.1.1 Thinning and burning. Utilize low-intensity

prescribed broadcast burns to enhance/rejuvenate the

grass/forb component. Fires aid in nutrient release, as well

as help in reducing tree and brush densities, and lower

vegetation height, which is important to ground squirrels. 

Mechanical thinning of trees and brush will also be used in

conjunction with prescribed burns. 

1.1.1.2 Reseeding. It will be necessary to utilize native

(locally collected) grass and forb species to expedite

restoration. 

1.1.1.3 Livestock management. Grazing may be used as a

management tool, where appropriate, to help in the

restoration of optimal habitat, pending the results of

research (see Action 2.4.1.3). Grazing management may

potentially include strategies such as short-term and earlyseason intense grazing, fencing recently thinned and burned

areas, or other measures as appropriate. 
30

1.1.2 Maintain appropriate habitat. Habitat that is currently

occupied by squirrels must be maintained in early seral stages

appropriate for the subspecies. This can be accomplished via the

following actions:

1.1.2.1 Prescribed burning. As with the restoration of

habitat, prescribed low-intensity burns will be utilized to

ensure the appropriate grass/forb component is maintained

at ground squirrel sites and the corridors connecting them.

1.1.2.2 Vegetation management. An aggressive noxious

weed control effort may be necessary after thinning and

burning. 

1.1.2.3 Grazing regimes. Grazing may be used as a

management tool, where appropriate, to help in the

restoration of optimal habitat, pending the results of

research (see Action 2.4.1.3). Grazing management may

potentially include strategies such as short-term and earlyseason intense grazing, fencing recently thinned and burned

areas, or other measures as appropriate. 

1.1.3 Review and renew our Memorandum of Understanding

with the Payette National Forest. A conservation agreement

(now a Memorandum of Understanding) between the Payette

National Forest and us was signed in 1996, and renewed in 2001. 

The success of this agreement should be reviewed and updated

every 5 years.
31

1.2 Implement actions to protect known northern Idaho ground

squirrel population sites on State of Idaho, municipal, and private

lands. Several northern Idaho ground squirrel population sites occur on

non-Federal lands. Efforts should focus on cooperative actions to protect

and enhance existing population sites on these lands.

1.2.1 Seek the cooperation of State of Idaho, private, and

municipal landowners to protect known northern Idaho

ground squirrel population sites. Efforts should be made to

seek the cooperation of State, municipal, and private landowners

where known population sites area located. Cooperation should

include conserving habitat and allowing experimental habitat

manipulation for study and monitoring (see actions below for

monitoring). Various means to protect northern Idaho ground

squirrel habitat can be utilized, including seeking conservation

easements, developing management plans and habitat conservation

plans, revising land use regulations to protect habitats, and other

voluntary or permitted conservation actions. It may be desirable to

establish metapopulations on private land, if agreeable landowners

can be enlisted. 

1.2.2 Monitor the success of the Safe Harbor Agreement on

private lands. A Safe Harbor Agreement, authorized under

section 10 of the Endangered Species Act, was finalized in 2000,

and covers 1.67 of 4.68 hectares (5 of 14 acres) of one private land

parcel (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2000c). This has allowed

us to apply various conservation actions to maintain ground

squirrels at the Price Valley-Mack population site. The agreement

remains in effect for 20 years and expires on September 17, 2020. 

Monitoring of these types of agreements should be part of an

overall monitoring effort on private lands.

1.2.3 Develop additional Safe Harbor Agreements on private

lands as appropriate.
32

1.3 Develop site-specific management plans for each metapopulation.

Each metapopulation should have a management plan that outlines needed

enhancement and maintenance of habitat for the subspecies. 

 

2. Conduct northern Idaho ground squirrel recovery actions. A number of

recovery actions have been identified by the technical working group to ensure

the survival and recovery of the subspecies, and to maintain genetic diversity

within and between metapopulations. 

2.1 Develop a translocation plan - population genetics management.

Develop and implement a plan for translocation of squirrels into restored

sites, and supplementation of small populations to ensure genetic

diversity. The plan will involve developing a genetics library, cataloging

the genetic history of each pup released, and maintaining a genetics “map”

of each population site. Translocations, supplementations, and

reintroductions should be done within the 12 primary metapopulation

sites. These actions are also encouraged on a willing landowner basis for

the five secondary metapopulation sites.

2.1.1 Supplement existing populations. Squirrels will be

translocated into existing populations to augment those

populations and increase genetic diversity.

2.1.2 Translocate into restored sites. Following habitat

restoration, squirrels will be translocated into historical sites.

Boundaries of metapopulation sites may be redrawn as they prove

successful over the long term. 

2.2 Reintroduce ground squirrels (within the probable historic

distribution). In addition to supplementing active population sites with

squirrels, there may also be the need for developing and implementing a

plan for reintroducing the subspecies into restored (unoccupied) habitats

within the probable historic distribution to further improve the

metapopulation viability.
33

2.2.1 Develop a reintroduction plan. Plans to ensure a low

mortality rate among transplanted squirrels will be necessary (see

Action 2.4.3.4).

2.2.2 Implement reintroductions.

2.3 Captive propagation. Captive breeding may be necessary as a hedge

against the total extinction of the subspecies due to catastrophic events, to

ensure a varied gene pool, to provide additional opportunities for research,

and to help the public better understand the importance of northern Idaho

ground squirrel recovery. 

2.3.1 Coordinate and assist Zoo Boise and other accredited

zoos in captive breeding and exhibition of northern Idaho

ground squirrel.

2.4 Conduct Research Studies. Because of limited existing data on the

subspecies, more information will be needed on the following topics to

help guide the recovery effort:

2.4.1 Habitat related studies. These include the following:

 2.4.1.1 Nutrient cycling and availability during early

succession (post-fire succession). It is important to know

if the plants at a site have sufficient nutritional quality and

productivity, and how nutrient availability in plants

changes over time during post-fire succession. 

 2.4.1.2 Fire regime at each site. It is important to

understand the fire regime at each site in order to develop

and implement site-specific management plans for

maintaining appropriate seral stages and plant community

composition.
34

2.4.1.3 Effects of livestock grazing. Specific studies are

needed to assist habitat restoration and maintenance efforts

(see Action 1.1 and 1.2 above).

2.4.2 Ground squirrel ecology studies. In order to better

manage the subspecies, more information is needed on aspects of

northern Idaho ground squirrel life history and ecology. At a

minimum, the following studies need to be conducted:

2.4.2.1 Diet and nutrition. We need to understand which

species of plants are important in northern Idaho ground

squirrel diets, if these species are present in adequate

amounts on the study sites, and if these species have

adequate nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, and essential

fatty acids required for hibernation).

2.4.2.2 Overwinter survival (weather, supplemental

feeding, hibernaculum, etc.). Studies indicate that highest

mortality occurs during winter because many northern

Idaho ground squirrels do not survive hibernation. We

need to determine the minimum weights needed by the

squirrels before entering hibernation, and if there is a

correlation between snowpack depth and duration, soil

depths, hibernaculum characteristics, and the survival of 

northern Idaho ground squirrels.

