United States

Department

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky Mountain

Research Station

General Technical

Report RMRS-GTR-37

September 1999

Coram Experimental

Forest: 50 Years of

Research in a Western

Larch Forest

Raymond C. Shearer

Madelyn M. Kempf
Abstract

The Authors

Cover Photographs: In 1933, Coram Experimental Forest was established to study the ecology and management of western larch, a deciduous

and valuable conifer (large photo) that grows only in the upper Columbia River basin. Upper left: A 1935 aerial photo shows Belton Point and the

1929 wildfire boundary, mostly off the north end of the experimental forest. Upper right: An October 1997 photo shows Belton Point and distribution

of larch (yellow foliage) on west-facing slopes at Coram and on bordering privately-owned land. Center left: A fire scar on a western larch damaged

by a prescribed fire in 1975. Lower left: Two-year-old larch seedlings growing on a burned surface. Lower center: Logs are brought downhill by

cable from a shelterwood cutting to Road 590B in 1974. Lower right: Man and the Biosphere plaque designating Coram Experimental Forest as

a Biosphere Reserve in 1976 located at the Abbot Basin vista. Center right: A 27-year-old larch natural regeneration (bottom of photo) established

at the edge of the 12 ha clearcut, bordering old-growth forest, and the vista overlooking Abbot Basin (top of photo).

Shearer, Raymond C.; Kempf, Madelyn M. 1999. Coram Experimental Forest: 50 years of research in a western larch forest.

Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

66 p.

This publication will enrich public understanding about the important contributions to science made at this and other outdoor

laboratories.

Coram, and other long-range research sites, provide scientific knowledge to assist resource professionals with the development

of sound land management principles. This knowledge ensures healthy, sustainable, and productive ecosystems while meeting

social and economic needs.

Major research at Coram includes the regeneration of young forests and the interaction of flora, fauna, and water to a wide range

of forest treatments.

Ongoing studies include:

• cone and seed development and dispersal

• natural and artificial regeneration after harvest cuttings

• effects of stand culture treatment on forest development

• insect and disease interactions

• effects of the amount of wood harvest on site productivity

• influence of silvicultural practices on watershed, esthetics, and wildlife values

The Coram Experimental Forest is used cooperatively by Federal, university, and private scientists. About 340 ha of the forest are

designated as the Coram Research Natural Area where virgin conditions are permanently maintained for research and monitoring.

Coram, designated a Biosphere Reserve in 1976, is part of an international network that is devoted to the conservation of nature

and scientific research in the service of humans. Continuing research at Coram will help people gain a better understanding of how

they can live in harmony with the landscape and assist with the protection of forest and range ecosystems.

Keywords: even-aged harvest methods, site preparation, regeneration, cone production, seed dispersal, stand culture, natural area,

biosphere reserve

Raymond C. Shearer is a Research Silviculturist assigned to the Rocky Mountain Research Station’s Ecology and Management

of Northern Rocky Mountain Forests Research Work Unit, at the Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. Since 1959, Shearer’s

primary assignment has been the study of natural and artificial regeneration of Larix occidentalis (western larch) and associated

species. Shearer managed the Coram Experimental Forest from 1957 to 1996 and served as the contact for United States Man and

the Biosphere Program for the Coram Biosphere Reserve from 1976 to 1998. Shearer received B.S. and M.S. degrees in forestry

from Utah State University and a Ph.D. degree in forest ecology from The University of Montana.

Madelyn M. Kempf was a Public Affairs Specialist with the USDA Forest Service from 1985 to 1995. Kempf now contracts her

services for publication design and writing/editing assignments. Kempf also writes for national publications and serves as a writer/

editor for non-profit organizations.
The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader information and does not

imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or any product or service

You may order additional copies of this publication by sending your mailing information in

label form through one of the following media. Please specify the publication title and

General Technical Report number.

Fort Collins Service Center

Telephone (970) 498-1719

FAX (970) 498-1660

E-mail rschneider/rmrs@fs.fed.us

Web site http://www.fs.fed.us/rm

Mailing Address Publications Distribution

Rocky Mountain Research Station

3825 E. Mulberry Street

Fort Collins, CO 80524

Acknowledgments

Many dedicated and competent Forest Service research and management personnel have contributed to 50 years of research on the Coram Experimental Forest. Recognition and thanks are

extended to Charles A. Wellner, Russell K. LeBarron, Arthur L. Roe, Kenneth N. Boe, Anthony E.

Squillace, Robert D. Pfister, Clinton E. Carlson, and Wyman C. Schmidt for providing direction and

leadership during 50 years of research. Since the late 1960s, Jack A. Schmidt has been instrumental

in the establishment, measurement, and maintenance of many study plots. He converted mechanical

monitoring equipment to electronic recorders that report climatic and hydrologic events on the

experimental forest.

The cooperation and support of personnel on the Flathead National Forest—especially the District

Rangers and other employees on the Coram and Hungry Horse Ranger Districts—is recognized and

appreciated. These dedicated individuals accomplished many details that permitted research objectives to be met. Outstanding service to research was also provided by temporary employees,

volunteers, and interested neighbors.

Special acknowledgment goes to E. Donald Kiehn and L. Lynne Dixon (Forest Service volunteers)

and Silja Meier (Clemson University intern) who used research data to develop curricula being used in

nearby schools and helped establish the Coram Experimental Forest as an outdoor classroom for

teachers and students.

Thanks to those who provided photographs and written materials used in this publication. The

authors are indebted to Chris Stalling and Jimmie Chew in Missoula for preparing the GIS graphics

and to the Station’s Publishing Services employees for their outstanding help in producing this useful

and attractive historical document.
Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1

Area Description .................................................................................................... 4

Geology ................................................................................................. 4

Soils ...................................................................................................... 4

Climate .................................................................................................. 4

Precipitation .......................................................................................... 6

Temperature .......................................................................................... 6

Vegetation ............................................................................................. 6

Habitat Types ........................................................................................ 8

Fire ....................................................................................................... 10

Human Settlement ................................................................................................. 12

Human Impact ....................................................................................................... 12

Hungry Horse Dam and Reservoir ........................................................ 12

Air Pollution ........................................................................................... 12

Introduced Plants .................................................................................. 13

Gathering and Hunting .......................................................................... 13

Recreation ............................................................................................. 13

Electronic Site ....................................................................................... 13

Establishment of Coram Experimental Forest ....................................................... 13

Conditions ............................................................................................. 15

Coram Research Natural Area .............................................................................. 15

Coram Biosphere Reserve .................................................................... 17

Administrative Actions ........................................................................................... 17

Timber Surveys ..................................................................................... 17

Civilian Conservation Corps .................................................................. 20

Timber for the War Effort (1942 to 1946) .............................................. 20

Transportation System .......................................................................... 20

Withdrawal From Mineral Entry ............................................................. 22

Partnerships .......................................................................................... 22

Chronology Of Research ....................................................................................... 23

The 1940s: Beginning a Research Program ......................................... 23

The 1950s: Building Blocks for the Future ............................................ 24

The 1960s: Young Stand Management and Artificial Regeneration ..... 29

The 1970s: Forest Residues Utilization Research and

Development Program ................................................................... 36

The 1980s: Understanding Forest Processes ....................................... 42

The 1990s: Research, Conservation, and Education............................ 43

Summary .............................................................................................................. 47

References ............................................................................................................ 49

Appendix A: Coram Experimental Forest Flora Checklist (1998) .......................... 59

Appendix B: Coram Experimental Forest Avian Checklist .................................... 63

Appendix C: Coram Experimental Forest Small Mammal Checklist (1998) .......... 64

Appendix D: Excerpts from the 1934 Coram Experimental Forest

Timber Survey Report .................................................................................... 65

Introduction ........................................................................................... 65

Previous Land Surveys ......................................................................... 65

History and Personnel ........................................................................... 65

Forest Types and Descriptions ............................................................. 65

Descriptions of 11 Forest Types Identified in the 1934

Timber Survey ............................................................................... 65
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 1

Introduction ____________________

The Coram Experimental Forest (figure 1) leads

the way in Larix occidentalis (western larch) ecosystem research and is the focal point of larch studies

throughout the spectacular mountain country of the

northwest United States and southwestern Canada.

Great unbroken reaches of alpine meadows, towering

peaks, turbulent rivers, and sparkling lakes provide

a habitat for western larch forests. Larch forests range

from slow-growing, old growth to fast-growing young

stands regenerated following natural disturbance and

many management treatments. The Coram Experimental Forest also features one of the most comprehensive research program of any area in the world

studying any of the 10 species of Larix.

Coram Experimental Forest:

50 Years of Research in a

Western Larch Forest

Raymond C. Shearer

Madelyn M. Kempf

Figure 1. Within the rugged vastness of northwest Montana, lies the Coram Experimental Forest, which is cradled between Glacier

National Park and the Great Bear Wilderness and is a “green Jewel” in the Crown of the Continent Biosphere Reserves. These views

are from Desert Mountain, 1,942 m in elevation, on the northeast corner of the experimental forest. (a) Desert Ridge to Belton

Point and east facing slope burned by wildfire in August 1929; peak in Glacier National Park in background. (b) Great Northern

Mountain in the Great Bear Wilderness, 1994. (c) Abbot Basin, Hungry Horse Reservoir and the Swan Range in background, 1959.

(d) Head of Abbot Basin, 1973. (Photos by Ray Shearer)

a

b

c

d
2 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Figure 2. Western larch is the focus of research on the Coram

Experimental Forest. (Photo by Steve Wirt)

Western larch, an important and common conifer

growing within many forests of the upper Columbia

River Basin, is the largest of 10 species of larch worldwide (Boe 1958). Larch is 1 of only 4 conifer genera

that loses its needles in the fall (figure 2). In autumn,

the light green needles change to a bright yellow

adding a golden hue to the otherwise evergreen forests. Larch, the most shade-intolerant conifer in the

Northern Rockies, readily regenerates in sunlight

following fire (LeBarron 1948). Seedlings grow rapidly during the first hundred years enabling them to

survive competition from other vegetation in the developing forests.

Mature and old growth western larch, the most

fire-resistant trees within their natural range, have

thick bark of low resin content that protects the

cambium layer from all but the most severe ground

fires, which often kill other tree species (Schmidt and

others 1976). Seeds within singed, maturing cones

often persist on fire-killed or surviving trees, then

fall on the freshly burned surfaces after the cones

open. Old growth western larch, one of the few conifers that often develop hollow centers, are favorite

habitats for a wide range of mammals and birds

(Richardson 1997)—Ursus americanus cinnamomum

(black bear), Dryocopus pileatus (pileated woodpecker),

Chaetura vauxi (Vaux’s swift), Martes americana

(American marten), Glaucomys sabrinus (flying

squirrel), bats, and Neotoma cinerea (bushy-tailed

woodrats). In the spring, black bears may strip bark

from young trees to feast on the sap that is high in

wood sugar (Schmidt and Gourley 1992). Many people

prefer larch for firewood and other commercial lumber

products. Coram’s unique 3,019 ha landscape, where

larch is the major component (figure 3), is a thriving

field laboratory where scientific information increases

human understanding of forest function.

LeBarron (1948) suggested projects requiring investigation for western larch 50 y ago. Research at

Coram focused on the ecology and silviculture of western larch and has filled gaps in knowledge noted by

LeBarron. Although near the eastern limit of its natural range, western larch growth at Coram is similar to

elsewhere in the inland mountain west. Studies at

Coram and elsewhere provide a scientific basis for

management to help sustain productive western larch

forests and to predict the effects of management

activities on these ecosystems.

Research scientists are working to:

• delineate the biological and economic effects of

wood-use practices;

• understand how to improve forest health

through silvicultural treatments;

• determine the development of young to intermediate age larch forests under different management practices;

• define the interaction of young larch forests and

their wood properties with insects, diseases,

animals, and other factors under intensive

management;

• describe changes in vegetation structure, species,

and conifer seed production in the Coram Research Natural Area;

• identify habitat requirements for mammals and

birds;

• determine characteristics of watersheds in

Abbot Basin, and the influence of silviculture

treatments on water flow and quality; and

• integrate data into a computer software system

that simulates changes in vegetation patterns as

a result of insect, disease, fire, and management

activities.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 3

Figure 3. Geographic Information Systems map of the Coram Experimental Forest, 1998, showing topography.
4 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Area Description ________________

Geology

The Rocky Mountains were formed 70 to 90 million y ago by cataclysmic convulsions deep within the

core of the earth. Intense pressure caused the planet’s

surface to bulge, stripping large rock layers away from

the surface and shifting them eastward. As these

layers piled up, they formed the beginning of the

jagged mountains on the east side of the Flathead

Valley.

Bedrock of the Coram Experimental Forest is

mapped as Missoula group and Belt subgroup and is

composed of late Precambrian sedimentary rocks—

red, maroon, and purple argillite, sandy or quartzitic

argillite, and quartzite (Klages and others 1976). At

lower elevations, in the west and southwestern parts

of the Coram Experimental Forest, bedrock consists of

siltstone, silty sandstone, local carbonaceous shale,

indurated conglomerate and reddish shale.

At the beginning of the ice age, about 25 million y

ago, giant glaciers covered the land, completely filling

northern valleys to a depth of over 1.6 km in some

places. As the glaciers began moving, they scoured the

high ridges scraping and depositing glacial till, soil,

sand, and gravel, into the valleys creating much of

Coram’s landscape. Prominent U-shaped valleys

throughout this area are evidence of heavy glaciation,

as are the moraine deposits and pot-hole lakes

found at the base of the mountains. Glacial till and

pot holes occur inside and to the west of what is now

the Coram Experimental Forest.

Slopes along Abbot Creek, and its south bank up to

about 1,250 m in elevation, include glacial drift, moraine, and outwash deposits of mountain glaciers of

the Middle and South Fork Flathead Rivers. Steep

mountain slopes north of Abbot Creek and at high

elevations on the east side of the area were probably

glaciated.

Soils

When the last major ice age ended, about 10,000 y

ago, the glacial till that remained in the Flathead

Valley had a very high rock content, which is not

conducive to vegetation growth. However, other natural occurrences contributed to a change in soil conditions in the area. About 6,800 y ago Mt. Mazama

located at the site of the present day Crater Lake in

Oregon, violently erupted spewing clouds of volcanic ash into the atmosphere. Winds carried the ash

to the northeast where it fell, 0.6 to 1.2 m deep in some

locations in northwest Montana. At Coram, a thin

layer of volcanic ash covers about half of the experimental forest. The ash has partially mixed with the

surface horizons on the remainder of the area (Klages

1974). Clays within all horizons, except the surface of

ash-covered soils, contain from 50% to 60% mica. Ashcovered soils average only 20% mica and 60% allophane in the A horizon. Soils without ash covering

average only 20% allophane in the A horizon.

Soils on the Coram Experimental Forest are a mix

of Precambrian sedimentary rocks and glacial till,

with a surface mantle containing volcanic ash. This

mix results in a rich, loamy soil ranging in depths

from a few centimeters on steep, upper slopes, to over

3 m on the gentle, lower terrain (Klages and others

1976). Soils at Coram were classified and mapped

(figure 4) between 1960 and 1965 from 31 pits that

were 1 to 2 m deep (figure 5).

Six soils were identified (Klages and others 1976):

I. loamy-skeletal soils on materials weathered

from impure limestone and argillite

II. loamy-sleletal soils on argillite, siltite, and

quartzite

III. loamy-skeletal soils on glacial till

IV. loamy-skeletal soils on both alluvium, and glacial outwash

V. loamy-skeletal soils on glacial outwash

VI. fine and fine-loamy soils on lacustrine deposits

Climate

Wide ranges in moisture and temperature over

the millennia have promoted varying zones of plant

life in what is now the Coram Experimental Forest.

Western larch is present throughout the landscape

and blends with other tree species, sometimes as lush

groves of mostly moss-covered Thuja plicata (western

redcedar) on warmer, moister sites, or as scattered

trees mixed with rapidly declining stands of Pinus

albicaulis (whitebark pine) infected with the introduced disease Cronartium ribicola (white pine blister

rust) along the subalpine Desert Ridge.

Climate within the Coram Experimental Forest is

classified as a modified Pacific maritime-type (State

Engineers Office 1985). Occasionally, in the winter,

continental-type polar air spills westward over the

Continental Divide dropping temperatures substantially for a few days. Finklin (1986) broadly characterized seasons within Glacier National Park, including

the nearby Coram Experimental Forest, as: winter,

November through March; spring, April through June;

summer, July and August; and autumn, September

and October. During winter, it is cloudy about 75% of

the time and most of the annual precipitation occurs

then. Summer tends to be dry and warm. Hungerford

and Schlieter (1984) summarized climatic data for

Coram Experimental Forest. Selected climatic factors

continue to be measured at several locations to determine how they vary within this research area.

Streamflow is monitored on Abbot Creek near its

source and on Lunch Fork of Abbot Creek.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 5

Figure 4. Geographic Information System map from a 1965 soils map of the Coram Experimental Forest, 1998.
6 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Precipitation

Mean annual precipitation (figure 6) at Coram

ranges from 890 mm at lower elevations, to 1,270 mm

at Desert Mountain (Farnes and others 1995a,

1995b). Snow provides most of the moisture from

November through March. May and June rainfall is

substantially greater than other months. Rainfall is

usually light, but it can be heavy. For example,

within a 19 h period on June 7 and 8, 1964 (figure 7)

about 87 mm fell on Abbot Flat, elevation 1,067 m, and

about 108 mm fell in Abbot Basin, elevation 1,295 m.

Serious surface runoff from cutover and old growth

stands caused debris to plug culverts and resulted in

serious road damage. Rain from this storm combined

with rapid high elevation snow melt caused devastating floods in Montana, east and west of the Continental Divide (USDC 1964).

Although snow usually accumulates from November

through March, it can fall in any month. Heavy

Figure 5. Soil pit #25 on the Coram Experimental Forest,

September 1965. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

snowfall in late spring soon after foliage develops on

deciduous trees, such as western larch, can be a

serious problem. On June 4, 1966, 152 to 203 mm of

very heavy snow (USDC 1966) fell bending 13 y-old

larch and other forest vegetation nearly to the ground

(Schmidt and Schmidt 1979). Most of the young trees

recovered and straightened, a process that can take

many years. Some trees still show crooks in their

trunks, evidence of severe snow bend. Thirty years

later, a similar snowfall occurred on June 6 to 7, 1995

(USDC 1995). Up to 305 mm of wet snow fell at

Coram causing considerable damage to smaller diameter, 43 y-old western larch. Many of these trees

were broken or uprooted. Others were so severely bent

they will never recover.

