Assessing Urban Forest 

Eff ects and Values

Northern 

Research Station

Resource Bulletin NRS-9

United States

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

New York City’s Urban Forest
Published by: For additional copies:

USDA FOREST SERVICE USDA Forest Service 

11 CAMPUS BLVD SUITE 200 Publications Distribution

NEWTOWN SQUARE PA 19073-3294 359 Main Road

 Delaware, OH 43015-8640

February 2007 Fax: (740)368-0152

Visit our homepage at: http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us

Abstract

An analysis of trees in New York City reveals that this city has about 5.2 million trees with 

canopies that cover 20.9 percent of the area. The most common tree species are tree of 

heaven, black cherry, and sweetgum. The urban forest currently stores about 1.35 million 

tons of carbon valued at $24.9 million. In addition, these trees remove about 42,300 tons 

of carbon per year ($779,000 per year) and about 2,202 tons of air pollution per year 

($10.6 million per year). The structural, or compensatory, value is estimated at $5.2 billion. 

Information on the structure and functions of the urban forest can be used to improve and 

augment support for urban forest management programs and to integrate urban forests within 

plans to improve environmental quality in the New York City area. 

The Authors

DAVID J. NOWAK is a research forester and project leader, ROBERT E. HOEHN III, is a 

biological sciences technician, DANIEL E. CRANE is an information technology specialist, 

JACK C. STEVENS is a forester, and JEFFREY T. WALTON is a research forester with the 

Forest Service’s Northern Research Station at Syracuse, NY.

Photographs

All photographs are courtesy of the City of New York Department of Parks and Recreation, 

unless otherwise indicated.
1

Executive Summary

Trees in cities can contribute signifi cantly to human health and environmental quality. 

Unfortunately, little is known about the urban forest resource and what it contributes 

to the local and regional society and economy. To better understand the urban forest 

resource and its numerous values, the U.S. Forest Service, Northern Research Station, 

developed the Urban Forest Effects (UFORE) model. Results from this model are 

used to advance the understanding of the urban forest resource, improve urban forest 

policies, planning and management, provide data for potential inclusion of trees 

within environmental regulations, and determine how trees affect the environment and 

consequently enhance human health and environmental quality in urban areas.

Forest structure is a measure of various physical attributes of the vegetation, such as 

tree species composition, number of trees, tree density, tree health, leaf area, biomass, 

and species diversity. Forest functions, which are determined by forest structure, 

include a wide range of environmental and ecosystem services such as air pollution 

removal and cooler air temperatures. Forest values are an estimate of the economic 

worth of the various forest functions.

To help determine the vegetation structure, functions, and values of the urban forest 

in New York City, a vegetation assessment was conducted during the summer of 1996. 

For this assessment, one-tenth acre fi eld plots were sampled and analyzed using the 

UFORE model. This report summarizes results and values of:

• Forest structure

• Potential risk to forest from insects or diseases

• Air pollution removal

• Carbon storage

• Annual carbon removal (sequestration)

• Changes in building energy use

Urban forests 

provide numerous 

benefi ts to society, 

yet relatively little 

is known about this 

important resource.

In 1996, the UFORE 

model was used to 

survey and analyze 

New York City’s 

urban forest.

The calculated 

environmental 

benefi ts of the 

urban forest 

are signifi cant, 

yet many 

environmental and 

social benefi ts 

still remain to be 

quantifi ed.

New York City Urban Forest Summary 

Feature Measure

Number of trees 5.2 million

Tree cover 20.9%

Most common species tree of heaven, black cherry, sweetgum

Percentage of trees < 6-inches diameter 42.7%

Pollution removal 2,202 tons/year ($10.6 million/year)

Carbon storage 1.35 million tons ($24.9 million)

Carbon sequestration 42,300 tons/year ($779,000/year)

Building energy reduction $11.2 million/year

Avoided carbon emissions $167,000/year

Structural value $5.2 billion

Ton – short ton (U.S.) (2,000 lbs)
2

Urban Forest Effects Model 

and Field Measurements

Though urban forests have many functions and values, currently only a few of these 

attributes can be assessed. To help assess the city’s urban forest, data from 206 fi eld 

plots located throughout the city were analyzed using the Forest Service’s Urban Forest 

Effects (UFORE) model.1

UFORE is designed to use standardized fi eld data from randomly located plots and 

local hourly air pollution and meteorological data to quantify urban forest structure 

and its numerous effects, including:

• Urban forest structure (e.g., species composition, tree density, tree health, leaf 

area, leaf and tree biomass, species diversity, etc.).

• Amount of pollution removed hourly by the urban forest, and its associated 

percent air quality improvement throughout a year. Pollution removal is 

calculated for ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and 

particulate matter (<10 microns).

• Total carbon stored and net carbon annually sequestered by the urban forest.

• Effects of trees on building energy use and consequent effects on carbon 

dioxide emissions from power plants.

• Compensatory value of the forest, as well as the value of air pollution removal 

and carbon storage and sequestration.

• Potential impact of infestations by Asian longhorned beetles, emerald ash 

borers, gypsy moth, and Dutch elm disease.

For more information go to http://www.ufore.org

In the fi eld, one-tenth acre plots were randomly located in the different land use strata of 

New York City. Land uses were used to divide the analysis into smaller zones. The plots 

were divided among the following land uses: Commercial/Industrial (15 plots), MultiFamily Residential (10 

plots), Open Space (45 

plots), Public Facility 

(10 plots), 1-2 Family 

Residential (66 plots), 

Vacant Land (60 plots). 

This distribution allows 

for comparison among 

land uses.