 2.4.2.3 Diseases, especially plague. Because certain

epizootics such as plague are known to extirpate entire

populations of rodents, there is a need to understand the

vulnerability of northern Idaho ground squirrels to potential

ground squirrel diseases. 
35

2.4.2.4 Contaminants (pesticides, rodenticides,

herbicides, fungicides, gopher control) on private and

public lands. Rodenticides and other pesticides are still

being used on both public and private lands. Although they

have not been identified as a threat to the ground squirrel, 

there is a need to study and monitor the effects of these

pesticides within and adjacent to northern Idaho ground

squirrel populations sites.

2.4.2.5 Dispersal. The rate, timing, and age of dispersal of

northern Idaho ground squirrels from their natal sites is

unknown. However, in order to establish successfully

functioning metapopulations, it is important to know how

far northern Idaho ground squirrels disperse under a variety

of conditions. Timing and age of dispersal is important for

planning successful translocation, supplementation, and

reintroduction programs. It may be possible to utilize

information from surrogate ground squirrel species being

studied (e.g., southern Idaho ground squirrels, Pauite

ground squirrel, etc.).

2.4.3 Northern Idaho ground squirrel population genetics.

Northern Idaho ground squirrel populations are known to be

impacted by genetic drift (Gavin et al. 1999). It is imperative to

monitor and prevent genetic deterioration of the populations. The

following are needed:

2.4.3.1 Genetics and dispersal in small, isolated

populations. A radio-tracking study could help us

determine ages, rates, timing, and distances of dispersal

from natal sites.

2.4.3.2 Estimation of effective population sizes. 
36

2.4.3.3 Captive breeding for population augmentation.

Captive breeding populations should be established in

certified facilities. Studbooks and other record-keeping

efforts will help track genetics of the captive individuals. 

This will enable reintroduced individuals to contribute

maximally to the genetic diversity of wild populations upon

their release. 

2.4.3.4 Evaluation of translocation techniques.

Released animals must be monitored to ensure that efforts

are successful and to prevent waste of resources and

individual squirrels. Release techniques should be

evaluated and improved. Information needs include soft

release techniques, movements of released individuals,

genetic contribution of released individuals, and long-term

success.

2.5 Continue law enforcement. Current regulation and laws will need to

be aggressively enforced in order to prevent loss of the few remaining

individual Northern Idaho ground squirrels. Law enforcement must go

hand-in-hand with a well-executed public outreach effort.

2.5.1 Enforcement of existing Payette National Forest

regulations. Payette National Forest regulations currently control

off-road travel, dispersed recreation, firearms, etc. which give the

northern Idaho ground squirrel adequate protection. The Payette

National Forest should continue to enforce existing regulations.

2.5.2 Recreational Shooting. Recreational shooting should be

discouraged through public outreach, and aggressive law

enforcement if outreach efforts fail.

2.6 Manage predators. A badger can severely reduce or eliminate a

small ground squirrel population. Live-trapping and relocation, or

predator control as a conservation tool, may need to be invoked at specific
37

sites on an as-needed basis. Control and management of other potential

predators (i.e., raptors, domestic cats, etc.) is probably unnecessary or

impractical. 

2.7 Manage competitors. Columbian ground squirrels compete with

northern Idaho ground squirrels. Once habitat restoration occurs,

Columbian ground squirrels could move in. A site-specific plan detailing

management of both species is necessary to recover northern Idaho ground

squirrels, and maintain Columbian ground squirrels at reasonable levels. 

Occasional capture, translocation, or disposal of Columbian ground

squirrels may be needed at some sites.

 

3. Monitor habitat and populations. It will be necessary to monitor the

effectiveness of efforts to improve habitat and the population response to the

management for successful recovery.

3.1 Habitat Monitoring. In order to monitor habitat changes after

restoration treatments, the following need to be completed:

3.1.1 Establish vegetation plots and transects. Permanent longterm plots and transects should be established in occupied and

unoccupied habitats to measure habitat change over time. These

plots and transects will be established as part of the site-specific

management plan for each of the metapopulations developed.

3.1.2 Monitor the outcome of vegetative treatments (e.g.,

thinning, burning, and reseeding). The established plots and

transects should be monitored to determine vegetation changes in

each of the habitats. The results of this monitoring will guide

future management actions (i.e., thinning and burning,

reintroduction, livestock grazing, etc.).

3.2 Ground Squirrel Population Monitoring. Monitoring of succession

and the outcome of habitat restoration actions will be necessary to assess

the implementation, effectiveness, and validation of recovery efforts. At a
38

minimum, the following should be implemented and presented in the

annual monitoring report:

3.2.1 Refine standardized protocols for metapopulation

monitoring. 

3.2.2 Monitor annual population size and trajectory.

3.2.3 Monitor pre-hibernation and emergence weight.

3.2.4 Monitor overwintering survival for each age class and

sex.

3.2.5 Determine sex ratios and age structure.

3.2.6 Monitor reproduction.

3.3 Ground Squirrel Surveys. Continued surveys are necessary to

identify additional populations, and may provide information that could

improve subspecies management. Surveying should be conducted within

the probable historical distribution of the subspecies. Methodologies for

surveying ground squirrels need to be standardized to ensure information

collected can be used for multiple purposes. The following need to be

considered:

3.3.1 Establish protocols. The protocols should be developed by

the technical working group with input from other specialists.

 3.3.1.1 Conduct surveys.

3.3.2 Standardized reporting format. A standardized reporting

format will allow data to be collected in a consistent manner. 

4. Coordinate the northern Idaho ground squirrel recovery program.

Restoration, recovery, and monitoring activities would benefit from a program
39

coordinator and a technical working group. The technical group needs

representation of a variety of technical experts (e.g., for grazing, timber, wildlife,

and research). The coordinator helps implement the recommendations of the

technical team.

4.1 Establish an Interagency Program Coordinator. A program

coordinator was hired in 2003, to integrate ongoing programs, seek

funding and develop grant proposals, and promote research and outreach. 

The coordinator is also the manager for the database, and an ex-officio

member of the technical working group. 

4.2 Maintain Technical Working Group Guidance. In order to

implement a science-based species recovery plan, there is a need for a

technical working group to help with northern Idaho ground squirrel

recovery program coordination. This group should be comprised of

scientists from each of the participating agencies and academia, and

should be formalized in order to facilitate implementation of the recovery

effort.

4.3 Develop, evaluate, and update a public outreach program and

materials for northern Idaho ground squirrel recovery. Recovery of

the northen Idaho ground squirrel will be promoted by working with

others to conserve and protect the subspecies. An informed public should

be more interested in the recovery of the subspecies. The general public

and all interested parties (such as elected officials; local, county, State,

Federal agencies; private landowners; livestock industry; nongovernmental organizations; and conservation organizations) should have

access to all information regarding the northern Idaho ground squirrel. 