Temperature

Mean annual temperatures on the experimental

forest range from 2 °C to 7 °C. Summer temperatures

average between 13 °C to 17 °C (Hungerford and

Schlieter 1984). Maximum temperatures seldom exceed

38 °C. Winter temperatures typically fall below –18 °C,

but rarely lower than –29 °C.

In early 1989, following an unusually mild winter,

an arctic air mass with high wind and frigid temperatures caused considerable damage to conifers on

the Coram Experimental Forest. Stations at Hungry

Horse Dam and West Glacier, both near Coram, had

temperatures plummet from 11 °C on 31 January

(USDC 1989a) to –14 °C at midnight to –29 °C on 1

February (USDC 1989b). Most vegetative, seed cone,

and pollen cone buds of conifers in the inland northwest, including the Coram Experimental Forest, were

frozen and did not open that spring. Many Pinus

monticola (western white pine seedlings), that were

not covered by snow, and some saplings also froze and

died. Some foliage on the conifer species showed damage and mortality. Also, most Prunus (cherry) trees in

the Flathead Valley were killed.

Length of the growing season, estimated by the

number of frost-free days, range from 81-days, near

Abbot Creek, to about 160-days, on a nearby eastfacing slope. These compare to an average of 98 days

at nearby West Glacier (Finklin 1986).

Vegetation

Suitable growing conditions on the Coram Experimental Forest have resulted in a diverse mix of vegetation. Appendix A lists species identified at Coram

that have specimens filed in the herbarium at the

Forestry Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, Montana.

Western larch grows almost everywhere at Coram

in association with Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglasfir), Abies lasiocarpa (subalpine fir), and Picea (spruce)

(P. engelmannii [Engelmann] at higher elevations,
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 7

Figure 6. Using records from several long-term and temporary recording stations, a Geographic Information System mean

precipitation map was generated for the Coram Experimental Forest.
8 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Figure 7. Precipitation at 2 locations on Coram Experimental

Forest, June 5 to 9, 1964; (a) Abbot Flat, 1,067 m. (b) Abbot

Basin within group seed-tree cutting, 1,295 m.

a

b

and hybrids of Engelmann and P. glauca [white

spruce] at lower elevations). Less common associates

are Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine), western white

pine, Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock), and

western redcedar. Larch and P. ponderosa (ponderosa

pine) grow together on dry, lower-elevation ridges

with shallow soil, the only sites where ponderosa pine

is found. At high elevations, larch formerly grew with

whitebark pine, a species that has been mostly eliminated from this site by the introduced pathogen, white

pine blister rust. Occasional individual A. grandis

(grand fir) trees are found on warm, moist sites. Taxus

brevifolia (Pacific yew) and Juniperus communis

(common juniper) grow in shrub form. The only conifers that grow within the range of western larch not

represented on the Experimental Forest are Larix

lyallii (alpine larch) and Tsuga mertensiana (mountain hemlock). Predominant hardwood trees are

Betula papyrifera (paper birch), Populus trichocarpa

(black cottonwood), and P. tremuloides (quaking aspen).

Coram has a diverse mix of shrubs including:

Linnaea borealis (twinflower), Physocarpus malvaceus

(ninebark), Spiraea betulifolia (shiny-leaf spiraea),

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (kinnikinnick), Alnus sinuata

(Sitka alder), Salix scouleriana (Scouler’s willow), and

Vaccinium globulare (globe huckleberry). Common

forbs are: Arnica latifolia (mountain arnica), Clintonia uniflora (queencup), Epilobium angustifolium

(fireweed), Trillium ovatum (trillium), Fragaria vesca

(strawberry), Cornus canadensis (bunchberry dogwood), Disporum hookeri (Hooker fairy-bell), and

Xerophyllum tenax (beargrass).

These productive forests provide habitat and

sanctuary for many species of birds and mammals

such as Haliaetus eucocephalus (bald eagle), Dryocopus pileatus (pileated woodpecker), and Dendragapus

obscura (blue grouse); and mammals including Ursus

americanus cinnamomum (black bear), Ursus arctos

horribilus (grizzly bear), Canis latrans (coyote), Canus

lupus (gray wolf), Alces americanus (moose), Cervus

canadensis (elk), Odocoileus virginianus (white-tail

deer) and Odocoileus hemionus (mule deer). Birds and

small mammals identified on the Coram Experimental Forest are listed in Appendix B and Appendix C.

Introduced Salvelinus fontinalis (eastern brook trout)

populate Abbot Creek.

Habitat Types

Field work in the 1960s included a vegetation habitat type map of the Coram Experimental Forest made

by Robert D. Pfister in 1970 (figure 8). Pfister and

others (1977) identified 3 forest series: subalpine fir/

clintonia (ABLA/CLUN); Douglas-fir/ninebark (PSME/

PHMA); western hemlock/clintonia (TSHE/CLUN). 1

Results are presented in an unpublished report on file at the Forestry

Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT 59807.

In 1974, Bernard L. Kovalchik1 classified by habitat

type most east-facing slopes in Abbot Basin, including

the Forest Residues Utilization R&D Program study

area (table 1).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 9

Figure 8. Geographic Information Systems generated vegetation habitat type map of the Coram Experimental Forest by

Robert D. Pfister in 1970.
10 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

A Trail of Desolation

“When Montana’s largest man-caused fire, the Half

Moon conflagration [figure 9a] ran this summer from

Teakettle Mountain to Belton and Glacier Park headquarters in one afternoon, it left a trail of desolation

[figure 9b] which will ruin that twelve-mile auto drive for

thousands of tourists for many, many years....

“Homesteads, ranches, and small sawmills were reduced, not to heaps of ashes, but to mere traces of light

and dark ashes, small patches of fused china and

glassware, twisted metal bedsteads, bent drive shafts,

and cracked engines and saws. Several families lost all

that they had struggled throughout life to acquire....

“At the Desert Mountain forest-fire lookout station,

four-miles south of Belton (West Glacier), and 3,000-

feet above it, the man on duty (Mr. Tunnell) made fast

time down the nine-mile trail to Coram Ranger Station

when the head of this fire came roaring toward his

mountain....” —H.T. Gisborne (1929)

Table 1. Habitat types and phases in percent of area on the residues study by

elevation and harvest methoda

 on the Coram Experimental Forest 1974.

1,195 m - 1,390 m 1,341 m - 1,615 m

Habitat type, phaseb SW GS CC SW GS CC

ABLA/CLUN, ARNU 25 15 40 1 0 0

ABLA/CLUN, CLUN 43 80200

ABLA/CLUN, MEFE 0 0 0 1 30 10

ABLA/CLUN, PHMA 0 55 10 0 0 0

ABLA/CLUN, XETE 30 10 20 93 70 85

ABLA/CLUN, XETE, PHMA 000300

ABLA/OPHO 000005

PSME/PHMA 0 2 0 0 0 0

TSHE/CLUN, ARNU 2 10 30 0 0 0

 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

a SW=shelterwood, GS=group selection, CC=clearcut

b ABLA=Abies lasiocarpa, PSME=Pseudotsuga menziesii, TSHE=Tsuga heterophylla,

ARNU=Aralia nudicaulis, CLUN=Clintonia uniflora, MEFE=Menziesia ferruginea,

OPHO=Oplopanax horriudm, PHMA-Physocarpus malvaceus, XETE=Xerophyllum tenax

Fire

Lightning-caused fires have always played a major

role in maintaining the health and diversity of northwest Montana forest ecosystems. The frequency of

these fires was determined by factors such as climate,

weather, terrain conditions, available fuels, and conditions such as dry grasses, downed trees, and thick

layers of needles on the ground.

On August 21, 1929, in the northeast corner of the

Coram Experimental Forest, Desert Mountain lookout, Mr. Tunnell watched in horror as the humancaused Half Moon conflagration topped Teakettle

Mountain 10 km to the west and moved toward his

mountain (figure 9a & 9b). Wind from the canyon of

the South Fork of Flathead River turned the fire

north where it raced into Glacier National Park and

leveled the towns of Coram and Belton (West Glacier).

Two days later, Mr. Tunnell returned to Desert Mountain with researcher Harry T. Gisborne to observe the

fire and make weather measurements. That afternoon

they witnessed 2 forest fire explosions, one to the

north (figure 9c & 9d) and the other to the northeast of

the lookout station. Gisborne (1929) published these

observations in what was probably the first written

scientific description of forest fire explosions. Periodically, this type of landscape-changing event has renewed most forests of the northern Rocky Mountains.

In an August 2, 1930, letter to The Forester,

Washington, DC, Evan W. Kelley, Regional Forester

of the Northern District reported the Half Moon fire

burned an estimated 43,800 ha (16,800 ha in Glacier

National Park, 7,300 ha in the Flathead National

Forest, 100 ha in the Blackfeet National Forest, and

19,600 ha in private ownership). However, less than

2 ha were burned on the Coram Experimental Forest.

The fire was not brought under control until rain and

snow began in early September. This devastating

wildfire affected every community in the area.

Fire episodes have been recorded in northwest

Montana as early as 1540 (Barrett and others 1997).

A fire chronology dating from 1602 to 1976 was identified from fire scars and stand age-classes within the

Coram Experimental Forest (Sneck 1977). Data from

Coram is indicative of the broad forest zone of the

subalpine fir series from middle elevations to alpine

timberline (Arno 1980). Later regeneration research

at the Coram Experimental Forest showed the benefit

of using fire to perpetuate western larch and other

conifers.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 11

Figure 9. The 40,500 ha human-caused Half Moon fire in August,

1929 burned small areas of the northwest and northeast corners of

the Coram Experimental Forest. (a) On August 19 the fire swept over

Teakettle Mountain (photograph by R.E. Marble from the Horn

Ranch in Flathead Valley; Badrock Canyon is to the right of the

smoke [Glacier National Park photo]). (b) By August 20 the fire raced

north into Glacier National Park (photograph by K.D. Swan showing

Teakettle Mountain [Glacier National Park photo]). (c) A hurried

photograph taken by H.T. Gisborne of the fire explosion in the valley

and slopes north of Belton Point, afternoon of August 21 as he and

Mr. Tunnell retreat to the Desert Mountain Lookout station (photo

no. 81-786, K. Ross Toole Archives, The University of Montana—

Missoula). (d) Smoke following a forest fire explosion obscures the

upper end of Emery Basin, north of Desert Mountain Lookout station

(H.T. Gisborne photograph, no. 81-787, K. Ross Toole Archives, The

University of Montana— Missoula).

a

b

c

d
12 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Fire has created diverse forest vegetation on

similar sites and maintained heterogeneous tree

age-classes and canopy structure over the landscape

(Arno and Sneck 1977). Fire frequencies were about

120 y for valleys and montane slopes, and 150 y for

subalpine slopes from 1735 to 1976 (Davis 1980).

Fires were small and moderately intense with occasional high intensity runs. Single burns thinned the

overstory favoring mixed conifer regeneration. Multiple burns created homogeneous stands or shrubfields.

Human Settlement_______________

Northwest Montana is the ancestral home of the

Flathead, Salish-Kootenai, Kalispell, Pend d’Orille,

and Blackfeet tribes who traveled the area in pursuit

of food. Their migration patterns were determined by

their search for buffalo, deer, elk, and salmon, as well

as harvesting the cambium (inner bark) from ponderosa pine trees, and roots from the bitterroot plants.

To the tribes living in the Flathead Valley, the Bad

Rock Canyon area, 6.4 km west of Coram, was a

significant travel route over the mountains to the

plains where an abundance of buffalo grazed. This

area was also the home of the Blackfeet tribe who

followed the same route to the west to fish the mountain streams.

American Indian people used fire as a tool to manage

their environment. Grasslands and forests were burned

to improve wildlife habitat and clear the land for

campsites, travel corridors, and agricultural activities.

The first settlers of European descent were enticed

into the area by an abundance of fur bearing animals

with high quality pelts. Martes americana (marten)

and Castor canadensis (beaver) were the prime target

of the early trappers. Lutra sp. (otter), Martes pennanti

(fisher) and bear skins were also in demand. There

were no bag limits, game laws, or area restrictions to

hinder these hardy people in their pursuit of pelts.

Trappers worked alone or in pairs, built primitive

shelters, and lived off the land. The mountain ranges

surrounding northwest Montana offered little level

ground for development. The difficult terrain, lack of

diverse opportunities to make a living, and extreme

winter weather conditions discouraged early mass

development.

With the completion of a railroad line in 1891 over

Marias Pass, through Bad Rock Canyon and into

Kalispell, small temporary communities began to develop. An early homestead, filed by Mickey Wagoner,

was the farthest homestead up the South Fork of the

Flathead and was within the boundaries of the current

Coram Experimental Forest. Most homesteaders tried

to make a living from timber harvest, agriculture, or

mining. Timber was the most abundant natural resource in the area. At first, trees were cut for the

railroad or for the government after the Flathead

Forest Reserve was set aside by President Cleveland

in 1897. There were few minerals found in this area,

which discouraged anyone except the most ardent

prospectors.

The turn-of-the-century brought a burst of growth

and settlement in northwest Montana. The first

ranger stations were built at Coram and Spotted Bear

shortly before establishment of the Forest Service in

1907. In 1910, President Taft signed legislation creating Glacier National Park. After settlement, fire affected the health and diversity of ecosystems and the

lives and property of the settlers. Catastrophic fires,

similar to the 1929 Half Moon fire, swept through the

northwest after the turn-of-the-century greatly influencing the settlement pattern in the area (Gisborne

1929).

Human Impact __________________

Northern Rocky Mountain ecosystems, similar to

those surrounding the Coram Experimental Forest,

have historically fulfilled human social and economic

needs.

Hungry Horse Dam and Reservoir

The proximity of the Hungry Horse Dam and Reservoir have affected the microclimate, especially on the

nearby low-lying areas of the experimental forest. The

Bureau of Reclamation began construction of the dam

in 1948 on the South Fork of the Flathead River, 13 km

above its confluence with the main Flathead River.

The dam is less than 1.6 km from the southwest corner

of the Coram Experimental Forest and has a drainage

basin of over 404,686 ha. The 55 km long reservoir

(State Engineer’s Office 1965) covers 9,105 ha, and

impounds approximately 4.5 billion m3 of water.

After the Hungry Horse Dam was finished in 1953,

the Flathead National Forest assumed the Bureau of

Reclamation administrative site at Hungry Horse.

The administration building became headquarters for

the Coram Ranger District which is now the Hungry

Horse Ranger District. The Rocky Mountain Research

Station still uses 2 houses at this site for personnel

working on the Coram Experimental Forest.

Air Pollution

In 1955, the Anaconda Company began operating

an aluminum reduction plant in Columbia Falls,

Montana, 13 km west of the Coram Experimental

Forest. In 1957, fluoride damage to trees and other

vegetation was reported (Carlson and Dewey 1971).

The aluminum plant increased in size twice during

the 1960s, and the area of fluoride damage expanded.

Emissions from the plant were often visible over the

Experimental Forest.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 13

The Forest Service studied damage to vegetation

and insects in 1969 and 1970. Average fluoride accumulations in western larch and western white pine

ranged from 10 to 25 parts ppm at Coram; there was

little foliar injury identified. Emission control equipment was installed at the plant and fluoride accumulation in vegetation decreased.

Introduced Plants

Several introduced plants are found on the Coram

Experimental Forest. The most common, and of greatest concern, is Centaurea maculosa (spotted knapweed). This noxious weed is found on disturbed

areas, particularly along roads throughout the forest.

Other weeds of concern are Cirsium arvense (Canada

thistle), Hypericum perforatum (goat weed or St. John’swort), Potentilla recta (sulfur cinquefoil), and

Hieracium sp. (hawkweed). In an attempt to control

noxious weeds that were rapidly increasing on road

rights-of-way within Flathead County, the Weed Control Department sprayed an herbicide twice in the

mid-to-late 1960s. The low level of spraying within

the experimental forest and surrounding forest ecosystem caused little, if any change in plant communities.

Gathering and Hunting

Huckleberry products have become a substantial

local industry. Bushes grow in many areas of the

Coram Experimental Forest. The berries are picked

during late July and August for personal use and to

sell. Rubus idaeus (red raspberry), Amelanchier alnifolia (serviceberry), Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry),

and mushrooms are picked in lesser quantities. Deer,

elk, black bear, moose, and grouse are hunted at

Coram and supplement the dietary needs of many

local families. Fur bearers are still occasionally trapped

for their pelts.

Recreation

Visitors to Coram enjoy dispersed recreation opportunities during all seasons; however to protect study

plots and reduce excessive impacts on the area, camping is not allowed and there are no rest room facilities.

Roads and trails are open for hiking, horseback riding,

mountain biking, and cross country skiing. Because

of potential adverse impact on study areas, all terrain

vehicles are restricted to ungated roads on the experimental forest. Desert Mountain and Belton Point,

former fire observation locations, are accessible by car

in the summer and by snowmobile on the groomed

Desert Mountain trail in the winter. These sites offer

spectacular views into Glacier National Park, the

Flathead valley, Swan Mountain range, and Great

Bear Wilderness.

Electronic Site

In 1978, an underground electric cable was buried

along the Desert Mountain Road 497 through the

Coram Experimental Forest to electronic sites near

Desert Mountain. Government and private microwave relay and television equipment is located on the

high ridge between Desert Mountain and Belton Point.

Buildings and equipment were built on sites previously occupied by white bark pine and subalpine fir.

Expansion of these facilities on the experimental forest is discouraged because of the adverse impact to

this sensitive site and the decreased visual quality of

the area as viewed from the valley.

Establishment of Coram

Experimental Forest _____________

In 1932, the “Recommendations and Forester’s Order for Establishing the Coram Experimental Forest”

was signed by acting Regional Forester M. H. Wolff.

According to this report, the Coram area contained

approximately 2,966 ha located within Townships

30 and 31 North, and Ranges 18 and 19 West, Montana

Principal Meridian, on the Coram Ranger District,

Flathead National Forest. Foresters who reviewed

the plans in 1932 felt Coram was adapted to management and protection as an experimental forest. Named

for early-day Kalispell timberman William Coram, the

town of Coram was the nearest settlement to the proposed experimental forest. So the Coram Experimental Forest received this name for easy identification.

