vanted to teuch first grade and put in my request. So iChappened t
teach first grade. And F didn’t know anything. | bad taught fifth and sixth. Bat
there was a veteran female teacher at that time. And another teacher in her thir-
~about in the middie. And the head teacher was over 50.1} was Gught a lot
about first grade. And it was interesting for me too—T learned a lot.

1 got to

Again. the most familia work is not viewed as the best way to develop one’s teach-
ing skills. Severaf teachers told me that teaching a variety of ages was necessary to
be able to understand children, One sixth-grade teacher quoted above even sug:
gested that it was casicr-to respect childrens’ developmental needs when moving be-
tween firsCand sixth grade. The knowledge gained through a variety of teaching ex-
periences seems to be valued

Similarly reflecting the view thac it is important to be knowledgeable about many as-
pects of a school. the principal at Meiji High School explained to me that even
though his major was English. he did not want to see himseff only as an English
teacher. As he became an employee at cach school to which he was assigned, he
begin to be able to

grasp general school management—not just look at my Own major subject but
also to have a goal of learning school management. When you get to be a certain
age. from your midforties to about fifty, you become the center of the school.
Then it is helpful if you have broad knowledge of the school system.

This principal also emphasized that in order to gain this knowledge. experience at
unfamiliar and tess prestigious schools is also helpful:

Before f came here.1 had bee

night high school principal for five years. Eh
come through them alka commercial high school. an academic high school
a night high school. ... [tis a bit inconvenient but necessary in order to have a
broad view of cducation

Lasked every teacher about whether or not they fett the job rotation system was co-
ercive.and although a few agreed that it could be seen that way, dicey argued that it
was necessary and a way that all teachers got various expericnces. Because rotation
of teachers is widely used throughout most public school systems in Japan and has a
history. being transferred regularly appears to be accepted as a part of the work of a
teacher. Because all teachers are subject to transfers. being transferred is generally
not viewed as cither a reward or a punishment. but as a natural part of teachers’
work carcers

201



Table 5—Number of school hours in Japanes

junior high schools

i Subjects Grade

i 8 9
Japanes Tanguage ~ ~ m5 7 10 ~~ iw
Social studies im) ho) “0-105
Mathematics 105, 110 lio
Science 105 105, 108-140
Music xt) “0
Fine arts ~0 “0 a5
Health and physical education 108 105 195-140
Industrial arts or homemaking “a “0 “0-105
Moral Education 35 AS al
Special Activities 35-70 3s 35

Elective Subjects 105-140 105-210 110-280
Yotal Minimum Required 1.050 1,050 1,050,

SOURCE: Adapted from Jichi Sago Center. 1991

An cducation official in Naka City
junior high school
riculum adequatels

described the problem with math instruction in
sone of a lack of sufficient instruction time to cover the cure

Elementary school students are taking 5 hours of math per week. Seventh: and
eighth-graders in junior high school are taking fewer hours so that the classes
tend to be too heavy in content. There is loo much material to cover. This leads
students to dislike math and consider it useless. In my opinion. math hours
should be inercased in junior high school by 2 or 3 hours per week

An education official in Naka reiterated the complaint of the mati teachers:

In elementary school. there is time for students to be involved and do hands-on
activi but in the junior high school. we just lecture. That really alicnates stu
dents and makes them think that math is uscless

Scfence. Students iso indicated having problems keeping up with the science cure
riculum in junior high school. An otherwise highly motivated high school student
said that a bad experience with phy in junior high school caused him to dislike
science." do not want to talk about iL” responded the student whea probed for
more information.

10



~child time” on Wednesday. Thursday
physic:

and Friday likewise usually involved ¢ither

‘al activity together or group discussions or games in the chtssrooms.At'Tancho
Elementary School these various morning activitics were called “play time” (rucsday.
Thursday, Saturday),”Tancho child time” Wednesday), and “togetherness time” (F
day). In addition, all students leave by 2:30 p.m.on Mondays and ‘Fhursdays and first-
through third-graders [cave earlier on most day: achers told me t
sary, because young children cannot sit still for such long days.

this is neces-

1 observed several instances where a teacher stopped a class or delayed beginning a
tesson in order to discuss issues related to student relationships. In one classroom
with a new Korean student, the teacher led three full class discussions about respect
and getting along with cach other in response to the new students tears. In some
classes. 10 or 20 minutes at the end of cach day are used to discuss the good and bad
events of the day with a focus on self-reflection.

Giving attention and plenty of time to students’ moods and the interactions hetween
students scemed to deter serious discipline problems. One boisterous fourth-grade
girl soundly slapped a boy on the K over a dispute about lunch portions. The
teacher, after spraying the boy's back with a cooling first aid spray, quickly asked the
class how the dispute could have been handled. A brief discussion followed and the
girl apologized in tears to the boy and to the class. but then seemed to dry her tears
and happily rejoined her friends in a game

In another classroom.one active boy rushed up to refill his bow! at lunch and
caused another boy to trip and drop his entire lunch tray. Rather than lecturing the
class or scolding the boy, the teacher looked up and asked.“how will we clean up
the mess?"The surrounding classmates immediately grabbed cleaning equipment
and, when the floor was clean. students shared small amounts of their portions with
the boy whose meal had been lost.At the end of the day. the boy who had caused
the accident apologized to the class and the other boy thanked the class for helping
him. The potential for an emotionally charged exchange became instead a chance to
practice formal apologies and thank yous. The disciplinary techniques observed all
seemed to focus on asking the students to work together to solve a problem rather
than assigning blame to any one student.

Science and arithinetic teaching. Wall Ciree clemenutry schools there were similar-
ities in the use of props and the way in which (cachers used a variety of teaching
methods during science and arithmetic lessons. For example. fourth-graders were all
doing a unit on weights and working with scales they had made of milk cartons. The
teachers were adept at changing activities every Sor 10 minutes in order to keep
children’s atention and cach scemed to have a vast repertoire of teaching strategics.

210

wn



on the ch:

SWE

dents may be asked to pul their
plains the rationale behind the w
evaluate the strengths

rd. Each student then ex:
he or she solved the problem. Other students
given problem-solving procedure (5 min-
utes). About 5 minutes before the class ends, the teacher summarizes the major

ss discussed by the students. he teacher then announces the plans for the next
class meeting,

Examples of Whoie Class Instruction

The following ¢

s offers a Vivid example of whole class instruction

is. Sato’s third-grade math class. At he upper left corner of the front chalkboard
were two framed scripts stuing the motto of the cktss

a good thing to dovall of us will do it together
If there is a thing to be enjoyed. all of us will enjoy it together

If there isa thing that’s troubling someone.
gether

afof us will think of what to do to

We all make this class better by helping one another

‘The Goals of Our ©

‘ro be positive/spirited (genk?) and friendly to all (@karuki)
‘Yo be coopenitive, helpful.and empathetic with cach other

To p:

tention. listen carefully. so that one can think and speak autonomously

‘Yo take initiative and work hard to improve

Also

ectly above the chalkboard. on five other vei
descriptions of the “finger s Which Ms
ideas with one another. M

ically placed banne
aito’s stud

hung the
nts uscd to exchange their
O's Chass was unusual in using these signs.)

1. Agreement: Lagree with (name of the chissmatc) [picture with the pointed
forefinger]

2. Question [picture with the pointed forefinger, middle finge

and third fingers)

3. Don't understand [picture with closed hand]

4. Add on: £ addon to [name of the chissmate]’s answer/opinion [picture with
(he pointed forefinger and the middle finger]

- Opinion: [think (statement of one’s own
idea) [picture with open hand].

dea) because (reasoning behind this

104

hey



re ree

Principals and vice principals are recruited from the ranks of teachers and have gen-
erally taught in the classroom for £5 to 20 years.

Jn terms of ainese schools arc virtually teacher-run instituGions.Adminis-
trative duti ed among the senior teachers through a system of commit-
tees that oversee all school functions. Teachers are also organized by grade level. and
these grade-level committces are responsible for planning and implementing the

's curriculum as well as organizing extracurricular events for the grade.

Today. 95 percent of Japanese students are cnrotled in some type of pre-school pro-
gram. cither kindergarten or re (Pe 1992:Tobin. Wu and Davidson, 1989).
Students then spend 6 years in clementary school (sh6 gakkO).3 years in junior high
school (cha gakk6) and 3 years in high school (R6 16 gakkd).

Nearly 30 percent of students are enrolled in private schools at the high school fevel
t. 1994). There are also special schools at all levels for students with
s bilities as well as a small number of clite. nationally funded. 5
schools. However. enrollment in the special schools and the 5-year high sch
stitutes a very small percentage of the overall enrollment. See 1
rollment figures.

Table 1—General school enrollment trends, 1996

School level National/Public Private

Kindergartens _ F522 TOOL OR
Elementary schools 8.515.202 67.409 S12
Janior high schools 4.119.760 231,106 512
High schools 3.105.120 1.457.605 303
special schools for RO.334 BBS O23

handicapped students
Junior colleges 38.819 ISLB19 82.3

Universities O61. 398 1.820.407 O87

SOURCE Statistics Bureau, 1990 O88:

Education is compulsory for students from the age of 6 to 15 (ic. for those at the eb
ementary and junior high school levels), It is also tuition-free, although parents must
provide required materials such as uniforms. math kits, and calligraphy sets). Flemen-
tary schools are generally within watking distance of the child's home, and during
the school year small groups of children (guided by older students. a parent or
teacher) can be scen walking to school. At the end of 3 years of junior high school,
students must choose a high school they would like to enter and most will take a

6

a



e
E
E
E
5

cated in every dimension of their personhood, including their social, emotional,
moral. phy land intellectual capaciti anese elementary schools place so
much emphasis on the group. and the individual as part of the group, that teaching
and [earning at this level can not be taken out of an interpersonal context.

Junior high school years in Japan, however, are a time of turbwent transition, a ime

when the egalitarian education that characterized the elementary school years
merges with the new forces of academic competition. It is in junior high school that
students become concerned with competing with their peers in the entrance exams
that will determine their place in a high school system with various levels of
mic rigor and prestige.

This competition is carried over to high school, the time of preparation for univer
sity study or direct entry into adult During the high school yea
much emphasis is placed on social tife within the school while. at the same time, stu-
dents are being trained to compete as individuals for the university entrance
Japanese high schools, stratified by their academic levels. mirror the occupational
levels of competition in Japanese society, where emphasis is placed on learni
balance individual competition with being a productive part of a group.

In Japan, competition and egalitarianism often go hand in hand. The two behaviors
produce some conflicts in students lives, but Japanese students and parents gener
ally regard the two clements as being equally necessary. Competition, which oudines
differences bewween individuals, is considered to be necessary because it gives stu.
dents the ticket to higher education and opportunities for prestigious and weill-pay-
ing employment. Egalitariauism continues to be important in Japan in part as a reac-
tion to carlier periods when education was available only to clite groups in society.

Virtually all Japanese students, parents, nd teachers appear to be aware of the sim-
ple formula that the more time an individual student spends studying, the better
their chances will be for entering a good school. getting a good job. aud becoming
members of the middle class. The crucial requirement is the possession of a high
school diploma: regardless of whether one is planning to go to college or not “doing
one’s ime” in high school is an important v: ble to social acceptance.



not have time to go lo juke. Those who do go to jku. tend to be divided into those
who are cither having scrious problems keeping up with ckass or Chose who are
preparing for college entrance exams.

The role of juku in dealing with differences iu studeuts ability. MA We risk of over
simplification, one can state that it is jake, not regular schools, which both systemat-
ically and cffectiv to deal with differences in students’ abilities. Many teachers
regular schools ufficient for most students to accomplish their goals, but
Japanese parents and students claim that students who atre cither at the bottom or
top of the class have to go to fie in order to receive appropriate levels of instruc
tion, For example, students who aspire to go to an elite junior high school have no
choice but to (urn to jake rather than to Meir teachers in regukir schools, for help.
One mother at Hasu Elementary testified:

My older child expressed her desire Co go to at private junior high school when
she was in the fifth gerade. Today. in order to go to private junior high schools,
children have to study things that are far more advanced than those taught at
school. So we decided to send our child te faked know that the parents should
really help the children at that point. but when we looked at the lessons our
daughter brought home. we could not help her with math. We were still able to
offer some help in Japanese, but not math... So we had to have somebody's
help. As a result. Gur daughter passed the cotrance exam to the very school she
wanted to enter, Because her dream came truc. looking back on the pitst 2 vears,
she feels it was good that she went to jikie. However. during those 2 years. she.
being busyatlways looked anxious and under stress. | could tell even from the
hinguage she was using. that she needed more Gime to re

[Cis important to realize that most fapanese puents and students ncither criticize
regular schools for their unwillingness to deal with ability differences. nor praise
Juke for atvempting to meet the students’ individual needs. Rather, (hey think both a
regular school and a jiki are necded if the student is to derive the maximum bene:
fits out of the current Japanese system, One such example of this differentiation
comes from the results of a survey study conducted in Chiba. part of the Tokyo met
ropolitan area. Nearly 80 percent of clementary and junior high school students re-
sponded that they considered homework given at regular schools more important
than that given in jgku (Kudomi, 1993).The majority indicated that thes approve of
ability grouping at jak because the grouping makes the right adjustment for my
own ability level! but not at regular schools, where they considered the grouping “i
sign of discrimination. This paradoxical situation occurs because of the different
goals of juka and regular classes. Social interaction and the development of the indi-
vidual are goals in regular schools faki.on the other hand. seck only to develop the
students’ skills. and grouping by ability often makes it casicr for the teacher to ac
complish this goal

130



ED 418 918

. US DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
' ott SPEER ENteresen sostserorenet
EOUGATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERC
Jp Tis document nas been reproduced 3s
Fees from ne person oF orgarvrator
onganaing
1D nor enanges lave been made 10
improve veprocucton aualiy

= Pomts of view
Socument do not necessatiy tepresent
official ERI position 0° policy

SO 029 324]

DEST COPT

Explain why each of the above is important in maurtaming the ecosystem in the aquarium.



Interviewer: Why is that discrimination?

Student: School is a place where the teacher has to teach everyone fairly. If the
teacher puts only the smart students in certain seats, it becomes clearly known
to us all who the good students are. That will hurt the students who cannot
study well.

Ability Grouping Harms Students Emotionally

The second reason cited against the use of instructional grouping was that it would
hurt students emotionally so much that they would lose their motivation to study.
For example, when asked about the validity of using instructional grouping, a 1aid-
die-aged male teacher immediately immersed himself in the following thoughts:

I put myself in their situation and imagine that ] happen to be placed in a group
which is the lowest in ability. | would feel very bad.So [ do not want to divide
them according to their ability. (Teacher, Naka Vocational High School)

A junior high school teacher echoed similar thoughts:

Iff use instructional grouping, those who are placed ina slow group would feel
amed. When | think of how they feel. dividing them has a more negative
than positive effect. (feacher, Shimogawa Junior High)

A parent explained that, in his opinion:

Grouping would be a welcome opportunity to tet students’ abilities grow, but fo.
those who [ack a competitive spirit, it would cause them to Jose their willingness
and interest to study. (Parent, Meiji High School)

. another teacher described the negative emotional effects of grouping when
he explained:
Those who are in the slow group will not do any work because they would be
discouraged by the fact that they are placed there. They feel their teacher gave
up on them and also feel that their peers look down on them. | think it is very
unbearable (kufsijoku feki) for the students to be labeled like that

Moral Benefits

The last reason against the us¢ of instructional grouping was that a mixed-bility
classroom can yield pedagogical as well as moral benclits. Teachers ned the
pedagogical benefit of teaching to a mixed-ability group as follows. tal science
teacher at Meiji said:

100,



Since the high school entrance examinations are based entirely on knowledge of the
curriculum, junior high schools are under pressure to deliver the curriculum. Ac-
cording to an eighth-grade physies teacher" There is no direct pressure from Mon-
busbo to achieve a certain tevel. However, most teachers feel pressured to teach the
curriculum because almost everyone goes to high school
trance examination demands a certain level of knowledge.

and the high school en-

Entrance Examinations for High School

Graduation from junior high school marks the end of compulsory education in
Japan. Nevertheless, 96 percent of junior high schoal graduates go on to senior high
schoo! (Moubusbo, 1993). In order to advance to senior high school, graduates of ju-
nior high schools must take standardized high school entrance examinations. The ex-
aminations may be cither prefectural or national, depending on the school system to
which the student is applying. Most students take prefectural high school entrance
xaminations.A small percentage of students take exams that would admit them to
schools designated as “national” schools.

In contrast to countries where admission to a high schoo! depends on the area of a
city in which a student's family resides, students in Japan have potentia Slow
larger number of schools as long as entrance requirements are met. Since the Japan-
ese population is highly urbanized and most cities have well developed mass trans-
portation systems, competition for entrance into the higher-ranked high schools in

Japan is typicafly intense, as was the case in the three regions we visited.

Regional differences. Because the high school entrance examinations are devised by
officials from the local boards of education, there are minor differences in the con-
tent of the examinations, and so actual problems may differ from prefecture to pre-
fecture. However. the important point is that allof the problems for all prefectural
examinations must be within the domain of the Moubusbo curricular guidelines. A
prefectural review board determines whether questions deviate from the content of
the curriculum or are too difficult. Since the questions on the high school entrance
mination are restricted to the Monbusbo curriculum, companies that publish ma-
terials to help students prepare for the examinations advise them that the best way
to pre for the ions is to review textbooks

and do practice problems.

Five basic subjects of tbe entrance exantination. High school entrance examina-
tions must cover five academic subjects that are the core subjects of the Moubusbo
curriculum: Japanese, mathematics, social studics, science, and English. The mathe-
matics section tends to be comprised of mostly open-ended questions, while other
subjects, such as science. tend to have multiple-choice

answers.



seemed that the teachers who worked the most were choosing their long hours ci-
ther because they were on an ambitious career (rack hoping to get rescarch ap-
pointnents or administrative appointments, or because they were interested in Uicir
subject matter and gladly spent their extea time exploring materials and mecting
with other teachers with similar interests.

Timing

Although schools keep strict schedules and teachers usually arrive promptly for
meetings, there also is a recognition that Mlexibility is important and that schedules
can be bent to accommodate particular circumstances. In particular. the morning
teachers’ meetings and teachers’ meetings that involve the entire faculty are kept
within tight schedules and carefully run formats. Informational meetings often began
and ended within five minutes and conv Irge ame nt of information. How-
ever. mectings of smaller groups after school tended to allow plenty of
time for discussion and did not seem to have tight ending times. In addition. times
for starting and ending classes tended to be flexible. especially in clementiry
schools. In clementary schools, individual teachers generally have the same group of
students all day long. and teachers are free to ignore the chimes that signal the start
ofa new chiss period. In almost all cktssrooms. students do not jump up to leave
when a chime is heard: rather they wait until the teacher announces the end of a

SS period and then stand and bow on the command of the student in charge that
ay. Teachers may cut at chiss short and move onto a different subject or extend at pe-
riod to continue a lesson, depending both on the contents to be covered and the
teachers’ assessment of the needs and energy levels of their students.

d

One fifth-grade teacher told me. as we sprinted up the four flights of stairs to his
class room before first period.t the day's schedule was more packed than usual
and if the students were not up to ithe would give them a break and do something
noton the schedule. He mentioned the schedule because | had been given a copy of
his plan for the day: his scheduling is up to him. He told me that there are days when
very few cl sactually get taught because of student concerns or needs that ab-
sorb class time. One fourth-grade teacher interrupted two classes. physical educa
tion and Japanese language. to have a class discussion about getting along with cach
other because relationships between students had become an issue. Teachers are ene
couraged to use problems for Giking time and calling upon students to think about
Various ways to work together better.

High school morning meeting Each day's meeting is unique but generally follows,
fairly standard procedures. The emphasis is on sharing information with the full teach-
ing staff. My notes from Naka Vocational High School demonstrate how tightly sched:
ules are follow cd and how much information can be shared within 4 minutes

216

OL


ented instcuction is informal. For example. in one mach class attended, students:
were given real money and went to the teacher to buy various snacks that she sold
In another such ch udents bowled and counted the number of pins they
knocked down, Each student received individual adenton. In one clement
class. cach student owned certain sections of he classroom.A girl named
for example. was both curious and nervous about the sudden visit by the vice princi-
pal and this strange adult. Upon our visit. she retreated to her own “spol Then the
teacher remarked."Fine, Kako-chan. That's your place isn? But you don't have to
hide in there. Everything is fine”

Japanese teachers expressed the belief that individual attention should be given at
home by mothers, but in school. children should learn to control such “selfish” im-
pulses. Clearly such restrictions are lifted in Japanese special education chisses. Ms. K
likened her students to her own child:

Edon't think my students are “spec
than others. When f was ri
exacuy like that of my autist

au as vou suggest. Maybe there are slower

ing my own children, | noticed behaviors which look
students. The difference is (hat the autistic student
ge of development. So F don’t sce them (her own child and her
autistic studend) being that different.

Problems Facing Special Education Teachers

Most tcachet ivilent feclings toward the
a 2demic climate in which special education is embedded. For
specitl education students. whose identities are shaped by being different. main-
stream Japanese cducation stands as both the goal to be accomplished and as the ob-
stacle to be removed.

eral cultural a

Ms. K, for example. told me about her dilemma in the school’s “sports day” dado
ka?).As in any athletic events. al students must follow rules by which they compete.
In a short distance race, for insuunce. al runners must line up atthe starting ling.In
Japanese schools, she said." when they say cling up. you really have to Jine up. But
there is no way that my students can do that. So they inevitably stick oul She said
that she felt torn because on the ong hand. she wanted her students to do exactly as
others so that they did not feel embarrassed At the same time. she felt Unis is not
whit education is all about. 1 thought handicapped students should be free to do.
what they can do. Of course. they have to follow rules. too. But making a perfect line
is pot such an important rule”

Ms. K and other special education teachers agreed that what they hope most for

their children is that the society will become more understanding of their students’

VAa

Luu BEST COPY AVAILABLE



The following classroom observation shows the challenge of being a teacher when
the curriculum is difficult for students, as is the case for some vocational high school
students. The observation is froma 12th-grade math class at the vocativnal high
school in Naka City. The teacher was explaining integration to students who were
hot paying much attention.

The teacher explains to the students how integrating x-squared from 0 to 3 gives
you the area under the curve. After working through the problem on the chalk-
board. the teacher imposes a triangle on the area and points out how the triangle
should be slightly larger in area than the area under the curve as determined
through integration. He refers to the formula for calculating the area under the
triangle. He then goes on to another area under the curve problem, writing the
y=tx-x on the chalkboard.

Because the teacher's back is turned.a number of the students are talking
amongst themscfves at this point. The teacker turns to one of these students.
“Hey. ¥kun. what kind of graph does this make?

The student answers,“Don't know.”
IVs an‘T don't know graph?”

The students continue talking,

‘The teacher says.“ Hey, you, what are you tuking about? Are you listening? You! [s
this a tough problem?

The student meckly says.“yeah-

“One minus four is a tough problem?” retorts the teacher.“ You just agreed with
me that it was. Let's geta calculator out and figure this out”

Students who do perform well in one of the more demanding vocational tracks may
k enteanee to a university. In factoone student in the information technology
major indicated that he was aiming for admission to a local university. He estimated
that he studicd 6 days a week from four in the afternoon to slightly past midnighi. in-
cluding a dinner break. Ie attended juku during the summer and winter vacations
to help him prepare for the examinations. A selfadmitted bookworm, or gariben,
this student did not fit the ype of the vocational high school stu-
dent. When describing students in both vocational and academic high schools. it is
important to acknowledge that a variety of types of students with differing levels of
interest in math and science exist in both types of schools. Furthermore, since high
school grades are considered by employers when making decisions to hire voca-
tional high scheol graduates, students at these schools also have an incentive to per
form well in school.

se

fastructional materials. The textbooks used in high schools, like most of the cle-
mentary ted junior high schools. are thin paperbacks The content however. is quite

60



oped and the prepared notes consisted of boxes for the drawings that were labeled
as to the different sta nthe process. Although the le: lecture
given by the teacher with litte room for surdent participation, the use of prepared
notes involved cach student individually in the fast-paced lesson. The reason for the
fast pace was preparation for college entry examinations.

One chemistry cla

at Meiji High School consisted of a 50-minute lecture by the
teacher, but he began with a demonstration experiment using colored liquids and di-
gressed halfway through to include a lively example about photography. Again, al-
though the lesson was fast paced and somewhat dry, it seemed well designed to
maintain most students’ interest. There was much less concern for students who
were falling behind than J observed at the elementary school level

Tobserved some student presentation of proolems prepared in advance and some
lecturing or working out of a problem on the chalkboard by the teacher in all the
high school mathematics classes. The more interesting teachers interjected descrip:
tions of how problems were relevant to everyday life. or funny stori¢s, or. in one
teachers’ mathema lesson, a discussion of local festivals and whe
could be found.

¢ the hest food

achers at high schools reported having some assistance when preparing fe
iments and other activities. Most schools hi least one science assis
person may be more or tess qualified: in the school observed one assistant was really
the library aide doing double duty and one was a fully qualified science teacher who
had not yet been able to find employment in the district. Schools also sometimes.
have an offi istant Who will help with copying and other basic clerical tasks.
but such an assistant is not available at all schools.

exper-
ant. hut that

At Meiji High School all students seemed to be prepared for class and be able to do
most of the problems: at Arata High School a few students were clearly unmotiy ated
and ill-prepared but most were prepared and scemed quite diligent and competent.
and at Naka Vocational [High, the teachers seemed to assume litte preparation and
instead worked on the assumption that most students could do the work if they

nd explained things carefully. AC Naka Ealso ohserved a mathematics
king students to solve problems and then asking other students for com:
ments on how to improve the problems.a method similar Co that of many clemen-
tary school teachers. [tscemed that because there was litle pressure to prepare
these students for examinations, time was used to develop basic mathematical skills
among all studlents.



a

refusal. and bullying, with early failures in the child’s education. If children become
excited in learning about their world, Japanese educators reason. they will continue
to pursue their studies in later yea students will then become motivated learners
in a general sense.

From the carliest grades on. Japanese children are taught to work in small groups
(han) as well as lo participate as classmates, grade members, and members of the
whole school. These multiple f s of group affiliations appear to create
sense of identification with the school. The individual student is recogniz
his or her personal accomplishments thao for the contributions he or she makes to
the group. chiss, grade. or school.

Japanese educators also focus on the interests of average and below-average chil-
dren. Teachers place litte emphasis on innate ability. and most clementary teachers

go outof their way to de-emphasize ability in favor of interest and effort. The term
ability di
els”

4 rences” GloryoRusd) is generally avoided and “difference in mastery lev-
shujukudo) is preferred. This preference reflects the fact that Japanese adults
aceply uneasy about dividing children based on ability, One reason given by
teachers for not using ability grouping was that it would hurt students emotionally
to the extent that they would jose their motivation to study. Japanese teachers be-
lieve that a child’s motivation is central to success and that all children are capable
of mastering the curriculum with proper cncouragement.

Individual Differences and
Concepts of Ability

Japanese educator:
ences in upbringing
innate but rather acquired through individual effort.
recognizahle disabilities. teachers sce all students as ca
school. Individual effort was most often mentioned 4
and high ability.

generally see ability differences arising as the result of differ

n family background. Teachers do not consider that abilities are
cept for students with clearly
pable of succeeding in

the source of achievement

Individuals who display a “strong mind” or who have strong motivation are consid:
ered to be the students who will excel in math. science. and a rangg of other
What most frequently differentiates these individuals from their peers is the kind of
primary family celationships they have and the consequent cffects these early rela.
tionships have as the child develops. Students who are not well socialized “run out

NVili



A Typical Day

All teachers seemed to be busy during their required time at school (typically from
8:25 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.). but the degree to which school activities took up their time
outside of (hose hours varied greatly, depending on the school. a nd the indi-
vidual motivation of the teacher. During their hours at school teachers do many
things in addition to teaching. Elementary school teachers teach all periods on most
days cept for a few periods when their homeroom has mus ‘herefore,
they are generally in chiss with students from 8:45 a.m. until 3:30 p.m. Junior high
and high school teachers typically teach three or four classes at day of the six-period
schedule. In addition. they generally have several periods when they teach the same
lesson. Which may reduce their preparation load. Most teachers reported that they
arrived at school sometime between 8:00 and 8:30 a.m. and left between 5:00 and
6:40 p.m.A few teachers stay later or arrive carlicr because they are involved in club
activities or for other reasons. and many regulart arch meetings in the
late afternoons or carly evenings. Although Japanese teachers are atthe school for
long hours. their time at school is not only for teaching. Teachers also phan classes
while at school. cither individually or with other teachers. In addition, teachers ex-
pect lo use varying amounts of Gime cach day talking individually with scudents—
students at junior high and high school know they can speak with teachers bewwe
class periods and before and after school: clementiry and junior high school teach:
ers also cat lunch with their classrooms: and high school students know they can
visit the teachers’ room during lunch to seck out teachers. Finally. as discussed
below, teachers spend much time in administrative. planning. and guidance mectings
with other teachers and administrators.

SCN

class.

ttend

The work of a teacher can scem never ending. One clementary school teacher de-
scribed her work ina way that will probably sound familiar to teachers throughout
the world:

The really strange thing about a teacher is ub you want to make Work you can
make as much as you want: it is that kind of you know. To the degree you
want to try something. you st ample. if the children in your
class cat vet write their characters well you decide you will have some charac:
ter practice and so you try to make some character tests on your own and well.
those have to be graded. And when you teach classes, fit is hard to understind,
you will make some additional helpful materials. Then vou have to make them
and of course it is because you like it that you do the work. Butit is work you
know. So there are teachers who are making computer softy
want their students to learn to use the computers. The kind of teacher who goes
without sleep-thes existand well.to be frank. if they didn’t like it they couldn't
do it The only tasks that are sctare the very basics. but even then, to go home
41:00 pom FE think you cant go home at 200 and not Gike things home with you.

gic voursell For ¢



References

Chapter I: Introduction

\rotrong. D 1976). Educational change and the cultural mificu: Misadventures in postwar Japan.
plicauons for American post-war Japan nd their implication for American curriculum workers Peabody
Journal of Education, 3301), 278-8 1

Beauchamp. E197) An Ameri
Haw

n Catcher in carly Me

apan Asan Studies. 17. Honolul University Press of

K

Lewn. © (1995) Educating hearty ind minds Reflect
bridge Cambridge t niversity Press

Monbusho (1993) Gakko kil
Okurasho Lnyatsuks ok

Nabejimas (1994), Bursku My
kempuu, 208-231,

Pachlla. R (1962). Hy perQual fF Chandler.

Wai Juku C1991), Reference Nagoxt Kawi Juku

ns on Japanese preschool and elementary education Cam-

n chest hokokusho [Report of the basic ati

ies related t9 schools] Tokyo:

te to hyoiku Cisse? [Minorities and educational sructure) Kyoiku shakagaku

7. Author.

Peak. L C1992) Learning to ge to school in japan. Berkele

University of California Press

Roden.) C19x0) schooldays in imperial Japan Berkeley University of California Press

Roblen.T. 1980) Lhe Juku phenomenon: An exploratory essay Journal of Japanese studies 6¢ 2), 207-242

Rohlen. FP.C1983) Japan's high schools Berke!

4.G\: Eniversity of California Press

Shimizu ls

Tokuda. D C199 Yomigaere Kouritsu Chuugakkou. Tokyo, Kobunsha

Statistics Bure,

11993) Japan sttistical yearhook, 1993 Tokyo Management sad Coordination Agency
Statues Bureau 1996) Japan stitisucal yearbook, 1996 ‘Tokyo Japan Statistical Society

stevenson. D8 Baker D 1992). shadow education and allocs
Japan American Journal of Sociology. 970). 1659-1657

#1 in formal schooling

sition to univers’

lobin.] (1992) Japanese preschools tad the pedagogy of selfhood In Roscnburger (Ed). Japanese sense

fobin} David.) HAVE. D.& Davidson. 11 C1989) Preschool in three cultures Japan. China, and the nited
States New Haven. Valle Caiversiny Press

lok.

Ake (1995) Kodomo ne [Voki Tokyo Toke Ginko,
Ihuchimoch: G 61994) Fducauon reform in pastysar Japan lokyo Unversity of lokye Press

MW ite. M1987). Phe T challen:

Japanese cducati A commitment to children New York: Free Press

Wart 1991) Change and contini
Vears later Companity © hducal

in modern ktpanese educational history Med occupational reforms forty

om Reciew, A504) FITTS

Chapter 2: The Development and Implementation of Education
Standards inJapan
Dore RPS Sake, M1980) How Ul

Japanese lean to work London, Routledge

Jicht Soge Genter (991) Education system in Japan Tokvo Japan Shiphu

ding Industry Foundauion

Ahouuka 1 Clo86) Shujukudebestr gakhyd henser to hokokyorkt PEhe
MH lnstitute for Democratic Fducation $31 13.

mivation of tracking and bysht
school edie

Muubara K C1992) Gender Nihon oo hyoikuhatel haimer (Curriculum Reform my Japan Today | Lokyo Lukan
shobe

Monbusho (1993) Gakke hilton chos hokokushe [Report ef dhe
Obhurashe Lnsttsukyokur

SC SLUMS Fe Lited (2 schools} Lokvo.

NIK Seran Chosabu (19921 Niheajin ne serkatsu pan 1999 [Lami
Tose Shupp.te Keokar

wwe of the hipanese L99t] Tokve: hon

REST COPY AVAILABLE



Teachers at

Hementary thought that dislike of math and science started in the
years of school when students could not keep up with their pee
After teaching math at the junior high school level for several ye
moved back to teaching elementary school. She thought that the ¢
with math and science largely determined the

ear

sin math.
s.one teacher
arly expericnces
dolescent expericnce

Interviewer: Well, why do some students dislike arithmetic?

AUSC

acher: Probably. the the inability to understand. In the progression
from the tower grades. litte by litte. the parts chat they don’t understand in
crease. For example, in the multiplication able, if they don't understand all of the
table at the fourth grade. when they get into larger computation problems, their
speed and their way of understanding will be slower.

Interviewer: Why do the “parts they don’t understancTM inercase as the years go by?

Teacher: Probably because these children lag behind in compicting their drills. 1
all students study the same drill, you will find there are those who get it quick
itnd those who won't get it after ten minutes. [Cis not that the student is
that they don’t comprehend a certain part of the work.

vit is

Although math and science cla

ses are not generally oriented to the highest-achicv-
ing students. there is a strong s mong students and teachers that as adolescents
progress through school, some will fidl farther and farther behind in math. One as-
pect that is particularly troublesome for educators in the non-academic tracks is that
mitny of their students have poor math skills. 4 teacher at Naka Vocational described
the problems of his students:

Students who have no strength in math have a hard time ata vocational school.
They don’t know science at all.and they don’t think about the process, just the
result. Although students in these schools tend to focus on technical subje
their difficulties with math and science can hinder them from achieving within
their specific subject area

Math, Science, and the General Curriculum

Although there is growing concern that students are becoming disinterested in macy
and science. there is also evidence to suggest the is may be a more generalized
phenomenon. the pressures of the entrance exams appear to play a role in making
instruction in the five basic subjects more hurried and intense. As teachers must try

of the chissroom shifts from what we might call “discovery learning” —com-
mon in elementary school and the r of junior high schoo!—to lectures, drills.
and reviews.

179

SS


doing Well Those who are doing well can study on (heir own if 1 tell them whit to
study.” Cleacher, Meiji High School)

‘Teachers do not discourtge able students from moving ahead on their own even dur
ing the classroom exercise. Advanced students offen go ahead of others in the
room, enabling them to spend les

chiss-
lime studying at home or studying other subjects:

so sometimes the teacher will say c if
page The students who ¢
Then the teacher will

ou are finished with this, go on to the next
el most likely go on and even finish the next page.
The next page will be your homeweor! ‘cll, those Who
excel don't have lo worry about it because they are able to finish it in class. In
times like that. the students whe cannot finish and have to work on it as home-
work will envy the students who do well. Student, Hast Elementary School)

The majority of studetas and parents support the back of iven lo ade
vanced students in the classroom. They understand that the goal of regular class
to reduce the gap between the advanced and less advanced students, and for teach-
lo neglect this responsibility would be to discriminate among students on the
basis of differences in ability. The reason a student at Tancho Elementary School felt
that teachers spend fess time with advanced students than with the average and
below average students was as follow

If the teacher does more for those who are already good at studying, they will
continue to excel, and there would be at big, difference between them and the
students who are not good at studying. However if the teacher does something
special for the students who dow't do well they may be able to improve (hem:
selves and our ckiss as a whole will be better. | think Ghats good. HfL were one of
the studcats who could not study well. E would feel very bad to se
Paying attention only to the good students. H's favoritism. (Student.
mentury School)

> my teacher
uncho Eb

Overseving students rales of progres
sess he cange of differences

Japanese teachers rely on ve methods to as-
in students’ mastery: exams and by overseeing students’
rates of progress during deskwork. The latter is called Rikan jiunsbi—to patrol Gia
shi) while strotling among students’ desks (2ika), tl teachers conducted Meir
Rikan juush part of “team teaching”: that is, one teacher gave the lecture while

the other one walked among students and gave individual help. One teacher at Naka
Vocational explained the function of Rikan jias

After {finish explaining one such topic, [go around the classroom to sce how
cach student is doing. This way, | get the sense of individual differences. If T
attention to the entire class. cach student would feel that he or she is being ne-
glected. Sometimes Edom have time to pay y student in oy

tention lo ve

fo9.



and stacks. students into a single academic totem pole according to their entrance
CNUM SCOFCS.

Ability Ranking Inside a School

Many high schools also “line” students into different tracks, with the most common
pattern being the division between the “science” ind “fiberal arts” tracks. Within
each Fane, students many be further stratified to different classes on the basis of
their shujukudo.

. al definition, neither dividing students into kines or ranking them according
lo ability is based on students’ innate ability. Rather. the former is based on their ¢x-
pe d interests, particularly in relationship to their prospective major in university,
while the latter is based on shujukudo, which is a measure of how much a student
achieved academically in the past.As one high school teacher cautioned us, placing,
students into Lines was “not about ability but about cour

in general. the fiberal arts track attracts lowerachicving students in math
whereas the science track attracts lower-achieving students in Japanese and
English. Nevertheless, the very use of the term shijukudo minimizes the implic
that students are assigned to different classes by their ability. Students in higher
tracks scemed more likely to be regarded as gam battern “working hard? than atane
agati smart”

The Transition to High School

Yeachers tend to by most concerned with the match between students and high
schook they believed that the right match produces the greatest chances of a stur
dent's succecding during and after the high schoo! . Parents and students. on the
other hand. were most concerned with the rankir. td by the various high schoots

Many junior high school teachers expressed theie concern for students’ lives during
high school and after their graduation, especially in how well they will do in univer:
sity entrance exams. One teacher summarized his approach (o student counseling as
“knowing whata student hopes to become in the future and working backward
from there? (leacher. Shimogawa Junior High)

We sturt from the student's future plan the most crucial thing is whether or not
astudent is planning to go Co college. If so, they must go to the academic track. if
onthe other hand. they do not plan to go lo college. but pin to work after grad-
uatting from high school. they would probably like to learn practical trade skills.



Interviewer: And that kind of teacher.are they just like that,do they just have that
personality from the start? Or as they get experiences. as they study some things,
do they become that way?

‘Teacher: It’s not just books. but itis as they interaet as much ats possible with
other people, they begin to understand others’ feclings.and understand chil-
dren's feclings. and will be fiked. Wisn’C that they arg liked because their way of
teaching is good. After all. teachers are people and as people. those who are gen-
crous Quidaka ga aru) are the ones with some appeal Gafryoki), those who itp-
peal somehow to the chiidren.

This teacher continued, as many others had. to describe how gencrosity develops:
not only from study and hard work, but also from enjoyable expericne

re are people who have lots of knowledge. but donCappeal to students. The
teachers themselves must study on their own, not just knowledge, but in order to
have a generous heart Quitaka ia Rokoro) they must s Htiful things. muse:
ums and things. ¢ large their knowledge, go to various Countries, and have expe-
Vt mater what the te subject is. ‘They ALEVE FUSE

en at the junior and senior high school levels where the preparation for entrance
examinations is emphasized. teachers told me that just being able fo teach the sub-
ject matter is nol what makes a good teacher. Teachers emphasized beiag “human”

around students.

The Value of Fun and Interaction

As have most observers of Japanese clementary schools, 1 saw many cajoyable activi-
ties and noted a willingness on the partof the teachers to include nenacaden scp
ments in their schedules. At junior high and high schools there wits an emphasis on
examinations, but also an emphasis on allowing time for socialization and scheduling
CXUMICULTICU ACUVIti Schools were structured to incorporate and value nonacad-
emice activities. In (he morning teachers meeting at Chuo Junior High School, dhe
2nd year teachers discussed the second year 3-day camping trip that had finished 2

x irlier. They reported that they had enjoyed themselves, despite the work in-
ancl (hought the children had enjoyed themsclves, too. AC Shimogawa Junior
High School, the group of 2nd 4 teachers met to discuss how to combine their in-
18 outside of subject matter as they planned a similar camping,
ion. One teacher was in charge of indoor recreation, one in charge of outdoor
tion and fire-dancing (a dance done with torches by a group of students one
night atthe ¢ charge of meals—cach teacher had responsibility
for one of more of the numcrous activities involved in camping. In addition. all

234

LUG



When students reach the upper Wwo grit
ciate more with peers who will go to the
app

Jes of junior high school. they begin to ass
same high school. Academic achievement
sto become a factor in friendship formation. At junior high school some stu-
dents may compete to do lite. but others may compete to see who can be the best.
Overall at the junior high school level, groups of students who urge cach other to
do roorly in school or to ignore studying seem to have relatively litde effect. For the
most part, most students who have just entered junior high school follow the ad-
monishments of teachers and parents to study. But as they progress in junior high
school, some fall further and further behind. These students, who know they will not
do well in the coming academic competition, tend to di
school life and academic competition.

ance themselves from

Studying and asobt ndkama. (nthe most seriou:
together alienated from school life, friends provide
attitudes Coward studying and school. In the

situations, teachers commonly refer to
groups of students as asobé nakania. Which means a group of friends who relax to-
gether eather than study. Often these friends are older students who are no longer
enrolled in school er who have stopped studying. As such. they have time to hang
around, tike part-time jobs or cngage in other leisure (asob/) activities.

At Arata. where there is a mixture of students, some well on their way to entering
elite colleges and others settling for training schools, the effect of asebi nakama
can be substantial. While some teachers mentioned that students urged cach other
on to compete. most expressed fears that friends who were interested in “playing”
would pull other students away from studying. One teacher described this situation:

Yes. itis casy to get in with students whose character tends toward making oth-

¢ 3 goof off. [One student may say] "laced to study, but his friends want to play.
They get carried along with their pais, then they may refuse to come to school or
Participate in class

In schools fike Naka Vocational a main concern of both teache
that their son or daughter would fal
given up on school-Teachers f
would never finish th

Sand parents was

n with a group of students or adults who have
ed that students involved with asobi nakanta
studies. One teacher observed:

coups hive a strong ¢ffect on studying. A lot of students have adult
ind so without studying they drop out [of school |.Their grades get bad
Llot of these cases now,

dropped out of
school is even more dramatic. According to the students and teachers with who we
spoke. at this age CES or 16) the few employment opportunities for students



they can’t do it at all, but if they don't bully.
kind of upbringing we want.

if they respect others, that is the

Studying in the broadest sense means a continual process of learning or selfim-
provement. Teachers and parents in this study referred to the fact that students must
learn how te interact with others as part of the “studying” that goes on in school.
Benkyo.in this context refers more to the things students need to learn. For exam-
ple. Japanese students tend to define social rank based on age and years of affiliation
within a given organization. (¢.g.. beWween juniors and seniors). In the clubs, first-
year junior or senior high school students are juniors (kd bar). They
follow the direction of the second: and third-year students who are their seniors
(senpat). re the team captains or club leaders and take an active
role in organizing the training as exemplified in the thall practice at Arata de-
scribed above.

are expected to

seniors generally

st another distinct kind of
. Studying for the exams occurs in

Preparation for the entrance exam GitRe7 Denky6) is y
studying recognized by adults and adolescent
eral cont unior high and high schools provide extra ¢ Ss (boshit), usuall
third: r students only. that are disected at preparing for the
ent material from that tearned in the regular ¢
dents also enroll in advancement juku (sbhigaku juka) where they will memori
miunerial from previous tests and tak . practice tests. Individually, students also
engage in jiken benky6 by buying any one of the many practice test books and
pamphlets av ble in bookstores or by enrolling in correspondence courses (hat
are specifically aimed at preparing students for the entrance ©

for
m and cover differ-
Junior high and high school stu-

Parents and Homework

Parental involvement in homework is sometimes a source of contiict for teachers
and parents.After the first few years of elementary school, parents may carely look at
astudent’s homework. Many junior high parents feel that they cannot help their stu-
dents with homework. Except for teachers. university professors and an occasional
engincer, Japanese parents seldom feel confident in giving, students guidance or as-
sistance on study matters once thes enter junior high school Nor did teachers ex-
pect parents to take an active role in supervising or checking homework. Parents
often noted that junior high students had begun studying material that is too compli-
cated for parents to understand.

‘This tendency for parents to take a
more pronounced att Shimogawa than a

Jess active role in supervising homework wis
tthe more affluent Midori or Chuo where
parcats tended to have higher academic backgrounds. But across all levels of social
background. once a student enters junior high school. parents tend to urge students

160



Vocational high schools offer an alternate form of school for low-ichieving students
Although they rank below academic high schools and offer multiple vocational
tracks, ney are also subject to Monbusho’s curricular guidelines. Vocational and
core academic subjects are required components of education at vocational schools,
and the various vocational tracks offer curricula that require different lev
emic ability. Attendance at vocational high schools has several distinct disadvantages.
Perhaps the most critical is that studying vocational subjects puts vocational high
school students ata disadvantage in the university entruice examinations, which
cover only academic subjects.

rafiction of opportunities for entering a university © s to the current
sack of popularity of the vocational high schools among Japanese students, National
statistics indicate that the proportion of students attending vocational high schools has
decreased continuously to somewhat over 20 percent today (Shimizu.Akao, Arai Ito.
Sato, & Yaosi 1995). These schools are also associated with manual labor and blue-
collar work: they are seen by many Japanese as an unattractive academic pathway.

Implementation of the Curriculum

Monbusbo's curriculum guidelines are implemented at the senior high schools in

as in the junior high schools. Te:
departmental meetings on a regular basis to discuss implementation of the Mon-
busho curriculum and to share information about their progress in the classroom. Ob-
ions at Arata High School and Meiji High Schvol captured the dynamics of the
departmental meetings. One meeting, which lasted for a full period, brought together
all 10 math teachers at Arata. Handouts containing the meeting agenda were given to
all participants. Although serious issues were discussed, there was frequent laughter. a
relaxed atmosphere. aad a sense of Congeniality among the math teachers.

chers of cach subject meet for

The main agenda of the meeting was to coordinate the curriculum between the
grade levels end among the same classes in the same grade. Each teacher was asked
by the leader to indicate what had been covered to date in his or her ¢! as well as
plans that had been made for the rest of the r. There were some discrepancies be-
tween reports from teachers teaching the same classes. For example, one teacher
had already completed the coverage of the 12th-grade math textbook. while another
teacher of an equivalent 12th-grade class had only begun discussing the last chapter
of the same textbook. In spite of these minor variations. there was general unifor-
mity in what different teachers of equivalent classes were teaching.

In contrast to departmental meetings of math teachers. mectings of science teachers
at Meiji and Arata High Schools were notably tense because of difficulties the sci-
ence icachers were having with the Vonbusho reforms

source of tension be-

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houschold yearly income v

around $95,000 (where 100 yen = E dollar).To help
protect the identity of parti nts in this study, citaGions to literature which specify
the locale or otherwise might aid in the identification of participants and schools
not provided in this report.

Naka is an international city. Exhibits from the Cnited states. China, and other coun-
i ¢ on tour in local muscums and in the galleries sponsored by large depart-
ment stores. ur avail themselves of products from countri s diverse
rmany and the Philippines. Yet in the cramped streets of the residential areas, a
tiny Gumily resturant with only two booths and three stools might offer its cus-
tomers bowls of the local noodle specialty. Like many Japanese cities, the foreign
population is not readily evident outside of the central shopping are
ties. In some parts of the city near the outer perimete!
under cultivation. In the city center space i

SOF unliversi-
small tracts of land are still

ata premium and tiny ancient shrines:
ean be found that are + .crounded on three sides by mass "scrapers.

Naka City is home to roughly 150,000 pupils cnrotled at the elementary level,
75,000 at the junior high school fevel. and 90,000 at the high school lev
dent population at the high school level is nearly equally divided between private
and public high schools which makes the number of students attending private high
schools in Naka city higher than the national average. Over 30 percent of high
school students are enrolled in nonacademic courses, somewhat higher than the na-
tional average of about 25 percent (Moabusbo, 1996). Official statistics show ha
the clementary and junior high schoo! tevels there were approy ely 20 pupi
per teacher in 1992. In reality, junior high school cla. range from the midthirties
to over 40 students per ¢ schools, particularly those in the older sections of
the city. have very litde physi pupil funding for the city as a whole in
1992 was about $5.500 per child per year for both elementary and junior high
schools. Because the city is esscatially one school district. there is no difference in
per child allocations bebwcen more and fess afflucnt sectors of the city.

{The stu-

Kita City

Both of the secondary field sites. Kitt City and Minami re regional hubs and
the major cities in their respective pre f y lies far in the north and is
home ta world-class skiing while Minami City has a climate that residents of the U.S.
Deep South would find familiar. Both are connected by rail and air to the rest of the
nation. While most voung Japanese speak only sGunditrd Japanese. older residents of
Kita City speak a distinctive dialect quite distinct from standard Japanese.

ily is home to less than 300,000 people compared with Naka City’s millions.
This gi a more relaxed and open fecling. Large. covered

enues hold a wide

13
Ju



Evaluation of taining. Vhe training system appears to be extensiv¢. but the princi:
palat Matsu echoed several other respondents when he mildly criticized the struc:
ture of this training system:

Thatis acbig systems’ way that teachers are trained. It would be nice if that were
all chat was needed. What [think is that it depends on the teachers themselves. tt

depends on what they are willing to do Qraruki). On their way of thinking and
their enthusiasm (yok). [his on those things that their futures are made.
Whether th men or women, that doesn’t matter, but whether they loa
children and if they want to become better and better teachers. Uf they have that

enthusiasm, they will become wonderful (cachers. On the other hand. if the
don thave that desire. no matter What. happens. they won't advence and will be-

come problem teachers (zanmen Hd sensed).

Through various cor versations, interviews. ind observations | learned that the evalue
ation of teacher training is somewhat mixed. Older teachers and administrators.
waxed nostalgic for atime when teachers trained cach other and themselves with-
out the need of a formal system. For cxample. an official at the Education Center told
me. even though he had been iavolved in developing the current training system.
that he had also argued that the informal training of the past had advantages. His ex-
planation of why informal peer training was fess tikely to hi
general “teachers could learn alot from cach other. beoween the elders (separ) and
beginners (obai). There is a tot (to be learned) there.” According to him. the dimin
ished sense of a clear hicrarchy is why a formal training system for teachers has be-
come essenuiak in the past.according to him. teachers with more experience would
naturally instruct and guide younger (eachers and young teachers expected to be
guided and taught.

ppen now was rather

The informal training | obserscd seemed to emphasize human relationships and to
cncourage the transmission of knowledge and experience from more exy
to less expericneed teachers. Fhree fourth-grade teachers. including a Ist-year
teacher. a Oth-vear teacher. and a 20th-vear teacher, reported that they discuss things
among themselves continually and are cager to help cach other. In a more formal set-
ling. the vice principal at Mei

ericnced

lectured a group of 34 student teachers during their
2nd day at the school. An excerpt of the talk is presented here:

Students look at you with their individual values. so some will not like you. But
you hav all the students and like teaching your subject There are stu
dents who don’t fit into my values. Outside of school you can decide on people
by vour values. but toward students you can’t do that. The strict thing is not to
discriminate. Second, sou must balance being kind and being strict. And third.
you must be enthusiastic for tesc very year Eteach 15-. 16-and 17-year-old
students. And every ye

ar the difference in age gets greater. Leu’ t teach based on
my south and good looks anymore But Phuave to compete will young teachers

206

we



Japanese teachers, on the other hand, would scem to have a more realistic view than
students or parents. Generally, teachers are more fikely than students and parents to
acknowledge the presence of innately given abilities as predictors of school-related
ademii . However, when asked to evaluate the relative importance of in-
nate abilities in determining academic outcome, they too put much more emphasis
on the effect of experiential and environmental factors than on innate factors.

The opinion given by Mr.Togo of Naka Vocational is one such ¢:
elite athicte can run a 100 meter dash in UE seconds, wher
could do so in 15 seconds. He s
run as fast as the clite runner. In the

mple. He siid an
as he Gi man in his for-
id that the practice alone would not make him
me way. some ability such as remembering as
muny items as possible in a given time period could be innately determined, so that
one can improve his or her performance to a certain extent, but there’s a limit, be-

cause everyone is born with different levels of ability.

Mr.Togo and other Japanese teachers, parents.and students used several words such
as saino (talent or giftedness), sosbitsu (innate abilities or gifts). birameki Ginborn
senses). which correspond with the English words ability and talent. They believe that
these abilities help very bright students climb to the top (provided that they mike ef
fort), but are unreliable measures of academic success for the rest of the students be-
cause innate ability is only a fraction of their total ability. Mr. Togo explained," You
must also remember human ability consists of many different dimensions. Some of
them may be innate, but others aren't. Ifa person's ability consists of many different
elements. as ] believe. one cannot compare two people and say one is inferior to the
other.As a teacher, I see a student having many different combinations of ability

Kinds of Individual Differences

Indeed. schooling demands that students demonstrate many different combinations
of ability. and going to school and succeeding there takes much more than simply
being smart. For exampic. students are expected to display basic discipline and re-
sponsibilities in school. They must show respect for teachers and pay attention in
Students are expected to behave in a certain way; therefore, it may not be sur-
prising to fird that many Japanese talk about individual differences in terms of ob-
servable behavioral differences.

du;



Lu

Thasu is located near Naka’s harbor in a working-class neighborhood. Many of Hasu's
children come from single-parent homes. Matsu Elementary is at the other end of the
cconomig spectrum from Hasu. Located in a neighborhood of large private homes:
with meticulously sculpted shrubs. students at Matsu cnjoy a very high standard of
living. The neighborhood is also within walking distance of buses, the subway line
university. and an upscale shopping distri “The students atl
cho Elementary also come from well-to-do homes.T! a prosperous 1
borhood. and teachers noted that there were few student problems,

School Summary

The 15 schools in Kitt, Minami,and Naka cities are representative of the differences
found within the Japanese public school system. While the national and local govern-
ments make great efforts Co ensure that the curricula offered in elementary and ju-
nior high schools are the same across the region and acighborhood, the neighbor-
hoods are important in determining the kinds of academic and cultural
opportunities children have outside of school. Smatler cities like Kita lack the large
Juku which offer the best college preparatory courses. The children of affluent
neighborhoods like those around Chuo Junior High School and Matsu
have more money to spend on sports equipment and
reereational facilities. The students at Hasu Elementiury do not have the luxury of try-
ing to catch minnows in the irrigation canals that flood the rice fields around
schools like Minami Elementary.

At the high school level. the effects of neighborhood become less significant. Stu-
dents compete inside large school districts for entrance into high school. Any school
with a good reputation will draw students even if.as is tie case with Meiji High
School. the school is not located near train or subway lines. Students at a given high
school tend to come from the same family backgrounds—not be ¢ students all
come from the same neighborhood. but hecause the entrance exams and schoot hi-
erarchy function to stream students with similar academic abili and backgrounds
together. Regional cffects are still strong because high school students in small cities
do not hi AC to Lirge jrcku or to the many cultural and athletic facilitic! |.
able in large urban arcas like Naka City.

The Current Climate in Education

nthe recent
tion's reintroduction of moral education created ational
Attempts to reintroduce symbols oc materials that had connections with

Reforms in education generate cnormous debate in Japanese socict
past. the Ministry of Edu
controy

20



Being well-rounded. in addition to motivation and incorporating fun and enjoyable
school activities into the school day, many of my respondents emphasized the neces-
sity of being well-rounded and having interests outside of school. Outside interests
sometimes included edu vational or cultural benefits, and sometimes were described
as strictly play. In order to give a sense of how important outside activ
these teachers. will quote at length from several interviews. For example, one cle-
mentary school teacher commented that “play” is important, not only for her own,
development but also for her relationship with students:

ies Were Lo

This doesn’t directly relate to skills, but for me. dont like the da
me just being a teacher. Although it is, of cou
ese, history,and things, | sometimes try to play, do things that [ fike to do. Like
hobbies and things | like to do, not just to be a teacher... then TL can talk about
various things with the children and it isnt like T only Know about school. 1 think
that a teacher who knows fots of things 4 ibjects is quite wonder:
ou know. As for myself. although I don’t have confidence that for any partic-

ular field | know it to the tiniest detail, [do have knowledge about various things
Tam always learning from teachers who know the details.And 1 think that
may be important, too. especially for elementary school.

ys to go by with
important to teach math, Japan-

This excerpt also emphasizes the interaction between teachers and suggests that
sometimes conversations not focused strictly on school fife ave beneficial to her de-
velopment and to her students. The administrators. too, expressed hope that teach-
ers would be involved in activities outside of the school The vice principal at Chuo
Junior High School told me that it isnt good for people to work from 8:00 in the
morning until late at night, particularly in a world of rapid change:

More than being difficult, it isn’t connected to the individual's development. 1Us
good if life and work were intertwined, but conversely, it is also important that
when work is over and they have free time, when they are with their friend:
that they live their life, don’t you think? That kind of awareness is also important.
Rather than staying at school unt 10:00 p.m.and going home just to sleep. That
ceally is a life of only school. In addition, a life of only school isn’t enough for the
children. (feachers) also have to convey different points of view. Long ago, there
weren't as many changes in society, but now the changes are really extreme. If
teachers themselves don’t absorb those extreme changes, they can’t keep up

ith the children. So, they must have the strength to respond to changes...

The principal at Me
roundedness as nec

i High School supported this position and described well-
ary for the mental health of teachers:

have become nec yA multifiac-
ary} think. And if you do that
you wort end up being neurotic. you know? In particular the elemen and ju-
nior high school teachers (need to be multifaceted).

4
huey



ices and homerooms were decided. Although the individual personality of the prin-
cipal portant, the teachers at schools with long traditions have the potca-
tial to form cffective opposition against any rules perceived to be “top-down”

h School teacher, who had taught at Meiji High School for 6 vears.
commented that the greater power and autonomy evidenced by teachers at Meiji
could be attributed to Mciji's long history and a group of teachers who pushed for
the institution of a democratic process in all realms of school administrate, For ex:
ample. teachers at Arata as a cule informally let the administration know about their
preferences for teaching roles, but the administration made all assignments at tie be-
ginning of cach year. At Meiji, preferences were actively solicited and a committee in-
cluding teachers made the final decisions, which were then discussed in en all-teach-
ers mecting. This teacher told me that in his previous prefecture. where unions were
stronger, all decisions on all positions except principal and vice principal were done
through an allteacher vote. in his late twenties he was clected to the position of
head administrative teacher. a position usually reserved for teachers in their fort
or older. While he had enjoyed that democratic process and the responsibitity and
challenge. he also ..oted that the process did not result in the best teacher being
chosen for cach position. Popularity and the operarion of various fictions lay behind
nuiny of the assignments,

The principal at Matsu Elementary School had an inte
lve power of principals, mainly b:
gram lo visit schools in the United

sting view of the conipara-
don his experience traveling on a research pro-
ates and Germany. He was told that if a school
in the United States is a success, the principal gets all the credit and if it is a faite
the principal gets all the blame. The principals he met in the United State:
be involved in giving instructions to wl teachers about how and what to teach. He
thought that German principals were in-beuwcen, or. in his words."in Germany. to
teach cach class. the principal and the teacher had a lot of discussion” Tle concluded
that both situations are different from what happens in Japan. where teachers are re-
sponstble for both their own teaching and the operation of the school as a whole
He said he could not imagine trying to dictite to teachers about how to teach. When
| questioned him about whether he tries to direct or motivate the teachers. he de-
scribed how he sometimes gives pep talks to keep them going and to attempt to
shape their teaching styles. This was very different. he said. from directing others’
teaching.

t

Almost all junior high and high school teachers have a bachelor degree in the sub-
ject they teach. According to the vice principal at Chuo Junior High School-as far
as us Gldministrators) asking (cachers how they do things or giving ideas about
how to teach. that is rarely. almost never. something that we do” But the administra
Gon can exert an important influence on a school’s reputution and atmosphere,
teachers are generally quick to point out good and bad aspects of the administra
tors in their school.

nd

1
tei



Table 8-Percentage of students watching television

Hours

Year None ined

Ist 59 28.7

2nd oa aa 3

ard 52 wt 166 35.5 232 wi
Total 5.3 4.2 15.9 324 22.7 19.5

SOURCE, Fukottke. L994

Because junior high schools are neighborhood institutions, we found differences in
the levels of parental income and education between the threc junior high schools
we visited. Teachers and parents believed that these differences contributed to the
quality or aumosphere of the school. When asked what other people in Naka thought

about Midori, a parent replied:

That it has a relatively good environment; the students are unagitated. Some v
ago, there were some people in this neighborhood who moved in from other
parts of Naka City. They came because they thought the environment was good.
(Mother of Midori Eighth-Grader)

However, affluence was not always considered a desirable characteristic by teachers.
The nurse at Midori felt that growing up in a relatively affluent atmosphere could
stunt the character development of some students. Here, appraisal of the effect of
family background on Midori students was more critical:

Well. there's no unruly behavior. In terms of lifestyle. there is no pain or hardship.
nothing like students shoplifting duc to poor quality of life. It is very calm. It is
calm. but sometimes the students are a bit spoiled. Some students are kind of like
weeds, 1 mean. like grass.The geass that grows on the side of the road is very re-
silient. The students here are sd in a greenhouse. They aren't used to cold
winds or adverse conditions.A bit weak emotionally. In terms of their relation:
ships with friends, many go to fuk to academic juke to study. They don't play
with friends. and they have few siblings. There isn’t enough hardship (kure) t
guess. (Midori nurse)

any teachers felt that students must become inured to hardship in order to suc-
cced on the high school entrance exam. As students progress through junior high
school, studying, rote memorization. and drill take up more and more of their school
life. While some students maintain an active role in clubs all the way up through the

116

iby



As is true of clemet schools. tracking and ability grouping are not permitted at
the junior high school level, even though many Japanese students begin complaining

of difficulty in keeping up in math and science at the junior high school level.

um teaching is being tricd experimentally in math classrooms throughout Japan as
a way to help slow learners.Team teaching was first implemented in selected junior
high schools in 199-4, but the number of team-teaching lessons was minimal. Accord:
ing to one teacher. the team-teaching experiment was introduced as a way to pre-

vent low-tchieving students from dropping out or from refusing to attend school

Cokokyobi). the purpose of team teaching.
is Co help slow learners during the ck

xplained an cleme
SS period”

ury school princi-

as observed in an cighth-grade math class at Midori Junior High
School. There were about 40 students in the cliss. a typical number of students for a
Japanese classroom. The teacher called students one by one to the front of the class:
room to describe in writing the relationship of Wwo sets of numbers. While students

riting on the board. the remaining students worked on related problems. The
team teacher was very busy throughout the period circling the chass and providing
one-on-one instruction to students having trouble.

Many students who finished carly quietly twirled colorfidl pencils decorated with
cute characters such as che penguinlike Pingu. Others. mostly the boys, looked
down at pencil cases or notebooks with animated “Dragon Ball Z” cartoon charac-
ters. As was the case with the junior high school science class, the focus of this math

Ss was on the averitge learners: ting for the rest of
the class to catch up.

c mers were left alone. wi

Perception and Use of Instructional Resources
Outside of School for Mastery of the Curriculum

One well publicized consequence of the difficulty of the junior high school curricu-
lum and the desire of students to do well is that many students begin (o seek help
outside the school Most of the students we interviewed in the cighth grade reported
attending juki. These students are not exceptional. as national statistics indicate.

fn at survey conducted in 1993.6 4.2 percent of junior high schoo! students surveyed
in Tokyo, Nagoya. and Osaka. where feed are most populir reported attending ju
(Nohara. 1993) The figures were lower for non-metropolitan areas (20 percent for
cities with populations between 8,000 and 30.000). but the data showed a marked
increase in fuk attendance in small cities during (he past decade. in villages with
populations under 8.000, the proportion auending j“ki doubled [rom 6 percent to

ih)



fer fengthy description confirms how important a parenvs support is to a child’s
success in school and how even stight differences in the home lives of children may
produce very different outcomes in classroom partici

Junior High School Teaching

Science and math instruction at the junior high school level is quite different from
that observed in the elementary schools. Almost all the math instruction | observed
consisted of cither lectures or giving problems to students and the students then
taking turns to demonstrate the sofutions on the chalkboards. Science v
what more lively, especially when it involved laboratory experiments. | observed
three 2nd-s cience cl al Shimogawa Junior High School. In the first class the
teacher began by finishing a previous lesson on digestive systems by going through
students’ homework answers. Then he proceeded to begin teaching about the peri-

some:

SSeS

odie table of the elements and the characteristics of metals in preparation for an ex-
periment during their next cl

Phe next 2nd-year class the ame teacher taught
and did the experiment. The third class was working on the same
chemistry lesson but did not do the experiment. Thes spent quite a bit of time be-
ginning to memorize the periodic table of the elements, using a rhyme that the
teacher taught.

was a little ahea

Lalso observed three different science ¢
Junior High School. He taught one [st-year ¢ in the classroom, one in the labor:
tory where they performed periment on two types of metals. and in one ¢
he had the students divide into groups (a7) and create skits about chemical inter-
actions. He told me that he only held classes using methods like a skit about once or
twice a ye nd had scheduled it to coincide with my visit to provide variety. Dur-
ing the physics and chemistry segment of science students usualy do an experiment
once every 2 or 3 class hours. Before the most recent Moubusbo guideline revisions
they also had many experiments, but he told me thatthe recent emphasis on expe:
ricntial learning has inereased them. Lasked him whether he had also increased the
number of experiments over his six years of experience and he responded.“yes. |
think I have increased them but. well. f shouldn't tefl vou this. but the preparation is
quite difficult” But he went on to suggest that experiments are useful:

cs taught by the same teacher at Chuo

Well. children like the experiments. [f | fisten to them talking. they s
like wow! It is unusual for them to think that w
and say “Uy great! and “this is interesting:
ir own.) think experiments

y things
but usually they try things
nee it is something that they cx-
re definitely important.

pericnee on th

Since Chuo is a highly ranked junior high school where most students are trying for
high-ranked high schools. | wondered if time spenton experiments was in competi
tion with cxamination preparation:



Ateach school the staff sclected the teachers to be followed for a day. | expressed a
preference to “shadow” one male and one female, one More experienced and one

s experienced teacher. In addition. 1 asked that at least | teacher at each school be
a math or science teacher. and that the (cachers be teaching 4th, 8th or 12th grade,
depending on the level of the school. Schools could not always comply with all
these requirements because their staffing patterns did not reflect this much di
or because the teachers ina particular grade had previously spent considerable time
with a TIMSS researcher. In most cases it seemed that a teacher who was known to
be a good teacher cither volunteered or was assigned to me, but duc to my request
to follow younger. or ess experienced teachers, | obs nge of teachers. 1
the high schools F was unable to interview 1 ny female teachers of math or
mainly because there are proportionatly fewer women in these fields teaching at the
high school level. All of the teachers | shadow ed some shyness before the
morning meeting, but none acted as if (hey minded my following them around. | do
not think that any of the teachers | followed were pressured to Gike part in the
study. Most appeared to be speaking relatively free about their teaching experiences,
although one high school science teacher seemed slightly reluctant to Gak with me
after L observed his class until | turned off my tape recorder.