The public information and outreach program should provide

opportunities for the public to hear about northern Idaho ground squirrel

biology, its importance in the ecosystem, threats, conservation

measures/protection, and recovery success stories. A multi-faceted

program should be developed, possibly including:
40

a) Print materials (timely news releases, news articles, posters,

flyers, a ground squirrel guide, game regulation write-ups, and

technical posters for symposia);

b) Audio-visual programs (video and radio Public Service

Announcements, and PowerPoint presentations);

c) Educational presentations (school visits, outdoor recreation

symposia, Zoo Boise tours, and higher education activities);

d) Media (print/TV/radio).

This program will be designed, implemented, and evaluated in cooperation

with recovery team members from various agencies and private landowner

groups, including information and public affairs specialists.

4.4 Develop and maintain a central database for northern Idaho

ground squirrel information. A central database should be established

that contains information regarding the location of existing populations,

and any new population sites discovered. Past records of northern Idaho

ground squirrels should be collected and organized. Records should be

entered on quadrangle and geographic information system maps, and

keyed to supporting narrative data. Narrative data should include as much

information as possible concerning field conditions, observers, dates,

times, numbers and gender of squirrels, pertinent biological correlates, and

the type of observation. These records and the geographic information

system habitat maps should be updated regularly. An effort should be

made to conduct a sensitivity analysis using the data collected. Data will

be more easily shared among appropriate individuals.

4.5 Assess implementation of the recovery plan and revise as

necessary. This recovery plan should be reviewed and revised as

necessary or as new information becomes available. Establishing a

recovery implementation team may be necessary to coordinate recovery

actions. 
41

4.6 Establish northern Idaho ground squirrel as a Payette National

Forest Management Indicator Species for grassland communities.

The northern Idaho ground squirrel is associated with grassland/shrub

communities within the Payette National Forest. By officially establishing

the northern Idaho ground squirrel as a management indicator species, and

by monitoring its populations, the condition and vigor of associated

animal and plant species can be determined.
42

Table 4. Cross-reference of recovery actions and listing factors for the northern Idaho ground squirrel.

ListingFactor

Threat Still A

Threat?

Recovery Actions Recovery

Criteria

A Forest encroachment into grassland

meadows/fire suppression

Yes 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3, 1.3, 2.1, 2.3,

2.5.1.1, 2.5.1.2, 2.5.1.3, 3.1,4.0,4.6

1,2,3,4

A Conversion of meadows to agriculture Yes 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.2.1, 1.3, 2.5.1,

2.4.3.1, 2.4.3.2, 2.5.2, 3.1, 3.3,4.3, 4.4, 4.6

1,3,4

A Grazing practices Unknown/

NeedsEvaluation

1.1.1.3, 1.1.2.2, 1.1.2.3, 2.5.1.3,2.5.2.1, 2.5.2.2, 2.5.2.4, 2.5.2,2.8, 3.1.1, 4.6

1,2,3,4

A Residential construction Yes 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.3, 2.5, 2.5.2.4,

2.4.3, 2.6.1, 2.7, 4.0, 4.3, 4.3, 

1,2

A Development of recreational facilities,

e.g., golf courses

Yes 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.3, 2.5, 2.5.2.4,

2.4.3, 2.6.1, 2.7, 4.0, 4.3, 4.3,

1,2

A Dam expansion for irrigation Yes 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.3, 2.5, 2.5.2.4,

2.4.3, 2.6.1, 2.7, 4.0, 4.3, 4.3,

1,2

A Road construction and maintenance Yes 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.3, 2.5, 2.5.2.4,

2.4.3, 2.6.1, 2.7, 4.0, 4.3, 4.3,

1,2

B Recreational shooting Yes 2.6, 2.6.1, 2.6.2 2,3,4C Predation, primarily by badgers Yes 2.7, 2.8 3C Disease, plague Potential Only 2.4.2.3 3D Inadequate local land use ordinances

relating to housing developments

Yes 1.2, 1.3, 4.0 1,2,3

E Land ownership patterns Yes 1.2, 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.3, 2.6, 2.7,

2.8, 4.0

2,3

E Winter mortality Yes 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.3, 2.0, 2.5, 2.5.2,

2.5.3, 3.2, 4.0

1,2,3
43

IV. IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE

The Implementation Schedule that follows outlines actions and costs for

the recovery program. It is a guide for meeting the objectives elaborated in Part II

of this plan. This schedule indicates the general category for implementation,

recovery actions, corresponding outline numbers, action priorities, duration of

actions, responsible agencies, and estimated costs for actions. These actions,

when accomplished, should bring about the recovery of the northern Idaho ground

squirrel and the protection of its habitat.

Recovery Action Priorities

Priority 1: Actions necessary to prevent extinction or to prevent the

subspecies from declining irreversibly in the foreseeable future.

Priority 2: Actions necessary to prevent a significant decline in subspecies

population or habitat quality, or other significant negative impact

short of extinction.

Priority 3: All other actions necessary to provide full recovery of the

subspecies. 

Acronym Definitions

IDFG Idaho Department of Fish and Game

PNF Payette National Forest

USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

FHA Federal Highways Administration

BLM Bureau of Land Management

PWRC U.S. Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center

WS Wildlife Services

MOU Memorandum of Agreement

HCP Habitat Conservation Plan

Definition of Action Durations

Continual - An action that will be implemented on a routine basis, once begun,

until recovery.

Ongoing - An action that is currently being implemented and will continue

until it is accomplished.

Asterisk - (*) Indicates lead agency(s).
44

Implementation Schedule for the Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Recovery P

PriorityNumber

ActionNumber

Action Description Action

Duration(years)

Responsible

Parties 

Cost Estimates ($1,000) 

TotalCost

FY

2003

FY

2004

FY2005

FY2006

FY2007

1 1.1.1.1 Habitat restoration -

thinning ($80/acre)

Ongoing PNF* 40 8 8 8 8 8

1 1.1.1.1 Habitat restoration -

burning ($150/acre)

Ongoing PNF* 75 15 15 15 15 15

1 1.1.1.2 Habitat restoration - 

reseeding ($300/acre)

Ongoing PNF* 25 5 5 5 5 5

1 1.1.1.3 Habitat restoration -

livestock management($100/acre)

Ongoing PNF* 50 10 10 10 10 10

1 1.1.2.1 Habitat maintenance -

prescribed re-burns($50/acre)

Continual PNF* 10 2 2 2 2 2

1 1.1.2.2 Habitat maintenance -

vegetation management(e.g. noxious weed

control)

Continual PNF* 5 1 1 1 1 1

1 1.1.2.3 Habitat maintenance -

grazing regimes 

Continual PNF* 

1 1.3 Develop site-specific

management plans foreach metapopulation 

Ongoing PNF*,

USFWS,IDFG,BNF

40 40 
45

Implementation Schedule for the Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Recovery P

PriorityNumber

ActionNumber

Action Description Action

Duration(years)

Responsible

Parties 

Cost Estimates ($1,000) 

TotalCost

FY

2003

FY

2004

FY2005

FY2006

FY2007

1 2.1 Develop a translocation

plan - population geneticsmanagement 

Ongoing IDFG*, 

USFWS

10 5 5 

1 2.1.1 Translocate into existing

populations

Continual IDFG*, 

USFWS

401111

1 2.2.1 Develop a reintroduction

plan

Ongoing IDFG*, 

USFWS,PNF

10 5 5 

1 2.2.2 Implement reintroductions Continual IDFG*, 

USFWS

4 1111

1 2.4.2.2 Conduct squirrel ecology

research - overwintersurvival (weather,supplemental feeding,hibernaculum, etc.)