The Coram Ranger Station was the district ranger

headquarters with a mess hall and sleeping facilities,

which were used by researchers who worked on the

nearby experimental forest. Early officials wanted to

minimize travel difficulty to and from field facilities,

so they were usually located near railroads. The west

boundary of the proposed experimental forest was

only 0.8 km from the Ranger Station and 3.2 km from

the Great Northern Railway and the nearest highway

(U.S. 2). A wood road, passable by car, entered the

northwest part of the site for a short distance. There

was a network of 7 or 8 trails, about 48 km in combined

length, which made the area accessible by foot travel

(figure 10).

Site evaluation suggested that small amounts of timber could be sold almost anytime to portable mill operators. Larger amounts were available to other markets

by using the railroad. Because most of the merchantable timber was western larch and Douglas-fir, foresters felt they could be harvested and sold for railroad

ties. Foresters concluded that Coram was an area that

would not interfere with logging opportunities in adjacent areas. Other valuable resources at Coram were

grazing, minerals, water storage, and hunting.
14 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Figure 10. Geographic Information System map showing approximate location of trails on the Coram Experimental Forest in 1934.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 15

The experimental forest boundary follows divides on

the east and north sides, and legal subdivision lines on

the west and south. The eastern ridgeline, which

ranges in elevation from 1,942 m at Desert Mountain

near the northeast corner to 1,372 m on the southeast

corner, forms the entire east boundary. From Desert

Mountain, the highest and most prominent feature of

Coram’s landscape, a high spur extends to the southwest, then to the south for 2.5 miles (4 km). Abbot

Basin, which is the site of considerable research, lies

between these 2 ridgelines. The lowest elevation within

the landscape is 1,036 m. All land inside the boundary

is public except for 23 ha of homestead in the west half

of Section 11, T30N, R19W.

The experimental forest is representative of the

larch/Douglas-fir forest cover type (Society of American Foresters 1954), renamed the western larch forest

cover type (Shearer 1980b), and it has a reasonable

diversity of sites, aspects, age classes, and composition. There are old growth larch stands of 300 y-old

trees; with a few that exceed 500 y in age that are

survivors of a major fire that occurred about the time

Columbus discovered America.

The 1932 Timber Report noted that “the old larch

of this locality is said to be quite shaky and to have

caused considerable cull deduction in former timber

sales on the tract.” In addition, “although the area

contains ample acreage in merchantable timber,

there is an absence of young stands between 40 and

160 years. This means a lack of the age class which in

the future will represent rotation age.”

Absence of significant wildfire from 1770 to 1890

precluded establishment of young stands. An 1890

wildfire and a partial harvest cutting in the early

1900s along the northwestern edge of the Coram area

created some young age classes. The cutting contained

414 ha. At the time, it was felt that these timber sale

areas furnished excellent conditions to study regeneration within reserved stands. Older cuttings on

adjacent private land were also available for research.

Conditions

Forest cover types (species named, predominate in

the stands) by area at Coram included:

western larch/Douglas-fir 2,080 ha

Douglas-fir 715 ha

Engelmann spruce 101 ha

lodgepole pine 62 ha

western white pine 8 ha

The major type ranged from almost pure larch to

mixtures containing western larch, Douglas-fir, and

other species.

Age classes included:

41 to 60 y 158 ha

121 to 140 y 13 ha

161 to 200 y 1,684 ha

200+ y 1,111 ha

The 414 ha area of residual stands left after selective

harvest in 1916 was included in the older age class. In

1932, there was an estimated total of 406,173 m3 of

merchantable timber on the site.

Coram Research Natural Area _____

Charles A. Wellner included most of the southeast

quarter of the Coram Experimental Forest as the

Coram Natural Area in his 1937 Establishment Report. There, virgin conditions would be maintained to

provide baseline information and monitor long-term

changes within this old growth forest (figure 11).

Later, the area was designated as the Coram Research Natural Area.

In the Establishment Report, Wellner listed 3 points

justifying creation of the Coram Natural Area that

remain valid today:

1. To provide an area of undisturbed old growth

forest for comparison with manipulated tracts on the

experimental forest.

2. To maintain undisturbed old growth forests of

western larch and Douglas-fir for continued study of

ecological processes.

3. To preserve a sample of virgin forests of western

larch and Douglas-fir types for educational purposes.

Regional Forester Evan Kelley felt the designation

should be handled within the Region. Although the

designation request was not sent to Washington, DC.

for review and approval by the Chief, the Coram

Research Natural Area was included in the Directory

of Research Natural Areas established on federal

lands (Federal Committee on Natural Areas 1968) and

was protected, managed, and regarded as an approved

research natural area to be used by scientists for

research and for educational purposes. Fifty years

later, Charles A. Wellner, as a volunteer after retirement, updated the report and submitted it for approval.

The Designation Order was signed June 9, 1988, by

Acting Forest Service Chief George M. Leonard.
16 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

The Coram Research Natural Area is located at the

lower elevations of mountainous country where the

slopes are gentle to moderately steep. This area is

drained by generally west flowing, intermittent

streams; most are in shallow drainages that flow into

the South Fork of Abbot Creek (State Engineer’s Office

1965).

Principal features of the Coram Research Natural

Area are representative stands of old growth western

larch (figure 12) and Douglas-fir, which are valuable

forest types in the inland northwest. Although the

340 ha natural area is commercial forest land, it is

excluded from cutting of any kind. In addition,

prescribed burning is not used to enhance ecological

processes in the Coram Research Natural Area. Disturbance by cutting or burning, needed to maintain

seral species in the area, is practiced on the rest of the

experimental forest. The research natural area remains an undisturbed old growth forest where succession is developing toward climax species (Habeck

1988).

Wildfire that originates in, or threatens the Coram

Research Natural Area is suppressed as soon as practical by methods that will cause the least disturbance

within the area. No control of insects or diseases is

undertaken unless nearby forests are endangered.

Recreation use is minimal except for occasional

hunting activity. Although no threatened or endangered plant species are known to occur in the

Coram Research Natural Area, the area is within

gray wolf and grizzly bear range.

Figure 11. Micrometeorological station located on Emery Ridge, the east boundary

of Coram Research Natural Area, 1994. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

Figure 12. The Coram Research Natural Area is a

good place to study processes in an old growth forest

of western larch. (Photo by Steve Wirt)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 17

The Coram Research Natural Area is preserved as a

passport in time where scientists can learn in the

same environment as the early pioneers of wildland

research.

Coram Biosphere Reserve

In 1976, the Coram Experimental Forest (figure 13)

and Glacier National Park were designated biosphere

reserves by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Waterton Lakes

National Park followed with designation in 1979. This

trio forms the Crown of the Continent Biosphere

Reserves.

These biosphere reserves protect and conserve examples of the world’s subalpine and alpine ecosystems, provide for scientific research and education,

and monitor for sustainable development. This network of protected samples of the world’s major ecosystem types is devoted to the conservation of nature

and enhancement of scientific research for the benefit

of all people (U.S. Man and the Biosphere 1990). They

provide a standard against which human impact on

his environment can be measured.

The United States Man and the Biosphere Program

(Condo 1995) promote ecosystem-based management

principles on Biosphere Reserves designated in this

country. The program incorporates ecosystem protection with sustainable human use and development,

documents global change and biological diversity, and

participates in regional cooperation for resolving

complex issues.

The ideal biosphere reserve includes areas locally

managed for economic development with respect to

conservation of the protected areas (U.S. Man and the

Biosphere 1990). These managed areas can be used

for education, research, forestry, agriculture, and

recreation. Cooperation between the biosphere reserves enhances the use of research results on the

ecology and management of western larch forests at

Coram which are shared world-wide, especially with

biosphere reserves containing other larch species.

Glacier and Waterton are undisturbed biosphere

reserves which are large protected natural areas used

for ecosystem conservation, public education, and

baseline monitoring. Coram, a manipulated biosphere

reserve, is a field research site managed to understand

the effects of alternative forest management practices, especially within western larch forests (Lusk

and others 1995). Personnel at Coram, Glacier, and

Waterton work cooperatively to fulfill areas of mutual

interest meeting important and compatible needs

(Shearer 1989; Lusk and others 1995). Collaboration

will continue to strengthen bonds between the Forest

Service and National Park Service and to promote

ecosystem management with sustainable development

on a larger scale. The Man and Biosphere Program

encouraged and publicized a science conference

and community activity that highlighted 50 y of

research on the Coram Experimental Forest (Anonymous 1996).

Administrative Actions ___________

Timber Surveys

Two projects at Coram provided basic information

about the land and its tree overstory. From the combined data, the experimental forest was divided into

4 compartments and 13 subcompartments for management purposes (figure 14).

The first general timber reconnaissance was completed in 1916 of the area within the South Fork of the

Flathead River drainage including the south twothirds of what is now the Coram Experimental Forest

(Roe 1952a). Volume estimates and a cover map showed

forest types, area, and limits of merchantable timber

information used for establishment of the experimental forest, and as background for early studies.

In 1934, the northern one-third of the experimental

forest, not included in the 1916 survey, were cruised to

determine timber type, volume, and age class. An

experienced crew of 6 men accomplished the field

work from August 27 through November 2, 1934. The

written report was signed April 15, 1935, by George M.

Fisher (Chief of Party) and Hans C. Roffler (Assistant

to Technician). This report is a narrative of observations made by the foresters about the existing timber

types (figure 15) and the condition of the timber and

Figure 13. Dedication of Coram Experimental Forest as a

biosphere reserve, August 8, 1980. John Emerson, Supervisor,

Flathead National Forest; Roger Bay, Director, Intermountain

Forest and Range Experiment Station; Jim Corson, representative of United States Man and the Biosphere Program; and

Jim Thompson, Deputy Regional Director, National Park Service. (Photo by Ray Shearer)
18 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Figure 14. Geographic Information System generated map made in 1998 of compartments and subcompartments identified

during the 1934 survey of the Coram Experimental Forest.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 19

Figure 15. Geographic Information System generated map made in 1998 of age classes and timber types identified on the Coram

Experimental Forest from data collected in 1934.
20 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Figure 16. From 1933 to 1935, the Coram Civilian Conservation Corps was located on the western edge of the Coram

Experimental Forest: (a) entrance (b) housing. (Photographer

unknown)

a

b

other resources at Coram. Their observations are a

“snapshot in time” of existing conditions on the newly

created Coram Experimental Forest (Appendix D).

Civilian Conservation Corps

The first Civilian Conservation Corps camp on the

Flathead National Forest was established in 1933

near the present main entrance to the Coram Experimental Forest (figure 16) off the South Fork Road (Forest

Road 38). Coram District Ranger Tom Wildes was the

first camp superintendent. This camp, like all others

in the Flathead, had a consignment of 200 men in

addition to the administrative force.

Crews were often sent to spike camps where they

constructed buildings, water systems, fences, telephone lines, and performed trail maintenance. After

receiving training, these crews were also dependable

and efficient at fighting forest fires. One of their first

summer accomplishments was to locate and build a

19 km road to Desert Mountain Lookout (Forest Road

497). In 1935, the Coram Civilian Conservation Corps

camp was moved to Elk Park where crew members

built the first road on the west side of the South Fork

of the Flathead River, the Spotted Bear landing field,

and many other projects.

Timber for the War Effort (1942 to 1946)

World War II brought an increased need for wood

products, coupled with a severe manpower shortage.

After consultation between personnel at the Northern

Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Region-1, and the Flathead National Forest, a

timber sale on the South Fork of Abbot Creek on the

Coram Experimental Forest was approved. The purpose of this sale was to help sustain year-long logging

operations and maintain a supply of wood products

from the Flathead National Forest that was needed

during the war.

About 560 ha were cutover from 1942 to 1946,

leaving about 12 seed trees per ha composed mostly of

51 to 61 cm western larch, or 36 to 46 cm windfirm

spruce. Douglas-fir were left to obtain uniform distribution of seed trees. In 1951, the volume of residual

trees 30 cm and larger was 59 m3 per ha (Roe 1952b).

Transportation System

Before establishment of the experimental forest,

the South Fork Road (Road 38) that diagonally crosses

its southwest quarter was constructed (figure 17).

When research began at Coram, the experimental

forest had a “relatively poor road system” which had

“grown haphazardly by stages” (Roe 1952a). A few

temporary roads permitted removal of logs in 1916
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 21

Figure 17. Geographic Information System generated map of roads on the Coram Experimental Forest.
22 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

and 1928. After extensive field work in 1935, a preliminary system road-plan was proposed. Between

1934 and 1938, the Desert Mountain Road (Road 497)

was built using Civilian Conservation Corps labor.

Later, sections of Roads 38 and 497 were relocated

for better alignment and to permit passage of loaded

logging trucks. Temporary roads used to remove logs

and rough-sawn lumber from 1942 through 1946

were built by timber purchasers. Portions of these

roads were later reconstructed and incorporated into

the road system. Beginning in 1950, system roads

were built by timber purchasers for harvest cutting

studies. A summary of these roads by year of construction, length, funding source, and location is

shown in table 2.

Withdrawal From Mineral Entry

In 1959, the Coram Experimental Forest was withdrawn from all forms of appropriation under the public

land laws, including mineral development. The withdrawal included 3,268 ha on the experimental forest

and adjacent national forest land within common

land-survey units. The withdrawal specifically prohibited removal of rock or gravel for road construction

and surfacing. A request for Coram’s continued withdrawal, together with a withdrawal review and mineral report, was submitted to the Bureau of Land

Management in 1991 through the Northern Region.

Coram was not excluded from the mineral leasing

laws or the act of July 31, 1947 (61 STAT. 681; 30

U.S.C. 601-604), as amended. Although the experimental forest is available for leasing under the

mineral leasing act, strict stipulations apply to ensure the protection of research activities.

Partnerships

The Rocky Mountain Research Station is responsible for research and administration of the Coram

Experimental Forest. The Flathead National Forest

provides close support for studies and monitoring by

contributing timber sale administration, road maintenance, law enforcement, fire protection, and other

services that promote research. Outstanding cooperation from personnel on the Hungry Horse (formerly

Coram) Ranger District enabled accomplishment of

research objectives for over 50 years.

A Memorandum of Understanding, detailing responsibilities for administering Coram, was initiated

in 1962 and signed by Project Leader Arthur L. Roe

for the Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station and by Forest Supervisor Fred J. Neitzling

for the Flathead National Forest. This Memorandum

of Understanding is reviewed at annual planning

meetings and revised as needed.

Partnerships with other agencies, educational institutions, local communities, and volunteers enhanced

the success of research at Coram. Agreements with

these groups expands the scope of research possible

and broadens educational opportunities. For example,

Glacier National Park uses Coram for manipulative

Table 2. Roads constructed on the Coram Experimental Forest from 1950 to 1999 as designated by the

Flathead National Forest.

Road Year Length, km Funding source Description—beginning and ending points

590A 1962 4.83 Acc. Publ. Works Road 497, Sec. 2 through 35 to 26

590B 1950 1.61 Timber purchaser Road 497, Sec. 2 to Sec. 1

590B 1952 0.80 Timber purchaser NE+ sec. 1

590B 1954 3.38 Timber purchaser NE+ Sec. 1 to SW+ Sec. 36

590B 1962 0.80 Appropriation SW + Sec. 36 to SE+ Sec. 35

590B 1973 3.22 Research Sec. 35 through Sec. 36 to SE+ Sec. 25

590C 1952 2.74 Timber purchaser Between 590B and 497, Sec. 1 and Sec. 6

590C3 1952 0.97 Timber purchaser Road 497, Sec. 6 through Sec. 31

590D 1960 2.09 Timber purchaser Road 497, Sec. 3 to Road 38 in Sec. 11

590E 1960 3.38 Timber purchaser Road 38, Sec. 14, 11, to Road 497, Sec. 12

590F 1951 1.93 Timber purchaser Road 497, Sec. 1 to Road 497, Sec. 12

590G 1963 4.83 Acc. Publ. Works Road 38, Sec. 11 thru Sec. 14 to Road 5301

590J 1960 0.97 Timber purchaser Road 497, SE+ Sec. 2, to Sec. 11, 12

590K 1960 0.80 Timber purchaser Road 497, within NW+ Sec. 12

11073 1973 1.29 Timber purchaser Road 590B within S+ Sec. 36

11074 1965 0.97 Timber purchaser Road 590B within Sec. 35, 36, 1 (Vista)

11075 1952 1.13 Timber purchaser Road 590C, Sec. 1 through Sec. 6, 1, 31

11076 1952 1.45 Timber purchaser Road 590C, Sec. 6 through Sec. 31, 1, 31

11077 1963 0.80 Acc. Publ. Works Road 590C, Sec. 1 to Road 590F, Sec. 1

11078 1963 0.97 Acc. Publ. Works Road 590C, Sec. 1 to Road 590F, Sec. 1
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 23

research that cannot be conducted inside park boundaries because of different administrative guidelines.

Partners involved in research at Coram include:

• British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Research

Branch, Victoria

• Clemson, University, Clemson, South Carolina

• Glacier National Park, Montana

• Michigan Technical University, Houghton

• Montana State University, Bozeman

• The University of Montana, Missoula

• Universitat Münster, Germany

• University of Minnesota, Minneapolis

• University of Wisconsin, Madison

• Washington State University, Pullman

• FORINTEK, Vancouver, British Columbia

Partnerships incorporate data from Coram into

ecosystem-based management of national forests, other

forest lands, nearby national parks, and science curricula for schools. Inclusion in the Man and the Biosphere Program encourages national and international cooperation that has become an integral part of

Coram’s partnerships.

Chronology Of Research _________

Although the Coram Experimental Forest was established in 1933, lack of personnel and facilities

precluded initiation of research through 1945. With

the end of World War II, research money and personnel became available. By 1947, Arthur L. Roe and

Kenneth N. Boe were assigned to conduct research in

the western larch/Douglas-fir forests; Anthony E.

Squillace joined the project in 1948. Boe was assigned

responsibility for administration of the Experimental

Forest from 1954 to 1956. Raymond C. Shearer replaced Boe in 1957 and was manager of Coram from

1957 to 1968 and 1975 to 1996. Wyman C. Schmidt

was manager from 1968 to 1975. Jack A. Schmidt

became manager in 1996 (figure 18). From 1954 to

1997 the experimental forest was included in 2 station

mergers and is now within the Rocky Mountain Research Station.

The Coram Experimental Forest’s wide range of

ecological sites and forest stand conditions has served

as the focus for western larch research for 50 y.