Questions addressed during the interviews and conversations concerned the per
sonal characteristics of teachers, teachers’ assessment of their training, the working,
conditions of teachers, a typical workday. teachers’ general views on teaching, and
what makes a good teacher, While observing classes | focused on the interactions,
instructional techniques. disciplinary actions, and general classroom atmosphere. [1
the teachers’ rooms and other school areas | observed working conditions and the
interactions among teachers and beaveen teachers and students. All interviews
were Cranscribed. translated, and coded, and all observations were written and then
typed and coded. In addition, interview and observation data from schools in Mi-
nami City Japan collected by Naoko Moriyoshi. and Kita City Japan, collected by
Gerald LeTendre. were used as refercnee and supplemental materials and are re-
flected at points in the analysis.

There was a great deal of variation among the schools visited and among the teach-
ers inte wed. The schools varied in the cconomic background of students and. at
the high school level. in the degree to which they were academically challenging.
Some teachers were highly cnergetic in their teaching styles and interactions with
students while others were quieter although all seemed serious abe ut teaching their
subject matter to all the students in their classroom.All tea hers expressed dedica-
tion to their profession, and all expressed hope that teaching would be their lifetime
career,



eve

ware cither unwilling to go a larger jai or are unable to afford it.The few who
stay form one class for each grade. Several teachers are assigned to each high school
subject. so that each student can receive individual instruction. A Sakura teacher told
me this setting is a clever alternative to having a tutor.

Why go to juku? Talking with parents, students, and teachers in regular schools and
Juku.one Iearns that the primary reason students go to jek in Japan is not to attain
individual excellence or high levels of achievement, but to keep up with or get
ahead of their peers both socially and academically.

The list of reasons why students go to an academic jrku given by a long-time
teacher at Sakura. who is now a faculty member in a department of educational psy-
chology in a major national university, underscores such a peer-based tendency. For
clementary school students he cited three main reasons for going to an academic
Juki: (a) to prepare for entrance exams to elite junior high schools. (b) to give the
child whose siblings are attending juku fair treatment, and (¢) to help a student
keep up in regular schoot

The former jeku teacher said that for a junior high school student. this picture
changes dramatically. He noted that the majority of those who go to jak say Uiey go
simply because their friends are g: ing. Going to juku provides them with an oppor-
tunity to spend time with their peers. One sign of this he said. is that even after
classes are over in the evening many students do not Icave the jek. The second rea:
son he suggested is that parents want their children to obtain better grades at school.
When the news spreads in a neighborhood that certain students improved their
grades by going to a particular jaRu, many parents decide to send their children to
that juki The final reason the teacher listed as to why junior high schoo! students go
to juku was that the parents were disappointed by the teaching that goes on in regu-
lar chissrooms. He explained.“Since regular schools conduct whole chaiss instruction,
when a certain student begins to lower the morale of a class, the whole ¢
At other times, students find they are incompatible with their teacher. In
juku offer them another setting in which they can avoid such problems

ass suffers.

The overall distribution of students attending juke changes across age groups. \
elementary level students attend non-academic type juke and juku focused on aca-
demics become more prevalent at the junior high and high school levels as students
prepare for high school and college entrance exams, However. at the high school
level the number of students aspiring to attend college greatly reduces the pool of
potential juke students. Therefore, looking at all of the juka, there ace fewer high
school students than their elementary and junior high school counterparts attending
Juku. Students said that studying in high school becomes much more difficult and
outofschool study requires a good deal of time.As a result. many students simply do

129



TET

Figure 1—Exainple floor plan of a Japanese high school

QF aF

LLITI |

oe

free

A a a
, 71h |
aca} ea] || ace] ace felddaca pace paca Pace PAD?
onl
—
ie lee aa] aa] ea pact PA oe
x
r
(@)

pers. Students must purchase a specific kind of slipper-usually blue. green, or brown
and mide of tough plastic.

Day-lo-day cleaning and maintenance of the schools and grounds are done by stu-
dents and teachers, although most schools employ onc or two workers as custodi-
ans. Since many Japanese schools do not have central heating or cooling. classrooms

16

JG



ing for the periodic exams. f also go to juku once a week for 3 hours. (Fighth-
geade student)

The schools we visited coordinate a
explained that club activiti

s around th

cuviti © periodic ¢
are canceled for one week before the five periodic ex
aminations so that students can concentrate on studying. Even junior soccer leag
which are not affiliated with the schools, cooperate with the schools and cancel
prictices and games for one week prior to the periodic exam. The schools and the
conimunity appear to be sending a strong message to students that studying for the
periodic exams is a priority over all other activities.

Since the periodic exams are constructed to help students prepare for the entrance
examinations and to measure their mastery of the curriculum, the tests are challeng-
ing. Formula sheets are not permitted for the math sections, which leaves students
with a lot of material to memorize. All three Marunochi Junior High students talked
about the difficutty of the math part of the periodic ams."There are just tons of
problems we have to go through. “There is no time to look over an-
swersThe students estimate tha
Is contrast to the math section of the exam, the students agreed that the science sec-
tion is not as difficult.“A tot to memorize. one student expltined.“but fairly casy’

Quizzes and short tests were not emphasized by the Japanese teachers with whom
we talked. Generally, teachers reported using in-class tests sparingly since students
ue motivated by the periodic exams. Teachers reported using the in-class tests to
monitor the progress of students or the effectiveness of instruction, rather than in
determining semester grades.

Several teachers expressed the opinion that excessive use of in-class tests would
confuse students about the true purpose of learning. One teacher posited that if he
began grading these tests. students would t worrying about scores instead of at-
tempting to master the curriculum. Teachers who give such tests do so to help stu-
dents check how well they know the material which they are required to know to
move to the next level. In these cases, students typically grade their own “small

are not factored into grades for the course

According to our interviews with teachers, grades and the students’ rank in the cls
are determined by « combination of the major cxams and the small tests. A large de-
gree Of autonomy is given to departments to determine the relative weightings of
the two components. Generally, exam scores contribute about 60 to 70 percent of
the comprchensive grades in math and science, with the remaining 30 to 40 percent
being based on classroom behavior and homeworl assignments.

1S



who have dropped out of school. While high school students may find part-time jobs
or gradually be absorbed into working-c life, students who become disconnected
from school in their junior high school years have nowhere to go Teachers refer to

? disconnected students, even though the + may still come to school, as dropouts
(achikobore). At Midori.one teacher said:

For example. there are these special kids. They have no connection to school.
That is how they feel: they don't have any concern about studying. This starts
around the second semester in the second year fof junior high school].They
‘dropouts’ you see

are

While few students in Japan dropout in the sens ling t Ain a high school
degree, the number of students who have a sense of inferiority in studying or test-
taking inercases with cach grade.A relatively small percentage of junior high school
students Gabout 1 to 3 percent depending on the area) fail to enter high school and
find themselves forced to take on part-time menial jobs or enroll in some kind of
training school (Monbusho, 1993). A few of these students in Naka spend their days.
riding around their former schools on scooters, which they have modified to make
greater Noise, trying to gain the attention of their former classmates and teachers.
Sometimes at Naka Vocational. the roar of scooters would drown out the voices on
the tape.

Dating

Dating w
and teache

agreed chat dating does not play a part in the liv J
of junior high students. By definition. junior high students who are dating are junior
high students with problems. When [asked junior high school students about dates,
T was greeted cither with silence or nervous giggles. Junior high school teachers
were willing to talk about dating among the students, but virtually all said that only at
few junior high school age students go on dates.

At this age. students generally evince an interest in the opposite s
unsupervised time to meet with potential boy or girl friends.
proval of dating at this age also make
adolescents express their alte
students meet in gro aps t
ing.” -ellent place to observe this type
of interaction. Both junior high and high school students go to the libraries in great
numbers on Saturday afternoons. Large Gables are filled with mixed groups of girls
and boys. While ostensibly studying. the talk may turn to the fatest television show
or music group.

but have fittle
fhe general disap-

it hard for couples to get together. So, carly
tion in various ways. At the junior high school level
hat after school. or go to each other's house for study-
Phe public libraries in Japanese citic:

wre an



Teachers and students alike noted that students in the different tracks have slightly
different personalities. Students in math and science courses were perceived to be
more logical, wher udents in the tiberal arts courses
creative or socitLTwo teachers at Meiji discussed this phenomenon:

were perceived to be more

‘The science students are seen as frank or open-minded. Their way of thinking is
logical. mathematical. The liberal udents are more involved with event
not the science students. They [the students] don’t make social con
with others.

A teacher at Minami thought chat“in the liberal acts track, (hey are very good itt
memorization. And those in math and science are said to persevere in thinking,
skills” However a teacher atArata had a slightly different views There are students
who study seriously and those who don’t That is where the ceal difference is—in ci-
ther liberal arts oc science”

te math and sei-
ing division of stu-

Many of the young women in the liberal arts Wack at Minami”
ence” according to the young teachers there. With the ine
dents. fewer and fewer females end up in the science tracks. One young woman in
the science course at t High School aoted that there was a significant change
teaching styles between the two tric! There is a clear difference between science
ricter than literature. The teachers don’t diffe
have more of a feel of tension. This strictnes:
many young women dislike math and science and
Warts (rack.

Dislike of Math and Science

Tt is not just young women who dislike math and science. In recent years. mere and
more students have come to this position. The phenomenon has been called “hate of
nuth-science” (visti girdl well fleeing math and science” (ris banare). One
teacher at Shimogawa estimated that 50 percent of the students distike cither math
or science. A number of students told us in their interviews that they did dislike
these subjects, but at the same time students also said they hated virtually every
class but art.

I is difficult to evaluate what it means when students say they do not like math or
science. One student at Kita High School said about math:

“tdon't lik but Edom't really dislike it.As far as the essential component. (he
theorems, studying the beginning things is O.K., but then it gets complicated. We
get into the last part of the text and the teache Vt very interesting so it isl
very interesti



Concrete Classroom and Academic Bebaviors

Most teachers, and homeroom teachers in particular, rely on observations of class-
room behavior in evaluating individual differences. For example.a math teacher said,
“1 find differences when I give them some questions. Some students can understand
what they are being asked right away and some cannot” (Teacher, Shimogav
High School)

Another example is as follow:

I realize [individual differences] by looking at ways students respond (o my ques-
tions in class. Those at the bottom cannot even begin to solve the problem. For
example, they would copy a graph and could not go any further from there. They
just sit there afterwards. Students at the next level actual art thinking about
the problem, but they cannot arrive itevel can
come up with answers, but only a few of them are correct, and others are incor-
rect. Students at the highest level Most always come up with right answers.
In fact, there is yet another higher level of students who can answer questions |
give in class. Feeling unsatisfied, they would find more difficult questions in an
exercise book and try to solve them on their own.

the answer. Students at the nes

Students Gk about their differences ina very similar way. hey say that there are
“those who pay attention in class and those who don’t” (Student, Naka Vocational
High School). They also see the difference in attitude toward exams: Some people
prepare for exams seriously and some don’t (Student, Naka Vocational High School).
There are “those who do math and Japanese drill books fast. and chose who don't:
and there are those who raise their hands in class and those who don’t” (Student.
Tancho Elementary School).A typical response was as follows:

In English ck ttcacher asks cach of us a question, and some people answer
promptly, but some get stuck, and the teacher fo explain to them, Even after
hearing the expianation, some of them do not understand, and in times like Chose
Tteel they cant do well. In any ¢ those who can do well raise their hands to
answer questions. and it scems that we have the same people raising hands. (Stu-
dent. Chuo Junior High Schooh

Exam Scores

Another way for teuchers and students,

especially those of upper grade Tevels. to de
fine students’ individual differences is in terms Cf exam scores, which they see as the
direct, concrete results of behaviors mentioned earlier This method of definition is
not surprising in fight of the emphasis Japanese high schools phice on the college
cntrance exams. In fact, most high school teachers and students are quick to rede-

a5

dus



The students at Meiji and Naka saw themselves at opposite ends of the academic
spectrum. Meiji students were aware that their school was one of the best in Naka
vand NakaTech students openty discussed the fact that they had not performed
femiics in junior high school. Students at Arata generally fall somewhere
in between in terms of their academic asprrations and their study or work habits.
Some students at Arata want to go on to college and others are not sure.As one
teacher at Arata put it,“It depends on the student. Among the third-year students.
there are some who study and some who don't.”Some seniors are going to juku and
preparing for the exam, while others are spending their free time in driving school.
Although school policy prohibits students from taking part-time jobs, both students
and teachers reported that many students do indeed take such jobs.

Two Schools at Once: The Role of Juku

Most high schoo! students who are trying to get into academic high schools or col-
lege attend two schools: their own school and ajuku.At advancement schools like
Meiji juu can play a key role in students’ lives. While junior high school students
may attend any of several types of juku (enrichment courses, review courses, or
exam prep courses), high schoo! students are largely enrolled in exam prep or ad-
vancement (sbinigaki) courses. These courses are specifically designed to improve
students’ scores on practice tests and the enteance exam.A teacher at Arata noted
that most students attended”... the exam prep juku. the big ones like Kawai.Then
there are juku courses in the summer and spring vacations, when students have
Jong vacations. These are sort of concentrated lectures:

ities.

For many of these students. attending juku takes precedence over other acti
Again. a te: noted: Well, when there is conflict in the time between
fuku and club, they feave club carly” However juku is not the only place that stu-
dents are doing their juke beukyd, Schools also organize extra classes (Doshi) after
school or over the holidays, teacher at Arata explained:

We also have extra cl!
f. they have ¢

ses here at the school. So, when students are in their sec-

s about (wo or three days a week, and these run into
club time. The school is officially over after sixth period, but teachers stay in the
classroom and teach another hour.so we have seven periods all toual.

Clubs and School Participation

Athoth junior high and high school. teachers believe that there is a strong link be-
aween participation in clubs and success in academics. Many teachers linked active
club participation with a well-rounded and healthy school atmospher achers re
ported how a student behaves outside the classroom is a powerful indicator of moti-

19



Dealing With Individual Differences in
Whole Class Instruction

Whole class instruction emphasizes both unity and diversity among students.An ap-
propriate metaphor here may be a mountain with several paths to reach its peak:
there are several ways to get there, but all are striving to reach the same goal As we
shall sce next, Japanese students are united in their pursuit of a single learning goal,
but are also encouraged to discover Why cach students method for reaching that
goal has merits and demerits of its own. We identified the following pedagogical as-
pects as contributing to the ways individual differences are managed in whole cla
instruction

Cultivating “oneness” of students. Before a teacher students to contribute their
unique idcas to the class. the teacher makes sure that the whole class is united ina
single purpose. The following episode which took place at Shimogawa junior high
school illustrates this principle

While visiting a math class. noticed that the noise level became quite high as the
students talked to cach other while solving problems. Later during the interview, |
asked the teacher if the noise ever bothered him. He admitted that this class was a
litle bit too loud, and explained. “Something like that would not have happened if 1
were lecturing to the whole ckiss.” He said that what bothered hin more than the
noise level in the classroom was when “students were not Guking to [him] but to
each other’ That is:

Whenever a student speaks to me [consider it a part of clissroom activitic
if it is not directly related to my academic objec!
talk to cach other. they are excluding all the other students. f consider this a
problem. But if they are talking to me, | don’t consider ita problem because the
whole class can participate in their conversation

even
¢. When two students begin to

When Lasked him for an example of this, he told me the following episode.A few
days betore the interview, Ovo students in his class were tilking about the upcoming
Valentine's Day. (in Japan. girls supposed to give candy to the boys they like). He
then told the students,“You can talk about whatever you want in my class, but whiat-
ever you say here hits to be shared with everyone else so that all of us know what's
going on.

Focusing on average and below-average students. (Wn whole chiss instruction, a

teacher aims the fesson atan ability level no higher than that of the average student.
so that anyone at or below this level can follow it. Japanese teachers know that such
instruction dogs net meet the needs of all students. as t math teacher at Shimogawa

107



Jn addition to the hope that individual teachers be well-rounded. 1 was also told that
a variety of teachers were necessary fora school. For example, the principal au Tan-
cho Elementary School responded that it is good to have many kinds of teachers
available as models for the children, including teachers who may have to limit their
working hours due to commitments at home:

For example. i good at cooking. or very good with the &
another is very good at sports, like swimming, those individual qualities
portant. And for example, if now the (teacher's) mother is ifl.and they have to go
home early for a while, maybe they really want to do club activities or things, but
right now they can’tAnd there are teachers fike that. But that is OK. and when

the situation gets better, they can work more again. If you don't look at teachers
with a long term view (aged nie de) and raise them that way (sodetteiteikanat
to) 1 guess T think vou can't get good Ceache

Twas somewhat surprised at his point of view because it scemed to go against what
businesses might. be looking for in an emplo: When I questioned him further, he
clarified that the struggles teachers face outside of school may tv them more ca
pable as teachers:

If you only seck efficiency that you can sce at the Momen—instead. we think of
raising children, and also raising teachers. all as a part of education. There are
teachers Who can understand how mothers struggle (because they are them:
selves mothers).

An extremely busy junior high school teacher believed that cven the time spent
working late at night on bureaucratic type tasks contributed to becoming a well-
rounded teacher. He commented about his many late night mectings:

have lots

[t really isn’t at alla waste of time. Itis |
of kinds of office type work, too. And office work has a big influence on other
kinds of work. Human relations and things. We may be doing office work, but
during that Gime we also can develop human relations and it becomes easier to
talk with peopic.

rhing about many things.

Developing human relationships, outside of the classroom and outside of the scheol
tmajor reason why cachers are encouraged to be well-rounded. Being able to
relate well to a variety of people was sometimes described as making people more
“human? One junior high school teacher commented that a good teacher is:

wa

it
have a cert

tcher:A teacher who is lik

» by students. Those who are tike are the ones who
ain humanness. 1 think.

234

sda



sponse to Uese suggestions. Monbusho and its advisors 3
revision period Of 8 y

¢ currently considering it

New Curricular Guidelines

The curren: curricular

idelines (The New Monbusbo Curriculum) were published
as asctof proposed guidelines in 1988. Implementation has been in stages, with dhe
elementary school curricular guidelines having been implemented in 1992/The new
curriculum includes a reduction of emphasis on arithmetic and science in (he carly
school grades. Since 1968, arithmetic has been reduced from about 19 percent to 17
percent of the sixth-grade total class hours. Likewi has been reduced from
athout 14 percent to 10 pe Jculations based on data pre-
sented in Mizuhara, 1992).

ent of total chass hours (CG

The new curriculum establishes more electives in juaior high school. In addition.
there are changes in moral instruction and in the treatment of the Japanese national
anthem and flag. Overall. the new Monbusho curriculum mandates the following
major changes:

form of moral instruction,

* comprchensiv
ing of sci

nee and social studies in the first and second grades into a new
subject. the study of life activilics (seikaisuka),
* increase in the range and number of electives in junior high school,

tion of two new subjects in high school (earth history and citizenry) by re
organizing the old so

ial science subject. and
+ reforms in the treatment of the national flag and national anthem in school,

Monbusbo describes the new currictdum us being based onva new perspective on
academic ability” (dlarashii gakuryokukaw).Vhe purpose for this shift in policy was
explhtined by an education official: Knowlcdge-centered education wits aught to
students in the past. but now we want to find ways of motivating them to learn. this
the area we are putting great effort into at present”

With the new curriculum, Moubusbo states that ilis seeking to cultivate students
who are. in fhe words of one teacher.“ creative, philosophical able to make judg-

ments and decisions and able to express themscly cs
some reformers of Japanese cdu

These are the qualities that
Ation have said the Monbusho cv ulum and
Japanese schools did not emphasize in the past and that they hope can be cultivated
among Japanese children currently in school.

26



ture turns red. If the mixture does not turn red. students do not necd to think
about why it did not turn red.All that they need to know for the examinations is
that it did not turn red. That is why J think that Japanese education cannot pro-
duce creative thinkers or those that can program computers. 1 don’t think Japan-
ese science education is that good.

One high school science teacher expressed concern along the same ling when he
spoke of teachers’ education in Japan." How can elementary school teachers who
take very litte science in colleges he asked “conduct experiments effectively when
they are not doing experiments in high school?”

The pressures of the entrance examinations were also perceived by many cducators
as detrimental to math education in Japan. In the case of math, there is pressure to
provide more time for practice problems for students by increasing the pace of in-
struction.At some high schools, this involves finishing a 3-year math curriculum in 2
or 2 1/2 years, with the remainder of the students’ time in high school being de-
voted to practice problems and review in preparation for the college entrance exam.

Some math teachers expressed the opinion that the emphasis on problem solving,
for the entrance examination takes away from the understanding of mathematical
concepts:

I feel like J. am just tcaching students at this high school repetitive problem-soly-
ing techniques. It makes me sad. Even the adult students at the correspondence
school that T used to teach at. who didn’t have the opportunity to finish high
school, seemed more interested in and better able to understand the underlying
math concepts. (High schcol math teacher)

In other words, according to these high schoel teache
nat

s. the college entrance exami-
adds to the problems of the already demanding math curriculum by creating
anced to cover the entire curriculum, even though they fear students may not un-
derstand what has been covered. These teachers claimed that a result of this pres-
sure is Ghat many Japanese students find it difficult to keep up with the curriculum
and end up losing interest in math. [cis not clear whether such a decline in interest
among Japanese students is actually occurring: however, the perception existed
among many wh we interviewed that it v

The entrance examinations may also create problems for students who enter college.
The symposium of high school and college educators in Naka

y addressed this issue.
One complaint from college professors was drat high school teachers promise stu-
dents that they will not have to work hard in college. They accuse high school teach-
ers of using this promise to convince reluctant students to cram for examinations.

8



sand sections. 2. ee ee
Jukuand Friends... ee
Kyoso Ishiki:A sense of competition... 2.00. ee
Studying and asobi nakama 2. ee
Dating 22 ee

Bullying. 2... ee

Math and Science Cli

School Di

sions and Mathematics .

Dislike of Math and Science .

Chapter §

Teachers and the Teaching Profession

inJapan........ 0. ee
By: Caral Kinney

Res

ch Methodology 2.0 ee
Introduction, © 0 ee
The Job of aT

Teachers’ Lives... ee Se ee ee

acher in Japan—the Basic

Elementary school. 2.0 0 0 ee

Junior high school. 2 0 ee

Highschool 2.0. 0 ee
Reactions to the Researcher 2 2 ee

Expectations of Work and the Work Itself 2 ee
Problem Teachers? . . . .

Becoming aTeacher. . . . .

Competition

The Selection Proc

Teacher Training 2... ee
‘Training for novice teachers. 2 ee
On-going waining 2. 2 ee

Evaluation of training © 2. ee

183

184
186
188
190
191
192
193
195
196
198
201
201
201
203
20:4
204
205
206



Acknowledgments

The Case Study Project was directed by Harold Stevenson and codirceted by Shin-
Ying Lee of the University of Michigan's Center for Human Growth and Develop-
ment. The project was administered by Roberta Nerison-Low,. who was responsible
for the day-to-day management of the project.

We are indebted to a large number of peopte who worked closely with us on the

¢ Study Project in Japan. Assistance with the Japan section of the project was
provided by Naoko Mo . Chris Frasz, Yoshihisa Abe, David Crystal,and Kazuo
Kato. who added their valuable knowledge and experience to the task of translating
and compiling bibliographic material. Eileen Wu, Pro! or of Mathematics at Menlo
College. contributed greatly to the work on national standards and conducted iater-
views with autho: sin several cities. We would also like to acknowledge the ass
tance of Naoko Morivoshi. who conducted alf interviews and observations in the Mi-
nami le.

Shigcfumi Nagano, of the Japanes ational Institute for Educa s
CNTER). helped us to organize the project in Japan. Professors Nagano and Toshio
Sawa so. Of NIER, provided valuable support. Hideo Kojima, Dean of the School
of Education at Nagoya Uni y. provided a! ance in assuring the success of the
project and organized key support for the field researchers. Professor Hiroshi Usui
of Hokkaido University of Education served as a consultant to the project.

the authors would also like to thank the participants in the mid-year mecting at
Stanford University for their comments and insight. Our greatest debt of gratitude is
owed to ail of the teachers, parents, students, and administrators who allowed u
into their schools. their homes, and their lives. Without their gencrous participation
this project would never have come to fruition.



The class proceeded with individual reading and then group reading of the next
page and another demonstration using weights on the large mode! scale at the front
of the room. The fast 10 minutes of class were used to try to weigh various small ob-
jects in student groups. Some groups were more successful than others. and the
teacher finally got to the last group just as the chimes ring. She corrected their ap-
proach briefly and then announced that class was ending and told the students to
carry their things up to the classroom first and get outside quickly lor their 20-
minute break. All left quickly except for one group who had put the box for their
ale ona shelf under the table where it got stuck. After allowing them to try to get
it out for a few minutes, the teacher went back to help and they quickly put things.
away and left the room.

Differences Between Schools

The previous descriptions of lessons demonstrate the varicty of teaching methods,
the movement and noise allowed during cl
were already accustomed to working ina variety of conditions. There were more stu-
dents at Hasu Elementary School who trugeled with learning than at the other two
schools. Three or four students often were noisy or moving around during ¢ nd
three or four struggled with most of their lessons (two children fit both categories).
At Matsu, there was only one student in cach classroom who seemed unable to keep
up with the work. and one was a Korean girl whe had arrived in March and was still
struggling with the Japanese language. Similarly at‘Tancho there was at most one stu-
dent who struggled in various classes. Because this was the first lesson with the bat-
ancing scales in the sc sribed above, the teacher told me she was not
overly concerned about the gi group that did not understand—they still had time to
learn. However, teaching fourth-graders at Hasu Elementary School seemed to be
more challenging than at some other clemcntary schools. The Hasu teacher de-
scribed her students cautiously:

and the way fourth-grade students

Well, their real circumstances. the underside of the students being so friendly.
may be that they don’t get cnougis affection, you know. There are various issues
about their academic ability. too. but if L have affection for them and try to teach
them, they respond.

Later, the same teacher described the home backgrounds of the students at Hasu Ele-
mentary School:

Yes. around this school there are a lot of families Chat have become single parent
homes. Now in Japan. they are increasing. So, there are quite a few children
whose mothers are working .so providing affection to those children in school is
important.

216



Te

While the majority of respondents indicated that instruction given at juki "prepares
them more effectively” for entrance ms than thase given in rege
also indicated that they respect teachers in reguhir schools moce than those in jute.
because the former understand them better than the fatter. Clearly, Japanese parents
and students rely on regular schools for the basic materials to he covered fora given
grade, and cqually importandy, for the environment in which everyone is treated
cqually regardless of academic ability.

Special Education

‘Iwo kinds of schools cxist for mentally or physically handicapped children in Japan:
special cducation schools and special education ¢
ementiry and junior high school children.

asses within regular schools for cl-

The basic ty pes of special education schools those for visually impaired, hearing
impaired, and for children and adolescents with menku reurdation, physical handi-

caps. ind other conditions of infirmity. Special education chisses.on the other hand.
cnroll students with less severe physical and mental handicaps. such as mild visual

or hearing impairment, mental retirdation, physical handicap. medical infirmity, lan-
guage disorder. and emotional disorder (Monbusho, 199 L).

Around I percent of the La million children of compulsory education age with phy s-
and meatal disubilitics are receiving compulsory cducation in cither special cdu-
cation schools or classes (Monbusho, 199-4, p. 70), Of these children. a2 percent are
enrolted in special schools. and 58 percent are enrolled in special cducatioa Chisses
in regular schools.

Thus almost all Japanese ¢1

Hdren. including the severely disabled. attend some pe
of school. with only “about £000 children (.0L percent of the compulsory educa:

tion age population) allowed postponement of or exemption from the compulsory,

schooling” (Mornbusho, 199-4, p. 70).

Who Goes to a Special School or Class?

The parents of a handicapped child ultimately decide the school or class in which
the child will be enrolled. No uws mandate that certain types of handicapped stu-
dents will cnrollin a special school, special class. or regukar class. Neither the teach-
ers nor the city’s Education Center possess authority to send handicapped children
toa special cducation school or chiss. The primary function of the

tenter is to help

dos



Chapter 2

The Development and
Implementation of Education
Standards in Japan

By Douglas T

Research Methodology

The field research on national standards focused primarily on interviews and conver:
sations held with teachers. administrators, students, and parents, as well as on obser-
vations in classrooms, on school premises. and in everyday settings. All interviews
were conducted in Japanese, tape recorded, and later transcribed and Granslated into
English for storage and analysis.

At the primary site, Naka City, Douglas Trelfa conducted all of the interviews and ob-
servations pertaining to the topic of national standards, except for a few inter
with officials at Wonbusbo and those with school board members and profe:
mathem s education, which were conducted by Eileen Wu. Naoko Moriyoshi col-
lected interview and observation data at the schools in Minami while Gerald Le-
endre collected the interview and observation data in Kita City. Wu. Moriyoshi, and
endre shared their data with the author, and these data were included in the
analysis, and are reflected in this chapter.

In pursuit of information on national standards, the four researchers conducted 31
interviews at academic high schools, 9 at vocational high schools, -i4 at junior high
schools, and 15 at clementary schools. Of the total number of interviews pertaining,
to this topic, approximately 15 were held in Minami City and 19 in Kita ~ In addi-
- tion. approximately 32 classroom and general observations were included in the

data analysis. Printed information obtained from schools, school boards, education
research institutes. and Monbusbo was also integrated into research findings in this
chapter.

du



nees to school.as do many high school students. and this means that junior high
schoo! students generally spend more time in after-school activiti this age. par-
cnts and teachers noted, students need to achieve some independence from the
home yet must still be closely supervised by adults.

Daily schedules. (Wn figures 4 and 5. Thave reproduced the daily schedules of two
eighth-grade students, a boy from Chuo and a girl at Shimogawa Junior High School
During the interviews. Liasked students to write down their schedules, and 11
lected these (wo because they illustrate the range of schedules students may have.
Although these students spend quite long days in school. their time is broken up be-
tween chiss Aclivit nd clubs. Not shown in their schedules are the wide range
of special activities that junior high school students take part in every year. such as
the cultural festival, physical education festival, school outings, and sports meets.
Since most students begin a serious course of study in junior high school, there is
often not much time left over for watching television, listening to music, or so!
ing with friends. While both of these students enjoy such activitics. most weeks they
are simply too busy with studying and activities to rekax.

ye See

The boy's schedule (figure -41) illustrates the impact that tests have on students’ fives.
This boy was interviewed during the end of the semester exams when school ends
at noon. so that students are free to go home and prepare for che next day of testing.
Like many students. he is studying intensely—logging 6 hours of studying on Tues:
day and Wednesday evening. And U naddition to the juku classes.
which he attends on Monday. Friday. and Saturday,

“hursday,

In sharp contrast. the girl studics only 2 hours « night and puts much of her energies
into her club activities (figure 5). She is an active member of the student council and
the volleyball team. and she spends nearly ¢ hours after school in student council
and club activitics during the week. She also pursues curichment courses quite scri-
ously. Gtking 2 hours of piano lessons on weeknights. She clearly distinguishes these
activities from the academic jeu. review course, which she attends on certain
Sundays.

Many students in junior high schoo! regularly attend juku. Combined with time
spent in clubs, this means that a significant amount of cach day outside of class is
spent in some kind of structured learning cavironment. But, because there a
ent kinds of juki. students may have very different experiences and reecive dill
ent academic training,

Itow do these two students’ daily schedules compare with national ay crages? Tables
7.8.9. 10.and 11 give a brich summary of how junior high school students spend

Vas

ibe



FO IPRRENGL ARTETA

Yable 6—Subjects required of all Japanese high schoo} students

Subjects Required Number of Credits

Japanese language ~ 1 a ee
Geogriphy and history 2ors

Civic Fducation 1

Mathemutties 1

Science 1-8

Health 2

Physical education 9

Arts sort

Homemaking 1

SOURCE: lichi sogo Center. 1991

As table 6 indicates. the Monbusbo curriculum sets minimum requirements and
guidelines for all types of senior high schools. Courses of study beyond these mini-
mum requirements depend on the type of school Academic high schools include
more academic subjects in their course of study and generally enroll students of a
higher level of ability than those enrolled in vocational high schools.

Tracking to High Schools

Japanese high schools exist within a hicrarchical structure.The status of academic
high schools is determined by the number of graduates they send to universities and
the level of prestige of the universities to which their graduates are accepted. For ex-
ample. a large percentage of graduates of the top academic high schools pass aduis-
sion tests for the top national and private universitics, while graduates of high
schools of lesser rank generally pit Imission tests for Jower ranked univ

silics,

Perhaps more than is the ¢ in many other countries. the university a person a
tends greatly influences future employment opportunities in Japan. It is now surpris-
ny students strive to gain entrance to the most highly ranked high

s. for graduation from a highly ranked academic high school increases a stu-
dent’s chance of suce on tests to the most difficult universities

ss in passing admis:

The high school adimission test therefore acts as a trac
students of different levels of academic abi
academic high schools afl of!

ng Mechanism. separ
ty into different high schools. While the
er the same curriculum based on Monbusho's curricu-
lar guidelines for senior high schools, the rigor and depth with which the cucricu-

Jum is covered is adjusted to the academic abiliti

‘sof the school’s students.



Even at the lowestachieving vocational high school in our sample. retention was rare.
Naka Vocational high school has a rule that students must score above 30 percent in
order to advance to the next grade. The principal estimated that only about one per-
cent of Naka Vocational students fail to reach this fevel. Most of these students drop
out Ultimately, however. if the student show: titude. the
care of the student” Guendo wo mir), meaning that the school allows the student to
graduate even when the student fails to achieve minimum standards. One teacher ex-
plained the position by saying that high school has become pseudo-compulsory.
“Everyone feels. the teacher said that he must graduate from high school.”

Iustructional Resources Outside of School

Again, the major instructional resource outside of school for high school students:
are the privately owned yeeku, but the proportion attending at this level is lower
than at the junior high school or elementary school level. National statistics indicate
that about 10 percent of high school students in Japan attend juku (NHK Scron
Chosabu, 1992). However. an increasing number of high school graduates also study
at full-time private examination preparation schools (yobiko) after failing to qualify
for entrance to their universities of choice.Among successful applicants to Tokyo
University. the highest-ranked university in Japan, 39 percent were students who had
studied at yobiko schools, and 82 percent of succes
Department at the efite private
Yobiko. 199-1).

nts to the Social Sci-
sity. were such students

nd tee

Parent

shers at the high school! level were typically critical of students using
s outside of school such as the jiki or yobiko, and most expressed relu
tant resignation about the role these institutions have come to play in Japanese soci-
ety. On the other hand, students expressed more positive feelings ahout the useful-
ness of juke and yobiko.

resour

e

Testing in Senior High Schools

As noted carlicr grades and class rankings in Japanese schools are determi
combination of the major ¢xams and the small tests administered in clas
periodic exams are also the driving force behind students’ coverage of the curri
Jum and preparation for ccllege entrance exams. As in the junior high schools, peri-
odic examinations usually include midterm: and final examinations for cach of the

three semesters during the school year. Students at Meiji High School, for example,
ported taking five periodic examinations and three proficiency tests every year.
The proficiency tests are scheduled at the end of long vacations and include both

new and old mater jew

and re

This means that students must study new mater

64



DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 418 918 SO 029 324

AUTHOR Stevenson, Harold; Lee, Shin-Ying; Nerison-Low, Roberta

TITLE The Educational System in Japan: Case Study Findings.

INSTITUTION National Inst. on Student Achievement, Curriculum, and
Assessment (ED/OERI), Washington, DC.

REPORT NO SAI-98-3008

PUB DATE 1998-06-00

NOTE 281p.

PUB TYPE Reports - Descriptive (141)

EDRS PRICE MPO1/PC12 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS *Ability Grouping; Academic Standards; Adolescents; Case

Studies; *Comparative Education; Curriculum Development ;
Educational Administration; *Educational Assessment;
Educational Experience; Educational Policy; *Educational
Practices; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign
Countries; International Educational Exchange; *Student
School Relationship; *Teacher Education

IDENTIFIERS *Japan; Third International Mathematics and Science Study

ABSTRACT

This document summarizes the findings of a year-long study
that used case studies of specific schools in Japan to collect qualitative
data on the Japanese educational experience. From 1994-95 the Case Study
Project (a component of the Third International Mathematics and Science
Study) collected information from interviews with students, parents,
teachers, school administrators, and education officials, as well as through
classroom observation. Topics investigated in the Case Study Project were
education standards, dealing with differences in ability, the place of school
in adolescents' lives, and the training and working conditions of teachers.
The project examined elementary, middle, and high schools in the northern,
middle. and southern parts of Japan. Specifically, the study sections are:
(1) "Introduction" (Gerald LeTendre); (2) "Development and implementation of
education standards in Japan" (Douglas Trelfa); (3) “Individual differences
and the Japanese education system" (Hidetada Shimizu); (4) "The role of
school in Japanese adolescents’ lives" (Gerald LeTendre); (5) “Teachers and
the teaching profession in Japan" (Carol Kinney). Within that broad framework
some issues that were addressed include the effects of a unified curriculum,
teacher work patterns, the role of schooling in social stratification,
individual differences and concepts of ability, the role of the family, and
foundations in preschool and elementary education. Statistical tables include
information on general school enrollment trends (1996), standard number of
school hours in Japanese schools, and subjects required of Japanese students.
Includes an example flcor plan of a Japanese high school, daily schedules for
various high school students, and a weekly schedule for an elementary school.
(MIP)

eeeet ete eet terri sisi esti cst ettett tcc ee tte tee c tet tect ec es eter reel ects cre cree es

* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *
* from the original document. *
erevererssrteTecrearesersrrsTreseeerseseevelesseeesCSlerecetertecce ares er eceed:



Ustanikasaney!
and subtraction.
opinion by s

school. if you cannot do addition
xtlevel” Her cl ate affirmed this
ving.” Tthink there is at point where sach students get lost. Once they
get lost. they will not learn anything that will be introduced to them thereafter, un-
less they do something to understand the materials about which they got confused”
(Student. Aratt High School.

iven when you are in clement
you CaNoel Move On to the ni

‘fYeachers and parents stressed that in this process of (samikasane there was a criti:
eal period which came at the end of the third grade when the concepts of multipti-
cation and division were introduced. Knowing the importance of mastering addition
and subtraction beyond arithmetic in elementary school, the parents Linterviewed
recalled the kinds of assistance they provided for their children:

No one distikes math to begin with. Take functions. for example. It combines mul-
uplication, division. and all the basies. ff vou have solid understanding of these
basics. you understand functions. and youll come to like functions. That is why 1
spent so much time working with my children when they were in elementary
school. They learned addition and subtraction on their own. But it took effort for
them to learn multiplication. Parents must help at this critical time. Parents have
to be very serious about children’s academic progress from third to fourth or
fifth grade.

This observation was echoed by a junior high school math teacher who reluctantly
admitted:"[ think the differences in academic abilities were caused by different de-
erees of mastery in the notions of fractions aud decimals in elementary school.” He
said in one of the previous schools in which he taught. he had a significant number
of students having trouble with math because most of them could not understand
the notions of fractions and decimals.

While secing mathematics learning as a cumulative process, the majority of Japanese
teachers, parents, and students regard mathematics as primarily a technical, as op-
posed to purely intellectual, undertaking. This trend resonates well with the findings
that individual differences in academic performance are typically a ed in terms
of concrete academic behaviors

One memorable response was given by one top student who was in the math and
ticnee track at Meiji High School.To the question about how she became so good
he suggested that her success came from “just knowing how to solve prob-
F n she added.The way fam studying is to get good scores, and not to accu
mult ttc some deeper understanding. Getting good scores is a matter of knowing
technical things"A math teacher at Arata High School reiterated this opinion:

89



Thats difficult. Well. getting angry. When parents get angry or scold children. well
children used to say "‘['m sorry’ and reflect on what they did wrong. Now, they
aren’t used to being scolded. The number of children in each family is decreas:
ing. parents pamper their kids. and they don’t scold them. (Meiji teacher)

Teachers were adamant that parents necded to take a stricter approach in raising
children. particularly in inculcating basic manners. Public conduct and poor up
bringing were linked together by several respondents. A teacher at Nak. Vocational
wished that parents would train their children better:

There are parents who don’t scold their children. For example. in the middle of a
train.a mother may not care if a child jumps on the seat with shoes on. It's a
question of basic morals. This comes out in junior high and high school. [ts not
just here in Naka City it's all over. It's «loss for the adult society.At our school.
youll notice garbage thrown all over. The students haven't learned to take care of
their own things.

However, there is disagreement as to what specific behaviors in the famil
adolescent problems. Many tcachers do not see the cause of adole:

ause

ent delinquency
asa lack of upbringing or sternness. but rather they feel that rebellious or dangerous
behavior on the part of students often stems from the lack of communication be-
tween members of the family. Many teachers pointed to a number of factors which
stifle family communication: students are busy studying: fathers are working late: and
family entertainment is provided by the tele on. Students. many teachers argued.
are growing more and more distant from their parents.

‘These kids aren't understood at home. There is no place to express their feelings.
to relax. or to tell their inner feelings. When they go home. there is no one who
gives them comfort. The atmosphere at home is Jike:"Hey you! "That is how they
are treated at home. They don't want to go home. We often go to visit the house.
tak to the mother and father and try to get the kids involved. try to get the fim.
ily to relax together. The student's mind (kekoera) needs to be cased or relaxed.
but there must be someone at home to put the student at case. If someone at
home does this. then (he child will calm down. (Midori teacher)

A teacher at Chuo was more blunt. He linked parental involvement in the student's
lite with most juvenile problems

Here fat Chuo) all of the families are well-run fhe parents look after the stu
dents. It probably is not proper to tuk of such matters. but there are a few fami-
lies where both parents are working. For example. at ay, last school both parents
worked. For that reason the students were able to do as they liked. Tere the fit
ther goes out to work and the mother stays at home. The students are in contact
Iwith their parents} which means that they don't do as they like. Gener

1o1



womb, but when asked them to draw a picture of how the baby develops. they
had a hard time. Often children think they know everything, especially those
who are interested in studying and might {some books and feel that
they can explain about the development of the fetus on their own. But the reality
is that even such students have a hard time if they are asked to draw pictures.
Yes. itis true that they havi itin books. but secing is different from under-
standing, and the truth is they have not yet understood even though they
thought they did. Tt is very important to challenge children and break their belie!
that they know everything. We have to let them question whether or not they re-
ally have a complete understanding of that particular subject. Of course, those
who don’t understand from the beginning are because they, listening to dif-
ferent answers or opinions, will be amazed and fa ated. But the children who
think they know and understand must be challenged and stimulated. Then they
can become motivated. Otherwise. they would simply say."Oh.1 already know
unit so 1 don’t have to study.”

Strategically concealing the correct answer One effective way to help students cn-
ge in thinking about various v to solve a problem is deliberately to conceal the
right answer from them. It is believed to be helpful to all students if they hear the va-
riety of explanations that are offered and, in the end, to hear why some were more
effective than others. Ina math class at Midori. for exampte. the teacher asked stu-
dents how many ways there were to unfold a cube. The correct answer is 11. But
one of two students who announced his answer to the class said that there were 12
ways. The teacher did not tell the class chat this was the wrong answer. Instead. he
told the class.“Let's find out if there are indecd 12 ways to unfold the cube as |the
student's name] told us. He explained the rcason why he did not give away the right
answer as follow:

It's important for students to think. J know that if Lexplain what's in die text:
book. nearly all students in this school will understand. But if 1 do chat, much of
their attention and energy will be spent on simply memorizing my expkination.
don't think this is desirable. Instead, 1 will present them with a question and first
ask them to write down whatever comes across their minds, and start from
there. so that they actually have to think in order to come up with a solution.

This teacher not only concealed the right answer from his students, he also took ad-

vantage of being given the incorrect answer by one student to make other students

think. As is the case with most other Japanese teachers. he did not consider it an act

of manipulittion, Rather, he said it was a very effective way of teaching, and if he did

not capitalize on students’ errors, he would miss many golden opportunities and end
up saying what the textbook was saying.



Econouiic status. Differences in the economic condition of families are
cant within a given region. tn affluent acighborhoods.
dents

also s
¢ the one around Chuo, stu
Laccess to independent sports clubs. (rips abroad. and enjoyed very high
levels of financial support from their parents. At Shimogawa, where there were many
families in Which both parents worked, students had fewer opportunities to engage
in activitics outside of school. meant that many families at Shimogawa had to
make extraordinary efforts to provide their children with ac to fui or special
athletic and cultural activities. Several Shimogawa mothers mentioned taking on
parttime jobs just to pay for the cost of juRw

The effects of socioeconomic backgrounds appear lo persist through high school

despite the fact that the parents interviewed uniformly expressed strong support for
academic activities. There were marked differences in family backgrounds, aspi
tions. course of study and attitudes toward school in the high school students T inter:
viewed. For example. at Meiji High School.a highly ranked high school that routinely
sends students on to Tokyo Unive ity of the students were fram

middle cla

preparation, and club activities.
mostly working-

In conu:
‘lass or lower-middle
that these students were unmotivated in the ct
their time until they could enter the workforce

es. AIL too often teachers reported
sroom and scemed to be hiding

Vinority states. Finally. minority status has a significant cffecton a students acade-
mic experience in Japan, especially for students of Korean or burakinin descent.
While here was no overt evidence of discrimination against students of birakianin
or Korean descent in the schools we studied, Nabejima (1993) and others do indi-
cate that there cre

yotematic differences in the schooling experiences of students
from these hackgrounds. While there are indications in the scholarly literature that
students from these groups fare worse in school than other Japanese. in our study
we uncovered no incidents of discrimination

School Structure and Adolescent
Participation in Schooling

Gender. region, cconomic circumsemices. and minority status are broad parameters

that affect students’ capericnee inside and outside of school, But, what is the overall
adolescent capericnce tike? Where do adolescents stand in Japanese society? First of
all. the very terms “adolescent” and “teenager
only vague images for most Japanese. In cre

are problematic because they evoke
ating the original interview formats at

lil

tbo



US. Department of Education
Richard W! Riley
Secretary

Office of
Ricky LT:
Acting A

Jucational Research and Improvement

ant Secretary

National Institute on Student Achievement, Curriculum. and Assessment
Joseph ©. Conaty
Director

June 1998

This study was funded by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement. U.S.
Department of Education. the content does not necessarily reflect the views of the
Department or any other agency of the U.S. Government. References provided in
this publication appear as rec d by the individual authors.

This book is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part
for educational purposes is granted.

The full text of thi
http:/Avww.ed.go

publication able at the Department's home p:
ind in alternate formats upon request.



Public displays of affection among junior high school students are very rare in Japan.
No one on our team observed junior high school students holding hands inside or
outside of school. However. young adolescents may exchange gi ft

fection. One teacher at Shimog: tid:

sto show the:

When they go off to different high schools the ch other things as remem-
take a button off their uniform. The girls write their name and
awec on the collar of their school uniforms.

sr
boys and girl

dy discouraged for junior high school studeats does not
are uvinterested in dating or sex. Many of the magazines and
students were observed reading care sof love and romantic ii
volvement. Many of these comics Guatiga) also carry material that would be consid-
ered pornogriphic in other countries. But these materials tend to dufer depending,
upon the age and gender of the audience. In general, our review of the:
showed that comics

c materials.
aimed at junior high school students have less explicit sexual ma-
terial than comics for older adolescents. Comics aimed at adolescent males also have
more violent or sexually explicit stories than comics aimed at females. Many of the
comics read by adolescent females tend to focus on complex romantic stories.

In high school years. dating is not uncommon. Dating is sull technically against
school rules, but because of the inereased independence and mobility of high school
students, schools can do little to enforce this rule except to forbid public displays of
ction within the school grounds. The teachers interviewed perceived students
who were morc interested in dating or socializing outside of school than in their
club activities as fess serious students. While many high school students partic
in clubs and date. the image among adults is that students who date do not have the
kind of concentration it tikes to succeed in getting into a good college, However,
Japanese t hoot students appear to > advantage of their independence and
inere f contacts to begin to experiment with dating. A young teacher, in her
second year al Arata. said that because of her youth the female students would con-
fide in her about their dating woes:

so

Interviewe

sAt what age docs dating start?

‘Teacher: Mostly with the first-year students. In their world, anyone will do. [She
laughs} They just want a’speci

tl someone. | am a relatively young te:tcher, so the
girl students sometimes come to talk to mc. Miss WE think that guy is nice but
what do 1 do?"What should 1 say? If they try going out with a boy and it doesn't
go. they will report it to me. Then after one or two weeks, they start thinking
someone else is nice and they think about him. This keeps repeating itself.

Dating occurs at all (ypes of high schools. but because Naka Vocational is virtually an
at-mate school. the students there had fewer opportunitics to mect dating partners.

m3

dws



who was scheduled for a two week trip to Australia for rescarch, sponsored by the
cily. At Midori. the midranking junior high school. | interviewed two teachers who
were almost polar opposites in their approach to work.A male social studies teacher
in his fifties reported that he warks late evenings almost every night, cither at the
school or at various research meetings, and heads the group of third-year teachers at
the school. On the other hand. the female math teacher, who arrived at this school in
April. has two small children and a husband who. in her words.“doesn't help with
the children at ali The school had given he
not have homeroom responsibilities. She usually arrived just before the morning,
mecting at 8:30 a.m.and left in time to pick her children up from day care by 5:00
p.m. Afithough her classes were well prepared and effectively managed. she saw her
time in school as a break from her busy home life and housework. At Shimogawit Jue
nior High both teachers | observed had 6 and 7 years of teaching expericnce. re-
spectively, but they had different academic backgrounds—the English teacher was
26 vears old and had only a ar colicge degree while the science teacher was in
his carly thirties and had 2 y of graduate work in science

lighter load for this year and she did

There was a variety of responses to teaching. The young,
how long she could keep up with the pr
though she loved her job and felt privileged to
teach students,

English teacher wondered
Shing. She reported that al-

s e with other teachers and to
she wondered how she would find the ener nd time to keep

teacher devoted almost afl of his time to teaching and seemed to take extreme satis-
faction in all aspects of his job—teaching his homeroom class, organizing the parent-

girls.and being involved in many out-ofschool meetings and activities. He often
worked from 7:00 in the morning until 10 or LL at aight.

High school. As has already been seen in previous chapters, there are great differ:
ences between the three high schools. Because of the rotation system, which re-
quires teachers to change schools about every 6 years. many teachers had Gtught at
sevenl types of schools. Most high school teachers teach three to four classes a day
and have free periods in between. This schedule made it possible for me to observe
and interview teachers and administrators during the school days and then spend
the after-school time touring the schools or watching teacher mectings or student
club activities. | focused almost exclusively on math and science teachers. interview-
ing nine. | observed cight different teachers’ classes as well as briefly satin on
classes in the technical subjects at Naka Vocational. At the high school level wi
able to follow women teachers, mainly because there were not as my
ence and math high school teachers—approy mately 21 percent of
school teachers are female and even fewer teach math and science (Ministry of Edu-
nee and Culture, 1995). The head of the science department at Meiji High
school was a woman, but she was out of the school on schvol business during most

sun
any female sci-
anese high

cation,

194

wa



The math 1 learned #7 h?zh school and the math [learned in college are wwe very
different Sinds of mathematics wets always a poor math ssudeat. Thats why Pn
ganatn teacher now, Real mathematics to do with logical thinking. When you
think logically. vou often find truth in logic’s togicalness. It is a thing of beauty to
be able to find such truth. This is a very moving experience, [In high school. how:
ever we dont even touch upon such beautiful aspects of math. We just deal with
mathematical skills. In my opinion, just because you were good at math ia high

school,

vou should not automatically think of majoring in math in college. For ex-
ample. if you liked differenti

and integral calculus in high school, you should
contemplate majoring in cngincering rather than mathematics. The mathematics
taught in high school is a very practical one. In an average school like this one,
we spend almost no time teaching “theories” of mathematics. So being a good
student in a school like this—or t should say in the majority of Japanese high
schoolys—gives you no guarintee that you will do well ina collegiate dep:
of mathematics.

tment

A math teacher at Meiji High School said it is not difficult to ¢
dents do poorly and others do well in math because “in most fapanese classrooms,
exam questions are taken right out of the materials covered in class.” In his class.
about 90 percent of exam questions are the same as those in the textbook. He
arranges the difficulty level of these questions so that the class as a whole would
score an average of about 55 points. He continucd saying that a student would be
considered to be “bad at math’ if he or she was able to correctly answer only 20 or
30 percent of the problems. And to have such a score when “about 90 percent of my
problems are taken right out from the textbook” can only “indicate lack of study” on
students’ part. His junior high school counterpart endorsed this view by saying “as
far as junior high is concerned, E think students can solve most problems with cffort
After all. they are tested on whats covered in class.

splain why some stu-

Then what docs one have to do to miatster such technical skills to get high exam
scores? Our data suggest (Wo major ingr irst. tention in class, and
second, preparing for (rasa) and reviewing (ukushi) materials covered inc
lily cither at home. at jukucor preferably ac both.

Ine
High
“ones who listen to our lecture very at
‘hey are cager to catch every small detail we teach. Second, if they know

ent way of solving problems, they raise their hands and speak up, giving
their opinion inc An clementary school pupil described the same principle “The
most obvious reason is that some people don’t listen to the teacher in class. The stu-
dents who do well are listening very attentively, but the students who don't do well

Japanese teachers, parents.
{its suce

nd students say chissroom tearning is not automat
ss depends on how well students pay attention. A teacher aA

School described high-achieving students a

any diffe

90
440



LT NE TT UT ee”

Japanese education system works. While cthnic and
i¢ minoritics do constitute a small percentage of the overall population. dif-
: ng from socioeconomic background or region have a powerful imps
on the nature of schooling.

tant in understanding how th

Economic. Vhe most striking effec
in opportunity for education associated with income and v
round appeared to influence parental participation in schoo!
of students holding part-time jobs as well as parents’ and students aspint
tions. For example. in ong school we visited both parents in most families held full:
lime jobs, and teachers at this school noted that there were more student behavior
problems at school and more problems within families than at other schools. fn
wealthier neighborhoods, families were able to afford jaw and other extres hoot
academic opportunities for their children. and at more schools in affluent neighbor:
hoods we met students who had spent a summer overseas.

ence

gional While Japanese authorities strive to ensure that high quality public educa
tion is available to all students, certain regional differences in access to school also
exist: Teachers in Kita City remarked on the harsh conditions in the clementary and
junior high schools located deep in the mountains of the prefecture. Access to high
schools was also a problem in Kita: Chere was no well-developed system of public
transportation and children had long rides when commuting to school, Most signifi-
ant, though, were differences in opportunity for extra-school forms of cducation.
Kita teachers at all levels remarked on the of large juke in Kita City. This lack of
Juku teachers noted, forced them to provide more extra ¢
counselors in helping students pick future schools.

nd act as guidance

Ethnic education, Japan is home to several canic minority groups including the
Ainu. presently concentrated in northern Honshu and Hokkaido, as well as descen-
dants of Chinese and Korean immignints. With Japan’s rise as atin cconomic world
power, people from many different nations have come to Japan as temporary rest
dents who work and send moncy back home to their families.

The largest minority groups in Japan are children of Korean and burakumin descent
Over 600,000 people of Korean descent reside in Japan. Many of their parents or
grandparents were forced to come to Japan during fapan’s pre-war colonial occupa
tien of Korea. Phere are currently 60 Korean schools in Japan with an cnroflmeat of
40,000 to £0,000 students

On the other hand. burakuniin are cthnically and linguistically Japanese, but heir
ancestors were alone time relegated to out-caste status. Despite nationwide at



Reactions to the Researcher

JT spent one full day with cach of two teachers at the six clementary and junior |
schools and was able to dis

cuss Most issues with them when we sat down to tuk,
VAL
but also interacted with other
Shers in the teachers’ room during chiss periods when not observing cla: Meiji
High School and Naka Industrial High School both scheduled more opportunities for
interaction than F had andcipated. including mectings with former principals, oppor-
tunities fo sil in on student-teacher training. chances to obser i
by different teachers, and guided tours of all (he technic:

usually around 5:00 in the afternoon afier a hectic. but seemingly usual work di
the high schools [ focused on two to four teache
tea

classes Giught
divisions at Nak

Almost all the teachers appeared to be eager to he
about their jobs, and many stated t
their work, For example, one t
Was “a good chance and T have

my comments and questions
they welcomed the chance to reflect upon
acher told me att the end of our diy together that it
also gotten to reflect on various things. | am really
grateful the two teachers observed at Chuo Junior High insisted | come to an cle:
gant coffee shop with them so we could continue our conversations after | finished.
because they were enjoying the chance to reflect on their teaching. They proceeded
Lo discuss the merits of various study patterns among students and the problems
with a new examination system. This type of discussion of methods of advising and
teaching students seemed to be something in which they often engaged. tnd they
told me that they had these discussions regularly.

Several teachers compared my presence as an observer to more formal teacher-train-
ing chisses. which entails massive preparation ko Moriyoshi. who observed in
anouicr site in Japan for this project. described such a thoroughly prepared fourth:
grade science chiss and wrote in her notesother teachers also observed the class.
and the presenting teacher scemed somewhat nervous. He had prepared a class pkun
and distributed it to every observer” About a LOth-grade math cla ‘ation. Ms.
Moriyoshi concluded that the teacher was nervous ind the students seemed sub-
dued due to the 10 observers in the chissroom.There appeared to be other di
ences between Moriyoshi’s description of classroom acuivili nd what! observed.
She observed no chaotic-seeming classes and saw less individualized instruction and
Was generally given handouts detailing how all activities were related to specific
learning goals. | was told that teachers generally did not make detailed lesson plans. 1
observed both carefully structured periods of teaching and more chaotic Moments.
In addition, most teachers told me they were not nervous and the students scemed
to be energetic.

Ss obser

Although a few teachers wrote a brief outline of what they hoped to teach. | always
observed alone and never saw an extensive lesson plan. Indeed. most teachers told

195

Lat BEST COPY AVAILABLE



trance to some form of higher education, few Arata graduates gain admittance to
elite universities. $ reported that in 199-4 no Ar
ted to the national iversity, and in 1993 only two students were admit-
ted. Most Arata students enter regional -i colleges and junior colleges. and few

Arita grtduates enter universities in Tokyo that would require their families to pro-

vide room and board in this expensive city. According to school records, once every
several years an Arata graduate might successfully gain admi
university such as Waseda or Soph

udents were admit-

onto an elite private

Most students who cnter Arata had average records in junior high school. In con-
trast. according lo officials. Meiji High is slightly above the average in academic rank-
ing. The differences in academic achievement among students from the two schools
correspond to what appeared to be a large gap in the social class background of
their families

ording to our inve:

igation. about 10 percent of Arata High School students re-
istance with their tuition from the government. while almost no Meiji stu-
dents receive such aid (since high schools are not compulsory in Japan. families
must pay tuition to atend high school). Unlike Meiji mothers who reported no diffi-
culty in providing money for jk conversations with three of the Arata mothers re-
vealed that they were not able to afford juke without financial sacrifice. These par-
ents resented the fact that students who had parents who could afford the costs of
Juku were at an advantage in the entrance examinations for college.

The mothers of Arata students. and the students as well. did not scem as intensely in-
terested in education as those at Meiji. One mother vuked of how she wanted her
child to enjoy high school and not just study. She said.f believe that studying isn’t
everythin: i sentiment expressed by other Arata mothers. However, in
spite of the baktinced attitude toward studying and academic competition that all
three Arata mothers conveyed. these parents also expressed regret over not having
pushed their children harder and over not forcing them to go to juku.The principal
of Arata characterized the parents of his students as those “who want to send their
children to college but only if they have the ability’ He implied that Arata parents are
not ones who would push their children to ex

all costs.

Grade-Skipping

Low-achieving students are not retained. nor are high-achicving students allowed to
skip grades in Japanese schools. Grade-skipping. or fobiky i. is specifically prohibited
by Monbusho policy. There may be a variety of reasons for this. One mother ¢x
plained that grade-skipping would be difficult in fapan because “superior students
are not strong in all areas and grades ire determined by performance in all subjects”



But many <a Vocational students had jobs throughout the year. In fact, the role of
part-time work in the lives of Naka Vocational students was one of the major factors
that distinguished their fives from those of the Arata and Meiji students. Without the
pressure of the exams or the necessity to go to juku, Naka Vocational students were
free to try out various part-time jobs. Given the economic circumstances of many of
their parents, this additional income—even if it were used solely by the students
themselves—was quite welcome. But as a result of their earning power, Naka Vo
tional students had a greater degree of independence both from parents and the
school than the students at Meiji and Arata.

Conclusion: How Are Adolescents
Doing in Japan?

In the past decade there has been a deer in bullying, suicide. and the overall
crime rate among adolescents (Somucho, 1993). Reported (een pregnancies remain
low and it is estimated that less than one percent of adolescents imbibe illegal drugs
or substances like glue or paint thinner. However, in this same period. there has heen
an increase in school-refusal syndrome. Combined with growing concerns that stu-
dents are drifting away from math and science, many of the teache nd parents in
this study re led concern that adolescents are becoming more dissatisfied with
schooling (Somucho, 1993).

The Japanese adolescents we met during our fieldwork. on the contrary. appeared
motivated and engaged in schooling. They appeared to be materially prosperous, and
the high school students exhibited an interest in foreign music, food. and film.As
White (1993) has shown, many Japanese high school students are sophisticated con-
sumers with a highly developed awareness of international events and trends. While
many of the students in this study said that they were tired or felt pressure to per-
form, most appeared to be coping rather well.

The pressures produced by the entrance exam. the education system and the culture
of testing have undeniable negative influences on Japane:
able energy expended on the high school and college en
that juke benky6 isa central fact of life for most adolescents. But. students, parents,
and teachers were quick Co point out that learning, defined more broadly, is a central
human activity in the Japanese cultural world view. Many respondents noted Chiat Co
stop learning is to decay or stagnate as a person. Such a view of learning implies
constunt change and re-evaluation, the ability to shift and adapt. In the face of all the
pressure to succeed. the vast majority of students still maintain a healthy social life.

181
ws



University Entrance Examinations
(The Center Examination}

Japanese high school graduates secking to attend university are normally required to
take the Center Examination, an examination similar in format to the high school en-
trance examination. The Center Examination, which is made up of multiple choice
questions, has been likened to the SAT in the Cnited States. However, Japanese uni-
versities generally admit students entirely on the basis of the Center Examination
and pay no attention to high school grades and letters of recommendation.

The Center Examination is administered twice every year. at the end of February and
in early March. Students take the Center Examination at the university they wish to
attend. Similar to the high school entrance examinations. the Center Examination
covers the five core academic subjects. However, students have more electives at
this level. Instead of English. students may elect an exam in either French or Ger-
man. For social studies. students may select one of the following: moral
education/politics/economics. Japanese history, world history. geography, or contem-
porary society.

Publication of preparation guidebooks for the Center Examination constitutes a
large private industry in Japan. Whole sections of large bookstores are reserved for
these guidebooks. which typically cost no more than $10. Although the Center E
amination is a single national examination, preparation guidebooks are written for all
the universities requiring entrance examinations. because requirements vary b
schooi and department.

nter Es

Testing in science. In he Cs amination. the subject of science is divided into
three sections. In the first section, either physics or earth sciences may be selected.
In the second section, students must choose between chemistry or the other sci-
ences All students are tested on biology in the third section.

Each university and department decides which subjects will be emphasized in
making admission decisions Consequently. some students reported basing their
college entrance choices on considerations of what subjects are emphi
examinations

ized in the

Testing in math. Testing of math in the Center Examination is divided into two
parts, Math Land Math fl, cach 60 minutes long and worth 100 points. Each part is
further subdivided into three sections. Students must complete all three sections in
Math fand sctect two of three sections in Math 1. Each of these sections comprises
a number of small problems.

65



i
|
i
'

Japan. Addi

Executive Summary

The Case Study Project is a compunent of the Third International Mathematics and
Science Study. The Project was designed to provide in-depth information on edu
tion in Unree nations: Germany, Japan. and the United States. The four ress
which were the focus of the case studies in cach of these countries were
by the US. Department of Education in an (ort to collect qualitative data which
would complement and amplify the quanutative information obtained through the
main Third Tnternational Mathematics and Science Study. The topics investigated ia
the Case Study Project were: education standards, dealing with differences in ability,
the place of school in adolescents’ liv nd the training and working conditions of
teache

During 1994-95, the study collected information from interviews with students, par-
cits, teachers. school administrators, and education officials, as well as through class-
room observations. This report presents findings from the fieldwork completed in
jonal reports present findings from fieldwork in Germany and the
United States.

Three Cities in geographically different ar atpan were chosen for study. hn all
three of the research sites we found similar patterns of instruction, curriculum im-
plementation, parental support of learning. and adolescent engagement in school.
Teachers in Kita, Naka.and Minami expressed similar beliefs about the role of effort
in academic progress. In the early grades, the instruction can be best described as:
“whole person” education in which individual learning styles are emphasized. This:
atmosphere changes as students progress into junior high school and exam prepara
tion begins to play a major role in schooling. In all three sites, adolescents appeared
to expericnee similar school transitions, and the curriculum used at any given
level—for example. first year students in junior high school—was very similar
across the three sites. In all three sites. adolescents and their parents expressed con-
cerns over upcoming cntrtnce exams and many students enrolled in juku.