Ongoing USFWS*,

IDFG,PNF

100 40 30 30 

1 2.5.2 Law enforcement -

enforcement of existingPNF regulations

Continual PNF* 

1 3.1.1 Habitat monitoring -

establish vegetation plotsand transects

Ongoing PNF*

USFWS

25 5 5 5 5 5 

1 3.1.2 Habitat monitoring -

monitor outcome oftreatments

Ongoing PNF* 25 5 5 5 5 5 
46

Implementation Schedule for the Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Recovery P

PriorityNumber

ActionNumber

Action Description Action

Duration(years)

Responsible

Parties 

Cost Estimates ($1,000) 

TotalCost

FY

2003

FY

2004

FY2005

FY2006

FY2007

1 3.2.2 Ground squirrel

monitoring - monitorannual population size andtrajectory

Continual USFWS*,

IDFG

230 20 45 50 55 60 

1 3.2.3 Ground squirrel

monitoring - monitor prehibernation and emergenceweight

1 3.2.4 Ground squirrel

monitoring - monitoroverwintering survival

1 3.2.5 Ground squirrel

monitoring - determine sexratios and age structure

1 3.2.6 Ground squirrel

monitoring - monitorreproduction

Continual USFWS*,

IDFG

40 10 10 10 10 

1 4.2 Maintain technical

working group guidance

Continual USFWS,

IDFG,PNF

1 4.4 Develop and maintain

central database Continual

USFWS,IDFG,PNF

2 1.1.3 Review and renew 

USFWS/PNF MOU

Ongoing PNF*,

USFWS

0 
47

Implementation Schedule for the Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Recovery P

PriorityNumber

ActionNumber

Action Description Action

Duration(years)

Responsible

Parties 

Cost Estimates ($1,000) 

TotalCost

FY

2003

FY

2004

FY2005

FY2006

FY2007

2 1.2 Habitat restoration on

private lands and HCPs

Continual USFWS*,

IDFG

100 20 20 20 20 20

2 1.2.2 Monitor Safe Harbor

Agreements

Continual USFWS*,

IDFG

25 5 5 5 5 5

2 2.3 Captive propagation Continual USFWS*,

Zoo Boise,IDFG

50 35 5 5 5 

2 2.4.1.1 Conduct habitat research -

nutrient cycling (post-firesuccession)

Ongoing USFWS*,

PNF

40 10 10 10 10

2 2.4 1.2 Conduct habitat research -

Fire regime at each site

Ongoing PNF* 8 2222

2 2.4.1.3 Conduct habitat research - 

Effects of livestockgrazing

Ongoing USFWS*,

PNF

100 25 25 25 25

2 2.4.2.1 Conduct squirrel ecology

research - diet andnutrition

Ongoing USFWS*,

IDFG

45 15 15 15 

2 2.4.2.5 Conduct squirrel ecology

research - dispersal

Continual USFWS 65 40 25

2 2.4.3.1 Population genetics studies

- genetics and dispersal

Continual USFWS*,

IDFG
48

Implementation Schedule for the Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Recovery P

PriorityNumber

ActionNumber

Action Description Action

Duration(years)

Responsible

Parties 

Cost Estimates ($1,000) 

TotalCost

FY

2003

FY

2004

FY2005

FY2006

FY2007

2 2.4.3.2 Population genetics studies

- estimation of populationsizes

Ongoing 

2 2.4.3.4 Population genetics studies

- evaluation oftranslocation techniques

Ongoing USFWS*,

IDFG

2 2.5.1 Law enforcement -

Recreational shooting

Continual USFWS*,

IDFG,PNF

15 3 3 3 3 3

2 3.2.1 Ground squirrel

monitoring - refinestandard protocols formetapopulation monitoring

Continual USFWS*,

IDFG

20 10 10 

2 3.3.1 Ground squirrel surveys -

establish protocols

Ongoing USFWS*,

IDFG

5 5 

2 3.3.1.1 Ground squirrel surveys -

conduct surveys

Ongoing USFWS*,

IDFG,PNF

40 10 10 10 10

2 3.3.2 Ground squirrel surveys -

standardize reportingformat

Ongoing USFWS*,

IDFG,PNF

1 1

2 4.3 Develop, evaluate, and

update a public outreachprogram and materials

Continual USFWS,

IDFG,PNF
49

Implementation Schedule for the Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Recovery P

PriorityNumber

ActionNumber

Action Description Action

Duration(years)

Responsible

Parties 

Cost Estimates ($1,000) 

TotalCost

FY

2003

FY

2004

FY2005

FY2006

FY2007

2 4.5 Assess implementation of

the recovery plan andrevise as necessary

Ongoing USFWS,

IDFG,PNF

3 2.4.2.3 Conduct squirrel ecology

research - diseases(plague)

Continual USFWS*,

IDFG

3 2.4.2.4 Conduct squirrel ecology

research - contaminants

Continual USFWS*,

IDFG

6 2 2 2 

3 2.4.3.3 Population genetics studies

- captive breeding

Ongoing USFWS*,

IDFG

3 2.6 Predator management Ongoing USFWS*,

IDFG

5 1 1 1 1 1 

3 2.7 Competitor management Ongoing USFWS*,

IDFG

5 1 1 1 1 1 

3 4.1 Establishment of an

Interagency ProgramCoordinator

Continual USFWS,

IDFG,PNF

300 60 60 60 60 60

3 4.6 Establish ground squirrel

as a PNF ManagementIndicator Species forgrassland communities

Ongoing USFWS,

IDFG,PNF

Total Estimated Costs: $1,523 201 428 312 312 270
50

V. REFERENCES

A. Literature Cited

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Creek Canyon and central Idaho. Albertson College of Idaho. Caldwell,

Idaho. 19pp.

Dyni, E. and E. Yensen. 1996. Dietary similarity in sympatric Idaho and

Columbian ground squirrels (Spermophilus brunneus and Spermophilus

columbianus). Northwest Science 70(2):99-108.

Gavin, T.A., P.W. Sherman, and E. Yensen. 1998. Translocation and inventory

of northern Idaho ground squirrels (Spermophilus brunneus brunneus) in

1998. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, and Albertson College,

Caldwell, Idaho. 11pp.

Gavin, T.A., P.W. Sherman, E. Yensen, and B. May. 1999. Population genetic

structure of the northern Idaho ground squirrel (Spermophilus brunneus

brunneus). Journal of Mammalogy 80:156-168.