Field data were collected 

for the Forest Service by 

ACRT Inc. (Appraisal, 

Consulting, Research, 

and Training, Akron, 

OH); data collection 

took place during 

the leaf-on season 

Benefi ts ascribed to 

urban trees include:

• Air pollution 

removal

• Air temperature 

reduction

• Reduced building 

energy use

• Absorption 

of ultraviolet 

radiation

• Improved water 

quality

• Reduced noise

• Improved human 

comfort

• Increased 

property value

• Improved 

physiological & 

psychological 

well-being

• Aesthetics

• Community 

cohesion
3

to properly assess tree canopies. Within each plot, data included land-use, ground 

and tree cover, shrub characteristics, and individual tree attributes of species, stemdiameter at breast height (d.b.h.; measured at 4.5 ft.), tree height, height to base of live 

crown, crown width, percentage crown canopy missing and dieback, and distance and 

direction to residential buildings.2

To calculate current carbon storage, biomass for each tree was calculated using 

equations from the literature and measured tree data. Open-grown, maintained trees 

tend to have less biomass than predicted by forest-derived biomass equations.3

 To 

adjust for this difference, biomass results for open-grown urban trees are multiplied by 

0.8.3

 No adjustment is made for trees found in natural stand conditions. Tree dryweight biomass was converted to stored carbon by multiplying by 0.5.

To estimate the gross amount of carbon sequestered annually, average diameter growth 

from the appropriate genera and diameter class and tree condition was added to the 

existing tree diameter (year x) to estimate tree diameter and carbon storage in year x+1.

Air pollution removal estimates are derived from calculated hourly tree-canopy 

resistances for ozone, and sulfur and nitrogen dioxides based on a hybrid of big-leaf 

and multi-layer canopy deposition models.4, 5 As the removal of carbon monoxide and 

particulate matter by vegetation is not directly related to transpiration, removal rates 

(deposition velocities) for 

these pollutants were based 

on average measured values 

from the literature6, 7 that 

were adjusted depending 

on leaf phenology and 

leaf area. Particulate 

removal incorporated a 50 

percent resuspension rate 

of particles back to the 

atmosphere.8

Seasonal effects of trees on 

residential building energy 

use were calculated based 

on procedures described the literature9

 using distance and direction of trees from 

residential structures, tree height and tree condition data.

Compensatory values were based on valuation procedures of the Council of Tree 

and Landscape Appraisers, which uses tree species, diameter, condition and location 

information.10

To learn more about UFORE methods11 visit: 

http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/UFORE/data/ or www.ufore.org

Field Survey Data

Plot Information

• Land use type

• Percent tree cover

• Percent shrub 

cover

• Percent plantable

• Percent ground 

cover types

• Shrub species/

dimensions

Tree parameters

• Species

• Stem diameter

• Total height

• Height to crown 

base

• Crown width

• Percent foliage 

missing

• Percent dieback

• Distance and 

direction to 

buildings from 

trees
4

Tree Characteristics of the Urban Forest

The urban forest of New York City has an estimated 5.2 million trees with a tree cover 

of 20.9 percent. Trees that have diameters less than 6 inches account for 42.7 percent 

of the population. The three most common species in the urban forest are tree of 

heaven (9.0 percent), black cherry (8.1 percent), and sweetgum (7.9 percent). The 10 

most common species account for 61.6 percent of all trees; their relative abundance is 

illustrated below.

There are an 

estimated 5.2 million 

trees in New York 

City with canopies 

that cover 20.9 

percent of the city.

The 10 most 

common species 

account for 61.6 

percent of the total 

number of trees.

Tree density is 

highest in the vacant 

land, and lowest 

in the multifamily 

residential areas.

black cherry

8.1%

Norway maple

6.0%

white mulberry

5.7%

sassafras

4.8%

black locust

4.7% London

planetree

4.1%

northern red 

oak

7.7%

sweetgum

7.9%

red maple

3.6%

tree of heaven

9.0%

other species

38.4%

The highest density of trees occurs in Vacant Land (50.8 trees/acre), followed by Open 

Space (47.1 trees/acre) and Public Facility (27.0 trees/acre). The overall tree density 

in New York City is 26.4 trees/acre, which is comparable to other city tree densities 

(Appendix I), of 9.1 to 119.2 trees/acre..

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

Vacant Land

Open Space

Public Facility

1-2 Residential

Commercial/Ind.

Mult. Fam. Res.

Number of Trees

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Trees per acre

Total Trees

Per acre
5

Urban forests are a mix of native tree species that existed prior to the development 

of the city and exotic species that were introduced by residents or other means. 

Thus, urban forests often have a tree diversity that is higher than surrounding native 

landscapes. An increased tree diversity can minimize the overall impact or destruction 

by a species-specifi c insect or disease, but the increase in the number of exotic plants 

can also pose a risk to native plants if some of the exotic species are invasive plants that 

can potentially out-compete and displace native species. In New York City, about 55 

percent of the trees are from species native to the state of New York. Trees with a native 

origin outside of North America are mostly from Asia (15.5 percent of the species).

*North America + refers to tree species that are native to North America and one other continent.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1-34-67-9

10-1213-1516-1819-2122-2425-2728-30

30+

d.b.h. class (inches)

Percent

55 percent of the 

tree species in New 

York City are native 

to New York.

Urban forests are 

a mix of native 

tree species that 

existed prior to the 

development of 

the city and exotic 

species that were 

introduced by 

residents or other 

means

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

North America

Eurasia

Asia

Europe

Unknown

North America +*

Percent
6

Urban Forest Cover and Leaf Area

Trees cover about 20.9 percent of New York City, shrubs cover 6.1 percent of the city. 

Dominant ground cover types include impervious surfaces (excluding buildings) (e.g., 

driveways, sidewalks, parking lots) (33.3 percent), herbaceous (e.g., grass, gardens) 

(30.3 percent), and buildings (20.1 percent).

Healthy leaf area 

equates directly 

to tree benefi ts 

provided to the 

community.

London planetree 

has the greatest 

importance to the 

New York City urban 

forest based on 

relative leaf area and 

relative population.

Many tree benefi ts are linked directly to the amount of healthy leaf surface area of 

the plant. In New York City, trees that dominate in terms of leaf area are London 

planetree, northern red oak, and sweetgum.

Tree species contributing a relatively large amount of leaf area per tree (typically 

larger trees) are London planetree, silver maple, and pin oak. Species contributing a 

relatively small amount of leaf area per tree (typically smaller trees) are black tupelo, 

honeylocust, and fl owering dogwood.