The Effects of a Unified Curriculum

fon. Science. and Culture

Monbusho,. Japan's Ministry of Edu a powerful in-
fluence over the entire nation’s education system, producing national curriculum
guidelines Unt serve as a national standard. Because of the clearly delineated niat-

ex

tional cur
na

iculuum, students and tcache <¢ know which topics will be covered on
ams and can determine which content questions are or are not

al entrance ex

AV



schools that were not reeussted, teachers sce most assignments as part of what they

especied when they became teache eachers are generaly required to be at heir

schools for at least 8 hours a day. Junior high school and high school teachers usually
only teach + of the 6 hours of classes cach day. Elementary s
times teach move class hours and are expected to be ats
ings with other (eachers, adv)
fore ¢

Shool teachers some-
hool for planning. meee
ing students. and socializing for about a half-hour be-
“8 begin in the morning and for at least an hour after School ends in the
afternoon. Most teachers reported that they do all their schoo! refated work at the
school. which contributes to much interaction beaveen L

achers.

Almost allt

ichers have graduated trom. tyear unive!
taken many credits in their area of specialization. Ted
crs. ailend inscevice training

itic

and are required to have
thers interact with other teach-
and many voluntarily participate in small research and
study groups. Novice teachers are assigned formal mentors during their first year on
the job. The teachers interviewed reported that throughout their teaching years they
look to other teachers for guidance and help. Teachers told me they feel they are cf
fective at the bas ss of teaching. and (hey described being explicitly taught
about fesson planning, the use of mater and more basic skills such as how to
write on the chatkboard. A variety of teaching techniques and presentation styles
were observed and most teachers demonstrated a substantial repertoire of methods
Most teachers interviewed expressed a desire to improve themselves and their abil
ity Co reach out to all students.

ic b

Teachers reported and Lobscrved that when discipline problems occurred. teachers
attempt lo get students to resolve problems among themselves and to discuss dis-
agreements. Usually a homeroom teacher initially addresses a discipline problem and
then. depending on the severity of the infraction. the head grade-level teacher. other
homeroom teachers. or administrators may also be asked to gct involved. No teacher
expressed a sense of powerlessness in the face of student misbehavior, although a
scribed schools that had more severe disciplinary issues
nd other structural interventions helped improve those schools. Minor in-
ich as making a joke or talking out of turn during a lesson. were tolerated
and even indulged. According to my respondents. enjoyment and social develop-
Ment are scen as important goals for students during the schoolday. | obser
eral teachers cngaging their students in enjoyable. nona
story-telling. games. and play acti
ular |

and how staff

fractions.

seve

demic activitics such as,
tics outside during nice weather, even during re

sson Limes.

pecially in elementary schools, but also in junior high schools and high schoots.
wchers reported that they saw the purpose of education as guiding students to be-
come more fully developed human beings. Al the schools | observed included times
for enjoyable interactions through scheduling LO minutes or more of free time be-

tween classes or after lunch, encouraging students to interact with their f

ends on



3. Write the fractions that are represented by the shaded regions.
1/4 meter is shaded
3/1 meter is shaded
1 and 3/4 meter is shaded

The teacher explains the printout by using the television Monitor and projection
em. After exphtining the printout. the teacher instructs students to breatk up
nto groups of four and five. The teacher gives cach group a set of strips of col-
ored paper. Students put their desks logether and lay out the strips. Studeats
work together and appear to be on task. although the students have become
boisterous.

Mrs. HL alternates between making comments lo ¢
structions to the whole group. For about 4 minute:
and focused on the t

th group and providirg in-
the students become quict
without intervention by the teacher.

Mes. HL. gives one strip at atime to the groups. The groups of students begin work-
ing with the strip of paper that represents the length of Masako’s outstretched
arms. Then. after 10 minutes, the students return Masako’s strip for the (riend’s:
stvip.After another LO minutes, the students exchange the friend's strip for the
teacher's strip. In spite of the loud talking and cheerful demeanor of students. the
students are on tsk. Altogether the group activity lasts about 25 minutes.

At the end of the group activity, the teacher instructs students to return (o their
s. Which the students do promptty.
h is being displiyed on the sercen:
ing in the answers.

Phe teacher returns to the printout.
and in interaction with students, begins

Conceptual Versus Rote Learning

‘The instructional processes of this lesson and the others we observed in clementary
schools were similar, Common to all of these lessons was the Japanese teacher's em:
phasis on teaching the understanding of concepts rather than calcukiting skills. In
other words. arithmetic lessons in the Japanese clementary schools we observed
were largely conceptual involving a steady but relaxed pace of instruction. during
which Japanese students were expected to think about mathematical concepts
rather than doing many calculations

Along with the emphasis on the conceptual in the ckissroom, Japanese teachers ox-
pect students to learn and practice calculating skills outside the classroom. Hence.
eiiculators are rarely if ever used in Japanese clementary schools. Some teachers
stitted that calculators. unlike the soroban, do lithe to deepen understanding of
arithmetic and, hence. are of Title educative value. This attitude was typical of the
ones expressed by other respondents.



for training new members and for overseeing the club finances, Most of the times
that I observed clubs like these, students spent their time doing various drills.

Participation in clubs at the high school fevel is. again, quite varied. At Naka Voca-
tional, many students preferred to work rather than join the clubs, but the baseball
team was exceptionally popular and had won several local tournaments. At Meiji. the
school had a strong tradition of general club participation. Most of the students took
part in some form of club activity. At Arata, club participation varied greatly with cer-
tain clubs being popular and others barely limping along with only a few members.

Problems With School

Most of the criticisms expressed by the respondents in this study were not directed
at schools directly, but at the ¢ stem and the pr ed within
school. It is the exam system, respondents noted. that pushes teachers to cover so
much in cach class, that pushes friendly rivalry into stark competition and feeds the
large juku industry. Respondents noted that exam pressures begin to affect students
about a year and a half before the exam. i.¢..the second year of junior high schoot

In the c sademic competition is commonly promoted by comparing an in-
dividual or a group's performance with some absolute standard. Teachers commonly
exhort students to get a few more points right than on their last test. to try and sur-
pass the class average. and to score above the cut-olf point on the practice exams for
the school of their choice. Teachers harangue their classes to boost the average for
the up to or above the average for the school. Many teachers linked these acad-
emic pressures with the fact that more and more students are refusing to attend
compulsory education.

School refusal. School refusal (ok6 RVG) was one of the most common problems
discussed by te and parents. The problem of school refusal is growing. In
1992. the White Paper on Youth showed that about 10.000 elementary school stu-
dents and nearly 50.000 junior high school students were considered to have
school-refusal syndrome. This is compared with about 3,000 elementary and 10.000
junior high school students in L978 Gbid.). What teachers mean by school refusal dit.
fers. but in general these suidents will not come to school for weeks or months ata
time. Often these students express discomfort at being around other students. seem
extremely shy. and appear to have underdeveloped social skills

At Midori, the nurse's office was use: a kind of transition room for the 8 to 10 stu-
dents who would not attend regular classes. Suidents were allowed to come to the
nurse's office and work on workshects for an extended length of time. After students

duu



The proportion of students who attend juke also differs greatly between urban and
rural areas. and there are fewer jiekr in rural areas than in urban ones. This disparity
has an impact on instruction in schools. In areas where there are not many juke.

teachers must provide extrt instruction for college aspirant:

In or case. if you look at the school system and jikic in the area and in cities
like Tokyo, there are many juke. The schools don't have to do anything, But here
in the outlying regions, there are juke. but it takes money and the schools take
on some of the role of the fuk.

role includes setting up ¢
uninations. But even with this ¢

after school that prepare students for entrance
tra help from public schoo! udents from are
ional juke chains t not established branches are clearly at ad
in studying for entrance examinations. One high school teacher in Ki
City talked about a student from a rural region in the prefecture who came to study
at his school. The teacher was impressed by this boy who had studied hard on his

own. although “there were no universities or bookstores in hi

area of residence”
Conclusion

Monbusbo exerts a powerful influence over every aspect of education in Japan and
the Vonbusho curricular guidelines are a central ingredient of that influence. In ac
cord with Monbusbo policy. the Moubusho curriculum serves bout as itr nal
standard and as a way to encourage equality of opportunity. Policies promoting
equality are evident in prohibitions against tracking during compulsory education.
the rarity of retention. the prohibition against skipping grades, a reluctance to report
IQ test scores to parents. and the pressure to stay within the curriculum on the en-
trance eximinations.

panese have c

The ated a system of national standards through the Monbusbo
curriculum which sets a standard for the content of instruction rather than a stan-
dard which defines & particular level of performance. Teachers reported that few stu-
dents who fail to reach minimal standards are denied graduation as long as they ex-
hibit effort. As a result. nearly all Japanese graduate from high schoot although
education is compulsory only through junior high school.

Competition to enter higher ranked schools through an entrance examination sys
tem. whether they are senior high schools or universiti crves lo raise standards of
performance. Constant testing throughout junior and senior high school train Japan-
ese students to be expert test-likers. Many parents and teachers whom we inter:
viewed reported that the pressure on fipanese children for higher performance

be
c



Peer Relations

Despite the emphasis on academics and school advancement in most Japanese ju-
nior high and high schools, schools are the major social arena for most Japanese ado-
lescents. Even at the most highly canked academic schools like Meiji, many students
value school primarily because it provides an opportunity to make contact with
peers. Students and teachers at all levels responded in much the same way to the
questions value does school have for the student

School? | guess. a place to make friends. A place to contact others. There is also
study but. mecting friends. (Meiji studend)

Friends. to be with them. Then study studen)

nd the clubs. (Shimogaw:

Well it isn’t a plaice of learning. It is a place to be with friends. (Chuo teacher)

Although studying or training for work were important to students. it Was clear that
school also was the major area of social contact in students’ lives. With so much of
theie daily time tied up in classes and clubs, students had little opportunity to mect
students from outside school. Nevertheless. parents and teachers were concerned
about adolescent friendship patterns, because of a common belief that friends have
a strong impact on adolescent attitudes towards studying and school-A mother at

uo reflected:

He is studying so hard from Monday to Saturday. students really build up a need.
so on the weekend, they need free time. To do what they want with friends—
communication. The rest of the time they study. like before tests, so 7 let him
spend most Saturdays and Sundays as he likes.

Asecond aspect of this belief is that friends also affect students’ motivation to study.
For several of our student respondents, competition with friends was an important
source of motivation to do well in school and on the entrance exams.

Sources of Friendship

adolescents enter at new school along with their friends from elementary
school.ind these friendships appear to case the tritnsition to a new and larger social
As students go up the schooling kidder, their range of social contacts widens.
This is most dramatic at high school, where students suddenly come into contact
with othicr students from across the city. While some frigndships do continue over a
studens’s school carcer. the most important sources of fricndships are the student's
current homeroom class and club

lo7



Teaching

Elementary School Teaching

Although the extensive committce assignments and detailing of responsibilities led
toa complex organizational structure within cach school, teachers had considerable
bility.At the elementary school level there were schedules for classroom activi-
ies, but the teachers seemed comfortable with changing sched-
s needs. Teachers were encouraged to modify schedules de-
pending on the weather, children’s moods and behavior, and other factors. For
example. one vice principal, during a morning teachers’ meeting, called upon the
teachers to reflect upon (banse? suri) Saturday because it had been such nice
weather; he would have liked to have seen more cl s playing outside. Although
this might also be viewed as administrative interference in the running of c! it
Was meant as an encouragement to drop the planned schedule and take advantage
of a sunny day in the midst of the rainy season. The principal at Tancho Elementary
School proudly pointed out that there were no chimes between third and fourth and
between fifth and sixth periods so that teachers could use those 2 hours without
tis up to the teache!
condition and decide if what they

s to decide
¢ doing,

n watch the s

should be continued or stopped”

Recognition thal children need to be active.The
Hasu Elementary School's guidebook exemplifies
tion, physical activity, and learning about things like cleaning and preparing meals.
15 minutes a day are devoted to preparing. cating together, and cleaning up from
lunch. and an additional 20 minutes are spent cleaning the school. Students clean al-
most every area of the schoo! daily including the restrooms, outdoor sidewalks and
gardens. floors. and cmptying trash and recyclables. AU of the times listed as “free
time” can be used to go outdoors to the play arca (weather permitting), play in the
classroom. or play in the gymnasium or library. In addition, students are encouraged
rrive a litte carly and play outdoors or in the gymnasium.

schedule (figure 8) trans
the emphasis on student inter

On Monday there is an all:
clas

chool morning meeting when students linc up with their
es either outdoors or in the gymnasium, and the principal and teachers make
announcements. Then they all do a routing set of exercises to music. On Wednes-
days. students stay outdoors or in the gymnasium in their classroom groups and ¢
encouraged to be very active physically—for example, the fourth-graders were di-
led among the monkey bars, jungle gym. and parallel bars on the playground, and
the teachers circulated to make sure all children were participating actively and
using lots of energy. The principal told me this was time for" preparing their minds
(kokoro no juubi no jikag). At is very imporwint’ The “Hasu time. open Gime” and



utes of individual work, she had them help her work out the example problems on
the chalkboard. She illustrated the usefulness of the estimation technique by giving
the example of having 720 yen and needing to divide it among either three or four
people.“Who would be richer?” she asked. Students excitedly called out that they are
either richer than or not as rich than if they had a different amount. It seemed that
all students were paying attention to the lesson. At this point one boy catled out that
the boy across from him wasn’t doing his work.the teacher kindly responded. “OK,
but yesterday he did it the best. and said to the boy in question.“look into your
heart and decide for yourself The class continued with another shori lecture about
the general cule for estimation—the larger the number by which you divide, the
smafler the number will be in the answer. Then students were assigned more individ:
ual work for about 5 minut

At 9:30 am. she ended this section of the lesson and asked the students to move
their desks into groups of six. Each group chose a “player” (all groups choose boys)
and she gave them the problem &2 + 16.Two boys answe correctly at exactly the
same moment. and the teacher had the other four*playe it down and these (wo
boys do“rock, paper, scissors” to decide the winner. The children cheered loudly
the winner. The teacher stated that class is now over and the student who was in
charge for the day called out the traditional commands of “stand up” (Riritsi)atten-
tion” (Riotsuke) and “how” (ref) and class ended :

One teacher used an even greater variety of such methods and his sixth-grade stue
almost never had a moment without needing to respond: he had them do indi-
vidual problems in their notebooks but these became group activiti she variously
kKed them to stand up. close their books. turn their desks around (which meant
switching to the back chalkboard for awhile), raise their hands, or check their pact-
ners work when finished. Meanwhile. he would quickly gather together the students
who were struggling, coach them and explain the problem.and send them back to
try the next problem. Although the chiss used group-based instruction and all stu-
dents were proceeding atthe same pace. cach student seemed to get individual a
tention and any lack of understanding or lack of participation was quickly noted and
corrected. The noise level would rise and fall dramat

ally after the problem was as-
signed and as students moved their desks or bodies or discussed the problem with a
partner. but all seemed to be enjoying basic arithmetic practice. In his ckissroom. sau
dents even had various code phrases for how to solve problems and how to talk
about various issues. This wis their second year as a chiss with the same teacher. and
they seemed totally accustomed to his rapid instructions and comfortable indicating
their level of understanding

science class in the laboratory room. Similarly. science ckisses scen to range fron
fairly individualized work to more tcacher-directed interactions. although all the sci
ence periods { observed in these three clementary schools included hands-on work

241

wb



Interviewer: Do students pract

every day and on Saturday?

Parent: Yes. even on Saturday. Though now the second Saturday is a vacation. On

Sunday they can have meets. They get tired but T suppose they arc used to it-And
then they have jake until 10:00. 1 really is
sleep in kh

ate! Lately. my daughter has gone to
r school uniform, (Shimogawa parent)

s students get older, they also gain seniority in the clubs and take a stronger role in
directing the practice. However, many students retire from the club after their first
semester as third-year students in order to devote their energy to studying for the
tests. This development means
scrtoor is a crucial trans
clubs to take ona

that for many students, the second vear in junior high
on year when students move from junior status in the
feadership role.As students move up into senior positions in the
clubs, they appear to display a growing seriousness about club activity

High school and independence. One evening, Lobserved the student managers and
team members of the basketball club at Arata High School. Both the boy's and girl's
clubs were practicing on the same court. It was perhaps 50 degrees Fahrenheit in
the unheated gym. and the student manager of the girls’ team was huddled in her
coat with a (raining jer draped over her legs. She said that she became interested
in basketball in junior high school.and although she wished she could play or take
ruin the practice. she did not feel good enough to play ea the te:
said that she came to practic day and stayed until practice w
p.m. in the winter months).

m. However. she
as over (about 6

The captain of cach team directed the practice. The girls’ and boys’ styles of practice
differed significantly. The girls made extensive use of sing-song cheers, chanting

rhythmically as they drilledPhe boys drilled in silence or counted of The bays also,
tended to spend more time on playing mock

ames. While the girls spent much
more time on drills. The girls’ captain keptup a pattern of cncouragement and itd-
vice. yelling “Shoot!” and “Nice show”

After about halfan hour. the teacher who supers ised both teams came in and for:
mally introduced me to the team members. He said that his specially is really base-
L.so this club really has to “instruct” itself. He stayed for about 20 minutes and left
again. After his departure. the students worked on group drills with cach student try-
ing to better his or her performance.

The fact dat teacher-supervisors at the high school level may only bricfly check on
how the club is doing indicates the degree of independence and responsibility that
club members are expected to have. Senior members are expected to be responsible



Even for involved and sociable teachers. there are times of withdrawal from the
group for various reasons. AC Matsu Elementary School. one teacher and 1 almost
missed the 10 minute closing teachers’ mecting on Fri afternoon because we
were in the classroom talking with afew remaining students. She forgot the mecting
and it seemed that this was a not infrequent event for her or for other teachers. Ele-
mentary school teachers can spend time in the srcoms and thus be some-
what isolated from the other teachers and administrators. Certain arcas of most
schools become inviting places for relaxation. For example, when Easked a teacher
at Meiji High School what he does when he is worn out emotionally he responded.

own cli

to the fourth floor preparation room—the chemistry room—and LE smoke a
cigarette there or drink some coffee and “Oh. its no good any
more! dhe ktughed). You tughed). The re teachers from an-
other room who gather to smoke and well. there are about seven or cight given
those who are entering and leaving or just stinding around. So it is relatively casy
to talk there. Because there aren’tas many people as in the teachers’ room. There
isan atmosphere where you can talk casily.

Most teachers have their own favorite place to congregate with colleagues and/or to
be alone teachers cain choose whether to work in the general teachers’ room where
there is always some activity, with students in club activities that miay be ina class:
room or on a playing field. in subject related preparation rooms. in their classrooms.
or in various other places such as the designated smoking area. Depending on their
own personalities and preferences, teachers can choose to be more or less alone
during unscheduled times.

Learning From Each Other

Although teachers can lind privacy. a common aspect of Japanese schools is the op-
portunity for teachers to observe cach other. The architecture of most schools
teachers to hear each others’ chisses throughout the cf: achers Must interact regu-
Jarly in the teachers’ room and on their way to classes. More informally. individuals

each other out to talk about how best to solve problems and to get ideas for

teaching and advising. Many teachers socialize during free time at the school and ca-
sually discuss more personal issues. Watching demonstr

Allows

ation classes together is val-
ucd by teachers and administrators and schools schedule these special ckisses as
much as possible. Teachers also look for lessons left on chalkboards and other dis-
plays Co better understand how their peers’ teach



tween the science department and other departments in the schools wits the
Gon in hours of instru
among chemistr

duc
tion, since reductions in hours for science had to be divided
biology. physics rth science courses

and e¢

Some of the science teachers at Arata High School expressed concern about being
able to cover the entire science curriculum with the reduced instruction time
caused by the new policy of climinating a second Saturday class. A biology teacher
said that it would be possible to reduce the number of hours of instruction by 1
hour for students majoring in humanities but not for science majors. The chemistry
teacher agreed, adding that it would be impossible to lose | hour of instruction for
science majors and suill prepare them adequitely for the college entrance examina-
tions. The physics teacher echoed the concern of the chemistry teachers Tt will be
very difficult to prepa

re students adequately for the entrance examinations.”

Science teachers at Meiji High School were even more tense than teachers at Arata
High School. The departmental mecting of science teachers at Meiji included the fol-
lowing exchange.

ion is proposed by the leader: What are the advantages of moving to 33
snce instead of 3-4 next year since science will eventually have to
face a reduction to 33 credits (because of the loss of Saturday ¢

A biology te

cher in an angry voice the leader if he ever thought that 334
credits might be insufficient to cover everything. She added that she had scen
this problem right from the beginning when there was a debate
would happen to science during a previous reduction. “This tim
is no acknowledgment about what will happen to science a
in the other departments like Japanese sce to care or have thought about this.
At the very least. E would like it to be acknowledged that it will be impossible to
cover all materials in the textbooks.”

ther
nd no other teache

Instruction and Instructional Track Optiozs

The amount of material that teachers i
lum guidelines forces teachers at ie high school level to move through lessons
quickly. For students in academic high schools. who make up over three-quarters of
all high school students in Japan. the pace of instruction is rapid since teachers must
cover all the mater tudents will have to master in order to pass the university on
trance exams. Generally teachers and students described the pace of the math cur-
riculum in academic high schools as*very rapid’ and many students reported strug:
gling to keep up with the material.

required to cover by Monbusbo’s curricur



School bealth committee. Nineteen members. Chaired by the health committee
chair. Includes the principal. vice principal. head administrative teacher, head cur-
riculum teacher, the nurse teacher, the student guidance head teacher, the lunch
room head teacher, the physical education head teacher. the nutritionist, three doc:
tors. the school pharmacist. and five PTA members.

Other con. nittees. tn addition, there i
sues with 14 member
tee

awcommitice on bullying and other policy is-
1 Committee for Choosing Educational Materials, a Commit-
for Budget Formation, a Committee on the Management of School nd Hy.
gicne, a Committee for Recommendations .conmnittees for
cach subject group and for cach grade level. the student guidance committee. the
health guidance committee. the schoo! library committec, the school budget com:
mittee.and a committee to supervise cach aspect of student government including
broadcasting, announcements, health, physical education, funch, animal care, plant
and grounds care, beautification. library, weekly group mectings, and class represen-
latives. Each student government commitice has at least two teachers in charge of
meeting with Wwo student representatives from cach classroom. Finally. there is an
emergency policies committee, including two administrative committees and alt
teachers as Members. At a more phifosophical level. cach school’s gouls GQuokubyon)
are rewritten, or reviewed and updated cach year in committee.

Reports from cach committee mecting are Hen presented at grade lev nd subject
level meetings. Decisions and reports are again discussed and sometimes challenged.
This extensive commilice structure necessitates many interactions among members
of the stuf, Committees all mect regulary and all teachers are involved in some as-
pect of several commitices. Thus, teachers are at least formally responsible for au-
merous aspects of school management beyond their own classroom responsibilities:
Teachers also know exactly which afterschool voluntiry club and inschool required
club activities are their own respon: which tasks in the teachers’ room such a
scheduling coverage for absence cheduling for extra activities. or planning for so-
cial events will be taken care of by which people. and what roles they are to assume
within theirc subject. grade level and committee assignments. In addition, most
schools also describe in great detail who js responsible for which room in the build:
ing (for cleaning and any potential emergen: and who is responsible tor
supervision of the building on Saturday during bre nd evenings
when students may be participating in clubs. All teachers also attend various city,
prefectural, or even national level mectings and committces as representatives of
their schools, sometimes by choice and sometimes by virtue of being on a certain
school commitice or ina certtin role.

This complex organizational structure forces participation of all teachers in school
management that estends beyond any departmental or grade level allegiances and
provides for the distribution of power and shared decision making. When interview:

219



that. there are lots of other things to do And that kind of thing takes quite a bit of
time. (Midori teacher)

And teachers unanimously ageecd that their work is difficult:

Iv> different. vou know. It's harder than T expected. Yes had looked at it through
rose-colored glasses (@naku niteiniashita). (Shimogawa teacher)

It is rough (Aibisbii) you know.
many types of responses and
pected. If it were just teachi

here are many kinds of students so you get

is difficult. tis much more difficult than T ex-
twould be OK, but there are many other things
to do, too. | don't know if out in the world there are other jobs as rough, but 1
don't think so. (Midori teacher)

But. like many t
mixture of fe

achers in this sample. an clementiry school teacher summed up the
lings she has about her work:

Before [just thought that | liked children. Well, of course. if] had hated children |
wouldi’'t have become’a teacher. At first there were fots of things E learned as 1
was working. Itisn’t just that children are cute. you know. There are times when F
think that there can’t be anything better than being a teacher Of course there
are things that I think.“well. this is my work so [ have to do it? but of Course its
work so Unat is natural

Despite a willingness to complain about the difficulty of teaching. the long hours.
and the bureaucratic tasks required on lop of caring for students, hese teachers ¢x-
pressed interest in their work and enjoyment in being with students. Most also com-
pared their work to other jobs awailable and felt that Weir work as a teacher was a
good choice. Even the one young female junior high teacher who said she may not
continue as a teacher felt dat the work was interesting. and challenging. and she (elt
privileged to interact with other teachers even while she felt she might not be up to
the challenge.

A few high school teachers complained that there was no extra compensation for
overtime work and work that was not explicitly required in their contracts. In partic-
ular. some math and science teachers reported that they felt underpaid and under:
valued based on their sense that they could be making more money in private indus-
try. One mentioned the lack of overtime pay but also described the flexibility of
hours and the chance to do his own work at the school. Overul. he seemed to be-
lieve that the positive features outweighed the negative aspects of teaching.

200


are heated by kerosene stoves. A few students from cach chass are responsible for
making sure that Ute daily supply of kerosene is delivered and the classroom stove is
filed. There is also a daily cleaning period when students and teachers sweep the
floors, empty waste bi tnd dust the shelves. Once a month or so, the feachers
organize a larger cleaning period. At these times, students may wax the hallway
floors, clean out mud from the gutters around the edges of the buildings. or pull up
weeds and grass that have encroached on the karg nd-covered playing fields.

In most schools there is usually a
or behind the school where students pla

urge Outdoor recr
. baseball, tennis, soc
sports. In the rural areas and smatter cities where land is less expensive, separate
fields for soccer and baseball as well as tennis courts can be found. All of the schools
we Visited had playing fields of various sizes. At clementary schools, this area often is
equipped with brightly colored playground equipment for the benefit of the smaller
children. Students often use this equipment after school and on weekends,

ion area in front of
rand other outdoor

Contrary Co Mages Common in Western media
to school. because it is
ricular activ itic

most Japanese students enjoy going
a place for them to mect friends and participate in extra-cur-
In sharp contrast to the often somber buildings. Japanese chats
rooms are animated, lively places when students are relaxing between ckisscs during
their 5 or 10 minute breaks. The rhythm of life in Japanese schools is ong where

study Gime is punctuated with ample opportunité

's for socializing.

The schools in our sample are typical of public schools in Japanese urban and sub-
urban areas. The schools run the gamut from very old schools with long traditions
to very new ones equipped with the latest conveniences. None of the schools

seemed extraordinary compared to the schools that we ha
search projec

ed on previous re-

Kita City Schools

Kita Elementary. with a student population of over 300, was tucked into a quict
neighborhood at the edge of the city. while Kita Junior High School, which cnrolled
roughly 550 student as More centrally located. Both of these schools have he
around fora tong time: Kita Elementary has been preparing children for roughly
century and is one of the most respected schools in the city.

n

The three schools in Kita City appear to be cither avenge or outstanding, in terms of
the academic ability of their students. In sharp contrast to the clement and junior
high schooi. sit High Schcol. with over a thousand students. is rather new and is fo-
cated in the recent suburban developments on the far outskirts of the city. As Kita is



Naka Vocational ntrely. if ever. came to
ch if their parents ever took part in

In sharp contrast to Meiji and Arata, parents
school. { asked a group of students at Nak:
school events.

Student L: No.
Student 2: Nope
Student 3:They dont

Student When my brother was in school my dad did some things. but not now.

The withdrawal of parents from school activities as the student grows older occurs
simultanco: with a deer in the amount of time students
ilies. By high school. Japanese students exhibit a surprising degree of independence.
They often commute tong dist ents do not supervise their homework,
and they may be at school or juke until late at night n when they return home.
many high school students head to their roonis to listen to Music. study. or play com:
puter games. Those attending juki.or who take an active role in sports. often do not
eat dinner with their families. The balance between family time and school time is in-
creasingly cilted toward the school (or part-time jobs in the case of Naka Voouional
students) as the student grows older.

pend with their fam-

Family Problems

The condition of
tors. 1¢
moliv

japanese families is a major topic of concern for
achers tended to link student problems (e.g.. juvenile delinquency. lack of
‘ation, emotional troubles) to problems in the family. Recently. the Japanese
media has focused on the rising incidence of bullying and linked bullying to the de-
cline in family size. With smatler and smatier families (there are less than two chil
dren per Japanese couple or . students have fewer siblings.

japanese educa:

Despite the relatively low rates of delinquency in Japan, parents and teachers arc
concerned with what they perceive as the growing isolation of Japanese students.
Adults argue that children who are brought up with little contact with siblings or
peers of various ages lack both a sense of degree and a sense of responsibility. Many
also argue that the low birthrate has also had another effect: parents
too emotionally attached to their children to discipline them sternly, Teachers in par
ticular expressed frustration at the lack of upbringing (sitsuke) exhibited ip most
Japanese homes. When asked how student behavior had changed over the last
twenty vei

C

103



These levels have at combined application process. so even though teachers may ox-
pect to be assigned to elementary school and apply for that position, they may find
themselves hired fora junior h

gh school. or vice versa.According to a report pub-
ished by the Naka City Public Schools. of quatificd applicants who sat the examir
tion to become an clementary school teacher for the school year beginning in April
1995.61 of 655.00 13.1 percent, were hired. For those applicants wishing to teach
Kindergarten or children with physical or mental handicaps there were 12.3 and 8.5
applicants respectively for cach of these positions. In 1992. there were 3.2 applicants
per position for clementary schools nationally, 5.0 for junior high schools, and @.4 for
senior high schools (Ministry of Education, Science tad Culture, 1995, p. £22). With
the economic downturn continuing, through the 1990s, however, the rates have been
increasing. probably because more college graduates who cannot find jobs in pri
industry aim for the sccurity of a leaching position. Within Naka City junior high
schools and high schools—scparue from the prefectural schools examined in this:
study—the competitive cates canged from 35 to | for social studics n
mately 10 to Land 9 to FE for math and scicnce majors, respectively
live positions appeared to be in technical and vo

jors to approxi-
he least compet
tional skills, but those numbers

somewhat deceptive since decreasing student enrollments have been publicized
have led to fewer applicants overall for technical teaching positions. Administrators
reported that the radios of applicants to positions atthe prefectural level were similar
to those atthe city levels for different school levels and ficlds.

The degree of competitiveness and the stitus of teachers vary with the overall eco:
iuation: according to respondents who are administrators, teaching be-
comes a more desirable career when other jobs are less av ble or more unstable. A
high school math teacher expktined to me that when he be

years ago Most teachers were “rich. only people with a cer

nomi

me at teacher over 35
n stilus. Now those
He explained that at the
beginning his salary was very low and. since he had to live off his salary rather chan
being independently wealthy like most teachers, it was difficult. He first worked ata
commercial high schoo and many of the students took jobs after graduation atl tex
tile milfs. They offen encouraged him to quit teaching and to come work with them
because they made so much more money! He felt the situation was better for teach-
ers now. Another teacher told me.“now the economy is bad so lots of people want
to become teachers. Bucat that time—19 ve wo whea he took the examina-
tions—there were only about 2 times as many (applicants as positions)” ath
teacher at Meiji High School described the general hiring situation for Ceachers of
mathematics:

kinds of people don’t go that way at all (become teachers

Atamy time it wasnt that difficult to become a teacher. Mi
ent between math and other subjects. But for mathematics, there arent very

niu atall who have the license [the license is obtained through credits at col-
lege]. OF those people, those who try to become teachers are again a small pe

be it was quite differ

202



Monbusho designates (hree levels of textbooks (ca
schools, but only ong tevel for clemen
busho cert

Smedium and difficult) for high
nd junior high schools. However, Won-
fies more than one textbook for cach subject and grade in clemeni
and junior high schools. Schools can choose their own textbooks as long as the text:
books are approved by Monbusho, In addition, Monbusho does not require U
textbooks be completely covered by teacher:
Naka City,

According to an education affi

It is not neee: in the textbooks.

H the mater

ary LO COVE

{tis not to he followed word for word. We say that one should ‘teach wit) the
textbook’ nou'teach the textbook’.

The curricular guidelines are in outline form and the details of texthooks vary, de-
pending on how authors use the outline.

Companies that publish student textbooks also publish teachers’ manuals (Ryosbiyo
shidobyo).Vhe use of the manuals is not mandatory. However, the teachers’ manuals
contain expkinations of the textbook. good examples, and points about teaching. Ac-
cording to one teacher“There are teachers who do not think that the manuals are
necessary. [tis not clear whether the typical Japanese teacher uses these resources
frequently, but our conversations suggest that Chey are used by most teachers when
planning lessons.

To supplement their own texthooks, which they receive from the school, students
also use inexpensive booklets of practice problems sold by the school. apd drill
books. which are available at local bookstores. These drill books contain problems
related to the textbooks and are available for arithmeti icnce. and Japanese lan-
guage. Drill books are more expensive than the booklets of practice problems but
are popular among parents of children in clementary school,

Other resources for curriculum implenrentation, In addition to the Moubus,
proved textbooks and teachers’ manuals, Japanese teachers may als
tional plans @/idoan) in 1 conducting their lessons. These instructional plans are in-
cluded in some teache inuals. Teachers also develop instructional plains on the
basis of demonstration ¢ s for which they prepare detailed written lesson plans.
The plains are then distributed to the teachers who observe their demonstration
chisses. The instructional plans provide information to teachers about various way
one can teach cach topic ¢ffectiv x ample. the instructional plan typically
spells out the amount of time the teacher shoutd spend on cach instructional task.

Figure 2 isa transkiion of an instructional plan. laformation about the general rela
tionship of the din ’s topic to previous and forthcoming topics is provided. as well as

29



Compulsory Education as Whole
Person Education

The idea of equality is grounded in the larger cultural ideology of “group fife” (su
dan seikatsit). Basic to this ideology is the belief in the inherent goodness and sa
credness of people living as members of a group or society, dong with the danger or
even immorality of living apart from it. Accordingly. equality in Japanese chissrooms.
means giving cach student a place to belong by having him participate in the group-
based problem-solving process ‘cegardless of ability. The Japanese believe such in-
clusiveness is the essential component of “whole person cduc: wiiich is the
trademark of their compulsory cducation system

During my interview with three male students at Naka Vocational, for example. 1
asked them if they thought Japanese cducation was fair and if so, why. Even these
high school students whose school ranked below its non-vocational counterparts,
shared their deep faith in the fairness of Japanese education. The first student said it
fair because:

Those who are smart and those who are not smart study together in one class
No matter how smart or not, you can receive the same education. and this is true
at any level of the Japanese education ~—clementary, junior high. and high school
The educition at this school is fair in the same way, and J think it's good.

The second student agreed:

L. too, think it’s fair because teachers address their lectures to the whole class. |
do feel kind of bad for the students who do poorly. so Ecannot really s
good or bad.

‘The third student explained:

Tthink it’s fair for the same reason, Dividing students is like attaching labels. Stu-
dents who are not smart will think of themselves as dumb students. and once
they believe they are not smart. the:
and worse.

academic performance will become wors¢



Lh i

This principal suggested that the expericuces the ‘life activity’ subject i
provide for children are not casily taught by schools, where the fear of liability and
insurance premiums are also considerations. The primary goal of the life activity”
lessons is to get students to understand and to take responsibility for activities in
their everyday lives. Despite the problems some Japanese educators may sce with
the ‘life activity’ subject. the ‘life activity’ subject reflects the policy of Monbusbo of
providing an clementary school education that stimulates interest in learning

A dypical elenrentary school lesson. The pace of the elementary school curriculum
is ilhistrated by an actual lesson that is typical of those we observed in Japanese cle-
mentary schools. The goal of the 45-minute arithmetic lesson was to have students
understand that fractions could be both greater than and less than one. The follow-
ing observational notes describe this lesson

The teacher is a female in her thirGies, Mrs. W.The students (about -i0) are sitting
quietly at their desks. All students have colorful plastic cards with animated fig-
ures on which they put the printouts on which the class is working,

The subject of today’s lesson is fractions. Mrs. IL places a magnetized yellow stip
on the board that is exactly 1 meter in length. Below the yellow strip. she places
a pink strip a halfa meter in length,a blue strip a third of a meter in length and a
green strip a quarter of a meter in length. Finally, above all of these measured
strips. Mrs. H. plac red strip of undetermined length that represents the width
of Masako’s outstretched arms.

Mrs. EL tries various combinations of strips in order tom
red strip. While doing this, she a

ch the length of the

ks frequent questions of the students. Students
are attentive and very quict as she speaks. Finally, Mrs. His able to make five one-
quarter meter strips match the length of the red the students what
the length of the ced strip is. Students, with open textbooks, do not seem to un
derstand and no responses are given.

The teacher reassures students that they will understand the concept. Moving to
a television monitor hanging from the ceiling in the corner of the room, the
teacher projects a copy of the same printout that students have on their desks.
The printout has three problems.

1. Lets record the length of both arms outstretched.

M ko mX _ therefore _m
end mX___. therefore = _ m
Sher. m X _____ therefore m

2. Draw in the following with a colorcd pencil
3/5 mete
5/5 mete:



Introduction

According to the teachers interviewed and observed. to become whit Japanese
teachers consider to be a good teacher requires more than knowledge and skills. De-
sire. motivation, liking children. and. as an clementary school principal in his sixtics
told me. wanting to “get those children’s bright eves to shine. to find out on your
ewn how you can best help children? are all seen as essential in becoming a teacher.
One elementary school teacher told me chat the requirements for a good teacher
were that:

You Ive to like the work. OT course. experience is also imporGint and Vv;
knowledge is also important but! you didi't like it. it would be no good in the
end if vou think ‘oh. this is awful! well. itis better to quit this work. Definitely! If
you are tired of it, then it is ne good for the children. you know,

ous,

And the principal quoted above continued to sity

They don’t have things about these children written ina teatbook. Only general
things are written down, So you use the things in the book as the base and think
about cich individual as hard as you cn and ves, that is a good teacher!

But how do Japan’s schools attempt to recruit. devclop..and keep teachers who not
only highly motivated and like children but also have the requisite skills and
knowledge a principal told me they must nurture
all types of teachers through their various life stages. More directly, teachers and ad-
ministrators described extensive training opportunities. Equally importantly. accord:
ing to the teachers and administrators studied, the closely knit communities of
teachers in cach school that | observed and the continual sharing of information and
casual banter that devclops along with a regular rotation of teachers. provide an at-
mosphere of support and learning. ( nderlying the nurturing, taining. and sharing
described to me by the teachers interviewed in this study is a sense among teachers
that there is some

spect for their profession, competition to enter teaching jobs, an
adequate salary, work hours (hat compare favorably to those in companies. chances
for advancement and acw responsibilities. and job security

The teachers jaterviewed reported that they believe their profession is fiirly well re-
speeted and of above (though not high paying. Their work tiv re
busy, but teacher: ibility in their use of time. Teachers report
that the amount of time they spend outside of the usual 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. work:
day depends on their personality, their goals. and their stage in life. In general. teach-
ers reported that they are both responsible for and in control of most of what oc:
curs in their schools. Although both tcachers and administrators described a few
circumstances when ddministrators assert contro! sign Coachers to tasks or

186



do not. He suggested that they should pa
giving specilic answers.

y tttention to the source of water without

For the next £4 minutes, the class conducted an experiment. Phe teacher prepared
two kinds of water to taste: commercial spring water and tap water. Both types of
water were contained in plastic bottles, and students were asked to taste both kinds.
of water and determing which was which. After this they were to put some chemical
in the one they thought was tap water to test whether it really was tap water. Mr.
Suzuki instructed the class to compare the color smefl.and the taste of the w

Ler,

For the next 30 minutes, the ct
they found in the experiment. Mr.
prepared himself that ¢

discussed. under the guidance of the teacher, what
Suzuki distributed a handout and a booklet that he
plained how drinking water is pucified. Then he went over
the results of the experiment. Phe tap water turned blue after the chemicals were
added. He explained why it came out blue and how the drinking water had been
processed from the source water—he actually obtained some source water that
morning to show how it differed from drinking water. Then he went back to the dis-
cussion of water restriction in the area. In the school’s area, there is little water re-
striction because a water source is nearby. Us

ing this example. he pointed out how
environmental resources can itffect our daily lives. He urged the class to go back to
the articles that were included in the booklet and to consider the intricate relation:
ship between the convenience of our daily life and the state of the natural environ-
ment. With this concluding remark. he introduced the next cltss’s topic and the class
ended.

A Tenth Grade Math Class

After the greeting, Mr. Hori reviewed the material covered in the last class: three
equations for a fine. a cirele.and a parabola.Then he announced the topic of the cay:
corresponding inequalities such as 2x-3y+6>0. He wrote two more sample questions
on the chalkboard. and students wrote them down,

After a few minutes, Mr. Hori demonstrated how to solve the first problem in deta
Then students tricd to solve the other two problems in the way the teacher solved
the first. During this scatwork, the teacher went around the cla
students’ proge

sroons surveying the

When most of the class hid finished solving the Wo problems. Mr Hori introduced a
formula. such its v>fx). that can be applied to other inequalities. By replacing x with
actual numbers, he indicated the y area that is covered by the formula. Then he ex-
plained which side of the ling (above or below) was indicated by the formula.

119

a



Figure 2—Translation of instructional plan

Seventh Grade. C Group: Instructional Plan

12-12-1994 (Thursday) 3rd Period Instructor MrT

1. Unit Change and Correspondence

2. Instructional Phin
* Simultancously changing quantiti
* Direct proportions
(Today ad of 2)
+ Graphs of direct proportions
+ Indirect proportions and graphs
«Wrapup

's instruction
(1) Goal:
(2) Pre
(4) Rel

aratio

2 Printout

3 hours
3 hours

1

hours
2 hours

hour:

ed Curriculum: 8th geade firs order equations

9th grade first order equations

Instructional Proce:

Ca tentof
Instruc

~ minutes Review of direct
proportions
15 minates: Have students,

find caamples of
direct proportions

using graphs

17 minutes Ik

mine (wo:

quatnbues that
change in
equation and

ou

phic form

@ minutes Have students
dra graph
that includes

negative nuaibers:

Review of

previous peswod

Using various

griphs of

proportions find

the re
of direct

Proportians

Find the

relationship of

Auonship

shreet proportions

from 2 changing,

quantiues using

equi
tod nature:

ions, graphs,

Write a graph ot

direct propurtians

induc

numbers

neganye

investigate the properties of direct proportions.

Areas of
instructional
emphasis

Evoke the nature
of direc.
Proportions wing
Proportion Irom
previous period

Make students
autre of what

quatines make

ditect proportion

Make stude

think on their
own Make

students answer

the reason for the
relationship af
din

proportions

Make students
understand that
direct proportions
can include
HegAuse NuMbeErs

Evaluation
Perspecti

Determine by
students nusing
hand

Determine the degree
of student problem
solving by wathing
around students

desks and watching

there acnvanies

Determine suvcnt
comprehension by
calling studer
the board and ha

Sup te

them write down
Answers,

Gaming bets cen lesks
deteumine
understanding by
sceang how students
are doing on ther
printouts

SOURCE Third International Mathematics and Science Studs. Case Study Project, 199 1-95,

a0

v5



His female colleague's expericnce

ad reasons for entering teaching, however. were
quite different. She rather self-deprecatingly told me. well. my major (in college) was.
kindergarten education. Yes 4nd without becoming a kindergarten teacher Fcame to
elementary school, so. 1 don’t have one.a major. for elementary school. So, T always:
feel embarrassed. This initial statement emphasizes how even though she has a-4
college degree from a respected university. and she was respected as a teacher within
her school, she still felt less qualified than many of her colleagues. She went on to say
that her basic motivation was her love of children. She described her sister who is a
clerical assistant in a Jarge company and said that sometimes she envied the way her
sister could take time off and travel. arrive home by 5:30 p.m. every day without
work to finish, and call in sick when necessary. Even so, she s glad she was a
teacher.a profession in which she could use her creativity and be around childr-n.

Another female elementary school teacher Who majored in Japanese language
(kokugo), mentioned her love of both literature and children, She immediately
began talking about how a book she read as an clementary s
vinced her that she wanted to become a teacher.
she pursued her dream and became a teacher,

Shoo! student con-
From that very carly decision point

Once of the elementary school teachers came from a family where both his mother
and his father were junior high school teachers, so he knew about the demands on
teachers. But he first told me."after all.as a boy. [ really rebelled against my fathe
during junior high and high school I really didn‘t want to be a teacher.” He made his
decision when he was 18 and deciding on a college. Initially he wanted to become a
junior high school teacher and have more time to pursue his major, Japanese history.
He was initially assigned to an elementary school despite his expressed preference
for junior high.and now he says he prefers elementary school. The work aust have
appeared Lo he sufficiently arding. and his parents must have felt it was a good
carcer if they cncouraged their son to follow in their tracks.

One elementary school teacher entered (caching after realizing his own privileged
position wheu he passed the college entrance examinations to a teacher's college
and a close friend did not:

In my diary from my second year of junior high school F wrote that that is what 1
wanted to do in my future (become a teacher). When TF entered high school I had
forgotten that and thought [would become a usual office worker but it just hap-
pened that the university 1 got into was that one (referring to the education uni-
versity he atended).And my friend from high school had parents who were
teachers, and from the beginning he had wanted to be a teacher. Once T took the
exam and got in and my fricnd who wanted to get in failed. then | thought | had
to enter and be serious.

l9o7



Teachers’ responsibilities ¢

nd the amount of time they spent on school activitie:
were related lo interest... abilities, and experience, and also to home situations. Ina
socicly where men sulf do Tide of the housework and child care, working mothers
must spend more time on home-related work and less time on school-related work,
One principal told me that it was important, however. to have various types of teach-
ers at different life stages because children need many kinds of role models. He did
not seem to mind the fact that women with young families could not spend as much
time at school as teachers in other family situations and stages.

Elementary school. Ww general, teacher is assigned lo one class and follows that

class for wwo y and is then assigned to a new grade the third year. Teachers re-
ported that they enjoyed and felt they [earned a lot about students through rotating
the grade they taught from year to year. Most thought it was essential to teach all
grades. Although it appeared that over time more men taught fifth: and sixth-grade
classes and that women were more likely to teach first and second grade, almost all
achers had experience in all grades.

Several teachers were quite involved in activities outside of their current elementary
school. These activities included involvement in many science research groups—
where they share lesson plan ideas. observe or present model classes
about new teaching ideas through read nd speakers—and on committees such
as one creating a supplemental text for fitth-grade science teachers. Another teacher,
in his early thirties. was planning a tour of schools to learn more about how history
was taught in clementary schools in Switzerland and Germany. The prefecture pro-
vided funds for an interpreter for this trip, and the teacner was planning to visit local
schools, national libraries, and international schools. He arranged all plans for his trip
on the basis of his research interests s evident that involvement in the prefec-
ture.and recognition by other teachers and administrators. could lead to interesting,
research possibilities for teachers outside of the classroom.

and learn

‘The route lo administration, which involves recognition beyond one’s immediate
school and participation in research activities was being pur
male than by female teachers among my interviewees. This was partly due to the
time required of women for raising a family. According to several respondents.

women’s work at home often precluded their attending regular evening meetings
and spending the extra time at school needed for these additional act

ued more frequently by

Academic hackgrounds also varied for some of Wiese teachers. For example. one
teacher had continued as a graduate student in science and spent three y as an
instructor at a private high school teaching geography after college graduation. (ur-
ing college (he ext sto finish university because of his outside activitic
he worked for seven 3 school preparatory school Guki) at-



An older high school teacher described a different set of circumst
health and seeing higher education and teaching as |
of more manual work:

nees based on his
strenuous than other kinds:

Twent to (a national) university in arts and sciences and studied educational
things. The reason T entered that. well, it was because my body wasn't very
strong.And my home wasn’t very well off.so | (ook the examination for Japan
National Railways. And I did well. But as I began working | realized that it was no
good because my body was so weak. And in order to mike my body stronger,
more than to become a teacher. that was my reason for entering college. But I
didn't get better and realized that | would have to do something on my own so T
entered a judo club and was knocked around like a tov. The good thing was that I
did a job search and got a job teaching school and the school was on an is-
fand. E worked with the judo club and I've done that all along.

hin the sample of teachers as a whole. most men had also considered other ca-
reers while the women remembered considering only the profession of teaching.
Teaching provides a stable job with a chance of advancement and relatively good
hours, but some of the men chose it only after realizing they would not succeed in
fields such as cnginecring or research scicnce.A few tike Une teacher quoted above.
chose teaching atter deciding they were not strong cnough for more physically de-
manding jobs.

Expectations of Work and the Work Itself

Most teachers mentioned some differences in what they expected a teaching career
to involve and what they actually do at work. In general the biggest surprises were
due to the heavy burden of duties other than actual (caching. For example, teachers
are expected to be heavily involved in committee work within their schools and to
attend various research groups and training sessions in and out of their schools. Most
Japanese teachers are homeroom teachers which involves being a counselor to the
children in that class and keeping all the records for those students ly -10 1045
students. In addition, teachers are expected to go On school trips and class excur-
sions with students, take part in daily cleaning activities
hours, and cat lunch in their homeroom with students.
are expected to visit the homes of students in their class feast once a year,
while junior high and high school teachers also visit homes whenever anything is
amiss. While many teachers-to-be have some awareness of these demands, most ¢x-
pressed surprise over (he amount of time the tusks take and particularly the amount
of paperwork and bureaucratic work required.

ise clubs after schoo!
chers

Many teachers entered teaching from fairly sheltered. middle-class lives,and with
good educations, and they were surprised by the expericnces of their students. A typi-

198



According Co one teacher. the gender differences in academic tracks are not consid:
ered a problem by most Japanese. since the humanities rack is seen as providing
ample opportunities for admission to college. One

female high school biology
teacher, however, suggested that gender discrimination in Japan discouraged girls
from secking careers in science.” Male teachers.’ she explained.“contribute by subtly
telling girls that they

are not good at science or math”

Although the humanities track has equal utility in terms of college entrance. most re-
spondents said that they felt that the science track is more demanding. Indeed. w hile
students [rom science tracks Could switch to humanities tracks. the reverse is con:
sidered to be very difficult and rarely occurs.

The author of a survey on tracking,
Japanese high se VS dW
ity ¢ fimizuka, 1986). Two additional reas
whom we spoke. Tracking v

Japan reported that the practice of tracking in
“to deal with intramural differences in abil-
ons were given by Japanese educators with
isa way for Japanese high schools to aecommo-
date the different interests of students. In addition. tracking Was scen as a way to
help students specialize for the university entrance examination. The fatter reason
was based on the perception that entrance examinations had become so difficult
that even the best students could no longer perform well on all subjects. Further.
high achievement in math was no longer scen as necessary for entrance into humian-
ities departments in college

Vocational bigh schools. Various majors offered at vocational high schools attract
students of different levels of ability because of their different cur
ments. Teachers at Naka Vocational. for ¢
nology major tends to attract the highestachiesing students and the chemistry
major the lowest. However, vocational high schools generally select students whose
scores would not be high cnough to enter academic high schools.

icu require:
ed that the information tech-

mple. indi

In spite of the low academic standing of vocational high schools. the level of math
alught in some of the vac:
tional school &

tional high school tracks is high. As one teacher ina voca-
plained. industrial technology courses include “tons of differential

al calculus”.The focus of the instruction of calculus at a vocational high
school, however, is on application rather than on theory. In the words of the princi-
pal of Naka Vocational High School.” You dow t have to know how a car cuns in order
to drive il

and integr

At the other cnd of the spectrum are students whe are enrolled in one of the tess
academically demanding tracks such as the night program. Teachers noted Chat many

of these students are often in need of remedial work in arithmetic



Another problem addressed by college professors at the symposium wits the com-
mon practice of high schools not teaching certain subjects, even though they are
part of the Monbusbe curriculum. For example. since probability and statistics are
hot covered on the university entrance examination, students spend time reserved
for probability and statistics reviewing other topics.A group of students at Ara
High said that they bought the textbooks for probability and statistics but never
opened them. The teacher never covered these topics because they would not be on
the Center Examination, but the books had to be purchased in order to demonstrate
compliance with the Monbusbo curricular guidelines.

Differences Between High Schools

As noted curlier, the differences between the tevel of academics of high schools is
openly acknowledged in Japan and is part of the structure of high school education
in Japan. tn large part. the inequaliti
compulsory.

sare tolerated because high schools are not

Even minor differences in the rinks between high schools m%
on students life chances. However. while recognizing the inequalities, most of the re-
spondents felt that the different academic levels are unavoidable and are fair at that
stage of life, even though similar distinctions would be considered unfair during cle-
mentary school. Even the practice of tracking students into academic and vocational
high schools, although considered undesirable by many nese parents, was Nol
considered unfair by most. However, most parents that we interviewed believed that
college should remain an option for vocational high school graduates.

y have a major impact

Although nearly all graduates of Arata and Meiji high schools go to college. there are
important differences bewween these Wo academic high schools. The following de-
scriptions point out some of the differences which can be found among Japanese
academic high schools of different academic ranks.

Founded just over 10 years ago. Arata High School is the newest prefectural high
school in Naka City. Apparently. it is the only high school in N tity with central
air conditioning ral students indicated that this modern fuxury influenced their
decision lo attend Arata High. The school is cand new and would be
students who were looking for something other than the drab exterior
cal Japanese high school. Other reasons given by the students for selecting Arata in-
chided its tocation and its newness.

Arata High is a school just below the median academic ranking of public high
schools in Naka City. Although over 95 percent of Arata students are seeking en:

()



Alfintroductions to schools were arranged through the National Institute for Educa:
tional Research in Japan and cleared with the proper local school boards. Many of
the Japanese wees appeared uncomfortable at first with the unstructured in-
terview format. Most requested a list of questions before the intervi ronse:
quently, many of the interviewers began quite formally. and most interviewees ap-
peared tense or reserved at first. However. the researchers found that as the
interview progressed. the interviewees became less tense ind were able (o talk
freely and at length

ion in the interviews wits the fact that

Another factor contributing to the initial te
nearly all of the interviews were conducted in principals’ offices. Third parles.
principals, vice principals, or teachers, were present during many of the i
views. The interviews with students were all conducted as group interviews. with all
but one being supervised by a principal or vice principal. No interviews for this
topic were held outside the school. [tis unlikely. therefore, that critical perspectives
cly represented in this research.

A

were adequa

We believe that our sample includes students of above average ability and consisted
mostly of student council members. Teachers were often selected on the basis of
availability on the particular day we were visiting and their willingness to cooperate.
In most cases, the interviews with teachers were conducted with teachers whose
srooms we observed. Almost all parents interviewed were members of the PTA.

Monodusho and the National
Curriculum

The Japanese Ministry of Education CMonbusbho) plays a central cole in the devclop
ment and maintenance of national education standards in Japan. The Ministry devel
ops national curricular guidelines which comprise the educational standards. In ad-
dition to the national curricular guidelines. the Ministry enforces academic standards
by certifying textbooks, oversecing regional and national entrance examinations. and
reguiuting the training of teachers

Development and Revisions of the
Monbusbo Curriculum

Standards of education in icular guidclines,

Monbusbo develops and t

upan are based on the Moubusho cus
ises national curricukur

suidclines approximately eve



RLF EF! 1

class. In that case. 1 go to one section of class and another section in another day.
(Teacher. Naka Vocational High School)

an cxample of the degree to which Jar ichers arc aware of cach student's
ability level and learning style.a math teacher at Shimogawa Junior High described
the nature of differences among his students:

NESE LC

Interviewer: You walked around in the class a lot today. For example. you stopped
by one student who was sitting in the front row, and spent a long time there
working with him. What kind of student is he?

Teacher: He is way behind most others. He makes problems of his own, but does
not feel quite confident enough to solve them. So he v ing m
way. teacher. but is it okay?

I did it this

Interviewer: Sc he w:

Teacher: That's right. The only reason he’s so far behind is that he can only work
at things that are interesting to him. He cannot work on problems that are boring
for him. 1 suspect that he had many such experi¢nces in the past.

as a motivated student. But he lac

confidence,

Incerviewer: You stopped at other students. How about the big tall suudent who:
was sitting in the middic? You were working with hin.

cher: [e's at the top of the bottom one-third. Md say. He's very willing to study
but gives up easily. He is on at roll when he's solving easy problems. but once he
faces more difficult questions, he stops trying all together. He still takes notes, but
he stops trying to understand.

Interviewer: Who else did you stop by?

feacher: You sav me stop by the student who was sitting on the second row on
the very right. right next to the hallway. He is one of those who are barely foHow-
ing me in chiss. | don’t think he has quite mastered the multiplication chart yet
Today] simply had him copy questions and answers from the exercise book. He
lacks confidence in solving math problems to such a degree that he does not
think even [ could help. I'd tell him."To solve this problem, you have to do this

ad that” but he goes.” No. teacher. don't understand.’ You see. he his his pride
(or sense of dignity i7 front of his classmates). too. ‘s why he doesi’'t show
much interest wher I'm working with the entire class. Bul when T go to hin: indi
vidually. he asks questions.

Interviewer: You also stopped at this big boy who was working with the girl in
front of him.

Teacher: That's right. The boy answered the question given by the girl incorrectly,
but didn’t know that. so they wanted me to tell them if his correct,
‘Then there were these two on the fifth row. One of them is one of my best stu-
dents (sigaku ga honto ni dekiru).the boy who was working with him was try

110


recovery might be slow but you will improve. But if you refuse to do the rehabilita-
tion activities, you Will over improve. Its the same principle.

Family Backgrounds

If interest, willingness, and attitude are what propel stud
these motives come from? “Family environment, the majority of Japanese teachers,
parents, and students would answer.An elementary school teacher exphained:s When
[think of environment.1 think of how parents themselves are interested in studying.
When children are studying. are parents reading books {versus engaging in non-intel-
lectual activities} themselves? That's what 1 mean by environment.” (Teacher, Nio Ele-
mentary School) This comment indicates that the Japanese believe that ability differ:
ences are created at home, rather than acquired first in school or by birth. Japanese
families possess at least three factors significantly affecting students’ academic per-
a) parental encouragement to study. (b) sociocconomic status (SES), and
(c) locality (sbussbint).

ts to study, where do

Parental encouragentent to study When referring to their children, Japanese y
ents typically call them chi no ko literally meaning “the child of our Lumily”¢
when they are asked how they helped their children study, they would ofte
the sentence with the words, wehé no baai wa Gn the case of our family). The use of
the word wchi,or our family indicates that in Japan. children are scen as being inter:
dependent members of the family, working under the emotional, intellectual. and
economic sponsorship of parents. Therefore, how a family as a whole emphasizes cd-
ucation is crucial for a child’s academic success, because Japanese do not believe
young children acquire such values for themselves. Parents, students. and teachers
suggeste] that children who received much help and encouragement from parents
to study at home, especially during clementary school years, did well in schoo!

Iso
begin

As noted earlier, the Japanese believe that knowledge in math and science is ac-
quired cumulatively early step can lead to failure in later years. Many par-
ents, therefore, consider helping children develop appropriate study habits in the cl-
ementary school vears as being crucial for both current and later success. A parent at
Midori Junior High School ext mily creates the right cavironment for
studying, it certaint nee. You need to fry down the track for children
from ear won't know which track to be on” Another parent felt
that mastering multipli nd fractions by the end of the clemen' chool
years was critical for her child’s future success. She made rekatively casy multiplica-
tion and fraction work sheets for her child to do at home and rewarded her child
with a banamaru (badge of flowers) for every exercise the child answered well,

91



human beings. Rather than focusing exclusively on academic subjects. all the schools
allowed time for enjoyable interactions through tree time between classes or after
lunch, cncouraging students to interact with their friends on school property before
and after schoot hours, scheduling school trips and other outings. and planning spe-
cial school events such as festivals, music contests, sports exhibitions and othe
liv This emp! son the development of a multifaceted person enables many
students, not just the academically most able. to find some niche within the schoo!
world.

tw
a
*



Whole Class Instruction

In the majority of Japanese classrooms—with the exception of instruction directed
atthe entrance exams in most high schools and ninth-grade classrooms—all stu-
dents study a single subject matter together. Moreover, teachers and students collab-
orate in their effort to understand the problem. It was against this background that
the &-year-old informant responded that other students should help a student who
was falling behind until the student understood the problem.

Japanese teachers do not simply lecture to the class. but do so in a manner that
everyone is in step with what is being dis ed. For the large part, this process of
learning as a member of a group is the goal of learning,

Scructure of Whole-Class Instruction

The basic procedure of whole cass instruction is remarkably s
to another. Ina typical Japanese classroom there are from 30 to 45 students. Boys
and girls sit on a bench and share one desk in some clementary schools. In other
schools, male students are assigned to a row of single desks and female students to
another.A large chalk board is ptaced on the front wall. Many elementary and junior
high schools are also equipped with aT¥ monitor and a video camera which is used
to record classroom activities such as displaying answers given by a student to the
class. The back wall usually has a smaller bulletin board. which is used for non-acade-
mic purposes such as notices of upcoming events, cla or such informal re-
minders as “not to catch a cold in the cold weather” The remaining wall space
used for posting students’ art work.

milar from one class

iclion is as follows. The
room. The niccboRu. the student
's routine tasks announce I rise? "Bow
rhe students follow his or her instructions

The tpi
chime
who

instructional procedure of whole ¢
ngs.tnd the teacher comes into the cl:
aned for a day to lead the cha
“Be seated?

et

The fesson begins with the review of the previous lesson or problem, or the intro-
duction of a new topic which lasts around 5 minutes. After a tra nal statement.
the teacher announces the subject matter of the day and explains the basic concepts
to the class (5 to 10 minutes). At the end of the explanation, the teacher assigns stue
dents seatwork in which they solve practice problems based on the key subject (20
to 25 minutes). Students work individually. in pairs. or in small groups. During the
scatwork, the teacher walks around the classroom to check students’ progress, ane
answers students’ questions. Whea the majority of students are finished. several stur

103



tended mainly by junior high school children. He described his experience and abil-
ity as follows:

Juku costs a lot of money. right? So if you are no good, the children all leave.
They come depending on your reputation.A. dat cine. teaching junior high
school students. | wasn't teaching science. 1 was doing math. Math. So you might
«(Math Nomura).! got that famou
the Nomura method! My math study plan. [ made that.and made
manual... 2 And [made it stylish. After that] beeame a teacher and began teach:
ing in clementary school.

even hear the name ‘suugaku no Nomura nd

there wis

jored in kinder-
major. so she

fo the contrary. it seemed to me that
her spirited way of interacting with her class conveyed both respect and fun and
showed a real Gilent for acting. For example. at one point.as a way of introduci
art project invelving making clay anin he demonstrated how her cat lets its
necds be known using amazingly realistic motions and pe Her point was that their
models were supposed to conve nimal Movement through the pose chose n.

and her acting out of her own cats movements made her meaning crystal cle:

Another teacher defined herself by telling me that she had “only” m:
garten education Gu -vear college program) and did not have a “re:
said her teaching style was somewhat childlik:

an

i The teacher who was about to travel to Europe is tpanese histor
i who finds multiple ways to bring his advanced knowledge into his
school classroom. When E visited his class he concluded his soc
the fourteenth-century shogun. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu by asking students to discuss
whether he was a good feader or a bad leader. The sixth-graders were spirited in
their defense or attack of Ashik: Through bringing in original materials. such as
copies of letters written by Ashikaga. and reminding students that Ashikaga had
built the spectacular Kintakuji (Golden Temple) in Kyoto that they had recently vis-
ited on their school trip. this teacher made history relevant. He showed me the
model weaving machine and bow and arrow he had made and brought in earlier in
the vear to coincide with study of earlier periods in history. He explained that his
busy schedule also involves helping to organize children centered exhibits at the
focal muscum and summec history workshops [is love of sharing his subject with
children was obvious. and he seemed to be a very effective teacher. More than any
sense of uniformity among teachers. their individual interests and approaches to
teaching stood out among the sample of teachers interviewed. and their experi-
ences as teacher also varied since cach teacher was involved in some schoolwide
dnd prefecture-wide committee work

aficionado
element

tl studies chiss on

Junior bigh school. Vhe junior high school teachers f interviewed and observed
also a diverse group. At Chuo. the junior high school of the highest academic

and cconomic level in this sample. 1 interviewed another male teacher in his thirties

192

whe



Junior High admitted “Ideally you should be able to teach students at cach level of
ability’ As with other teachers. he felt however that this wits
em of whole class

ply impossible in
nstruction.”

In order to help below-average students. who have a harder time understanding the
instructional material (har ge students, most teachers start with casier material
od gradually move to more advanced materials.A teacher at Chuo Junior High ex-

plained this strategy as follows:

towards the students who are at the middle. More
ving to teach them basics (Rise). itis not alw .
s atthe bottom can understand. My goal is to make my
ndable for C students, but then F students fall behind. So E first
ch the very basics so that even the F students can understand. (Teacher,
Chuo Junior High)

Sometimes. the and below-average students understand only part of the lee:
ture. In such ca the teachers often teach only the basic aspects and then move on
to the next topic. The teachers expect those who really want to understand to seck
help individually. A teacher at‘lancho Elementary School explained this point:

What Lam going to
study in Japan.and a

y may sound like a kind of excuse, but there is a course of
‘I follow that,t sometimes come to materials which 1 do not
expect my students to comprehend 100 percent. 1 would of course explain them
.butif the students don’t understand, | just touch on them very lightly and
move on.f think it is okay for them not to understand certain things at that time. 1
know they will be able to understand fater, so T don't worry about them. For ©
ample, the fifth-graders are learning percentages. and because it requires a kind of
abstract thinking. they seem to have a hard time understanding it. In such at sit
tion, 1 believe that [can teach every one of my students the very basic points—I
know they can all understand 5 out of 8 is 62.5 percent. Wicis the very basic f be-
lieve even the students who first cannot understand will understand when they
receive tutorial help (kobetsu shide). Our textbooks include applicd, complicated
materials, too. So if someone asks me whether or not TE can teach all of my stu
dents to understand things of that advanced fevel. PE would s:
to do that. I believe if the students acquire the

¥ that lam not urving
ies well. they will be able to do
Tancho Elementary Schoo!)

giftcd” students if regular Japanese
tion on average and below:

wing thi

School told mes T believe it is more important to take care of those Who are not

108
iSe



a ere

and start doing club activities at six. it isn’t for the moncy so somchow that
makes me work more! So even if my research meetings go until LO or so. they are
not at all rek:tted to extra pay, so because it is like that, somehow conversely | do
it.And of course there are some kinds of extra work that vou clearly get pai
and whether that is good or not. I don't know. but that is not the reason | be-
came an educator (Ryoi7). [tis for the children, you know, and if 1 do it T want to
do il My work is my hobby.