Continued research will build on a history rich in

discovery.

The 1940s: Beginning a Research

Program

The late 1940s marked the beginning of research at

Coram. Early studies focused on the influence of evenaged harvest methods, a wide range of site preparation treatments, and conifer seed dispersal for

Figure 18. Past managers of the Coram Experimental Forest

from left to right: Jack A. Schmidt, Raymond C. Shearer,

Wyman C. Schmidt, and Arthur L. Roe, May 1998. (Photo by

Steve Wirt)

natural regeneration of conifers, and recovery of other

forest vegetation.

In 1947, the Coram Experimental Forest was included as 1 of 21 larch/Douglas-fir stands sampled in

western Montana to determine growth response of reserved trees in relation to intensity of cutting. Several

0.08 ha temporary plots were installed within a 414

ha) area in the northwest quarter that had been

partially cut in 1916. Growth tables for residual larch

and Douglas-fir were published from this data (Roe

1951). Roe recommended that mature and overmature

larch/Douglas-fir stands were best managed by evenaged management methods such as shelterwood, seed

tree cutting, or clearcutting. Data from this study

provided information to publish a classification of tree

vigor for western larch and Douglas-fir necessary for

accurate tree ranking (Roe 1948a). Trees of highest

vigor grew nearly 1.5 times more in volume than those

in the moderate vigor group. Poor vigor trees grew

about 0.5 times less in volume than those in the

moderate vigor group.

Slow growth of mature larch trees results from old

age and from competition for light and soil water

reserves and understory vegetation competing for soil

and water (Roe 1956). Roe (1950) determined that the

maximum growth of reserved trees occurred in open

stands with the least amount of competition. Results

from this study indicated that advance regeneration

should be eliminated and open conditions were needed

to establish and enhance early growth of western larch

(Roe 1948b). At Coram, bare mineral soil was superior

for larch regeneration than the natural forest floor

(Polk and Boe 1951). However, site preparation during

the normal logging operation was insufficient for adequate larch regeneration (Polk 1949). Data from Coram

helped Roe and Benson (1966) develop a procedure for
24 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

evaluating the diameter growth of young stands in

relation to potential growth. Applications included

determining relative growth performance of trees and

stands, confirming the need for thinning and priority

setting among stands, and determining the growth

impact of disease and other growth depressing agents.

The objective of the first research studies at Coram

was to determine the influence of site preparation on

natural regeneration of western larch and associated

conifer species within areas harvested during World

War II. Three studies began in 1949 on sites harvested during World War II.

1949 to 1955: Natural Regeneration Study

Limited natural regeneration occurred following a

560 ha harvest cutting made during World War II.

Within these stands, 12 dominant seed trees per ha

were retained (Fredeking 1953). Most conifer regeneration established where the ground surface was

disturbed by logging activity on skid trails and landings, not in the large areas between them. It was

apparent that some form of seedbed preparation was

needed, particularly for the shade-intolerant western

larch.

In 1949, a twice replicated experiment was installed

on north-facing and south-facing slopes on sites harvested in 1943. The experiment compared natural

regeneration on seedbeds prepared by prescribed burning, bulldozer scarification, slashing small trees and

tall shrubs, hand piling and burning slash, and a

control (Roe 1952a). Results showed mineral soil exposed by fire or scarification favored establishment

of larch and other more shade tolerant conifers

(Roe 1955a; Schmidt and others 1976) (figure 19).

1949 to 1955: Seed Dispersal Study

Concurrent with the natural regeneration study,

dispersal of conifer seeds from seed trees onto the plots

was documented starting in 1949. Seedfall was estimated from contents of 1.8 m2

 seed traps. Seed dispersal for larch was ranked as good in 1952 and 1954,

fair in 1949, and poor in 1950, 1951, 1953, and 1955

(Roe 1955b). The good seed crop of 1952 dispersed

nearly 985,000 per ha, an average of about 22,000

seeds per tree.

1949 to 1969: Terrace Hill Natural Regeneration

Study

A portion of Terrace Hill, located in the southwest

corner of the Coram Experimental Forest, was harvested in 1943. Approximately 12 larch seed trees

were left per ha. Mineral soil was exposed by harvest

activities and by burning piled slash in 1944. In 1945,

6 ha of this area were designated for study, 3 ha of

understory trees and shrubs were slashed and the

other 3 ha were untreated. Natural regeneration increased dramatically when vegetation was removed,

demonstrating that seedbed, light, and competition

are important factors in conifer seedling establishment (Roe 1952a; Schmidt 1969; Cole and Schmidt

1986). Regeneration of all conifer species benefited

from the exposure of mineral soil, but larch more than

other species. Larch stocking correlated positively

with the amount of sunlight that reached the ground

(figure 20).

The 1950s: Building Blocks for the Future

During the 1950s conditions that would be used in

future research were established. Throughout this

decade, researchers demonstrated even-aged management practices identified in the 1947 cutover-area

study (Roe 1951). The advantages and limitations of

even-aged harvest cutting methods were identified.

The interaction of site preparation, cone production,

and seed dispersal were evaluated in subsequent natural regeneration of western larch and associated species. These cutover areas, and their varied site conditions, provided opportunities for a wide range of future

research.

Natural Regeneration Cuttings

Six even-aged harvest cutting methods were established in the Abbot Creek drainage (figure 21). Several

site preparation methods were imposed after harvest,

either singly or in combination.

Shelterwood, Vigor Shelterwood. A 23 ha unit was

placed on a 27% northwest-facing slope (figure 22).

About 55% of the stand volume, composed of the most

vigorous and dwarf mistletoe-free trees, was retained

Figure 19. Scarification by bulldozer in 1949 was a site preparation method tested to enhance germination and establishment of conifers on the Coram Experimental Forest. (Photo by

Art Roe)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 25

Figure 20. In 1945, understory trees were slashed (left half of picture) on Terrace Hill, Coram Experimental Forest, permitting

light to reach the ground and increasing survival of western larch natural regeneration. The remainder of the area was untreated

and far fewer larch were established. (Photo by Wyman Schmidt)

Figure 21. Regeneration cuttings in Abbot Basin, Coram Experimental Forest; 1951 photograph from

Desert Mountain. (Photo by Art Roe)
26 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Figure 23. Square clearcuts of 6, 12, and 24 ha were made in

1952 on the Coram Experimental Forest to measure the timing,

amount, and dispersal distances of conifer seed within the

openings. This picture of the 24 ha clearcut was taken in the

summer of 1952. Unmerchantable trees were also cut and the

site prepared. (Photo by Art Roe)

for shelter and seed production (Roe 1955a). Treatments were: harvest (December 1950 to August 1951),

bulldozer slash piling and scarification (August 1951),

slash piles burned (September 1951), prescribed burning (September 1952). Differences in logging costs

between this method and the shelterwood, economic

selection and scattered seed trees, were published

(Roe and Squillace 1953).

Shelterwood, Economic Selection. A 16 ha unit was

placed on a northwest-facing slope that averaged 18%

slope (figure 22). About 40% of the stand volume,

composed of numerous small and a few large reserve

trees, was retained for shelter and as a seed source for

natural regeneration (Roe 1955a). Treatments: cut

(December 1950 to August 1951), bulldozer slash

Figure 22. Shelterwood, vigor selection (denser tree cover

below upper road); scattered seed tree (open tree cover, center

and to the right); and shelterwood, economic selection (above

and below lower road) harvested in 1951 on the Coram Experimental Forest; photographed (a) 1954 by Tony Squillace and

(b) 1965 by Ray Shearer.

piling and scarification (August 1951), slash piles

burned (September 1951), prescribed burning

(September 1952).

Scattered Seed-tree. A 17 ha unit was established on

a northwest-facing slope averaging a 25% slope (figure

22). About 11% of the commercial volume was reserved

for seed (mostly larch) 10 to 12 dominant, vigorous,

well-distributed trees per ha (Roe 1955a). Treatments

were: cut (December 1950 to Aug 1951), bulldozer

slash piling and scarification (August 1951), slash

piles burned (September 1951), prescribed burning

(September 1952).

Block Clearcuts. There were three units (6, 12, 24 ha)

located on north-facing slopes ranging from 15 to 65%

in steepness (figure 23). Merchantable trees that

were 25 cm diameter breast height (d.b.h.) and larger,

with one 5 m log, were cut from October 1951 to August

1952. In August 1952, all remaining trees were felled

or pushed over by bulldozer to eliminate any confounding effect these trees could have on estimating

seed dispersal from the uncut timber into the openings. Piles of slash and unmerchantable trees were

burned the first 2 weeks of September 1952. However,

slash on steep, north-facing slopes on the 12 and 24 ha

clearcuts failed to burn because of moist fuels and

frost that persisted until afternoon.

Strip Clearcuts. There were 8 alternate 61 and 101 m

wide clearcut strips separated by alternate uncut

strips of the same width that were oriented at right

angles to the contours on northwest facing slopes

(figure 24). This orientation reduced the prevailing

wind that caused windthrow and minimized the

a

b
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 27

length of contour access roads that crossed the narrow width of these cuttings. The strips varied in

length from 194 to 814 m (table 3) depending on

topography. Three cut strips were in 1 sub-drainage

and 5 in another.

From December 1952 through April 1953, trees

that were 20 cm d.b.h. and larger with one 5 m log,

were cut. Logs were yarded (moved from the stump to

a landing) by bulldozer. On slopes up to 40%, logging

slash and defective trees were piled in the center of

the strips by bulldozer equipped with a brush blade.

Where possible, slash was piled near the top and

bottom of steeper pitches. Areas with light scattered

slash or vigorous young trees were not treated. Younger

understory trees, mostly Douglas-fir, spruce, and subalpine fir, were retained to study their subsequent

growth. Slash was burned in early November 1953.

Group Seed-tree. The method of retaining seed trees

in groups, rather than scattering them within a 51 ha

harvest area, was tested to determine if windthrow

and wind breakage was reduced and if removal of

seed trees was simplified. This was the last of the

initial 6 even-aged harvest cutting methods tested in

the Abbot Creek drainage.

All trees were harvested from December 1955

through June 1956, except for those reserved in 7

uncut circular groups evenly spaced throughout the

area (figure 25). In the area, 3 groups were 0.2 ha and

4 groups were 0.1 ha. Slopes faced 180° to 360° and

ranged in steepness from 5 to 70%. Most logs were

yarded by jammer (winch with a wooden spar mounted

on a vehicle) to the landing, the remainder by bulldozer. On slopes under 40%, bulldozers exposed some

mineral soil by scarification while piling slash during

August and September 1956.

Slash piles were burned in early October, 1956.

Slopes over 40% were prescribed burned from May 5,

to 9, 1958; these were the first spring burns on the

Coram Experimental Forest. The fire burned through

the 0.1 ha group killing all trees except the larch.

Wind Damage

Soon after each harvest cutting, wind uprooted or

broke residual old growth trees left next to the openings or as scattered or groups of seed trees. Unusually

severe winds on December 17, and 22, 1955, caused a

heavy tree loss, especially on upper slopes within the

shelterwood and scattered seed-tree cuttings and

within uncut timber surrounding block and strip

clearcuts. Three years after harvest, nearly a third of

the volume within the seed-tree groups was affected

by wind, this increased to 40% after 7 years. Most

trees within the seed-tree groups that were located on

slopes were blown over or broken by wind.

Seed Production and Dispersal

Western larch seed production (figure 26) from 1952

to 1962 at Coram was rated good in 1952 (Boe 1953)

and 1954, fair in 1958 and 1962, and poor or failure in

the other 7 years. Other conifers also produced good

crops in 1952 and 1954, but often varied in relative

amounts from western larch in other years. Dispersal

of viable conifer seeds occurred mostly in September

and October on thermal slope winds with upslope

motion (Shearer 1959a,b; McCaughey and others 1986).

Because managers need information about potential

western larch cone crops, Roe (1966) developed a

procedure to forecast crop size several months before

cones mature.

Natural Regeneration

Conifers regenerated quickly due to combining of

mineral soil exposed by fire or scarification with plenty

of seed under favorable conditions for seed germination and seedling establishment (Schmidt and

Figure 24. Seven strip clearcuts 60 and 101 m wide were

installed in 1953 to compare with block clearcuts for regeneration efficiency and damage to bordering trees on the Coram

Experimental Forest. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

Table 3. Strip clearcuts harvested in 1953 on the Coram

Experimental Forest.

Strip Area Width Length Elevation Slope

ha - - - - - - - - - - - m - - - - - - - - - - - - %

1 4.8 61 792 1265-1494 15-45

2 6.3 101 623 1311-1478 15-40

3 1.5 61 245 1442-1469 05-15

4 1.4 61 226 1173-1210 20-25

5 4.4 101 434 1183-1326 25-75

6 3.8 61 631 1265-1390 25-90

7 8.2 101 814 1268-1463 35-45

8 1.2 61 194 1436-1521 45-60

Total 31.6
28 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Figure 25. Circular groups of seed trees of 0.2 and 0.1 ha were left to provide seed within this 51 ha opening after harvest

in 1956 on the Coram Experimental Forest. In June 1958, the second year after scarification, Arnica cordifolia (heartleaf arnica)

flowered profusely. The microclimatic station was equipped with rain gage, hygrothermograph, and maximum and minimum

thermometer. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

others 1976). Of the 6 harvest cuttings in Abbot

Basin, the first 5 received seed from the excellent

1952 and 1954 cone crops or from only the 1954 cone

crop. Plenty of seed was carried into the center of

openings as large as 24 ha in years of abundant cone

production, to regenerate conifers on exposed soil

(figure 27).

Only the group seed-tree cutting failed to regenerate

successfully after site preparation because too few

seeds were dispersed from the reserved seed-tree groups

or from the adjacent uncut forest. By 1962, it was

evident that the seedbed for regenerating larch was

lost. This demonstrated the need to coordinate expected seed crop with site preparation.

Water Infiltration

In 1952, soon after treatments within the shelterwood (economic selection), the rate of water infiltrating

Figure 26. The effectiveness of seed traps, 0.093 m2 and

1.022 m2

 were compared to estimate seed dispersal away

from groups of seed trees on the Coram Experimental Forest.

(Photo by Ray Shearer)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 29

Figure 27. In 1957, fireweed over-topped conifer seedlings

and most other vegetation 5 years after harvest and slash

burning on this 12 ha clearcut on the Coram Experimental

Forest. (Inset) Western larch and other seedlings growing

beneath the fireweed. (Photos by Ray Shearer)

into the soil was measured on an undisturbed control,

tractor skid roads, bulldozer scarified soil, and on

broadcast burned seedbeds. Penetration of water into

the soil was 50% slower on mechanically disturbed,

and 90% slower on tractor skid road scarified soil than

on undisturbed forest floor or broadcast-burned seedbeds (Tackle 1962). Although infiltration improved,

some of the differences lasted at least 20 y (Schmidt

and others 1976).

In 1953, Coram was included in a nation-wide test of

Krilium (a soil conditioner) on skid roads in the

shelterwood (economic selection). The conditioner was

applied to skid roads that were covered by slash, and

to some left uncovered (control), to determine if the

chemical reduced sheet erosion caused by rain or

snowmelt. After 2 y, Krilium had not caused any

profile changes on the skid road plots, and it was

judged ineffective in reducing surface runoff on skid

roads covered or not covered by slash (Boe 1955).

The 1960s: Young Stand Management and

Artificial Regeneration

Using areas treated in the 1950s, research in the

1960s focused on: the influence of spacing young western larch on growth and the interaction with water
30 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

use, vegetation development, snow damage, insects,

and animals; how to artificially regenerate western

larch and associated conifers through planting nursery-grown bare root seedlings or by direct seeding.

Thinning Naturally Regenerated Western Larch

Conifers, especially western larch, regenerated profusely on harvest-cutting areas at Coram in the 1950s

where mineral soil was exposed by fire or scarification

and plenty of seed was dispersed to the site. Thinning

was essential to promote tree growth for useful forest

products and other forest values on most of the

heavily regenerated sites. This typified many harvested

stands within the natural range of larch. In 1961, a

thinning study of young western larch began in the

9 y-old stands of trees on portions of the 30 12 ha

clearcut, seed tree, and economic selection harvest

cutting areas.

Objectives of this 40 y study are to identify the

effects of thinning on growth, form, and crown characteristics by number of trees per ha (1,680, 890, 494), by

number of years (10, 20, or 40) between thinnings, and

by shrub competition and developing spacing guides

for use in managing young western larch. A total of 28

plots have been established to meet the objectives of

this study (figure 28).

Diameter and height growth responded to stand

density. The greatest individual tree growth occurred

in the least dense stands, but total stand volume was

greater on heavily stocked stands (Schmidt 1996,

1978; Schmidt and Seidel 1988) (figure 29).

In 1965, herbicides 2,4-D amine; 2,4,5-T ester; 2,4,5,-

T amine; tordon 101; and cacodylic acid were used to

determine their effectiveness in thinning western larch

and other conifers within the area harvested reserving

a vigor shelterwood for seed and shade. Protective oil

cloth hoods effectively shielded the leave trees from

these chemicals. All chemicals tested effectively killed

selected larch seedlings and saplings (figure 30).

Additional research has been undertaken on the

larch spacing plots to take advantage of conditions

promoted by the design of the study.

Water use. Beginning in 1968, water use within the

thinned plots was studied to determine the influence

of spacing on amount, rate, and season of water use

and recharge of soil profile (figure 31). The site receives about 800 mm of precipitation annually, and

soil profiles are usually fully saturated at the beginning of each growing season (Schmidt 1998). Water is

often a limiting factor later in the summer. Schmidt

(1998) determined that at age 19, 10 y after thinning,

plots with 2,200 trees per ha used 92% and 500 trees

per ha used 82% of the available water as compared to

unthinned stands with 91,000 trees per ha. After 20 y,

the differences diminished between the densities as

the trees fully occupied the sites (Schmidt 1978).

Phenological observations. Needle and flower buds

open from mid to late April depending on average daily

temperature; bud opening is delayed by increasing

elevation. Seed cone elongation is 90% complete by

the end of May (Shearer and Carlson 1993). Larch

effectively distributes needle, diameter, and height

growth (figure 32) during the growing season

(Schmidt 1998). When needle growth starts to decline

in mid May, diameter growth begins. Average daily

diameter growth peaks in mid to late June, when

needle growth ceases and height growth begins.

Height growth peaks about mid July and is complete

by mid August.