The importance values (IV) are calculated using a formula that takes into account 

the relative leaf area and relative abundance. The most important species in the urban 

forest, according to calculated IVs, are London planetree, northern red oak, and 

sweetgum.

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Commercial/Ind.

Mult. Fam. Res.

Open Space

Public Facility

1-2 Residential

Vacant Land

New York City

0

5

10

15

London planetree

northern red oak

sweetgum

white mulberry

Norway maple

black cherry

pin oak

black locust

silver maple

tree of heaven

Percent

% of total leaf area

% of all trees

Common 

Name

%

Popa

%

LAb IVc

London 

 planetree

4.1 14.1 18.2

northern 

 red oak

7.7 8.7 16.4

sweetgum 7.9 8.3 16.2

white 

 mulberry

5.7 7.6 13.3

black 

cherry

8.1 5.2 13.3

Norway 

 maple

6.0 7.0 13.0

tree of 

 heaven

9.0 3.7 12.7

black locust 4.7 4.9 9.6

pin oak 3.4 5.1 8.5

silver maple 2.3 4.7 7.0

a

 percent of population

b

 percent of leaf area

c

 Percent Pop + Percent LA 

bare soil

duff/mulch cover

herbaceous

water

impervious surfaces (excluding buildings)

buildings
7

Air Pollution Removal by Urban Trees

Poor air quality is a common problem in many urban areas. It can lead to human 

health problems, damage to landscape materials and ecosystem processes, and reduced 

visibility. The urban forest can help improve air quality by reducing air temperature, 

directly removing pollutants from the air, and reducing energy consumption in 

buildings, which consequently reduce air pollutant emissions from the power plants. 

Trees also emit volatile organic compounds that can contribute to ozone formation. 

However, integrative studies have revealed that an increase in tree cover leads to 

reduced ozone formation.12

Pollution removal by trees and shrubs in New York City was estimated using the 

UFORE model in conjunction with fi eld data and hourly pollution and weather data 

for the year 2000. Pollution removal was greatest for ozone (O3

), followed by nitrogen 

dioxide (NO2

), particulate matter less than ten microns (PM10), sulfur dioxide (SO2), 

and carbon monoxide (CO). It is estimated that trees and shrubs remove 2,202 tons 

of air pollution (CO, NO2

, O3, PM10, SO2) per year with an associated value of 

$10.6 million (based on estimated national median externality costs associated with 

pollutants13). Trees remove about three times more air pollution than shrubs in New 

York City.

The average percentage of air pollution removal during the daytime, in-leaf season was 

estimated to be:

• O3

 0.50% • PM10 0.47%

• SO2

 0.48% • NO2 0.31%

• CO 0.002%

Peak 1-hour air quality improvements during the in-leaf season for heavily-treed areas 

were estimated to be:

• O3

 11.4% • PM10 10.9%

• SO2

 11.3% • NO2 6.3%

• CO 0.05%

The urban forest 

of New York 

City removes 

approximately 2,202 

tons of pollutants 

each year, with a 

societal value of 

$10.6 million/year.

General urban 

forest management 

recommendations 

to improve air 

quality are given in 

Appendix II.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Pollution removed (tons)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

Value (thousands dollars)

Pollution Removed

Value (U.S. Dollars)

CO NO2 O3 PM10 SO2
8

Carbon Storage and Sequestration

Climate change is an issue of global concern. Urban trees can help mitigate climate 

change by sequestering atmospheric carbon (from carbon dioxide) in tissue and by 

reducing energy use in buildings, and consequently reducing carbon dioxide emissions 

from fossil-fuel based power plants.14

Trees reduce the amount of carbon in the atmosphere by sequestering carbon in new 

tissue growth every year. The amount of carbon annually sequestered is increased with 

healthier trees and larger diameter trees. Gross sequestration by trees in New York City 

is about 42,300 tons of carbon per year with an associated value of $779,000. Net 

carbon sequestration in the New York City urban forest is about 22,900 tons.

Carbon storage:

Carbon currently 

held in tree tissue 

(roots, stems, and 

branches).

Carbon 

sequestration:

Estimated amount 

of carbon removed 

annually by 

trees. Net carbon 

sequestration 

can be negative if 

emission of carbon 

from decomposition 

is greater than 

amount sequestered 

by healthy trees.

Carbon storage by trees is another way trees can infl uence global climate change. As 

trees grow, they store more carbon by holding it in their accumulated tissue. As trees 

die and decay, they release much of the stored carbon back to the atmosphere. Thus, 

carbon storage is an indication of the amount of carbon that can be lost if trees are 

allowed to die and decompose. Trees in New York City are estimated to store 1.35 

million tons of carbon ($24.9 million). Of all the species sampled, London planetree 

stores and sequesters the most carbon (approximately 13.7% of the total carbon stored 

and 12.6% of all sequestered carbon).

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

London planetree

northern red oak

white mulberry

pin oak

Norway maple

black cherry

sweetgum

black locust

silver maple

tree of heaven

Carbon Sequestration (t)

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

Carbon Sequestration

Value (U.S. Dollars)

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

0 - 33 - 66 - 9

9 - 12

12 - 15

15 - 1818 - 21

21 - 24

24 - 27

27 - 30

30+

d.b.h. class (inches)

Storage (tons)

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

Sequestration (tons)

Carbon Storage 

Carbon Sequestration
9

Trees Affect Energy Use in Buildings

Trees affect energy consumption by shading buildings, providing evaporative cooling, 

and blocking winter winds. Trees tend to reduce building energy consumption in the 

summer months and can either increase 

or decrease building energy use in 

the winter months, depending on the 

location of trees around the building. 

Estimates of tree effects on energy use 

are based on fi eld measurements of 

tree distance and direction to spaceconditioned residential buildings.9

Based on average energy costs in 

2002 dollars, trees in New York City 

are estimated to reduce energy costs 

from residential buildings by $11.2 

million annually. Trees also provide 

an additional $167,000 in value per 

year by reducing the amount of carbon 

released by fossil-fuel based power 

plants (a reduction of 9,100 tons of 

carbon emissions).