Gill, A.E. and E.Yensen. 1992. Biochemical differentiation in the Idaho ground

squirrel, Spermophilus brunneus (Rodentia: Sciuridae). Great Basin

Naturalist 52(2):155-159.

Haak, B. 2000. Northern Idaho ground squirrel population monitoring and

habitat mitigation, 2000 annual report. Idaho Department of Fish and

Game, Boise, Idaho. 12pp.

Haak, B. 2001. Northern Idaho ground squirrel population monitoring and

habitat mitigation, 2001 annual report. Idaho Department of Fish and

Game, Boise, Idaho. 11pp.
51

Haak, B. 2003. Northern Idaho ground squirrel population monitoring and

habitat mitigation, 2002 annual report. Idaho Department of Fish and

Game, Boise, Idaho. 14pp.

Hershkovitz, P. 1949. The status of names credited to Oken, 1816. Journal of

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Howell, A. 1938. Revision of the North American ground squirrels, with a

classification of the North American Sciuridae. North American Fauna

56:1-256.

Idaho Department of Fish and Game. 1992. Rare, threatened and endangered

plants and animals of Idaho. Conservation Data Center, Idaho Department

of Fish and Game, Boise, Idaho. 38pp.

Idaho Department of Fish and Game. 1997. Atlas of Idaho’s Wildlife. Idaho

Department of Fish and Game, Nongame and Endangered Wildlife

Program, Boise, Idaho. 81pp.

Mangel, T. and C. Tier. 1994. Four facts every conservation biologist should

know about persistence. Ecology 75(3):607-614.

Meffe, G.K. and C.R. Carroll. 1994. Principles of Conservation Biology. 

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Nadler, C.F., L.W. Turner, R.S. Hoffmann, and L. Deutsch. 1973. Chromosomes

and giemsabands of the Idaho spotted ground squirrel, Spermophilus

brunneus (Howell). Experentia 29:893-894.

Ricklefs, R. 1990. Ecology, 3rd ed. W.H. Freeman, Inc., San Francisco,

California; pp 519-573.

Runge, M. 1999. Northern Idaho ground squirrel population model and users

manual. U.S. Geological Survey- Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. 

Laurel, Maryland. 15pp.
52

Sherman, P. and E. Yensen. 1994. Behavior and ecology of Idaho ground

squirrel. Annual report detailing results of the 1993 field season. Cornell

University, Ithaca, New York. 12pp.

Sherman, P.W. and T.A. Gavin. 1997. Transplanting northern Idaho ground

squirrels (Spermophilus brunneus brunneus). Cornell University, Ithaca,

New York. 8pp.

Sherman, P.W. and T.A. Gavin. 1999. Population status of northern Idaho

ground squirrels (Spermophilus brunneus brunneus) in early May 1999. 

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. 11pp.

Sherman, P.W. and M.C. Runge. 2002. Demography of a population collapse: the

northern Idaho ground squirrel (Spermophilus brunneus brunneus). 

Ecology 83(10):2861-2831.

Stoddard, S.E. 2001. A historical perspective on the population reduction of

northern Idaho ground squirrels in west-central Idaho, 1930-1982. Payette

National Forest. McCall, Idaho. 12pp.

Truksa, A. and E. Yensen. 1990. Photographic evidence of vegetation changes in

Adams County, Idaho. Journal of the Idaho Academy of Science 26:18-

40.

U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Western

Federal Lands Highway Division. 1998. Council-Cuprum Road, Idaho

Forest Highway 63-1(2), Payette National Forest, Adams County, Idaho. 

Environmental Assessment. Western Federal Lands Highway Division,

Federal Highway Administration, Vancouver, WA. 36pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Final report for the Idaho ground squirrel. 

Memorandum from Field Supervisor, Idaho State Office, to Chief,

Endangered Species Program, Portland, Oregon. 2pp.
53

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1996. Conservation agreement Spermophilus

brunneus brunneus - northern Idaho ground squirrel. Prepared jointly by

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U. S. Forest Service. 14pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2000a. Final Rule to list as threatened the

northern Idaho groung squirrel. 65 FR 17779.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2000b. Northern Idaho ground squirrel recovery

strategy framework. Snake River Basin Office, Boise, Idaho. 27pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2000c. Safe harbor agreement with Bob and

Peggy Mack for the northern Idaho ground squirrel. Snake River Basin

Office, Boise, Idaho. 19pp.

U.S. Forest Service. 1997. Biological assessment, evaluation and mitigation for

the Council to Cuprum Road project PFH-63-1(2). Council Ranger

District, Payette National Forest, Council, Idaho. 35pp.

U.S. Forest Service. 2000. Habitat restoration plan (2001-2006) for the northern

Idaho ground squirrel (Spermophilus brunneus brunneus). USDA, Payette

National Forest, McCall, Idaho. 25pp.

Yensen, E. 1985. Taxonomy, distribution, and population status of the Idaho

ground squirrel, Spermophilus brunneus. Department of Biology,

Albertson College of Idaho, Caldwell, Idaho. 41pp.

Yensen, E. 1991. Taxonomy and distribution of the Idaho ground squirrel

Spermophilus brunneus. Journal of Mammalogy 72(3):583-600.

Yensen, E., M.P. Luscher, and S. Boyden. 1991. Structure of burrows used by

the Idaho ground squirrel, Spermophilus brunneus. Northwest Science

65(3):93-100.
54

Yensen, E., D.L. Quinney, K. Johnson, K. Timmerman, and K. Steenhof. 1992. 

Fire, vegetation changes, and population fluctuations of Townsend’s

ground squirrels. American Midland Naturalist 128:299-312.

Yensen, E., C.R. Baird, and P.W. Sherman. 1996. Larger ectoparasites of the

Idaho Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus brunneus). Great Basin Naturalist

56(3):237-246.

Yensen, E. and P. Sherman. 1997. Spermophilus brunneus. Mammalian Species.

No. 560, pp. 1-5. Published by American Society of Mammalogists.

B. Personal Communications

Bangerter, Layne. 2001. Personal communication and accomplishment report

summary presented to Rich Howard, USFWS at the northern Idaho ground

squirrel recovery meeting on October 25, 2001, from Layne Bangerter,

Wildlife Services. Subject: Predator control during 2001 at northern

Idaho ground squirrel sites.

Sherman, Paul. 1999. Personal communication between Rich Howard, USFWS

and Paul Sherman, Cornell University. Subject: Status of former northern

Idaho ground squirrel sites on OX Ranch, Bear, Idaho.