But even he looked forward to hav

ng all Saturdays off:

Sometimes Talso think would be good to have more free time. Now that two Sat-
month are vacation days it makes a big difference. When it becomes
y Saturday off. my fife will really change, | think. Then Twill have (wo days off
in a row. Now. even in the summer, there aren't many times that E have
days ina row, what with all my school activities. That will be nice.

Both of these teache

High school teachers. Atthough most bigh schools require teachers to be present
from 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., most teache st that long and like the two jue
. bove, there are thers at both extremes. Teach-
Chool because it is ¢ ‘asant place to work, especially if

they live with small children in a tiny apartment. For example, one science teacher
reported that he usually stayed at school until 7:00 p.m. because:

Then things that [could do at home, well. there isn’t anything Ecan do there so £
do then while at school. This is where the machines are [referring to computers
and copiers, ctc.as well as laboratory equipment]. So, rather, | stay here and there
are quile a few times when 1am doing my own things [meaning work not re-

ed to his. school duties].

ked one math teacher. who reported that he generally was at school from about
8:05 in the morning until 6:30 of 7:00 p.m. why he stayed so late:

Well, Meiji High Schoot teachers tend to go home comparatively carly. When |
worked at a school for the handicapped | always had various things T hadn't yet
done, so Thad times when | was at the school until 9:00 of 10:00 p.m. Now it
(7:00 p.m.) scems relatively carly.

ichcrs of vocational subjects at Naka Vocational High reported that they often
stayed late because they were working on cquipment trying out new materials. or
helping students prepare for special activitics (or example. a robotics tournament
or tests of special skills). Although some teachers groaned about fong hours, it

Ww

Sy



unt for teachers. So we evaluate that at the interview. And then. only those who
are employable are chosen. We present various problems. For example.“you ire
in the classroom, and now you are about to go on the school excursion. Whitt
cautions are you going to tell the children?” We have them think that the inter-
View mecting is a classroom and to think of the interviewers as the children.
There are about five of us there. For examplie.“next week is the school trip
Among the five of us. one is sick how shall we treat that person?” And we also
ask them various common sense questions about education. | said “conmon
sense” right? Since they are trying to become teachers, we of course expect them
to know all about the contents of the Course af Study. We ask them about the
important points only. And through that sort of thing. we can tell if they are the
sort of person who would be a good teacher of the students.

description summarizes the contents of the screening process for new teach:
rhe process is fengthy and conducted by older teachers with ve:
like the two principals quoted above

crs.

rs of experi-
ence.

Teacher Training

place formally as directed and is provided by the city or prefer

ion and also within individual schools. All prospective te;

tural
chers

do this student teaching is usually either affiliated with cheir college or unive
sity or is one from which they graduated

Training for novice teachers. Beginning in 1989, cducation authorities
stitute More extensive training for novice teachers. By 1992. all new teachers at na-
tional and public elementary. junior high. and high schools and at special education
schools were receiving the Ist-ycar training. During Uheir Pst year all high school and
junior high school teachers work a reduced teaching load of about 10 hours of
teaching a week and are expected to go to the Educational Center one day a week
for training. Training involves visiting other schools and other cducation-rclated ‘nsti-
tutions and writing extensive lesson pins. Some of the trtinces present lessons
while others take the role of students and must write lengthy critiques. At the ¢le-
mentary school level there are 90 hours of training time. 60 of which are within
their school. The principal at Tancho told me that the training within the school was
the most important because itis the closest to the teachers, He described how ad-
ministrators carefully balance the mix of teachers at cach grade level. especially if
ane is at novice teach

If there are three classes Gilat particular grade). class one will be a veteran
teacher, class (wo will be the new teacher. and chtss three will be a teacher in the
middie Cin terms of experience as a teacher).

208

LSU



parents and teachers of hand
priate for them.

pped students decide which school is most appro-

The decision, however. is rarcly made solely on the basis of parental judgment. Al-
though it is difficult to derive a general pattern of how a child is referred to a special
education schoot or class, the special education teacher at Tancho Elementary
mapped out the typical road many handicapped children travet before being en-
rolled in a special education school or class:

abled children get identified before ente:

ing preschool. Par
government to bring their child fo
months, [8 months, and 4 years. In case of rather severely handicapped children,
in be picked up ads do not
sit stably on the neck. [fa child’s neck is not stable at 6 months, a potentially se-
vere disability is suspected. so the child with this condition is referred to a doctor
“In the 18-month check-up, most children are expected to watk. so ifa
child is unable to walk at this time. he or she is referred to a doctor. Incidentally.
most autistic children pass both the @month and 18-month check ups.Aulism is
usually identified at the 4 year check-up when children are asked, for example,

~ 2° when shown a book. If a child does not respond at all. or try to
avoid the examiner all together. autism is suspected and they are referred to a pe-
diatrician. After being referred to and seeing a doctor, parents who suff think that
their child may be slower than others must make a decision if they put the child
into a regular preschool or a special school for disabled children. Children who:
enter such special schools usually advance to cither a regular school with a class
for disabled children or a school that’s pri

i)

ciVe
a check up at age 6

y tor disabled children (rage
gakkou).When parents have a hard time deciding. they sometimes go to the Edu-
cation Center and get the opinions of staff members.

Some children are so severely handicapped that they are left with few options but to
go to at special cducation school. One teacher explaincd.Such children typically
have very low 1Qs, cannot be toilet trained, and in case of autistic children. cannot
stay sul for even a moment. Ifa child requires a teacher's constant one-on-one atten-
tion, and if this keeps the teacher from paying attention to any other child in a class,
the child is often considered to have a handicap severe cnough to be referred to a
special school”

Dealing With Students With Special Needs

Special education teachers seem to interact with special education students morc
casually and intimately chan most teachers do with healthier children. Attending a
special education ¢ is a particularly “homey” experience. Normally.a special cdu-
cation class consists of five to seven students at most. Almost all academically ori-



Chapter 4

The Role of School in
Japanese Adolescents’ Lives

By: Gerald LeTendre

‘Yoru Kobayashi is an eighth-grade student in one of Naka City’s junior high schools
He lives in a small apartment with his parents and sister.a short walk from a nearby
bus and train station. Now that Toru and his sister are in school, they occupy the wo
small bedrooms in (he apartment while Toru’s parents convert the living room into
their bedroom at night by rolling outa futon. Both Toru and his sister sleep in beds.
and both have a small desk. lamp. and bookshelf ip their room.

‘The family rarely cats breakfast or dinner together. Toru’s father and sister are up
carly because they both have a tong commute to school and work, so Toru and his
mother cnjoy a more leisurely breakfast. At 8:00 a.m.on most mornings. Toru caves
the house, dressed in his school uniform. to make his way to the bus stop. The bus
passes coffee shops. convenicnee stores and a pachinko partor before it gets to the
stop at his school, giving him a few minutes to chat with friends before the school
day starts at 8:30.

‘Loru’s friends are all dressed in the same black uniform, while the girls at his school
wear navy ski

tsaind a blouse with at ditrk red scarf. Groups of boys and girls haugh
and Guk as they pour into the student entrance Where they remove their
shoes

street

and put on school slippers. As they pad down the hall to their homeroom.
Yoru and two of his fricnds pantomime kick-boxing moves they saw in a recent mar.
Jiabarts pictuce.

A830 Toru’s class, 2-7. hits its morning homeroom mecting
centh class in the sccond ye

7 stinds for the seve

rof junior high school.and the cktss motto, which hangs
above the chalkboard writen in English. is “ladependent spirit” The homeroom

ichee. Mrs. Ibuchi. enters and the students bow and fisten to the announcements
from the teacher and the students whose turn itis that week to make announcements



The Educational System
in Japan: Case Study
Findings

National Institute on Student Achievement, Curriculum, and Asscssment
Office of Educational Rescarch and Improvement
U.S. Department of Education


If teachers don't give their all right from the start and instead say, the students
don’t listen anyway so why should T try? Well. if you behave that way, then stu-
dents definitely won't open up their hearts to you. So E would tell teachers that if
from the start you give it your all, then even if you have failures. at some point
you will see it was worth it.

Working hard and putting oneself fully into one’s work were major themes in the an-
swer to this question, but this was not described as effort focused only on work. Mo-
tivation was not defined narrowly but was rather an enthusiasm that could incorpo-
rate many types of personalities. The above quoted teacher later told me that many
types of people can become good teachers:

Of course there are also individual differences (Rose?)—there are some who can
talk naturally with children and others who can't. But children are flexible
Gunan) so they will be tough toward tough teachers (Ralaé sensed ni Rataku)
and soft with soft teachers (vawarakai sensei ni wa yawarakakuy, they will ad-
just their responses to the teacher. So it isn’t as if you need to change those indi-
vidual qualitics—quict people can't force themselves to become talkative and
talkative people can’t force themselves to hecome reserved. But children can un-
derstand that each teacher has an individual personality.

Teachers also emphasized that motivation could spring from outside interests. 1 was.
often introduced to teachers by first being told about their out-of-school activities.
For example, at Midori Junior High School, a Japanese language teacher who was an
expert at making and arranging dricd flowers was encouraged to show me her bou-
ts urged by the other teachers to share his photographs and
vacation time for trav ound the world. Even
among the bu: $s who seemed to spend all their time on school-related activ-
ities, the interests underlying their motivation were emphasized. For example. a Mi-
dori social studies teacher who spends. almost every evening on school related work
and described his hobby as collecting copics of television documentarics told me
that he brought his enthusiasm into his carcer and how much fun he has:

Hike it. My work) is very fitted to me. My wife often says to me that ii scems in-
excusable (uosbimakenad that | get a salary for something | enjoy so much. [
do what T want. For example, today [ showed the video about the self-defense
forces, right? And the other day. f showed one about strect children in Brazil fron
the summit there. And when T show that to students and they watch it and fecl
something, | think that is important so studies learning. [fa icacher docsn't
like things, students Know that.don't you think?

Me repeatedly emphasized that the teachers have like that activities or clse students
will b scted negatively. Motivation was characterized as developing through cn-
joying work and other parts of one’s file.



SE vp

needed to know or learn various aspects of outdoor life and group orgs
Since part of their stated goal was to “create Memories” for the junior high school
students, a0 important aspect of the Wip was to orchestrate exciting expericnces
and the teachers needed to draw on their own sense of fun to help that happen.
One teacher instructed students that hey should not choose their commitice assign-
ment by rock, paper. scissors Gaken) but rather becaus sted ina
particular task. The teachers gave somewhat personal presentations about commit:
tees and revealed some of their own inter seemingly hoping that students would
also develop curiosities related to long-term interests.

Learning Specific Skilis

Throughout my interviews, when asked about what makes a good teacher, | heard
that people can become good teachers through learning from others and having
many Uypes of es {ls such as ways to use materials are Gught to
teachers cither informaily by experienced teachers, or formally Uirough inservice
riining. One clementary teacher carefully described the typical way to learn nec
sary Chtssroom skills:

One of the teachers who is good at art demonstrated various ways fo use the
supplics—how to use this and how to hold that. That teacher taught us about
that. And Last year another teacher taught us about calligraphy materials, how to
use them. That part of teaching. like writing on the board, for example is difficult.
Especially when Uiey are things that require you to use your body. For example,
we leach physical education and things here. too, Even if you are taught about it.
it doesn’t mean you can do it well. but in clementary school there are a lot of
teachers who are good at these various things and there are lots of chances to
Iearn those sorts of things.

Her dese

plion of learning various teaching skills emphasized the imporGinee of
having a variety of teachers in the school and the seemingly casy way teachers learn
from cach other. Aftce observing one fourth-grade phy sical education ¢
the teacher in her midthirtics skillfully demonstrated somersaults of various kinds. 1
remarked to her that she was quite a good gymnast. She replicd that she ceally w
it. but had been practicing basic gymnastics with a teacher who had some training.
and over the past few scars had developed cnough skilf to teach the cktss well. She
wenton lo complain about how much her body ached during this part of the ye
when she was teaching gymnastics!

ss where

ae

heen writing on the chalkboard was described as a skill to be mastered from peers.
Learning how to write on the chalkboard in a way that conveys the main ideas of
the lesson was described as an important skill for all teachers. One clementury



Hoshu

Japanese schools often provide some form of supplementary classes. By definition.
bosbu are given by regular teachers and typically are offered in the morning before
the regular classes or after school. Most bosbu are free. and whoever wants to at-
tend can attend. Mosby take somewhat different forms in clementary, middle. and
high schools.

Hosbu plays a very minimal role during elementary school in dealing with differ-
ences in students’ rate of progress. Teachers try to provide help to children having
difficulties as much as possible in the regular classroom. Elementary school teachers
are also reluctant to offer bosbuy for fear that the extra emphasis placed on acade-
mics hampers the basic goal of educating the whole person. As one teacher ex-
plained:"] don’t want to give Posh. if possible, because | want children to go home
and play after schoof"The same teacher also explained:"1 make sure that I'm avail-
able to students. [ tell my students.‘if vou want to see me after school. you can! but 1
domt make that mandatory”

Junior high
course Male

sho. teachers rely much more heavily on beshu.The more advanced
and the need to prepare the third-year students for entrance exa
ne itate this change. In junior high school, boshy are given after school in a
teacher's room immediately betore or a regularly scheduled exams (.¢.. mid-term
and final). Attendance is voluntary before the exam. and mandatory after the exam
for those who failed it.

Most Doshi classes are not divided by ability.As a math teacher in Midori explained.
the diversity does not always pose a problem because “good students know what
they don’t know and how to ask questions. Most of them Icave quickly.and Pm Ictt
with slower students with whom E spend a Jot of time? Although teachers require
students who fail an exam to attend bosbi, they cover material students can easily
understand and then use that material in subsequent make-up exams so that these
the course.

In academic high schools, on the other hand, boshie are geared toward both those

oO are failing and those who wish to do well in college entrance exams. In the

¢ of vocational schools, they are important for job certification exams. At Naka Vo-
cational, for ex: often ask failing students to sce them and receive
bosbu be s do not come unless they ate told to2 CT
Vocational High School) At Meiji. hosbi are mandatory for anyone who scores below
half the average score in any given exam ina course. Should these students fail dhe
subsequent makcup exams, which are based on the materials covered in boshi and

126



Many parents. teachers. and students s
factors. and they discuss such di
characteristi

ay personality differences come from innate
rences in terms of concrete, observable personality
that contribute to divergent patterns of learning habits and processes.

For example. a mother at Meiji told me that her son was an accomptished kendo
Gapanese fencing) player who competed strongly in national tournaments. She be-
there was similarity between endo and math, for in order to ¢
them. one had to be “strong minded.” She described her son’s personality 3
gets hit twice by his opponent in kendo. he cannot be satistied untif he hits his op-
ponent back three times more than he was hit.” She suggested that his personality
contributed to his habits in learning."In math? she continued.“he never lets difficult
{math] problems defeat him. He would go attacking them until he is able to solve
them.” Similarly. the student at‘Fancho Elementary School acknowledged that people
innately had different personality characteristi he then went on to describe those
characteristics in terms of behavior that "some people give up casily. and some have
ww try everything.” As the mother of the kendo player believed that her son’s person-
ality affected his she also said."differences in personality contributed to
the differences in their ability to do math”

Because the Japane

define personality in terms of observable behavior and demon-
strated competence. they think they can foster, strengthen, or change innate person-
ality. Emphasizing the effect of environment on personality formation.a high school

science teacher argued:

Idon't like that word. innate ability. F
display their ability in different way
gently, and some look at the surface.

luding the disabled. f think the students
's because of personalities: some work dili-
ven that (personality) has to do with one’s
environment—how the child rearing is done at home. Though very snvall, there
may be innate factors in individual differences.A child. for example, may not be
good at memorizing. but the child can think and observe well. Or the chilel may
have more ability to do sports than a cher, Meiji High School)

In summary, the

nurture.

aNese perceive personality to be the product of both nature wad

87



Testing in Junior High Schools

Japanese students quickly become accustomed to taking major types of tests in ju
nior high. These major tests. given in both the junior and senior high school
talled periodic r us (teikisbiken) These exams are conducted in the same
manner in most Japanese senior high schools. They are similar in form and content
to the entrance examinations students must uke to enter high school and college.

Periodic exam
semeste

s usually include midterm and final examinations for cach of the three
\ japanese secondary students reported te" ing
X Major examinations every school year. These examinations are given over
a period of 2 or 4 days during regular school hours.

One junior high school student said tha exams give him a“kick in the
pants” to study. He confessed. along with two other students at his school, that he
probably would not study much if there were not any periodic examinations to mo-
tivate him. He added that he gets serious about studying around | week before the
examinations. These same students. who were very active in school aud high achiev
ers, confessed to slacking off between exams.” Like when the exam is over. 1 just
breath a sigh of relief and don’t do anything for awhile”

the periodic

The following conversation with three junior high school students captures the at
mosphere from the students’ point of view before the major exams.

Interviewer: Do you feel like studying before the

Student f:Yes. because everyone else is studying.

Student 2:That’s rigint.

Student 3:You feel that you have to do it.
Interviewer: When do you get this fecling?
Student 1:About four days before the exams.

Student 3. Since everyone cls is study ing. | feel that | dont want to lose to other
students.

Student 2:We tell cach other. when its all over we can play and have fun.

month. One stu-
duku:

Major examinations are frequent in junior high school. about once
dent described how often he studics for these examinations and a

There is a periodic exam about once a month. About | week before the periodic
exams, | begin studying. | devote about 2 or 3 hours a day alter school to study-



Table 4—Standard number of school hours in Japanese elementary schools

Subjects «

Japanese language

060 ATS 280 2800210 210
Lile activities 102 105 105, 105 105 105
Arithmetic 146 m5 175 ms 5 “5
Science - ~ 108 105 108 105
Music. arts & handicratts. «+t
homemaking 146 110 10 140 210
Physical education 102 105 105 105 105
Moral education Ay a5 38 5 45
special activities at 38 a5 “0 “0
Total 850 910 980 1,015 1,015

SOURCE fichi sage Center, WOT
\OF Impicmented in April 1992

y subject merges the study of science and social studies. Life activity
ated by Monbusbo because it was decided that first- and second-gride stu-
dents were not ready to study science in the traditional way since they lacked suffi-
cient personal life expericnees thi form the basis for interest in the sciences. Sev-
cral teachers said they believed that this lack of personal life experiences is the
result of urbanization, whereby children hav st Opportunities Lo interact with na-
ture, One teacher described how ¢ children living in cities do not
have many opportunities to s. catching
frogs and insects. or watching f

Inan effort to provide ex
- of the Hile activity’ curriculum involves students ¢:
Matsu explained:

nated activ-
‘The principal of

ising rabbi

We raise rabbits. Although we don't have the money and can’t make cnough room
for them. we are caising rabbits.As for me.] would like the first- and second:
graders to feed the rabbits every morning. While doing that. they will eventually
discover that rabbits eat cabbage but not wheat.And they will learn chat there are
things rabbits will and will not cat-And they can learn. if they hold the bunnies.
that the mother will protect the bunnies.And they can tearn that a rabbit is warm
and puffy. In the process of rising rabbits, they Tearn these things. But. let's say

this is a science class. Then. the teacher would say ‘lets find out what rabbits do
and do not cats Ht is the teacher who would be separating the food.

ay



correspondence course in the case of Naka Vocational students. This vagueness in
the usage of the term “dropout” appeared to he common to both junior and high
school teachers.

School Violence.Violence in schools (26 nai boryokt) is also a concern for Japanese
teachers. This term covers a wide varicty of actions including violence against other
students and teachers. Levels of school violence were higher during the 1960's and
1970's, and members of the community were sometimes drawn into the conflict.
Data from the Prime Minister's office indicate that in 1982, 1.028 junior high schools
and 346 high schools experienced some form of school violence (Sorifu Si
‘Taisaku Honbu, 1982).These rates fell until about $988 when they began to rise
again. In 1992,882 junior high school teachers and 244 high school teachers re-
ported being injured by students at school (Somucho, 1993).

Junior high school teachers in Naka a id that in the past some inci-
dents of school violence had occurred in their schools. One wacher at Kita Junior
High School linked school violence to the inéluence of the media and to family prob-
lems. He thought that students responded to violent images they saw on television
and were more likely to be violent if their home fife were unstable, He described an
incident of school violence that had occurred while he was teaching at one of the
more rural schools in the prefecture:

{twas just fike on Aénpatsiesense? [a popular television show |.The students
took up posts outside the teacher's room and blocked the hail“Phey broke the
glass. This confrontation in front of the room escalated and it turned into a mess
in the teacher's room. F was hit in the nose with a drawer.

They were mad at the teachers, because the teachers werent working together.
And, in that area. there was a lot of divorcee. So the kids Were very upset Some

weren't studying and the whole school was tense. The school and
tions wore disrupted: there were no real PTA relations. That is why it

alppened

The breakdown of human relations—between parents and children, teachers and
students —was a significant theme brought up again and again by teachers and par-
ents. When asked to discuss why problems fike bullying er school refusal were on
the rise, teachers and parents often attributed the rise in preblems to a combination
of several factors: incr ng competition on the entrance ex.ms, too much empha-
sis on material prosperity and consumerism. a lack of opportunities for intense peer
interactions in the early childhood yours, and the fact that families were smaller and
more isolated from cach other.

cl



The following conver:
ability:

ation ilfustrates the overall Japanese attitude toward innate

Interviewe

“Do you think 1Q is important?

Teacher: | don't know exacdy whit fQ is. but Ethink it is not an innate thing. 1
think after the birch, one increases the level of his 1Q through much stimulation.
Excluding a few special people.} think eve ascd. (Shimo-
awa Junior High School teacher)

yone's 1Q can be iner

asked Japanese teachers. parents, tnd students “What percentage of a student's
ability can be accounted for by innate ability and how much by learning and a
environment. assuming the child is not tearning disabled? Seven out of eight of the
respondents said that the experience and environny in accounted for more than 70
percent.

In Hasu Elementary School. [asked -ith-, Sth-and Oth-grade students whether or not
they thought some people were good at math because they were biologically more
ble.A fourth-grade girl said she hought people who accumulated knowledge
when they were young became smart.and people who did not accumutate knowl
edge when they were young became unable to understand. then a Sth-grade boy un-
derscored this opinion by saying. “T don't think there is much difference between
people when they are born. As we grow older. we experience and learn many differ-
cat things. Those who decide to study hard ave the ones who are called smart and
geniuses today. Those who did not fisten well when they were litde.and still don't
listen now, are geting what they deserv

Students at Fancho Elementary School also described this simple belie! thatif you
study, you do well as follows

Besides the social class or stttus—like whether or not you were born as a mem:
ber of the royal family or a commoner— think we can overcome anything if we
work hard. If it is studying. one will be able to do it well by studying at home and
listening to his teacher. There is nota person who is innately. biologically smart. If
a person does not keep studying. she gets worse and worse at studying. So T be-
lieve academic ment can be changed by studying hard and listening to
the teache

Theard the same overall opinion about the relationships between the innate versus
environment determinants of the ability differences from parents. The following is
a typical conversation ong can expect with a Japanese parent:

Interviewer: To go back to the topic of “family atmosphere. this (home environ:
ment) is not something you would call “innate” to acl



All the elementary school teachers told me that there were no staff assistants who.
prepare class materials for them, although some schools had an office assistant who
helped with making photocupies and other routine tasks. Teachers commented that
they worked together with other teachers to prepare and share materials. At Hasu El-
ementary School. as described above. the sixth-grade teachers were observed plan-
ning together and sharing materials for the experiment in a science fesson and then
discussing how their own class had responded to the fesson. {n addition, all schools
were experimenting with “teanrteaching.” which usually meant combining ¢
fora lesson. Recently. according to several respondents, team-teaching also is encour-
aged by the provision of an extra part-time teacher. although this was not the case in
:s Lobserved,

SCS,

The most unusual and seemingly chaotic math class | observed was one in which
the students were finishing a lesson from the previous days *team-taught” class. Ia
that class the three teachers had stationed themselves around the gymnasium and
students had worked independently or in small groups. They had gone to one of the
teachers. depending on their progress, to have their work checked or have some
part explained. In the cliss i observed, most students had not finished the handouts
and thus were attempting to complete them in class,so the teacher had students
who were finished act as “helpers” in charge of checking other students’ work. It was
a geometry lesson where students were expected to recreate certain shapes in dif
fereut sizes using protractors, rulers,and compasses. The teacher sat at his desk
checking final products and giving permission to go on to the next section. The
organized. After class the teacher ©
plained that the class was markedly different from his regular lessons in which
mainly he teaches and students liste

An individualized aritometic class. Classes are typically teacher-directed. but indi-
vidualized classes also occurred frequently. There is geowing discussion in Japanese
elementary schools on individualized instruction and allowing students to work at
their own pace. The students in the classroom described at tength below seemed to
enjoy the freedom and chance to move around. and only one boy seemed to fall be-
id and he may have been behind with any type of instruction. The relationship of
particular teacher to his students and his ability to calm them down q ly
factors that kept this classroom from becoming unmanageable. ve described
this classroom in detail in order to convey some of the noise and varicty of activities

One Matsu Elementary School arithmetic class began al8:5 bam. when the teacher
rang a hell and called out.“all right, arithmetic
up to the teacher's desk to have their work che
sM asking him (o put stickers on their finished work. He replicd to this request
by saying slowly] know! At any time about half the class was working relatively

quicth oa work at their desks. While checking individual students’ work, he loudly

241

<0u

TN VT



high school entrance exam. While nearly all Japanese children go on to high school.
None are guaranteed admission.

Students have several choices of high school. First, there are public, private, and a
few nationally funded high schools. Within the public and private sector, students
an apply to academic high schools or to non-academic high schools.About 25 per-
cent of students eventually enter the nonacademic track, though most originally
hope to get into academic high schools (Monbusho, 1993).Those who fail to enter
either a full-time public or private high school may attend night cou offered Sy
some public schools. There are also correspondence courses and training schools
open to students who fail to find a place elsewhere in the system,

Elementary School Education

The elementary school (sh6 (6 ky'6 fku) curriculum is divided into three major cate-
gorics: regular subjects, moral education, and special activities. The nine regular sub-
jects are Japanese. social studies. arithmetic, science, life and cnvironmental studies.
ic. arts and handicrafts, homemaking, and physical education.The curriculum in
chool provides ample time for music. arts, and ph Wl recreation. Spe-
's play a major role in the overall curriculum and consist of such activi-
ies as clubs, schoo! wide festivals. or competitions, student associations, and other
student-run activities. Teachers spend considerable amounts of time organizing and
Participating in such activities as class trips. yearly sports and cultural festiv:
entrance and graduation ceremonies (Lewis, 1995).

als, and

‘The official school year for clementary students fasts 35 weel
15 minutes long with 10-minute br fter most subjects. The number of cla
room periods cach year increases with each grade. For example, first through third
grades are scheduled for 850. 910. and 980 periods, respectively, while for the upper
three grades the schedule calls for 1.015. The typical school day starts at about 8:30
am.ind classes end around 3:50 p.m. Homeroom mectings occur at the start and
end of cach day and over two hours cach day are spent in recess. lunch and cleaning
the classrooms and haliv raditionally. students have gone for a half-day Cuntil
12:30) on Saturdays, but starting in the spring of 1995 Japanese children have no
school the second and fourth Saturday of each month.

Zach class period is

Junior High School Education

Miter 6 years of elementary school education, students make the transition to the
chit gakko, Student life in Japanese junior high schools (chit (6 ky'6 iki) is More regi-
mented than in clementary sel

ss aire divided by subiect. For most sub-



One female elementary school (cacher with 6 years of teaching expericnee com

mented as we discussed how much she fiked her current school and colleagues.

acher: Let me stay here for another nine years!

he krughed.) E will teave chis

ye say iCin aloud voice. 1 will leave this school.

CRIs it already decided?

‘Teacher: ICs set. In your first school you can only ttke six years. E will move
schools next April, (hen get married, and then. after about half ay car, get preg:
nantto that degree my circumstances will change, but they aren't likely to
change that much.

L inquired as to whether her wedding plans were already made and she lughed
and told me it was a joke. but she scemed quite serious about the time table that
women often follow. Atnough she is not happy about leaving her current school,
the knowledge that she will most likely be transferred allowed her to plan for and
expect the change

Tn general. all the teachers and administcitors believed that rotations through vari-
ous schools were important for both the development of individual (eachers and the
morale of the school. Almost everyone responded similarly to the experienced high
school teacher quoted here:

If you are at one school too tong. there is a part of you that gets too comfortable
with things. We are hired by the prefecture. We are teachers but we are also civil
servants, Fight We are Gransferred regularty.and that kind of system is probably
good. T have been here EL years and that is a bit too tong. If you get too intimate
with the flow of things at one school and are active within that, you get so you
feel tike sou want to move on.

The belief is that though it might be more comfortable to get used to one school
and remain the y challenging and docs not push teachers to sce
the need for change in sofa school. Teachers also regularly told me that
although they would fike to be able to choose the schools ia which they work. (hey

recognize that be: ices of Ul teachers could not be accommodsa
would not aly

rious @

tsc the ch
s get thei

ed. they

In addition, within a school, teachers expect to teach all
teacher commented on his desire to teach many 4
by most interviewees:

des. One sixtheg:

fe levels. a scntimept expressed

‘Teacher: | really had wanted (o try first grade. From the start t had tought second
grade. then third grade. Then fifth grade. sixth geade. filth grade. and then | went
and bad sixth. then filth. then sixth, then fifth over nine years. So 1 definitely

wd



School Structure

In all the schools cither

i vice principal or the principal was present and usually
started and ended the mectings. but the mectings were fed by another teacher on a
rotating schedule. ACTancho Elementary School an experienced teacher conveyed
his worry to me about the fst-year teacher Icading the allschool morning mecting
for the first time. He was more concerned about supporting and training this young
teacher in her first chance to direct the entire school than he was about the behav-
jor of the students. He told me that the rotation of leadership provides chances for
all teachers to become familiar with some administrative duties and for teachers to
perform in front of their peers regularly.

Formal Structures

There are complex organizational structures within all Japanese schools that have
evolved over many years. Every school has a guide book that is developed each
school year detailing these structures and the responsibilities of individuals within
the schools. Many tasks that might be performed by administrative, clerical, or main-
tenance staff people in other countries are the responsibilities of teachers in Japan.

At the structural level. all the schools have a lengthy list of committees and responsi-
bilities that are organized and published at the beginning of a school year. Every as-
pect of school administration is assigned lo a specific group of teachers. The list of
committees in the school guide book for Matsu Elementary School listed the current
teachers’ names and cach category was further broken down into subcommittees:
with numerous responsibiliti partial list follows:

Management conmmitiee. Fourteen members. Vice principal is the chairperson. and
also includes the principal. office head. administrative head teacher. the curriculum
head teacher. the health committee chair the student guidance head teacher. the
head teachers of cach grade. and a student representative. Subcommittees include
for Nn aclivitics conmmitice and graduation and advancement commilice.

ample

Student guidance committee. Eleven members. Curriculum head teacher is chair-
person. [nchudes the principal. the vice principal. the administrative head teacher,
the student guidance head teacher. the school nurse teacher. the school doctor (usu.
ally a local doctor who visits the school periodically). a representative from the area
government. the chairperson of the PTA. and a “folk representative’ or’ child mem-
ber" Guinsei dathyou ov yoji fin). Subcommittees include onc on “recommendation
points for school educational cooperation” and one on training

218



Training Session

The researchers met fora week-long training se
prior to the field visits. They received background information on the study, learned
to use the quatitative date analysis software. and met in teams organized both by
topic and countey. The interview formats for cach topic were outlined. and the re-
searchers from cach country responsible for the topics then met in smaller working
groups to discuss how the basic quesdons would need to be contextualized in the
pan. significant differences in attitudes toward work or
ined to make
routinely handle al of

ion at the University of Michi:

Japanese conte:
the school’s administrativ
students ar

t For example, Japanese teache
tasks. Furthermore. individual ability difference
trcly discussed. Because the interview schedule was de
structured format. the training sessions helped to assure t

samong,
igned as an une
the data would be col

lected ina consistent and thorough manner with a high de
across topic and nation.

of consistency

Each field researcher was provided with the guidelines developed at the training ses:
sion and was instructed to probe for addition.:! explanations and claboration of an-
swers when the responses seemed unclear of incomplete. In addition to unstruc-
tured interviews, the researchers were expected to conduct observations in
classrooms, teachers’ mectings, extracurricukar activities, and other events chat
would provide information rclevant to the four topics. The researchers interviewed
parents, teachers, and students at cach level, traveling Co the schoo! to conduct the
interviews. The interviews and observations were transkited. transcribed. and cn-
tered into a computer file using HyperQual Hoa program for the analysis of qualita-
tive data (Padilfa, 1992). After entering the data, each researcher coded his or her ma-
terial based on schema first generated ata group mecting of the Case Study Team at
the University of Michigan in 1994.We then began an analysis of the material. cross
referencing quotations from observations of parents, teachers and students: ident
ing major themes: aod comparing variation across levels of schooling.

During the fieldwork p

members of the research team in cach country were in
contact with cach other via clectronic mail (e-mail). Each week, researchers in the
ficld summarized and reported their major findings. Stuf members at the University
of Michigan were also in constant contact-with the researchers through ¢-mail. and
team discussions about rescarch strategies and interpretations of findings greatly
aided the research effort.

The directors of the » Study Project. in consultation with the National Center for
Education Statistics and Japanese colleagues. identified three sites for the case study
research in Japan. The selection of these sites was not random: the schools were se-

au



fine individual differences as difference . acquired academic ability” called
gakuryoRi. (Gaki means “academic” and ryoki literally means “powerTM.) Just as:
shujukude is different from the English term ‘ability differences” the word
gakuryoku.too, must be distinguished from what is meant by “academic ability” in
Engtish. Like shujukudo, gakuryoku is not innately given ability, but it is ability ac-
quired through cumulative cffort. For example, a teacher or parent would tell a high
school student getting increasingly high se on practice exams that he has ac-
quired more gekuryoRu lately.

When Lasked the science teacher at Me

whether or not he thought there were in-
sual differences, for example, he responded immediately by say In hig

school students’ ability Giery'oR«@) is judgec by exam score he response of the 1:
year-old female student from the same school was more explicit:

In school. our [students’]

stence is shown by numbers: grade points on report
tandardized scores on mock college exams. and so on. The
school routinely posts results of the trial exam on the wall of the main entrance
hall for only the top 45 students out of 400.Thats how we know the differences.

The mindset of seeing individual differences in terms of ©
flected in the Meiji math teacher's response. When asked how wide he thought the
ranges of differences among students might be. he said.“On an exam in which the
highest score is 100.1 have students scoring from. say 15 to 95 points. Thats the way
[know how much difference there is among my students”

am scores is also re-

Personality

That Japanese teachers, students, and parents talk about individual differences in
terms of concrete classroom behaviors and exam scores may be an indication of
their belief“vou do well only if you study" To them, individual differences reflect
combination of many different abil equired through cffort. Innately given indi-
vidual differences are seen to be aspects of personality. not ability, differences.

hhus

is not surprising 10 sce the teachers. students. and parents mention personal
ity (se¢kaku) as one obvious sign of individual differences. Among the three groups.
parents seemed to express this opinion most strongly, because they had first-hand

knowledge about personality differences among their own children. Their typical re-
sponse sounds like.”E could tell from my (vo children that they were different even
at moments of their birth. My first child my son, took so much time to drink milk.

and the second child, my daughter. drank it quic

xO



Figure 4—Daily schedule of a Chuo Junior High School student

Time Monday Wednesday Thursday saturday sunday
S00 am - (9:00)
12:00 p.m. school school school school school school study
12:00-1:00 Ww
7.00-2:00, Juneh lunch lunch funch lunch lunch lunch
2:00-4:00, Vv v 1 tv Ww Vv play
-#:00-6:00, study study study
study study . * study
juku juku juku
8:00-9:00 dinner dinner dinner dinner dinner dinner dinner
9.00-10:00 bath bath bath bath bath bath bath
10-00 p.m. study study study study study study study

12.004,

1200-00 sleep sleep sleep sleep sleep sleep

SOURCE Third Interna

anal Muhem.ttics and science Study, Case Study Project. 199 1-95,

their days. Based on a sample of 1,319 boys and [131 giels from Tokyo and Fukuoka.
this survey shows that young adolescents in Japanese schools are busy indeed. Only
about LO percent of third-year students get over 8 hours of sleep a night. The stu-
dents in this survey also were very busy with extra curricular activities. Over hall
spend 2 to 3 hours per day in some club. and the vast majority go to clubs more
than three days a week. As to television time. the students f interviewed appear to
watch very little. This is probably due to the fact that their schedules were com-
pleted during or around the end-of-semester tests.

Table 7—Percentage of students in survey, by of hours of sleep per day

Hours
on “8 oK
RG oa 28
2nd BO 40.8 I
4rd Tmo 419O ATA 108
Overall 10.2 27.8 44.0, 18.0

SOURCE Eukotthe 1994



Table 9—Percentage of students, study time

Hours:
6s 2
ry rn
2nd 25 on o1
ard 305 49.6 209 ol Is 1
Total 36.9 39.8 17.6 4.0 Lo 0.7

SOURCE Fukotake. 1993

Yable 10—Percentage of students, club participation

Days per Week

Participation

Year Clubs ss

Nw ry =2 wl

2nd Oo 5a SAR 10
andl 507 39 236 525

SOURCE Lukottke 1994

first half of their third year. for most students, the last vear of junior high school is fo-
cused on the coming transition to high school.

A “Thin Slice”: Life in the High Schools

The atmosphere in,

pun's junior high schools is fargcly determined by the size of
the school and the neighborhood surrounding it. but (he most significant impact on
high school atmosphere is overall academic rank. In several of our interviews, teach-
ers and administrators used the term wagiré Gi slice) to refer to the level of acude-
mic ability of students they admitted cach y They noted that this phenomenon
Was especially true for the academic schools like Meiji and Arita, where a few points
on the entrance test could mean the difference between passing and tailing. The
teachers at Meij c extremely conscious of the fact that they were sce
of the range of students found in Naka City:

ing only a“thin slice

When thes come in. thes want to go to college. Hit
famous or good college. they expect very det
course,

is Meiji. they want to go toa
led guidance in studying. OF
first. the parents exert a strong expectation. (Meiji social studi¢s

Lud



Figure 7—Daily schedule of a Meiji High School student

Time ___ Monda Tuesday Wednesday Thuryday Friday Saturday Sunday
800 am- 11003
1:00 p.m school school school school school school TN
100-200 Tunch lunch Junch junch funch : lunch Junch

2:00-3:00 school school ; school school school school free time
3.00100, club
100-3:00 club chub dub club club club club
5:00-6:00 dinner dinner dinner

600-700 drive” drive* drive® drive* TN dinner
—00-8-00 dinner : study study : study aay nN Ww
8,00-9 00 W nN Ww study

9:00- 10:00, : study study . juku study juku ; juku WV
10-00-1100 juku
11.00-1 2:00, Meep sleep: dinner sleep dinner sicep sleep
1200-700. a.m. sleep sleep sleep

NOTES ‘this student has a commute,
SOURCE Third Intermatic

al Mathematics ancl Science Study, Case study Projet, 199 1-95,

The idea of devoting all of one’s extra energy to club activities is part of the expe
tion that junior high schoo} students must study hard and play hard. School is an in-
tense but often enjoyable experience zation Outside of school is a source of
concern to parents and teachers. They expect students to participate in club activi-
ties after school and on weekends. Except for juki. socialization outside school is
kept to a minimum by adults. For junior high school students. social interactions
with peers most often occur where there is some adult supervision. Apathy, luke:
warm part ation, or half-hearted endeavors are considered to be the antithesis of
the junior high school experience. and students displaying these characteristics can
be harshly criticized by teachers and peers.

Participation in clubs is part of the balance that teachers and parents feel is ne
sary for students at this age:a balance between physical versus mental activity.’
adults 1 interviewed thought that students need opportunities for vigorous physical
activity and an active social life. The fact that students may end up exhausted at the
end appeared to be taken for granted by many parents.

‘he

151

BEST COPY AVAILABLE



ample, those schools which ultimately send the largest percentage of their student
body to top ranked universities are the most highly ranked schools in Japan.

Table 3—Sample schools and academic level

school level

High
Middle
Middle
Middic
Hasu blementary Low
Junior High School
Chuo JUS High
Kita Js High
Midori JIS Middle
Minami JUS Middle
Shimogawa JIS Low
Ifigh School
Mesji tls High
kita Ws High
Minami Its iligh
Arata HS, Middle
Naka Vc nal Hs Low

SOCRCE Uhird Internation. Mathennitics and science Study. Gase Study Propet, 1994-95

Japanese schools present a rather austere facade to the t 2ye. The vast majority of
schools are three-story ferro-concrete structures with title or no external decora-
Gion. AC most schools, the office is located near the main entrance. which is marked
by a sliding iron gate. Figure | shows a copy of the floor plan of one of the high
schools that we visited. This school located in one of the secondary sit
equipped with two gymnasiums, « martial arts practice hall. and a pool. The rooms
marked "3-$ TR” and so forth the students’ homerooms where they spend most
of their day. As is typical in most Japanese high schools, the third-year students all
have their homerooms on the top floor and the first-year students on the bottom
floor. Special purpose rooms, such as the language laboratory, are located in a Se]
rate Wing connected by a hallway.

is also

In larg
buildings
shoe

sprawling schools like Naka Vor

the gym and various classroom
re connected by long hallw sis the custom in J ¢ homes. s
are not worn in Japanese schools. Students and teache
trances which are equipped with shoe boxes to store street we:

rect

dive separate cn-
rand school stip-

15



TR EN A

boy sometimes fills asleep by 8:00 in front of the television. He is hard to get up
in the morning—asleep in bed! How many hours he sleeps! 1 think his brain gets
a good rest.

Working cliss homes were not the only ones where it was hard for the family to be to-
gether. [ interviewed several middle- and upper-middle-class families where the
mother did not work outside the home but the father worked in another part of Japan.

Family schedules seemed fess coordinated once students entered high school. in
families Where the father commuted to work. dinnertime was rarcly an opportunity
for everyone to get together.A student at Arata described her family’s dinner routine:

Sometimes its 8:00 to 8:30. Sometimes as late as B40, Recently, just my mother
and [cat together, My dad is always home around 8:30. My brother, he goes out
on dates and such: We are all over the place.

Another student said that because of her club participation "I cat separately. My fa
ther comes home tt 5:30 and the three of them (parents and sibling) cat together."

Japanese parents tolerate the fact that they see dite of their children after the ele-
mentary school years are over. but many expressed concern about the need for par-
ents and children to engage in some form of recreation. One mother at Chuo:
plained that her friends had an innovative way of socializing with each other and
their children. She and her friends take their sons to go karaoke singing:

Tusually go more with my son’s fricnd’s mothers than with my husband. We
learn a Jot about school, about the students and the classes. The karaoke estab-
lishment is the place where we parents can talk. It is also a place where there is
consideration for others. genUeness. kindness, all these things come out. So. in
terms of education, don't think it is good for students whose parents don’t tuke
them places.A student necds to have experiences likes Oh look. if mother does
that. then it is all right if} do that! Even if a student doesn’t understand. if he sces.
his parents doing something. he will learn. When he goes out to ¢ a friend's
house or bowling. he will learn from the way that his friends’ families tuk with
each other.

Parental Expectations for Schooling

Parents in this study expressed widely divergent views about the basic purpose of
schooling,



Work Hours

scemed to work from about 8:15 wm. to 5
ional kuer evening, plus every other Saturday. Most teache
summer vacation and fewer days of v jon at the end of the school year in March.
atnd at New Year. However. except for a few comments about the number and fength
of mectings. teachers did not scem to feel coerced into overly fong hours. The excep:
lions were new teachers who needed to spend a lot of extra time on chiss prepara-
sand student advising because of their own lack of expericnee Teachers gener:
ferred to their first 2 or 3 years of teaching as quite strenuous ind spoke of
stayed at school undl 10:00 p.m. or later
But few teachers had family respon
the job. so the expectition v
an unnatural burden.

On average. teachers

QO pam. with wn oc-

rar ake about LO days of

(most every night during their first
sibilities during their first few years on
that full devotion to work during that Gime was not

Elementary school teachers. Wwo clementary school t
typical schedules. The first is (ypical of a tes

achers described the following
ther who is dedicated but not extreme:

T come around 8:00 or 8:05 a.m.. Now Pm not doing club. But from September,
Vil be supervising the basketball club. so then it will get a bit fater. Now. even it 7
chat with peopte. and do some advising and things, 5:00, or sometimes 6:00 p.m
If P want to go home. 1 catn go home by then. And when club starts up it will be
about 7:00 p.m,

‘The second clementary school teacher described the other extreme. in response to
my comment that he is probably very busy now because he is a research scholar
(kensbuttiinset) and has a newborn child:

Teacher: There is a social studies festival planned for Naka and Lam a staff meni
ber. Last night we were working on chat und after 10:00 p.m. Also muscum
work—a history room at the Naka City muscum. During summer vacation sixth
graders will get together and T work as a summer class instr -tor.and also a 10-
year project to put Naka’s history into a textbook, now we are doing the investi-
gation for chat.

Interviewe

Are you also doing clubs?

Yeacher: Yes. Lam. Right now itis girls’ softball, and then also swimming. Then we
have sal mectings. and editorial board mectings—something somewhere after
school in the evening

Interviewer: fs that about wo or three times a we

Teacher: Right. (wo or three times.

213

Loh



ences are clearly one of the most significant and permanent predictors of students’
academic and occupational prospects. That cach school district represented a differ-
ent academic ranking is one such example.According to one teacher at Meiji.even
within Naka city. junior high school students coming from the port district industrial
arca) on average score lower on standardized mock exams than those coming from
the hill districts (suburbs). His colleague at Naka Vocational also acknowledged:

Ido not have the exact data. but, for example. if you compare the family income
of students who attend a university with those who are high school graduates
and whe are junior high graduates, vou sce a big difference. (Teacher. a Vooa-
Uional High School)

Ata specific level. the differences in socioeconomic status were broken down by
parents levels of cducation and occupation.A teacher at Midori Junior High School

focused on the effect of parental education on students’ achievement

If parents have a certain level of education. they expect the same for their chil-
dren. Parents in this school have a somewhat higher level of education than
those in other schools.and they have high ¢:
dren do on ex:
Junior High)

<spectations for how well their chil-
ims or how high their children’s grades should be. (Teacher. Midori

Students at Naka Vocational High School also said:

The environment vour home creates has something to do with individual differ:
ences. Maybe some people are from a family that owns a business. and they have
to help out. They don’thave much time to study

When a child shows socially unacceptable behavior, such as speaking in vulgar or
course language. the Japanese use the expression dit such behavior “reveals the
child's upbringing” (sedachi ga wakaru). The word seiiku is the formal word which
deseribes the family background.A teacher at Arata High School used the notion of
sefiky to describe its cilect on students’ ateadem

achievement

What} call sefiki is a big factor in determining students ability differences. IES
the environment in which you were born and grew up Cunaretd toki Rard no
kankyo). Ws where you are molded into a human being. tis where ability differ:
ences are created in the first place. For example. you may have a father who
works in the field of math. clectronics, or science. or you may have a father who
is a construction worker. Having one type of a father over another can give vou it
totally different kind of cnvironment for you to grow up in.

Teachers use extreme ctution when they tuk about socioeconomic differences
among families Mt Hasu Elementary School. for cxample. the principal told me that

90

dtu



This evaluation of the school differed considerably from one a teacher gave me of
Matsu Elementary School. f commented on his use of a bell to get students’ attention
and his respo Mustraced the different background of students
tary schools.

at various clemen-

Teacher:The bell. right? When | ring that the children get quict.And that is a
good thing about this school—the students listen. When the bell rings, they get
quiet.And when it gets quiet it gets really quict.At my previous school, it never
got that quiet. (1¢ came to this school just this year.) | gue:
in parents.

tis the differences

Interviewer: The neighborhood differences”

Teache

> Right.and the differences in the type of work (of the parents).

Interviewer: Wh on you that bam reminded of your carlier comment that sev-
eral children are from mother only families, and that kind of circumstance, Even
then your previous schoot was?

Teacher: Right, my previous school had that too. I really don’t know this area that
well, but this area uear the mountains as compared to the downtown area, (shita-
macht), which connotes an area of shopkeepers and smail businesses
wealthy area) there is quite a distance. This is a high-level area.

nota

Slight differences in composition, employment. and income of the students’ fami-
lies seem to have a relatively large impact on how children participated in cl:
discussed how much parental involvement effects the performance of children
with a teacher at Tancho Elementary. the school in our sample with the highes
come familic

Right. 1 think that at some poiut they (students) start to be able to do things on
their own. but when that is exactly. I'm not sure. For firs-graders, they have to al-
ys have things written down on their memo pads and first the teacher checks
lo sce if it is written correctly and then they must have it checked to show they
have shown it (to their parents). By third grade we sayhave you written it?
You've written it. right? Show me. and that’s all And we check that much. Today
we had messages and things they cannot forget. and f wrote it down (on the
chalkboard to be copied). Probably the pareuts, too, check and remind them
about what they especially shouldn't forget. T think the parents usually do that. 1
ample, if they have forgotten their swimming things. ] tell them, you
can't say it is Your mother’s fault.And of course. maybe their mother has to get
the swimming things out, but they have to remind her that they need it. T sup-
pose there are big differences in mothers. cach is different. Therefore, whether
they remember things or not the next day really differs. Especially in first grade.
what everyone says is that when they have things that have to be done or
checked off, it is really like grading the mothers. Itis that way in the end. And
gradually they have to learn to do things on their own.

Dre

ara



Even for the students themselves, bullying is not easy to define. The students them:
selves offered insights into how difficult it can be to decide if bullying is going on
ornot.A group interview with students at Naka Vocational yielded the following
statements:

Interviewer: So what do you mean by bullying?

Studen . fighting wor hen nex! - Ifa person is overweight you call
them “fat Then maybe hitting, taking things.

Interviewer: So. if you are called fat. is this bullying?

Student: ‘There's no fine line like that. You say these things when playing .
f bullying. [Call depends on what the person who is called tines
if the person thinks he is being bullied, then it is bullying.

Studeut: Yes there is (bullying) in our class, but it’s in fun. It is hard to say where
bullying ends and where fun (asob*) begins. It is a personal decision: This is fun,
is bullying.”

Who gets bullied is another difficult matter to sort out. The common perception i
that students who are socially isolated, have poor social skills,or who are physically
weak are often the targets of bullying. These students are not only weakly connected
to their classmates. but are often emotionally unable to cope with mild forms of ver-
bal harassment that other students consider "p| Teachers and parents both per-
ceived that in recent years the number of stude: nts who were potential social i:
lates was growing. These students are also likely to refuse to go to school, another
problem which concerns educators and parents. As one of the students at Naka Vo-
cational said:"People who are bullied are isolated. They don’t talk to friends.”

Oe

Another reason for bullying, offered by parents and teachers, is that today’s children
have few playmates. In the urban areas of Japan, many respondents noted that when
children reach adolescence they have not been fully socialized and cannot adjust to
the demands of school life. Students do not know how to moderate their behavior:

“When Twas a student, we had many siblings, we had brothers and sisters, we
understood the ‘rules’ (tefdo) of being a student. Like how far one could go. We
didn't know about problems of ‘going too far! But students now, well, there are
many forms of bullying. In the extreme there is murder, to be bullied to death. We
never had that in my day. Jt is a problem of knowing the limits. like in hitting and
fighting. Nowadays kids don't know about fighting.

176

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with materials. This teacher skillfully used diverse teaching stratcgics to vary the
level of activity in the room and maintain student interest. She carefully went over
New concepts repeatedly—new words were first explained. then read by a few stu
dents individually. then practiced as a group: students first read silently and then lis-
tened as one student read the same section: and the use of the scale was first
demonstrated by the teacher and then students immediately tried the same actions
in the L groups. The small groups were decided ahead of time and used for vari-
ous activities. not just for science. and students were familiar with the equipment
thes needed and with traveling to the laboratory room. Litde time was required for
preparations and cleanup and all except one student was fully prepared with tes
model scales made during previous cktss periods. notebooks, and writing suppli
‘Tue fourth-grade teachers were sharing the laboratory room scales. and had agreed
among themselves about how and where they wouid be stored. so this equipment.
too. was casily accessible and cleanup was straightforward.

The fourth-grade teacher at Hasu Elementary School began by instructing the stu-
dents to Move to the science faboratory room, and students gathercd together their
scales made of milk cartons, texts, notebooks, and pencil cases and slowly filed
down two flights of s Most were seated and settled before the chimes rang
After a brief lecture reviewing the previous lesson when students had weighed
erasers to compare weights, the teacher Wrote new vocabulary words related to
scales on the chalkboard. She asked individual students to take curas reading the
words to the chiss and then asked the entire class to read the words aloud together.
Students chanted the words and played with the intonation as they repeated them,
and the t textbook page
silently while the teacher disappeared into the next door preparation room to look
for an extra textbook for one boy who had forgotten his. When she returned she
asked one student to read the assigned page aloud to the ckass.The teacher neat in-
structed the "mother (eakdasam) of cach group to get the scales for their groups
Qvithin theic groups they are divided into “father?” mother brother! and “sister” G-
tles which emphasize the family-like nature of these groups). She then gathered all
the students around the table in the front of the room and demonstrated the parts of
a balancing scale and how to hold weights using a large model scale. She told stu-
dents to return to their groups and practice on their group's scale. Students worked
in their groups. more or less diligently. depending on the group. while the teacher
again disappeared into the preparation room for about 3 minutes.

On her return the teacher asked one litde boy who was crying quictly what was
wrong. He stood and said in a tearful voice that someone in his group was angry at
him. She took time to listen carefully to the group's explanation of what they said to
the boy. She told him it was not something to ery about and he should sit down and
she would check with their group biter.



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aWOLL awO}L
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Glossary

bur Opuonal extracurricular activiles
burakumin: Traditional low est caste of Japan
gakurcki shakai School credentialisnt
hensachi: suundarized scores

hoikuen. Day-care center

hoikusho Day-cire center

oshu jyugyo: supplementary lessons.

ijime: Bullying/teasing

im school

¢ Department

oku shijo Students whe have re

urned front an extensive period of staying overseas
koko suisen: Recommends

ion for high school entrance
kokuritse National institution
kurabu (hukatsudey: lub
Menkyoho Shiko Kisoku Regul
Monbusho: Ministry of
NUK

ions for Implimenung Teachers’ Lice

iducation, Science, and Culture

an Broadcasting, Society

NHK Scron Ghosthu: NUK public opinion pol department
NHK
Nihon Seishonen Kenkyusho  Jap:anese Research Center for

fon Chost NHK opition poll survey

ifdren and Youth

Nikkyoso Japanese Teachers Union

ronin (datigtku roniny Masterless samuni
the school of their chvice and ha

~ hugh school grace
¢ elected to sp

sho failed in the university cau
nd 3t full year preparing to take th

NCE EXAM TO.
in

aminations a

ruikci Tracking systems
Seumei Hoken Bunka Senta Culture Center of Life Insurance Co

senta shiken’ Center
Dai

mination administered by the
aku Nyushi Senta

onal Center for University Entree

mination,

shingakko Prisate chic ac,

demi¢ high schools w hich send a bigh proportion of grid

ates to elite colleges
Shitciko sunen, One of two recommendation systems. involves spe
are highly inked academically

1 quietas fo

pphcants from schools that

Shushoku ronin’ Mastertess samurai grid.
studing

es who fled in finding .t job and have elects d to spend a ull year

Somucho Seishoncn

ku Honbu) Children and Youth Division, Management and Coord:

ting ARENEY

tokubetsu waku: Special quotas i

certain departments (lor kikokushijoy
yobiker University entrince

AM preparitory school
sochien ki

Wlerearten

tw
a



so Thave to study and improve my teaching. It is good to be a teacher, but it is re-
ally difficult.

This vice principal had been at Meiji for over 20 years and all the student teachers
were graduates of this school. Although this is "big systems” training because of the
formal group setting and large number of student teachers. he also revealed some of
his personal struggles during his half-hour talk to the young potential (cachers.

‘Training sessions during the 6th and 10th years of work got rather mixed reviews
from the teachers in this study. For example, one high school science teacher gave a
typical response. regarding his LOth-year taining when Lasked whether it was useful:

Well. mm che fughed). You hear about various other teachers
can compare them to your own. That has some meaning. f gues »T wouldn't

say it was zero in terms of usefulness. Lwhen you have Gaught for ning years,
mostly you just end up saying ‘oh, right’ when you hear people wk. There wasn't
anything in particular dat made me think ‘wow, that is

Xpericnces and

amazing.

Many ceachers
Waly:

and administrators told me that the content of the training was not al-
Ss important as the chance to mingle with peers and reflect upon one’s job.
There also seemed to be a consensus that the work required for inservice training.
such as prepiring extensive lesson plains or reports about the training. was useful be-
cause it required self-reflection rather than because it provided new information. But
other teachers complained that while gathering together with other teachers was
sometimes enjoyable, it tock time away from their own teaching:

When you are away from things (because of attending mandatory training se
sions) you can't do the things at your school If something happens on the day

you have to be away—things are limited to happening on those days when you
take those kind of business trips, you know. Someone gets hurt or one is kicked
or something. 0 when Lam away | worry quite a bit.

This toacher continued to complain that the speakers at training sessions tre usually
well-known (era?) and do not say Chings that will embarrass themselves.“ They dom t
want to say things fikesT tried this and it didn’t go well” He described how the
teachers athis LOth-vear training session rebelled by not attending what they saw as
uscless sessions and instead divided themselves into subject groups and organized
renegade training sessions.

(These sessions) had some meaning. (Fe
puters to do science. OF course. cach individual's example was di
ifwe talked imilar things we would respond coope cly lo one
person. We would cach focus on the arca which we could do well And naturally

example) we tearned how to use com:

rent.so0 even

tbout doing,

207



i

Altitudes About Tracking

What do Japanese students fe
have on their future life
and cons of tracking. Th

about tricking? Given une cnormous effect it will

one would expect to hear heated debates about the pros
is not We case. Most Japanese students accept
the tracking, y describe the system as being neither good nor bad, but it
just is the way it is.An opinion of one high school te:
current, post-war tricking system

cher, who grew up with the
emplified this attitude:

Personally, don’t fect like rocking the boat at this stage. I've lived in this society
for so long that now | don't think about doing anything about it. Like everyone
else. | just let it be! (feacher Meiji High School)

Generally speaking, the Japanese attitude toward issues of education is more practi-
cal than ideological. an attitude well exemplified in regard to tracking. Instead of ar-
guing how the tracking system benefits or alicnates certain segments of the popula-
tion, the Japanese empha that tracking is the rule that everyone must follow in
Japanese societ ena parent in Hasu Elementary School.a school in a working
neighborhood that is known to be highly progressive, had this to say about

Tracking is a good thing because by the time students enter high school. they all
should know what they like and what they want to do in the future. So they
should go separate w and not stick togethe! in elementary school. (I
Hasu Elementary School)

As is the case with their teachers and parents. the vast majority of Japanese students
have already internalized the nec macy of tracking by the time they
reach junior high school. Below are (wo examples:

Ninth geade student (femate): think it is quite okay. This may sound conflicting
to what [said carlier [i.¢.. students should not be grouped acec rding to ability in-
side ac -but I think there are students who can study well and those who
cannot. So it is good that everyone ~an go to a high school that suits them. Onee
you get into a particular leve! of high school by passing the entrance exams. you
will be among the students who are at the same fevel as you are. That means
everyone is standing at the same start line. an! ‘ou have as much chance as oth-
ers in the school to excel. It is a new beginning for us. 1 think. so its good.

Seventh grade student demate): Of course it is good. Because there are different
levels of high school we can set our goals and work hard toward those gc
And for those who are at the bottom of their grade] fecl exactly the same
Kato-senpai. Comparing themselves to good students, they may always have to



dents engage. Spe hool assignments are shukuda?. preparing for lessons or te-
views of cl s called yosbri.and practice questions are reushi mondai. Shukudai
and yosbare the closest English approximations of “homework junior and
senior high school students will cover a certain part of the text in cla nd will be
expected to review the «v's lesson and prepare for the coming lesson as“home-
work. Reushit mondai are typically questions assigned by the teachers that high-
light salient parts of the lesson or mimic questions that will appear on upcoming
tests. -

In both junior high and high schools, the assignments for the days cl S$ are Com-
monly written by the students on the chalkboard in the rear of the homeroom cl
each day. students take turns throughout the year being responsible for writing,
down these assignments. The homeroom teacher also frequently checks to see that
the day's “homework “is recorded for all to see on the beard. This kind of studying is
associated with school work. While studying (beky) can mean “cracking the books.
it also has wider meanings As one parent at Chuo Junior high School put it:

Human development (ingen Reise?) is not just studying at a desk. [think they
have to prepare them for socicty—~they have to focus on human development. |
as the teachers do, that while in school they have to study, but they have
to Iearn things outside of that. as 1 said before, consideration for friends. kind
ness. | think they really have to study those things. Then there are the relations
between seniors and juniors (senpai/ko hai). They have wo study that a lot. It
isn’t just what Lexpect: they have to do these things if they are going to develop
their humanity. If the y won't have much humani best if
they can combine the Wwor studying and developing humanity. 1 think that is nee
essary for cducation at the junior high school.

Teachers saw the junior high school and high school years as a time when students
become more socially responsible. As students mature, the teachers expect them to,
take more active roles in the life of the school as well as take responsibility for in-
structing younger members of their clubs or conmmittees. However. the necessity of
preparing students for the entrance exams means that teachers rarely have cnough
time to devote to character development. In this regard. the parents were often criti-
cal of the education provided by the se! udents, they felt. were not develop-
ing a sense of social responsibility necessary for fife in Japan's adult world The
mother of a third-grade girl at Shimogawa put it this way

But when she gets out into the world. 1 think she will have to measure up to dil-
ferent standirds. So. when she goes out into society. it won’ tbe that she is good
or bad at math. nor if she can speak English well or not. There are lots of kids out
there without heart’ For us itis Most important to instill our students with a
sense of thoughtfulness for others (omotyars). Studying. well it is a problem if



own observations of the differences in the types of families of students at the vari-
ous clementary schools.

Japanese educators spoke freely about the social characteristics of people in the com-
munity and how that influences the level of students in the local elementary schools.
White collar communities were considered superior by Japanese educators because
parents in these communities were perceived as providing more support for school
ing. In general. the differences were considered minor by those we spoke with, and
there was no indication that Japanese parents in the three regions based decis
about where they would live primarily on the quality of clementary schools

Junior High School

Junior High School Curriculum

The junior high school curriculum is presented in Table 5.There are cight subjects,
including math and science, that are required in all three grades (7-9). Electives com-
prise about £0 percent of the total school hours. As is the case with the elementary
school cucriculum, the junior high school curriculum strives to balance academic
and non-academic subjects. Music, fine arts, health and phy: education are re-
quired subjects for all three grades. The most common clective subject is foreign lan-
guage, usually English, but music and fine arts are also offered as electives chosen
with the advice of the teaches.

Mathemat s becomes increasingly difficult and the pace
of the math curriculum accelerates during the junior high school years. Several
Japanese students comphiined during our interviews about the difficulty and pace of
junior high school math. Even students who reported little difficulty with arithmetic
in elementary school said that they were no longer able to keep up with math in jue
nior high school. Sometime around the eighth grade! explained one student
could no longer understand what was going oa in math”

The level of mathemati

sever Japan parents also complained about the level of difficult

vhool math. Echoing a common theme. a mother of five
.cived was the cause of her daughter's decline in math score
situation she di

of junior high
plained what she per-

s during junior high.a
ibed as the source of her present concerns:

In elementary school, students learn arithmetic and great differences between stu-
dents do not appear. However. in junior high school, math is ttught more system:
atically and rigorously. That is when differences between students start to appear.

av
be



mewn:

lesire Wo motivate oneself The American phrase.” Nothing is impossible
you put your miad to it” comes fairly close to this Japanese emphasis on the desi
and willingness to do things weil. The Japanese take it for granted that nearly all

achievement behaviors are don strong motivation.

Japanese students are surprisingly candid in attributing the reason for poor pertor-
mance toa person's lack of motivation.An clementiry school pupil even told me
that most of those who did not do well in math could actuaily solve problems, but
since they were not willing to study or think by themselves, they told everyone that
h.“All they do in the classroom. she continued."is talk (o their
ncighboring students and do not listen to the teacher. That's how they become bad
atomathoA high school student echoed the same fogic by saying. “Students who lack
willingness say ft don’t understand, but ifa teacher comes around to their desk and
makes them do problems, they are able to do them. So they do understand, but just
lack willingness to study”

they could not do ma

For teachers and parents. the willingness to study is regarded as one of the nece
sary factors on which students depend for their success One high school teacher re-
marked that if students did not have a willingness to study. it would not matter
whether they were good or bad at math, because “either way, they would not fisten
to what the teacher says.” But with a litde bit of willingness, the teacher can produce
improvement in a student atany level bee I. we are trained profession-
ally to do just that! One parent put it succinctly” Mouvaticn. Thats all that counts.
Unless you are a genius. success depends on how hard you are willing to work”

USC

Attitude. Another wav Japanese consider motivation is through one’s attitude. One
teacher at Naka Vocational High School suggested “the most important reason for dif.
ferences in students’ academic performance is the attitude-chat is, the manner with
which a student approaches tasks” Having the right acicude for the Japanese means
more than being serious or diligent about studying. Having the right attitude toward
study is being ready to fearn and absorb new lessons physically, mentally and spirit.
ally. The teachers’ particular concern for their students in Naka Vocational reflected
this point. That is. they thought that their students tended to regard themselves as:
underachicevers for various reasons and affirmed this negative perception for them-
selves. One teacher noted that there were two types of students at Naka Tech. “those
who came here to study what we offer-vocational cducation- and those who came
here just to pick up a high school diploma. He said those who were simply aiming

to get the diploma tended to have what he called. “lwilljust-cuen-my-back-on-the-
probleny’ approach. Their attiqide was."Whatever grades 1 get.) will be satisfied? But
the attitude of those who did well was that“l'm going to understand this problem.”