Trees affect energy 

consumption by 

shading buildings, 

providing 

evaporative cooling, 

and blocking winter 

winds. 

Interactions 

between buildings 

and trees save an 

estimated $11.2 

million in heating 

and cooling costs.

Lower energy 

use in residential 

buildings reduced 

carbon emissions 

from power plants 

by 9,100 tons 

($167,000).

Annual energy savings due to trees near residential buildings

Heating Cooling Total

MBTUa -137,400 n/a -137,400

MWHb -1,900 82,900 81,000

Carbon avoided (t) -2,600 11,700 9,100

a

Million British Thermal Units

b

Megawatt-hour

Annual savingsc (U.S. $) in residential energy expenditures during heating 

and cooling seasons

Heating Cooling Total

MBTUa -1,263,000 n/a -1,263,000

MWHb -294,000 12,788,000 12,494,000

Carbon avoided -49,000 216,300 167,000

a

Million British Thermal Units

b

Megawatt-hour

c

Based on state-wide energy costs
10

Structural and Functional Values

Urban forests have a structural value based on the tree itself (e.g., the cost of having 

to replace the tree with a similar tree). The structural value10 of the urban forest in 

New York City is about $5.2 billion. The structural value of an urban forest tends to 

increase with a rise in the number and size of healthy trees.

Urban forests also have functional values (either positive or negative) based on the 

functions the tree performs. Annual functional values also tend to increase with 

increased number and size of healthy trees, and are usually on the order of several 

million dollars per year. There are many other functional values of the urban forest, 

though they are not quantifi ed here (e.g., reduction in air temperatures and ultraviolet radiation, improvements in water quality). Through proper management, urban 

forest values can be increased. However, the values and benefi ts also can decrease as the 

amount of healthy tree cover declines.

Structural values:

• Structural value: $5.2 billion

• Carbon storage: $24.9 million

Annual functional values:

• Carbon sequestration: $779,000

• Pollution removal: $10.6 million

• Lower energy costs and reduces carbon emissions: $11.2 million

More detailed information on the urban forest in New York City can be found at 

http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/UFORE/data. Additionally, information on other urban 

forest values can be found in Appendix I and information comparing tree benefi ts to 

estimates of average carbon emissions in the city, average automobile emissions, and 

average household emissions can be found in Appendix III.

Urban forests have 

a structural value 

based on the tree 

itself.

Urban forests also 

have functional 

values based on the 

functions the tree 

performs.

Large, healthy, 

long-lived trees 

provide the greatest 

structural and 

functional values.

A map of priority 

planting locations 

for New York City is 

found in Appendix IV.

A list of tree species 

found in New York 

City is in Appendix V.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

northern red oak

London planetree

sweetgum

pin oak

white mulberry

Norway maple

white oak

black cherry

black locust

silver maple

Structural value (millions of dollars)
11

Potential Insect and Disease Impacts

Various insects and diseases can infest urban forests, potentially killing trees and 

reducing the health, value and sustainability of the urban forest. As various pests have 

differing tree hosts, the potential damage or risk of each pest will differ. Four exotic 

pests were analyzed for their potential impact: Asian longhorned beetle, gypsy moth, 

emerald ash borer, and Dutch elm disease.

The Asian longhorned beetle (ALB)15 is an insect that bores into and kills a wide range 

of hardwood species. ALB represents a potential loss to the New York City urban forest 

of $2.25 billion in structural value (43.1 percent of the tree population).

Asian longhorned 

beetle

Emerald ash borer

Gypsy moth

Kenneth R. Law 

USDA APHIS PPQ 

(www.invasive.org)

David Cappaert

Michigan State University

(www.invasive.org)

USDA Forest Service Archives 

(www.invasive.org)

Dutch elm disease

The gypsy moth (GM)16 is a defoliator that feeds on many species causing widespread 

defoliation and tree death if outbreak conditions last several years. This pest could 

potentially result in damage to or a loss of $2.21 billion in structural value (23.0 

percent of the population).

Emerald ash borer (EAB)17 has killed thousands of ash trees in Michigan, Ohio, and 

Indiana. EAB has the potential to affect 0.5 percent of the population ($9.8 million in 

structural value).

American elm, one of the most important street trees in the 20th century, has been 

devastated by Dutch elm disease (DED). Since fi rst reported in the 1930s, it has killed 

more than 50 percent of the native elm population in the United States.18 Although 

some elm species have shown varying degrees of resistance, New York City possibly 

could lose 0.7 percent of its trees to this disease ($111 million in structural value).

0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

ALB GM EAB DED

Number of trees

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

Compensatory value ($ millions)

Population at risk

Compensatory Value

USDA Forest Service
12

Appendix I. Comparison of Urban Forests

A commonly asked question is, “How does this city compare to other cities?” Although comparison among cities 

should be made with caution as there are many attributes of a city that affect urban forest structure and functions, 

summary data are provided from other cities analyzed using the UFORE model.

I. City totals, trees only

City

% Tree 

cover Number of trees

Carbon 

storage (tons)

Carbon 

sequestration 

(tons/yr)

Pollution 

removal 

(tons/yr)

Pollution value 

U.S. $

Calgary, Canadaa 7.2 11,889,000 445,000 21,400 326 1,611,000

Atlanta, GAb 36.7 9,415,000 1,344,000 46,400 1,663 8,321,000

Toronto, Canadac 20.5 7,542,000 992,000 40,300 1,212 6,105,000

New York, NYb 20.9 5,212,000 1,350,000 42,300 1,677 8,071,000

Baltimore, MDd 21.0 2,627,000 597,000 16,200 430 2,129,000

Philadelphia, PAb 15.7 2,113,000 530,000 16,100 576 2,826,000

Washington, DCe 28.6 1,928,000 526,000 16,200 418 1,956,000

Boston, MAb 22.3 1,183,000 319,000 10,500 284 1,426,000

Woodbridge, NJf 29.5 986,000 160,000 5,560 210 1,037,000

Minneapolis, MNg 26.4 979,000 250,000 8,900 306 1,527,000

Syracuse, NYd 23.1 876,000 173,000 5,420 109 568,000

San Francisco, CAa 11.9 668,000 194,000 5,100 141 693,000

Morgantown, WVh 35.5 658,000 93,000 2,890 72 333,000

Moorestown, NJf 28.0 583,000 117,000 3,760 118 576,000

Jersey City, NJf 11.5 136,000 21,000 890 41 196,000

Freehold, NJf 34.4 48,000 20,000 545 22 110,000

II. Per acre values of tree effects

City No. of trees

Carbon Storage 

(tons)