Yensen, Eric. 1999. Personal communication between Eric Yensen, Albertson 

College of Idaho, and Rich Howard, USFWS. Subject: Shooting ground

squirrels for sport as a source of mortality in Adams and Valley Counties;

displacement of northern Idaho ground squirrels by Columbian ground

squirrels.
55

APPENDIX A - Stakeholder Involvement

Development of the Draft Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Recovery Plan

was initiated on November 13, 2000, when a recovery strategy meeting was

convened. As a result of this meeting, a document titled the Northern Idaho

Ground Squirrel Recovery Strategy Framework (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

2000b) was distributed on January 26, 2001, to nine biologists who were involved

with pre-listing recovery implementation, a U.S. Forest Service administrator, a

rancher who owns private land containing key habitat - a stronghold for northern

Idaho ground squirrels, and an environmental coordinator for the Boise Cascade

Corporation. Comments from seven of the nine biologists were received, and oral

comments were received from the rancher. The Forest Service administrator and

the representative from Boise Cascade Corporation did not respond to our

invitation. We incorporated the Framework responses into the Draft Recovery

Plan; our Regional Office review began November 30, 2001. We provide

Endangered Species Act section 6 funds to the Idaho Department of Fish and

Game to implement recovery strategies for the northern Idaho ground squirrel. 

The Idaho Department of Fish and Game intends to coordinate survey and

monitoring on the OX Ranch in 2003, with the ranch manager. This will allow

population monitoring of northern Idaho ground squirrels by a State agency as a

continuation of 12 years of monitoring conducted by scientists from Cornell

University.

We elected not to formalize a recovery team since the listing of the

northern Idaho ground squirrel (Spermophilus brunneus brunneus). However, a

Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel Conservation Committee has been in place since

1996, when a Conservation Agreement was jointly signed by us and the Payette

National Forest. 

The Committee consists of agency biologists from the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, and Idaho Department of Fish and Game,

and is open to participating stakeholders from environmental, ranching, and forest

products organizations. Two coordination meetings are held each year, one in the

spring to decide the specifics of field work both in areas of population

monitoring and habitat modifications, the other in the late summer to review
56

annual accomplishments, address issues, and to set the direction for the next field

season. 

Two annual reports are submitted to us in November of each year. One is

from Idaho Department of Fish and Game and documents population monitoring

and survey work that was done during the field season. The other report is from

the Payette National Forest and documents habitat modifications, enforcement

actions, and other recovery activities as they relate to Federal lands where

northern Idaho ground squirrels are found. These and technical studies, for

example a nutrient analysis study on plant species initiated in 2001, a plant

species and composition study initiated in 2000, a supplemental feeding

feasibility project initiated in 2001, and a genetics study initiated in 2002, have

been shared with all stakeholders.

 

Stakeholders who have consistently participated in meetings and/or have

received annual reports and research study results include: 

John Dyer and Frank Anderson, OX Ranch

Bob and Peggy Mack (Safe Harbor Agreement)

Brian Kernohan, Boise Corporation

Joe Hinson, Northwest Natural Resources Group

Jim Caswell, Office of Species Conservation (Governor’s Office liaison)

Bruce Haak, Idaho Department of Fish and Game

Sheldon Keifer, Idaho Department of Lands

Bob Giles, Floyd Gordon, Lon Schultz, Payette National Forest

Layne Bangerter, USDA, Wildlife Services

Dr. Eric Yensen, Albertson College of Idaho

Dr. Paul Sherman, Cornell University

Dr. Michael Runge, USGS-BRD, Laurel, Maryland

Dr. Janet Rachlow, University of Idaho

Steve Duke, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Dennis Mackey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Ben Matibag, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Rich Howard, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Ray Vizgirdas, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 
57

APPENDIX B - Glossary

The consistent use of terminology is important to eliminate confusion

when addressing the site characteristics and population dynamics of the northern

Idaho ground squirrel. Terms such as “colonies” and “populations” have been

applied to prairie dogs and ground squirrels to characterize their social behavior

and genetic linkage. However, more specific and distinct definitions were

developed for the listing document and this recovery plan. These definitions are

based on the behavior of this subspecies, which is not colonial, but does not live

as isolated as the rock squirrel (Spermophilus variegatus). They also are based on

topography and ultimately genetics. References for this terminology include

Gavin et al. (1999) and Runge (2001). The following definitions are used

throughout this recovery plan:

Metapopulation. This is a network of semi-isolated populations with some level

of regular or intermittent migration and gene flow among them, in which

individual populations may go extinct but then be recolonized from other

populations (Meffe and Carroll 1994). A metapopulation implies that genetic

exchange between population subsites (demes) is occurring through dispersal or

linkage corridors. Populations must be within reasonable dispersal distance from

one another. In the case of northern Idaho ground squirrel, this means less than 1

kilometer (0.6 mile).

Effective population size (Ne). This is the average size of a population expressed

in terms of individuals assumed to contribute genes to the next generation;

generally smaller than the actual size of the population, depending on variation in

reproductive success among individuals (Ricklefs 1990). 

Population complex. A population complex is composed of several population

sites that are not separated by geographic barriers to dispersal, but that are far

enough apart to make exchange of migrants very rare.

Colony. A group of organisms that is highly integrated with division of labor,

castes, or a high degree of social organization.
58

Population site. A population site is composed of sub-sites that are within several

hundred meters of each other and are not separated by geographic barriers. 

Movement back and forth among sub-sites within a population site is not routine,

but natal and adult dispersal among sub-sites occurs on a regular basis (yearly, or

at least as often as once every several years).

Extensive monitoring. Annually during the spring or summer, one or more visits

are made to a population site to conduct a visual estimate of the number of ground

squirrels at the site. No attempt is made to trap or mark squirrels. Standardized

and time-efficient monitoring protocols are used to conduct this type of

population assessment.

Intensive monitoring. Annually during the spring and summer, numerous visits

are made to a population site to conduct a population assessment. This process

includes trapping, weighing, sexing, and marking of adults and yearlings. An

attempt is made to capture all the ground squirrels at a population site during

these visits. However, it is unusual that juvenile squirrels are trapped during

intensive monitoring because of the amount of time and staff required, stage of

vegetation, and overall difficulty.
59

APPENDIX C

Summary of Public, Agency and Peer Review Comments on the Draft

Recovery Plan for the Northern Idaho ground Squirrel

On April 5, 2000, we listed the northern Idaho ground squirrel as a

threatened species, under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. On

May 11, 2000 a draft recovery outline was prepared. On January 26, 2001, we

sent a draft recovery plan framework to twelve people involved in recovery

planning for the northern Idaho ground squirrel. We used the framework and

reviews of it as guides in developing the draft recovery plan. 

The Draft Recovery Plan for Northern Idaho Ground Squirrel was made

available to the public through a 60-day comment period that ran from July 15,

2002, to September 13, 2002. More than 60 copies of the draft recovery plan

were sent out for review during the comment period. Copies were sent to Federal,

State, and local government offices within the range of the subspecies. Copies

were also sent to the Payette National Forest, Idaho Department of Fish and

Game, Idaho Department of Lands, industry groups, conservation groups, local

libraries, scientists and interested parties. 

Eighteen responses were received from the public and various agencies,

and from the Idaho Governor’s Office of Species Conservation, Idaho Department

of Fish and Game, Boise Cascade (Boise) Corporation, Idaho Conservation

League, ranchers, and the general public. Revisions to the draft recovery plan

were sent out for peer review to: Dr. Michael Runge, U. S. Geological Survey,

Patuxent Wildlife Research Center; Dr. Tom Gavin, Cornell University; and Dr.