Figure 28. In 1961, excess conifer regeneration was thinned

to an average spacing of 6.1 m on this plot within the 12 ha

clearcut on the Coram Experimental Forest. (Photograph taken

in 1970 by Ray Shearer)

Figure 29. After 32 y, larch spaced an average of 6.1 m apart

on the 12 ha clearcut had exceptional growth. (Photograph

taken in 1993 by Ray Shearer)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 31

Figure 30. Thinning excess western larch with herbicides on

Coram Experimental Forest, 1965. (a) On June 30, Wyman

Schmidt, research scientist, Intermountain Forest and Range

Experiment Station, fits a protective cloth hood over naturally

regenerated western larch crop trees. (b) On July 1, the study

area ready for herbicide spraying. (c) Joseph Pechanec, Director, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, views

results on August 25. (Photos by Art Roe)

Leaf area. At age 30, total leaf area was reduced by

nearly 33% in thinned stands compared to the

unthinned controls (Bidlake and Black 1989). The vertical distribution of leaf-area index in an unthinned

stand resembled a normal distribution, as did the

thinned stand for a truncated distribution of leaf-area

index at the canopy base.

Shrub removal. In 1961, bases of cut shrubs associated with thinning of western larch on 6 plots were

sprayed with a 3% solution of 2,4,5-T and fuel oil.

These plots were compared with plots that were only

thinned to evaluate competition of major shrub species on the growth of the remaining larch. There was

Figure 31. Jack A. Schmidt, forester, Intermountain Forest and

Range Experiment Station, records information from neutron

meter to determine soil water use within the western larch

spacing study on the Coram Experimental Forest. (Photo by

Ray Shearer)

a

b

c

Figure 32. Relative seasonal growth of needle, diameter, and

height of young western larch, western Montana (from Schmidt

1998).

Needle Diameter

Height

APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT

100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260

.5

.4

.3

.2

.1

0

.006

.004

.002

0

Julian date

DAILY DIAMETER GROWTH (IN)

DAILY HEIGHT GROWTH (IN)

DAILY NEEDLE GROWTH (IN* .1)

LARCH PHENOLOGY
32 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

little difference in either diameter or height growth

with or without the shrubs, probably because lesser

vegetation soon occupied the sites where the major

shrubs had been removed (Schmidt 1998).

Snow bend. In June 1966, heavy wet snow (USDC

1966) settled on these young trees bending many

nearly to the ground (figure 33). The young forest

had practically no mortality and most recovered

remarkably well (Schmidt and Schmidt 1979). However, 30 y later a similar late-spring snow caused

considerable breakage and bending of small-diameter

larch on plots with high stand densities. Little snow

damage occurred to larger diameter trees growing in

less dense plots.

Western spruce budworm. Rather than consuming

foliage as it does on other conifer species, budworm

larvae feed primarily in July on elongating terminal

and upper shoots of western larch (Schmidt 1998)

causing reduced height growth and deformed tops of

many crop trees. An outbreak of this insect occurred at

Coram during the late 1960s to mid 1970s (Shearer

and Schmidt 1999). When budworm populations collapse, as it did at Coram in 1975, the trees soon

recover; the most rapid recovery occurs on trees in the

least dense stands (Fellin and Schmidt 1973). Budworm larvae also feed on developing seed and pollen

cones from the time their buds open in April through

May (Shearer and Carlson 1993).

Larch casebearer. This introduced defoliating insect

arrived at Coram about 1970. A study was installed

that year on the 24 ha clearcut at Coram, which

paralleled the spacing study established in 1961

(Schmidt 1998) and was designed to show the influence of spacing on development of the insect. This

adjunct study showed that casebearer populations

per tree increased quickly on plots with the fewest

trees, probably because of fewer targets for evenly dispersed insects. The population was in 20% of the needle

clusters by year 5 in plots with 494 trees per ha. The

next year, the population began to collapse and has

never rebuilt. As a result, interactions of casebearer

feeding and stand density could not be evaluated.

Needle diseases. Shoot blight, needle blight, and

needlecast have been identified on trees in the spacing

study, but none have yet caused significant damage as

related to stand density (Schmidt 1998).

Bear. Black bears frequently feed on the inner bark

of larch in late spring; often killing trees by completely

girdling them (figure 34). Usually the largest and most

vigorous trees in stands with the fewest trees are

targets (Schmidt and Gourley 1992). Some years up

to about 5% of pole-size larch at Coram have been

damaged or killed.

Vegetation development. To complement growth

and phenological data of western larch, and differences in soil-water use, a 1970 study was initiated to

determine the composition and development of understory vegetation (figure 35). Usually, understory vegetation responded positively to increased light and

water availability in the stands with few trees. However, little difference in growth of western larch was

measured between plots with and without shrubs

removed (Schmidt 1998).

Arceuthobium laricis. Larch dwarf mistletoe was

found on occasional old growth larch on the Coram

Experimental Forest in 1968. On the 6 ha clearcut,

15 y-old naturally regenerated larch were artificially

inoculated with 30 to 50 larch mistletoe seeds on

branches at heights of 0.6 to 1.8 m (Wicker and Wells

1983). Trees were thinned to 2.4, 4.3, or 6.1 m average

spacing.

Figure 33. Heavy, wet snow falling on western larch with

foliage can cause considerable damage. (a) on June 4, 1966,

many 14 y-old larch at Coram were bent over; most recovered

with little permanent damage (photo by Wyman Schmidt). (b)

On June 6 and 7, 1995, in the same area, many smaller

diameter 42 y-old larch were uprooted, broken, or permanently

bent over. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

b

a
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 33

Height growth of the young larch from 1978 to 1988

was over 4 times the rate of the advance of the dwarf

mistletoe up the trees (Wicker and Hawksworth 1991).

The level of dwarf mistletoe was not expected to reduce

tree height or diameter growth although spread from

inoculated trees to previously uninfected ones has

occurred at each spacing level. Spacing up to an

average of 6.1 m does not prevent tree-to-tree spread.

Cone production. From 1985 to 1996 the frequency

and amount of seed (figure 36) and pollen cone production was estimated on trees within the following

average spacings: unthinned (<0.6), 2.0, 2.4, 3.4, 4.6,

6.1 m. The best 10 trees on each plot were measured.

The number of seed and pollen cones usually increased

as average spacing increased (Shearer and Schmidt

Figure 34. Carl Sobczak examines this black bear girdled

45 y-old western larch that was regenerated from seed

dispersed in 1952, Coram Experimental Forest. (Photo by Ray

Shearer)

1987, 1988). Unthinned trees had neither new seed,

new pollen, nor old seed cones. Some trees in the 3.4 m

and wider spacings were damaged by black bears

partially stripping bark at the base of the trees. All

bear-damaged trees, but not all undamaged trees,

produced seed cones.

Cone production with GA4/7. Western larch trees

regenerated in 1952 and thinned in 1961 to an average

spacing of 4.6 m and 6.1 m were selected for study.

Sixty trees in each spacing were randomly chosen. In

1991, half of the trees in each spacing were injected

(figure 37) with a solution of GA4/7 dissolved in alcohol;

the other half were controls. In 1994, half of the trees

treated in 1991 and half of the controls were injected

with GA4/7. The remaining trees were not treated. The

Figure 35. Vegetation development in 1964 near the center of

the 24 ha clearcut that was harvested and burned in 1952,

Coram Experimental Forest. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

Figure 36. Cones of western larch are red or green (pictured)

and average between 25 and 32 mm long and average over

100 seeds per cone. (Photo by Ray Shearer)
34 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

GA treatments increased the number of trees bearing

mature cones and the number of cones produced per

tree (Shearer and others, in press). Seed quality and

other cone characteristics were unaffected by the treatment. No carry-over effects from previous treatments

was evident. Foliar damage due to the treatment was

short-lived. Pollen cone production was unaffected by

GA treatment.

Fertilizing young larch. In 1966, 13 research areas

were established in western Montana to study the

influence of fertilization with N (nitrogen), P (phosphorus), and K (potassium) on young western larch.

One site was located in a 13 y-old stand of western

larch natural regeneration thinned to an average

spacing of about 2 m x 2 m within the 24 ha clearcut on

the Coram Experimental Forest (Behan 1968). Six

combinations of N, P, and K were applied (NPK, NP,

NK, PK, N, and none) and replicated 3 times. Results

were not published.

Soil/site relations. Coram was included in a soil-site

study of western larch in western Montana. Results

showed height growth varied inversely with stand

density and with elevation and varied directly with

effective soil depth (Embry 1960). He concluded these

studies are more accurate when soils and

physiographical characteristics of the site are related

to tree growth.

Artificial Regeneration

Abundant natural regeneration of western larch,

Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir and other

conifers occurred following all cutting methods tested

Figure 37. Jack A. Schmidt in June 1991 injects a 38 y-old

western larch tree on the Coram Experimental Forest with a

growth regulator mixture of gibberellin A4/7 to promote flowering. (Photo by Jennifer Falacy)

when site preparation exposed mineral soil and seeds

were available (Schmidt and others 1976). Some areas

at Coram did not adequately regenerate because of

inadequate site preparation or too little seed. On

these areas, supplementary site preparation was required followed by either planting or seeding.

Test planting. A few western larch seeds were

collected in 1952 from trees felled on the Coram

Experimental Forest. They were grown at the Forest

Service Savenac Nursery at Haugen, Montana, then

planted at Coram near the center of a 24 ha clearcut.

A third were planted May 12, 1954, as 1-0 (1 y grown

in the nursery bed - 0 y in transplant bed) seedlings; a

third on May 26, 1955, as 1-1 (1 y grown in the nursery

bed - 1 y in transplant bed) seedlings; and the remainder on May 27, 1955, as 2-0 (2 y grown in the nursery

bed - 0 y in transplant bed) seedlings. Survival in 1960

was 73% for the 1-0 stock, but only 16% for the 1-1 and

2-0 stock. The surviving seedlings were small and

mostly of poor vigor. Because of the short growing

season at the Savenac Nursery, the 1-0 seedlings were

too small for outplanting, while the 2-0 seedlings were

too large, and, although the 1-1 seedlings were about

the right size, they were costly to produce. No other

planting was done on the experimental forest until

1964.

Operational planting. When larger 1-0 larch bare

root stock was produced during longer growing seasons at the newly constructed Forest Service nursery at Coeur d’Alene, Idaho, 2 understocked areas

were planted at Coram. Several thousand of these

bare root seedlings (figure 38) were planted by machine or mattock within the area harvested during

World War II and within the group seed-tree area

harvested in 1956. Five-year survival was above 90%

for machine planting and about 75% for mattock

planting. Continued survival and growth information

was not followed.

Methods of planting. In autumn 1963, the poorly

regenerated and less steep slopes of the area cut

during World War II and the group seed-tree cutting

area were scarified using a disk pulled by a small

crawler tractor. Bare root western larch 1-0 seedlings

were machine planted in May 1964. Three methods of

planting western larch seedlings were tested in the

disked furrows: 15 cm diameter, 20 cm deep holes were

dug with a planting shovel (similar to holes dug by

auger), 20 cm deep slits opened using the short-handled

mattock (most used tool for planting in Region 1 at

that time) and approximately 20 cm-deep slit opened

by a planting machine.

The 5 y height growth was significantly greater

among machine-planted and shovel-planted seedlings

than among mattock-planted seedlings (Schmidt and

others 1976), and it continued through 1990. Diameter
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 35

growth through 1990 was significantly greater for

machine and shovel planted larch trees than for

those planted by the short-handled mattock.

Douglas-fir and Engelmann spruce are major components of forests at Coram. A multidisciplinary

study, begun in 1974, included planting these species

in 4 consecutive years (1976-1979) following harvest

cutting and site preparation to compare their survival

and growth as influenced by treatment differences.

Douglas-fir survival in 1987 was higher on burned

than unburned sites (Shearer and Schmidt 1991).

Douglas-fir, regardless of year planted, were significantly taller than the tallest Douglas-fir natural

regeneration.

Direct seeding. When artificial regeneration is required to establish conifers, direct seeding may offer a

less costly alternative to planting. However, broadcast

Figure 38. Dwight Dauber, Hungry Horse Ranger District,

Flathead National Forest (retired) planting 1-0 western

larch seedlings on the poorly regenerated group seed-tree

area harvested in 1956, Coram Experimental Forest, May

1964. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

and spot seeding are uncertain. Both methods were

tested in the 1960s with wide ranging results.

In May 1958, untreated seeds of western larch,

Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce, and subalpine fir

were sown on bare soil within the group seed-tree

area, cut in 1956. Three weeks later, a high-intensity

rain washed out or buried much of the seed (Shearer

1959c). This study, repeated in spring 1959, resulted

in 2% of each species germinating because they did

not receive pretreatment (Shearer 1961). Results

showed the need to cold stratify (store seeds near

freezing in moist medium for about a month) or pretreat spring-sown of these species to overcome dormancy and enhance rapid and complete germination.

The effects of aspect, date of seeding, and presowing

treatments of western larch seeds were studied on

seed spots protected from small mammals and birds

by three degrees of screening (figure 39). Seeds,

collected in 1958 at Coram near the study area, were

spot seeded in mid April and in early May 1960.

Germination and survival of spot sown seed were best

when seeds were stratified 30 days at 2 °C then sown

on north-facing slopes just after snowmelt. Decreased

germination and survival resulted from sowing on

west and south-facing slopes (Shearer and Halvorson

1967). Drought, insolation, frost heaving, and fungi

caused most seedling mortaility. Seedling loss to animals was slight.

Two additional studies at Coram in 1962 showed

twice as much germination from spot seeding as

from broadcast seeding (Schmidt and others 1976).

Spot seeding is more reliable than broadcast seeding

Figure 39. Research of spot seeding western larch began in

1960 on the group seed-tree harvest cutting area of the

Coram Experimental Forest. Some spots were open to all

birds and mammals, some were covered by large mesh

screens (self-photo by Ray Shearer) that excluded all birds

and ground squirrels, and others were covered by small

mesh screens that excluded animals except shrews and

invertebrates.
36 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

because seeds are on favorable microsites and covered

with soil which maintains high moisture around the

seeds and close contact between seed and soil. In

these studies, seed spots were selected to avoid competing vegetation, whereas broadcast seeds were

distributed randomly.

These studies also showed the advantage of coating

seeds with a material that inhibits fungi, insects, and

rodents. They demonstrated that larch seeds usually

germinate well if sown in the fall or stratified and sown

in the spring soon after snowmelt. Survival of Douglasfir and Engelmann spruce seedlings was greater from

spring-sown than fall-sown seeds. However, fall sowing was preferable for maximum establishment of

western larch seeds. Overwintering seed loses were

high for Douglas-fir because of rodent feeding, and for

Engelmann spruce because of fungi. When larch,

Douglas-fir, and spruce seeds are sown together, spring

seeding is preferable to reduce overall seed losses.

Reforesting a shrubfield. A 14 y-old shrubfield and

an adjacent uphill, new 14 ha clearcut on a steep

north-facing slope were successfully prescribed burned

(figure 40) on August 23, 1966 (Shearer and Schmidt

1982). The shrubfield originated after a September

1952 prescribed fire on wet fuels failed to expose

mineral soil on about a third of the 24 ha clearcut.

Natural regeneration was poor except on skid roads.

Regeneration began in 1967 after a combination of

natural seed dispersal, aerial seeding of larch, Douglas-fir and spruce, and planting of 1-0 bare root larch.

By 1981, the old shrubfield and the 1966 clearcut were

well stocked by conifers.

The 1970s: Forest Residues Utilization

Research and Development Program

The first comprehensive research and development program in the Northern Rocky Mountains

evaluating multiple factors associated with intensive

forest management was centered on the Coram

Experimental Forest. In 1974, a multidisciplinary

research and development program used the experimental forest to investigate alternative tree harvesting practices that promote intensive, environmentally compatible, tree utilization (Barger 1975, 1980,

1981). Participants had skills in engineering, wood

technology, economics, meteorology, microbiology,

mycology, pathology, entomology, silviculture, fire

management, hydrology, and wildlife habitat. Although

research was site-specific, results from Coram and

other study sites in the Rocky Mountains have management implications for coniferous forests in general.

A major component of the program was to evaluate

the biological and resource management consequences

of alternative harvesting practices and site treatment

in a mostly Douglas-fir and western larch forest.

Results of these studies enhanced the application of

ecosystem-based management principles. Investigations included harvesting systems, silvicultural prescriptions, and utilization standards. Study emphasis

was on determining the biological consequences of

successively intensive utilization levels and alternative post-harvesting residue treatments.

The study site at Coram was in Abbot Basin on a

steep, east-facing slope in old growth forest composed

mostly of Douglas-fir and some western larch, Engelmann spruce, and subalpine fir (Barger 1975, 1980,

1981). Management objectives for the site included:

protecting esthetic values, timely regeneration and

subsequent stand development, maintaining species

diversity—especially in retaining western larch in

the stand; avoiding high road density and adverse

Figure 40. An August 23, 1966, prescribed fire on a steep

north-facing slope within the Coram Experimental Forest exposed mineral soil for natural regeneration. This fire burned

slash on a clearcut harvested in May 1966, and dead shrubs on

a bordering downhill clearcut harvested in 1952 that failed to

regenerate. Shrubs were killed by an herbicide applied in June

1966. (Photo by Ray Shearer)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 37

biological impacts on the forest ecosystem. To access

the upper study area, an experimental logging road

(upper segment of Road 590B [Table 2]) designed to

minimize environmental and esthetic impact (Garner

1978) was constructed in 1973. This road was a singlelane (4.3 m finished surface, 1 m ditch), constructed

along the contour. Esthetically, this road was judged

far superior to existing roads (figure 41).

Three harvest cutting methods included:

• clearcutting—harvest all merchantable trees included under specified utilization standards

• shelterwood cutting—harvesting approximately

50% of the merchantable volume, leaving an overstory composed of the best mature Douglas-fir,

most of the old growth larch, and other species to

help establish a new multi-species stand

• group selection cutting (figure 42)—removing all

trees specified as merchantable under the utilization standard from irregular, randomly spaced

0.4 to 0.8 ha subunits.