The teacher described how thi huge difference in how
well students did at Naka Tech. ving: Imagine vou were
in an accident. If you are willing to go through rehabilitation, you will improve. The

“types of attitude made
nd stressed his point by

94

dig



Teachers perecived the science curriculum at the high school level as demanding,
and they expressed concern because Mobusbo reduced the number of hours of
struction by eliminating two Saturday ¢ tmonth.“The standard number of
hours for chemistry decided by Monbusho is unreasonable,” explained a high school
chemistry teacher.” Even if there were 5 hours, we would have to cram. With -f
hours—now that is really cramming.“A biology teacher at Meiji High School added,
“students are being relentessly pursued by homework nov

n-

Academic bigh schools. While tracking is prohibited for junior high schools in
Japan. Woubusho regulations allow for tracking at the high school level. All of the
academic high schools in the primary and secondary research sites had imple-
mented some form of tricking. The most common practice at these schools was the
separation of students into humanities (bunke/) and science (ike/) tracks. Although
we observed no instance of tracking in the 10th grade. students were tracked during
the If thand 12th grades. This pattern is typical of academic high schools through-
out Japan.

J ¢ high school cducators indicated that placement in a track was largely de-
termined by students, but they also reported that the couraged students from se-
lecting tracks above their level of achievement. Since the amount of math and sci-
ence covered in the humanities and science tracks varies considerably, the less able
students or those less interested in math and science could efect to major in human-
ities. One high school principal reported that their humanities students received less
than one third of the math instruction of science students. Nevertheless, require-
ments for math and science were substantial for humanities students, and minimum
Monbusbo requirements still apply.

Arata High School further divided students into public/national university and pri-
vate university tracks. Therefore, students at Arata could place themselves into one of
four tracks, separated by which of the two types of university the student hoped to
enter and the track, humanities or science. that the student wished to follow. The
curriculum for the two science tracks at Arata was identical except that the instruc-
tional level for the public university track was reported to be somewhat higher.

In addition to the tracking of students into humanities and science tracks at the aca
demic high schools, schools also offer different levels of instruction in math within
these tracks. In the “casy” math the Monubusbo curriculum is slowed down and sim-
ple textbooks are used. This pace of instruction was characterized by one mother as
slow and gentle The teacher of this class said that he eliminated ¢
from the curriculum or gave casy problems to students
take what the Japanese consider" casy
school, four of six of the humanities

tain Lopics

lost humuanitics students.
“math. According to a teacher at Arata High
math curriculum.

classes

receive an”



cent of material weighted in the
“recommended admi

fection process. In the fast few years, the use of
sions” (siisen ny gaku) has also increased.

In 1992. there were over 3.2 miflion high schoof students in Japan and about 70 per-
of them attended public high schools. In 1992, over 32 percent of high school
graduates continued on to college or junior college, 30 percent went to one of the
lous specialty schools, about 32 percent found employment, and roughly 5 per-
cent were unemployed or not in school (Monbusbo, 1993).The percentage of stu-
dents who drop out of high school is gencraily low (about 2 percent), but this figure
varies considerably by type of school. Students in the night schools had a dropout
rate of over 15 percent as compared with only about 1 percent for academic high
schools (Monbusho, 1993)

High school periods. like those in junior high school, last 50 minutes and the school
year is scheduled for 1.190 hours.As in junior high school, extra classes are com-

monly provided by academic high schools, but vocational schools rarely organ
such classe

ic

Clubs and other extracurricular activities also consume a good deal of
the students’ time. Students in vocational schools tend to take part-time jobs during
the year.and most of these students enter the workplace upon graduation.

Shadow Education

Japan supports a wide range of academic institutions outside of the school system.
This dense network consists of home tutors. correspondence courses, juku,and
exam prep schools G'eb/k6) (Rohlen, 1980: Stevenson & Baker. 1992). These extra-
school forms of education have been described as “shadow education” because their
curriculum tends to shadow the curriculum offered in the public schools.

Most of these forms of education are collectively refer
parents and students. There are Qvo major types of fuk: individual enrichment
courses (Haraigoto/okeigoto), and academic juku (gakushi).The academic juku
are further divided into review juku (posh), which cater to students who need re-
medial assistance and advancement juku (shingaku), which cater to students
preparing for the entrance ms. Schools that specifically prepare students for the
college entrance exams are called yobikd . Students who fail to get into the colleg
of their choice may spend a year or (wo studying at these schools after
high school

dito as juku by Japanese

sraduating

The individual cnrichment courses are primarily nonacademic and some Japanese
consider them to be distinct from the academic juki These juku teach such activi-

tics as swimming. piano, or calligraphy and are most popular among elementary



There are fots of students who do not like math or science. 1 think part of the
problem is that there is such a gap between the junior high school and senior
high school curriculum.Also, there are not cnough opportunities for junior and
senior high school math teachers to coordinar instruction. Also. there is not
enough time for drills. There is a time when students need to be forced to do
drills. If at that time you don’t force students to do drills and only emphasize
thinking and conceptualization, they end up falling behind. Strength in math. like
English, comes from drills. Comparing textbooks of today to those 10 years ago, 1
sense that thi is less substance to the textbooks today

Further, the cone
ers Who do not lik
math teacher sai

udents who do not like math or science become teach-
ience, thereby perpetuating a vicious circle. As one

nis thats
mith or

If the teachers dislike math, it is very difficult to communicate good uses of
math. We emphasize the importance of this point often in the training of new
teachers. Ifa teacher does not have enthusiasm for math. he or she cannot be an
effective teacher: Heart and ‘spirit’ are important in teaching.

Equity and National Standards

Although national standards in Japan help ensure that al students in compulsory ed-
ucation haye similar opportunities to fearn they cannot guarantee equality of out
come. Indeed, many Japanese parents and educators perceived significant differ-
ences in outcomes between schools a: clemen school.and the
differences me More pronounced at the junior and senior high school levels.

The Impact of Social Class

The contrasts between Chuo aad Shimogawa Junior High and between Arata and
Meiji Senior High Schools illustrate the importance of social class in Japanese society,
panese parents and teachers overwhelmingly perceived important social class dif
ferences in ability to provide home support for academic achievement. and cited so-
cial class as a major factor in Japanese students’ academic achievement. This percep:
ion is illustrated in the comments of a Japanese principal when asked if he perceived
arelationship between parental socioeconomic status and academic achievement:

This is a difficult question. Hmmm. ft depends on what sort of ability you are
talking about. But iit is the ability to take entrance examinations. then T think
that there is a rekutionship. Some parents send their children to jake They hire
home tutors and force the children to study. Families without economic power

doo



Summary... 2.2... 22 ee
Job Rotation
Atypical Day... 2... ee See
Work Hours. 2. 0 2 ee wee
Elementary school teachers. . 2...
Junior high school teachers . 2 2...
High school teachers
Timing... 2... ..-020.- Le
High schoo! morning meeting... . 2... .
E

jementary school morning meeting . . . .
Sehool Structure 2. eee
Formal structures. 2... ee Fe
Management committee .
Student guidance committee 2...
School health committee 2.2... .. ce
Other committees . .
Informal Structures... 6 ee
Teachers and administrators .
Interactions among teachers... 2.2... fe
Learning from Each Other 2. 02 2 2 eee
Architectural Openn

Discussions in the Teachers’ Room and Between Classes
Cas

ual Peer Interactions as Learning . .

Socializing as Learning .

Looking for Evidence... 2 2. 2 2 2 oe.

Formal Demonstration ©

Responsibility and Freedom
More Than Academics -

Becoming Good Teachers
Motivation .
Being well-rounded
The Value of Fun and lateraction. . 2...
Learning Specifie Skills .
Teaching. 2. 2... Fee

Elementary

xii



dents in the “cass” math take 2 hours per week of math in the 12th grade. as op-
posed to 7 hours for the top science track. Nevertheless itis noteworthy that even
these humanities students reported studying calculus.

At the other end of the ability spectrum. Arata High School took the top 50 percent

of math achievers in the Wo highest classes of science majors and constituted

third “aceclerated” math course. The purpose of this course was to give the top stue

dents a math curriculum rigorous cnough to make them competitive in the entrance

examinations. The course moved quickly and teachers reported that about half of

the students were unable to keep up with the pace of instruction. this special accel
rated course began in the eleventh and continued through the 12th grade.

struction in math to students in the
These students completed the entire math curriculum in 2 y¢ Phe
last year of high school is spent reviewing problems and practicing for the university
entrance examinations. This was a common practice at those nigh schools where
large proportions of students are aiming for admission to prestigious universi

Meiji high school also provided accelerated i
science trac

A higher proportion of females than males selected the humanities tracks in the
high schools we visited. Consistent with tabulations conducted by the school. one
teacher estimated that at his high school. only one-third of the science students, but
two-thirds of the humanities students were female. even though cnroliment in the
school is roughly equal in terms of proportions of males

and females.

Most of the respondents believed that the unequal gender representation wis a
product of self-selection. based on students’ per ions ender differences in
ability and interest. The argument was that gic! sted in or as good at
science and meth as males:

There is little difference between boys and girls on the tests in math in the sev.
enth and cighth grade. However. as soon as you hit the ninth grade. all of the sud-
den boys start Icaping ahead. They have a purpose and start studying. I see boys
and when the time comes they can really study, but girls. looking at my daughter
lor instance. they are distracted by many things. You can’t do math by feeling
That is where [even fet that the structure of my brain is ditferent. When Fak
with my son. hell say"Mom. the content of your Giking is just viking. There is
no structure to it” think that this is a big part of the reason for the differences
between boys and girls. | think t because girls dont have that kind of brain,
they cannot do math. F wasnt able to do itand my daughter is not able to do it
(Mother of female high school studend



old material over the long vacations, although the students confessed to not studying
much for thi Cests

Teachers reported giving students “small tests” (sbotesito) for the purpose of moni-
toring students level of mastery of concepts. For example, the practice of the math
department at Arata High School is to give one or two small tests between the major
exams.The purpose of the tests is to make students "memorize problem-solving
techniques and to measure mastery of material that will not be covered on the
major exams.” At Arata, these small tests are included as part of the students’ grades:
the major exams account for 80 percent of the grade and the small tests make up
the remainder. Other departments at Arata High have adopted different weightings
for major exams and small tests.

Orientation tests covering the junior high curriculum are administered to all newly
admitted LOth-grade students as they begin high school in the three prefectures. The
school uses the test results to rank the incoming students and these rankings are
used by the school to advise the students about areas in the curriculum where they
are weak. The tests are devised by the regional boards of education for the entire dis-
trict and the results are used within the district to compare schools.

Certification Examinations

The majority of Japanese high school graduates do not anticipate enrolling in a col
lege or university (Shimizu ct al, 1995). and therefore do not take a university en-
trance exain. There are. however. national level examinations for non-college bound
students. Certification tests are available in a number of vocational subjects, and are
recognized by employers throughout Japan. These tests are particularly useful for
students from vocational high schools or low-ranked academic high schools. The cer-
tification examinations test mastery of the Monbusho curriculum for vocational sub-
jects and. in many cases. are quite difficull (Dore & Sako, 1989).

One electricity major ata vocational high schoot said that he took the electrical
technician certification test because it Would be “one more thing to sell myself
with? He failed the test. but. determined to get some sort of certification. he took an-
other test which was outside his major in the area of hazardous waste handling.
which he passed.

or



lecturer ora participant presentation followed by formal questions and answers,
Teachers often reconvene over drinks or coffee for further discussion ia more ine

formal atmosphere. These groups offer time to learn, present id
work. and socialize.

and research. net

Mammary Vo sun:

Ist-vear Ceachers receive about 60 hours of in-school trai
ing and 30 hours of ouCofschool training and 5 or more days of (raining involving
overnight sttys. he in-school training mainly involves guidance by experienced
thers w ho are anced as mentors, formal observations of model classes, ind ine
form discussions. The out-oF-school! training includes lectures, practice teaching.
volunteer work in (ae community, study groups. and cisits to schools, educational
for children, welfare homes. and private businesses. The goal is to learn from
teachers in other schools and to learn
Monbusho also sponsors an 11 training cruise cach summer for a selected group
of 2.400 new teachers. The cruises include lectures by specialists on teaching meth-
ods, prescntitions about the structure of schools and the role of teachers. and visits
to Vocational. academic, and cultural institutions in port cities. The goal is for partici-
pating teachers Co develop relationships across regional and school boundaries.
Teachers not selected for the national cruises generally participate in focal overnight
training programs for beginning teachers.

n-

hing.

Three of my interviewees and several principitls had cither already traveled to or
were about to travel to forcign countries through training programs designed for ob-
servations in foreign schools. One reason schools were so receptive to my presence
was Chat] was seen as a source of information about foreign schools. More specifi-
cally, (wo teachers had upcoming foreign ips planned and used my visit to ask
questions ts part of their preparations. Also. the vice principal at Minami called me
alter my Visit to ask for my help in finding good interpreters for an upcoming Mon-
busho-sponsored trip t0 vis hools in Ohio, Colorado, and California for which
‘his emphasis on visiting foreign schools as pact of lifelong cdu-
cation for teachers would scent to reinforce strongly a sense of professionalism and.
the importance of continued Iearning.

he was an organizer.

Job Rotation

lementitrys and junior high school te:
and high school teachers are hired by the prefectur
ers at both levels reported that they saw themscives as hired by their respective
board of education, not by an individual school. so they expected to be transferred
Among Various schools. usustly without being consulted. They
be transferred out of ckissrooms into the education research ©

so knew they might
ater the board of cd-
ucation offices. or other administrative or research positions Teachers have almost
ho control over their assignments

209



Alienation from Math and Science (Risubanare)

Equity and National Standards 2. 0 00 ee
The Impact of Social Class 2 ee
Regional Differences

Conclusion

Chapter 3

Individual Differences and the
Japanese Education System.....

‘By: Hidetada Shimizu

Introduction. 2.

Field Research Methodology 2... 0 2 ee
Japanese Perceptions of Individual Differences.

Kinds of Individual Differen

Conerete Classroom and Academic Behaviors...

Exam Scores 2... 0 0...

Personality 2.

Sources of Difference... 2.

Lack of Study

Lack of Motivation . 2... .

Interest in and liking to study 2... 2...

Willingness or desire to study 2. 0 0 2 ee
Attitude 2... 2...

Family Backgrounds . 2... 2 0 ee
Parental encouragement to study
Socioeconomic status 2 ee

Locality. 2 ee

Compulsory Education as Whole Person Education

Lack of Instructional Grouping... 2 2 ee
Ability Grouping Is Discrimination. 2 2. 6.
Ability Grouping Harms Students Emotionally .
Moral Benefits ee rn

Whole Class Instruction. 2...

Structure of Whole Class Instruction. 26 6...

Examples of Whole Class Instruction

Vili

~9

~y
80
81
84

85
85
86
88
88
92
92
92
93
O41
91
95
9°
98
99
99
too
100
fas
103
104



do well in academics. People become stupid when they decide for themsclves
that they are stupid. If anybody makes an effort. he can do better. Student. Chuo
Junior [High School)

Lack of Motivation

The Japanese often deseribe their nation a

resoure

nd country with few natural
2s, but plenty of people who are willing to work hard-Thus, the Japanese
have given higher regard to people with high levels of motivation than to those with
only ability or tent. Undoubtedly, this underdog mentality has a dircet impact on
how much energy people put into their work. One principal told me, for example.
“We've been basically a poor country with no resources up until recendy. Poverty
motivated the nation as a whole to catch up [with the West].and before we knew it.
we had achieved this goat’

The motive to do well is considered to be a virtue in its own right. and to encourage
stulents to study hard. Japanese teachers and parents often use the expression. If

1 tried your hardest, it wouldn't matter if you succeeded or not.” We found three
egories of motivation that teachers, parents, and students believed to have con-
tributed to success at school: (a) having interest in (Ryomi or Ranshin) or liking
(suki ot fanoshii) to study, (b) having a willingness or desire Garuk/) to study. and
(c) having the right attitude (¢aido) for studying.

Duerest in and liking to study.Vf you like it. you will be good at it” (suki Roso
mono Ho jozunate) is a Japanes inese teachers, parents, and students
take this philosophy to heart.A teacher at Naka Vocational said that for the majority
of his students who did poorly on math. studying math offered no rewards. He said
that since these students could not even recall times when they felt that studying.
math was enjoyable or satisfying, he had to go back to where the student had stum-
bled and have her re-experience that studying math could do good for her. ] asked a
mother why some junior high school students did well and others did poorly while
pointing lo the bell-shaped curve I had drawn to indicate variation among students.
Pointing at the higher end of the bell curve. she said."You know those students up
here... They just love math. They like to solve math problems, including applied
problems.They are just like that.” Students shared the same view udents who
wonder and hecome interested and curious usually do well, because they keep
studying and trying to find out answers.” (Student, Tancho Elementary School):"Peo-
ple who are good at math are that way because they think it’s fun. Those who are
bad at math usually dont like it”

Willing
is made of two parts, para lo de

or desire to study. Yaruki.the Japanese word for motivation to achieve.
nd ki mental energy” Jrokaon the other hand.



Fete lal

Even the bottom students in the top math class end up with better grades than
the students in the bottom classes. If anything. the problem is with the students
who cannot keep up in the bottom classes. These students would end up giving,
up.That is why we teach to the top half of the students in the top math class and
to the bottom half ¢* the students in the bottom classes. (Math teacher, Arata
Kigh School)

Most of the teachers we interviewed indicated that the goal of instruction is expo-
sure, not mastery. Although most Japanese high school students are exposed to cal-
culus, Japanese teachers indicated that they did not expect all their students to un-
derstand calculus. When asked.“What percentage of students. in your experience, are
able to do calculus problems and understand calculus?” one teacher said:

About 20 percent of students are able to both do and understand. Almost afl stu-
dents are able to do caleulus, although they may not understand it. am referring
to science students here.As for the humanities students. ail those that have taken
math are able to do calculus, whether or not they understand it. But very few stu-
dents understand the concept of change in calculus. That is why I think that
there is an clement of the horse learning to pull out the card when hearing two
thumps. 1 do not think that this is a good way to teach math. I dislike this im-
mensely. But I forget that and teach.

Retention (genkyittomeok?) is rarely practiced in Japanese schools, particularly during
the compulsory years. or even during senior high school. In fact. one senior high
school teacher could not recall a time in his entire teaching career when a student was
retained. Other senior high school teachers reported “one case every 4 or 5 years.”

Instead of retaining students. Japanese teachers are encouraged by administrators to
provide extra instruction in basie skills @usbinsya shido) to students having trouble
meeting minimum school standards. This may involve the teachers spending time
with students outside of class or providing remedial homework assignments during *
the summer or winter vacations. In spite of these efforts, some students still perform
poorly on examinations. In these Japanese teachers reported practicing what
they call “letting the student put on a pair of gefa Japanese clevated wooden
clogs)” This expression refers to giving students extra points for good effort.

The observations suggest that the attitude of the Japanese teachers we interviewed
toward the lowest-achieving students is one of providing support for improvement
rather than attempting to motivate students through fear of failure. This attitude

comes out in teachers’ comments about these students. In a soft tone of voice. one
teacher acted out how he would instruct a low-achieving student.”For you. 1eus say
you try the bese you can to get this kind of score. ¢ ita goal All right.

00d.



order to fit in with the group. the (vo tendencies are not contradictory but stem

from the student's desire to be like his or her friends. When friends are interested in
schoo} advancement. there will be friendly rivalr
tests. When students are not interested in adva
when they perecive litle chance for adv
to study. One

over who gets the most points on
acing in school or, more commonly,
neing. friends may provide the impetus not
ther at Chuo described the effect of his son’s friends on studying:

On studying? Those who cut. compete to see who can't [ltughter}, But 1 chink
he really wants to do a litde better than his friends. Of course if he is loo far
above. then he is like a different group. They domt want o fose ta other students
of the same group or level.

‘The culture of studying at Meiji is an example of one of intense academic compe
tion among students. Meiji students have been sefected from the upperacademic
ranks of their respective junior high schools. Afl of them have shown themselves to
be persistent students and excellent testtakers. Students at Meiji noted that competi-
tion with friends motivated them to study, but that friends also helped cach other to
study. fasked one Meiji study how friends affected her studying? She replicds1 don't
want to lose to them. So we have mutual competition” A mate student at Meiji said
that friends:"... will help me when | don’t know something. Also, when I sce a
friend trying (ganibaru) then I try hard?

Rather than trying to do better by undermining others, students at Meiji and other
advancement schools participate in a culture of mutual striving. While students mity
be rivals and compete to see who gets the highest test score, this riva

ondary to the competition over entrance to high school or college.
place on a city, prefectural. or national fevel and where students do not se
selves in direct competition with cla: tchers reinforce the sense of mutual
struggle by comparing class grades or s with city or national averages, Stu-
dents know their own future will be decided by their performance on the test. but
they sce themselves not in direct competition with their fricnds. but competing ina
large pool of applicants. Students perccive peer performance as a benchmark for
their own work, and they try to stay abreast or just ahead of the group.

them-

Atevery level, teachers try to instill this mutual spirit of competition and coopera.
ion. Parents hope that their child will make friends with a group of motivated.
bright students:

As parents we look and say On, if he hangs out with that kid. won't his grades go
down?’ So you hope. you think about. ... But there are various kids, various abili-
tics. As for my boy. T hope that he will be influenced by clever friends. (Shimo-
gawa paren



Sources of Difference
Lack of Study

When one asks a Japanese why a student does poorly, particukuly in mathematics.
one of Most common responses she receives Would be. bewkyo busoku. or lack of
study. Pointing to the of study as the very reason for one’s poor academic per-
formance is reflected in the commonly used word, ude. Ye means oil. and dan
means to be out of. “Don't cun out of oil” parents and teachers say. meaning. Dont
ever think you have studied cnough.” Just as people before the time of clectricity
had to make sure that they did not run out of oil. the students have to miatke sure
that they are well prepared in their effort to do well in school A junior high school
student testified about the danger of yudan as follows:

A friend in your
believe such

s might say“ not studying so much for this exams If vou
a statement, you tend to goof off, too. Buc it usually Curns out that
most other people in the class are studying really hard. and you end up bein:
the bottom of your chiss. (Parent, Midori Junior High School

The Japanese see the fearning of math in particuls a result of cumulative effort. For
example. isinikasane. the Japanese word for “accumulating knowledge? means build-
ing one thing over another. In order to crect pillars. mason has to lay cornerstones
first upon which the pillars will stand. This was the dominant image by which Japan-
ese teachers, parents, and students explained how academic competence was built.

Nearly everyone we talked with agreed that clementary cducation was the basis of
junior high and high school cducation, and that math cducation epitomized this
principle.As one parent said:

Math ability is something you accumuktte over a long period of time. Ifyou ne:
glected your effort to build the foundation of basic arithmetic in clementary
school, you would not be able to build anything else on top of that That’s when a

student becomes bad at math. (Parent. Naka Vocational High Schoob

One teacher said:

Kor some students such bi

ic things as the reading and writing one learns in cle:
mentuirs school hive nol become part of their habit. The, do not tack ability. but
they simply neglected to fay the proper foundation at that stage.

Students generally agreed with parents and teachers. For cxample.as a reason for
doing poorly in math. thigh school student noted.” Math is accumukition

88

La;



Testing Industry

Vhs importance of test scores in gaining entrance to good schools and access to
good jobs has led to the growth of a large t g industry in Japan. Until the carly
1990's, large private Companies (gresha) conducted mock examinations of all public
junior high school students. With these data, the large companies were able to give
students a precise estimate of their bensachi. an adjusted score from which a per-
centile ranking for cach student could be determined. Since almost alt graduating ju-
ior high school students took the tests, the large companies were able to advise stu-
dents about appropriate high schools to which they should s
sult. the student's junior high s is circunwented source of gui
about high school cntrance. Fearing that students were relying too much on these
companies and the bensachi score and too little on the junior high schools, .Wom-
busbo forbade the practice of grosha tests several years ago.

In spite of Morbusho's action restricting the gyosha tests, Japanese students con-
tinue to seck outside help in making decisions about applying to high schools. Many
students still turn to juke for help in deciding what level of high school to submit
an application. Large national jkie chains conduct mock examinations that are simi-
far to the gyosba tests. Since these examinations are taken by large numbers of stu-
dents, the major juke chains are able to give students a good estimate of their ben-
sdchi score. Knowing the score.a student is able to estimate the likelihood of
giining acceptance to certain tocal high schools, although this has become more dit
ficult because not alf students take the tests.

Because of the value of the bersachi data. Japanese parents in the main research site
pressured schools to come up with an alternative to the gyosba test. As a result in
Naka City, the remnants of the two fargest testing conipanies were onstituted into
a hew company. This company offers a test similar to the one Wat .Wowbusbo pro-
hibited. However. the compiuny circumvents Worbusho restrictions by conducting
the test outside of the junior high schools at large p ic univer: sor in auditori-
ums. Because of the valuable information such testing provides. one teacher ¢sti-

ed that over 85 percent of junior high school students take this reconstituted
sha test. Information about this test is used by teachers in their recommenda-
tions for high school applications.

Alienation from Math and Science (Risubanare)

The difficultics presented by the entrance examinations and the math and science
curriculum were cited by a number of teachers as factors in what they perecived to
be an alarming movement among young people away from math and science. At uni
versitics. there has been a notable drop in students majoring in engineering and in



semesters. we have a mecting just with the parents. Often it is just the mother.
Out of thirty students Cd say that only one father comes, so it is realy 99 percent
methers

Interviewer:Are there other times when parents come?

Yeacher:Yes. three times in a year. Three times to see the class. Also there is the
exercise (tide) meet, Music meet and other exhibitions (happyo-kai).

By junior high school. parents arc coming to school less, especially to view classes
However. at some schools parents will still turn out in numbers for school events. Ac:
cording to one parent who was active in the PTA at Shimogawa:

There are parents who are very positive and those we never see at all. About half
and half There are working couples. where the mother also has a job. quite a few
at this school. For many parents it is inconvenient to get the time.

While parents of junior high school students tend to come to school for fewer
events. they are still active in such organizations as the PTA. In the Japanese PTA. the
parents elect one or two members to represent all the parents of the students in that
Two common PTA activities are producing a newspaper. which keeps parents
formed of what the students are doing at school. and providing support for major
school cvents fike the vearly festivals.

el
i

As one mother at Naka Vocational explained to me. parents can rekix when their stu
dents get into high school. Even in cases where
study. the effect is negligible. A teacher at Naka Vo

nts still admonish student

ional noted:

‘There are many parents at our school who have stopped demanding anything of
their kids. Even like coming home late. 1} wish they would be a little stricter They
tell their kids to study. but the kids are high school students. so they don ttisten

Atthe high school level. parental involvement is also affected by the kind of high
school that students attend, Parents of Meiji students appeared to be more likely to
come to school for various events than parents at other schools. When there are spe-
cific events that affect students’ future academic opportunities. teachers at Meiji can
expecta strong showing For middle-ranked schools like Arata. parental turn out can
be lower An Arata teacher noted:

Well.at the sports festivals most of those who came were all PEA members In
terms of other things at the school that parents take partin. there are lectures on
school advancement. They come to school to hear about school advancement
matters. but P dont think the percentage of those coming is so high.



talk about social problems, in those houscholds where students lack a parent.
that is Where you see tobacco and thinner use [sniffing glue or paint thinner is
the most common form of substance abuse among Japanese adolescents]. Here
the parents are definitely around. so we don't nave these problems.

Whether or not parents and teachers blamed a lack of strictness or a lack of commu-
nication for the problems of Japanese young people. all were concerned about the
lack of social connection between adolescents. This is a condition Urat many feel is
ng in Japan. The current generation of adolescents, adults hypothes is not
dept at developing friendships as previous gene: s.At Naka Vocational one
cher noted that because students had underdeveloped social skills. the possibility
for students to develop negative relationships became more like!

Well. from where I stand, ld say the students aren't very good at making friends.
Yo make friends. well... you have to mutually boost cach other's goals. Our stu-
dents don't really make “friends” What happens is that they egg cach other on
riding bikes without permission or license. staying out late. The negative side is
common, They aren't very good at making the positive kind of friendships.

‘Teachers were generally concerned about the decline in upbringing of students
(sbitsuke) and their inability to work within the highly structured Japanese schoo!
setting. Educators saw themselves as the primary teachers of proper social behavior
and worried that students were not exposed to good models at home.
teacher at Shimogawa put it:

As onc

Upbringing (shitsuke). Now a days, quite a lot of the teaching of upbringing is
tid.

given at the school: grectings. manners, and the like. The school gives that
ance. but | would be thankful if the home were the base for upbringing. For
ample. in a recent bullying incident. mone fually disappearing from the
parents purse. If the people at home were c about this. the incident would
not have happened

Ateacher at Midori described problems between students and their families in the
following way

They don't understand their studies. they don’t play with friends. (ney are re-
moved from everyone. They can’t communicate. so they casily slip into bad be
havior, they break thing:
lems at home.

These students appear to have communication prob-

These problems at home sometimes escalate into violence. Students from poor fami-
lies. and studeats who have only one parent.are considered more likely to commit
acts of violence at home. The counsclor at Naka Vocational described his work

165

bore



One teacher spoke of the difficulty of the science curriculum:

The junior high school science curriculum is quite difficult. Even high school
teachers will look a it and say Wow, these kids are doing difficult things in junior
high? I fecl that contentis such that students are probably memorizing it without
understanding it. Oth grade chemistry teacher, Naka Vocational High School)

several junior high school science teachers also complained that they had trouble
covering the entire science curriculum in the allotted instruction time. Echoing a
common criticism of science education in Japan. these teachers said that they felt
pressured to teach science as a mass of fitcts to be crammed in rather than a way of
learning about the world. One voung junior high school teacher who emphasized
experiments in the carly part of the semester found himsclf in a tough position. Ue
had to reduce the amount of material that he covered in the textbook.“ want to
communicate the joy of doing science. the teacher explained, but by mid-semester,
he said he was “panicking” about how to cover everything that had to be covered in
the curriculum so that his students would be prepared for the material on the high
school entrance cxamination

One junior high school science teacher said that the reason many students lost inter
estin science at the junior high school level is because there was not enough in-

structional time to cover everything in the curricutum. “Students.

“he expktined. end
up thinking of science as a subject with a lot to memorize and they get turned off
The teacher added that in junior high school the level of the textbooks is too high
and there is not cnough instruction time to cover the entire curriculum. fle further
felt (hat more instructional time is needed for conducting experiments.

Instruction in Junior High School

‘tions of parents and tcachers to the difficulty of the curriculum, the
pace of instruction in junior high math classrooms we observed was not what one
would expect from such criticisms. The crisses secmed to proceed ata slow pace. In
fact. Pobserved a couple of students drawing citrloon cl eters after they finished
the assignment carly. The pace was unhurried, the students talked and joked with
nother, and the clitss atmosphere was pleasant and cheerful.

This was also true of the junior high school science cl
planations by the teacher and were provided plenty of time to conduct
ments. There are students who always finish experiments and schoolwork carly. For
xaMple.one group of three hoys worked methodically and cfficicnauy, finishing the
expernment within LO minutes. These students spent the remainder of the 20 min-
utes of class doing work for other chisses. The teacher ignored these cfficient stu-

a]
ba



Parental Perception of the Elementary School
Curriculum

Most respondents did not perceive the level of math and science, or other subjects,
required of clementary school students to be ex vely demanding. In fact.one
mother characterized the clementary school and the curriculum in the opposite v

Hementary school has alot of free time. For example. in arithmetic and science
and such. the point is to make students interested in what is out in the world. For
son likes science and he used to make robots: now he makes things
with lego: tis important not to push them. Rather] think that one must give
them time to think. Also, they study many subjects in clementa hool. 1 think
of this as a foundation for a litetime.1 think the purpose of clemet hool cd-
ucation is to provide experience. to show kids what is out in the world. and to
let kids develop an interest in things that comes fram the spirit. (Mother of
fourth-grader, Matsu Elementary)

Testing in Elementary Schools

Because there is no entrance examination for entrance into public junior high
schools, clementary school education in Japan is not oriented toward an entrance
amination. One clementary school teacher said that if they prepared students for
xaminations. the purpose of elementary school education would be lost. Public cle-
mentary schools provide no extra cl or special instruction for students taking
entrance examinations for private junior high schools. Elementary school teachers.
however, may give encouragement and advice about home study (Rafeigakushi) to
these students. An elementary school in Kita City has a policy forbidding homework.
but ceachers expect that children will review the day's lesson and will study the
bext tesson. Teachers also suggest topics of study to selfmotivated students

Although there is no concern about preparing elementary school students for test-

ing oriented toward examinations. clementary school teachers do frequenuy test stu-
dents. The purpose of these tests is to evilua
instruction. Tests are given by teaches
towed rough

e the students and the effectiveness of
Ss once every # to 6 weeks and students ar
to complete them, Students are not ranked in comparison
to other students according to their performance on these s but are given
grades, typi three-point scale (A.B and ©). The grades are used by teachers
to calculate semester grades for report cards.

We found that standardized intelligence tests (IQ tests administered in Japan:
ese schools. At the clemet ~ school level. for example, teachers reported that star
dents are given group tests of intelligence in the second. fourth and sixth grades. The



Japanese familics also are willing to allow adolescents to study in licu of doing house
work or other household duties. Few adolescents had any specific chores around the
housc. Most students came home, ate dinner with one or both parents, and then
studied or relaxed. Japanese parents (and grandparents) are willing to provide their
children with moncy for clothes. compact dises, aud video rentals. Many parents felt
that studying must be balanced by adequate recreation. They were willing to give
students money to buy these recreations, and they felt it important to make sure
that their children had a chance to relax while engaged in preparing for the en-
trance exams. However, unsupervised recreation time was limited for most adoles-
cents. The major activities that students engaged in were shopping or going to

Many adolescents were content to simply spend time at home or ata
friend’s home. watching videos or listening Co music.

ignificant aspect of family-school relations is the declining involvement of par-
ents as use child progresses through the education system noted by parents, teach-
ers. and students alike. While most parents make great efforts to participate in ele-
mentary school events, participation at the junior high school and high school levels
seems to wane. However. parents still appear ready to support their chiluren
through investinent in extra-school activities, and many families spend great sums to
enroll students in juku. Itappears that as children pass into adolescence. parents ex-
pect the school to take more respon: ity for organizing activities for students, and
teachers to take an active role in gu ig and advising.

Reform of the Education System

Our respondents (parents. teachers, students. and cducation officials) supported a
uniform approach to providing a nurturing education at the elementary level.a
more intensive academic and extra-curricular program in junior high.and a highly
differentiated program at the high school level. In the early years of education, the
curriculum is geared to the average student. and serious academic competition docs
not affect most students until the second or third year of junior high school. The
mitjor academic issues raised by teachers, parents, and students centered around the
role that entrance exams play in Japanese schooling. Many of our respondents felt
that this system has created too much pressure on students and teachers alike. Pub-
fic schooling. some said. was becoming more about getting into a good college than
about getting a good education

Although the Monbusho has advocated more consideration of the individual in cdu-
cation and mandated a decrease in the number of days in the school week, the re-
sults up to now have only served to heighten the pressures that teachers and stu-

XNi



AU8:25 am. no one wis in the teachers room except the t
their desks here. At 8:29 aaim.almost all the other teachers were gathered and
seated at the long tibles in the back.The chimes ring at 8:30 a.m-.iand the vice
principal sands as the chimes are still ringing. te begins to Luk immediately as
the chimes cnd. The first announcement is from the teacher who is the head of
the student council. There is @ second. quick announcement. and (hen the vice
Principal announces that they will discuss a student problem and the head of the
student guidance department (seffe sbidan bir) discusses a Istycar student who
had a motorcycle accident on May 17. He describes that the boy has been com-
ing to school to reflect on his actions (hause? sri) ina straightiorw ard
GekkyoRu teki ni) and energetic wity so he wants to ask the permission of all
the teachers for t

hers who have

boy to be allowed to come back to school [He had been
suspended hecause students are not allowed to ride Motorbikes|. The teachers
take a quick voice vote and there was no dissent. so he is alowed buck

The meeting ended just before 8:35 am..and the room empticd as quichiy ats it
filled. The efficieney and respect for time seem to indicate

ence to rules. but te

vidhty and strict adher-
chers did not report that thes feel coerced
several teachers criticized some aspects of mectings within the
that there are too many meetings and the mectings kist too long. But the ef
of informational mectings seemed to be appreciated

to rigid schedules
r school—mainty

Hementary school nrorning niceting My notes from S
Necta simikir mix of efficient information sh

su Flementiry School re-

ing wand More scrious student issues

The morning informational mecting stirts promptly at 8.30 iam. with the chimes
The principal begin che meeting by inoducing me Then there are several an-
nouncements by various teachers. One announcement conceras the ned to
watch students so they would noc run in the hallway Another teacher
something about using computers. 3

WNOUTECS
nda third teacher announces that (here was

aesafely inspection vesterday and asks the Ceachees fo all get out the sheet he bitd
passed oul. The chimes ring to end the meeting and the principal tikes the mike
and thanks the teacher inc ad in whe
paper that a fourth: or filth-grade student in the prefecture was running in the
hallway and cau

argc Of safety. He says that today he re

tht his hanst in (he lire hose and his finger gol cut off. He says.

they should check for those ty pes of hazards too AWCestctly 8:37 Em the meet

ing is over and teachers are Culking and getting ready for the first class

\Ithough both of these meetings might seccn to tiviahze important issues by dis:
cussing them so briefly ina quick mecting. he information is conveyed eficicntly to
dll Ceachers. Paws told that committees had previously discussed every agendit item
thoroughly. so that all deta
being voted upen or presented in at brick announcement aban informational mecting

amiliar toa representative group of teachers before



To facilitate the proper implementation of the curriculum, the Monbusbo curricu-
lum guidelines make clear the content, the desired order and the durittion of instruc:
tion for all subjects and all grades. The topics of study for each school subject during
each school ¥ listed. but detailed descriptions of instructional material are not
presented. For example, the course of study in mathematics for the cighth grade pre-
sents algebraic calculation of formulas as the first topic and methods of data analysis.
and frequency distributions as the last. The guidelines do not contain descriptions of
formulas that need to be memorized, of other explicit descriptions of content.

In summary, the Morbusbe develops national curricular guidelines for clementary.
nd senior high schools approximately once every ten years. The cureicukar

es are published and made widely available. Prior to and after publication of
the guidelines, Moubusbo schedules workshops throughout (he country in order to
disseminate the new curricular guidelines to regional boards of education and
school teachers. The regional boards of education are invested with the tisk of inter:
preting the curricular guidelines and developing orterials that are appropriate for
the region. Schools are also given authority to develop curricula based on the na
tional curricular guidelines. hducation authorities we interviewed indicated that
schools and regional boards of education tend to follow the guidelines closely in
part because developing material independently is time-consuming.

Implementation of Monbusho Curriculum
Within the Schools

Textbooks. Instead of publishing its own textbooks. VMosbusbo allows private com-
panies to publish textbooks that ar wed at Moubusho for conformity to the
curriculum and quality of presenta thooks that survive this review process
are designated as being approved. Only textbooks approved by WMoubusbe can be
used for instruction in public schools. Phe number of (ext books approved depends
on the geade level. For basic subjects in clementary school six or more compitnics

ion

may publish a series. For some subjects at the high level ie number is smaller.

The Authorization and Rescarch Council at Mowbusho, which approves textbooks,
consists of university professors and teachers in clementary and secondary schools.
These experts are appointed by the Minister of Education and the Moibusbo's se-
nior curriculum specialists. The Authorization and Rescarch Council insures that the
Monbusho’s curriculum standards have been followed. Each member of the Council
examines proposed textbooks separately before the Council meets. The Moubusho
Minister makes the final decision about certification upon recciving the Council's
commendation.

vt



Staff Support for Teachers

Element
sisted by

y and junior high school science teachers reported that they are not as-
ra staff At Shimogawa a teacher described how they prep:
materials and order the materials, He said th
ments for biology. partly because materials must be very
schedule all the ¢| and prepare the materi . fashion on his own.
During chemistry and physics sections they do more experiments. The teacher at
Chuo Junior High School also told me that he has no help. He and another teacher
share the science responsibilities in cach grade. For example. when he has done the
preparation and the experiment, he leaves things for the other teacher and the re-
verse. But this year he has all three 3rd-year cktsses. so be has to do all the prepara-
tions on his own.

a budget
Anot do as many experi-
fresh. and it is difficult to

Atthe elementary school tevel. too. f observed teachers in the same grade level share
ing preparations and supplies for science projects. In addition, two experienced,
teachers were involved in the production of a teachers’ handbook to accompany the
science textbooks. One told me:

IUs for the teachers who aren’tscience majors. [Chas everything written out
right in order so when they teach it to the children they can do the bare mini-
mum of science teaching,

This teach Jded a note to the teachers’ guidebook draft after the ckiss | observed
Tle was teaching the children about the nece
suddenty had the idea to have a child stand with his hands out like a scale and try
guessing the rel ights of different numbers of paper clips in cach hand. The
teacher had one boy close his ¢.es and try to guess which hand had more weight
and to the other children’s gre el delight, the boy guessed incorrecuy (wo out of
three times. Through this entertuning action. he demonstrated the necessity of
scales for weighing differences that humus are unable to perecive accurately. This is
the sort of tip (hat they include in the teachers’ guidebook that carcfully follows the
textbook lessons.

y of scales for weighing things and

Conclusions

Their

‘Teachers in fapan occupy a rekatively high status and receive adequate salaries.
work lives are busy but also flexible to some degree. How much time teachers spend
outside of the usta 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. workday depends on their personality,

their gouls, and the

r stige in life. In general. teachers feel they are both responsible

BEST COPY AVAILABLE



Elementary Schools

Elementary School Curriculum

Schools are cequired to provide students with the “official curriculum” throughout
their 6 years at cClementary school. Consistent with the concept of a uniform curricu-
lum, Moubusbo does not allow the tracking of students into ability groups at the ¢le-
menttry school level. the only exceptions are for students judged to have major
emotional, developmental, learning, or pli Phese students cither at-
tend special schools or c! sand follow a different curriculum.

The standard number of school hours that must be devoted to instruction at the cle-
mentary school level is part of Monbusbo’s curriculum guidelines. These guidelines
also specify the number of instructional hours (40 minutes per ckiss hour) required
for cach subject (lable 4).

master and understand arithmetic. the Mon
gnates that third-graders receive instruction in the use of the
cus (soroban), a tool many Japanese we interviewed regarded as useful
i Children’s skills at calculations and in promoting understanding of

In an effort to help Japanese studes
busho curriculum di
Japanese
in promot
numbers.

The latest curricular re

isions have had minimal impact on the difficulty of arith-
metic at the clementary school level, but the introduction of the new curriculum
has resulted in some changes in the curriculum, One official informed us that about
10 to 20 percent of the math curriculum has been “moved around” in the latest revi-
sion of the curriculum. Certain mathematical topics, such as finding the volume ofa

¢ been moved from junior high school to clemer y school. Con-
mathemati s that were considered too difficult for certain grades
have been moved up lo higher grades. Despite efforts to match the curriculum to
the cognitive level of students, some parents and educators with whom we talked
indicated that many students begin having problems with arithmetic around the
third or fourth gerade.

fife activity subject. Vhe new clementary school cucriculum emphasizes personal
learning experiences. or (@aikengakushiy. the newly created subject study of lite
activities (sefkatsuka) for first: and second-graders was created by Moubusho to
provide such personal [earning experiences to Japanese students ina formal.
school scuing

OO



learning. student response. Gime to work independently with teacher assistance. and
a quick game at the end to keep up cathusiasm. There seemed to be little chance of
boredom. given the rapid pace of instruction and the need to raise one’s hand or
stand up in response to continual (cacher questions about whether or not the mater:
ial is being understood itnd to give answers to various problems. Again. Fl describe
this class in great detail to provide a sense of the contrast with the previously de-
scribed math lesson,

This teacher began by instructing the students to get out their notebooks for arith
metic and briefly allowed some confusion as ane boy walked up to the front to re-
ceive a stamp on pages he had finished. One particularly excitable boy in the back
asked about a game they had just finished. and the teacher told the ¢ We're NOL
doing that anymore, now we are doing arithmetic. Once vou are finished geuing
out your notebook, please look at my face. Let's do problem number two that you
did vesterday”

Although we could hear the students in the classroom next door loudly chanting,
something. (he room got quiet as students setded with their books on their desks
and directed their attention toward the front chalkboard. The lesson was on estima-
tion and rounding. The teacher wrote four problems fram their textbooks neatly on
the board—a, 20 x 58 b. 31 x 62 ¢. 28 x 53d. 58 x 44. She began by demonstrating
that the answer to Gi.) would be between 20 x 50 and 30 x 69 and showed them
that since the lower number is exactly 20. they should use only 20. She conctuded.
writing on the chalkboard. that their snvall estimate should have been 20 x 50 and
their large estimate 20 x 60.The teacher then asked the class to raise their lands if
they understand. About two-thirds of the students raised their hands and when she
requested “if you dot understand some parts of it, raise your hands.” abaut cight
hands went up

she then said they would try a simple problem and wrote 2.x 3and 2. 5 on the
chalkboard and asked where the product of 2.x -+ would fit-All but about five stu-
dents raised their hands when she asked them if they understood this simpler prob-
fem. She continued doing problems by calling on students who volunteered to de-
scribe cach step of the solutions. Whenever the teacher asked a question, the
students who knew the answer immediately raised their hands. Similarly, when asked
whether or not they understood the problem, students all raised their hands quickly
in response. Although there were 36 students in the room, it was obvious which stu-
dents were itble to follow along and which students were lost.

The teacher then assigned a set of example problems from (heir textbook to be
worked out in their notebooks and she walked around the classroom. She encour:
aged students by ing “try struggling with this. This is difficult’ After about 5 min-

213

LUy



different. Because of pressure from parents and students to do well on the entrance
uminations. difficult textbooks tend to be selected, as the following comments of
Naka City education official indicat

Consideration of university entrance examinations is a factor in selecting text-
books. The selection process considers the level of university students are plan-
ning to attend and whether the students are college bound. However. in Japanese
society there is a tendency to select difficult textbooks. Teachers and students
seck a higher level. Itis believed that everyone should go to college if possible. If
the selection of textbooks is reduced to two alternatives. | believe the difficult
one will be chosen. They are just being grecdy. Teachers want to teach students
so that they atutin a higher level.

In fact. teachers generally use the textbooks as reference books
struction in the classroom with other materials such as supplementary practice
problem booklets and worksheets.As in the junior high schools, teachers in senior
high schools use the supplementary practice problem booklets (o provide additional
Xposure to the material students must learn. In addition. because the difficulty of
the problems within the booklets varies. teachers can customize assignments for stu-
dents of different levels of ability. These booklets provide opportunitics for students
by reviewing practice problems outside of class to prepare for the coflege entrance
examination

and supplement in-

For in-class instruction, teachers relied less on textbooks and practice booklets than
on worksheets developed by teachers and shared among (cachers. As a result. model
printouts are used in many classrooms within the same s Well as among
schools within the same district.

As in the junior high schools we observed. teachers at the senior high schools used
these printouts Co lead students through math and science fessons. The printouts
contain the objectives of the s Wells problems rektted to the lesson
They allow the student to follow the teacher's lecture and work through problems
in class. Although students use them to fullow the lesson in class. (hey are also used
lor study and review. In keeping with the Japanese pattern of not grading daily
work, these printouts are seldom assigned grades.

Inst uction and the slower learner Juscas academic high schools provide acceler
ated instruction to capable students, Japanese high schools also end up matching in-
struction to students in the lower ability ranges. The following comment explains:
the pressures Japanese high schools are under to accommodate the needs of the

slow Iearner:

ol



“Mid-slice Crisis” at the Middle Track School

Differences in the level of ability among students appeared much higher in the mid
level high school than among their high and low track counterparts. Arata cpito-
mid-slice” school phenomenon—as its school counselor explained:

This school is about the average in this prefecture. Schools that a
middle (academic fevel) have students of different academic levels, and thus the
individual differences are very noticeable. Schools that are at the top. as wel
bottom. tend to have pretty much the same level of students. Math is the subject
in which such individual differences become most apparent. So we are dividing
our students into different classes according to sbujukudo. because there are sue
dents who need to study math for college entrance exams and those who don’t.
We do such grouping for every major subject. but especially for math and Engtish.

placed in the

founded school in at

Being a newly area recently converted from an industrial
ncighborhood to a residential area. Arata epitomizes what it takes to become a shin-
setsit Ro (newly-built school. Being only 10 years old, Arata has no history to build
upon in comparison to Meiji. Cis in the process of making one and for most new
schools fike Arua, the reputation improves as the number of students they send to.
prestigious u rsilics increases. The school’s activities appear to be singularly fo-
cused on this goal the one and onfy motto of this school is #obasu (to improve”)

Arata’s counsclor emphasized the value of having divergent tracks for students:

Being well rounded will no longer mean much in Japan. 1 wil! stund in the wiv
of students expressing their strengths. The students who are good at math should
strengthen that ability and those who are not good at math should do the same
in other subjects.

Ata Ceachers’ meeting at Arata. however. teachers openly discussed their ambivalent
teclings coward ability grouping, Clearly, ability grouping interferes with their sense
irness” for students. One teacher complained that the term shujukudo itself is a
Vague concept: reachers are told to divide students by shujukudo. But is shu-
Jukudo their exam scores, grades, willingn Fm very confused het
in classes grouped by
study harder tan others.
group students by
ad the bottom ckis
comp:
ject All Ceachers agreed in the end that there is not much a new school such as
Arata can do about cracking. because in order to survive iChas to attract students of

high quality. and to do so, it has to send more and more students to good universi-

124

ids



So it may be better for them to go to an industrial or commercial school and get
a certificate there. That way they will have a better chance of getting a job after
high school becaus ional schools also maintain close des with employers
looking for high school graduates ... If they are going to college, they have to
choose between going to a public or a private school. ... Private schools in-
volve paying tuition and therefore cost more. But many of them are associated
with colleges. so most of these high schoo! students are automatically admitted
to these universities by recommendation, whereas those whe coming from
public high schools have to take regular entrance exams.

Junior high schools also have school-wide programs to help students learn about the
high school to which they should apply. These programs are oriented toward cducat-
ing students and parents about what students may want to do in the future
forming them about the steps they need to take to reach these goals. First.in a “sur:
vey project. first-year students ask their parents about their jobs, the tasks and
responsibilities involved. and how they like or do not like their own jobs. They share
their reports with the class. After this. the homeroom teachers inform their students
about the types of jobs that are available, using actual data collected by students. and
exphuin what it is they must do to obtain some of these jobs. Second, in a “general
orientation” mecting. parents gather at the school auditorium and are informed of
ific procedures involved in the high school entrance © d
“not to think of school names alone. but to think which school is most appropriate
for their children’s ability and interests” Creacher, Shimogawa Junior High) Despite
such warning, this teacher lamented:

and in-

spe

some students would apply to schoots beyond their ability, solely because of the
name of the school. As a result, the students fail to keep up with the high
school’s standards and in so doing. fail to prepare themselves for university cn-
trance exams, (Teacher, Shimogawa Junior High)

While teachers stress the importince of the right match between a student and the
high school selected, parents and students weigh an additional f tor very carefully:
students should not apply to schools that enroll students below their own level of
ability. was our general impression that many students simply take the homeroom
teacher's and counselor's bout the appropriate schools. However, another
important piece of information many students relied upon was the jukics knowl-
edge of which school they are capable of being accepted into on the t of their
hensachi. Many high school students testified to the accuracy of the jukics informa-
tion, saying that their choice of high school was significantly affected by them

adv

si

116



appropriate to their studene” Elementary school students
ional or prefectinil tests in order te move on to the next level Gf schooling.
Rather, the competition, which is cngendered by a strict system of entrance exams
and the great need for academic eredenti: Appears to motivate students in junior
and senior high school to perform at high levels. Parents and teachers tended to be
critical of the pressures exerted by the entrance exams but were rarely critical of
the overall Monbusho guidelines. Despite (his emphasis on preparation for the en-
Apanese (cache pent a great deal of time preparing material that
was aimed at students who were of lower-than-average academic ability

not required to pass

s involve teachers in the curriculum revi-

s the advice of teachers on its national panels
and makes serious attempts to investigate how the curriculum is implemented in
the classroom. The curriculum cevision process is closely tie:
rience in their classes, and teachers see themselves
they clearly accept.

$to what teachers expe-
as curriculum researchers, a role

Teachers spend a great deal of time researching bow to teach. This commitment
means that they devote a good deal of their planning time to the organization and
sequencing of lessons. Teachers are aot undcr pressure to provide extensive materi-
als outside the curriculum or to create their own curriculum. Rather. they
peeted to cltborate on the material provided in the textbooks.

are CX

achers are expected to adjust the fessons to the tevel of the ¢!
ing and to demonstrate their techniques to other teachers. Moreover, tea
around the nation appear lo share ideas readily.
methods of teaching and content of courses
regional mectings. fd
access to these plans.

are teach:
chers from
sult. teacher innovations in
are widely ¢ minated via local and
UW esson plans are widely circulated and new teachers have
wthe local and regional levels are coordinated by
school boards and the Monbusho. This coordination is of benefit beccuse:

ss they

As

© I greatly reduces the work that individual schools and districts must do in de-
ciding what reforms to follow.

* Coordination means Chat what teachers do in the ¢
to curricular reform, although local schools and teachers have lim:
their adaptation of mater
+ Ideas ercated at one ¢
another distri
tion,

issroom is direcy linked

placed on

trict can be re
because of the simi

fily communicated and implemented in
ity of the curriculum and school organiza-

XVE



deal with a kind of inferiority comples
when they go to high school and are with students who are at the same level.
they don’t have to feel they are the only ones who cannot study well. They may
even begin to show more willingness to study.

nd lose their willingness to studs. but

As we shall sce next. itis during ti: high school
elementary and junior high schools that young J
ized skills. With diversity reduced to it la

se polish their more special-
within the classroom and school.
oriented commitment in their acad-

high school students show more focused, care
emic pursuits.

High School Instruction

Unlike their clementary and junior high school counterparts. fapanese high school
teachers lecture

and students listen: students attempt to solve practice problems and
teachers explain the ways to solve them. There is little or no extended exploration
and discussion of the concepts
junior high school cducation

nd ideas that characterize Japanese elementary and

High school instruction in Japan. compared to instruction at earlier grades, focuses

more strongly on textbooks and teachers as primary sources of information. As one
high school teacher testified: In high school. we almost always use whole class in-

struction without group work. When the conteatis very difficult. students discuss it
with their neighbors, but that’s as far as our group discussion goes? CT
High School) Les:
provide ty pic

ons fromian Lth-grade biology class and a 10rh-grade math class
tL examples.

An Eleventh Grade Biology Class

The topic of this tecture as indicated by the textbook wits “Research on Organisms
and the Environment: Witter’ The class involved some student participation as a forny
of fab work. The class followed the teacher's directions: students listened. did what
the teacher said. and expressed few opinions of their own. The class consisted of the
following basic segments

After being greeted by students’ bow, Mr. Suzuki. the teacher, introduced the topic of
the day by making reference to the water shortage they were facing in the arca. He
asked students why some arets have restrictions on (he use of water while others

11k



Most teache so believed that learning the seroban is highly useful for developing
arithmetic skills. The principal of Matsu Elementary School agreed with this think-
ing, but added that the soreban isnot almighty’ One parent. herself well-trained in
the soroban, explained that at least one year of instruction, not the 4 hours as pro-
vided in the curriculum, is needed to reap the benefits of the soroban.

Perception and the Use of Instructional Resources
Outside of School for the Mastery of Curriculum

In spite of its perceived usefulness in developing understanding of mathematical
concepts, the popularity of soroban has declined in recent years. According to the
principal of Matsu Elementary, very few parents at Matsu send their children to
soroban lessons nowadays. opting instead for lessons in the Adamon method. The
Auamon method provid pplementary instruction in arithmetic as well as in other
sons are based on a series of drills arranged in subtle gradations
of difficulty. Students begin doing drills on material that they have mastered and
progress from there.

One mother offered her observation of why the Azaon method has been so popu

lar recently among parents at her child's elementary school:

Well. the Krmon method does not force anything upon the learner. Irrespective
of grade, the Atmon method begins from an easy point that perfectly matches
the learner so that he can get 100 percent correct. That is one point, After that,
hing is repeated until it becomes second nature just like the soroban thing
you can visualize it in your head. Another good thing is that one can learn
at one’s own pace without learning from a teacher. One can skip above one’s
grade level. and [think this leads to setfconfidence.The negative thing is that
there are no application problems and no word problems. Since there are no ap-
plication pcoblems, by just knowing Aumon method arithmetic. one cinnot do
real arithmetic.

In spite of the popularity of Auton lessons in particular and jeer in general, the
parents we interviewed expressed a reluctance to push their children of elementary
school age academically. These parents may be in the majority.A recent study found
that only 23.6 percent of clementary school students attend academic juke classes
for instructional support outside of that provided by their school (Nohara. 1993).

36



}
t

Contents

Acknowledgments

Executive Summary

Chapter

Introduction... .

By: Gerald LeTendre
Rationale of the Study .

Methodology

‘Training Session
Gaining Entty. 2... 2...

An Overview of the Japanese System of

Elementary School Education
Junior High School Education

High School Education .

Shadow Education... 6. 2...
a

. Ethnic. and Regional Differences
Economic 2... 2 ee ee
Regional . .
Ethnic edu
The Field Sites...
Naka City
Kita City

Minami City. 2 2. ee
The Schools .

Kita City Schools .

Minami City Schools.

Nakit City Schools 5. 2. 2. 5
High schools. 2...
Junior high schools

Elementary schools.

School Summary

ucation .

tit

xe



Family Influences on Adolescent
Development and School
Participation

The family. as well as peers and school, plays a crucial role in forming student's atti-
tudes toward schooling and academics. In the case of Japan. research has docu-
mented that studying and homework are central concerns of Japanese families
(Stevenson and Stigler, 1992: Lewis, 1995), This theme is captured in the media by
the stereotype of the “education mama” (kyoiku manta) who sacrifices her career ]
to stay athome making lunches. fixing school uniforms. and preparing material for

the next day at school. In the media portrayal of Japan, hordes of students wearing
headbands which signify their participation in the “exam war” (juken sens) are sup-
ported by the eternally patient supply corps of doting mothers.

As with many media images, this image of Japanese education is somewhat dis-
torted. It is (rug that in Japanese culture the mother is expected to play a central role
in supporting her child's education.a role that fathers are rarely expected to fill ine
deed during the important preschool and carly elementary years, it may seem to the
soung Japanese mother that everything Fujita (1989) de: all mother’s
fault’ The mother in the early years is responsible for providing a wide range of sup-
port including (but not limited to) lunches. clean uniforms, preparing Various acces
sori¢s such calligraphy brushes or swim gear.as well as overseeing homework. How:
ever, parental involvement in cducation changes dramatically
adolescence,

students enter

Family Time and School Time

After entry into junior high school. students spend more time in school than with
their families (please refer to figures 4 and 5). Perhaps hecause students are away so
much of the day. the parcnts we interviewed made great efforts to create at time
when all the family members could be together. For some this was a family vacation
in the summer, for others an outing to local parks or muscums on national holidays
For the working-class families like those at Shimogawa Elementary and Naka Voca-
tional. finding such a time was extremely difficult.A Shimogawa mother described
her family’s situation:

Well. we get up very early at 3:30 a.m. becuse we have a bread store and must
getto work, T don’t know when the kids get home from juku or what dime my
daughter goes to bed. Lasked her: she usually goes to bed at 11:00. Grandpa stays
up until she comes home as it is dungerous fora girl to come home that late. My



Most of the Japanese teachers and students interviewed in this study said that math
and science classes no longer possessed vitality (/Ri 727) after the elementary school
years. In such an atmosphere, it is difficult to make any of the mandatory subjects in-
teresting to students who already perceive themselves behind in school or unable to
compete. Discovery learning and a sense of excitement and wonder over mith and
science appeared to lessen as adolescents advance from grade to grade.

Transitions to Work and Higher
Education

Regardless of the kind of high school they attended, the students | interviewed said
that they would like to work. Some were interested in money, hut ats one girl al Ara
simply put it."'m curious. t-time jobs appear to be associated with increased
freedom and independence the minds of Japanese high school students. These
jobs are a kind of intermediary between the adult world of Cull-time work and the
more circumscribed world of the schools and clubs,

Working. like dating. is another activity that Japanese schools generally forbid. At the
junior high school level. very few students have part-time jobs, although at Midori
and Shimogawa some students were n permission to deliver papers due to their
family’s economic circumstances. For most high school studen ime jobs are
torbidden by the school, but a survey of high school students in public and private
high schools around Japan showed that between 2 percent and 8 percent of stu-
dents in academic high schools had part-time jobs (Shimauchi, 1995:8). In the non-
academic tracks, however, these percentages are undoubtedly much higher. At Naki
Vocational, students did not go to great fengths to hide the fact that they were work-
ing part time. Phe Naka Tech student, whose schedule is displayed in figure @, got
only about 5 or 6 hours of sleep cach night because he worked for four hours most
evenings or clsc to driving school. He devoted nearly the whole day on Sunday to
working at a local supermarket.

‘Teachers wer
Ked at

more circumspect
cher at N

shen Giking about the issue of part-time jobs. 1
tVocational if part-time jobs were allowed:

That's a fine point. Part-time jobs arent allowed, technically speaking. But we
have students from all different kinds of family backgrounds. so each section

(e.g.. chemical engineering or computing). gives permission to work. The most
common form is a particularly J. panese one—working at the post office deliver:
ing New Year's cards. This is a positive type of work. As the school approved this
kind of work, 70 of our students did this [a

{80



centage. So E didn’t really think it would be that much of a problem to become at
teacher. Because it Was within mathematics.

This teacher continued to say that it still isn’t difficult to become a mathematics
teacher because the course work is so demanding.

udent teacher in mathemati
a regular person can't do it

Thaven't yet had a
want to become one
math won't make it.

they are that few. Even if you
‘hose who are just so-so at

Becoming a math or science teacher appears to be less competitive, but the college
course work and the employment examinations are difficult, Math and science
teachers constitute a select group. In addition, high-achieving math and science stu-
dents have many opportunities in industry that are unavailable to humanities stu-
dents.As noted above, the compctilive rates are currently nearer 10 to Lt than the 40
or more applicants to cach position scen in the humanities

The Selection Process

The principal at Mitsu Elementary School, who had spent several years at (he Naka
City Board of Education and had been involved in hiring and promotions, remeni-
bered the selection process as follows:

There are various credits you take to get a teachers ficense... Within universi-
ties they have (hought a tot about the curriculum and even well con-
structed, not aff students will nec cy develop along with it The license isn’t
cnough in order to become a teacher. they have to take an ex
year there will be 174 ka City elementary school teachers hired. According to
yester s newspaper, there are now itbout 16 times that many who have ap-
plied. How we choose them. 1 think that is the second most important thing, His
hard to know wiat type of test is best. [ts not only a paper and pencil test. It is
quite difficult to test how much teaching ability they have.

Academic ability alone docs not allow an individual to enter teaching. The principal
atTancho Elementary School, who also had experience interviewing applicants.
talked in detail about what he remembered about the procedures for selecting
teachers. He described them as follows:

Tpuess itis about wl
ties—in all of the subjects. For those who are above a cert
have an interview. There we their personal character and their
ideas toward education. Their way of thinking and ideas about children Their
kindness and thoughttulness (rasashisa and omoiyari).Vhat is the most impor:

kind of person they are. First there is at lest of their abili-
tin basic level. we then

204



Figure 5—-Daily schedule of a Midori Junior High School student

Time Mond Tuesday Wednesday Thorsday Friday saturday Sund:
“Rona —— : —_ ~ @.00)
12:00 p.m schoo! school school school school school club
1200-1 00 lunch lunch lunch lunch Tunch Junch lunch
100-3 00 school school Schoo! school schoal school school

3.00= 4:00
100-7 GO student student student student student student juku

council/ — council/ —— council/ council/ — couneil/ councils

chub, club chub club club, club
00-8 00 dinner
8.00-9:00 dinner? . dinner* dinner” dinnerc* dinner* dinner bath
900-9 30
10,00 p m.- study study studs study studs studs study

12-00.2.m

12.00-7 00 sleep Mecp sicep sleep sleep seep sleep.

SOURCE Third Interntuonl Mithemtics nd Science Study. Case Studs Project, 1991-95
VOTE “dinner. bath or pane lessons

The effects of tests and preparation for the entrance exam are also reflected in the
study times logged by students. Students generally study longer in the first year.
when they are getting used to junior high school, and in the third year, when they
are preparing for the entrance exam. Table ~ shows that about 47 percent of middle
school students studied one hour or less cach dayand 0 40 percent studied be-
tween one and (wo hours. Due to the wording of the sur it is impossible Co tell if
this studying is directed toward schoolwork or toward exam preparation. but this
study time is separate from whatever time students spend in juke. The second year.
often considered most problematic by Japanese teachers in terms of motivating stu-
dents. is when students stucfied least according to this survey.

Differences in the junior high school experience. We found lew overt differcnecs in
the quality of tes > physical plant in the junior high schools of Kit
Naka, and Minami City. However.school size did play a key role. In small schools like
Midori. there were simply not enough teachers to s
fore. the club fife in Midori was not as active as at Shimogawa. While Shimogawa was
somewhat cramped in terms of its physical sf it had cnough students to support
many sports teams and was a leader in Naka City in terms of athleGic competition

shers or basi

115

BEST COPY AVAILABLE



Yeachers at Shimogawa reported that they had trouble keeping students motivated
and interested in school.“Only about 50 percent of Shimogawa students, according
to one teacher."are able to keep up with the curriculum." This is in Contrast to the
nearly one 100 percent estimate given by the principal of Chuo. While Chuo stu
dents talked about applying to the highest-ranked public and private high s
Naka City, Shimogawa’'s guidance room was filled with pamphlets for vocational high
schools and carcer training centers,

The students at Shimogawa. even though those interviewed were all menibers of the
student council, seemed less confident. less animated. and jess well read than the stu-
dents at Chuo.They were all highly motivated academically, but they were not as ar-
ticufate or cheerful as the Chuo students. They also reported having difficulty with
their cours

Perceptions of fairness at Chuo and Shimnogawa. The higher academic level of
Chuo compared to schools like Shimogawa was seen by teachers
dents as both negative and positive. On the one hand. Chuo teachers could cover the
curriculum more effectively with their students, and therefore prepare them better
for the high school entrance examination. On the other hand. since high school ¢n-
trance is determined by both examination scores and high school grades, Chuo stu-
dents perceived themselves at a disadvantage because they felt it was much harder
to get good grades at Chuo since they were competing with other high-achieving,
students. Shimogawa cducators agreed that Chuo students were at a disadvantage
because of the admission policy of high schools.