Paul Sherman, Cornell University. All three scientists responded to the request

for peer review of the recovery plan. We assembled a Technical Working Group

of six people in 2002, to address the various issues concerning recovery

implementation on Federal lands. The Technical Working Group included: Dr.

Eric Yensen, Albertson College; Bruce Haak, Idaho Department of Fish and

Game; Faye Kruger, Payette National Forest; Lon Schultz, Payette National

Forest; Bill Rautsaw, Payett, National Forest; and Ray Vizgirdas, U. S. Fish and

Wildlife Service. The Technical Working Group submitted a letter of response to
60

the draft recovery plan. The Technical Working Group was formalized in 2003

and was also ask to review a draft of the final recovery plan, ongoing population

monitoring and habitat modification efforts, proposed research activities, and the

delisting criteria for the final recovery plan. 

 

Number of letters received by affiliation:

Federal agencies 3 letters

State and local governments 2 letters

Industry interest (ranching/timber) 6 letters

Environmental interest 1 letter

General public 2 letters

Technical Working Group 1 letter 

Peer Reviews 1 letter, 2 email responses 

Summary of significant issues and comments raised by the public, agencies,

and peer reviewers :

We received 18 responses during the comment period for the draft

recovery plan. Some comments provided updated information about northern

Idaho ground squirrels and their habitat. This information was incorporated into

the appropriate section of the final recovery plan. The substantive issues and

comments, and our responses, are summarized in this appendix.

Issue 1: Several commenters suggested that recovery criteria regarding

population objectives was too prescriptive, and others suggested that population

targets should be based on effective rather than actual population sizes.

Response: In response to these concerns, and to provide more focus in the final

recovery plan, we developed recovery objectives based on effective population

size. Using the survey by Yensen (1985) as a basis, and delineating possible

metapopulations for recovery, we established the recovery goal of an effective

population size of greater than 5,000 individuals distributed among 10 viable

metapopulations. This would maintain at least known historic numbers and a

distribution that would ensure genetic diversity and therefore long-term survival
61

of the subspecies. Our recovery plans need to state a specific population recovery

goal. We find the recovery goal stated in the final plan serves the biological

purpose and recovery plan requirement. While prescriptive, as required, some

flexibility has been maintained by establishing the goal at 10 viable

metapopulations, rather than the maximum known. Recovery plans are typically

reviewed and, if necessary, rewritten every 5 years. If this recovery goal requires

substantive changes after the next 5 years of recovery implementation due to new

information, we will develop a revised plan.

Issue 2: One commenter questioned the population status of northern Idaho

ground squirrels from the 1980's to the 1990's.

Response: A population summary in the executive summary of the final recovery

plan states that “the species declined from an estimated 5,000 individuals in 1985,

to less that 1,000 by 1998, when it was proposed for listing under the Endangered

Species Act of 1973, as amended.” More recently, census data from 2002

revealed declines that estimate the total number to be at 450 to 500 individuals. 

 

Issue 3: One commenter questioned the listing status (endangered) of the

northern Idaho ground squirrel, and felt that the listing was a tactic for the Fish

and Wildlife Service to take over land management. 

Response: We listed the northern Idaho ground squirrel as a “threatened” species

on April 5, 2000. The definition of a threatened species under the Endangered

Species Act is: any species that is likely to become an endangered species within

the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Our

mission is to protect and maintain federally-listed species. We conduct extensive

evaluations of a species’ population, habitat, and threats before listing it under the

Endangered Species Act. Recovery of a species may involve working with other

Federal and State agencies and private landowners to restore habitat and to

monitor populations of listed species. Our mission is focused on species’ needs,

including habitat. 
62

Issue 4: A statement in the draft recovery plan indicated that, “grazing practices

could adversely affect northern Idaho ground squirrel habitat on some State and

private lands.” Several commenters disagreed with this assertion. 

Response: We recognize that additional evaluation needs to be done on grazing

because it may be a tool for vegetation recovery in some areas where northern

Idaho ground squirrels occur. The statement in the final recovery plan has been

changed to “grazing practices have unknown impacts on northern Idaho ground

squirrel habitat.” Other revisions address evaluation of grazing as a management

tool, and on intensity, timing, and use of sheep or cattle at ground squirrel

population sites.

Issue 5: Assessment of population numbers may have been made at a low point

in the cycle, and may not be a true reflection of the population status of the

ground squirrel. Southern Idaho ground squirrels were found in abundance in the

late 1980's.

Response: Most ground squirrel populations can fluctuate greatly in response to

environmental changes. It is well documented that northern Idaho ground

squirrels have continued to decline from their former numbers of about 5,000 in

the mid 1980's to an estimated 500 animals in 2002. It is highly unlikely that this

represents a natural range of variation.

Issue 6: The cost of recovery for this species is extremely high, and no cost

estimates are made on a per-individual basis. 

Response: Recovery costs for any federally-listed species can be high. We

conduct cost analyses for the species, or subspecies, and do not focus on

individual animals. The implementation schedule, action descriptions, action

priorities, and cost estimates are developed for recovery plans. This is a guide to

recovery actions that are recommended as funds and resources become available. 

The actions conducted to recover the northern Idaho ground squirrel can be

considered “ecosystem restoration,” and will benefit a host of native species that

rely on open meadow and edge habitat. A list of these species, such as the great

gray owl (Strix nebulosa), was developed during the creation of this plan.
63

Issue 7: The decline of the northern Idaho ground squirrel directly correlates to

the timing of biological studies being done on the squirrels. 

Response: While studies began on some populations of northern Idaho ground

squirrels in the late 1980's, and have continued through 2003, we believe there is

little causal relationship between the studies and the population decline. For

example, some populations that were extirpated because of natural factors during

this time were revived through direct management by biologists. Burning and

thinning activities at historical sites have already resulted in recolonization by

ground squirrels.

Issue 8: What efforts have been made to establish a captive breeding population? 

Response: The final recovery plan identifies captive breeding as an option to

prevent the extinction of the subspecies, and to provide research and education

opportunities. To meet these same objectives, southern Idaho ground squirrels

were captured in 2002, and brought to Zoo Boise in Boise, Idaho. They will be

used as a surrogate to establish how best to keep and breed northern Idaho ground

squirrels in captivity, and to translocate them back to their natural habitat. Once

these protocols are developed, northern Idaho ground squirrels may be brought to

Zoo Boise for propagation and education purposes.

Issue 9: How was the recovery number target determined in the draft recovery

plan? In the draft plan, the recovery population goal ranges from 3,500 to 15,000

animals. Conservation biologists would maintain that at least 10,000 individuals

are needed to ensure a sustainable population. 

Response: The recovery criteria in the draft recovery plan was based on

restoration of squirrels at individual population sites, with each maintaining a 5-

year average population size. The final recovery plan is more ecologically-based,

and delineates 12 primary and 5 secondary possible metapopulations of northern

Idaho ground squirrels. The population goal is based on an effective population

size greater than 5,000 distributed across 10 possible metapopualtion areas.
64

Issue 10: Man-made threats such as golf courses, dams, road construction are not

significant threats to ground squirrels. 