Carbon sequestration 

(tons/yr)

Pollution removal 

(lbs/yr)

Pollution value 

U.S. $

Calgary, Canadaa 66.7 2.5 0.12 3.7 9.0

Atlanta, GAb 111.6 15.9 0.55 39.4 98.6

Toronto, Canadac 48.3 6.4 0.26 15.5 39.1

New York, NYb 26.4 6.8 0.21 17.0 40.9

Baltimore, MDd 50.8 11.6 0.31 16.6 41.2

Philadelphia, PAb 25.1 6.3 0.19 13.6 33.5

Washington, DCe 49.0 13.4 0.41 21.3 49.7

Boston, MAb 33.5 9.1 0.30 16.1 40.4

Woodbridge, NJf 66.5 10.8 0.38 28.4 70.0

Minneapolis, MNg 26.2 6.7 0.24 16.4 40.9

Syracuse, NYd 54.5 10.8 0.34 13.5 35.4

San Francisco, CAa 22.5 6.6 0.17 9.5 23.4

Morgantown, WVh 119.2 16.8 0.52 26.0 60.3

Moorestown, NJf 62.1 12.4 0.40 25.1 61.3

Jersey City, NJf 14.4 2.2 0.09 8.6 20.7

Freehold, NJf 38.3 16.0 0.44 34.9 88.2

Data collection group

a

 City personnel e Casey Trees Endowment Fund b

 ACRT, Inc. f New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection c

 University of Toronto g Davey Resource Group d

 U.S. Forest Service h West Virginia University
13

Appendix II. General Recommendations for Air Quality Improvement

Urban vegetation can directly and indirectly affect local and regional air quality by altering the urban atmospheric 

environment. Four main ways that urban trees affect air quality are:

Temperature reduction and other microclimatic effects

Removal of air pollutants

Emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and tree maintenance emissions

Energy conservation in buildings and consequent power plant emissions

The cumulative and interactive effects of trees on climate, pollution removal, and VOC and power plant 

emissions determine the overall impact of trees on air pollution. Cumulative studies involving urban tree impacts 

on ozone have revealed that increased urban canopy cover, particularly with low VOC emitting species, leads to 

reduced ozone concentrations in cities. Local urban forest management decisions also can help improve air quality.

Urban forest management strategies to help improve air quality include:

Strategy Reason

Increase the number of healthy trees Increase pollution removal

Sustain existing tree cover Maintain pollution removal levels

Maximize use of low VOC-emitting trees Reduces ozone and carbon monoxide formation

Sustain large, healthy trees Large trees have greatest per-tree effects

Use long-lived trees Reduce long-term pollutant emissions from planting and removal

Use low maintenance trees Reduce pollutants emissions from maintenance activities

Reduce fossil fuel use in maintaining vegetation Reduce pollutant emissions

Plant trees in energy conserving locations Reduce pollutant emissions from power plants

Plant trees to shade parked cars Reduce vehicular VOC emissions

Supply ample water to vegetation Enhance pollution removal and temperature reduction

Plant trees in polluted or heavily populated areas Maximizes tree air quality benefi ts

Avoid pollutant-sensitive species Improve tree health

Utilize evergreen trees for particulate matter Year-round removal of particles
14

Appendix III. Relative Tree Effects

The urban forest in New York City provides benefi ts that include carbon storage and sequestration, and air 

pollutant removal. To estimate a relative value of these benefi ts, tree benefi ts were compared to estimates of average 

carbon emissions in the city19, average passenger automobile emissions20, and average household emissions.21

General tree information:

Average tree diameter (d.b.h.) = 9.2 in.

Median tree diameter (d.b.h.) = 6.8 in.

Average number of trees per person = 0.6

Number of trees sampled = 643

Number of species sampled = 65

Average tree effects by tree diameter:

New York City urban forest provides:

Carbon storage equivalent to:

Amount of carbon (C) emitted in city in 10 days or

Annual carbon emissions from 811,000 automobiles or 

Annual C emissions from 407,000 single family houses

Carbon monoxide removal equivalent to:

Annual carbon monoxide emissions from 294 automobiles or

Annual carbon monoxide emissions from 1,200 single family 

houses

Nitrogen dioxide removal equivalent to:

Annual nitrogen dioxide emissions from 25,400 automobiles 

or

Annual nitrogen dioxide emissions from 16,900 single family 

houses

Sulfur dioxide removal equivalent to:

Annual sulfur dioxide emissions from 320,570 automobiles 

or

Annual sulfur dioxide emissions from 5,400 single family 

houses

Particulate matter less than 10 micron (PM10) removal 

equivalent to:

Annual PM10 emissions from 1,039,500 automobiles or

Annual PM10 emissions from 100,300 single family houses

Annual C sequestration equivalent to:

Amount of C emitted in city in 0.3 days or

Annual C emissions from 25,400 automobiles or

Annual C emissions from 12,700 single family homes

a

 miles = number of automobile miles driven that produces emissions equivalent to tree effect

Carbon sequestration

Pollution

Carbon storage removal

D.b.h.