High School

Senior High School Curriculum

Although education beyond the ninth grade is not compulsory. Morbusbo develops
curricular guidelines for senior high schools. The most common types of public se-
nior high schools are regular or academic (/te/sra) high schools and vocational high
schools, such as commercial (sbogyo) and industrial (Ragyo) high schools.

Curricular requirements for senior high school students include the completion of
four credits of math and four to cight credits of science during their 3 vears in high
school. The higher requirement for science applies only to science majors at acade-
mic high schools



jects, students stay in theic cktssrooms and teachers rotate from ckiss to class. Teach:
ers are organized according to grade (ic. first year. second year and third year), as
well as by the various committees they serve on and by academic subject. The gra
divisions are the most salient and give students and teachers a strong sense of be-
longing to their homeroom class and grade.

de

In 1995. about 91 percent of Japan's roughly 5.000.060 juniors high school students
attended public schools CMonbusbo, 1996: 688%). In 199-4, over 96 percent of junior
high school graduates continued on to high school in that year with about 2 percent
entering special schools and another 2 percent entering the work force (Maréasbo,
1996: 706).As junior high school marks the end of compulsory cduc nthe third
year of junior high school s tudents preparing for what Japanese media has
beled the “exam hell” (shiken jigoku). during which time the students prepare to
take the high school cntrance exam.

Middle school periods are longer than in clementary school. 50 minutes. tnd the mini-
mum school year is scheduled for 1.050 periods. Spe
cially dedicated to such activities
the first y

ial activities (class periods ofti-
as clubs or free periods) take up 35 Co 70 hours in
tudy with time decreasing as students approach the high school en-
tranee exams numbers should be considered a minimum, however. because

the vast majocity of junior high schools hold extra cl:
dents, before and after school as well as over the holida
order to provide student

year stu-
ses are held in
swith extrt preparation for the high school entrance exam.

High School Education

Public education at the high school (26 (6 ky6 fkid) levelis ncither compulsory nor
free. However, cach prefecture or municipal district mainttins publicly funded high
schools that offer relatively low-cost cducation. The vast majority of the Japanese
public and private high schools are 3-year institutions. In addition. there
“night schools” correspondence courses, and
but these constitute a relatively small percentage (less than 5 percent) of overall en-
rollment. In £992 about “5 percent of students were enrolled in i
and 25 percent in vocational courses (Monbusho, 1993).Although there is no re-
striction on vocational school graduates applying to college, few make the attempt
Vocational courses do not offer the rigorous preparation necessary for the college
entrance © M

are also

fonally funded 5-year high schools.

ademic courses

Virtually all high schools admit students using scores based upon the high schoo! en-
trance examination scores. However, different prefectures may place different cm.
phasis on test scores and on grades. Shimizu and Tokuda (199!) note that in Pryogo:
prefecture, student grades and character reports Gidishiisbo) account for 50 per



lems take time to solve and make “Forty minutes seem fike avery short Gime. Thus,
the guidebook warns."Time management is very important in the math section”

The science portion of the examination has ty pically consisted of four long prob-
lems and a series of short ones. According to the guidebook. the science questions
emphasize basic knowledge. but the range of topics that appear in problems
been wide. Therefore. the guidebooks advise students that everything in the curricu-
tum must be studied:

has

Motivation to perform on the examination. since high schools are ranked accord:
ing to their academic status. and since the rankings have clear implications for uni-
versity entrance chances.a certain proportion of Japanese students are motivated to
perform well on the high school entrance examinations. high schoof math teacher
gave a common explanation for the high fevel of achievement of Japanese students:

The academic credential socicty (gakurekisbakat) has created the high acade-
mic standards in Japan. This is because parents believe that the beter school you
go to. the better company you can enter. and the more stable a position you can
attain. Parents push their children from a young age to do well in school.

Clearly, examinations and tests provide an important source of motivation to study.
One teacher had this to say about students’ motivation to studs in Japan.

Interviewer. Do students become interested in the mate
will be on the high school entrance examination?

al by just hearing nat it

High School Math Teacher: Yes. there are many of those kinds of students. The
color of their eyes will change just hearing that something will be on the high
school entrance examination

The weighting of the cntzance extminations in decisions about admissions also con
tributes to increasing students’ Motivation to master the curriculum at school, since
admission to high school is based on both the comprehensive score on the high

school entrance examination ind the junior high school report curd

Differences Between Junior High Schools

Differences bev cen jumor high schools were more pronounced and more openly
discussed by cducators and parents. particularly in Naka City. Many parents in Naka
reported being aware of an unofficial ranking of junior high schools in the are
¥or example. one mother reported that her daughter wits told by a high schoot

teacher that she would do all right ata certain competitive high school. because the

junior high school from which she graduated was alse a Competitive one, Two junior

51



¢ slightly casicr (han regular exams, they must repeat the grade. Tis very rare, but
sometimes at few students do repeal a grade at Meiji

In addition, all high schools in our sample have school wide boshie directed toward
college catrinee or job certificate exams. At Naka Tech, anyone who plans to take a
certificate exam cin ask a teacher to give him a bose. School wide bosbr at Ar
probably represent the most common pattern. During the fiest year, boshit are of:

ind English. During the

tbility on the basis of teachers’ evaluations
room exams. Summer Poshie are also offered to |

ubject arcas of college cn-
nd science. Because tuition is low many

students take advantage of these course

Juku

As noted in other chapters. (here
These include

sa wide range of jk that mect va
bingaku juku and supplement

needs.
bu juku

tract

eremedial bas

Kawai Jauku. Kawai is a multi-functional school with about 0.000 students going to
its post-high school preparatory school Qobiko) division nationwide, 60,000 to the
high school division, 10.000 to the middle and slementary school divisions, and
10,000 to the vocational and preschool divi: . atcd by these numbers, the
main patrons of a large le futki such as Kawai are high school students. Most of
them are cither top students from average schools or students from top schools.
These students fecl that instruction given at their regular schools is not adequately
preparing them for the college entrance exams

The Kawai Juke of Naka City is a large. modern, bright building that appears morc
like a popular shopping mall than a typical Japanese school. The students are dressed
in neat school clothes and appear to he focused on studying. Kawai Juki is a
preparatory school (sbargaku juku) for able students fron all areas of Naka City
who are planning to uke college entrance examinations, Secing (ese (cons Convers:
ing with laughter in the hallw sno image of a juke being a hangout for
“hookworms?

large-scale juku like Kawai are perhaps the only academic institutions in Japan (hat
are both designed to and capable of providing support for fastt
academic potential is not met by regulitr schools.

e students whose



Figure 3—Translation of printout

Math Foarning Printout 3 Th grade

Change and Correspondence 4 Group Name

1 Review of direct proportions Example: Area changing with time
Time 1 20 2 4 5

Ar

Time is in x second!
What is the direct proportion?

is ¥ emesqua

2. Looking at the follow ing griphs. which of the follow ing are direct proportions? Think alse of the
reason for your answer,

(oxb 2 4 4 8 Direct proportion. other
204 @ R10 Reason

x bors 4 5 Direct proportion. other
yrs 3s 709

Geto 2g 4 5 Direet proportion other
yedo2 4 4 8 Reason

cox do 2 8 45 Direct proportion. other
vlog 9 16.25 Reason

Gawd 2 a 48 Direct proportion. other
vou 7 G4 Reason

4 Determine whether the following \/y celationships are direct proportions
(1) ¥ cquals double x
(27.4 triin that trivels 4km per minute goes y kilometers in x minutes.
(A) With 500 yen. you buy x pencils a4 70 yen esteh and the change is y yen.
(0A ribbon of x centimeters is cut up and divided equally for six people in segments of length y
Cd IES is divided by y the quotient is 4.
(6) Going to the same place that cikes x minutes Walking Gkes 3 minutes lessor y MuNUtES. by

bike
am a
co (a) io)
m (By Oo

x.think about when x ist negative number
oS 2 1 O L 2 a 4 4
\ 1 8 12 16 20
How about when y 27
x Se ere

\

te
a

Wrapup

SOE RCE Vned Intern.tiondl Mathematics and Sacnee study Case study Progeet 199195,

i



Chapter 1

Introduction

‘the American fascination with Japanese schools and students dates back over a cen:
tury. During the late nineteenth and early Wwenticth centuries America was clearly
garded as a leader in education in Japan. American influence was evident ina

and
were brought to Japan in order to modernize Japanese education
ichamp, 1976: Roden. 1980). For a second time. in the late £9-40s and early
i s. forces,
Americans were called upon to help japan rebuild its education system as part of
the country’s transformation into a democratic state (Tsuchimochi, 1993). In the
postwar period. U.S. reformers emphasized education as the means of preparing the
Japanese populace for the freedoms and re: ary to sustain a sclf-
governing nation. In both the United States and Japan. U.S. reforms were seen
sential for Japan's economic recovery and its transformation from an aggressive. na-
tionalistic socicty to a peaceful, democratic one. Although some of the reforms put
forward by the Americans had been proposed earlier by Japanese reformers, and
some of the United States-initiated reforms failed or were never implemented. the
U.S. continued to be regarded as a model in the area of education (Armstrong. 1976:
Wray. 1991:Tsuchimochi. £993)

(B

As CS-

Since the late 1970s this relationship has been inverted. Americans are still fiesci-
nated with Japanese education, but the stream of articles and books that have been

written since that ime no longer portray America as a teader- Taken as a whole. these

wrilings convey a mixture of admiration, envy, and uneasiness. Widely read books on
Japanese schools, such as White’s The Japanese Educational Challenge or Rohten’s
Japan s High Schools. contain chapters entitled “Lessons for America” appears that
many writers and researchers now think that Americans have something to learn
from the Japanese when it comes to schooling. Americans have become more self:
conscious about how their schools compare with schools in other nations. The pe
ccived foss of U.S. stinding as an international teader in education has brought in-
creased attention to Japanese schools

in both scholarly journals and in the popular
media. Unfortunately, the media's treatment of Japanese education has tended to-
ward extremes, cither excoriating or praising Japanese teachers and schools without
carefully analyzing what actually gocs on in the classroom.



an advancement school, most of the students hope to attend -i-year colleges upon
graduation. fn the last 4 years, Kita High School has placed nearly 800 of its graduates
in natior year colleges and well over 1.000 getduates in private -t-s colleges.

Minami City Schools

Minami Elementary and Minami Junior High School lic on the outs!
a mixture Of farmland :
ficlds.

rts of the city in
ad suburbia where new apartment complexes and green rice
sxist side by side. There were about 600 students enrolled in Minami Elemen-
tary and about 730 in Minami Junior High School. Minami High School.on the other
hand. is a large schoof with nearly 1.300 students located in a more developed por-
tion of the city. It is one of the most prestigious schools in the area.and cach year
many graduates go on lo center clite universities.

Naka City Schools

High schools.
school just ac

ka Vocational High School is a large ferro-conerete, thre
ross the street from a commuter railway line. The students are divided
into several courses or lanes: mechanical. clectrical/information (computer). and.
chemical engineering. OF the school’s nearly 850 students. fewer than LO are female.
Over 30 staff members are listed as instructors in the school guide. The school also
houses a night school which starts around 6 p.m. From £99 i on, the two schools
were given separate stuff and administrators, although the same principal was in
charge of both. We did not interview students or staff at the night school.

In comparison with Nika's

dilapidated exterior Arata High School seemed to be an
ension of the brand new sports facility near the school. Arata is also a ferro-con-
erete structure but has more amenities: there is a two-tiered gym which hous
martial arts hall below and basketball courts above. Whereas the families of N
cational could best he described as working cliss.Arata’s parents scemed to be
mainly trom the middle class of store owners. clerical workers. and white-collar
workers (sarariiman). Over half of the 1.200 students at Arata are female. Nearly 60
staff members are listed as instructors, and the school offers a wide variety of clubs.
Aratitis generally considered a middle-ranked school, which means that although
most of its graduates go on to college. few are aiming for the best national or private
universitics.

Meiji High School is the oldest high school of the three. boasts along and vener-
ated tradition of promoting students’ individual interests along with academic suc-
cess. List year, Meiji made the list of the top 10 high schools in Naka City in terms of
scnding students on to Tokyo. Kyoto. or other top-ranked universities. About 50 per:

E

18

di



Introduction

During the early part of 1995 T spent three and a half months interviewing students.
teachers, tnd parents in Japan's public junior high and high schools. During this time,
Linterviewed 20 students, 14 parents (only 2 fathers). and 25 teachers. | conducted
24 observations of student events and daily school activities (¢.g.. cleaning period,
club practice time, teacher's mectings, and graduation ceremonies). The interviews
were all conducted at the schools and ranged in length from 30 minutes to 90 min-
utes. The duration of the observations ranged from 20 minutes to over 120 minutes.

Most of the students inte

jewed were in the “th, 8th, LOth or 11th grades. Beeduse
junior high school and high school student must pass entrance exams to Move on to
the next level of education, 9th- and 12th-graders follow a very tight schedule of
study. and the school administrators were reluctant to allow them to be interviewed.
I was able to speak to some students in their final years of schooling during informal
discussions. which usually occurred while 1 observed club practice after school

The staffat cach school sclected the students and parents that [inte
students, generally equal numbers of boys and girls, represented those whose acade-
mic and extracurricular performance was average or above. The parents | inter-
viewed were usually PTA members and often held an office in the PTA.The teachers
ranged from one young woman in her first year of teaching to veterans with nearly
30 years of expericnee. Because of my interest in adolescent lives. | requested, and
Wits usually ated. interviews with teachers Who came into close contact with stu-
dents outside of the classroom. for example. coaches, school counselors. heads of
student guidance departments. and the school nurse.

Viewed. The

During the interviews and observations, | focused on adolescents’ attitudes toward
school and study. | collected information on how students spend time inside and
outside school. as well as on the details of (heir soci interactions. | recorded parent
and teacher attitudes and theories about what motivates or hinders adatescent
achievement. [asked how parents. fricnds. and ouher social contacts affect adoles-
cent attitudes toward studying and motivation

The emphasis in this chapter will be on understanding what role school in general.
and math and science in particular, have in the lives of Japanese adolese cnts. How
do students of different ages react to school and what are their expectations of
schooling? What role do tests play and what kind of pressure do these tests gener:
ates Tlow do students react to math and scicnee? What are relationships like be-
tween parents and teachers? Because of the tremendous range and diversity of eco:
nomic

cumstince encountered during the study. itis impossible ta isokate at

139

ive



s had me watch each of their [st
the 50 minutes total and then wanted to hear all my opinions
how the students behaved and the teachers taught. There v
mutual expectation of learning from each other.

above 2 teache:

s for 25 minutes of
tbout differences i
sno animosity, only

Socializing as Learning

One clementary school teacher commented.“we talk a fot. In the fourth grade, we
are all great Gikers ul three fourth-grade teachers hugh). Real talkers. It is really

true that we just say what we want to s ater after discussing how much of this
was her own personaly versus a common experience of teachers, she continued:

Teacher: We have opinions. But we cach add those ina gentle way (sauao np)

and we don’t hesitate about those things. So. things like age or expericnce or our
qualifications. those don’t really come into pk
or more that
opinion (rele \
when E couldn't do that, ceally.

When we have a grade meeting,
grade mecting. a mecting at school. she too can put forth her
But L have never had an experience

Interviewer: Thats good isn’t it? That atmosphere?

the:

‘ > Right. and that aumosphere depends on human relations. Other than
that you curt do it. It is eves good if we just go cat lunch together or something.
‘To have time together and share the things we are thinking about.And when we
do that. we can decide on things. since we aren't with the children. So then we
can ik about things together anything. We are always tclling jokes and
laughing together. But 1 think that kind of thing is really important And because
we have that. when there is something | need advice on, Eean chink that there
are really people [can talk to. Lam really grateful for that. So itis a good grade.
But ceally.P have had that all along. That's why this school is

school like this.

The older teacher who had taught at several schools disagreed slightly and pointed
out that not all schools have such good relationships. s
who r

ving.“there are some people
ly are problematic. And when those people are in your gnide, it is a prob-
Jems The novice teacher continued to comment on how important the casual social
izing is Co her learning as a teacher:

ACfirst F came to school tecling really nervous. And when T heard that T would be
in fourth grade. fF wondered whatit would mean. But from the stirt. we went to.
cat funch together (these were the days hefore classes began). and everyday.
everyday. (ney tiked together with me. So very quickly [felt comfortable



purpose of the intelligence tests, according to an clementary school teacher, is to de-
termine the correlation bewveen grades and intelligence tests scores to help deter-
mine whether students are performing at their potential. Lowever. this teacher em-
phaticall ted that he did not use these intelligence tests in any other way. Further,
the intelligence test scores are never reported to parents. the elementary school
teacher said bee: parents of students with high scores might force their children
to study at home and parents of students with low scores might become sad_

Setting and Monitoring Standards in Elementary
Schools

According to teachers at Matsu Elementary School, many elementary schools are de-
vising their own school standards related to the new Monbusbo curriculum. One
teacher explained the importance of responding positively to children’s effort:

The new Monbusho curriculum calls for the positive evaluation (byoka) of stu-
dents instead of critical evaluation (byofe/).The meaning of byoka is that you
look for the good part of the child and evaluate that. In order to recognize the
good part. it is necessary to figure out what parts to recognize. The idea is that
this will fead to students developing more positive attitudes toward fearning. .0
the past. it was such that s culation, you made students do all kinds of cal-
culations,and then you would divide them up on the basis of scores. There was a
time when students could only get half of the problems correct on a test of say
40 problems. Now. it is different. With the new thinking. we recognize both stu-
dents who tke 30 minutes and those that take 40 minutes to do a problem. That
is the point of the new evaluations standards.

Matsu Elementary School devised its own standards based on the Moubusho cur-
riculum, using a three-point grading scale. The standards for the school were created
by committces of teachers. There were cight committees. one for cach of the sub-
jects in the curriculum. The committees created 2 text called the standard evafuation
report that detailed the levels of attainment required in order to achieve cach of the
three fetter grades: A. Band ¢

This report was several hundred pages in length

Differences Between Elementary Schools

Minor differences in achievement between students attending clementary schools in
poor areas and those attending schools in affluent areas were acknowledged by
Japanese educators and parents. For example, one mother reported that the level of
the ¢lementary school her son was attending was higher than that of neighboring cl
ementary schools, a belief she based on “conversations with her friends” and her

38



Discussions in the Teachers’ Room
and Between Classes

Teachers learn directly about cach others’ plans and styles when they talk with each
other in the teacher's room and between class periods. For example.an clementiury
school teacher spent the climb to his fourth-floor classroom discussing at science les-
son with another teacher and two junior high school teachers spent the walk to
their third-floor classrooms discussing student safety and how to prevent falls in the
stairways and haliways. seemed adept at using their time together to learn
and plan.Theee sixth-grade teachers began their day by discussing details of the
day's biology experiment before the morning informational meeting. Then, during
the 10-minute break. after they had ail finished teaching the biology experiment. one
teacher described how she used the TV monitor to show the microscope slides of
good examples to the entire chiss. Another teacher said he wished he had done that.
too, but he had forgotten how to use the monitor. This brief interlude between
chisses turned into questioning about how best to reach all students, because one
teacher reflected that he did not teach his ¢ well enough and that many students
did not get to see the results under the microscopes. This type of interaction seemed
gencral willingness to reflect on

and to share good ideas.

ach

Casual Peer Interactions as Learning

Two teachers. one at Naka Vocational High School and one at Matsu Etementary
school. described in detail how they learned from their peers during more casual in-
teractions. When Lasked ina joint interview at) Vocational High School about
what type of training is most useful. they responded as follow:

Younger teacher: I say that [im troubled about this
your class? We do that a lot

dof thing, can 1 go see

Inter ty? And you don't feel nervou

comes to watch your class?

tbout i? What if an older teacher

Younger teacher: If it is him. 1} don't worry. If it were a different person | might be
uptight.

Older teacher: This year there are three new t
rent used to vocational school students. right

thers at our school. And they
And then [saycome see my
chiss” And we talk about various kinds of things and that becomes (raining.

Although many teachers agreed (hat the best training was watching other teachers.
teach. they also reported that it was unusual to be allowed to obscrve casually. But at

Naka this scemed to be the atmosphere that prevailed. For one class period the



lected in order to get a sampling of regional variation within cach nation as well as
to provide a sample of schools with high, middle, and low levels of academic
achicvenient. In Japan. the primary research site was Naka City on the main islind of
Honshu, with secondary sites in the north (Kita City) and south (Minami City). To
preserve anonymity of all sites and persons interviewed, pseudonyms are used
throughout the volume.The only major geographic areas not surveyed were curat re-
ions. although some schools in the secondary sites did border on rural areas. In the
primary field site. three schools at cach level (primary, middle, and secondary) were
chosen and attention focused on the 4th, 8th.and 12th grades. In the secondary
/only one schoal at cach level 9 elected. In addition to these sc
searchers also visited juku (crim schools or other after-school courses), prefectural
and interviewed officials from the Monbusho (Ministry of Education, Sei -
and Culture).

The total time that cach researcher spent in a given school varied from 2 to nearly 10
days. At some schools, our interviews were scheduled one after the other: in other
schools, we would come for an interview. observe a class,and then go home to tran-
scribe the tapes we had recorded. The shortness of time in each school was balanced
by the fact that researchers Kinney, Le'Tendre, Shimizu, and Trelfa all visited the same
schools in Naka City from September 1994 to June 1995. In this way. we were able to
gain a sense of the school’s yearly cycle of events. In total, more than 250 interviews
with parents, teachers. students, school administrators and regional or national-level
administrators were conducted. total of nearly 130 observations of classrooms.
school events or mectings were also transcribed and entered into the datab:

Gaining Entry

Entry into the schools was mediated by Shigefumi Nagano « d Toshio Sawada of the
ional Institute of Educational Re ch. and three cities were chosen as
ficld sites. Generally. hosts from @ local university made the initial contact for us and
sct up a meeting with the principal and other senior teachers. In Kita City and Mi
nami City, these arrangements were conducted by Nagaro and Sawada themselve
All of our interview oudines were transkited and approved by the local boards of ed-
ucation prior to the commencement of the research,

Ipanese

While the stall
vations indic

some schools did try to arrange our schedules in detail. our obser-
‘ated that the schools were not managing our visits solely for the pur-
pose of putting on a good show. Such management was reflective of the degree to
which all social interaction is explicitly coordinated in Japanese schools. From the
start of the day. teachers in Japan have very few minutes drat they can call their
own. Especially for teachers of third-year junior high school and high school stu-
dents. preparation for the high school entrance exam means that there is little lee-



result, parents and students hold on to the perception that entering highly ranked
high schools and universities, regardless of the content and quality of the education
provided, offers students the best chances for success in fife. For example.a mother
whose daughter just entered a university challenged the criticism that many stu-
dents would go to colleges for the school name alone:

Mother: Once we had an ex
university. He said,

change student from China who went to a Japane
he Japanese are funny people. They study so hard to get into
university. But once they do. they completely goof off” Looking almy own

daughter. [ fel( how true thitt w:

Interviewer: How do you fect about that?
Mother: Well, [ say. Lam going to send my child to college anyway.

Interviewer: Why do you think so?

Mother: When a girl is trying to get married, the first thing people ask is her level
‘as it a 4-year college? Women’s college? Which college?”
and so forth. [ know it’s parental ego or vanity—you can call it whatever you
want to. But Chats just how | feel. 1 feel its my responsibility to send my child to
a university that she won't be embarrassed by when she mentions its name. My
daughter said she wanted to major in religious studies at college. When we (par-
ents) asked why. she said she didn’t know. Thats okay by us. im not ent od
to admit that we want her to get the diploma from that college and bring back
the name of the school with her when she graduates.

Supplementary Education

Jttku are designed to complement the Japanese public an adminis-
trator of one of Japan's largest jukus explained. He boasted that his company had
what it takes to replace regular schools with its ample money and teaching staff.
“But if we do that’ he expltined,“we no longer are juku.We become a regular
school and have to compete with other juki.To be ajuku, you have to do what itis
meant to do—support regular schools.

As his remark indicat schools produce a farge number of students who
find instruction in regu schools too casy, difficult. or not Gailored to their individ:
ual needs. For them. there are two major forms of supplementary education: jak
and supplementary classes called osha within regular schools.

APANEs:

ido



Nevertheless, there are those who, pereciving a weakness in gifted education in
Japan, have argued for grade-skipping. Several Japanese teachers expressed interest
in the practice of grade-skipping in the United States during our interviews. Regard-
ing gifted education, one educational official in the city of Naka expressed a widely
held sentiment:

The standard is the same for all of Japan.The only problem is that we cannot
offer gifted programs as the United States does. This is a great concern. It is diffi-
cult for Japan to produce a Nobel Prize winner or scholars who are of the caliber
to win Field Medals.

Although many Japanese express this opinion, they also suggested tha: grade.
ping does not reflect values that emphasize the group. Further, grade-skipping is also
perecived as a form of elitism.

Standards Based on Content

The absence of retention and grade-skipping in Japanese schools, coupled with the
demanding nature of the math and science curriculum at the secondary school
level, creates contradictory pressures on Japanese teachers to teach to the level of
the average or slow Icarners in a class while attempting to raise the performance of
all students.

Ultimately. Japanese teachers adapt to the level of student the following state-
ment by a teacher indicate think that every schoof adjusts what it teaches ac-
cording, to the fevel of the school. There are schools that do a whole lot of the cur-
riculum and there are schools that only do the simple problems.”

This comment reveals the fact that i
ese students, mastery of the Monbus
Japan. In fact
curriculum is.
pe

spite of the high level attained by many Japan-
bo curriculum is not required of alf students in
A common saying among educators in Japan regarding the Monbusbo
even, five, three”, meaning that 70 percent of clementary school, 50
nt of the junior high and 30 percent of the high school students can be ex-
pected to actually master the curriculum. Although many teachers and education au-
thorities consider this an excessively extreme description, our conversations with
teachers indicate that not all students are expected to master the curriculum. As,
noted carlier, almost all students are allowed to progress through grades and gradue
ate with their age cohort.at either an academe or vocational high school



scemed comfortable with working in the nurse's office, the nurse and a teacher on
the guidance committee would try to get the student lo attend one efass a day often
a non-academic class like art.Teachers also encouraged peers to ry to involve the
students who refused school in more activities. In this way the teachers hoped to re-
connect students gradually to the social life of the schoot so that they would not
drop out.

Students who have problems fitting in socially were scen as also likely to have prob-
lems academically. Most of the students who were being counseled through the
nurses’ office had poor gr and were unlikely to be able to enter any of the a
emic-track high schools.This fact, teachers said, leads students to become com-
pletely disenchanted with studice: students are at risk of dropping out of the
school system, cithee at the transition to high school or after they have spent a year
or Wo in high school. The problem of dropouts is growing for the first time in the
post-war cra.

ce

Dropouts. Dropping out is difficult to define and measure. Sometimes teachers will
refer to students who are sitting in class as dropouts. From the teachers’ point of
view, dropouts are students who are often absent from school or are inattentive and
refuse to participate in class. Students who exhibit this behavior are usually labeled
as ochikobore and eventually these “dropouts” may fail to attend school altogether.
One teacher at Midori described such students as having “no place to live”

Atthe high school level. a certain percentage of students fi
cation. While this percentage i
tracks (Shimizu, 1994). ACN
committee discus:

}to complete their cdu-
small in general, it is greater in the non-academic
ational, the teacher who headed the guidance

ed the dropout problem:

‘Yeacher: Well. this year, 27 students have dropped out so far (chi tofaigaku).
Thats for the whole school—first to third year. Every year its 25-45. The first

year is where most dropout, only one or wo drop out in their third year.

Interviewer: Why do they drop out?

acher: Most drop out be
reason they give is‘This
school would be better.

use (they cunt do) the a
school doesn’t suit me-The:
nd they try to make a chang

idemic work. The second
say a regular or night
in their future course.

Interviewer: Do dropouts also go to werk?

‘Teacher: Yes
find a job.

most curt do the studying that is necessary. or lack interest. 50 they

In this interview, the teacher combined students who quit school to work with stu.
dents who entered some other form of schooling. most often a night high school or

St

bats



10 vears. This has been the case since the end of World War TE when the fir:
or study, based on an American model. was introduced. These 10-vear revisions have
allowed Monbushe to respond to changes ip national priorities in education,

course

Revisions of the Movbusbo curriculum are developed by Monbusho-led review
groups that consist of Morbusbo officials and nationally recognized education au-
thorities. The content of these meetings are widely publicized.

Revisions of the curriculum are first published as a set of proposed curricula
s. The proposed curricular guidelines have typically consisted of the following: a
sing the old curriculum, « delineation of new curriculum goals,a pro-
posal for a new curriculum. and an evaluation of the proposal by an in-service teach-
ers’ group. For a period of 4 years following the initial publication of the proposed
guidelines Sof the new curriculum at sclected
schools. This gradual approach allows time for dissemination and ample time for
schools to implement the curricular reforms.

History of Curriculum Revisions

The first post-war Vobusbo curriculum was implemented in 1947 after the United
Stiles returned sovercign powers to Japan with the signing of the San Francisco

Peace Treaty. This curriculum emphisized life experiences and practical knowledge
The second national curriculum, which was implemented in 1958. emphasized i
academic skills, particularly in avithmetic and Japanese. Moubusbo continued the
policy of higher academic standards with the third curriculum, published in 1968.
This curricusum also reflected Monubusho's attempt to modernize the Japanese edue
cation system. As part of the modernization effort, Moubusbo sought to integrate the
junior high school and elementary school curricula more effectively and to improve
the curricula in all subjects. Improvements in math and science education were inte:
gral parts of the modernization effort.

By the fate 1970s, the Japanese Teachers’ Union and others began expressing con:
cern over what they called “educational overheating” (Ryatkie no Ranetsuka). AC
cording to these critics. Japanese students were studying excessively hard because
of the increasing focus on entrance examinations and entrance into highly ranked
colleges. In an effort to cool down the “educational overheating” and respond to
these critics, Monbusho reduced the total number of class hours by 10 percent in
the curriculum cevision of the fate 1970s.

Recently. some fapanese policy makers have expressed the opinion that curcicukir
revisions should be more frequent in this age of rapid social change in Japan. In re-



ach and English are considered by students to be the (Wo most important subjects
on the university entaance minittions. Consequently, s sare motivated to
put forth great effort to master these subjects. For thi son. English and math
courses are the most popular courses in fuer.

Moubusi

bo curricula as a foundation for college entrance. The Center Examina-
ion is restricted to the content of the Moubusbo curriculum. he University £
trance Examination Center Daigaku Nyushi Sentaa). which designs the Center
amination, reviews the examination for conformity to the Moibusbo curriculum
and eliminates any problems based on topics that are not covered in the Woubusba
curriculum,

Japanese students have tended to improve their collective scores on the entrance
examinations cach year. Therefore, scores begin to cluster nearer and ncarer the top
with cach passing year and it becomes more difficult to discriminate among appli-
cants. In order to distinguish among applicants, the Center Examina
create increasingly difficult questions. These questions
busbo curriculum, but involve. in the wor
thesis of several Copies This trend is particularly evident in the math section of the
test. However, since the examinations only cover the curciculum, the advice found in
guides for preparing for the university entrance examination is similar to that in high
school cntrance examination guides: namely. review high school textbooks and do
many practice problems.

ion has had to
are still based on the Mou-
Is of a Lest preparation manual.the syn-

Private colleges are exempt from using the Center Examination. In the past. many
private colleges have used their own cxaminations. which in the case of highly pres-
Ugious private colleges were even more difficult Chan the Center mination. In-
creasingly however, private universities are also Curning te the Center Examination
to aid in the determination of admission decisions by establishing cut off points chat
are used to determine whether the potential applicant is quatified to take the col-
lege’s entree examination

The negative tmipact of the eatrauce exauination
y Japanese teache s having a positive impact on student motivation to
Iso felt that these examinations ils: ¢ acgative impact on the qual
y tion in Japan. The pressures of the entrance examinations are se
contributing to a varicts of school-rchited problems, including an over-dependenee
on juku by students. bullying Cie). school refusal syndrome Gokok obi) and a
host of other problems. For example, sonie Japanese argue that teachers are so busy
p sxauminations that they do not have the time to ine
tervene in cases of bullying. Also. some have argued that. since fapanese schools «re
so oricnted towards cxaniinations, students become alicnated and refuse to atend

While entrance examinations

Was

sparing students for entrance

66

of}



school teacher
her clear cl

kboard pr ion is useful to both students and to other teacher:

During my first year, was always told by various older teachers about the cur:
rect way to write on the chalkboard. For example, first tlways write the purpose
Cnidashi)—what we will be studying. The children may not be looking at it, but
by looking at the chalkboard, they can tell what we did during this { hour. The
main point is on the board and is useful for note taking. Various teachers also
come lo my room and see what [have written. We will took in and see. It doesn't

nd for others fooking at it as a ret

have to be something great. but is a reference
erence. it is really useful,

Professor Hiroshi Usui.a teacher educator at Hokkaido University, wrote after ob-
serving classrooms in the United Stites as part of this Case Studies project:

Tt was striking to me that teachers here did not seem to consciously organize
their writing on the chalkboard in a way that would help promote conmmun
tion with students. As well. they seemed to use the chalkboard less frequendy
than Japanese teache! nthe chalkboard is used as a primary medium of
communication so that teachers are alway rare Of clarit hape.as Well as
saliency of the items placed on the chalkboard.

Ite also commented on the lack of space on chalkboards and wondered who was re-
sponsible for cleaning the boards. fn all Japanese classrooms at all levels of schoolin:
students take turns being responsible for cleaning the chalkboard between classes. If
an assignment is written during one lesson that should not be crased, it will generally
be copied over to the chalkboard chart showing the day’s assignments. Ifa teacher
enters a room to find a chalkboard that is not clean. he or she will usuatly cither erase
it thoroughly or wait until it is crased by a student to begin the class.

achers took for granted that a good teacher in Japan would have strong academic
skills. but emphasized motivation, having enjoyable outside interests, being well-
rounded. and culGvating the nonacademic skills required to (cach effectively. Good
teaching seemed to be a possibility for anyone who would put forth effort toward de-
veloping these skills and human traits. The effort required was expected to spring from
s.notontly in school but in all aspects of an individual's life.

pursuing one’s intere:

246

wD



For example, some parents thought that studying was supposed to be fun or enjoy:
able so that students would like school and continue to want to attend. Others saw
studying as building up character.As Singleton (1967) wrote, a major gual of school
ing for many Japanese parents is to get students to persevere (geambara) and par
tiently bear inconveniences or hardship (gaan sara). This is a type of training in
determination, and parents sce these qualit ssential for the future success of
their children. One mother at Chuo eloquently discussed her views on studying:

From the student ‘s view, school is a fun plac n't fun. they wouldn't go.
But I think it is also a place of pain (kutsi). They have to study. It is necessary to
study to grow up into an adult. They have to do it or else. everyday. So. fF think
that studying can be painful

Pthink that you learn up until death. It isn’t the kind of studying you do sitting at
a desk. For example. you study the refationships between people. Learning to
cook is also studying as is legrning how to do things from your husband's
mother. if we aren't learning each day. what reason can we give for having this
human life? Human development is not just studying ata desk. 1 think they have
to prepare them for society—they have to focus on human development.

Parents of junior high students in particular put emphasis on the character-building,
aspect of studying. Because parents and teachers alike see this as a crucial time in
the formation of studc¢ut character. junior high schools have triditionally tried to bal-
ance studying hard with vigorous physical activities, exposure to the arts and music.
and a lively calendar of events. While parents want their children to do well on the
exams. they also want them to be well-rounded people. but their concern for suc.
son the entrance exam tends to come through most cleart
this primary concern. but the teacher
putting too much emphasis on study

feachers respond to
reactions are often interpreted by parents as
ing for the tests,

On the other hand some teachers complained that parents did tite more than tell
their students to study. They wanted parents to tike a more active role in the overall
education of the student. Teachers als studying as more thin book work. and
they lamented the fact that they are pressured into teaching to the test. While teach-
ers and parents evinced a strong desire to work together to provide a vital icarning
climate for students. both parents and teachers tended to respond more to the con-
cerns around the entrance exams. These common responses feed off cach other and
tend to drive classes more and more toward exam preparation

saw

Studying and Parental Attitudes

The concept of study ing (perky) has very broad and overall positive connotttions
in Japan Several Japanese terms cover the range of studying activilics in which sur



of my time at the school Two of the women teachers who spoke with me at length
were nonpermanent staff members. They tught a Cull course load but were not con
sidered full-time and did not participate in committees or toad homerooms. Both of
these women described family circumstances that had forced them to resign their
permanent teaching jobs—one due to her husband's translcr overseas and one be:
ise of a parent's illness. They could not be reinstaied as permanent teachers with
out retiking the extensive employment examinations.

ca

The high school teachers were a diverse group. They included a man in his carly for
fies who had spent three extra yours ala top ranking national university because of
bis involvement in a Noh drama club. He then spent several years teaching in a city
with a very active teachers’ union before moving back to his home town of ° t
where the union is less active. Both his union experience and his time spent at uni-
y during the fate sixties made him willing to be different and buck the
at times. Another teacher in his late thirties reported that he spent much of his free
lime studying methods for teaching mathematics at the local national university and
giving lectures on mathematics to community groups. His energy scemed boundless
and he cagerly presented his ideas for practical computer to the math group
meeting ata school that mainly is preparing for examinations. He and another math
teacher and | went for dinner alter school and he spent the entire meal discassing,
innovative mathemati in he used Co teach basic math concepts to
students. During the mathematics scetion meeting, Lobserved he enthusiastically de
scribed new courses he wanted to develop, particularly a section on advanced com:
puter usage. The other eight math teachers listened respectfully but clearly were not
as cnthusiastic about courses that were not directly related to college examinations.
The mecting did encourage at substantial exchange of ideas about the purposes of
mathematics education at this competitive high school. The teachers | questioned a
terward reported that it had been a typical meeting and that the discussion would
become more heated as the time for developing the following year's curriculum
drew near. It scemed that the variety of opinions and approaches among the teach-
ers led to indepth discussions about the reasons for any given teaching method

stem

Another teacher had 35 years of experience in teaching and had been at Naka Voca-
tional High School for 20 vears. He had five grown children of his own and se
to have greal patience for encouraging students in the lower-track vocational school
An expert teacher, he cultivated an atmosphere where the math teachers felt com:
fortable asking to observe cach other's classes and having their own classes ob-
served. In his last vear before mandatory reticement. he also was continuing to chal-
lenge the other teachers to nol spend too much time just aking. but to actualy
help students. In this school, too, Lobserved a rather confrontational mathematics
teachers’ meeting where the four teachers debated how to address the problent of
high school dropouts Teachers’ different oudooks and experiences led to an inter:
esting argument about how the problem was best approached

emed

ot

toys
~ hu



tears. While other students do warm-ups. Physical Education cnds at 11:30 after bas:
ketball drills and games. Ms. Endo next i saclass discussion for 15 minutes
about respecting differences and getting along together. Then. she plunges into:
funny stories about her cal to discuss portraying movement in sculpture fora short
ened art Chass. Cliss ends rly. to allow time to prepare the
room for lunch.

Students call “teacher. teacher, asking her to join their group. They all talk and tell
jokes during lunch. Ms. Endo then supervises student cleaning in two restrooms and
her own classroom. The | hour and 20-minute break for lunch, cleaning. and recess
draws near ils end as Ms. Endo stops briefly in the teachers’ room to debate topi
an upcoming PTA meeting,

After science and social studies. the daily student-led “going home mecting” contin-
ues und) 3:40 p.m. Students slowly pack up their belongings alter changing oul of
their gym clothes at their desks.

Ms. Endo chats with remaining students while tidying the classroom: several girls
stund in the doorway giggling. She's hurries to the -00 p.m. teachers’ mecting, (hen
heads back upstairs at 3:30 to look over student diaries. AL O:30. the school is quict
as she calls out*@ saki i sbitsure? sbimasi” (Um leaving ahead of you) to the tour
teachers working in the computer corner of the teachers’ room and to the vice prin:
cipal who is sitting at his desk toward the front. After a 55-minute drive. she arrives
home before 7:30 p.m.

Research Methodology

Tspent 2 months during late spring of 1995 in public clementary. middie. and high
schools in Naka City Japan—the primary Third International Mathematics and Svi-
ence Study CTEMSS) case study site. After an initial introductory and scheduling visit
to cach school, at least 2 full days were spent in cach of the nine schools studied. I
followed at least 2 teachers in cach school for an cntire schoo! day and observed
their classrooms, meetings with colleagues, break times. and preparation times. Ob-
servations began before the morning teachers’ mectings and usually continued until
after 3:30 p.m. tn addition, 12 school administrators, 2 school board members, 2
board of education members, and 20 teachers were interviewed at length in their of
fices or classrooms. During my time at cach school | spoke eatensively with other
stuffand teachers and ohserved club activities. teachers’ aficrschool interactions,
curciculum meetings. and other committee mectings.

[St



dealing with individual differences. Hence, the booklets of practice problems allow
teachers to mect the needs of individual students. One math teacher explained that
the booklets provide ac >of problems, from casy to extremely difficuit This
teacher made individual as. signments from the booklet, depending on the motivation
and ability of (he students. Many Japanese teachers reported assigning additional
problems to students of above average ability. thus. the problem booklets Gaondat
ensbu) provide tie prity means by which Japanese teache
students and maintain their motivation to study.

accommadate these

hers also rege use Worksheets for in-¢
monly designed by the teacher, but m Iso come from other sources, such as other
teachers and teachers’ guides. In fact. in most of the ckisscoom observations, print-
outs were the primary resource for instruction during ckiss. In spite of the apparent
high quality of the textbooks and practice problem booklets, few Japanese teachers
said they used these as the primary instructional material during cli
Japanese math and science teachers relied on worksheets that they made for cach
period. In Japanese. these worksheets are called printouts’. Phe printouts contain
the lesson objectives and problems relied to cach day's lesson. They are used by cle
mentary. junior and senior high school teachers.

instruction. The

LSS.

shects are com:

The printouts are typically clear and well-organized. They are made so that students
can follow the tecture and do problems in cltss. Since problems are written out,
teachers do not need to waste class time writing out problems on the chalkboard.
‘Fextbooks appeared to be a secondary rcsource’or reference for students: during
many ckissroom observations textbooks remained closed on top of students’ desks.

The printouts are also used by students for study and review and in keeping with the
practice of not grading everyvdity work, these printouts are seldom graded by teachers

Figure 4 presents a translation of a printout for use in an cighth-grade math Iesson,
The printout. which students used du
matched the teacher's

a the 15 minutes of instruction. closcly

astructional phn

Jistruction and the stower learner The issuc of dealing with students of different lev
els of ability was salient to teachers tnd administrators at the junior high school level:

There is almost no connection between the junior high schools and clement
schools in Japan. Once kids enter junior high school it is truly a ty pe of education
that l would call cramming. F think it would be nice if (hey would spend more time
in junior high school explaining things. (Principal of Matsu Elementary )



KEI OMOPEADOY

SAI 98-3008

BEST COPY AVAILABLE



school Many of these relationships presumed to be causal by Japanese are not ap-
parent to the outside observer.

One problem frequently mentioned by scicnce teachers was the pressure to cover
the entire curriculum so that students are adequately prepared for entrance exami-
nations. According to a high school chemistry teacher:

The ceality is that the number of things that we have to teach is the same or
growing and the time alloted to teach is shrinking. Just Crying bo follow the tc
book takes all of our energy. [we don’t teach everything in the textbook, tl
the students who are taking science in the entrance examination will end up
being in a pitiful situation

According to the teachers we inters .cwed. experiments must be conducted in the
chissroom if student interest is to be stimulated in science. However since caperi
ments take time and are not emphasized on the entrance examinations, there is pres:
sure on teachers to have students memorize he expected results of cs
without actually conducting them,

periments

A high school chemistry teacher described this pattern:
of both material for ck

The textbooks are compesed
s instruction and experiments, but the experiments end up
getting cut. Pdo not think that is how science should be taught!
out the rooms reserved for science experiments." We vy use these rooms.” the
teacher said. showing the empty rooms one by onc Secing is belicving’ he contin:
ued. urving to climinate any doubt about th + veracity of his complaint. Ue explained
that the physics. chemistry. and biology rooms are used only six or seven times a year
jor experiments. He then pointed out This és the earth science experiment room. but
room for experiments or any other activity? “Tt is just room, with
no function The room looked as thongh it had not been used in years.

The teacher pointed

re

The failure to cover the experiments outlined in the curriculum for junior high and
high schoot was also per ating problems for science education in col-
lege. Ata symposium in Naka City. which brought together high school and college
educators to discuss high school and college tinkage veral science professors
complained that icy were forced to spend an inordinate amount of time doing ex-
periments in college that should have been covered in high school The result. they
fered, was a sccond-nite scicnce education at the university level in Japan.

cived as cr

Ahiga school science teacher analyzed the state of se
following manner:

ence educaucn in dapan in the

Japanese cducation is such that students only need to know the correct answers:
they do not nced to know why. Like a chemistry experiment in which the mix-

oO"



¢

ryone does not know there are people who are suffering and hurting. to
place children in such a limited environment when they are emotionally ima
ture will damage their future because it will not help them develop as human be-
ings with character and depth Yikawing aru ningen).\ believe that is the ab-
solute truth (zelta? shinjitsu dato omor).1 believe it strongly!

Inter

‘Teacher: To doubt what Lam saying is out of the question. If there are people
who doubt, | want to say to them “Why don't you understand?
be wrong with you i

wert! did not mean to doubt your sincerity.

omething must
you have to doubt and cannot accept such a simple truth!”

naka Went on to share his experience that led him to believe the impor-
tance of mixcd-ability instruction as follows:

Let me tell you from my own experienc:
of teaching. In PE. class. when 1 wits teaching my students jump box. | realized
that some students could do level 4, some could do 5, some could do 6,and some
could not even do -t. $0 F thought it would be efficient if F grouped them to-

ether by their ability because every time someone had to do their turn. the level
had to be changed to match their ability. 11 was too much work and waste of
time. If Thad all the students who could do level 6 in one group. however, they
could keep practicing without wasting Uneir time to change tbe level for other
students who could not do level 6.1n this way. every student of every level could
benefit. for they had more time to practice. Then a teacher. who was especially
experienced in teaching PE id what I was saying was truce. but when [saw
how he was teaching his students, he had all kinds of students in every group. |
told him that what he was doing was not efficient. and he told me education wis
not about efficiency! He said. there are all kinds of people in this world. Does a
smart person tive only among smart people? No.all kinds of people live together.
and that is our world/socicty. to divide students when they are sullin clementary
school . Con be efficient in the classroom, but what does that teach
about our world?

sa

If students are not grouped by ability. how do teachers deal with differ
ity? One answer is that they take ntiage of the d

nees in abd-
erences by what is called fssee

Jugyo (whole-class instruction)

acho Flementary School what words of ad-
nd who was having trouble at school. she

When Lasked'an cight-vear old gitl av’
vice she would give to her American [
told m

I would say “Let's study together” T will begin studying with her from the place
she got behind. Even though Tunderstand. | will go through with her until she
finishes thinking. [f she does not understand, 1 will teach her. If] simply give her
answers or if | simply teach her, it will not be good for her.

102

ive



NTE TH

Math and Science Classes

One of the basic questions we had at the outset of this research was “What role do
math and science have in adolescent lives?” On the surface, the answer is that math
and science do not play a special role. We did not find that teachers placed more ¢m-
is on math Or science than on other subjects, and on the whole, there was fille
stinguish math and scicnee from the farger field of academic endeavor. But. iLis
precisely in this way (hat math and science play a very large role in adolescent
they are core subjects ina culture that places ¢ on the academic
achievement of its students.

treme empha

When we examine the situation more deeply it is clear that a students ability or

preference for math and science will have powerful long-term effects on his or her
friendship patterns. academic opportunities. and future chances. At the junior high
school level, competenc ‘ S just as Cruci
competence hand science in terms of preparing for the high school entrance
exam. However. those students who show more aptitude in math and science will

tend to enter academic tracks

aimed at science or engineering courses in college.
Because of these school divisions, math and science skills become highly important
factors in adolescent Life.

School Divisions and Mathematics

For students who excel in math and science, there is the possibility of enrolling in
one of the nationally funded 5-year high schools (sce introductory chapter). al-
though enrollment in these highly selective schools is rather timited. Students in
non-academic high schools are also affected by math ability. Some fields use a good
deal of math (¢.g.. clectrical engineering), and students must attain a higher degree
of proficiency in math and science for them than students in fields 1 information
processing. which do not require strong math skills.

At Arata and Mciji. students were s into liberal arts and science tracks in the sec:
ond year. The course of studies is altered to accommodate these divisions. For exam-
ple. in the first year at Meiji high school all students take five hours a week of math,
In the second y students in the fiberal arts tack will take four hours while those
in the science k Will tike Students in the science track will also tike more

advanced math courses such as statistics.

ay



The class had just begun when 1 stepped into her class. Ms. Sato is in her carly thir-
tics. Her instruction is efficient and engaging. A cectangle-shaped banner was already
placed on the bhickboard, which read."If you go to buy __ number of caramels.
yen cach, how much would it cost?
smecting.

This problem was a review from
the last ¢

asked

First. Kato-kun ¢kun is us y added after boys’ names to show affection). 0
to stand up and read the banner. Then Ms. Sato announced.*Let's put some numbers:
in the box. Several students raised their hand, and Ms. Sato called on two of them.
The first one said “nines and the second one, “cight”

Even this simple routine was highly stylized. These (wo students followed exactly
the same procedure when Ms. Sato called their nam aswered. “Hai!”
(Yes) as they stood up from their chairs, gave their answers. and sat down to signal
the end of their response.

ked the entire class:"When we buy one caramel which costs 21 sen.
what equation should we have?” Several students raised their hands, Ms. Sato called
on a boy named Togo-kun who stood up and answered.” We have one caramel which
costs 21 yen. So its 2) times one. As Togo-kun was about to sit down, Ms. Sato.
silently showed him her index finger pointed to the class and reminded him to ask
everyone what he or she thought of his answer. Looking a bit embarrassed for hav.
ing neglected to do this.Togo-kun uttered the set phrase every student used to ask
opinions of everyone in the class, dom desu ka (What do you think?). Everyone i
the class silendy raised his or her index finger. indicating Uiey all agreed with Togo-
kun’s answer,

“Everyone scems to agree with Togo-kun’s opinion, Ms. Sato said.Then she asked.
“Now is there anyone who thinks they would solve this problem differently?” As she
asked the question, she wrote on the chatkboard "1X 21" Cinstead of 21 times 1).The
equation was not appropriate because it did not follow the way the question was:
phrased (.¢.. ff you go buy ___ number of caramels, which are 21 yen cach. how
much would it cost”). But she wrote it purposely to test how many students under
stood the concept of writing the equation just as the question was phrased. She
asked the class."Are they the same? T wrote the equation one times Uwenty one (in
stead of twenty onc times one)? What do you think?” Some students showed the “1
agree” signs. others indicated the “TL have an opinion” sign.

ms,



tempts to reduce inequality,
perience problems in ac

Ipanese of burakinin ancesiry have continued to ex:
to jobs, housing, and educ:

Research on minority i

sucs in Japan remains a volatile topic. Previous studies focus-
ing on cducation have uncovered perv ¢ evidence of institutionalized discrimina-
tion faced by students of burakianin ance Nabejima (1993) found systemati-
cally lower eates of high school completion for students of berakwunin ancestry. For
the nation as a whole. the overall high school graduation rate for non-burakumin sCu-
dents was 94.-4 percent whereas as it was only 87.5 percent for buradkimin stu-
dents. Differences in college attendance were even more striking: overall 30 percent
of non-burakimin students went to college in 1996 whereas less than 20 percent
of Gurakuimin students did so (Nabejima, 1993)

Burakimin students
cess. but describing th

¢ obvious!
: barriers i

experiencing some barricrs to academic s
difficult and can be offensive to many Japane:
of burakumin ancestry. Many families of burakumin descent do not wish to be iden-
lified as birakuniin. They prefer not to emphasize this ancestry, and one principal
informed us that some children in his school did not know they were of burakumiin
descent. The schools we visited had a strict policy of maintaining anonymity with re-
gard to these students. The majority of teachers we interviewed did not seem to
know who in their class was from burakionin families. Given these factors, we de-
cided to refer to previous studies rather than attempt to address this difficult and
provocative issue in our fieldwork.

The Field Sites

The ficld sites for the case studies were
as possible of the regional, clas:

sclected in order to capaurc

Wide a range
nd cthnie diversity of Japanese socicty.

Naka City

Our primary site. Naka City. is one of the fargest cities in Japan As with most Japan-
ese urban centers, the city is well-connected to the rest of the nation via its port and
airport.as well as by private and national railway fines. White Naka City is generally
prosperous, some wards of the city have high concentrations of low-income famitics
s well as burakiauin, No one industry predominates: shipping, textiles. electronics,
and automotive factorics all play a major role in.an cconomy where 2-1 perceat of
the labor force is employed in manufacturing and 23 percent in the service indus:
teies The unemployment rate in 1992 was a litle over 3 percent. and the median

12

So



After a five-minute break. the math teacher, Mr. Nomu
bows and gives a formal greeting. Mr. Nomura gocs right Co work and writes down
an equation that the clit ad been working on the previous div. Immediately he
asks for answers. Jokingly, Mr. Nomura says that a good nights sleep should have
stimukued their brains, Students begin to raise theie hands and make suggestions. Mr.
Nomura responds to cach answer, relating it back to some of the material covered
the previous day.

enters, and the class again

Second period is English with Mrs. Hamagaw a. Although Toru’s sister loves English,
‘Toru finds it frustrating. Today the students spend most of the day reading out loud
in sequence te correct (heir pronunciation. Mes. Hamagawa reminds them atthe end
of chiss to turn ina draft of their sel-introduction as the forces glish teacher it
young American, will visiC the class in two weeks. Although Toru dislikes English, lie
is v excited about taking with a Westerner and wonders what he should say in

his introduction

By 11:40 Toru’s stomach is grumbling and he is beginning to have trouble concen:
trating. AU E2210 the students who, on duty in the kitchen bring lunch to the
classroom. Mrs. Ibuchi brings her lunch into the room and cats while chatting with
some students und grading papers tor her afternoon class.

The afiernoon classes scem to drug by, but at 4: 10.afler sweeping the |
Yoru heads to basketball club. Four nights a week Yoru s ctice with his

m until 5:30. The students, directed by the captain. practice their drills over and
Foward the end of the period they have a short match. On Wednesdays night he
s carly lo go to his English lessons

room,

sto pr

Yoru gets home before 6:00, watches a litte TV and cats some snacks his mother hits
pr dd. He then teaves for his review cram school (iki. which meets three
nights a week. Next year he will transfer to an exam prep juke like the one his sister
goes Lo. This jukiy is across town, ne:
have to quit basketball,

rly an hour by bus and subway. se loru will

foru gets home shortly after 8:30. His father is home and they chat briefly about
school and the exhibition soccer games that will be on TV that weekend. Toru cats
dinner his mother bas prepared and takes his turn in the bath. Sitting in front of the
TV with his parents. he watches TV and scribbles a bit of his sclfintroduction
Around 11:00Toru goes to his room and does a few math problems. By 11:30 he has.
picked up a comic book and then kitys on his bed where he fuls asleep

1A8



to study, but rarely supervise homework. One teacher at Midori noted that:"Yes, par-
ents are very concerned. They don’t help with homework, but they do send their
students to juku; 60-70 percent of kids go to juku. Some kids go to club. juku. and
enrichment courses. So, kids have no time with friends

One parent at Shimogawa, when asked if she made her child stud

Yes it is necessary. [is really hard to judge what to say in order to increase their
motivation. That is my worry nowadays. My middle onc, he goes to jukuT hate
Jukuy he says. so [say how about a home tuto he problem is. if] knew some-
one it would be okay, but T don’t know anyone. So [am worried. [let the kids:
pick. We try to make it the habit that they study each di

However, parents of high school students were very noncommittal about motivating
their children to stud father at Arata said:”My daughter? [leave it up to her: study
time and the like.” Parents who were well-educated themselves tended to take a
more acuve role in school events, but in general parents of high students appeared
to offer litle or no supervision of homework or studying. However. they were will-
ing lo provide monetary support and enroll their children in juku:

At high school parents don’t help at all [with homework]. If the father is an engi-
neer or something like that. maybe. But for most people. when the student gets
into high school, they don't help. They will send the student to juka.or they will
spend money to provide a study room or hire a home tutor. (Meiji teacher)

One reason parents gave to explain why they no longer supervised their children’s.
schoolwork was that they were uncomfortable discussing the lesson because they
did not know its format or the expkinations included in the teacher's text. From ju-
nior high school on, memorizing the correct answer is of paramount importance in
a student's education. The changing role of parents in their children’s study habits
appears to be tied as much to the changing nature of how subjects are presented
and the kind of answers that are required as to the Jevel of difficulty of the material.

Parental Involvement in the School

Parental participation in school activities varies depending on the age of the student
and the kind of school attended. In the elementary years, parents are actively in-
volved in many school activities. For example. a teacher at Kita Elementary de-
scribed the various events hat parents, usually mothers, took part in:

Teacher: We have a meeting for cach class once a year The other times that some-
one from the home would come with the students would be the school festivals.
fn fall. we have the sports festival. As for other meetings. in the first and second

lol
tuo

BEST COPY AVAILABLE



Chapter 4

The Role of School
in Japanese Adolescents’ Lives

By Gerald Letendre
Introduction. 2. ee
Factors Affecting the Adolescent Experience
Gender. 2. 2...
Residence
!

Minority status. 6 2 ee

Fonomic status

School Structure and Adolescent Participation in Schooling
Junior High Schools: From Morning to Night
Daily schedules 2 2...
Difference
A*Thin Slic

in the junior high school experience. .

Life in the High Schools...
Two Schools at Once: The Role of Juku
Clubs and School Participation...

Junior high schoots and isshokeninei

High school and independence
Problems With Schoot

School refusal 2...

Dropouts. 2... 2 ee See

School violence

Family Influences on Adolescent Development and School Participation. .

Family Time and School Fine.
Parental Expectations for Schooling

Studying and Parental Attitudes

Parents and Homework...
Parental Involvement in the School

Family Problems 2...

Tsolation, Divorce. and the

Peer Refations

‘of Friendship
CS.

The importance of clubs...

139
£10
L410
140

155
156
156
157
158
160
161
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166
107
107
168
168



school property before «ad after school nours, planning school trips and other out-
ings. and all-school participation in special school events such as festivals, music con:
tests, sports exhibitions. and other activities.

The Job of a Teacher in Japan-the Basics

aching in Japan provides adequate pay, some respect. and, compared to many
Japanese companies, high job autonomy. Average monthly salaries for Japanese teach:
ers. excluding other benefits. were ¥309,400 for elementary. ¥305.700 for junior
high. and ¥330 +00 for high school teachers in 1992 (Ministry of Education. Science.
and Culture. 1995, p. 121). salaries Uat compared favorably uly for female col-
lege graduates, to the average for colicge graduates in that y imate
¥397,000 for men or ¥268,000 for Women across all industries (StatisGics Bureau of
the Management and Coordination Agency. 1995, p. 142).The average starting salary -
for elementary and junior high school teachers was ¥180.000 per month compared
to the average starting monthly b: alary for college graduates overall of ¥187,000
for men.and ¥180.000 for women across all industries (Statistics Burcau of the Man-
agement and Coordination Agency. 1995, p. 112).Approximately 58 percent of cle
mentary and 36 percent of junior high school teachers were female in 1992 (Min-
istry of Education. Science. and Cutture, 1995, p. 119). In Nak y in 1996, the
recruitment brochure of the Naka City Board of Education listed teachers’ starting
monthly bi al ¥229.300 (approximately $2.290 ata ratio of ¥100 to one dol-
lar) for kindergarten. elementary, and junior high school teachers and ¥231.000 Gip-
proximately $2,310) for high school teachers. In addition, like many full-time em-
ployees in Japan, teachers receive & bonus cquivalent to 5.2 times their monthly
salary (¥YEL.920,460. or almost $ 12.000) divided into Uiree bonus payments in De-
cemher. March. and June. Although elementary and junior high school (cachers are
hired by the local city. town. or village. prefectural governments pay half of all
salaries in order to ensure uniformity of compensation within the prefecture. The
compensation in cach prefecture is based on the pay reecived by national school
teachers, which is specified by national faw (Ministry of Education, Science. and Cul-
ture, 1995. p. 121). Teache 0 cligible as civil servants for extra monetary al-
lowances for dependents. financial adjustments (such as cost af living). housin:
transportation. assignments to outlying areas. administrative positions. periodic Costs
(such as those incurred when traveling with sports teams). and diligent service.

pe

‘The average Iength of service of teachers in Japan at the clementary. junior high. and
high school levels in [992 was bewween 15 and 16 years. The average teacher is
about +0 years old: less than 20 percent are under 30 and only about 10 percent are
over 55 years old (Ministry of Education. Science, and Culture, 1995).

188



ee

Students wor

d with the inequality by themsecly
cd by inequalities. Later, Mr. Hori ask

to find out which were indi-
rd several students to demonstrate their an-

©

swers on the board. He went through them and checked key points with yellow chalk.

‘To confirm their answers, especially to assure that they have marked the right side Cup:
or down) of the area. he suggests that they find the value of y when x=0. If the ¥ value
is situated in the area they indicated, then they have marked the right area.

Toward the end of the chiss, Mr. Hori went over the tesson briefly and emphitsized
severu key points to remember. then, he introduced the content of the next chtss
He asked if the class had any questions about today’s lesson, and ended the class

Between-class Variation at High School

some high school classes are not lively; students flack motivation and teachers barely
keep them focused on the lecture. Such was the case at the lower-level math chiss
for students in the liberal arts track at Arata. Since these students are not required to
take math for their college entrance exams, many understandably lack motivation.
This chitss remained noisy even after | stepped in with the vice principal. Some stu.

dents in the back of the room continued to have personal conversations unrelated
to the teacher's lecture. The teacher simply lectured. with his (ext book in his hand.
and tried to ignore (he students’ offtask behavior much as possible. When the
noise level became so high that he could no longer tecture, he shouted to the dis-
ruptive students.“Be quiet. Don’t talk about useless things!”

The advanced math class ul Arata had a totally different atmosph All students

were totally involved in the lecture: there were no disruptive behaviors: the teacher
lectured much of the time: and students took Notes and solved practice problems
quicdy. Other high school classes fall somewhere between these two classes in
terms of the level of student attention and the cooperative spirit that characterize
the teacher and students.

The High School Experience

The experiences in high school reflect the stratification that occurs on entry to high
school. At this level Japanese students have more freedom to explore individual
styles. but indisidual expression is still tightly linked with school atmosphere.

120

ido



One administrator of Kaw
tails in Japan and why adm

Juku told me, for example. what academic success en-
fon to an outstanding university is so important:

Whet education gives is an insurance policy. Going to Tokyo Uni
having paid the largest possible premium in life. No matter what happens in your
life, chances are you will lead a disaster-free life. But this doesn’t mean you are
going to make your wildest dreams come truc.

rsity is like

The administrator acknowledged that there was no room for a wild card in Japan. To
the Japanese. providing special treatment to an individual neglects the Japanese real-
ity.in which being different from others often entails being left out. or worse still,
being marginalized by the mainstream. The administrator emphasized that the role of
shingaku juku is not to produce “wild cards,” but to prepare fast-track, coilege-
bound students to get into nationally rankea universiti¢s.

Sakura Juki. Sakura Jka in Naka City is a typical shijukit. small-scale mom and
pop" juku. Unlike Kawai, Sakur’s prim tion is to help elementary and junior
high school students who are cither failing to or hoping te keep up with regular
class instruction

Mr. Sakura. who is in his late thirties, started to tutor several students while he was a
graduate student. After graduation. he officially founded this operation as a private
juku. Currently. cight college students work as teachers. Students range from the ith
to 12th grades. with the highest concentration being junior high school students
particularly those preparing for high schoo! entrance exams. This pattern closely re-
sembles the general pattern of juku attendance by elementary and junior high
school students.

There is usually only one class for cach grade level junior high school-level class
usually consists of about thirty students: clementary and high school classes, some:
where beuwcen 10 and 20 students. At the elementary and junior school levels. stu-
dents receive classroom instruction much like that which they receive in regular
schools. The teachers use supplementar’ ercise books published by private com-
panies. The junior high school students are especially concerned about doing well
on mic-terms and finals.

Chances for successfully entering a college or univer
whatone needs to study in order to pass the entrance exam fora specific university.
A large juku such ats Kawai specializes in such service. but a private juki such as
Sakura cannot provide such information. High school students who plan to apply to
lop universitics. therefore. are normally advised to quit Sakura and go tot larger
Jeku nat specializes in preparing students for cateance exams. Some students, how-

y are improved by knowing



Formal Demonstration Classes

mull setting. The vice principal told me:
Twice a year within the entire school we someone give
one observes and reflects on it. For a junior high school that i:

the kind of school that can do that. And here we also have a teachers’ mecti
the Morning. and also in the afternoon: it is that sort of place.

chvol can take the time to observe c! together Wwice a
All the schools strive to have

SC

above, teachers regularly
have chances to observe demonstration classes during periodic inservice training.