Four utilization treatments, representing successively intensive practices, were imposed within each of

the 3 harvest cutting prescriptions (table 4). The

treatments ranged from sawlog utilization standards

that were in common use to near complete utilization

of all trees. Cutting units were established to take

advantage of roads and included up and down hill

yarding (Gardner 1980). A running skyline system

Figure 41. Decreasing the clearing width of forest roads (upper two switchbacks in upper left of picture)

diminishes their visibility on the landscape, Coram Experimental Forest. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

Figure 42. Four levels of log utilization and residue treatments were used on these eight group selection cuttings,

Coram Experimental Forest, 1974. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

(figure 43) allowed laying out the large units up to

610 m in slope length (Barger and Benson 1981).

Damage to residual trees left within and surrounding

the blocks was assessed by Benson and Gonsior (1981).

Prescribed broadcast burning was accomplished in

September 1975 (Artley and others 1978). In addition,

relationships for predicting duff reduction, mineral

soil exposure, and consumption of downed woody fuel
38 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

that were determined at Coram contributed to the

development of a fire-danger rating on mesic forest

cover types in the northern Rocky Mountains (Brown

and others 1985).

A wide range of biological disciplines cooperated to

evaluate the early post harvest biological and management consequences of the 4 treatments (Barger

1980, 1981). Research included: biomass, meteorology, nutrient status, hydrology, and microbiology responses to treatment; consequences relating to insect

activity, site productivity, stand regeneration and

development, understory vegetation, esthetics, wildlife habitat, and fuels management; and implications

for resource protection and management on the site.

To coordinate research activity, a grid of 10 permanent sampling points was established in each

subtreatment unit. Scientists were assigned specific

locations around each point for their sampling needs

(figure 44).

In 1979, researchers reported final, or interim results, of their Coram studies at the symposium

“Environmental Consequences of Timber Harvesting

in Rocky Mountain Conifer Forests” (USDA Forest

Service 1980). The following synopsis gives major

findings divided into environmental responses, biological implications, and resource management options to harvest cuttings at Coram.

Environmental Responses

Woody material. In the western larch forest type at

Coram, total volume of wood 8 mm in diameter and

larger, including live, standing dead, and down trees

Table 4. Forest Residues Utilization Program pre- and post-harvest treatments on 2 clearcuts, on 2

shelterwoods, and 2 sets of 8 group selection units cut and slashed in 1974 on the Coram

Experimental Forest.

Utilization standard Post-harvest woody material removed Treatment

Conventional sawlog: Live and recently dead logs Remaining understory

trees down to 178 mm d.b.h. 140 mm top; 1/3 or more sound slashed; broadcast

cut, except designated burned September 1975

shelterwood trees

Close log utilization, trees Live and dead standing or down Remaining understory

down to 178 mm d.b.h. logs to 76 mm top and 2.4 m long, not slashed; unburned

cut, except designated if sound enough to yard

shelterwood trees

Close tree utilization, trees Live and dead standing or down Remaining understory

down to 127 mm d.b.h. logs to 76 mm top and 2.4 m long, slashed; broadcast

cut, except designated if sound enough to yard burned September 1975

shelterwood trees

Close fiber utilization, cut Live 25 mm -50 mm d.b.h. material Remaining understory

all trees except designated bundled tree length; live logs to slashed; unburned

shelterwood trees 76 mm top and 2.4 m long, if sound

enough to yard

Figure 43. In 1974, logs were carried from where they

were cut to the road by cable, causing minimal site

disturbance on the Coram Experimental Forest. (Photo

by Herm Whitman)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 39

Figure 44. Raymond C. Shearer explaining plot layout on the

forest residues utilization study on the Coram Experimental

Forest, September 1995. (Photo by Dave Tippets)

averaged 477 m3 per ha (Benson and Schlieter 1980c).

Typically, about half of this volume is removed in

logging (figure 41), while the remaining residues include up to 50% or more sound wood, plus material in

various stages of decay (Benson and Johnston 1976;

Benson and Schlieter 1980a, 1980b, 1980d). Close

utilization at the time of sawlog removal recovered

more of the material than if a second entry was made

to remove small logs left after the initial harvest

(Benson and Schlieter 1981).

Microenvironment. Mean daily net radiation was

similar for the clearcuts and group selections but only

70% as much for the controls and 46% as much in the

shelterwood cuttings (Hungerford 1980). Differences

in monthly mean daily net radiation were similar

from May through September but were not as great

during the winter. Midsummer maximum surface

temperatures were 25 °C higher on unshaded surfaces

in clearcuts and 10 °C to 15 °C higher in partial cut

stands than in uncut stands.

These potentially lethal ground surface temperatures occurred mostly in the clearcuts and group

selection units and were directly related to the thermal properties of the surface materials (Hungerford

and Babbitt 1987). Daily air temperature, shortwave

radiation, relative humidity, and precipitation data

from these units were combined from many other

areas to develop a model (MTCLIM) for calculating

daily microclimate conditions in mountainous terrain (Hungerford and others 1989).

Steep harvested slopes had a longer frost-free

period than the creek bottom, but freezing temperatures occurred 10 days sooner in the clearcuts than

within the uncut timber. Compared to the clearcuts,

shelterwood cuts and uncut stands received 15%

and 25% less precipitation because of interception

(figure 45).

Figure 45. Measurement of stream flow near the source of

Abbot Creek on the Coram Experimental Forest (a) began

in 1974 with the establishment of an H-flume (photo in 1977

by Jack Schmidt). (b) In 1994, the H-flume was replaced by

a Parshall flume. Dave Ondov, Hungry Horse Ranger District, Flathead National Forest examines the new flume in

1997. (photo by Ray Shearer)

b

a
40 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Water use. Compared to the uncut forest floor, snow

accumulation increased 80% in clearcuts, 50% in

group selections, and 40% in shelterwoods (Newman

and Schmidt 1980). The first 4 y after treatment, the

uncut forest used about 75%, the shelterwoods only

4%, group selections 10%, and clearcuts 11% of the

total annual precipitation. Initially, the light-burn

treatments significantly affected vegetation resulting

in decreased water use. However, the effects of all

residues-management treatments were of short duration. Streamflow has been monitored since 1974 near

the source of Abbot Creek, first by an H-flume

(figure 45a) and then by a replacement Parshall flume

(figure 45b) installed in 1994.

Nutrient cycling. Prescribed fires with surface soil

temperatures less than 316 °C can be used indefinitely

on a 50 y rotation without loss of long-term productivity on these soils (Stark 1980). Harvest of wood and

bark in clearcuts did not remove more nutrients than

will be returned through precipitation in 70 to 100 y.

Intensive harvests (wood, bark, and branches) should

not remove more nutrients in fiber than can be returned from precipitation, soil solution available nutrients, pollen, and normal decay in 70 y time.

Residue decay. Brown-cubical decayed wood in soil

is functionally unique (Larsen, Harvey, and Jurgensen

1980). Wood in soil functions similarly to other soil

components but may more efficiently store nutrients

and water. Tree roots and certain fungi that together form mycorrhizae, which promote tree establishment, survival, and growth, develop in decaying

wood. Decayed wood is an important site for fixation of

nitrogen gas from the atmosphere. Long-term site

deterioration is avoidable by assessing the impact of

increasing levels of utilization before forest harvest.

Nitrogen cycling. Nitrogen fixation by soil bacteria

is reduced, particularly in the surface organic horizons, following tree harvest and this is related to low

moisture levels on the surface of cleared sites

(Jurgensen, Larsen, and Harvey 1980). Decaying wood

in the soil is a major site of nitrogen fixation. Establishment of nitrogen-fixing plants on logged areas

can compensate for low nitrogen fixation rates by soil

bacteria. Most sites had an insufficient numbers of

these plants. Increases in ammonium and nitrate

concentrations in the soil after treatment is beneficial

to tree regeneration and growth.

Ectomycorrhizae. The activity of ectomycorrhizal

symbionts depends on host trees, while stand manipulation provides control of their function (Harvey,

Larsen, and Jurgensen 1980). Organic materials, such

as litter, humus, decayed wood, or charcoal, which are

in the mineral soil, govern ectomycorrhizal activity in

forest soil. Organic materials are most important in

soils on the harsh sites because they buffer wide

variations of pH, moisture, and temperature.

Biological Implications

Forest soils. The relative quality and productivity

of the soils at Coram are related to microbiological

populations (Harvey, Jurgensen, and Larson 1980).

There is an interdependence between above-ground

(organic matter input) and below-ground (nutrient

and moisture availability) processes to influence site

productivity.

Both total and available nitrogen were lost from the

burned forest floor at Coram, but these increased in

underlying unburned layers (Mroz and others 1980).

Increased nitrogen in the lower layers was caused by

the downward movement of nitrogen compounds during the burn.

Wood is a critical soil organic component; its importance varying by site (Harvey, Jurgensen, and Larson

1980). Intensive fiber utilization had the greatest

potential negative impact on the Douglas-fir/ninebark

habitat type at Coram as shown by ectomycorrhizal

activities supported by soil wood. There was less

potential negative impact on the subalpine fir/clintonia habitat type, and least on the western hemlock/

clintonia habitat type.

Residues management enhances sites with limited

organic matter production. Based on normal utilization practices common in the mid 1970s, there should

not be a shortage of organic residues on productive

sites at Coram. However, substantial increases in

utilization intensity, hot wildfire, or excessive site

preparation could reduce stand productivity, especially on harsh, cold, or dry sites (Harvey and others

1981b).

Understory vegetation. Volume, cover, and biomass

of shrubs and herbs were measured before harvest,

and 2 and 4 y after harvest. All harvest cutting and

residue management treatments substantially reduced

the volume and biomass of live shrubs to as little as 3%

of the preharvest volume on burned treatments

(Schmidt 1980).

All vegetation responded rapidly after treatments at

Coram; in some cases vegetation approached

preharvest levels in 4 y. Herbs responded earlier to

treatments than the shrubs. Total biomass of live

understory vegetation, excluding trees, averaged over

5,044 kg per ha in the mature forest. Vegetation

responses are rapid the first 2 to 4 y, then slowly

approach levels found in mature forests (Schmidt and

others 1995).

Twelve years after harvest, height and diameter

growth of understory Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce,

and subalpine fir accelerated (Carlson and Schmidt

1989) Trees growing well before harvest grew well
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 41

after harvest. Post harvest mortality of understory

trees was greatest when half of the overstory was

retained. Defoliation by western spruce budworm reduced post harvest growth of Douglas-fir, but it did

not affect Engelmann spruce or subalpine fir.

Natural regeneration. Natural regeneration began

slowly at Coram because of inadequate site preparation and low seed dispersal. Western spruce budworm

larvae killed most seed cones on trees other than

western larch (Shearer 1980a), limiting cone production on Douglas-fir, subalpine fir, and spruce. Thermal slope winds dispersed most seeds uphill in

September. Upslope winds diminished in October and

the sun angle decreased, resulting in less warming of

the forest floor. Germination and growth of conifer

seedlings was enhanced on burned sites.

Regeneration of western larch began in 1975, mostly

where soil was exposed during logging or prescribed

fire (Shearer and Schmidt 1999). Quick recovery of

competing vegetation curtailed establishment of larch

past 1979. Douglas-fir regenerated prolifically between 1979 and 1992, after the budworm outbreak

subsided. Other conifer species regenerated slowly. In

1992, an average of nearly 11,400 established seedlings per ha grew on the units, 90% were Douglas-fir.

Eighty percent of the plots were stocked with at least

one established conifer (figure 46).

Forest floor arthropods. Arthropods, most abundant

and most negatively affected by harvest and utilization practices, are spiders (Arachnida:Araneida),

ants (Hymenoptera:Formicidae), and beetles (Coleoptera),

especially the families Carabidae and Staphylinidae

Figure 46. Western larch (left back) and Douglas-fir (center

and right front) natural regeneration in 1992 are competing with

well-developed herbaceous vegetation on the “Forest Residues Utilization R&D Program” study area on the Coram

Experimental Forest. This western larch will probably die because of shade and competition, but the shade-tolerant

Douglas-fir will survive. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

(Fellin 1980a, Fellin 1980c). Most treatments adversely affected macrofauna in 1977 (which was 3 y

after harvest and 2 y after burning) at Coram. The

light prescribed fires stimulated a resurgence of some

groups. Treatments, by decreasing impact on forest

floor fauna, were: shelterwood-leave residue,

shelterwood-burn residue, shelterwood-mechanically

remove residues (intense fiber utilization), clearcutburn residue, clearcut-mechanically remove residue.

Forest litter, humus, and soil arthropods. Mites

(Arachnida, Acarina) and springtails (Insecta,

Collembola) were most affected by harvest cutting

and utilization treatments at Coram (Fellin 1980b).

Based on data taken in 1976, 2 y after harvest and 1 y

after burning, mesofaunal reduction, in decreasing

order of treatment, were: clearcut-residue burned,

clearcut-residue mechanically removed, shelterwoodresidue burned, and shelterwood-residue mechanically

removed. Management practices involving harvest,

residues, and fire all influence forest succession (Fellin

1980c).

Resource Management Implications

Fuels and fire. Fuels and fire behavior potentials

were unaffected by cutting method but varied by

utilization standards (Brown 1980). Predicted rates of

spread on units logged with usual utilization standards were 3 to 4 times greater than on units with

near-complete utilization. Conventional utilization left

fireline intensities exceeding capabilities for direct

fire control for 3 to 20 y or more. Fuel less than 76 mm

in diameter was reduced to 0.7 of that created by

cutting. Whole tree skidding coupled with slashing left

unacceptable hazards for 3 to 5 y. Near-complete

utilization left acceptable levels of hazard but also left

insufficient fuel for prescribed burning (figure 47).

Esthetic quality. The visual appearance of an area

after tree harvest is a measure of public feeling (Benson

1980). The esthetic impact of different harvest and

utilization alternatives used at Coram were evaluated

by the scenic beauty estimation method using color

slides rated by panels of viewers to provide a quantitative measure of public feeling. In general, the less an

area shows logging debris and signs of soil disturbance, the better the area is rated. Esthetic quality

improves as trees and other vegetation regenerate

following treatment. These evaluations provide guides

for harvesting, especially in visually sensitive areas,

and a means for evaluating the effectiveness of alternative harvesting methods in meeting visual objectives (figure 48).

Cavity-nesting birds. Impacts of harvesting and residues management treatments on nesting and feeding

of cavity nesters, especially woodpeckers, was studied

from 1974 to 1979 (McClelland 1979; McClelland and
42 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Frissel 1975). These birds prefer western larch, black

cottonwood, paper birch, or aspen nest trees with

heartwood decay (McClelland and others 1979).

Forests with old growth larch supported the greatest density and diversity of cavity nesters (McClelland

1980). Uncut controls received the highest percentage

of feeding use. Clearcuts received little use, regardless

of the intensity of residue utilization.

Of trees that were greater than 23 cm d.b.h., Douglas-fir was about 5 times more abundant than western larch, but larch outnumbered Douglas-fir as nest

trees for the pileated woodpeckers about 17 to 1. Larch

retains a protective layer of relatively firm sapwood

surrounding the decaying interior and Douglas-fir

does not (figure 49), which creates nesting, roosting,

and feeding opportunities for many birds and small

mammals incapable of excavating the dense wood of

western larch (McLelland 1995). In addition, many

birds and small mammals prefer larger diameter (>80

cm) trees, especially snags.

The 1980s: Understanding Forest

Processes

As research shifted from Coram to other areas, longterm studies were remeasured on schedule. New studies focused on dynamics of old growth in the Coram

Research Natural Area, of cone production in young

larch by spacing, of habitat needs of bird populations,

and of revegetating road cuts in cooperation with

Glacier National Park.

Old Growth Dynamics

In 1985, the U.S. Man and the Biosphere Program

funded establishment of 4 permanent baseline monitoring plots in representative forest ecosystems in the

Coram Research Natural Area (Habeck 1985; Habeck

1990). This area serves as a control to similar areas

where manipulative research is conducted elsewhere

on the experimental forest. This was the first formal

effort to study the succession dynamics of the research natural area. These plots were established at

low elevations near the western edge of the research

natural area; 3 in 200+ y-old stands, and 1 in a

100+ y-old stand all within the western larch forest

cover type.

The Forest Service Natural Areas Program funded

establishment of 4 additional plots in 1993 to include

forest cover types and elevations not originally represented (Elzinga 1994). They are established at low

elevations in Engelmann spruce/subalpine fir and

interior Douglas-fir forest cover types and at higher

elevations in the western larch and interior Douglasfir forest cover types. Stand structure, understory

Figure 47. Prescribed fires in September 1975 did not reach

prescription because of wet fuels and frequent rain on the

“Forest Residues Utilization R&D Program study area (upper

shelterwood shown). Above average precipitation prevented

needed drying of slash and litter on the Coram Experimental

Forest. (Photo by Herm Whitman)

Figure 48. This shelterwood is composed of many mature

trees, provides seed for regeneration, protection for new

trees, and esthetically pleasing on the Coram Experimental

Forest. (Photo by Ray Shearer)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 43

Figure 49. Pileated woodpecker feeding young in a

cavity of western larch on the Coram Experimental

Forest. (Photo by Steve Wirt)

composition, and tree seedling composition are described for each plot (Elzinga and Shearer 1997). The

8 plots clearly showed a successional trend toward

shade-tolerant conifers, placing old growth stands at

risk of loss from succession or catastrophic fire.

Cone Production in Young Larch

Research began in 1985 to study the influence of

stand density on the frequency and amount of seed

cone production on two 32 y-old stands at Coram

(Shearer 1986). The average number of cones per tree

increased as average spacing increased. Unthinned

(control) trees almost never produced cones, while

trees with an average spacing of 3.4, 4.6, and 6.1 m

produced an increasing number of cones as distance

between trees increased (Shearer and Schmidt 1987;

Shearer and Schmidt 1988).

Bird Populations in Logged and Unlogged Forest

Differences in avian assemblage after logging and

site-preparation on the Coram Experimental Forest,

and within the nearby uncut Coram Research Natural

Area, were studied from 1989 to 1991. Plots in treated

areas were established near temporary plots used in a

preharvest survey of birds in 1984. Of 32 species of

abundant breeding birds, populations of 10 species

differed significantly between small cutting units and

adjacent uncut research natural area (Tobalske and

others 1991). Foliage foragers and tree gleaners were

less abundant in cutting units than flycatching species and ground foragers. Conifer tree nesters were

least abundant in cutting units than ground nesters.

Snags and broadleaf trees of all species should be

retained to help maintain tree dependent bird species.