Class (inch) (lbs) ($) (miles) a (lbs/yr) ($/yr) (miles)a (lbs) ($)

1-3 11 0.10 40 201 0.02 8 0.1 0.26

3-6 60 0.55 220 5.7 0.05 21 0.2 0.53

6-9 160 1.47 590 10.3 0.09 38 0.5 1.20

9-12 367 3.38 1,340 16.8 0.15 62 0.2 0.44

12-15 630 5.80 2,310 21.2 0.19 78 0.8 1.91

15-18 968 8.91 3,540 31.4 0.29 115 1.8 4.33

18-21 1,478 13.61 5,410 42.7 0.39 156 1.8 4.26

21-24 1,798 16.56 6,590 45.6 0.42 167 2.1 5.05

24-27 2,775 25.56 10,160 64.1 0.59 235 2.1 5.11

27-30 3,346 30.82 12,260 65.3 0.60 239 3.1 7.51

30+ 6,536 60.20 23,940 96.9 0.89 355 3.2 7.76
15

Appendix IV. Tree Planting Index Map

To determine the best locations to plant trees, tree canopy and impervious cover maps from National Land 

Cover Data22 were used in conjunction with 2000 U.S. Census data to produce an index of priority planting 

areas. Index values were produced for each census block with the higher the index value, the higher the priority 

of the area for tree planting. This index is a type of “environmental equity” index with areas with higher human 

population density and lower tree cover tending to get the higher index value. The criteria used to make the 

index were:

• Population density: the greater the population density, the greater the priority for tree planting

• Tree stocking levels: the lower the tree stocking level (the percent of available greenspace (tree, grass, and 

soil cover areas) that is occupied by tree canopies), the greater the priority for tree planting

• Tree cover per capita: the lower the amount of tree canopy cover per capita (m2

/capita), the greater the 

priority for tree planting

Each criteria was standardized23 on a scale of 0 to 1 with 1 representing the census block with the highest value 

in relation to priority of tree planting (i.e., the census block with highest population density, lowest stocking 

density or lowest tree cover per capita were standardized to a rating of 1). Individual scores were combined and 

standardized based on the following formula to produce an overall priority index value between 0 and 100:

I = (PD * 40) + (TS * 30) + (TPC * 30)

Where I = index value, PD is standardized population density, TS is standardized tree stocking, and TPC is 

standardized tree cover per capita. The index can be used with other tree cover analyses24 to help guide New York 

City’s tree canopy cover.

New York City
16

Appendix V. List of Species Sampled in New York City

Continued

% % Potential pest b

Genus Species Common Name Population Leaf Area IVa ALB GM EAB DED

Acer negundo boxelder 1.8 1.1 2.9 o

Acer palmatum Japanese maple 1.2 1.3 2.5 o

Acer platanoides Norway maple 6.0 7.0 13.0 o

Acer pseudoplatanus sycamore maple 1.6 1.5 3.1 o

Acer rubrum red maple 3.6 3.0 6.6 o

Acer saccharinum silver maple 2.3 4.7 7.0 o

Acer saccharum sugar maple 0.3 0.2 0.5 o

Ailanthus altissima tree of heaven 9.0 3.7 12.7

Amelanchier species serviceberry 0.1 0.0 0.1

Betula populifolia gray birch 0.2 0.1 0.3 o o

Carpinus caroliniana American hornbeam 0.2 0.1 0.3

Carya glabra pignut hickory 0.2 0.1 0.3

Carya tomentosa mockernut hickory 0.4 0.1 0.5

Celtis occidentalis northern hackberry 0.6 0.1 0.7

Cornus fl orida fl owering dogwood 1.2 0.4 1.6

Crataegus species hawthorn 0.5 0.1 0.6 o

Euonymus species euonymus 0.7 0.1 0.8

Fagus grandifolia American beech 0.3 0.8 1.1

Fagus sylvatica European beech 0.1 0.1 0.2

Fraxinus americana white ash 0.2 0.3 0.5 o o

Fraxinus pennsylvanica green ash 0.4 0.0 0.4 o o

Gleditsia triacanthos honeylocust 2.3 0.8 3.1

Hibiscus syriacus rose-of-sharon 0.2 0.0 0.2 o

Juglans nigra black walnut 0.5 0.7 1.2

Koelreuteria paniculata goldenrain tree 0.4 0.0 0.4

Liquidambar styracifl ua sweetgum 7.9 8.3 16.2 o

Liriodendron tulipifera tulip tree 0.7 1.1 1.8

Magnolia species magnolia 0.2 0.4 0.6
17

Appendix V continued.

Continued

% % Potential pest b

Genus Species Common Name Population Leaf Area IVa ALB GM EAB DED

Malus pumila apple 1.2 1.1 2.3 o o

Malus species crabapple 0.2 0.2 0.4 o o

Morus alba white mulberry 5.7 7.6 13.3

Nyssa sylvatica black tupelo 2.0 0.7 2.7

Other Species other species - including

 dead

0.8 0.0 0.8

Paulownia tomentosa royal paulownia 1.0 0.5 1.5

Picea abies Norway spruce 0.5 0.8 1.3

Picea pungens blue spruce 0.4 0.2 0.6

Pinus nigra Austrian pine 0.3 0.4 0.7

Pinus strobus eastern white pine 0.3 1.0 1.3

Platanus acerifolia London planetree 4.1 14.1 18.2 o

Platanus occidentalis American sycamore 0.6 1.0 1.6 o

Populus alba white poplar 0.5 0.1 0.6 o

Populus balsamifera balsam poplar 0.3 0.2 0.5 o o

Populus deltoides eastern cottonwood 1.2 0.6 1.8 o

Prunus cerasifera cherry plum 0.2 0.1 0.3 o

Prunus persica nectarine 0.2 0.0 0.2 o

Prunus serotina black cherry 8.1 5.2 13.3 o

Prunus serrulata Kwanzan cherry 0.5 0.3 0.8 o

Prunus species cherry 2.6 1.5 4.1 o

Pyrus communis common pear 0.9 0.2 1.1 o

Quercus alba white oak 1.2 1.0 2.2 o

Quercus bicolor swamp white oak 0.1 0.1 0.2 o

Quercus macrocarpa bur oak 0.2 0.1 0.3 o

Quercus palustris pin oak 3.4 5.1 8.5 o

Quercus rubra northern red oak 7.7 8.7 16.4 o

Quercus stellata post oak 0.2 0.0 0.2 o

Quercus velutina black oak 0.7 0.3 1.0 o
18

Appendix V continued.