Looking for Evidence

‘Teachers also observe other teachers’ cla
chatkboards and other dist
who was known for his ab

ssrooms and attempt to get ideas from

s. For example, one teacher at Hasu Elementary School
y to produce quick, entertaining sketches, periodically
into various classrooms and drew a picture on their chalkboard. When |
sked him about this. he pointed out that it was also a good opportunity for him to
observe how other teachers were using their classrooms and what le:
their chalkboards.

ons were on

Responsibility and Freedom

Most teachers and administrators stated that teachers have responsibility for their
school and also freedom within the school. The big exception in regard ta freedom
is the way teachers are assigned to schools, but most teachers argued that a lack of
choice in school assignments and regular ions are probably best in the end.
Tlow assignments within schools are made varies from school to school. For exam
ple. the music teacher at Meiji High School said that. when assigning school respon-
sibilities. the committee in charge, including the principal and vice principal, ask all
teachers to ‘submit requests cither to be a homeroom teacher or to take on some
other role. They also were invited to say what grade level they hoped to teach. Then
the committee trics to make assignments that respect those requests. The music
teacher theorized that the more traditions (dentoi) a school has, the more it re-
spects the teachers’ and students’ opinions. This situation did seem to be borne oul
among the three high schools we studied. At Arata High Schoot. the newest high
school, teachers’ preferences were seldom requested when assignments to commit-



“necdTM to be different. They acknowledge that the majority of handicapped students
will never achicve the level of independence as adults as their non-handicapped
counterparts. “There will aways be times when they have to ask for helps Ms. K
said. To both prepare handicapped students to seck help and non-handicapped stue
dents to offer it, the teachers said it was essential that the two groups spend as
much time together as possible. Specifically, Ms. K told me:

Twould like to have regular students see the ways Tinteract with my students as
much as possible. In fict we have a program within this school where my stu-
dents and I go visit regular classrooms. Had the regular students not seen the way
Linteract with my students, many of them would opt to help my students conr
pletely, expecting that my students would not be able to do anything on their
own. But this shouldn't be so. My fourth-grade student had everything taken cace
of before coming to this school by his preschool teachers. | changed all that
when she came to my class. simply watched her when she was doing what she
could do, and helped her only when she needed help.

Japanese teachers
streaming. One Hi

students. and parents appeared to be generally in favor of main-
SU parenat even maintained that it was necessary for non-handi-
capped to be given opportunities to mingle with their handicapped peers because
“Society cannot exist without those people. and to tearn that when cnildeen are
young is very important” +

In summary, special education is only beginning to receive pubic attention in Japan.
Clearly. the notion of group life both hinders and heips children with special need
it hinders to the degree that it demands conformity and helps so far as it encourages
an acceptance of diversity,

Conclusion

This chapter began with the question of how the Japanese treat individual differ-
ences wnong students. Several culture-specific assumptions and ideas were suggested
concerning how individual differences are created, maintained, and dealt with.

First of all Japanese do not consider individual differences in abilities to be primarily
given at birth, but rather acquired through individual effort and family background.
From the beginning of their formal education, Japanese children are taught to sec
themselves as equals, as part of a group. From preschool and throughout much of cb
ementary schooling, children receive what Japanese cducatots call “whole person
The idea behind "whole person education” is that children should be cdu-



Dissemination of the Curriculum
Revisions and Reforms

Information about rev

ions in Monbusbo's curriculum guidelines reaches the
schools through Mowbusbo publications and a series of scheduled workshops that
are to inform schools of the changes in the curriculum,

Monbusho also publishes its curricular guidelines and mikes these guidelines
widely available. There are three sets of guidelines. one each for clementary, junior.
and senior high schools. Each of these three sets of curricular guidelines is available
in soft cover at any major bookstore in Japan. Each booklet of curricular guidelines is
anywhere from 120 to 220 pages in length and costs under $5.

These guidelines in turn are used by textbook publishers, regional education author:
ities. schools. and (cachers to develop curricukir materials that conform to the nae
tional guidelines. Although this system gives a great deal of responsibility to cdu
tion authorities in the prefecture and city it is not UNconMMON for Japanese children
in widely separated re tudving the same topies during any given week.
nder of this chapter.

fons lo be s

the publication of the cevised curriculir guidelines.
of workshops throughout the nation for representatives of regional be
education and for school teachers. These participants, in turn, conduct workshops
lor other teachers in their own school districts. Several of these workshops are
scheduled cach year bewween the publication and implementation of the guidelines.
After the official implementation of the curricular guidelines, workshops are con-
ducted less frequently, about once a year.

fonbusbo schedules it se-

ds of

In spite of its considerable administrative power:

Monbusho docs not closely moni-
tor conformity to the national curricular guidelines at the school level. Monbusko
Policy dlows loca boards of education and schools to make adjustments in the na-
Gonal curricular guidelines that are considered to be appropriate for the local level

However.our discussions with regional officials indicate that regional boards of edu.
cation typically tend to interpret the Monbusbo guidetines stricly. Schools are also
allowed to formulate (heir own curricula as long as the schools’ curricula are based
on the Morbusbo curriculum guidelines. However since the task of devising a
school curricusum involves considerable ¢ffort hy teachers. most schools adopt the
curriculum developed by the municipal board of education.



Tw

Before L visited Shimogawa Junior High School | was told by various teachers Chat it
used to be a school with major discipline problems. However a new principal had
come and he had worked to improve things. According to the head teacher, the new
principals main strategy had been to take responsibility tor the school. He did that
by mecting regularly with the teachers. always being available, spending long hours
atthe school.and making sure he got involved in all the issues concerning student
discipline and school activities. The principal had been well liked and they were hav-
ing a farewell party for him after school on the next day. because he had just been
ferred Co another school.

Another teacher joined our conversation by commenting thatthe students listen
very well here? She continued to sGuc, however, hat she was concerned that they
were too quick she preferred to see more liveliness among junior high students. The
head teacher agreed. but added that he preferred this to the previous dis
problems. While observing teachers in this school, | noticed that they s
hallways during the 10-minute breaks bewveen classes instead of returning to the
teachers’ room. All the (cachers seemed to de thi nd na one commented upon it ts
unusual, but at the other schools students were left mainly unsupervised during
break times. At Shimogawa, students rushed around mainly within their ct
talking to friends and playing. and several also approached the t
sport missing homeworl aments, scemingly accustomed to the t
condnual p The atmosphere wis more controlled than in other schools in
the sense that there was more surveillance of students. Teachers took responsibility
jointly for monitoring hallways and other areas of the school during free time.

iplinary
tood in the

cae

The head administrative teacher at Chuo High School afso discussed the problems of
changing the atmosphere ina difficult junior high school After spending 5 y
national junior high school affiliated with a university, he was sent to be the bh
grade teacher for 3 years at a school that he described

rather devastated (koubal siteorimasbite). When | say devastated Emean that the
students were not so good in various ways. Not just that they weren't well off
(cconomic: hool but the discipline and things like
that weren't so good. That sort of thing. The students wouldn't listen o fessons,
‘They d try to skip chtsses. The school was more than wild. You couldn't even
teach classes.

Iv). the school was a good

‘Three ye
follows:

rs after he arrived. the school had improved. Te described the process as

The most important thing. | think. v
all worked together to tj

as the teamwork among the teachers
ise the children. If you just ry to gel your own ©
improve. it won't happen. but if you do itas your whole grade year. or even the
whole school—I guess if you do it all together. Hf there was a problem, we all ine

229



Interviewer: Why is that?

Mr. Ar] wonder. Somehow, to be thought of as a teacher, | don't like that. | feel
that maybe that means [ don’t think my position is being seen well by society.
Maybe itis because | don’t think of it as good work.

Ms. B:T really don’t like that. can’t quite explain it fully to everyone, but it
would be good if how busy we are could be understood. No matter how [a
seen, if 1am trying as hard as T can and satisfying myself] end up thinking that
society doesn’t totally grasp or understand our work

But Mr.A concluded that it was a dignified profession. after a long discussion of
‘of their feclings about being referred to by students as “teacher” in

Mr. A: Parents think that those who teach their children are socially very impor-
tant. When I go home to my own area. everyone knows that 1am a teacher, If
there is some problem, something in the neighborhood. like they need advice on
the baseball team. or anything. they quickly come to me and ask me to do it. It's
OK when you have a kind of dignity. People don't think “Oh. he’s a teacher" (said
in a negative tone of voice). [t isnt necessary Lo feel inferior. What E said carlicr
about being embarrassed when called “teacher” on the subway, that is somehow
different. 1 guess Tam just a bit shy.

Although these teachers do not necessarily like to be pointed out in public. they are
suill viewed as reliable people in their neighborhoods and are asked to be commu.
nily representatives or leaders. which indicates a degree of respect for their posi-
tion. These elementary school teachers believed that high school teachers were
highly respected.

Teachers’ Li

ves

pite the overall uniformity within Japanese cducation, the bitesgrounds and
views of these teachers provide a different picture from one of homogeneity. Partly
due to my requests that. if possible, my interviews and ob: ions be
theduled with both male and fer and both veteran and newer teach:

s. Since | was the fast of the members of the team doing research in fapan. the
schools had hosted at least one previous rescarcher. This meant that | sometimes was
scheduled with the most reluctant, the busiest. or the least involved teacher. since
these teachers may have not participated earlier. Partly, too, the diversity reflects the
population of teachers who are a well cducated, generally creative group of individu.
als who have chosen teaching for a varicty of reasons, often including not wanting a
typical business job.

190

dw



ccording to this teacher aad most others, was sel-designed and
:notled by elite teachers or administrators. The renegade sessions he de-
scribed scemed to coincide with administrators’ opinions that the best training is
the informat sharing of information by experienced teachers with their less experi-
enced colleagues.

coope

When Fasked a science teacher at Chuo Junior Tigh School how the LOth-year train-
ing could be improved. he described how difficult it is for older teachers to ask infor:
mally to observe regular classes. He concluded that (ining could be improved by

providing Opportunities to observe classes. rather than sitting through lecture:
all. his comments were quite critical of 1Oth-year tr
from many (eachers, ic. that they learned the most from observing actual classroom
situations and hearing from experienced teachers about their struggles as weil as

their successes. Despite complaints about training. most training ses
time for teachers to interact informatly. and this can provide the cha
and casual exchange. albeit in a required format. that teachers

sions also

y they crave.

The principal at Matsu Elementary School told me that probably about 40 percent of
teachers participate at some time in voluatary (raining sessions. organized by the
school board or education center, for which they must use thei

evening or vacation
time. However. one high school tcacher told me chat the best way to learn things is
to ask someone, particularly more experienced teachers in the school, directly, He
concluded that although you can choose voluntary training sessions based on your
own interests, there are not usually se rf that address essential things
needed for day-to-day teaching.

On the other hand. most teachers voluntarily parti
groups that meet in the evenings. Among the sample of teachers T interviewed. all
had participated at some point in their teaching career. although several teachers
were nol participating currently because of other commitments, The evaluation of
these study groups ranged from very positive toa fecting that the things discussed in
the groups were too difficult to understand. The contents of study groups and re-
search mectings gencrally include discussion of new textbooks or
methods. preparation and sharing of uscfut |
curricula or criteria lor specific subjects and ge
sion | attended for social studics teacher:

ipate in teacher-run subject study

books on teaching
nd development of new
Saturday s
at night high schools included a student
produced video and panel discussion with the students involved. The hour long se
sion with five students was followed by presentations by four teachers of their own
rescarch on night high schools and teaching. Mectings sometimes include a guest

208



Ms. Sato’s third grade math class

Dealing With Individual Differences in Whole Cla

Cult

ing “onen of students

Focusing on average or below-average students...

Withholding a ance for advanced students
Oversecing students’ rates Of progress
Solving 2 problem together.

Strutcgically concealing the correct answer .

Tracking and Ligh School Education...

Ability Ranking Inside a School

The Transition to High School.

Attitudes About Ti
High School Instruction...

An Eleventh Grade Biology Class -

ATenth Grade Math Class

Between-cha

Variation at High Schoot

The Ligh School Experience .
Autonomy and Freedom in the High Track School. -
Paternalism and Apprenticeship in a Low Track School
~Mid-slice Crisis” at the Middle Track School...

Societal Responses to the Stratification System.

Ministry of Education’s Reform

Parents’ and Students’ Responses to the Reform .
Supplementary Education...
Hoshu
Juku
Kawai Juku.
Sakura Juku

Why go to juku?

The role of juku in dealing with difference in students’ ability.

Special Education. .

Who Goes to a Special School or Class. 22... :

Dealing With Students With Speci?! Necds
Problems Facing Special Education Teachers

Conclusion

Ss Instruction



Over teachers, Ci
ship
ociation:

of principals that they cannot exercise pow
Widespread. even today when union membe: ita low in Japan. in 1960, over
90 percent of teachers belonged to teacher: by 1992.59 percent be-
longed (Ministry of Education, Science. and Culture, 1995, p. 121). Some areas of
pan have higher union involvement than is found in Naka prefecture.

ily seemed more

The music teacher

Meiji told me that some principals try to assert their power be-
cause it is their last chance to change the schoo! before they retire. Others, he said
just sit back and retax during their last few years at the school. He agreed that vice
principals usualy have the most power in the school. Lasked if they are usually closer
lo teachers than the principal and he responded that a vice principals rapport with
teachers depends on whether they are from the school or not if they have Gught
there and then move up. they are more likely to understand and fisten to teachers

But if they are brought in new they may be prone to give orders and be difficult.

Although interaction is facili

ated becwuse all teachers usually have a desk in one
main teachers’ room, the negative side of this arrangement is that teachers ire alse
closely monitored. Particularly in clementary and junior high schools, but even in
high schools, the vice principal and sometimes the principal and the head administra
live teacher often sit at the front of the room at their desks. They can casily observe
the entire room, Even the use of the phone is only from the desk of the vice principal
in this main room, and all conversations can easily be overheard. At Midori Junior
High School Lobserved this when a senior teacher, who had been rushing around all
day getting memos and posters together announcing the postponement of the PTA
newspaper recycling project duc to cain had to take a phone call from an evidenly
irate PEA member. As he gave a long and carefully worded apology and explanation
while masterfully cncouraging the mother abways to let him know when she had
questions or complaints, Fknew E was not the only eavesdropper. At least five other
teachers and the vice principal listened and then applauded him and one. the dit
tor of the administrative office, suggested he would be good in a business office. This
case turned out suc

fully, but one can imagine pressure to say the right things on
the phone under different circumstances or with less experience and confidence
There is a tension between the benefits reaped from ‘ing colleagues nearby
with whom to consult and chat while at the same time alw

being observed

Interactions among teache:
tude than is possible in the te
onal High School was a rathe:
alone. He
preparation room, which had effective!

There are ways that teachers
hers’ room. The only science teacher at Naka Vo
extreme example of a teacher who chose to be
spent most of the time he was not in class or wt meetings in the science
become his own office. 1] saw him only du
ing the teachers’ mecting, our scheduled interview. and during the time | observed
him teaching. Other teachers knew he was likel
could usually be located.

Tescape to more sofi-

- to be in the scicnee room, so he



the wartime government, such as the national
fag. met with stiff opposition in the schools. The question of what should be taught
in social studies and moral education courses remains a source of significant discon-
lent among many Japanese. Parents and teachers alike are critical of the examination
tem, the juke and the perceived lack of individuality in the classroom.

anthem and saluting of the national

Most educators are keenly aware of the fact tha
are regarded as good at taking tests in math and
knowledge creatively to new situations. There is significant discontent among the
population in general with the lack of cr y in the schools and the difficulty tl
individuals have in expressing their own ideas given the pressure of studying for the
entrance exams. To provide students with more time to call their own, the Ministry
of Education has asked schools to foster individual differences (Roset ky6 fku) and
has begun reducing the number of days per week that students go to school. Cur
rently students get two Saturdays off cach month with the long-term goal of no-
school on Saturday to be implemented at an unspecified future date. But because of
the complexity of Japan’s education system, even such straightforward measures as
reducing the number of school days in order to give students more free time can
have paradoxical effects. While many parents are dissatisfied with the tack of time
for individual expression in schools, they also want teachers to assure their sons’ and
daughters’ success on the entrance exams. Teachers are now caught in a bind-they
must reduce the school weck. but they must stil cover the same amount of material.
In many schools, the result has been for teachers to propose climinating club activi-
ties or “free periods” Quitori jikan) from the school week an action most teachers
recogniz having a negative cffect on their ability to foster individual express
and creativity in school.

tround the world Japanese students
nee buCunable to apply their

Outline of This Volume

Interviews and observations conducied at these 15 schools provide the core of the
datt used in this volume. The chapters are arranged by topic. and cach author fo-
cuses on different details or aspects of the cducation process of education.

Douglas Trelfa discusses the effects of national standards on cducation at the pri-
mary and secondary level. Some of the central questions addressed in this chapter
are: How are standards understood within the culture? How are standards imple-
mented. and who is responsible for this implementation? What is the cffect of stan-
dards on the science and math curriculum?



In science, itis more meaningful to put both the students who are doing well
and those who are not in the same group. because those who are not doing well
tend to raise a basic. simple question, and by listening to them and helping them
understand. those who are doing well are given an execllent opportunity to re:
view and confirm their ability. (feacher. Meiji High School)

A technology teacher at Naka ‘Tech affirmed this view by

ing:
Sometimes. those who are able and those who aren't learn more because they
learn from cach other. For example. say we have a very fast tearner in a group of
six. This student can deepen her understanding by teaching the rest of the group
what she knows. (Teacher. Naka Vocational High School)

Japanese educators advocate the advantage of mixed-ability classrooms not purely
for its practical pedagogical benefit, but also for its moral beuctit. At Hasu Elemen-
tary School, for example. parents from the targely working ckiss neighborhood cx-
pr their genuine ¢ ion for the school's effort to include learning dis-
abled students in regu ssrooms. By using a popular Japanese ng.” Yononaka
ni wa tro tvo na hito ga tru kara” (The world cons of many different kinds of
people), she praised this effort as.“It's great to know that my child and his friends
are spending Cime with learning-disabled children. Its a great learning experience

A teacher at Tancho Elementary School. was the most articulate propo-
nent of this view.Asked what he would do if he had to group students, he said." 161
absolutely have to divide them, | would have to have a class with a few learning-dis-
abled students. But to isolate students who are doing very well is meaningless.” He
was quick to point out that it w ¥ to teach a clitss consisting only of advanced
students. But he said such grouping should be reserved for some top-level academic
high schools where they just have to face the r of the college entrance exam.
However clementiry education has it distinctive
human beings

trd many other teachers emphasiz
rooms, Fasked Mr.Tar

ing the good-
panese cle:
, believed in

mentary cducation. The question upset him. Ie in:
the importance of mixed-ability instruction as follow

Teacher: When E think of students who are at the elementary school level. in
order to guide them to be solid, well-rounded human beings—T have already said
that this is the most important thing we have to do in clementary school. Lean-
not place them in a setting in which everyone excels academically
does not sce problems as problems (because everything is casy for the m),and

101
tla


me that although they have a general lesson plan that they make at the beginning « of
the year and review periodically, they do not write out a specific plan for
period, Two veteran high school teachers openly told me that their only memos to
themselves regarding each lesson was a mark in their textbook showing the date
they had finished that page the previous year. Th wwement downpkiyed their
preparations somewhat, since they both used mimcographed handouts that they had
prepared over the heets depending on the progression of
material : s's needs. This amount of preparition seemed typical
among teachers with more Uuin three years of teaching experience.
ported having spent many hours on cach day
of teaching.

nd the current ¢

eachers ree
s lesson plins during their carly years

Why Become a Teacher?

Some teachers had dreamed of being a teacher since clementary school. others just
happened into the career, and still others carefully plotted their career entrance
based on their calcufations of the types of colleges they could enter. the stability of
the job.or even health problems. in addition. al mentioned family influence
and a few mentioned the influence of teachers, although both good and bad teach-
ers were the source of a desire to become a. sacher. Excerpts from some of the re-
sponses show both the ide; ic and pragmatic ce or teaching.

seve

The teacher mentioned earlier who had been a successful juke teacher had made a
lot of money and had great independence. He also stated that he had considered en-
tering politics and felt he was well-known cnough in the city to have won a focal
election. I d why he wanted to become at regular school teacher. wondering if
ts because teaching isa more secure prof on. He responded:

and it wasn't because of mone 1 guess. be
aid before. T wanted to do broad-based education about scicnee.And now,
in fourth grade, we can do that. When it rains and Uhings, we can use dat text
(the fifth-grade text he developed as a science supplement for teachers). And it is
really interesting. ©... 4 And of cours for poli if you don’t put all your en-
ergy into that, you don’t go forward. 1 decided not to go into basic research and
Pm not particularly good at politics. so | decided to do education.

This teacher's route into clementary school teaching involved doing graduate-level
scicnee research, teaching part-time ata high school and in ajuk and attempting
to funds for community education, I¢ entered elementary teaching with con-
siderable experience in teaching and in science. His decision was partially based

upon idealism about the contributions a public school teacher can make, How
his education and abilities provided him with many options other than teaching.

cr,

196

whe



dents feel, not relieve them. Severe competition on the entrance exams for admis-
sion to elite schools continues to create educational overheating. The juku which
play such a large role in the overall academic picture, are outside of the
Monbusho’'s control. The juku at once support the schools yet were often cited by
respondents as the five/ that causes educational overheating.



Teacher Work Patterns

ind often
udents, or
school. a fact
mosphere of collegiality. The Japanese
cribed their workpkices as close.
communities of educators who readily shared information and teaching experi-
ences. This strong sense of community appears to affect how teachers view and deal
with student disruptions. Teachers were the primary disciplinarians for their home-
room classes, but if the problems are serious, teachers can call on other teachers, the
head grade-level teacher. or administrators for support. Few teachers reported feel
ing worried or apprehensive about student behavior.

Yeachers are generally required to be at school for at least 8 hour:
spend hours in planning, meetings with other teachers, ady
lizing. The teachers reported that most of their work was done in
they felt contributed to the general i

Knit

Atall Jevels, teachers reported that they saw the purpose of education as guiding

students to become more fully develaped human beings. Teachers organized and sue
pervised student clubs and helped orchestrate schoolwide events. Particularly at the
elementary fevel. teachers emphas
ucation of the child. not just give a

red that their role was to improve the overall ed-
ademic instruction.

Foundations in Pre-school and
Elementary Education

Like previous researchers, we found that Japanese educators and par
emphasis on carly foun ons for learning. Elementary classrooms offer many sur-
prising contrasts to kiter years of schooling. We visited schools that fay ored individ-
ual enrichment work through non-academic subjects as well as math and science

lessons that emphasized thinking and discovery. Arts, music. and physical educ
play a large role in the general Curriculum. Students spend a significant amount of

time phtnning, preparing. and participating in yearly schoolwide events that have no
direct bearing on academic achi

nts place gr

ny

The ward “studying” has a much broader set of meanings in the Japanese context
than in the Cuited States context. Studying. as one mother put it, is a fife-long task:
one studi¢s how to be a wife, mother, a co-worker and perhaps even a retiree. C
ing a po: attitude toward study in the carly years, adults reasoned, was crucial to
further academic and social success. Teachers and parents linked many of Japan's
miajor student problems, such ats dislike of math and science. lack of creati schoo!

xVii



The Current Climate in Education . 2... Se ee 20

Outline of This Volume . . ce 2)

Chapter 2

The Development and Implementation

of Education Standards in Japan.......... 23
By: Douglas Trelfa

Research Methodology 2. 2 2 ee 23
Monbusho and the National Curriculum... 2... ee 24
Development and Revisions of the Monbusho Curriculum 2... . 24
History of Curriculum Revisions. 2 2. 0 ee 25
New Curricular Guidelines. 2 0 ee 20
Dissemination of the Curriculum Revisions and Reforms . 2. 2... =
Implementation of Monbusho Curriculum Within the Schools 2... 28
Textbooks . 2. . fe Se 28
Other resources for curriculum implementation ©... 2 ee 20
Monthly mectings . . . -- . see : 31
Measuring School Performance 2. 2. ee 31
‘lementary Schools... 2. ee ce ee 32
Elementary School Curriculum, — . Se 32
Life activity subiect. 2. ee ee cee 32

A typical elementary school lesson 2. 6 2 ee 34
Conceptual Versus. Rote Learning . 2 2... ee ee 35

Perception and the Use of Instructional Resources

Outside of School for the Mastery of the Curriculum. 2... 46
Parental Perception of the Elementary School Curriculum. 2... . a
Testing in Elementary Schools 5.0. 2 ee a
Setting and Monitoring Standards in Elementary Schools... 2... 38
Differences Between Elementary Schools...) 2 ee 38

Junior High School 2... 2. 2. fr 39
Junior High School Curriculum. 2 ee 39
Mathematics 2 2 ee Fe 39
Science. 2. ee 40
fastruction in Junior High School... De ee ee a is
Iustructional materials. 2. ee 42

vi
-



Japanese teachers prize variations in ability in (ieir classrooms because they natu-
lly provide pedagogically hencficial errors of this type. They do not worry, how-
that disclosing students’ mistakes co the rest of dhe class might hurt (heir se
teem. Several reasons for this lack of concern were described in our interviews with
teachers and apparent in our observation of clas Sst. Japanese teachers con-
sciously Work lo build a trusting and non-threatening atmosphere in the cli
They call on students with wrong answers more often thin those with right an-
swers.and the teacher students’ willingness to participate by
nouncing that they are making an important contribution to the rest of the class,
‘Teachers also reprimand those who tease students who give wrong answers. Scc-
ond, Japanese teachers study cach students personality carcfully, so Ghat they are
generally able to judge which students are more likefy to feel hurt than others. They
use particular caution when allowing sensitive students to give the wrong answers.
inally, many Japanese teachers simply do not make che association between using J
student's wrong answer and damaging the student's sel-esteen. Mr-Tanaka, for ex:
ample, was surprised when T suggested that the use of a wrong answer might have a
¢ effect on a students self-esteem, He flady denied such a possibilit

eve

Ssroonl.

No. not acall fp think what we have here is the matter of what we call cognitive
disharmony—that is, you think you understood something, but when you put
that knowledge with something else you understood, they cause some kind of
conflict: You thought you understood, but you did not. There is room for you to
learn more so you can find value in studying more. Selfesteem will be damaged?
That has nothing to do with this.) have never thought like that!

Some students said that they feel nervous when they ire sharing an answer with die
whole class without knowing if itis the right answer. Most of then also said. how:
ever. that the benefit of learning from sharing the aswer overrides such a fear,
Three students at'Tancho Elementary School for example, explained the benefit of
learning from not inimediately knowing the correct answer:

Student A: Tastead of simply giving the Wway. my teacher gives lots of
hints. [ff the students stil don’t understand, the teacher gives even at bigger hint
than he did first—the teacher may tell them to use a ccetain equation, but also
tells the students that it is up to them to complete the problem. [think such a
of teaching is good because we stilt have a chance to think on our own,

ASW

wi

Student B: Sometimes wy teacher walks around and checks how cach student is
doing. At that Gime. the teacher often says that those who are finished can help
their ncighbors who are having a hard time. The teacher afso goes to the students
who don't understand and teaches (gives hints to) them there. | would sy every -
one etn come to understtad math by receiving
cla

such help from the teache

smates.



give up casily

A junior high schooi student asserted boldly:
the same lecture

wand if we listen, we

Everyone is listening to
should be able to do well on exams.”

Wis

uimed that the materials covered in ¢
non a daity basis. When Lasked what s
math and science. my
learn from mistake

shave to be practiced over and over
udents must do in order to do well in
informants responded."Solve practice problems daily and
(Teacher. Arata High School).“Practice solving problems over
and over” (Student, Shimogawa Junior High School, and "Make an effort to study on
a daily basis. and one can make tremendous improvement’ (Parent, Naka Vocational
High School) Fora mother at Arata, cffort made on a daily basis was important be-
cause she imunediately saw the difference reflected in her child's test scores. She
said that when her daughter studied consistently before the exams, she always got
better scores. In order to help her daughter keep up the daily exercise, she used the
athletic metaphor by telling he

When vou were in the fourth grade and first joined the basketball club, vou
could not dribble at all. But now you can do it without even looking at the ball. I
is important not to Neglect effort. No matter how little your progress is. vou still
have to keep working every day.

In short. Japanese teachers, parents, and students preach the importance of effort
simply because they believe it works. The following two testimonies of a high school
math teacher and a junior high school student further prove their strong belief thit
“if you study you do well”

Letine tell you how Lcame to like math. bam nota person who was alwitys good
at math As [said 1 felta kind of pride when I received praise from teachers in ce
ementary school. | thought] was pretty good a math then, but when | entered
high school, math became very complicated. So | decided to do the workbooks
tiled Algebra “O00 Questions, and Geometry “O00 Questions Mt took a very long
time, but 1 tried to do them without asking teachers and fooking at their answer
sheet. After making a strong effort for some time. suddenly began to understand
them. It just dawned on me. After that point, it was like a snowball accumulating
more snow cach time it roiled. In the beginning, when the ball i
not collect much snow, but when the ball becomes big. it can collect so much
snow by rolling just once.To me iearning math was exactly like that. 1 felt so
great. When you are making an effort in the beginning. it seems like
gaining any understanding. but if you persevere and continue to work hard. vou
will see your understunding grow. | think students who experience such an ex-
citement think math is interesting and do well in it Cleacher Arata High Schoo)

mall. it does:

yOu are NOL

There is a student who gets really bad grades, but when he was in clementary
school, he got. 90 out of 100 points on one of the Japanese exams. So we are all
saying that he can do better if he makes an effort. but whenever we tell him that,
he would just say he isn’t smart cnough. He has made up his mind that he cannot

ol



tested for 40 minutes and all subjects are weighted equally. Toul scores are used by
high schools in making admission decisions.

Entrance ¢3

aminations for private schools. however, hive included problems that
cover areas outside the Monbusbo curriculum. The Ministry has actively discouraged
this practice, suggesting that it contributes to “educational overheating” and to in-
equality between students who can and cannot afford juku. In recent years, there is
ver private schools are using problems outside the Moubus
use of the pressure from Monbusbo (Nohara, 1993)

bo cur
ricultum be

on

panese bookstores are filled with inexpensive prepara
guides that contain information for test-takers. The guides invariably contain former
examinations from the previous 5 or 6 years. complete with answers and explana
tions. Mock examinations with selfscoring instructions are also included in many
preparation guides. The preparation guides analyze the topics covered in past
exams. the trends. the types of problems and strategics for test-taking. One booklet
even advises students about what to cat the night before and the morning of the
test. On the day of the testa light breakfast of rice. miso soup, pickles. and green
tea is recommended.

Exam preparation.

A preparation guide for the prefecture where our primary research site was located
indicated that five s of the Moubusbo curriculum in mathematics have been
ed in the past 5 years. These areas include (a) numbers and formulas, (b) equa-
tions and inequalities. (¢) functions, (d) figures, and (¢) statistics. Past problems w
ssified into subcategories. This delineation revealed that some topics are cov-
. year while others have never been covered. For mple, within the topi
of functions, proportions had not been covered in the past five examina:
tions. Roughly one-third of the topics were not covered by recent ¢

Fewer topics had been covered every year in the science section than in the math
section. Gas, force aad pressure. voltage and current. carth and space. and the
crustand minerals were topics that had been tested by all five of the most recent ex-

aminations. Interviews with students provided evidence that students were aware of
these detitils of coverage on cnurance examinations.

The math section of the high school cutrance exmination for this prefecture con-
sisted of (hree long and 20 short problems. Short problems are those where the an
swers to various problems are independent of one another. The long problems re-
quire several steps and fategration across topical arcas. For example. in recent
examinations such problems have required synthesis of the topics of figures. func:
tions. and graphs. The prepary

tion guidebook cautions students that the long prob-



‘Teachers must pass rigorous examinations to become teachers, usually tiken after
graduation from a 4-year college program. Graduates from teacher-training universi-
tics included 64 percent of clementary. 43 percent of junior high. and 20 percent of
high school teachers: the rest graduated from general universities. Approximately 20
percent of clementary. 10 percent of junior high and 3 percent of high school teach-
year degrees: the rest have at least 4-year degrees (Ministry of Education.
-& Culture. 1995). In order to obtain a teacher certificate of first class. held
ull Ceachers with a bachelors degree. clementary schaol teachers must have a
minimum of 18 college credits in their specialty subject and 41 college credits in
teaching. Junior and senior high school teachers must re 40 college credits in
their specialty subject and 19 college credits in teaching. Far example. a junior high
school teacher of mathematics must take at least -i0 callege credits in mathematics
including 20 in some combination of algebra, geometry analytical geometry. proba-
bility and statistics Cheory. and computers. Elementary school teache
to have taken a minimum of two college credits each in Japanese language. soci;
studies. arithmetic, science. life environment studies, music. art and handicraft
honiemiakin, ical education (Ministry of Education, Science, & Culture.
gh universities design their own teacher-training courses. the Mir
ion. Science. and Culture, or Vonbusho., certifies courses and provi
sight of the content of the courses and the teaching faculty at all certified uni-
versities. Teachers and administrators are able to focus on motivation and liking stu.
dents as key quitities for becoming a good teacher partly becwuse the academic
standards attained by all prospective teachers in Japan are high.

Scienc

by

are required

It is hard to determine the level of prestige and respect that comics with the profes:
sion of teaching. A few teachers | interviewed complained dat Chey are often
blamed for many problems ranging from bullying to academic competition to st
dents’ lack of interest in their futures. However. many argued that although societal
respect for (caching has dacclined. iis still a respected profession. Although students
and parents may believe that the effort put forth by students is more itaportant for
achievement. teachers regard their teaching skills as essential. and they hold them-
selves and their collcagues to high standards of work. 1 found many teachers contin-
ually striving to be well-rounded models and competent teachers for their students
Despite relatively high levels of support. training. and respect. teachers were quic!
to wish for even More support criticize training as too systematic, bemoan the fact
that sufficient training does not occur in every school. and sttte chat the status of
chers cannot be taken for granted. When asked direcly about whether they feel
the profession of teaching is respected. my interviewees generally answered that it

as still respected profession but not as much as long ago. The following excerpts
are from a conversation with three fourth-grade teachers about the level of respect
for teachers in Japanese society today:

Mr AtEm outside.

ike on the subwayand iChappens tha
acher) to me. righl Edom t like chat

a child comes up

189

an on



way in adjusting the daily schedule. [t is also important to note that while members:
of the school staff arranged interviews for us, they did not try to supervise our inter-
views with students. teachers, or parents. For the most part. we found teachers ready
to talk about serious problems and to express both their satisfactions and di
tions with the school.

isfac-

Another point which helped us to gain a broader sense of the schooling climate in
cach site was the fact that Japanese teachers are routinely rotated to different
schools at 5- to 7-year intervals. This meant that when we interviewed 20-year veter-
ans. they brought with them extensive experience in a range of schools and often re-
ferred to the other schools in which they taught. Some interviewees had taught at
more than one level or had been transferred from crural areas. The scope of the teach-
ers’ experiences, combined with the fact that several families had been transferred
to the research site from other parts of Japan. atlowed us to gain perspective on a
wide range of academic situations.

An Overview of the Japanese System
of Education

A gencral discussion of the Japanese system of education is necessary in order to
place the schools in the wider social context. The Japanese public em is hight
centralized and administered under the Monbusho.At the regional level.cach prefec-
ture or major urban district has its own board of education. In some areas. high
schools are under the direct authority of these boards, while elementary and junior
chools are managed by local (municipal) boards of education. For example. in
Kita City. high schools were directed by the prefectural board of education but ele-
nd junior high schools were directed by the municipal board. In N
of schools were under the authority of the Naka City board of education. In
general. in more rural areas, high schools will be managed directly by the prefectural
board and elementary and junior high schools by the municipal board whereas in
large urban centers, all schools are under the authority of one board.

Teachers are hired by the local or regional boards and are rotated through the
schools on a pre-determined schedule. Competition for new teaching positions is
often intense and boards of education hold entrance exams and interviews for po-
tential applicants. Once hired, new teachers are required to undergo various i
vice training sessions during their first years in the schoot s
mined by the lo type of school. senior

SCT
stem, Salary is deter-
and the position held in the school.

na



des. The teachers acknowledged that it is difficult to bandle lower-level students
who have litle chance of getting into prestigious unive

Societal Responses to the
Stratification System

the system of cotrance mMinauions.
argue that the current “slicing (eqg/r” system measures human worth in
terms of scores (bensacht) and ignores the unique ability and potential of cach stu-
dent. The Ministry of Education conducted major reforms in 1989 aimed at casing
the examination race Gken senso) by the implementation of “individualized” educa-
tion. Overall, we found parents and students fiked the idea of the Ministry's reform
In the mean time. they are reluctant to go along with it because doing so reduces
the chances of students going to better univers

Ministry of Education’s Reform

The reform was designed to give secondary students more flexibility and long-term
opportunities (sbogal kyoikio tor secking or pursuing higher cducation. There are
roughly Uiree arcas to which this reform is addressed: high school education. “exani-
nation wars.” tnd continuing education, First, the ministry has suggested that the ex-
amination process is too rigid and needs to be more flexible to account for students”
individual differences. Second, they fecl thi he current "examination war" Giken
senso) encourages students of all levels to study in order to get high exam se
while negiccting their individuality and non-academic strengths (c.g. artistic origi-
nality) and weaknesses (¢.g.. social immaturity). Instead. the Ministry has discussed
the possibility of casing the examination race by adopting multiple and even non-
luating students’ abilitics such as putting more weight on

Vs. or extracurricular activities. Finally. the current system gives
few chances to high school dropouts and to adults past the college graduation age
to continue their education. The Ministry has now encouraged a life-long opportuni:
tics program designed to give people of all ages and all academic backgrounds op-
portuniti¢s to continue education or re-enter schools.

Parents’ and Students’ Responses to the Reform

Japanese parents and students find it ideologically compelling to criticize their cure
rent education system, but at the same time they find it personally and pragmaticatly
unwise to give up competing. lest they be left behind in the examination ry Asa



other schools well, too. and could draw upon those contacts when special informa
tion or connections could be helpful.

tions that occur be-
the his

Teachers and administrator:
aween teachers and administrators depends on the settin:
and the individuals involved. Although all administr
generally saw theie current work as being quite different from that of the teachers
Administrators reported (hat they must work to find ways for geting to know all
teachers bett
lowing way when [asked him if there are times outside of school when he
tact with teachers.

con-

Of course. we have social gatherings too. We can talk about various things and
try to understand cach other at those events, Since Pye become a principal those
are more fe ving ¢ school doesn’t allow you to understand
what cach other is thinking, you know. If you change the location, t
talk about various things. We also have chances to go on trips somewhere
every three months.

Like most respondents. he emphasized the need to see teachers outside of their
usual roles. Japanese teachers generally contribute small amounts of money Monthly
to enter.ainment funds setup for the entire school. cach grade level
ject group. These groups then schedule banquets or overnight trips to hotels in the
mountains, on the coast. or at hot spring resorts. These activities provide long hours
together when everyone can step out of their usual roles, often ftated by plenty
of good food and especially alcohol. Most teachers reported that they enjoy these
events although some reported that (hey find them a burden. especially teachers.
with voung children or other family responsibilities.

ad cach sub-

But administrators also report antagonisms with teachers as a group. The principal at
Meiji High School was in his carly and had experience at five high schools. In
response to my asking what he most worries about regarding teachers. he told me

Principal The problem is. atficr all, (he union group and how to geCalong vou

know, That is the biggest problem. They just end up opposing everything.
Interviewer: | suppose that trying to change things is hard. Wats ithe same when

you yourself were a teacher? Did you oppose various things?

Principal: Well. righ When [was at the bottom. that same way of looking at those
above me. [felt (he wall.or you could say [felt opposing feelings.

Even at this school known to be at peaccable and democratic place for teachers. the
principal felt that union opposition was his biggest worry. But the sense on the part



Recognition that children need to be active. . .

Science and arithm
An individualized a

A teacher-directed arithinetic
A science class in the laboratoryroom ... 2... 6...
Differences Between Schools... - 2.0... 2-00 005-

Junior High School Te:
High Schoo! Teaching

Staff Support forTeachers . 2...

Conclusions. . 2...

etic teaching... 2... 2 ee

rithmetic class. 2. 2 ee

aching... ee ee

xiii



“all the way from the Cnited States. Lets work together so that we can show hint the
best in. us! None of the students appeared Co feeb that Mr.
portince of the matter since

Was cxaggerating the in:
all students conducted themasciyes extremely well.

Much of Naka teachers’ teaching philosophy and practice evolve around being an
exemplary senpai (teacher and mentor). science teacher indicated:

If students are motiv Ho fearn.ifthey want to featrn because the
a good job in the future and so on! would love to teach them its a sempa?t. Be-
cduse teaching is a hunian endeavor you must have this type ef relationship to
begin with. Othenwise vou cannot teach Pm not teaching to a thing, therefor
human relationships play a very important role here. For one. 1 try not to Burt my
because when their feclings are burt they become too relic:
tively Co studying.

want to

students’ fecling:
tant and react ney

Being itn cflective Naka Vocational teacher. how ever. requires more than being
mortlly exemplary and cmotionally nurturing figure: teachers have Co demonstratc

their care for students by making sure that they graduate. One math teacher explained:

This v

r bam not a homeroom teacher. but from at point of a homeroom
teacher, it is-very sad to sce students leaving or dropping out. Even though bam
nota homeroon teacher | think Twill regret if 1 let the students quit school
without offering any help If ttey helping them. and sql fiad that they. them:
selves. do not want to study, then | feel Pean succumb Co such a regrettable out
come—that is. students leaving Naka.There may be students who are actually
secking my help. but because (hey do net Know how to express their need. bE may
not notice them. Pbelieve that students who re:

Hy want Co graduate from high
school will work hard. and for those students | fect obligated to do something. So
instead of waiting for the students to come to me. ! go to Chem and tell them to
stay witer school

tble

students do believe that teachers care about them and ace both willing and cay
of helping them. fa the group interview at Naka Vocationat, (he first stadent said
their teachers were “always thinking thout cach student”
sponded by saying They are enthusiast and positive
comments like" Keep up your good work! You can go to college Such words mathe a
world of difference to me. The third student
teachers at this school sccm willing (o walk miles in my shoes.Phey put themschy es
to our level almost to the point of being my friends.“this and other interviews with
ional students suggest that Chey are grateful to have teachers who care.
ther than being rescntful about being in low-track vocational schools. While stu
dents tevels of academic achievement may be considerably lower thin (hose in
higher track schools such as Meiji and Arata. the students disphayed remarkable will
ingness and desire to succeed int Nod-academi¢ high school

Phe second student ¢
“They give us good advice

122



1 often go to a student's house if the parents request it. | listen to what the par-
ents want to say.The parents have things to say but the parents just tell kids what
they want them to do. [ tey to listen and find a way to explain. There commu-
nication gap (beuwveen students and parents).There can be fights or face-to-face
confrontations, I've scen this kind of thing. One time a father said just a few
words and his son grabbed him around the throat. The (family) relations were

very bad.
Social Isclation, Divorce,
and the Exams
Teache! nd parents alike thought that adofescents in Japan today hay

harder time socializing with their peers and working out their disputes. The isokation
of children is a significant theme in both the media and research literature in Japan.

Authorities argue that children no longer have access to large. multiage play groups.
Isolated in apartments with little : grounds. they suggest that Japane:

children do not have the opportuaity

with other children until they
in preschool and then they soc i

only with children of -
Given that the average number of children per family is now less than two in Japan.
they further argue that few Japanese students experience the rough and tumble pty
common in the larger familics of a generation ago.

Parents and teachers expressed concern ever the pressure that exams and long
hours of study put on students. While time spent in hours of tiring club practice
were generally not scen as harmful. the long hours of studying were deemed to be
potentially detrimental to the stadents’ health. Lack of sleep. the result of fong hours
of study, tended to be more common at schoots like Chuo and Meiji where student
schedules were packed with jaku and clubs. A teacher at Chuo cornmented:

During the tests, students are up really fate. They study all night. Virtually all are
up to miduight. They don't sleep before then. When that goes on. Fawish they
would use their time better,

Divorce was another common theme. Fhe school counselor at Naka Vocational esti-
mated that out of every 10 students. 12 were living only with their mother becatse
of divorcee or (more rarely) the death of their father. This teacher reasoned’ W ith
ony the mother. it is hard to meke ends meet. The parent cant watch over the stu
the schoo! counselor said that most student problems are related to
situations where “the mother and father are fighting. We aren't used to divorce ia
Japan So.when it looks like parents are divorcing. the kids don’t know whit to do

160



school students. Review juku are popular with upper-clementary and junior + igi
school students. Students in these juke get help in subjects that they find difficult.
Many of these jai ¢ homes by teachers who use the
texts used ia the cl ancement juki are the ones that most clos
match western stereotypes. These schools are largely attended by junior high stu-
dents and high school students who are secking to prepare for the upcoming cn-
intice examinations.

“rin out of priv:

une

ssroom. The

Ina survey of over GO.000 students conducted by the Ministry of Education (Mon
busho, 1996), the percentage of students attending Juki is surprisingly high (sce
Table 2). Enrollment in individual enrichment courses tends to decrease over ime
while enrollment in advancement cours :s. Enrollment also varies markedly
according to the size and location of cit

Table 2—Percentages of students enrolled in juku, by grade level

Grade Level Advancement jie Enrichment julie

1985 L903 1985

Elementary

1 on 124 00.1" -O1

2 1o1 hil 691 “oF

3 12.9 m5 “Os B12

1 Ba 24.6 “8.0 B25

3 2t1 Sul 739 775

6 296 at 037 “06
Junior High School

1 18 825 a5 4607

2 ns 39.1 26.1 29.8

3 in) on 19.6 18.8
High school

1 174 az

2 28.6" aaa

4 ov 109

SOURCE All Figures trom Honbusho, 1996, except GH Kawai tukar, 199 1 and (by Tokar Ginko. 1998, p

Class, Ethnic, and Regional Differences

Compared to the rich soc
has a

and cultucadl diversity found in many couatrics. Japan
relatively homogencous population. This is a fact that Japanese themselves are
quick Co point out. especially when asked about problems that arise from differences.
in class. ethnicity. or language. Our findings indicate that such differ

lo

So



Table 11—-Hours of club participation

<1 hour 1-2 hours 2-3 hours >3 hours

Overall 28 305 564 ~ 104

SOURCE: Fukut

1993

According to this teacher, 58 percent of Meiji’s third-year students attend juku. Meiji
is an“advancement’ school and students bere specialized in juken benk
lower-ranked academic and non-academic high schools, nearly all of M
go on to college. and substantial numbers of them attend the best universities in the
nation.At Meiji. going to college is not a defining characte The primary factor in
students lives is what type of college they hope to enter. For example. those choos-
ing lo center science or engineering departments spend much more of their time
concentrating on math and science.

students:

Students at Meiji rarely take part-time jobs. Most of their spending money is pro-
vided by their family. After classes, many students at Meiji engage in sports and then
go home to eat before heading off to juku. Even those who do not attend juku are
busy studying their textbooks, reviewing handouts given by their teachers, or study-
ing materials provided by correspondence course companies that supplement the
regular regime of studying.

Whereas middle students in general are busy with the same kinds of things—clubs,
studying. enrichment courses, and jku—high school students spend their time in
very different ways depending on what kind of school they attend. In figures 6 and
~ Thave reproduced the weekly schedules of two male students. one at Meiji High
School and one at Naka ‘Tech. The student at Naka Tech does study one hour every
night, but most of his free time is taken up with his part-time job or attending dri-
ving school (figure 6). Since he is a senior. he will be cligible for a drivers’ license
upon graduation. and the school allows students to take driving Jessons so that they
can get their license quickly. This practice was not allowed at Aratt or Meiji.

In contrast, the Meiji student spends a good deal of time after school in clubs (figure
“). This student has about an hour's commute to school, which is not uncommon.
His schedule also includes jug classes two nights a week, which means that on
some evenings he does not cat dinner until nearly 11:00. Sunday is a time for him to
restand spend a little time socializing with friends. le spends far tess time watching
television or listening to music than does his counterpart at Naka Tech. When [ asked
another Meiji student what he expected of school, his answer was simply: Studying.”

148



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Tsushin-

Sunda Yobiko 199.) Personal communication Nagos a Japan.

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Chapter 3: Individual Differences and the Japanese Education System

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Lewis. 01995) Educating hearts
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256



Classes. Upon entering school. students make Ueir first friends in the homeroom
classes in which they are placed. Home n Japan spend nearly the
whole day together. and there are several Cimes during the day (morning mecting.
lunch, cleaning, Jong homeroom period) where the chiss meets lo discuss, relax. or
take care of chores. Each class develops a strong sense of identity. At the junior high
school level, students are with cach other for the entire day while teachers rotate in
and out to teach vitrious subjects. Classes are also the common unit of competition
in various school events. For example, some schools have a choral competition in
which cach class is judged on its singing capabilities. At other school function
dents move as ac entering and ing the gym together.

ond Classes

At the high school level. the importance of class as a unit of friendship is s
but is somewhat weaker than at the junior high school level.
are more often broken up into ability groups for clas
tional. the students are also divided up by s uch as Enginecring or Comput-
2. These section divisions play a farge factor in friendship formation at Naka Ve
tional At Arata and Meiji. students are regrouped and streamed into different arcas of
concentration after their first year.and students tend to socialize more with others:
in the same area of concentration,

ill strong.
tudents in high school
in schools like Naka Voc

The importance of clubs. One source of fricndship associations that cuts across

class. grade. and section lines at both the junior high and high school tevel is the
club. Japanese schools have bous voluntary and mandatory clubs. The mandatory
clubs meet once a week.and student participation may be rather lackluster. How:
ever, the voluntary clubs tike up an cnormous amount of student time. Regardless of
whether they are athletic or cultural clubs, students tend to puta significant amount
of cnergy into club activities. Quite often teachers must ask students to leave the
school in the evening because they are so engrossed in their club practice.

Students form groups based on clubs. a teacher at Naka Vocational said.A teacher att
Arata thought that the clubs were the most significant source of friendships for stu-
dents. Clubs provide a stable source of friendship relations over the students three:
years in junior high of high school. and students who do not participate ina club
lack these crucial tinks. Also, clubs have the important function of introducing stu-
dents into the social hierarchy of the adult world. Third-ycar students are the leaders
of the club and are expected to instruct new members. guide practice sessions and
behave in an exemplary manner. As students prog) from one grade to the next.
their seniority in the club rises. This progression gives older students a stronger

¢ of identity with the club and school. [tis no wonder that many teachers asso-
te Jack of club participation with problcm behaviors.

108



for and in control of most of what occurs in their schools and classrooms. Although
there are times when administrators assert control and assign teachers to tasks or
schools that were not requested, teachers sce most assignments as part of what the
expected when they became teachers.Although teachers are at their schools for
long hours. junior high school and high school teachers usually teach no more than
4 the 6 hours of classes each day. Elementary schoo! teachers are very busy but
they, too, are expected to be at school for planning, meeting with other teachers. ad-
vising students, and socializing for about a half-hour before classes begin in the
morning and for at feast an hour after school ends in the afternoon. Most teachers
do all their school-related work at school, which contributes to frequent interaction
among teachers,

A high level of acadentic ability is assumed among Japanese teachers because ainost
wl have graduated from universities and have taken many credits in their area of spe-
ciulization. Their academic knowledge is continually replenished through interac-

os with other tcachers, inservice training. and especially through voluntary f
ipation in small research and study groups.

Novice teachers are assigned formal mentors during their Ist year on the job. Teach-
ers agreed that throughout theie teaching years they look to other teachers for gu
ance and help. Most teachers seemed to feel they are effe at the basic t f
teaching, partly because they have been explicitly taught about lesson planning. the
use of materials, and more basic things such as how to write on the chalkboard.A va-
ricty of teaching techniques and presentation styles was observed and each teacher
seemed to have a substantial eepertoire of methods from which to draw Even so,
‘nost teachers expressed a desire to improve themselves and their ability to eeach
out to

ind | ob-
teachers attempted to

Notall children in Japanese schools behave themselves well at all times.
served many instances of the need for discipline. In all ¢
get students to resolve problems among themselves and to discuss disagreemen’
sually a homeroom teacher initially addre s discipline problem and then. de-
pending on the severity of the infraction. the head grade level teacher, other home-
room teachers, or administrators may also be asked to get involved. No teacher ¢x-
pressed a sense of powerlessness in the face of student behavior. Mines ‘fractions,
such as making a joke during a lesson, were tolerated and even jndulged. Since en-
joyment ind social development are seen as important goals for students during the
school day, teachers scemed to feel thes could freely engage their students in enjoy-
able activities. regardless of the subject being taught.

Especially i clementary schools, but also in junior high schools and high schools,
teachers saw themsclyes as guiding students to become more fully developed

vty



Teacher: Even if you don't do experiments, if you just remember the material, you
could do the exams, without the experiments. But, the experiment itself isn’t the
only goal. Even for the connection to studying for the exams, they can Jearn the
knowledge more easily through the experiment. | think. So, experiments are im-
portant, f think.

asked him whether even during the 3rd year of junior high, when exam prepara-
tion is most emphasized. he takes time for experiments.

‘Teacher:Yes. they have them. In the 3rd year they are a little more d
neutralizing, things, from acids and bases we neutralize things. Those types of ex-
periments. Now experiments have gradually gotten more simple, when you com-
pare them to before.And now we don't use very dangerous materials much. And
if we use them we use very weak things—we have gotten so we don’t use con-
centrated materials much.

The science teacher at Shimogawa Junior High School, where the level of students is
more variable, also thought that experiments were useful. But he pointed out tha
the different levels of preparation of students, owing to the attendance at examina:
tion preparatory schools (vk) after hours, can create a problem. He said it is fun to
teach science if the students are interested but if they have studied so much that
they already know the results of an experiment that can be a problem. He also com-
mented that it is a bit difficult because final grades to be divided up so that
one-tenth of the students get" F" (the lowest grade) and one-tenth get"5* (the high-
est grade) and”3"is the most common grade given. Some of the struggling students
have trouble even taking notes, and I observed one girl who could:not even do basic
arithmetic. These differences take some of the fun out of teaching science at Shimo-
giwa, but they probably do not occur as often at Chuo. where almost all students are
getting outside help and have high-level abilities.

High School Teaching

In the high school ¢!

srooms { observed similar mathematics and science teaching
methods to those seen in junior high schools. One science class and one matheniat-
ics class that] observed consisted almost entirely of the teacher tecturing and the
students taking notes. At Arai High School, the biology teacher prepared an exten:
sive set of worksheets for cach student that they kept together in a notebook. He of-
fered two reasons for using this method—the lack of a textbook that was appropri-
ate to the level of these students. and the ability to cover more Material more
quickly if the students could fill-in-the blanks in the prepared notes as Chey followed
his Icctures. Students in his class were fearning about the parts of a flower and the
process by which genes combined to preduce variations of a Mower. For this lesson
in genetics. suidents needed to draw in the various cell parts as the flowers devel:

219



Chapter 3

Individual Differences and
the Japanese Education
System

lidetada Shimizu

Introduction

During the carly phase of our research in Japan, my co-res'
and I visited Arata High School as part of our isa.
Having already sent the school a list of topics we intended to cover in the inter:
views. the purpose of our visit was to receive official permission to study and con-
duct interviews in the school. Upon our arrival we were escorted to the principal's
office, where we met the principal and vice principal.

4—our formal sel

Initially, the vice principal did most of the talking. irying to tke of the business
side of our research and making sure there would be the appropriate types and

's of students, teachers, and parents to be interviewed. When this conversa-
Sover the principal. who had not said a word up to that point. sitid
sec... “indicating that Chere was something bothering him,

He began by saying that LeTendre’s research topic,“adolescents’ lives” could be cas-
ily translated into Japanese. and everyone would understand what it meant. How-
ever, the notion of “individual differences” (Rojinsa) might be more confusing. He
plained in a politely modest manner” You sec, in Japan we are not much concerned
with individual differences. You might s Japanese education as a whole is not
setup to accommodate individual differences. What we do here is provide education
according to collectively estublished frames of reference”

While the principal tried to excuse the difficulty by courteously suggesting that the
U.S. system of education might have a better way of dealing with individual diffec-

ences, the vice principal addressed the practical question of how to inform parcats
about the interview’s contents. Since the notion is nota part of everyday discourse

-y
102



Autonomy and Freedom in the High Track School

Meiji is not unique among many high-level schools in its outward lack of emphi
on academic matters. Academic high schools with a strong academic tradition can
downplay academics because. as one teacher explained:"In good schools, students
study without being told, so we don't have to push them to study? (leacher, Mei
High School) Students in the high trac hools are granted a great deal of freedom
and autonomy but are encouraged to participate in non-academic experiences that
“build character”

In accordance with its motto of “balanced education, for
students simply to enjoy their youth. At the top of the s
message, boldly painted with a Japanese brush, sefsbun o fkiru Live your youthful
days!” Meiji students do enjoy their schoo! life: one survey indicated Meiji as the
most popular school in Naka city. Not surprisingly, one teacher described Meiji stu-
dents as “growing up straight and tall’ (suku sku to sodaite ir) as the Japanese
words “suki suki” here indicate plants growing up with proper nourishment and
adequate protection.

ample. Meiji encourages

ool catalogue, one SCes it

Paternalism and Apprenticeship in a
Low Track School

Schools in the lower tracks such as Naka Vocational thrive on the non-academic, the
-wel" side of education to keep students in school (Lewis. 1996). (The English word
“wet is used in Japanese to indicate the warm and affe
personal and cational—individual characters and human retationships). More specifi-
cally, we found teachers at Naka to be paternalistic. and students, as the Japanes
sundo, (cooperative in spirit and obedient in action).

tionale—as opposed to im-

Naka teachers take scriously their rote of helping students to graduate. This commit
ment on the part of teachers is reminiscent of the traditional master-apprentice rela-
tionship, One way the teachers assume this responsibility is to play the “big-brotherTM
role of benevolent superordinate.Feachers make sure that the’
dents, but al the same time they are remarkably sensitive to the emotional
the academic. needs of their students.

The type of language Naka Vocational teachers use is often coarse and
my visit to Mr. S’s math class. 1 was ‘reminded of a
family who is known to admonish his children harshly should they act im-
in front of a guest (c.g. forgetting to use polite language).At the beginning
she announced to his class.” Listen up boys! We have a guest who came

thy. During
thee-like figure in a traditional

Japanese
propert
of the ¢

{21

od.



{n other words. in actual practice the Moubusbe curriculum is one that provides
standards in terms of content in contrast to one that requires a particular level of
performance from all students. One teacher explained this approach:"The object of
the curriculum is to give everyone exposure to the curriculum, not to demand that
they have to achieve up to a certain level? Phis teacher's comment was ts pical of de-
scriptions we encountered regarding the curriculum.

Another teacher's comments were even more unambiguous about the intent of the
Monbusbo curriculum. When asked."ls the Monbusbo curriculum thought of as a
minimal level of mastery expected of all students? Are all the students expected to
master the material in textbooks at the elementary school level/” he responded:

Not at all! We teachers do not think that. E wonder what VMonbusbo is thinking.
Hmmm. If Monbusho is thinking that. say, 34 out of 34 students in a class have to
master the whole textbook, then that scares the hell out of me. They are only say-
ing that it is desirable. so T make efforts in that direction. | try to find the good.
qualities of each child—for example. this kid is good at understanding diagrams
and that kid is good at calculations. It is not possible to teach so that all kids mas-
ter the curriculum 100 percent.

Standardization of education throughout the country was another reason cited by an
education official for the existence of a national curriculum based on content.“ Japan
isa small country and when someone moves out of a prefecture or city. he or she
does not need to worry about going to a different prefecture or city and ha
fill a different set of standards.Thus, because all students are exposed to the
terials, equity is presumed. On the other hand. level of performance begins to be a
critical problem when students must cope with the college entrance examinations.

Societal Responses to Student
Competition in the Education System

The size of the private supplementary education industry in Japan has been cited as
an example of “educational overheating. ional cata indicated an increasing rate
of juku attendance at all levels and a diffusion of jvkw to non-metropoutan arcas
Nohara. (993).The reliance on the prisate sector to provide suppleme educa
Gon is a consequence of the intensity of Competition to pass entrance ©

ms



Problem Teachers?

The principal at Meiji High School tofd me that there are also less dedicated and
more problematic teachers in Japan.

We call them baggage Giimotsit).”
Iso due to emotional i

indow gazers” Guadogita).And recently,
tes, there are quite a few who have problems, but it is
difficult lo do anything about those things quickly. If there are ove or Wwo teach-
ers like that around iCis really a problem you know. ft guess all you can do is carry
them along (Rakaenagara tRazaru o ena?) Even if you get them transferred to
another place. well, they will sdf be that kind of person. And if you just bounce

them back and forth like a ping-pong ball. they won't be helped at all.

In general. teachers and administrators mentioned that although there were prob-
lemiatic teachers, there were at Most one or two ina school. At Arata High | was told
by three people that there had been two problematic teachers in the school until
the previous year. However. these less effective teachers were clearly a minority and
were usually dealt with. as the Meiji principal said.“by carrying them along.“Teachers
with skill and enthus Vand a willingness to work harder than required seemed to
shape the atmosphere at all the schools studied.

Becoming a Teacher

Competition

pan today is quite competitiv
of competition depending on the fevel of school and the subject. La

11] was told that the ratio of applicants to those accepted for high school teach-
nly

date in the field of mathematics. For example. the student-teacher training began on
the third day of my visit at Meiji High School. Thirty-two student teachers. all geadu-
ates of this high school arrived to do their 24veck training for certification. | was
told by the vice principal and several teachers that it would not be unusual if none
of these students actually were hired as teachers next year because of the stiff com:
petition. However of the 42 studene .not one was aiming to be a math teacher.

Both the requirement of a college degree and the competition to enter the profession
reinforce the high status of teaching. Competition is also rigorous at the elementary
and junior high levels. although itis not quite as intense for high school teachers.

201



Students who are sexually active and in school advancement tracks must risk a good
deal.An untimely pregnancy could dash the future hopes of both the male and fe-
generally agreed that Japan tudents who are sexually active are
very careful to conceal the frets from their teachers.

Bullying

Bullying or {fme is arguably the top concern of educators and parents in Japan
today. My arrival in Naka City occurred shortly after a well-publicized case of bully-
ing (ime) that ended in the suicide of a young boy. This case made national head-
lines,and stories about it were reported around the world, often linking this suicide
with the pressures to conform that children face in Japan's highly competitive sys
tem of education. The White Paper on Youth recorded around 155,000 reported in-
cidents of bullying in 1985.The fevels of reported bullying have fallen sharply since
then with only about 23,000 cases in 1992 (Somucho, 1993,: 230).

Bullying has been widely regarded as a problem of ¢arly adolescence in Japan, al-
though rates of reported bullying were higher in clementary school than in junior
high school up to 1987. Data from 1991 and 1992 indicate that bullying tends to
peak in the first and second years of junior high school. but the perception among
many Japanese is that bullying is now occurring earlier and carlier. Unfortunately,
one of the difficulties for parents and teachers alike in dealing with bullying is that it
is hidden. Bullying i don in places or ways that cannot be scen by adults.

The hidden quality of bullying makes it difficult for t s Lo inter:
yene. One father reported that his son had been bullied in junior high school, but he
had not known about it until the boy entered high school. The students at Naka Vo-
cational made the same point. One student said that “teachers don't know" when
bullying occurs. Another said that “If it comes out, teachers can do something, but it
is hidden."A father at Arata expressed his frustration:

Students are good at hiding things. They hide things so that the teachers see the
good; so every action has to he interpreted. For example, some time ago there

vas that incident where kids were playing at“pro-wrestling.” but they were really
bullying. These two actions look the same.

Junior high school boys often play at pro-wrestling or kung fu during the bre
after chisses. These matches are usually just hoisterous forms of play, but the
quoted above was referring to a famous case in which a group of boys disguised
their bullying under the pretense of playing at pro-wrestling, Given that so much
bullying goes on unnoticed, it is prudent to cousider that the rates cited above con-
stitute alow estimate of the frequency of the problem in Japan

175

ivy



13
£

dst of Figures and Tables

List of Figures

Figure 1—E

ample floor plain of a Fapanese high school... 2...

Figure 2—Translation of instructional plan. 2. 2 2 2...

‘igure 3—Translation of printout 2. 2 ee

Figure 4—Daily schedule of a Chuo Junior High School student

Figure 3—Daily schedule of a Midori Junior High School student... .
Figure 6—Daily schedule of a Naka Technical High School student .
Figure ~—Daily schedule of a Meiji High School student...

Figure 8—Weekly schedule for Hasu Elementary School

List of Tables

Chapter }—Introduction
Table 1—General school enrollment trends 1996... 2 2...
Table 2—Percentages of students enrolled in juku, by grade level
Yable 3—Sample schools and academic level 2. 5.

Chapter 2—The Developmeut and Iniplementation of
Education Standards in Japan

Table -i—Standard number of school hours in Japanese elementary schools

Table 3~Number of school hours in Japanes

junior high schools...
Table 6—Subjects required of all Japanese high school students
Chapter -i—The Role of School in Japanese Adolescents’ Lives

Table 7—Percentage of students in survey. by hours of sleep per day.

ble 8—Percentage of students watching television

Vable 9—Percentage of students’ study ime... ee

fable 10—Percentage of studen

‘lub participation

Table 11—Hours of club participation

xiv

bo

6
10



comes largely from parents and students, not the Morbusbo curriculum or eduea-
tion authorities.

The clementary school curriculum was perceived as being relatively casy
social. cultural. and family support for education ensures that man:
dents enter schor

nd stroag
Japanese stu-

ady to learn. However. the junior and senior high school curric-
ula become increasingly difficult in math and science as well as other subjects. Math
and science standards are high: ¢.<¢n vocational high school students, who follow
the [east rigorous academic curriculum among Japanese students, are exposed to cal-
culus by the 12th grade. The system of entrance examinations for high school and
college provides an important source of motivation for Japanese students to study
and master the curriculum.

Japanes
regu ¢
planations

schools make ¢cfforts to meet the needs of average and slower students in

ses. Simplified instruction. clear and simple sets of problems, lengthy ex-
aud additional instruction are among the ways that Japanese teachers try
to meet the aeeds of the slower students. In contrast. there are no programs for

gifted students in the Japanese public schools.

ms



Divisions and sections. The texture of student lite is determined by what “slice” of
the overall high school hicrarchy students bave entered. Daily patterns of interac
tion, abilities to participate in certain groups, and the basic attitudes toward acade-

mic studies are all determined by where one goes to school. The divisions beuween
schools and between courses within schools revealed remarkably similar effects de-
spite regional differences.