Other research at Coram and elsewhere (Tobalske

and others 1990) showed that there was no significant

difference in the relative abundance of Red-naped

sapsuckers among clearcut, partial-cut, fragmented,

and contiguous forest (Tobalske 1992). Retaining

snags and living trees mitigated the effects of timber

harvest for the sapsuckers in spite of the drastic

alteration of forest composition and structure associated with logging (Tobalske 1991; Intermountain Research Station 1992).

Cooperative Research with Glacier National Park

Reconstruction of the Lake McDonald section of the

Going-to-the-Sun Road in Glacier National Park began in 1991. Results from the revegetation of cuts and

fills by native shrubs and forbs on a road at Coram

(Hungerford 1984) helped park planners. However,

information was lacking for regenerating several other

species. Cooperation between these 2 governmental

organizations was enhanced because both Glacier

National Park and the Coram Experimental Forest

are biosphere reserves, units of the international

United Nations Man and the Biosphere Program.

In 1987, a study was installed on a similar site at

Coram to learn how to revegetate several native herbaceous species on cut slopes and ditches (Shearer

and others 1996). Results from these studies (Lange

and Lapp 1999) helped planners implement successful strategies to quickly restore native vegetation on

cuts, fills, and ditches after road reconstruction

(figure 50).

The 1990s: Research, Conservation, and

Education

Application of Coram research results to ecosystem

management enhanced the value of the area for educational purposes. Research at Coram was featured at

the international symposium “Ecology and Management of Larix Forests: A Look Ahead” held in 1992.

The International Larix Arboretum, associated with

the Coram Experimental Forest and located nearby in

Hungry Horse, was dedicated during the symposium.

New research included: installing 4 additional old
44 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

growth vegetation structure plots within the Coram

Research Natural Area; evaluating small mammal

habitat needs; evaluating stand density effects on

wood quality; and increasing monitoring of climate

and stream flow.

Research Encourages Biological Diversity

Research at Coram includes regeneration of forest trees after harvest cutting and site treatment,

culture and growth of young forests, and interaction of

flora, fauna, and water after a wide range of forest

treatments.

Ongoing studies in the 1990s include:

• cone production

• conifer seed dispersal

• establishment of regeneration after harvest

cuttings

• effect of stand culture treatment on forest

development

• insects, diseases, birds, and animals

• effect of wood utilization on site productivity

• influence of silvicultural practices on watershed,

esthetics, and wildlife values

This research provides valuable data on vegetation

succession, soils, birds, mammals, insects, disease,

climate, and hydrology. Resource managers use these

results to make environmentally sound decisions.

Research at Coram will continue to assist the development of ecosystem-based management strategy and

encourage biological diversity through long-term studies on new and old growth forests.

Figure 50. In June 1991 Dave Lange (upper left), Glacier

National Park, explains cooperative research on the Coram

Experimental Forest to scientists, managers, and other employees of Glacier National Park and how results will help

to successfully revegetate road cuts with native plants after

reconstruction of the Going-to-the-Sun Highway. (Photo by

Ray Shearer)

New studies by cooperators include:

• needlefall accumulation and decomposition rates

in old growth larch forests

• avian productivity and survivorship

• height/diameter ratio and tree stability relationships for pole-size western larch

• wood quality as related to stand density and site

Down wood and needlefall. Coram was used from

1994 to 1998 as one of 2 sites in western Montana to

quantify downed woody material, conifer needlefall

accumulation, and decomposition rates, and then

compare the results with forest productivity (Keene

1997a). While smaller twigs are deposited proportionately to litter, larger twigs and branches seem to be

deposited stochastically across the surface (Keene

1997b). Larger woody fuel accumulation is difficult to

relate to litterfall. Nearly the same litterfall rate

occurs on similar sites, but not for similar stands on

different sites.

Monitoring Avian Productivity and Survivorship

Program (MAPS). In 1992, the Coram Experimental

Forest (1 of 4 sites on the Flathead National Forest)

was selected to provide annual regional indices and

estimates of adult population size, post-fledging productivity, adult survivorship, and recruitment into

the adult population for various landbird species. This

information is used to provide crucial information

upon which to initiate research and management

actions to reverse declines of North American landbirds

(DeSante and Walker 1994).

Data collected in 1993 and 1994 at Coram is listed

in a national database and reviewed in the MAPS

Program (DeSante and others 1996). The fifth consecutive year of mist-netting and banding was completed in 1997.

Tree stability. Larch within the buffer zone surrounding the spacing study were sampled and included with larch from other sites in western Montana

to determine the influence of height to diameter ratio

as an indicator of susceptibility to snow bend or

breakage. When the ratio exceeds 80:1, likelihood of

damage is high (Wonn 1998). Live crown ratio, however, is not a good predictor for damage.

International Symposium: Ecology and

Management of Larix Forests

Research within the Coram Experimental Forest

was a major part of the impetus for presentations

and field trips during the international 1992 Larix

Symposium in Whitefish, Montana (Tippets 1996).

Although the research and management of western

larch was emphasized during the symposium, information from participants expanded the knowledge of

all larch species. The program was designed for

natural resource managers, research scientists,
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 45

educators, and specialists. A proceedings was issued

that included all papers presented at the symposium

(Schmidt and McDonald 1995).

International Larix Arboretum

Since research began at Coram, the establishment of

an arboretum to feature the world’s 10 species of Larix

has been envisioned. In 1991, the seeds of nine species

and several hybrids and varieties were acquired and

grown as container stock. Seed for the tenth species

was obtained in 1997 and sown in containers in 1998.

Seedlings were outplanted in the fall of 1999.

Western larch, alpine larch, and their reciprocal

hybrids were produced in the Forestry Sciences

Laboratory greenhouse. All others species, hybrids,

and varieties were grown in the Forest Service

Coeur d’Alene Nursery. Instead of being planted on

the Coram Experimental Forest, all but 1 species

were outplanted in 1992 in the Hungry Horse Ranger

Station compound, which is across the street from

the Coram Experimental Forest field headquarters

(Tippets 1996).

This 0.5 ha site (figure 51) has many advantages

over a site on the experimental forest:

• a water supply to help establish and maintain the

trees

• lower risk of contaminating nearby larch with

foreign pollen

• easy public access

• reduced incidents of vandalism

The arboretum was dedicated October 7, 1992 after

field tours associated with the Larix Symposium

(Shearer and others 1995). It is a symbol of global

cooperation and increases public awareness of the

world wide distribution, importance, and differences

within the genus Larix and provides an opportunity to

compare species, varieties, and hybrids. A newspaper

article called this arboretum “one of the region’s best

kept secrets” (Jokerst 1996).

Conservation Education in an Outdoor Classroom

The Coram Experimental Forest is a quality field

site; a living learning center for educational programs

about the environment. Fifty years of research provides a base of information on the beginning, development, and function of these forest ecosystems (Kiehn

1995/1996). Research at Coram also shows how these

forests respond to harvest and site preparation, manipulation of conifer tree regeneration, and to other

treatments. Interpretation of research projects at

Coram provides an opportunity to explore the value of

this experimental forest as a laboratory for social,

cultural, and natural resource studies.

Coram provides interpretive and educational opportunities to people who visit the site each year.

Figure 51. International Larix Arboretum, Hungry Horse, Montana, was dedicated on October 7, 1992. (Photo by Steve

Wirt)

People visit Coram for information about conservation

and the sustainable use of forests. Scientists, resource

professionals, students, and individuals can see the

effects of many treatments on forest land and can gain

an understanding and appreciation of natural resources. For example, long-term climatic and hydrologic stations at several locations on the experimental

forest monitor temperature, radiation, wind, precipitation, and stream flow to help interpret study data.

In addition, there are educational trails with ecological learning stations and areas suitable for student

research.

Students take to the field. The University of Montana

forestry students visit Coram annually to complement

classroom studies and see ecology research and management in action. The Glacier Institute teaches the

basics of forest ecology and sampling methods to high

school students each summer. Teacher training workshops (figure 52) help teachers to bring conservation

education curriculum into the classroom. Instructional

field packets also provide students with hands-on

learning opportunities. In 1995, an environmental

education curriculum was developed for teachers.

Brochures are also available that explain the purpose

and function of Coram.

A three-way partnership, between Columbia Falls

School District Six, the Rocky Mountain Research

Station, and the Flathead National Forest provides a

positive outdoor learning experience for students. This

partnership offers students an opportunity to practice

science in a meaningful manner and promotes the

importance of natural resource stewardship. School

District Six, centered in Columbia Falls, adopted Coram

as a field-study site for a middle school science curriculum (figure 53) and the Eagle School in Coram conducts a comprehensive stream monitoring project that

includes permanent plots at 3 locations on Abbot
46 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Creek. Teachers and students are developing aquatic

teaching tools to explore stream integrity and are also

developing a Coram Experimental Forest home page.

Volunteers assist with field education. Dedicated

volunteers have helped raise the awareness of Coram

as an outdoor classroom through development of the

Coram Experimental Forest conservation education

program. With continued assistance from natural resource and conservation education program funding,

the following educational tools have been developed

for the Coram Experimental Forest:

• a comprehensive teacher’s manual and curriculum, and an environmental education trunk containing environmental education resources, such

as aerial photos, hands-on equipment

• four rough trails with site-specific learning and

interpretive activities

• a Flathead Valley school watershed monitoring

project (Project Free Flow) on Abbot Creek (several sites in the watershed were located and

equipment was purchased for use by students and

teachers)

• informal field trips for all local teachers to Coram wetland sites, and formal teacher workshops

to integrate use of Coram into existing school

curricula

• a formal partnership between the USDA Forest

Service and the Columbia Falls School District to

support a district science teacher to serve as a

Coram education coordinator.

Figure 52. Lynne Dixon (Forest Service volunteer), Silja Meier (Clemson University intern),

and Don Kiehn (Forest Service volunteer) conducted workshops in October 1995 to help

teachers learn how to use the Coram Experimental Forest for field and stream ecology

curricula. (Photo by Ray Shearer)

Figure 53. Students from Columbia Falls (Montana) High

School study vegetation and macro invertebrates of Abbot

Creek, Coram Experimental Forest for hands-on environmental learning experiences. (Photo by Don Kiehn)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 47

Other educational opportunities. The Coram Experimental Forest also meets educational needs in the

following ways:

• In response to requests for information from educators, researchers, and natural resource managers, the Northern Alliance, leaders of universities and the Forest Service within Idaho, Montana,

and Utah, identified 14 outdoor laboratories in

these states that provide basic information about

ecosystem function (Schmidt and Friede 1996).

An overview of the Coram Experimental Forest is

included in this publication (Shearer 1996).

• In 1994, the Western Montana Ecosystem Management Learning Center Program was organized at

the University of Montana and includes the Coram

Experimental Forest as a key learning center.

• Coram is part of the Crown of the Continent

Ecosystem Education Consortium. This group

provides a bio-regional focus on education in the

area surrounding the Continental Divide north of

Missoula, Montana, into southwest Alberta,

Canada, and southeast British Columbia, Canada.

• The Montana Natural History Center, Missoula,

Montana, is assembling a Network for Ecological

and Conservation Education in the Crown of the

Continent Region with Coram as a participant.

• Continuing participation in the Northwest

Montana Environmental Education Core Group.

Commemorating 50 y of research. Beginning in

1998, special events were developed to Commemorate the 50 y of continuous research on the Coram

Experimental Forest including:

• Walk With Larch (Shearer and Kiehn 1999), a selfguided trail, which is part of the Coram Experimental Forest conservation education program.

The trail provides further opportunities for students and forest visitors to explore this unique area.

• Living in the Landscape, a Flathead community

celebration which celebrated 50 y of research at

Coram (Shearer 1998). This event encouraged

science students to complete a 1 or 2 y mentored

research project. The student’s work added to the

knowledge of the area and was featured in public

presentations and field tours in 1998.

• A local community celebration was held to mark

Coram’s 50th anniversary and to explore people’s

connection to the landscape. A community quilt,

science symposium (Living in the Landscape

1998a), concert, student research projects, art

exhibits (Living in the Landscape 1998b), community anthology and field trips were featured.

Summary ______________________

For 50 y, the Coram Experimental Forest has been

a focal point for western larch research surpassing

all other areas with the number and diversity of

western larch research. Results during the first 40 y

of research were shown to a wide range of visitors

including American and foreign researchers, college

students, and land managers.

From 1948 to 1960, a wide range of practical studies

at Coram and elsewhere helped land managers effectively plan harvest cutting and site preparation treatments to regenerate forest land with western larch

and associated conifers. In 1961, a 40 y thinning

study began within recently regenerated young

stands at Coram and 2 other locations in western

Montana to learn the effects of different spacings on

the growth characteristics of western larch. Later,

other studies within these plots showed how differing

spacings influenced soil water use, cone production,

damage to young trees, and development of shrubs

and forbs on the plots. Advantages and disadvantages

of planting and seeding were also identified in the

1960s. A multidisciplinary research effort in the

1970s provided managers with greater understanding how ecosystems respond to removal of differing

amounts of woody residues. Research in the 1980s

looked at changes occurring in old growth forests and

on the influence of treatments associated with tree

harvest on habitat for resident and migratory birds.

In addition to continued research at Coram during

the 1990s, research findings in the last 10 y were

shared with science teachers in nearby schools for use

in classrooms. Teachers were encouraged to use the

experimental forest as an outdoor classroom. The

Walk With Larch trail (Shearer and Kiehn 1999) was

opened to celebrate 50 y of research by showing visitors examples of natural processes that followed several treatments starting in 1951 and demonstrating

their influence on management options in western

larch dominated forests.

Future research and management on the Coram

Experimental Forest will build on a history rich in

discovery and add to our expanding environmental

knowledge. In addition to old growth forests at Coram,

a broad range of younger age classes are now available because harvest cutting from 1916 to 1974 provided opportunities for a wide range of new studies

(figure 54). Research at Coram will continue to provide data for developing ecosystem management

strategies and enhance understanding of biological

diversity through long-term studies. Ecosystembased management focuses on the entire landscape,

so it is necessary to blend the social and economic

needs of people with the ability of the natural system

to sustain itself. Research and land management

information from studies at Coram helps to complete

the ecosystem puzzle in northwest Montana and contributes useful data throughout the natural range of

western larch.
48 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Figure 54. Geographic Information System generated map of harvest cuttings from 1916 to 1974 on the Coram Experimental Forest.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 49

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Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 335-414.

Keywords: arthropods, disease, fire, residue, silviculture

Fellin, David G.; Schmidt, Wyman C. 1973. How does western

spruce budworm feeding affect western larch? Gen. Tech. Rep.

INT-7. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 25 p.

Keywords: Lepidoptera (forest damage), shoot damage,

Choristoneura occidentalis, Larix occidentalis.

Finklin, Arnold I. 1986. A climatic handbook for Glacier National

Park—with data for Waterton Lakes National Park. General Technical Report INT-204. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service Intermountain Research Station. 124 p.

Keywords: climate, mountain climatology, fire weather, fire

management

Fredeking, William J. 1953. The development of reproduction following a seed tree cutting of a larch stand in northwestern Montana.

Missoula, MT: Montana State University. 64 p. Thesis.

Keywords: advance regeneration, natural regeneration, site

preparation, overstory, shade, composition

Gardner, Rulon B. 1978. Cost, performance, and esthetic impacts of

an experimental forest road in Montana. Res. Pap. INT-203. Ogden,

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Forest and Range Experiment Station. 28 p.

Keywords: Logging roads, road design, environmental impact.

Gardner, Rulon B. 1980. Skyline logging productivity under

alternative harvesting prescriptions and levels of utilization in

larch-fir stands. Res. Pap. INT-247. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 35 p.

Keywords: skyline yarding, clearcut, shelterwood, group

selection

Gisborne, H. T. 1929. A forest fire explosion. The Frontier. 10(1): 13-16.

Keywords: Half Moon Fire, fire effects, Glacier National

Park, Desert Mountain Lookout

Gruemme, Tobias. 1994. Small mammal relationships in an old

growth and recently harvested western larch—Douglas-fir forest in

the northwest of Montana. Master’s thesis, Westfälische Wilhelms

Universitat, Münster, Germany. 61 p.

Keywords: live trapping, trapping frequency, microhabitat

Habeck, James R. 1985. Contract completion report, establishment

of permanent baseline monitoring plots in Coram Experimental

Forest. Unpublished report on file at U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Forestry

Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana. 130 p.

Keywords: research natural area, old growth forest

Habeck, James R. 1988. Old growth forests in the Northern Rocky

Mountains. Natural Areas Journal. 8(3): 202-211.

Keywords: management, National Forest Management Act

of 1976, old growth ecosystems

Habeck, James R. 1990. Coram Experimental Forest-MAB Research Natural Area, permanent baseline monitoring plots, 5thyear report, covering 1985-1990. Unpublished report on file at U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.

35 p.

Keywords: old growth forest

Harvey, Alan E. 1982. The importance of residual organic debris

in site preparation and amelioration for reforestation: In:

Baumgartner, David M., ed. Site preparation and fuels management on steep terrain: Proceedings of a symposium; 1982 February

15-17; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University,

Cooperative Extension: 75-85.

Keywords: decaying wood, organic materials, Central Rocky

Mountains, Northern Rocky Mountains, soil organic matter,

management of logging debris.

Harvey, A.E.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J. 1978a. Role of residue

in and impacts of its management on forest soil biology. FAO Special

Paper. FQL 29-8. Proceedings of the Eighth World Forestry Congress; 1978 October 16-28; Jakarta, Indonesia. 10 p.

Keywords: fire, soil, site quality, nutrient cycling, nitrification, nitrogen fixation, decay, ectomycorrhiza, disease,

symbiosis.

Harvey, A.E.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J. 1978b. Seasonal distribution of ectomycorrhizae in a mature Douglas-fir/larch forest soil

in western Montana. Forest Science. 24(2): 203-208.

Keywords: soil microbiology, mycorrhizae, charcoal, decayed

wood, humus, residue, moisture availability, water relations,

prescribed fire, wildfire.

Harvey, A.E.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J. 1980a. Clearcut harvesting and ectomycorrhizae: survival of activity on residual roots

and influence on a bordering forest stand in western Montana.

Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 10: 300-303.

Keywords: broadcast burn, utilization, season of cutting

Harvey, A.E.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J. 1980b. Biological

implications of increasing harvest intensity on the maintenance

and productivity of forest soils. In: USDA Forest Service. Environmental consequences of timber harvesting in Rocky Mountain

coniferous forests: Symposium proceedings; 1979 September 11-13;

Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-90. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and

Range Experiment Station: 211-220.