% % Potential pest b

Genus Species Common Name Population Leaf Area IVa ALB GM EAB DED

Robinia pseudoacacia black locust 4.7 4.9 9.6 o

Sassafras albidum sassafras 4.8 2.1 6.9

Sorbus aucuparia European mountain ash 0.2 0.0 0.2 o

Taxus species yew 0.2 0.2 0.4

Thuja occidentalis northern white cedar 0.2 0.1 0.3

Tilia americana American basswood 0.2 0.1 0.3 o o

Tilia cordata littleleaf linden 0.3 0.4 0.7 o o

Tsuga canadensis eastern hemlock 0.5 0.0 0.5

Ulmus americana American elm 0.7 3.6 4.3 o o

Ulmus pumila Siberian elm 0.4 1.4 1.8 o

a

 IV = importance value (% population + % leaf area)

b

 ALB = Asian longhorned bettel; GM = gypsy moth; EAB = emerald ash borer; DED = Dutch elm disease
19

References

1 Nowak, D.J.; Crane, D.E. 2000. The Urban Forest 

Effects (UFORE) Model: quantifying urban 

forest structure and functions. In: Hansen, M.; 

Burk, T., eds. Integrated tools for natural resources 

inventories in the 21st century. Proceedings of 

IUFRO conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-212. St. 

Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, North Central Research Station: 714-720.

2 Nowak, D.J.; Crane, D.E.; Stevens, J.C.; Hoehn, R.E. 

2005. The urban forest effects (UFORE) model: 

fi eld data collection manual. V1b. [Newtown 

Square, PA]: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 34 p. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/syracuse/Tools/downloads/

UFORE_Manual.pdf

3 Nowak, D.J. 1994. Atmospheric carbon dioxide 

reduction by Chicago’s urban forest. In: 

McPherson, E.G.; Nowak, D.J.; Rowntree, R.A., 

eds. Chicago’s urban forest ecosystem: results of 

the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. NE-186. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest 

Experiment Station: 83-94.

4 Baldocchi, D. 1988. A multi-layer model for 

estimating sulfur dioxide deposition to a 

deciduous oak forest canopy. Atmospheric 

Environment. 22: 869-884.

5 Baldocchi, D.D.; Hicks, B.B.; Camara, P. 1987. A 

canopy stomatal resistance model for gaseous 

deposition to vegetated surfaces. Atmospheric 

Environment. 21: 91-101.

6 Bidwell, R.G.S.; Fraser, D.E. 1972. Carbon 

monoxide uptake and metabolism by leaves.

Canadian Journal of Botany. 50: 1435-1439. 

7 Lovett, G.M. 1994. Atmospheric deposition of 

nutrients and pollutants in North America: an 

ecological perspective. Ecological Applications. 4: 

629-650.

8 Zinke, P.J. 1967. Forest interception studies in the 

United States. In: Sopper, W.E.; Lull, H.W., eds. 

Forest hydrology. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press: 

137-161.

9 McPherson, E.G.; Simpson, J.R. 1999. Carbon 

dioxide reduction through urban forestry: 

guidelines for professional and volunteer tree 

planters. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-171. Albany, CA: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Pacifi c Southwest Research Station. 237 p. Can 

be accessed through http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/

publications/gtrs.shtml

10 Nowak, D.J.; Crane, D.E.; Dwyer, J.F. 2002. 

Compensatory value of urban trees in the United 

States. Journal of Arboriculture. 28(4): 194-199.

11 Nowak, D.J.; Crane, D.E.; Stevens, J.C.; Ibarra, M. 

2002. Brooklyn’s urban forest. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

NE-290. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research 

Station. 107 p.

12 Nowak D.J.; Dwyer, J.F. 2000. Understanding 

the benefi ts and costs of urban forest ecosystems.

In: Kuser, John E., ed. Handbook of urban and 

community forestry in the northeast. New York: 

Kluwer Academics/Plenum: 11-22.

13 Murray, F.J.; Marsh L.; Bradford, P.A. 1994. New 

York state energy plan, vol. II: issue reports.

Albany, NY: New York State Energy Offi ce.

14 Abdollahi, K.K.; Ning, Z.H.; Appeaning, A., eds. 

2000. Global climate change and the urban 

forest. Baton Rouge, LA: GCRCC and Franklin 

Press. 77 p.

15 Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry. 2005. 

Asian Longhorned Beetle. Newtown Square, PA: 
20

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Northeastern Area 

State and Private Forestry. http://www.na.fs.fed.

us/fhp/alb/

16 Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry. 

2005. Gypsy moth digest. Newtown Square, PA: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry. 

http://www.na.fs.fed.us/fhp/gm/

17 Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry. 2005. 

Forest health protection emerald ash borer 

home. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Area 

State and Private Forestry. http://www.na.fs.fed.

us/fhp/eab

18 Stack, R.W.; McBride, D.K.; Lamey, H.A. 1996. 

Dutch elm disease. PP-324 (revised). Fargo, 

ND: North Dakota State University, Cooperative 

Extension Service. http://www.ext.nodak.edu/

extpubs/plantsci/trees/pp324w.htm
21

Explanation of Calculations of Appendix III and IV

19 Total city carbon emissions were based on 2003 

U.S. per capita carbon emissions, calculated as 

total U.S. carbon emissions (Energy Information 

Administration, 2003, Emissions of Greenhouse 

Gases in the United States 2003. http://www.eia.

doe.gov/oiaf/1605/1605aold.html) divided by 

2003 total U.S. population (www.census.gov). Per 

capita emissions were multiplied by Minneapolis 

population to estimate total city carbon emissions.

20 Average passenger automobile emissions per 

mile were based on dividing total 2002 pollutant 

emissions from light-duty gas vehicles (National 

Emission Trends http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/

trends/index.html) by total miles driven in 2002 by 

passenger cars (National Transportation Statistics 

http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_

transportation_statistics/2004/).