Divisions within the school also has a strong influence on friendship pa
ularly at Naka Vocational, where students specialize from their first day in different
fields. making friends with other students in the school can be very difficult. One
teacher at Naka Vocational socialtions within the sections are important, be-
cause students are taking the same license. Because we're not a shingaku school.
studying is nota fictor By this statement, the teacher meant that students are nor
drawn together in the way that Meiji students are. Because Meiji is a shingeku
school. students who are trying to enter the same college or level of college will
tend to group together for study sessions or because they share a common goal. At
Naka Vocational. students trying to get the same license (¢.g.. clectrical engineering)
will group together because they must study for the fis¢ CXam or simply be-
cause they have a common vocational interest,

ons. Partic-

same lic

Juku and Friends

While United States images of Japanese fuk generally center around students ©
ming for entrance exams, parents in Kita, Minami. and Naka City indicated that jue
attendance may have a purcly social function for some students, as a father of
Chuo student thought:

Juki used to be like school, but for students now it is different. His a kind of
fashion. That is why there are so many of them. They go to fku and soci

lize

This friendship aspect of juke is not limited to the more affluent neighborhoods or
the higher-ranked academic schools. At most levels. jak is ponerally an interesting
pltce for students. Because juke are for-profit enterprises, jvki teachers must mak
lessons lively and clear. However, the role of fuki as a source of friends and as
fashion” must be kept in perspective. Phe overwhelming response of parents and
students was that juki was a plac nd the ene
trance exams.

to study.a way to prepare for schoo!

Ayoso Isbikic A sense of competition. Most Japanese students dont want to lose” to
their friends by getting lower points on the various tests and quizzes that occur [re-

quendy in Japanese schools. However. this same consciousness of wanting to be ike
friends can also lead students who might have done bever to not try their hardest in

loo



Mother: No.it’s just like a habit: something lo which you become habituated
from early on which affects what the child does later. 1 the child acquired the
habit to study from carly on. he or she would be able to study easily.

rly on"?

Mother: [tis the ¢

ge at which the child recognizes that he or she is being praised
with words like "You deaw such a beautiful flower”

Interviewer: How old is that?

Mother: fd s sold.

ty two or three yeu
Interviewer: Does a two-year-old really understand that he is being praised?
Mother: Of course. And that’s the beginning of all learning.

Interviewer: Now to go back a bi
differences.

I mentioned what one considered as inborn

Mother: Inborn differences are almost like the certificate of breeding. Someone

who says.” My child is great by birth! must come from a very selected breed of
family.
Interv: Now. as far as academic ability is concerned, how much of it do you

think i

¢ or experientially formed?
Mother: The experience, Fm sure
Interviewer: How so7

Mother: Seventy or cighty percent is expericatially of environmentally caused
The rest is innate. The innate factors shouldn't take up so much.

Interviewer: Why do you feel so?
Mother: (pause and with laugh) | speak from my own expericnee!
Interviewer: Is that so? Tell me how you were or what you did

Mother: She thinks hard) Ht could be the hardship that | had to endure or the en
vironment that did not allow me to be lazy... For one thing. as long as 1 was fc.
ing my desk. my parents looked happy. .

fnterviewer: Did vou study hard?

Mother: No. TP wish {had studied more. Thad so many things £ wanted to become.

As one can see. Japanese students and parents do not completely deny the presence
of tented or gifted people. But because they say that such people ire so rare.
that one need not have a special talent to do well in school, they believe Ul
ability counts little toward ov

I uccess ina students academic career.

83
Luo



es

This system ensures both ar

signed mentor Co cach new teacher and a group of
colleagues with ing levels of experience. The system attempts to reinforce shar-
ing of information among teachers and the guidance of younger teachers by more
experienced teachers.

On-going training. In Naka Prefecture.as in Most prefectures in Japan, teachers
spend extra ime during their 6th and LOth and 20th year at Wraining sessions outside
of their school. These sessions again provide a chance to interact with teachers at
other schools who are ac the arcer sige. The sessions also usually provide
some time to meet with others who teach the same subjects. Teachers > are ree
quired to submit lengthy lesson plans and other reports during these y Whena
teacher becomes a grade fevel head teacher or advances to other administrative po-
sitions. they also attend training si

Teachers have chances during certain training experiences to visit major research
centers and to see advanced laboratories and equipment that their schools might
ined that they have no chances to return to gradu-
ate school in order to update their science training: however, plans have been made
since 1993 to allow up to 1,250 teachers to return to graduate school for 1 to 2
years (Ministry of Education, Science. and Culture, 1995, p. £28). All new teachers
participate ina training session that involves overnight stays, sometimes in the form
of a cruise to cities in Japan with colleagues from other prefectures.”
periodically participate in overnight outings devoted to training sess
subject area or on specific tasks, such as career guidance. within as

Iwo teachers in this study were also pkinning overseas training trips—nationally,
among teachers older than 35, 1.200 are sent overseas for 30 days and 3.800 are sent
for 16 days. Among teachers under 35 years of age. 180 teache * sent abroad for
(Ministry of Education. Science, and Culture, 1995, p. 129). In addition. some
additional programs for ove ind other types of train
Shimogawa Junior High School explained to me that in
achers are chosen cach year among those with at leas

nee to be “researchers” (Renkyiiin). Most people apply sever before
being chosen. and an administratoc’s recommendation is required to be eligible to
apply. This is called “in-country exchange study” and chosen teachers get lime off
from their own school to travel to a place of their choice within Japan for a few
weeks of study during the year. One teacher is also chosen to go abroad {rom this.
group. There are also 25 vounger teachers chosen for another program and they are
called “rescarch students” (Renkyuutinser). He told me that it is hard to get chosen
ad then the research itself is difficult. Most of the mectings among those chosen for
these special research positions do not start until 6:00 of 7:00 p.m. on school nights,
so the positions are time-consuming.

205



GC .erd

Teachers and the Teaching
Profession in Japan

By: Carol Kinney

Endo, who is in her eighth year of teaching, finishes
and coffee and assembles her clean gym clothes and a pic-
s. During the slow drive through heavy traffic, she thinks
about ways to help the students get along with the Korean girl who joined their
class this March.

ture of her cat for art cla

O am. she calls out a cheery grecting as she enters the teachers’ room
at at the fourth-grade teachers’ block of desks. The 5-minute
morning meeting ends promptly and the fourth-grade teachers briefly confer. Teach-
ers gather whistles and change their shoes as they discuss the school garden and
head outdoors for weekly play period. After announcements, Ms. Endo encourages
her students to play dodge ball in their area of the playing field. After 15 minutes.
ipal btows a whistle and the field becomes quiet. The four teachers talk
about pkins for a science experiment and an unexpected absence as they follow stu-
deuts up the stairs.

Students noisily settle into their seats. AC8:55, Ms. Endo begins playing the clectric
piano. Students stand and sing “Grandfather's Clock” Next, two students lead the
morning mecting while she silently grades papers at her desk. To litators an-
nounce arithmetic, and class begins. Ms. Endo ends with a contest between groups
using multiplics ss follows, and although to s facilita-
lors calf out’stand up. save still talking. so Ms. Endo
has them start over. Appearing more prepared, the students sit quicdly and begin
raising their hands excitedly to answer questions about flowers. Chimes ring to sip-
nal the end of class at 10:30. Ms. Endo leaves her class alone in the classroom and
joins the other teachers in the teachers’ room, where there is a cup of tea and a
cookic on cach desk, for a 15-minute Lreak. She quickly drinks and cats while seve
teachers tease a young man about his upcoming honeymoon, then she rushes out to
change into sweat pants and tec-shirt. She enters the gymnasium and spends the
few minutes listening carefully to the Korean girl and two other gi

s who

184

“Ua



In a survey conducted by the students at Naka Vocational about 100 boys said they
had a girlfriend and over 550 said they did not.At Meiji, dating seemed much more
common. probably because the ratio of boys to girls was much more even,

Even at the high school level, students were rather reticent about discussing their dat-
ing life. One high school student at Kita did share his dating experiences with me:

Student: We go to cof!
dinner together.

shops and phaces like chat. We Guk and have tea.or have

Interviewer: Since you don’t work. where do you get money to spend on dates or
when you go out with friends?

Student: 1 get an allowance. Emake do with that.
Interviewer: How much is it?

Student: 10,000 yen [about $100 per month}

Interviewer: What clse do you do on dates?

Student: Well, yesterday, school was over at 3:30. We went home together and had
tea. Sometimes we go lo my house and study.

The dating behaviors that students and teachers described tend to support the no-
tion that whil have casy access to magazi
with explicitly sexual material. not many students are sexually active in junior high
school or high school-The students surveyed at Naka Vocational fisted sleep first and
third as the things they most wanted. Get curate data on students’ sex fives:
difficult in any country. and itis especially difficult in Japan, given the fact that ju-
nior high schools and many high schools forbid dating. The teachers 1 talked to at
Arata and Meiji thought chat some students were having sex. but they believed this
to be a small percentage.A survey of Japanese high school students in 1987 found
that 11.5 percent of males and 8.7 percent of females reported having been sexually

ve. about the same percentage found in a similar survey found in 197 1 (Shi-
199A): 43 percent. AC this age. students who had parttime jobs appeared to
have more adult attitudes toward dating and sex.

itis likely that students who are on the academic track to college are more circum
spect in their dating and sexual behavior. As one young teacher put it:

For example, gitl did get pregnant. it is a frightening thought, especially tor
the boys. They have to take care of the baby. They can t depend on their parents.
They would have to quit school. ff th thout (hose things, end up not
doing it.1 think Unere are students who are having sex. but it doesn’t come out in
the open.



Lack of Instructional Grouping

ssroom, We identi:

Japanese teachers almost never group students by abilit
fied only one such case. that of a third: Je mathemati in Minami City in
which students were divided into “advitneed” sanced” groups and were
Glught by (wo separate teachers. The principal explained that ability grouping inside a
classroom was still at (he “experimental stage” and would be aceeptible “only in at
provincial city such as Minami where teachers know tieir students well cnough to
communicate to them that the ability grouping does not indicate permanent labeling”

In the remaining schools we visited. ability grouping inside a class was regarded as at
strict taboo. Students in many high schools are assigned to d
basis of ability and future plans. But even in high school, students will not be divided
within the classroom because cducators generally believe that ability grouping,
criminatory. hurts students cmotionatly and that having mixed-ability classroom:
the right thing to do

event chisses on the

Ability Grouping Is Discrinzination

Japanese teachers. students. and parents Gike it for granted that students are not
grouped by ability differences in public schools. Therefore. they are usually surprised
when they are asked why students are not divided by differences in their ability.
Nevertheless. the question evoked a deeply held emotional attitude of Japanese
teachers. students. andl parents whom interviewed that sc] ing individuals ac-
cording.to merit is a serious violation of the Japanese idea of fairness. Specilically.
one high school teacher explained:

Teacher: If the school separates students according to ability differences. what
the school is doing is discriminating among students. This goes against the
school’s basic goal of having students learn as members of a group.

Interviewer: Do you really think this is discrimination?

cher:Yes. because vou are treating students who are able in one way, and
those who are not se able in another way. This is not what teaching should be

Atenyearold girl ac fincho Elementary School also expressed ber disagreement
with the practice of ability grouping as follows:
Interviewer: What do you think would happen if your teacher a
seated according to your ability?

signed vou to be

is discrimi-

student: Hf the teacher does that. everyone will get upse
nation,

nd say tha

99



populations under 8,000, the proportion attending jak doubled from 6 percent to
12 percent in the past decade (Nohara, 1994).

Most of the junior high school students interviewed reported that the primary rea-
son for their attending juku was to receive help in basic subjects. One student said
that he needed the instruction in order to “keep up with his studies in school” Many
of the Japanese students we interviewed reported bringing schoolwork to the juku
for help ona regular b

Students did not report pressure from parents to attend jk. One cighth-grader said
that she started attending jeku because her older brother had attended and said it
uy, reported that juku was a good place to make friends. Hence, juke
function. as well as an academic onc. Only one student had anything
negative to say about the juku experience. He described the juku teachers a
“They yelf at you if you don't do your homework~ Bul eve
allending juku was a positive experience overall

S scary:

this student thought that

Many parents did express negative or mixed feelings about juke. A mother of thre
high-achieving students gave the following reason for her opposition lo juku:

Twas opposed to jvkit.so [didn’t send my daughter. There is the money, but in
addition. 1 feel that jaki only teaches children how to solve problems on the ¢x-
amination. Unlike schools jaka do not raise human beings. Since they do not
raise human beings. 1 think that it is better to just go to school without going to
juku even if one’s grades are bad. Also. my older children did not go to jakaand
the feeling of having accomplished what they did on their own is a source of
pride for them to

Most Japanese teachers reported. taking a neutral position toward jai. neither en-
couraging or discouraging students from attendance. Howes cr. the general attitude
toward juke displayed by tcachers is negative. In fact. most J nese teachers said
that they encourage students to use the resources of the school and self-study to im-
prove academic performance.

One teacher confessed that his sense of pride was ci
have them study within the framework of the schoo!
sense of pride as a teacher.

lenged by the fakaoTd rather
id the teacher Its just my

10

oy



Architectural Openness

Windows, both to the out

During all scasons except for the coldest days of winter,
side and into the hallways. i

re deft wide open and anyone in the hallway can casily
see ats well as hear all the activities in the chitssroom. fn addition. most of the ckiss-
rooms and all the teachers’ rooms have windows that look outon the playgrounds. It
Was always obvious When any chtss was outdoors for physical education or other
outdoor activities. In the mornings. clisses often began noisily. but (cachers com:

mented on this approving rather than criticizing any disruptions to their own

teaching. Ene! encouraged among the children except during
specifically quict learning times. Teachers itre aware of the activities in other class:
rooms and notice the naise level but seem to accept ditfer
teaching and disciplinary styles. Peach

ZV tnd Liv clings ar

snees in cach others”
rs emphasize the importance of teaching chil-
dren to distinguish between times to be quict and times to be active as well as to

distinguish beow cen the neise next door and the quict activity in their own chiss-
room Learning this distinction was referred .o by teachers as Rejime. (to distinguish
between) and wats seen as an essential soc

lization process for all Japanese - tu
dents. One vocational high school teacher told me repeatedhy (hat his goal for his
less diligent students wats to ect them to hive Refine so that they could go out into:
the world of work and beh ¢ appropri:

tely in various situttions. The architectural
openness cncourniges teachers to tedeb students to learn to distinguish between ap-
propriate behavior for different times and plices

\tboth Eincho and Viusu elementary schools. one of the first things Loted as E
watched the fiest period chiss Was What Was going on in the chissroom next door, Av
acho T described a riddle game students were playing in their morning Meeting
and Wrote cit is hard to hear their soft voices be
noisy. The boy nc,

ause Une chiss next door is very
me closes the door and then we can hee a bit bewer
times | struggled to hear at lesson because of the noise froma nearby clitssroom or
the playground. but this did not scem to be perceived as a problem by the students

or teachers | wits cbserving. 1

several

ichers and students sometimes laughed about or
commented on interesting sounds from nearby classrooms, but they never seemed
to become upset about noise. Phe exception to this proved the rule. | observed two
teachers leave Uieir own rooms to go next deor and scold students who were not
studying during a unsupervised study period. Wain. this was because students were
not properly making the distinction between when they were to be quicly working
and when they were allowed to be energetic



high schools in Naka City, Chuo and Shimogawa. illustrate the kinds of differences

between schools of which Japanese parents and educators were uulking.

Chuo Junior High School. Many parents and educators said that Chuo was one of
the “best” junior high schools in Naka City. The school is located near some of the
most expensive real estate in the city.a region that includes many affluent families. [t
Was not unusual lo see an expensive luxury car parked outside the school gates on
days when there were parent-teacher conferences. The superior quality of the phy:
cal plant was also immediately evident.

The students at Chuo were animated. cheerful. and talkative. One student told me
that he read somewhere that the fish in the Japanese diet provided a chemical for
the brain that was hypothesized to be an explanation for the higher achievement of
Japanese in math. Another eighth-grader said that she read about how Japanese
processed language in the felt brain and that had implications for math achievement.
The validity of these explanations notwithstanding. the remarkable thing about
these students was their breadth of knowledge from outside reading: knowledge
that went beyond the official school curriculum.

‘The students at Chuo had clear plans for their futures. They typically expected to
enter highly ranked high schools and eventually to obtain well-paying jobs. One stu-
dent. for example, expected to take over his father’s company after majoring in busi-
ness in college. His goal was to make his father’s successful local company into a

ul national one.

The principal of Chuo explained some of the benefits of school like Chuo.There
are no great differences in student ability’ he said.“Afmost all of the students are able
to handle the material.and they are motivated’ The principal also explained that par-
ents of junior high school students. in contrast to parents of clementary school stu-
dents. chose their address on the basis of the quality of the junior high school. In
fact. some parents submit bogus address changes to city hall in order that their chil-
dren he within the district housing of Chuo. This practice was hard to control. the
principal confessed, since schools did not have the resources to investigate every ad-
dress registry at city hail,

Shimogawa Junior High School. Separated onty [5 minutes by train, Shimogawa Jue
nior High was a world away from Chuo in terms of the social class background of
students. Shimogawa is located in a busting retail area not far from the city’s central
train station. The school itself is located in part of what is called a doe area, or area
where there is a high concentration of the birakimmin minority. About 10 percent
of the students at Shimogawa are of baraktonin descent

an”
R



balancing the long hours of study with involvement in clubs, hobbies. or going out
with friends. Despite adult worries, all of the adolescents we talked to were healthy,
active. and had some goal.



of ofl” before other students do. As a result. (hey fall farther behind and become less
engaged in school.

Motivation is viewed as a ch:

cteristic that teachers can actively cultivate by en-
couraging a child to study what he or she likes, thereby deepening the sense of ex-
cilement and mastery the child has. Once that attachment to school and classroom
activili¢s is made. the interest in Iearning or studying will be firmly rooted in the
child’s mind or psyche.

Special programs for the gifted or programs that allow individual children to de-

lop at different cates are almost unknown in Japanese pubtic ciementary and ju-
nior high schools. Jaa. however. provide similar opportunities outside of school.
There is no grade retention and no skipping of grades. However, virtually all Japan-
ese Clementary and junior high schools have special classrooms, often given fetching
ames like “green mountain’ where students with severe disabilitics are taught sepi
rately from the rest of the school. The curriculum for these classes is less difficult
than that taught in mainstream classes, and students rarely interact with their main-
stream counterparts. While the bas panese ideal is for inclusion, there are clear
limits to this inclusion. During the compulsory years of schooling, only students.
with severe disah are kept outside the mainstream. However, upon entrance to
high school. all students are streamed into different high school courses based
largely on entrance exam scores

The Role of Schooling in Social
Stratification

The competitive atmosphere around the high school enurance exams is linked to the
fact that once students are tracked into a given high school, they will have great dif-
ficulty changing their general academic trajectory. As evidenced by the very different
curriculum and attitudes of the students at Meiji and Naka Vocutional, the oudines of
students’ future academic and economic prospects ace largely pre-determined by the
high school they enter.

in the high-ranking academic tracks. students follow a course of study and extra-cur-
ciculir involvement that i similar to the one they expericnced in junior high
school: They spend significant ‘portions of their time outside of school preparing for
classes, practicing in clubs, and attending juku. Students in the more highly ranked
academic high schools noted that they engaged in competition with their ch Mes
to sce Who can do beston the practice exams and other tests. In the low-ranked ac:

xix



the University of Michigan, it was difficult to find adequate translations for “adoles-
cent’ Indigenous terms for adolescence (se‘nenké, seishunki, scisho nen) have con-
notations more like the English “youth” or the German jugend.

Teachers and parents use “student” (vefo) much in the same way that American par-
ents would use the term. But, they also commonly junior high schoot student”
(chugakusei) and “high schoot student” (R6 R6 sef). Junior high school is the culmi-
nation of compulsory cducation (roughly equi
and unless students pass the high school entrance
out of the public high school system. Once adolescents become high school st
dents they experience major changes in their social life. High schools pull students
trom across large districts, and in Naka City it was not unusual for students to com-
mute halfan hour or more to school. Increased mobility transtates into greater free:
dom to associate with peers with no supervision. as well a
in social contacts.

Jes seven to nine).
y will be effectively shut

Sa significant expansion

Students also exhibit different academic expectations depending upon the type of
high school they enter. Those going on to college generally go on to 2 or -i years of
postsecondary schooling. Those in the non-academic tracks usually enter the labor
force immediately after high school. Students and teachers both noted that studying
plays a much less important role in the non~academic tracks and that part-time jobs.
are one of the most significant experiences for students in industrial or technical
high schools.

There are also significant differences in cu
behavior asso

riculum, instructional style. and norms of
ted with junior high school and high school education. Junior high
schools in Japan have a reputation for strict rules about conduct and deportment.
Student tnd teacher committees carry out virtually all the day-to-day tasks of run-
ning the school. Students’ time outside of c! is Giken up in committees or in clubs,
when they are not studying for a lest. Junior high schools generally draw from larger
districts than clementary schools. giving children the opportunity to meet children
from outside their immediate neighborhood. While students in the last year or (wo.
of junior high school tend to exhibit an interest in the oppos ng is siriculy
forbidden by Japanese junior high schools, and it is not until high school that adoles-
cents have much opportunity to date. For the students in our sample. junior high
school marked the beginning of an intense period of study and club activity.

Junior High Schools: From Morning to Night

In the popuker pre:

. junior high schools are portrayed as the busiest ef all of Japan's
school levels. Arriving at school shortly after 8:00, many students finish up club activ:
itics at 6:00 or Tater. Junior high school students do not have (o commute long, dis-



Because his wife is currendy at home on maternity leave (she is also an elementary
school teacher), he gets up at 5:00 in the morning and generally gets to school be-
fore 6:40 a.m. and works until 8:40 a.m. when classes startTwo or three nights a
week he is at mectings until 10:00 p.m. or so in the evening. and the other nights he
gets home after club is over, generally after 7:00 p.m. He said he generally only gets 5
hours of sleep. Next year, however, when his wile is back at work, he will have to
take one of the children to day care in the mornings so will not get to school until
closer to 8:40 a.m. fosing his carly morning work time.

Junior bigh school teachers Two teache
sctof schedules, equally varied for d CNL TG:
has two small children described her schedul

Midori Junior High described another
ons. One femate math teacher who
as fairly regular:

‘Teacher:i usually arrive att about 8:2¢
pick up the children from the d
before 3:00 p.m.

am.and at 3:00 p.m. lam supposed to.
y care center. IVs close to here, so | feave a bit

Interviewer: Do you usually have work you take home with you, too?

acher: Well. yes. but even iff Gike it home 1 cant do it at home, so. 1 really have
no help at home and there is no time at all to do my own work there. 1 really try
to get everything done while |am at school.

Interviewer: Do other teachers ever complain about your Icaving at that time?

‘Teacher: No, they don’t say anything at all.

The other teacher reported a schedule at the other extreme. He generally arrives at
school between 8:00 and 8:15 a.m..although the day F followed him he arrived at
00 a.m. fora PTA newspaper collection drive. He discussed various specific meet-
ings and then sun zed, “well, really | have had a exteeme (bidod lite lately. About
A days ina row last week Ehad mectings from around 6:00 p.m. and when it is bad
they don’t get over until around £2:00 midnight”

Jasked him when he

ww his family

Wellin the mornings. and at night. that sort of thing. try not to destroy my fun.
ily but the times when we can cat dinner together are really rare. Maybe once a
week. or well, Sunday right,on Sundays [ani the reverse. at home almost all day.

T suggested he was more dedicated than some teachers and he responded:

Not dedicated, but somehow various types of work just pile up. Well the fact that
for (cachers no matter how many hours you work your salary is the same. well,

for me—it may be the reverse for others—f take itas my own responsibility. Ht is
my own Work. so itis C for mancy. whether f go home at four or stay and work



in Japanese schools, the vice principal felt that the term for individual differences
(kojinsa) simply would not be understood by Japanese parents. In fact. the term
would probably give them no idea of what to expect from the interview. [rying to
think of a phrase that the Japanese parents would understand. the vice principal
came up with a new tile, On the Subject of Studying in General.

Another stumbling block for the two administrators was the notion of “ability differ.
ences. The direct translation, noryokusa, was among the most “politically incorrect”
terms in Japan. had unfertunately used this term when ¢ asked them if students at
Arata were divided into groups by ability differences:1 immediately saw signs of ap-
prehension in their faces. The principal expressed the concern that some te:
would object to the use of the term voryokusa since this term suggests that individ-
ual differences are innate. Sucl usually taken as 4 sign of discrimination,
‘The basic premise of Japanese education, the principal explitined, is that students
are born with equal abilities. Therefore, it would not make much sense to talk about
“ability differences.” instead it would be better if we changed the term to shu
Jjukudo (difference in mastery levels). This term would imply that individual differ-
ences are created as a result of school work and individual effort. rather than natu-
rally given ability:a much more acceptable idea.“If you used the term shijukudo.
the principal continued.“ nobody would complair om this experience. I realized
that an examination of the Japanese preference for the term shujukudo over no-
ryokusa could give insight into the ways Japanese perceived and handled differ-
ences in students’ abil'ties.

chers

Field Research Methodology

All interviews and observations held in Naka City. the primary site, were conducted
by Hidetada Shimizu. Interview and observation data from schools in Minami City.
collected by Naoko Morivoshi.and Kita City, collected by Gerald LeTendre. were
shared with the author and are reftected in both the chapter and the analysis.

In pursuit of inform: aka City on individual differences, interviews were
held with “2 persons and observations were made in 17 ¢! ‘ooms. Interviews
were held in 2 academic high schools and 1 vocational high school (27 interviews),

3 junior high schools (27 interviews), and 2 elementary schools (18 intervi

views) and Kita City (19 interview
school boards, tescarch institute
findings in this chapter.

and VMonbusbo was also integrtted into research



SR

Despite the great mass of data on Japanese schools drat has been accumulated since
tpanese education with regard to math and science still
remilins piccemeal. We lack systematic comparisons of math and science that con-
ies relate to the overall structure of education,

and the lives of students and their families.

the 1970s, our picture of,

textualize how classroom activ
teacher training,

Rationale of the Study

Our aim in this volume is to provide an in-depth look at several policy issues in the
context of Japanese schooling as partaf the work of the Third International Mathe-
Study CTIMSS). In the main TIMSS study, math and science
thicvement te nd surveys were administered in almost 50 nations around the
world. The case studics were designed to provide in-depth research on how key pol-
icy issues icing U.S. cducators are dealt with in Germany and Japan as well as to ine
vestigate the cultural and structural context of schooling in cach nation.

matics and Scienc

n in-depth study of
ives and profe:

¢ counties, the re h goal was to conduct
topics: (1) national standards in education, (2) teacher:
sional training, (3) adolescent lives, and (1) conceptions of individual difference
understand the details of cach country’s schoo! system, iC was necessary to analyze
the structure of the schools Gincluding the phice of individual schools in the wider
system), describe classes within schools. and analyze how individuals functioned

mate)

within classes and schools.

Methodology

In all three countries. an ethnographic case study method was used Co investigate
ature served as background

the four topics.An extensive review of the relevant liter
for the formulation of the research topics. lopics and questions were generated and
refined by educators and social scientists from the University of Michigan, review
panels affiliated with the Department of Education in Washington, D.C. education
scholars in Japan.and the This approach ensured that the questions
selected were relevant (o U.S. policy makers and appropriate to the culdural Contexts

of Japan.

Ww



instructions to the teacher for conducting the lessons. £
also provided.

amples for use in class are

Monthly nieetings. Teachers stay involved with the implementation of curricula
through commitice work at school. At the school level Japanese teachers coordinate
the implementation of the curriculum through monthly deparumental mectings.
which are scheduled during a designated preparation period. These monthly depart-
mental mectings are a forum for Japanese teachers to interact and exchange informa:
tion with colleagues about curricular issues. We found that these meetings were
used by math and science teachers to coord
with other teachers, and, importantly, to a
sions regarding instruction.

¢ instruction and coverage of topics:
ticulate concerns and make group deci-

Measuring School Performance

Although students are tested in their ¢

son knowledge of the curriculum, ormal
measurement of school performance is not conducted by Monbusbo. According to
local education officials, Monbusho be; ionwide testing program for al} stu-
dents in cach grade of clementary and junior high school about 30 y 20. This
created an unexpected situation in which schools became highly concerned about
performance relative to other schools. Consequently, some schools conducted dis-
honest practices to rtise averages, such as asking poor achieving students to stay
home. The testing of schools was discontinued because of these abuses and also be-
cause of opposition from members of the Japanese Teachers’ Union who objected to
the monitoring of school performance

Currently, Houbusbo conducts an academic achievement test on a national sample
of schools to obtain an estimate of student attainment of the curricular objectives.
These data are used to infer the percentage of the curriculum that is being mas-
tered. Monbusbo then determines what topics in the curriculum scem too casy or
too difficult for cach geade level and uses this information in revisions of the curricu-
Jum. An important informal measure of school performance is the fact Uhat newspa-
pers publish and everyone in an areca knows school performance based on Shad
gakuritsu. which refers to the percentage of students progre g to good schools at
the next level.

al

Ja



cannot do this. Also. think this is important. Levs say the Boston Symphony

ame. Families with high economic power are alter all high in cultural sophistica-
tion, too. So when there is that kind of entertainment. those families bring their
children along. Therefore, these children naturally become highly cultured. This is
a big plus for children from families with economic powe

Many Japanese parents and teachers also said that they felt socioeconomic differ-
ences have been getting wider since the 1980s and that inequality has iner
Japanese society. One high school principal said that he sensed Japanese society was
becoming more stratified by social class, with highly educated parents passing on
opportunities for higher education to their chiidren.A working class mother of a
high school student echoed the principal's fe

sed in

The way it looks now. itis impossible to keep up by just going tu school. One
needs to go to juku nowadays, That is all right for students from families with
money, but if you don’t have money. untess you exert an Cnormous amount of cf
fort. itis very difficult. 1 wonder if the system has to be such that it is sustained

by family cconomic power. or could there be something different.

The role of jukv in ercating inequality in also eri

education official at Naka City:

panese socicly v

You can tell the difference between children who go to juku and the children
who do not. Since children are doing the sane work in school whether they go
to fuck or not.and have a knowledge-based education up to this point, those
who practice are stronger. If we look at the results, those who learned something
already. perform better in school. So, if our criterion is performance, then those
who go to Juki do better. We try our best to prevent this from happening. So we
would rather not be oriented toward results. We should try to work with the fam-
ily to motivate children to fearn. Children who get the correct answers without
thinking much and who do not like math—these students don't understaid the
fun of mathemitt The new curriculum wants to show those who have such
understanding. We want to convince parents that it is actually a loss to go to
Suku but it ry difficult to convince parents.

Regional Differences

Many Japanese believe that education is more highly emphasized by people living in
certain prefectures than others. Indeed. there are significant differences in academic
outcomes among prefectures. Jn 1993. for example. 33.5 percent of Tokyo uigh
school graduates advanced to -+-vear colleges versus 24-1 percent for those in
Fukushima Prefecture (irelfa. 199 4).

“6



ing teachers and learning about their (ypical schedules and responsibilities
had to learn about their duties supervising clubs, the

particu homeroom teache:

always
jwaments, and
grade level heads, or other respons
ign-

ssroom rmied to accen-

r committe

“their role

Each teacher's workload varies, depending on their current committee

ments and other responsibilities. Numerous outole
tuate teachers’ rol responsible to and for dheir school, subject. and/or students,
The meeting time required to make all these assignments in at cooperative way is NOt
trivial Teachers quickly become integrated into a school and get to know cach other
well. The time they spend face-to-face in meetings or working on tasks probably in-
creases the chance that they will shire useful information about teaching and about
students’ needs.

Meetings of the entire teaching staff are held weekly or less frequently at most
schools and tend to be rather formal. They appear to be bureaucratic meetings in
which the staff is expected to offer fast. rubber stamp approval. Information tends to
be presented and voted upon quickly. At Meiji High School. it was briefly announced
by the chair of the Student Guidance Committee that they were adopting a new pol-
sarcfully policing violations of the d
ring carrings or lipstick or exhibiting certain unacceptable behaviors
such as hanging out at coffee shops, the new policy called upon students to remem:
ber their school and act as its representatives. After announcing this broad policy
with many subde nuances, the committee chairperson asked if there were any ques:
tions. No one asked a related question. Although F thought this was a top-down pol-
icy decided by one commitice or a policy that would have no real impact. the princi-
pal later commented to me chat he had been impressed by the idea and that it had
been discussed in the school for several months. The vote was smooth because the
staff understood the nuances and agreed with the policy. or at least had been con
vinced to try it.

ss code

Informal Structures

Apart from the formal structures that determine interactions, teachers may also
gather socially and choose (ricnds within the school. When | questioned teachers
about their outside interests or hobbies. | was told. for example, about a friendship
based on being fishing buddies or that a teacher did not yet feel he had close friends
ina new school because all his friends who enjoyed watching horse racing were al
his previous school | was sometimes asked about my food and music preferences.
which led to suggestions that | come to dinner with a certain friendship group who
particularly enjoyed the same foods or that Pask one teacher for the copy of anew
music tape-Teachers app :
having children of the same ages. on coming from simil
near cach other. The system of rotation meant that te

red to form friendships based on being a simi
hac
Hers knew some te

rounds. or living,
“hers al

220



range of shops, and the central part of town can be traversed by foot in less than an
hour. Parks are abundant and offer spectacular views of the adjacent, snow-covered
mountitins. No one industry dominates Kita’s labor market. Unemployment data were
ble. The per capita income in 1991 v about $30,000. Many fumily farms still
exist.and there is considerable emphasis in the winter months on tou:

sm,

The official student-teacher catio in Kita is s ur to Naka:about 20 to 1 atthe ele.
mentary and junior high school tevel. Although classes tend to be farger than thi
they are not as crowded as in Naka’s schools. For Japan, the population density i:
quite low-only 600 people per square kilometer. Because fand is not ata premium,
schools tend to have large playgrounds and activity areas. Mere were about 20,000
students at the elementary fevel, 10,000 at the junior high school tevel, and over
15.000 at the high school level in 1992. Per pupil funding in 1992 was about $7.000
per year for both elementary and junior high school students.

Minami City

Minami City has a Jong history as a prosperous port city with a large fishing indus-
try. Seven percent of the total population works in manufacturing. The unemploy-
ment mite at the time of this study w 2 percent. Per capita income in
1990 was about $30,000 and the median houschold income around $75.000.'The
population density of Minami (around 3,500 people per square kilometer) is less
than half that of Naka’s over 6.000 people per square kilometer.

There were over 90,000 students in Minami’s elementary schools and nearly 50,000
s junior high schools. In 1993. the high school enrollment was over 60.000. The
student-teacher ratio is simiiar to Naka and Kita, but the per pupil spending was
somewhat lower: about $4,800 ac the elementary and $5,500 at the junior high
school level. Minami is home to several universities and junior colleges.

The Schools

Given this general description of the system of cducation and the field sites. we now
turn to the schools themselves. In Table 3, the schools and their rek
standing are listed. The determination of the schools’ academic level was made by
Professors Nagano and Sawada based on data collected on schools in Japan by the
National Institute for Educational Research. The academic standing of schools, partic-
ularly at the junior high and high schoof level is primarily derived from an analysis
of students’ high school and college entrance exam scores at cach school. So. for ex-



Figure 6—Daily schedule of a Naka Tech High School student

Monday Tuesday Wed Thursday
S00 am - 9.00)
1:00 pm school school school school school school part time
job
1-00-2200 funch lunch lunch lunch tunech lunch tunch
2.00 1:00 school school school school school school part time
100-500 TV TV 1 tv Ww N job
500-800 parttime parttime parttime parttime parttime parttime part ume
job" job" job" job job" fob? jo”
8.00-9:00 dinner dinner dinner dinner dinner dinner dinner
200-11.00, Wy Vy TN, TV/ TW Wy 1W/
music music music music music music
100 p.m- study study study studs study study study
1200am
T2-00-4:00, TW Vy Wy Wy WW TW TW
music music music music music music music
1:00-—-00 sleep sleep slecp sicep sleep sleep sleep

NOTE *parcume job or driving school
SOCRCE Third International Ma

res ind Science Studs. Case Study Proeet, 1991-95

‘ation and persistence in tearning. One teacher at Arata thought that students who
did well in clubs also did well in academics “because they are serious. It is all be-
cause they are diligent. even when they study. they do it with all their might f must
do kind of feeting exists in both clubs and other activities. Vhese students

Junior high schools and issbokenmei. “With all one’s might” —this is one way to
translate the term ésshokenmes. and this translation comes close to capturing the at-
titude that junior high school teachers and students expect of anyone participating
ina club. Club activities, whether they are broadcasting. Japanese fencing. or playing
in the brass band. are scrious ende: rst-ycar students in Japanese junior high
schools are required to take part in clubs,and the majority continue to voluntarily
participate. in varying degrees. thereafter. Clubs provide a significant source of iden-
tity to the extent that those who do not participate in clubs, choosing instead to go
home after supplemental clisses are over are often designated as members of the
“go home club" (kitaku bio

sors.

150



Interviewer: So the teacher doesn’t give you the answers?

Student B: No, if the teacher just gives away the answers. it docs not do any good
to the students because it is not going to be their own knowledge. In order to ict
us acquire the ability to think on our own, the teacher giv

's hints. not answers.

Student C: My teacher is just like (Student B's teacher}]—watks around and
student; encourages us to help one another and gives hints. | think

) panese cducation encour:
room. After the end of compulsory
and within schools.

In sum.during the elementary chool yeu
age: sof individ

Tracking and
High School Education

At the end of junior high
social
in high school
emic rankings. Students arc
ent classes within a

of their

chool Japanese children enter the second pha

system: the non-compulsory high school years. suring,
sare tracked into various schools with various acad-
so tracked by ability or by educational goals into diffe

school.

Whereas the goal of Japanese clement and junior high schools is education of the
whole person, the central focus of Japanese high schools is ¢ ither
preparing students for higher education or for post-high school employment. This,
transition from junior high to high school education is epitomized by the way class-
rooms are structured in the (wo systems. In clementary and junior high schools, a
Japanese class consists of a mixture of students with diverse abilities and varying so-
ciocconomic backgrounds. During these years students are encouraged to discover
and share varied ways of solving problems. In high scnvol. where students are sorted
into different schools according to their levels of academic achievement, students,
within cach school cover a narrow range of academic ability.

One wa

- to understand how the tracking system works is to study ils terminology
tify students by entrance exam scores is called sot-Ra. usually translated as
fication but literally means “layer” (som means “Sayer” Ra means “to make").The
distance between one layer (sew) to another is called Rausa (the gap)and phicing
one school above anouter is called joretsi (to rank order). Perhaps Ure most widely
used word to describe the stratification system is wagiré. which refers to dividing

To stra
stra

Vle

Luv


demic schools or in vocational schools like Naka Tech, students exhibit little interest
in school work except wien is it directly linked to immediate work goals. Students
and teachers in these schools reported that students would study hard to prepare
fora certification exam, but not for a test in math class. In these schools, student life
is much more centered around work. and students often take part-time jobs outside
of school.

Despite the hierarchical teacking that occurs at the high school level, we found little
evidence of school resentment. Even the dropouts appear lo be attracted to their old
schools and behaved in ways directed toward gaining recognition from the school.A
factor in making school meaningful to Japanese adoles is that school is their
major social arena.The school plays a significant and positive role in the peer culture
ot most Japanese adolescents.The students we interviewed rarely saw the school as
imposing an onerous regime of study, Rather they pointed to the entrance exams as
producing the pressure and stress they experienced. While several students did com-
plain that school rules on dress and deportment were too strict, they rarely ex-
pressed resentment toward their teachers.

The respondents pointed out problems such as bullying. dropouts, and a general in-
ercase in the number of students who dislike math and science. However, neither
students nor adults linked these problems to the teachers or the schools per se. They
generally blamed these problems on the exam em, the competitive nature of so-
ciety,and what they perceived to be the increase in divorce and disruption of family
life. The vast majority of students spent more time at school in any given week than
the teachers required, Rather than seeing school as an imposition, most students saw
it as resource in their attempts to succeed in future academic competition and
place to expand and deepen their social network.

nu

Family

Parents also voiced similar respect for schools and teachers, but were critical of the
exams and academic competition. Japanese parents give to their children a wide
range of support when it comes to academic matters. Despite the narrow quarters
that many Japanese families occupy nese families generally provide a study desk
for children from elementary school on. Most of the families in this study also pro-
vided a separate room once the child reached junior high school.Almost all of the
families in the study were providing their children with some form of outside school
support or were paying for them to cnroll in special clubs or pursue their hobbies.

AN.



dents and waite | for the slowest students to finish the experiment before his sum-
mary and exphination of the experiment results

fustruct onal material
books. Most
books

Japanese junior high school textbooks are small soft cover
rger dnd heavier than a short paperback novel. Since the text
re the property of the students, students are free to highlight important sec
tions and to make notes in the margins. Junior high school students we interviewed
reported using these te: view, particulirly as a way to study for high
school entrance examinations

Students are expected to take the textbook:
dents to Gtke Cextbooks home every day as lockers for overnight storage are NOt pro-
vided for student use. Instead. schools typically provide sniall cubicles for daily stor:
age of items such as bookpacks.

apanese schools require slu-

An examination of Japanese textbooks shows them to be simple and cl
tation. Successive units are integrated and les

iin pre
sons commonly refer to cartier mater:
ial The new concept of the unit is then introduced in common langua BCs Alter this
brief introduction, there is a word problem, followed by several ©
also a small set of four or five problems for students to solve. Units such
which we saw in

‘sen:

could include as many as 26 pages with karge print and ampic
margins. The textbooks themselves are about 100 pages in length and typica
are (wo volumes per grade. .

Veathooks, par

cularly in math and science. were seen by the teachers we inter
viewed as only one instructional resource among several. Since the number of prob-
Jems in Japanese textbooks is smait. students also use supplementary practice prob-
fem booklets Gaoandai enshit). These practice booklets parallel the text books and
contain additional problems for catch fesson. the booklets are made available to stu.
dents by the school for a small fee. Students use both textbooks and pract
Jem booklets during ck

¢ prob:

The need for more practice problems is greatest during the 9th and 12th grades, the
years before the high school and cotlege entrance examinations. Chis need for price
lice problems in preparation for examinations is partially fled by these booklets
Many math and science teachers we observed used these practice boo! tets during
instruction

Some teachers also reported using the practice booklets as a way to cahance in-
struction for high-achieving students by assigning these students difticull problems
to do on their own. Even elementary school teachers reported using this strategy for

2

bo



cal response was given by a math teacher who described his first 4 years of work at a
night high school before he was transferred to Naka Vocational High School:

good experience E think. Those (students) who get in are a bit different
you know. Theie grades. that is one thing.And well, their personalities. things
about rules. Somchow they really are the lower level. The families, ones that are
broken or something and also fathers who only drink afeohol all the time and
Those kinds of things, for the average person. are thi you would hardly
sec. So J didn’t know that kind of society at all. It seemed like a different
place. you know. Like what you read in a book. Those kinds of families have
knowledge of things you usually only read about in a newspaper. Of course
everyone knows that night high schools exist. but almost no one knows anything
about that sort of school. The society doesn’t really them. [feel as if T re-
ceived an cducation there.

cher
ly:

A junior high school te;
dividuals would not norm
ers."T realized that Ted
for studying.

Oo commented on this exposure to a world niany in-
see and drew a conclusion | heard from several teach-
me from a lucky Thad a family and lots of preparation
ad was sent Co college. and all my food was prepared for me

bout the diversity within their own society
part of being a teacher. This

med to be an essential
experience is a part of most teachers’ lives because of
the rotation system. A junior high school ted

acher described encountering students
he had not anticipated meeting during his first assignment ata lower-track private
high school:

ven wheo | was giving them guidance as a homeroom teacher. well. there would
be times when | was a little bit strict, right? And then, they rebelled against me.
What I still remember even now—! had given some guidance (shidow shite) dur-
ing school and when I left (one of the students said)."l'm going to kill you.” No
matter how much you get one student to understand what you are saying there
dre times you cat communicate everything to the whole school, right? And
when we were patrolling the school, you'd sce students hiding and doing things
and you knew if you said something to them there would be problems.

Most teachers agreed. howev
than they had expected.

sthat teaching was harder and more bureaucratic

Vhere is a lot of that kind of work, much more than what | had expected. 1

thought | would be with children every day and talking with them about things
about humans, and also while teaching them math, discussing tho:
teaching chasse:

* things. and
nd thought that would be ail. But of course that isi’Call of
course Fant teaching children about life through math classes, but other than

199



ing to outsmart him. and was trying to come up with a more difficult solution
than his, but neither could answer this problem. That's why they called me. There
was also this student on the sixth row. He's really good at math bat very quict.

He's able to solve problems, but does not scem to be good at making questions
or challenging questions that involve application. He can solve about 80 per
of the problems we do in class, but when these problems become more ad-
vaneed. he can’t. That was what was happening today. Whea | happened to walk
by him. he was having trouble solving the problem,

cen

One important goal of Rika junshé is to provide assistance for indi idual students
having difficulty understanding or solving the assigned problems. As a math teacher
at Midori Junior High explained."T'd go around the el ad if | find someone who's
having trouble, 1d offer a hint. Md give able students smatler hints, and less able stu-
dents bigger hints”A math teacher at Artut High School also explained:

T make sure that my students understand my Icsson by walking around the class:
room and checking the students’ notebooks. Hf feel th re having a hard time,
Texplain the problem again and tell them to sofve similar problems. When f think
atleast 80 percent of tem understand. 1 move on to the next lesson, (Teacher.
Arata High School)

Solving a problem togetber In whole class instruction, all students try to solve or
understand a single problem together. The chief purpose of the collective effort is
not to find the correct answer. Instead, it is to discuss as many ways to solve a prob-
lem as possible. along with the thought processes involved in cach. Japanese teach
ers believe thinking (nrough many ways to solve a problem is the most effective
means of arriving ala deeper understanding of a concept.

Ms. Sato’s use of hand signals rep “nts perhaps the most systematic effort to inte:
grate different opinions of students in the exploration of a single problem, Also in
Me. Tanaka's class, the whole class was involved in discovering the ways a human egg
transformed itself into a fetus for the entire class hour. Mr.Fanaka justified this teach:
ing method as follows:

here is only one answer to what we were trying to find out today. That is. there
is only one answer to questions like" when do a baby’s hands and legs develop?”
and “when do a baby’s eyes develop?” However. children come up with all differ-
ent kinds of answers. $o by comparing their answers, they will be aware of the
fact that there are different ways of thinking. Your way of thinking is not the only
way.and you have to learn to accept that. By realizing that. they will be led to
wonder and question. They would say, been thinking like this, but some-
one else has a different opinion. Why is tha Maybe T should try Co look at it from
a different angle. 1 should think it over. | should investigate. Like today, everyone
knew that a baby's life begins with a small egg and grows inside a mother’s

Lo.



Some students attributed their suce
ment they received to study,

sin school directly to the parenta
sa boy at Tancho Elementary School test

encourage:
ied:

Tthink my grades improved only because my mother pushed and trained te. f
used to be very impatient. The way 1 was doing math was that as soon as f copied
problems on my notebook, | tried to write down the answers. | did not give much
time to think. My mother told me that T needed to be careful even about my
writing in my notebook. Instead of merely copying the problems, she told me to
write neauy, and after that she told me to go through each thinking process to get
to the right answers. She reminded me that in the process of getting answers. |

may need to do a few calculations, and 1 should use the margin of my notebook to
make sure my calcul:
possible. so T did calcu

wand

ions are correct. Fused to try to solye problems as soon as
wions in my head. could use my abacus skills, too, but TE
have learned that writing down calculations as my mother told me was the most
accunite Way. Without my mother] could not have been good at math. 1 think if
she were not there for me. 1] would get zero on the ex

ums.

‘feachers also emphasized the importance of the family’s involvement in education.
A math teacher at Shimogawa Junior High explained. for example:

Some students are good at math because they hive been
ment in which they were taught the

‘aised in an environ:
portance of making an effort. As a result.
they naturally make cfforts when they face hardships. if parents raise their chil-
dren in the environment which stimulates them in many ways. they iso acquire
many things through such an environment

fence lea

Sher from the same school suggested that if parents stressed that
school were important. children would take studying seriously. He

What they learn in school is only a small part of their learning. If they cannot
apply what they fearn at school in their daify fife at home. then whatever they
ight at schoo! will not remain as their knowledge. Whether or not the par-
could provide such an environment and lots of stimulation is very impor-
Junior High)

Socioeconomic status Avis difficult to identify the
of socioeconomic statu
/nsus is that there

Japanese opinions about the effect

“ment of students. because the public

us differences in Japan. Without

tic data or observations. the public simply assumes this percep-
Ji shers surprise foreign visitors by

saving that a school consists mostly of students from middle class famnilics such as

those of factory workers and self-employed merchants. The reality is that Japanese

students come from a wide range of socioeconomic backgrounds, and such differ-

95

dau



said “no good” several times and finally stopped to write a problem quickly on the
board. He told the class “those who miss this don’ get a sticker!” Students picked up

their own stickers after having their work checked.

After about 15 minutes of checking individual work. the teacher again rang, his little
hell and told the students still in tine at his desk to sit down. He then lectured
briefly, while writing the problems clearly on the chalkboard, that although setting
the problem 48 + 173 + 27 equal to (173 + 27) + 48 is not really wrong. and this is
what one boy he names does a lot. it is altogether wrong in the following example:
S+4x354x3= 12=15 + 12 = 27. He repeated that this is totally wrong and
crossed it out with red chalk. the lesson continued briefly as he explained that al-
though you can change the order with addition, you can’t with other operations, so
it is best not to change the order of the numbers for addition cither so you do not
form bad habits. The emphasis was on understanding how incorrect answee:
produced and on how to avoid faulty problem solving.

The students again immediately fined up at his desk as soon as he finished talking.
After a couple more minutes he rang the bell again to point out another technique
for a problem. He called out.“hey. look this way! This ist just Nakada-san’s way of
doing i” He wrote on the board: 53 x -4—27 x 4 = (53—27) x i.Then he ed who
else solved it this way.and about half the students raised their hands. He retuened to
marking papers and remarked loudly that he was going to mark them quickly. One
student asked. “why” and the teacher exclaimed “because fm worn oul” (Through-
out the period he joked around with students in this manner.) Students mostly
worked independently at their desks, but some in tine compared their work lo sce if

‘as correct. The line stretched out into the halfway and was rather noisy. Two boys
Sh other to the fine noisily. Mr. N sometimes muttered “uh-oh/ as if he had
come across a wrong answer, cven if it Was Correct. to tease the students. He asked
jain the problem to a boy sitting beside her.
she sat down to help him. He instructed another girl to check on the boy's work be-
hind her. After a few minutes, he asked her if the boy was understanding the prob-
Jem and she said -

one girl who was done if she could exp

Forty minutes into the class.
part of the student
help a boy who wa

ifter much chergetic behavior and running around on the
the teacher worked his way slowly to the back of the room to
still struggling with the problems. On his way, he stopped to help
other students and never reached the confused pupil's desk before the chimes rang,
and class ended. Except for this one student. all seemed to be involved and learning,

A teacher-direcled arithinetic cl
other teacher conducted quite

tthe same school. again in the fourth grade, an-
different type of classroom instruction. This class
was a more typical class period and included a combination of teacher-directed

w
n



his school was located in a town whose name was the same as one of Tokyo's “up
town’ wards. He then jokingly told me not to hold the same

s about their educational background. or to ask parents or children
about their family occupation, because these were considered to be highly sensitive
areas. Both the humor about the city’s name and the warning about not asking

hers, parents, and students about their hackgrounds suggested that discus
sociocconomic differences remains a taboo subject in Japan.

tea

jon of

Locality

In Japan. living in one of the major metropolitan areas or the remaining provincial
arcas makes an immediate difference in people's judgment concerning a student's
level of academic achievement. One teacher at Meiji succinctly summarized the ef
feet of urbanization on students levels of academic achievement as follows:

Teacher: For example, you see the difference between junior high schools in a
big city and those in a small rural town.The students, after graduating from ju-
nior high. go a different direction. That is, depending on districts, there are junior
high schools which contain a Jot of students who probably end up going to col-
lege and also there are junior high schools whose students would most likely
start working after high school.1 can even see that in Naka City.

Interviewer: Does that mean that the students in a big city will go to college
more often than those in a small rural town?

‘Teacher:Yes, there is such a tendency, but behind that fact, we have to consider
the financial status. In a big city, there seem to be families that are doing okay fi-
nancially, but in the countryside, you see parents who cannot afford to send their
children to college.

Interviewer: Though living in the countryside.a family would have a different sit-
uation if the parents have a high income and work as doctors.

Teacher:Yes.

Although Japanese education does not permit tracking, Japanese teachers, parents,
and students share the view that in public elementary and junior high schools, all
children have the right to be treated equally.



vestigated in various way's and provided guidance. And in the end, the important
thing was that that child was in one teacher's homeroom, so we talked about
how to give responsibility for (hat child back (o Uhat teacher. In that way the con-
nections between the teachers and children were built and strengthened. Those
were the ideas we gradually spread throughout the school. If you ask what was at
the base, well. the teachers had a sense of emergency (RkikfRkan). Somehow we
had to support these children and their learning and we had to do something.

Lasked him if they also replaced the teachers at the school. He said that there were
many changes of teachers, particularly teachers who seemed to feel that the situation
was hopeless. Those teachers were transferred away to other schools. Clearly, the rota
tion system could also be used to help create new environments in some schools.

This example makes it clear that administrative teachers who were thought to be
able to effect change were brought in to provide some leadership. However. this:

teacher emphasized that change came through team work and coope
teachers had to help a homeroom teacher deal with individual students.

ion—all

More Than Academics

Becoming Good Teachers

What is a good teacher in Japan? I received a variety of answers to this question.
Often [was asked in retura.what do you mean by good? Good for the other teach-
ers. good for the students, or good for (he school?"The answers pointed to well-
rounded teachers who cared about students. Although many teachers also told me,
~of course, they also have to know the subject matter well” the bulk of responses fo-
cused on kindne
higher test scor
teachers told me t

Sher translates into

for Japanese students thus becomes a fess direct question. Few

at ability to teach content well was the major goal although most
seemed to Is an important skill for teachers to hav
suming that all teachers begin with a solid grounding in academic skills. teachers fo-
cused on the personal quatities required to be an exceptional teacher.

ind liking children. How being a good t

Volivation. One phrase thatcame up in some form in every interview when Kod
what made a good teacher was “motivation for teaching Qraru Rf ga aru ka dott

“T heard from teachers that the basis of a good teacher was vari Ri ga aru (mo-
livation). One Midori Junior High School teacher. for ©

at good teacher:

unpic. described what makes

280

eae



Instruction and the slower learner

Perception and Use of Instructional Resources Outside of School

for Mastery of the Curriculum

‘Testing in Junior High Schools . .

Entrance Examinations for High School .
Regional differences -
Five basic subjects of the entrance examination
Exam preparation
Motivation to perform on the examination .
Differences Between Junior High Schools
Chuo Junior High School
Shimogawa Junior High School .

Perceptions of fairness

at Chuo and Shimogawa
High School .
Senior High School Curriculum
Tracking to High Schools.
fmplementation of the Curriculum
Instruction and Instructional Track Options .
Academic high schools

Vocational high schools

Instructional materials .
Instruction and the slower learner

Instructional Resources Outside of School.

Testing in Senior High Schools .

Certification Examinations .

University Entrance Examinations (The Center Examination) .
Testing in science . .

Testing in math

Monbusho curriculum as a foundation for college entrance
The negative impact of the entrance examination. .
Differences Between High Schools.
Grade-Skipping .
Standards Based on Content

Socie¢

al Responses to Student Compctition in the Education System

ting Industry

vii

a5

16

wo tt
SR RD RN NH SS

wn
an

65
65
66
66
09



Japanese parents, t

scicnee. At the high school level, the trend for students to take less math and science
was apparent to many parents and educators (Monbusho, 1993).

At one time only abouts or 10 years ago’ explained a teache!
ratio of science to humanities majors. Now the ratio is 70/30 in favor of humenit
ma, ts At Meiji High School. the number of scicnee majors dropped from 7 chasses
of 10 students to 3 within the past decade.

achers.and students informed us that a sudden drop in interest
in math and science occurs around the eighth grade. but often as carly as elemer
school. These phenomena were referred to in Japanese as risttbanare,or alienation
from math and science. For some students, alienation from math and science
ply a matter of being more interested in other subjects. such as history or kinguage
As one mother exphtined “tts more interesting to travel the world and learn about
history and culture chan it is to sit in a lab and do experiments”

ry

1.

s well, for risubanare. Nccording to an education
majors get better pay, seems that many man-
agers and presidents of comp: “tthe improving
lary picture for humanities graduates in the 1980s has been cited as a major factor
in the résubanare phenomenon by government analysts in Japan.

a City” Humanities

w

Although many students we interviewed reported disliking some science subjects. few
students reported disliking all science subjects, and some of the problems with certain
science subjects were rektted to experiences with poor teachers. Furthermore, math

was ane of the bestliked subjects among the Japanese students we interviewed. One

junior high school girl ciescribed mith as being “like a gimme or puzzle.” Similarly
achieving high school student, who in manner was quite unconventional Chis fh:
dyed orange and he was working part-lime without the required permission from the
school stated." like math because there is only one correct answer,

thigh-
riwas

Some teachers felt (at the problem of 7
mee
reported a drop in inte

sutbanare wis overstated by the mass

bout risubanare atic eovernment study
incering among young Japanese. Our
conversaGons with students suggest that the problem may not be as grave as feared.

which flooded Japan with stories

However. even those with wmore optimistic viewpoint conceded that dislike of
math and science among students is a problem. In the words of a junior high school
principal



ental levels of income at Meiji seemed

the professional-managerial level There
per grade. Like Arata. the school is divided
ence. Over 400 students enter cach year from
bout one in 10 junior high school applicants are ad-
‘early LOO percent of Meiji graduates go on to some type of -i-ycar college.

cent of third-year students go to juki.
higher than at Arata, with more fami
are 10-54 students in ac
into Wo sections, fiteratur
nearly 120 junior high schools
mitted,

lunior bigh schools. Like high schools. Japanese junior high schools can seem rather
austere. In the vast majority of schools. one side of the classroom has large clear win-
dows facing outside while the other has opaque glass windows which lace the corri-
dor. There are no iockers. and students store their belongings cither on hooks in the
corridor outside the classroom, in their desks, or in small cubbyholes built into the
back of the room. In many schools there are lite or no decorations in the halls

s tend to be taken up with chalkboards in the front and back: sched-
chool announcements are tacked up on the cork message boards. There is
\ Ss motto (c.g. Independent Spirit! or Never Give Up!) written in call:
y above the front of the class, and occasionally one sees certificates that class
members or teams of members have won in local contests.

Chuo Junior High School. at 30 years of age. cnrolls over 350 boys and girls. The fam-
ily cconomic background of the students seemed quite high. with many familics
owning their own businesses in die multi-storied buildings of the surrounding
neighborhood. Shimogawa Junior High School is located ina much tess prosperous.
part of town than Chuo. Like Naka Vocational High School, Shimogawa is located in
an arca of older homes and working-class families. The school is a large onc, with,
over 800 boys and girls. Because of its 40 year history and farge enrollment, the
grounds are somewhat cramped. Midori is the smaflest of the three Naka junior high
schools. The familics seem to be somewhat more affluent overall than at Shimogawa,
and the houscs in this area are larger Chan in Shimogawa and the gardens better de-
veloped. The school is nearly 50 years old and is capericncing declining cnroflments

Hementary schools, Similar associations beuween economic circumstance and school
mosphere were evident at the clementary school level Parents of Hasu Elementary

students appeared to have the lowest level of income and most parents work in small
shops, factories. and the entertainment industry. In contrast, Matsu Elementary
caged in an aflucnt acighborhood near a major univ ncho Elementary School's
students come from a neighborhood of prosperous ind fine homes. These dit
eaces in neighborhoods have a ref ly greater impact on the lives of children than
ou adolescents. because children do not have the freedom to travel so fir from home.
Consequently, the students at Mutsy and’

is lo-

incho played in quict ncighborhoods with
numerous sail. curving streets that reduced traffic hazards. whereas the children at
Hasu phy ed in neighborhoods that were semicindustrialized.

19 d 0



adolescent experience, but certain major factors and patterns that
affect all adolescents can be delineated. These factors and patterns forma the broad
outlines of the adolescent experience in Japan.

Factors Affecting the Adolescent Experience

Japanese adolescents lead mar
and lifestyles. general trends ©

sand varied lives. Within this wide range of behaviors.
n be discerned. In the public schools of Kita and
Naka City. there are affluent teens who shop every weekend at the most fashionable
stores in Naka City. There are also working-class students who spend their nights em-
ployed as checkers and baggers in local supermarkets. Some students interviewed
were excited about their classes and hoped to enter clite colleges. Others valued
school because it was a place to mect friends and worried more about passing their
driver's license exam than about their end-ofthe term math exams.

In the broadest sense, the major factors that affect adolescent lives are gender, urban
versus rural residence. social status or family wealth, minority status, and phtcement
in the academic track.

Gender. | recorded references to distinct gender roles.
tions for male and femaic adolescents from both teachers and students. In junior
high school. both mates and femates follow a similar schedule: bouh participate in
clubs, outside school activities. or attend jaki. However. the teachers expect girls
and boys to behave in distinct ways that emphasize the correet feminine or mascu-
fine behavior. Jn high school. gender becomes a salignt factor in determining a stu-
dent's course of study: more young women go into liberal arts and more young men
into science, Males are also far more likely to attend non academic (technical or in
dustrial) courses. At Naka Vocational. fewer than 10 students were female. Parents
also expressed different standards for behavior based on gender: feniales were ex-
pected to help out around the house more and had somewhat stricter curfews.

Residence. Vhe academic experience of adolescents also di
gion of Japan where students live. However, most regional di
ferences in access to transportation and the availability of extra school support. For
example. in Kita City the public transportation is limited. and there are few large
Jduku chains. This lack of access means that Kite students have a more limited range
of high school options to choose fron and have much less opportunity to attend
exam preparation resources. Consequently, public junior high and high schools play
a greater role in preparing and guiding students for the entrance exams in Kita than
in Naka City.

depending on the re-
ferences flow from dif

10

iv:



Then Ms. Sito said Not everyone said W's s okay? EF wonder why everyone dia VL.
Okay, al

be polite tid “We are  ipposed to figure out by w. frat number we
would like to multiply 21.So to saymultiply one by 21 doesn’t sound right” Ms.
Sato asked the whole ¢ What do you think?” Then another student, Kato-san

fa nd said “If we have 24 of something that cost 1 yen.it would be |
times 21. but if we have the 1 thing that costs 21 yen, it would be 21 times 1." Ms.
Sato said." Very good. I something costs 1 yen and we have 21 of them, then we can
say. | times 21. But in this case. as Kato Midori-san said, we have only [ thing that
costs 21 yen.

Then. everyone in the cl
numb Sif they were tr
signaled."One”
“Twos the

chanted the equation of 21 multiplicd by a single digit
ing lo pound this formula into their heads. When Ms. Sato
then the whole class responded."21 times 1 When Ms. Sato signaled,
ass responded “Twenty-one times two! and so forth.

At the end of the review
nounced the new topi

what clse you would like to put in it today. So, are ther
think you would like to put the box?”

any other numbers that you

Ms. Sato told me later that she told her students in advance that they were going lo
cover the topic of two-digit numbers being multiplied by two-digit numbers ending
with zero (¢.g. 10, 20, cte.). But instead of announcing the day's topic herself, Ms.
Sato lets her students state it by ving them answer the ques
other numbers that you think you would like to put in the be She thought that by
responding to this question, the students were motivated. cngaged. and fully in-
volved in the lessons. because it was not the teacher but the students who declared
what they wanted to study.

Seve

students raised their hands and told Ms. Sato that they would like to multiply
21 with the two-digit numbers, 50.50.60, 70 ‘Then Ms. Sato announced.“ The num-
bers we have already covered are 1.2.3, 1.5.0. 7.8.9.and 10. Now tes conipare
these numbers and those you said you wanted to study today”

Wpilics the teaching that exists in Japanese clementary schools with
on student-centeredness and exploration, chers rely on students as
dispensers of information, while they assume the role of discussion
leader in helping students to discover what the most essential aspects of the infor
miattion presented jure.

the primar

106



All introductions to schools were arranged through the National Institute for Educa-

tional Research in Japan and cleared with the proper local school boards.

Most of our informants were serious and eager to provide the information we asked
for to the best of their ability. Teachers were normally professional in their demeanor
and identified strongly with their occupational roles. Some parents appeared awk-

lerview settings but became more relaxed as the interviews
SS perhaps showed the greatest degree of difference in respond:
yme were timid while others were takativ 2. the younger
the student

Generally speal

the more open they seemed to be.

‘There wits a good deal of vari
primarily math and

others

sTOUMS WE Visile

Mong the cl: which were
ience cl ome of the classes were more animated than
ome were More academically challenging than others. Regardless of the dif-
in the general aumosphere of the classes, they shared the characteci
> "whole class instruction?

ference
Japanes

ics of

Japanese Perceptions of Individual
Differences

When a student is doing poorly in school Japanese parents and teachers would most
typically attribute his failure to ack of effort or fumily support. They would say.”
you study hard, and your parents support your effort, anybody can be a good stu-
dent? What is downplayed in the Japanese discours the idea that abilities :
given naturally to some people and not to others. To the Ja
trmned” through hard work.

abilities are

panese

The typical Japanese view is that people, with the rare exception of Nobel prize-
winning geniuses, are born with equal capacities to achieve and to demonstnite ¢
cellence. Like diamonds in the rough waiting to be polished. it is up to the individual
and various educating agents in their environment (¢.g.. parents and teachers) to de-
cide how much they would like to refine and strengthen their potential. $s one ele-
cher Cold us.“As far as inborn abilicy goes, F cane say that it isn't
ebut Psay that it doesn (matter. Regardless of whether you have ability, if you
persevere, you can get a good outcome. Without being preoccupied by naturally

given abilitics, the Japanese emphasize the process and the contexts of learning.



Hidetada Shimizu probes the topic of individual differences, addressing how
Japanese schools deal with cach individual learner. This chapter also deals with the
broader issues of tracking and individual inclusion in cl: yoms. Shimizu discusses
how individuality and creativity are constructed in significantly different way
Japan using examples from classrooms to illustrate these points.

in

Gerald LeTendre examines adolescent tives, focusing on the intricate relations be-
tween peer groups. the family. and life inside and outside of school. He addre
how adolescence is conceptualized in Japan and the role school plays in the lives of
young Japanese. In this chapter, the stre: and problems of studen
as wellas how students view math and science.

sare discussed

Finally. Carol Kinney tooks at the day-to-day lives of teachers and analyzes how
Japanese views of work and professionalism affect teaching. She details the da
day work of teachers. theic working conditions, and discusses their status in
She also looks at teacher training and investigates how. and in what way

learn their profession.

aciety.
teachers

we
i

de