Response: Human-caused threats are significant if they contribute to habitat loss,

habitat fragmentation, or induce direct or indirect mortality to ground squirrels. 

The final recovery plan still documents the primary threat to northern Idaho

ground squirrels as being habitat loss due to forest encroachment into formerly

suitable meadow habitats. 

Issue 11: One commenter observed that the draft recovery plan lacked direction,

and was a very elaborate document that seems to do nothing for the squirrels. 

During the past 4 years, there have been numerous meetings where only talk

about the needed actions to save the squirrel gets accomplished. 

Response: Draft recovery documents are subject to the public comment process. 

From those comments, we revise the document so that the final recovery plan

more directly addresses the strategies for recovering the subspecies. For example,

the final recovery plan recommends the establishment of an interagency program

coordinator for implementing the recovery plan. In 2003, the Idaho Department

of Fish and Game, with assistance from us, established a Nongame Biologist

position in McCall, Idaho to actively conduct recovery implementation and work

with private landowners. Meetings have been an effective method for

coordinating recovery actions during the past 4 years. Staff from the Payette

National Forest have increased available habitat through habitat modifications,

and the Idaho Department of Fish and Game has monitored populations and

conducted surveys for new populations. 

Issue 12: Squirrels have never been documented as moving between population

sites. Why is the draft recovery plan focusing on dispersal corridors?

Response: The final recovery plan focuses on dispersal corridors between

population sites and between metapopulations to increase genetic exchange and to

open opportunities for animals to disperse into more desirable habitat when it is

available. Studies by Sherman and Runge (2002) at Bear Meadow, Adams

County, Idaho have documented both short <500 meters (1,640 feet) and long 500
65

to 1200 meters (1,640 to 3,936 feet) dispersal movements. These studies form a

basis for modifying habitat on the Payette National Forest, and for delineating

possible metapopulation areas.

Issue 13: Two commenters suggested that the northern Idaho ground squirrel

should be reclassified as “endangered” to increase protection measures and

resources for recovery.

Response: While biologists have debated changing the status of the northern

Idaho ground squirrel to endangered, we have determined that the recovery

actions in the final recovery plan should provide strong direction to Federal and

State agencies to obtain the necessary resources for recovery. Some key private

landowners who have core populations of northern Idaho ground squirrels on

their lands have cooperated with agencies monitoring the status of subspecies.

Issue 14: Several commenters observed that the recovery goals and objectives

were too vague in the draft recovery plan.

Response: The final recovery plan has been revised to address in-depth

management goals for both population monitoring and habitat restoration. 

Twelve possible primary metapopulation areas have been delineated that serve as

a basis for developing site-specific management plans. Site-specific analysis

within the metapopulation areas should help target local habitats for increasing

the number of northern Idaho ground squirrels.

Issue 15: The Step-Down Narrative in the draft recovery plan indicated that the

Payette National Forest should amend the Payette National Forest Plan, but did

not discuss implementation of the plan.

Response: After the draft recovery plan for the northern Idaho ground squirrel

was completed, stipulations were included in the Payette National Forest Land

and Resource Management Plan that set specific time frames for implementation. 

Habitat restoration on Federal lands was made the highest priority in the

Recovery Action Narrative in the final recovery plan.
66

Issue 16: A strong public education and outreach program is needed for

conserving ground squirrels.

Response: A specific section has been developed in the final recovery plan

(Action 4.3) that outlines steps to be taken to increase the awareness of the public

about ground squirrels, and particularly the northern Idaho ground squirrel. 

Printed, audio-visual, educational, media, and enforcement aspects are covered in

this outreach program. The program will be taken to schools and made available

to private landowners, conservation organizations, livestock industry, elected

officials, and State and Federal agencies. A field guide on ground squirrels of the

northwest including Idaho, Oregon, and Washington has just been completed, and

is part of the outreach program in the final recovery plan. The Idaho Department

of Fish and Game initiated a multimedia campaign in April 2003, about northern

Idaho ground squirrels being protected under the Endangered Species Act and the

southern Idaho ground squirrel being protected under State law.

Issue 17: Predators should not be killed. There are other more humane means to

control predators. Capture and relocation is an alternate means of control.

Response: We provide consideration for relocation of badgers in the final

recovery plan, but reserve the option of using more direct means if it becomes

necessary. Control of other predators is probably unnecessary or impractical. 

Issue 18: A recovery implementation team needs to be created. This team needs

to include more diverse stakeholders than biologists from agencies and several

landowners.

Response: The assessment of the northern Idaho ground squirrel began with the

involvement of 60 to 80 interested individuals. All participation was encouraged

as the process moved forward. We officially created a Technical Working Group

in January 2003, to implement this recovery plan. The Technical Working Group

will invite various kinds of expertise from academic, Federal, State, and

independent organizations, and including interested individuals, to participate in

constructive discussions involving recovery implementation. A program

coordinator position for the Technical Working Group was identified in the final
67

recovery plan. In April 2003, the Idaho Department of Fish and Game hired a

Nongame Biologist in McCall, Idaho to fulfill this role.

Issue 19: The recovery sites are not specified in the draft recovery plan. The

plan needs to be more specific and have more specific maps as to where recovery

will take place. 

Response: The final recovery plan includes a map of recovery sites in Figure 3.

Twelve primary and five secondary recovery areas are identified as possible

metapopulations. The metapopulations are further identified by name and

ownership in Table 3. Population complexes and population sites found within

the metapopulation sites are given by name in Tables 1 and 2. Site-specific

geographical information system maps have not yet been developed for each of

the possible metapopulation polygons. 

Issue 20: The draft recovery plan did not reflect all the population sites that may

be active or the total population numbers of the species.

Response: Tables 1 and 2 have been updated in the final recovery plan to more

accurately reflect the total known population of squirrels. Also, the number of

squirrels being counted each year since 1999 when the Idaho Department of Fish

and Game began trapping and counting northern Idaho ground squirrel represents

an index of the total population numbers of this subspecies. The index is based

on intensive and extensive surveys of those lands that are accessible to Idaho

Department of Fish and Game. Populations of ground squirrels found on Federal

and State lands are accessible. With the exception of the OX Ranch and the Bob

Mack property, agencies have not been invited on private lands to count squirrels. 

Steps to improve relations with private landowners may allow additional

populations of squirrels to be counted. This would improve the accuracy of the

population index.

Issue 21: In preparing the draft recovery plan, the we adopted a framework

approach and did not specify fire frequency and forestry practices that could be

defined through an array of prescriptions and applied across the range of habitats. 
68

Response: Fire frequency and forestry practices are included in the final

recovery plan. In the Recovery Action Narrative, the first prioritites (1.1 through

1.1.2.2) are habitat restoration and maintenance, thinning and burning

prescriptions, re-seeding, vegetation management for noxious plants, and

evaluating fire frequency. Understanding how these variables interact to maintain

appropriate seral stages and plant community composition will be the primary

focus as site-specific management plans are developed.