Average annual passenger automobile emissions 

per vehicle were based on dividing total 2002 

pollutant emissions from light-duty gas vehicles 

by total number of passenger cars in 2002 

(National Transportation Statistics http://www.

bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_

statistics/2004/).

Carbon dioxide emissions from automobiles 

assumed 6 pounds of carbon per gallon of gasoline 

with energy costs of refi nement and transportation 

included (Graham, R.L.; Wright, L.L.; Turhollow, 

A.F. 1992. The potential for short-rotation woody 

crops to reduce U.S. CO2

 emissions. Climatic 

Change. 22:223-238.)

21 Average household emissions based on average 

electricity kWh usage, natural gas Btu usage, fuel oil 

Btu usage, kerosene Btu usage, LPG Btu usage, and 

wood Btu usage per household from:

Energy Information Administration. Total Energy 

Consumption in U.S. Households by Type of 

Housing Unit, 2001 www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/

recs2001/detailcetbls.html. 

CO2

, SO2, and NOx power plant emission per 

KWh from:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. U.S. 

power plant emissions total by year www.epa.gov/

cleanenergy/egrid/samples.htm.

CO emission per kWh assumes one-third of 1 

percent of C emissions is CO based on:

Energy Information Administration. 1994. 

Energy use and carbon emissions: non-OECD 

countries. DOE/EIA-0579(94). Washington, 

DC: Department of Energy, Energy Information 

Administration. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/bookshelf

PM10 emission per kWh from: 

Layton, M. 2004. 2005 Electricity environmental 

performance report: electricity generation and air 

emissions. Sacramento, CA: California Energy 

Commission. 

http://www.energy.ca.gov/2005_energypolicy/

documents/2004-11-15_workshop/2004-11-15_03-

A_LAYTON.PDF

CO2

, NOx, SO2, PM10, and CO emission per Btu 

for natural gas, propane and butane (average used 

to represent LPG), Fuel #4 and #6 (average used to 

represent fuel oil and kerosene) from:

Abraxas energy consulting. http://www.

abraxasenergy.com/emissions/ 

CO2

 and fi ne particle emissions per Btu of wood 

from:

 Houck, J.E.; Tiegs, P.E.; McCrillis, R.C.; Keithley, 

C.; Crouch, J. 1998. Air emissions from residential 
22

heating: the wood heating option put into 

environmental perspective. In: Proceedings of U.S. 

EPA and Air and Waste Management Association 

conference: living in a global environment, V.1: 

373-384.

CO, NOx and SOx emission per Btu of wood based 

on total emissions from wood burning (tonnes) 

from: 

Residential Wood Burning Emissions in British 

Columbia. 2005. http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/air/

airquality/pdfs/wood_emissions.pdf.

Emissions per dry tonne of wood converted to 

emissions per Btu based on average dry weight per 

cord of wood and average Btu per cord from:

Kuhns, M.; Schmidt, T. 1988. Heating with wood: 

species characteristics and volumes I. NebGuide 

G-88-881-A. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska, 

Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 

Cooperative Extension.

22 National Land Cover Data available at: 

www.epa.gov/mrlc/nlcd.html.

23 Standardized value for population density was 

calculated as: 

 PD = (n – m)/r 

 where:

PD is the value (0-1)

n is the value for the census block (population/km2

) 

m is the minimum value for all census blocks, and

r is the range of values among all census blocks 

(maximum value – minimum value).

 Standardized value for tree stocking was calculated as :

 TS = (1 – (T/(T+G)) 

 where: 

TS is the value (0-1) 

T is percent tree cover, and 

G is percent grass cover.

 Standardized value for tree cover per capita was 

calculated as:

 TPC = 1 – [(n – m)/r] 

 where: 

TPC is the value (0-1) 

n is the value for the census block (m2

/capita) 

m is the minimum value for all census blocks, and 

r is the range of values among all census blocks 

(maximum value – minimum value).

24 Grove, J.M.; O’Neil-Dunne, J.; Pelletier, K.; Nowak, 

D.; Walton, J. 2006. A report on New York 

City’s present and possible urban tree canopy: a 

report prepared for Fiona Watt, Chief, Forestry & 

Horticulture, Department of Parks & Recreation, 

City of New York. Unpublished report on fi le 

at Northern Research Station, George D. Aiken 

Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 705 Spear St., South 

Burlington, VT 05403.
Printed on Recycled Paper

Nowak, David J.; Hoehn, Robert E. III, Crane, Daniel E.; Stevens, Jack C.; Walton, 

Jeffrey T. 2007. Assessing urban forest effects and values, New York City’s 

urban forest. Resour. Bull. NRS-9. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 22 p.

An analysis of trees in New York City reveals that this city has about 5.2 million 

trees with canopies that cover 20.9 percent of the area. The most common tree 

species are tree of heaven, black cherry, and sweetgum. The urban forest currently 

stores about 1.35 million tons of carbon valued at $24.9 million. In addition, these 

trees remove about 42,300 tons of carbon per year ($779,000 per year) and about 

2,202 tons of air pollution per year ($10.6 million per year). The structural, or 

compensatory, value is estimated at $5.2 billion. Information on the structure and 

functions of the urban forest can be used to improve and augment support for urban 

forest management programs and to integrate urban forests within plans to improve 

environmental quality in the New York City area.

KEY WORDS: urban forestry, ecosystem services, air pollution removal, carbon 

sequestration, tree value

Manuscript received for publication 5 December 2006
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities 

on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, 

familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, 

reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program 

(Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternate means 

for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s 

TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To fi le a complaint of discrimination, write to 

USDA, Director, Offi ce of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, DC 20250-

9410, or call (800)795-3272 (voice) or (202)720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider 

and employer. 

www.nrs.fs.fed.us

Capitalizing on the strengths of existing science 

capacity in the Northeast and Midwest to attain a more 

integrated, cohesive, landscape-scale research program