Keywords: residues, fire, microbial activity, environmental

impact, forest management

Harvey, A.E.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J. 1981. Organic reserves: importance to ectomycorrhizae in forest soils of western

Montana. Forest Science. 27(3): 442-445.

Keywords: woody residues, fuels, forest fire, soil quality,

fungi, decomposition products, soil organic matter.

Harvey, A.E.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J.; Graham, R.T. 1987.

Relationships among soil microsite, ectomycorrhizae, and natural

conifer regeneration of old growth forests in western Montana. Can.

J. For. Res. 17:58-62.

Keywords: site preparation, shading, decayed wood, understory vegetation

Harvey, A.E.; Larsen, M.J.; Jurgensen, M.F. 1976. Distribution of

ectomycorrhizae in a mature Douglas-fir/larch forest soil in western

Montana. Forest Science. 22(3): 393-398.

Keywords: soil microbiology, charcoal, decayed wood, forest

fire.
52 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Harvey, A.E.; Larsen, M.J.; Jurgensen, M.F. 1979a. Comparative

distribution of ectomycorrhizae in soils of three western Montana

forest habitat types. Forest Science. 25(1): 350-358.

Keywords: soil microbiology, mycorrhizae, decayed wood,

humus, litter, charcoal.

Harvey, A.E.; Larsen, M.J.; Jurgensen, M.F. 1979b. Fire - decay:

interactive roles regulating wood accumulation and soil development in the Northern Rocky Mountains. Res. Note INT-263. U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest

and Range Experiment Station. 4 p.

Keywords: prescribed fire, residues management, fuel management, soil organic reserves, nitrogen fixation, ectomycorrhizal, wildfire.

Harvey, A.E.; Larsen, M.J.; Jurgensen, M.F. 1980a. Ecology of

ectomycorrhizae in northern Rocky Mountain forests. In: USDA

Forest Service. Environmental consequences of timber harvesting

in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests: Symposium proceedings;

1979 September 11-13; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-90.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 189-208.

Keywords: harvesting, residues, fire, biological impact, soil

quality, ectomycorrhizae

Harvey, A.E.; Larsen, M.J.; Jurgensen, M.F. 1980b. Partial cut

harvesting and ectomycorrhizae: early effects in Douglas-fir-larch

forests of western Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest Research.

10(3): 436-440.

Keywords: litter, humus, decayed wood, mineral soil, prescribed fire

Harvey, A.E.; Larsen, M.J.; Jurgensen, M.F. 1981a. Rate of woody

residue incorporation into Northern Rocky Mountain forest soils.

Res. Pap. INT-282. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 5 p.

Keywords: decay, disintegration, decomposition, recycling,

nutrients, fuels, wood residues, ectomycorrhizae, nitrogen

fixation, site quality, forest fire, organic reserves.

Harvey, A.E.; Larsen, M.J.; Jurgensen, M.F. 1981b. Forest management implications of improved residue utilization: biological implications in forest ecosystems. In: USDA Forest Service. Harvesting

and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the Northern

Rocky Mountains: Symposium proceedings; 1979 November 28-30;

Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-110. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and

Range Experiment Station: 259-267.

Keywords: forest soil, organic reserves, microbial activity,

ectomycorrhizae, nitrogen fixation, non-symbiotic, intensive

utilization

Harvey, Alan E.; Jurgensen, Martin F.; Larsen, Michael J.; Graham, Russell T. 1987. Decaying organic materials and soil quality

in the Inland Northwest: a management opportunity. Gen. Tech.

Rep. INT-225. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Intermountain Research Station. 15 p.

Keywords: forest soil, organic reserves, soil microbes, nitrogen fixation, ectomycorrhizae, harvesting and fire effects,

regeneration, site preparation, soil management.

Harvey, Alan E.; Jurgensen, Martin F.; Larsen, Michael J.; Schlieter,

Joyce A. 1986. Distribution of active ectomycorrhizal short roots in

forest soils of the Inland Northwest: effects of site and disturbance.

Res. Pap. INT-374. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 8 p.

Keywords: soil microbial activity, soil quality, soil productivity, soil management, fire management, site preparation, site

protection.

Hungerford, Roger D. 1980. Microenvironmental response to harvesting and residue management. In: USDA Forest Service. Environmental consequences of timber harvesting in Rocky Mountain

coniferous forests: Symposium proceedings; 1979 September 11-13;

Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-90. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and

Range Experiment Station: 37-73.

Keywords: logging residue, temperature, net radiation, operational environment, energy budget.

Hungerford, Roger D. 1984. Native shrubs: suitability for revegetating road cuts in Northwestern Montana. Res. Pap. INT-331. Ogden,

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Research Station. 13 p.

Keywords: revegetation, soil stability.

Hungerford, Roger D.; Babbitt, Ronald E. 1987. Overstory removal

and residue treatments affect soil surface, air, and soil temperature:

implications for seedling survival. Res. Pap. INT-377. Ogden, UT:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Research Station. 19 p.

Keywords: timber harvesting, thermal properties.

Hungerford, Roger D.; Nemani, Ramakrishna R.; Running,

Steven W.; Coughlan, Joseph C. 1989. MTCLIM: A mountain

microclimate simulation model. Res. Pap. INT-414. Ogden, UT: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 52 p.

Keywords: meteorology, weather, climatology, temperature,

solar radiation, humidity, precipitation.

Hungerford, Roger D.; Schlieter, Joyce A. 1984. Weather summaries for Coram Experimental Forest, Northwestern Montana—an

International Biosphere Reserve. Res. Pap. INT-160. Ogden, UT:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Research Station. 34 p.

Keywords: climate, temperature, precipitation, solar irradiance, frost-free.

Intermountain Research Station. 1992. Evaluating habitat suitability using Red-naped sapsuckers. INTercom. 1992 Intermountain research highlights. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 10.

Keywords: nesting and foraging trees, snags, western larch,

paper birch, aspen, timber harvest

Jokerst, Gail. 1995. Nine species grown, one to go. Waterton Glacier

Views. August 30 to September 5: 24.

Keywords: Larix Arboretum, larch, western larch

Jurgensen, M.F.; Arno, S.F.; Harvey, A.E.; Larsen, M.J.; Pfister,

R.D. 1979. Symbiotic and nonsymbiotic nitrogen fixation in Northern Rocky Mountain forest ecosystems. In: Symbiotic nitrogen

fixation in the management of temperate forests: Proceedings,

National Science Foundation workshop; 1979 April 2-5; Corvallis,

OR. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University: 294-308.

Keywords: habitat type, wood decay, forest residue

management

Jurgensen, M.F.; Harvey, A.E.; Graham, R.T.; Page-Dumroese,

D.S.; Tonn, J.R.; Larsen, M.J.; Jain, T.B. 1997. Impacts of timber

harvesting on soil organic matter, nitrogen, productivity, and health

of inland northwest forests. For. Sci. 43(2): 234-251.

Keywords: mounding, mycorrhizae, nitrogen fixation, scalping, site preparation, woody residue

Jurgensen, M.F.; Harvey, A.E.; Larsen, M.J. 1981. Effects of prescribed fire on soil nitrogen levels in a cut-over Douglas-fir/western

larch forest. Res. Pap. INT-275. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 6 p.

Keywords: available nitrogen, ammonium, nitrate, nitrifying

bacteria, site preparation
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 53

Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J.; Harvey, A.E. 1977a. A soil sampler for steep, rocky sites. Res. Note INT-217. Ogden, UT: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest

and Range Experiment Station. 5 p.

Keywords: soils, soil core sampler

Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J.; Harvey, A.E. 1977b. Effects of

timber harvesting on soil biology. 1977 National Convention, The

Society of American Forester: 244-250.

Keywords: forest management, biomass removal, soil properties, organic matter mineralization, nitrogen availability,

dinitrogen fixation, symbiosis, nitrification, denitrification,

rhizosphere interactions, woody residue decay, plant pathogens, fire

Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J.; Harvey, A.E. 1979. Forest soil

biology-timber harvesting relationships: a perspective. Gen. Tech.

Rep. INT-69. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 12 p.

Keywords: Soil micro-organisms, nutrient cycling, nitrogen

fixation, nitrification, denitrification, mycorrhizae, disease,

fire, residues, decay, mineralization, rhizosphere.

Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J.; Harvey, A.E. 1980. Microbial processes associated with nitrogen cycling in northern Rocky Mountain

forest soils. In: USDA Forest Service. Environmental consequences

of timber harvesting in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests: Symposium proceedings; 1979 September 11-13; Missoula, MT. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-90. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 175-188.

Keywords: nitrogen fixation, nitrogen mineralization, ammonium, nitrate, timber harvesting, fire, litter

Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J.; Spano, S.D.; Harvey, A.E.; Gale,

M.R. 1984. Nitrogen fixation associated with increased wood decay

in Douglas-fir residue. Forest Science. 30(4): 1038-1044.

Keywords: acetylene reduction, Fomitopsis pinicola, wood

carbohydrate, wood sugars.

Keane, Robert E. 1997a. Fuel dynamics in the northern Rocky

Mountains. Study Plan. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire

Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 8 p.

Keywords: Montana, litterfall, twigs, branches, woody fuel

Keane, Robert E. 1997b. Personal communication, December 1.

Kiehn Don. 1995/1996. Coram Experimental Forest no longer a

secret. Flathead National Forest Focus. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. p 12.

Keywords: education, partnership, Freeflow, curriculum

Klages, M.G. 1974. Clay minerals of Montana soils. Proceedings of

the Montana Academy of Sciences. 34: 12-18.

Keywords: mica, allophane, volcanic ash

Klages, M.G.; McConnell, R.C.; Nielsen, G.A. 1976. Soils of the

Coram Experimental Forest. Res. Rep. 91. Bozeman, MT: Montana

State University, Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. 43 p.

Keywords: Flathead National Forest, northwestern Montana, western larch, Larix occidentalis, Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii.

Lange, David E.; Lapp, Joyce. 1999. Native plant restoration on the

Going-to-the-Sun Road, Glacier National Park. In: Holzworth,

Larry K.; Brown, Ray W., comps. Revegetation with native species:

proceedings, 1997 society for Ecological Restoration annual meeting; 1997, November 12-15; Ft. Lauderdale, FL. Proc. RMRS-P-8,

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station: 22-27.

Keywords: partnerships, seed collection, planting strategies,

diversity, survival, growth

Larsen, M.J.; Harvey, A.E.; Jurgensen, M.F. 1980. Residue decay

processes and associated environmental functions in northern

Rocky Mountain forests. In: USDA Forest Service. Environmental

consequences of timber harvesting in Rocky Mountain coniferous

forests: Symposium proceedings; 1979 September 11-13; Missoula,

MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-90. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 157-174.

Keywords: decay, lignin, fungi, bacteria, N2-fixation, soil

wood, mycorrhizae, psychrophiles, nutrient cycling.

Larsen, M.J.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Harvey, A.E. 1978. N2 fixation

associated with wood decayed by some common fungi in western

Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 8: 341-345.

Keywords: Douglas-fir, subalpine fir, western hemlock,

Fomitopsis pinicola, Echinodontium tinctorium

Larsen, Michael J.; Jurgensen, Martin F.; Harvey, Alan E. 1981.

Athelia epiphylla associated with colonization of subalpine fir foliage under psychrophilic conditions. Mycologia. Vol. LXXII, No. 6:

1195-1202.

Keywords: conifer residue, nutrients, foliage

LeBarron, Russell K. 1948. Review of published information on the

larch-Douglas-fir type. Stn. Pap. 15. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Rocky Mountain

Forest and Range Experiment Station. 14 p.

Keywords: research, western larch, Douglas-fir, silvics, silvicultural practices, utilization, cutting methods, natural regeneration, stand improvement, slash disposal.

Living in the Landscape. 1998a. Interpreting the landscape through

science: Symposium proceedings; 1998 May 15-16; Kalispell, MT.

Living in the Landscape, a Flathead Community Celebration. 79 p.

Keywords: Flathead Valley, geography, earth sciences, biology, forestry, aquatics, wildlife, society, economy, research,

future, Coram Experimental Forest, Miller Creek Demonstration Forest

Living in the Landscape. 1998b. Voices from the Landscape. 95 p.

Keywords: Flathead Valley, anthology, stories, poems, essays

Lusk, H. Gilbert; Hayden, Brace; Syroteuk, Merv; Frith, Larry;

Shearer, Raymond, principal contribs. 1995. Crown of the continent

biosphere reserves. In: Condo, Antionette J., coord. Biosphere reserves in action: case studies of the American experience. Dept. of

State Pub. 10241: 31-36. Available from: NTIS, Springfield, VA

22151; NTIS PB95-159877.

Keywords: Coram Experimental Forest, Glacier National

Park, Waterton Lakes National Park, cooperation, ecosystem

uses, biological diversity, conservation, sustainability.

McCaughey, Ward W.; Schmidt, Wyman C.; Shearer, Raymond C.

1986. Seed-dispersal characteristics of conifers in the Inland

Mountain West. In: Shearer, Raymond C., compiler. Proceedings—

conifer tree seed in the Inland Mountain West symposium; 1985

August 5-6; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-203. Ogden, UT:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Research Station: 50-62.

Keywords: production, distance, time, wind, seed characteristics, animals.

McClelland, B. Riley 1979. The pileated woodpecker in the forests

of the northern Rocky Mountains. In: Dickson, J.G.; Conner, R.N.;

Fleet, R.R.; Jackson, J.A.; Kroll, J.C. eds. The role of insectivorous

birds in forest ecosystems. Academic Press, NY: 283-299.

Keywords: bird management, cavity nesters, old growth,

western larch, paper birch, black cottonwood.
54 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

McClelland, B. Riley. 1980. Influences of harvesting and residue management on cavity-nesting birds. In: USDA Forest

Service. Environmental consequences of timber harvesting in

Rocky Mountain coniferous forests: Symposium proceedings; 1979

September 11-13; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-90. Ogden,

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Forest and Range Experiment Station: 469-496.

Keywords: bird management, cavity nesters, old growth,

residue management, timber harvesting, western larch.

McClelland, B. Riley. 1995. Old growth western larch forests:

management implications for cavity-nesting birds. In: Schmidt,

Wyman C.; McDonald, Kathy J., (comps). Ecology and management

of Larix forests: a look ahead—proceedings of an international

symposium; 1992 October 5-9; Whitefish, MT, USA. Gen. Tech. Rep.

INT-319. Ogden, UT:U.S.Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 376.

Keywords: heartwood decay, pileated woodpecker.

McClelland, B. Riley; Frissell, Sidney S. 1975. Identifying forest

snaggs useful for hole-nesting birds. J. Forestry. 73(7): 414-417.

Keywords: bird management, old growth, western larch,

paper birch, snags.

McClelland, B. Riley; Frissell, Sidney S.; Fisher, William C.;

Halvorson, Curtis H. 1979. Habitat management for hole-nesting

birds in forests of western larch and Douglas-fir. J. For. 77(8):

480-483.

Keywords: old growth, nesting, feeding sites, paper birch,

black cottonwood, timber harvesting.

Mroz, G.D.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Harvey, A.E.; Larsen, M.J. 1980.

Effects of fire on nitrogen in forest floor horizons. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.

J. 44:395-400.

Keywords: nitrification, ammonification, volatilization, red

pine, eastern hemlock, Douglas-firm, western larch

Newman, Howard C.; Schmidt, Wyman C. 1980. Silviculture and

residue treatments affect water used by a larch/fir forest. In: USDA

Forest Service. Environmental consequences of timber harvesting

in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests: Symposium proceedings;

1979 September 11-13; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-90.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 75-110.

Keywords: water use, precipitation, soil water, Larix occidentalis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, larch/Douglas-fir, silvicultural

systems, residues management, broadcast burning,

clearcutting, shelterwood, group selection, Northern Rocky

Mountains, evapotranspiration.

Pfister, Robert D.; Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Arno, Stephen F.; Presby,

Richard C. 1977. Forest habitat types of Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep.

INT-34. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 174 p.

Keywords: forest vegetation, Montana, plant communities,

forest ecology, forest management.

Polk, R. Brooks, 1949. A survey of composition trends in cutover

stands of the larch/Douglas-fir cover tyupe of western Montana.

Missoula, MT: Montana State University. 99 p. thesis.

Keywords: Larix occidentalis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, overstory species, seedbed, natural regeneration, aspect.

Polk, R. Brooks; Boe, Kenneth N. 1951. Succession of trees in

cutover larch-Douglas-fir stands in western Montana. Proceedings,

Montana Academy of Sciences. 10: 31-37.

Keywords: Larix occidentalis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, overstory species, seedbed, natural regeneration, aspect.

Richardson, Sherri. 1997. Trees and logs important for wildlife

habitat. Forestry Research West. U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service. December: 7-11.

Keywords: dead trees, snags, heartrot, broomed trees, downed

woody material

Roe, Arthur L. 1948a. A preliminary classification of tree vigor for

western larch and Douglas-fir trees in western Montana. Res.

Note 66. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Northern Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station. 6 p.

Keywords: position in stand, size, crown condition, age,

disease

Roe, Arthur L. 1948b. Thirty-nine years’ growth in a cutover larch

stand. Res. Note 70. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Northern Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 6 p.

Keywords: growth rate, mortality, ingrowth, periodic annual

growth

Roe, Arthur L. 1950. Response of western larch and Douglas-fir to

logging release in western Montana. Northwest Science. 24: 99-104.

Keywords: site quality, climatic factors, biotic factors, age,

vigor, competition

Roe, Arthur L. 1951. Growth tables for cut-over larch-Douglas-fir

stands in the upper Columbia Basin. Stn. Pap. 30. Missoula, MT:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Rocky

Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 24 p.

Keywords: reserve tree growth, ingrowth, mortality

Roe, Arthur L. 1952a. Larch-Douglas-fir regeneration studies in

Montana. Northwest Science. 26: 95-102.

Keywords: understory vegetation, natural regeneration, light,

stocking, seedling abundance

Roe, Arthur L. 1952b. First Annual Report of Coram Experimental

Forest, 1951. Report on file, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Missoula,

MT. 8 p.

Keywords: harvest cutting methods, seedbed preparation,

Krilium treatment, seed dispersal, natural regeneration,

planting

Roe, Arthur L. 1955a. A seedbed preparation test in the larch—

Douglas-fir timber type in northwestern Montana. Missoula, MT:

Montana State University. 62 p. Thesis.

Keywords: scarification, prescribed fire, mineral soil, natural

regeneration, conifer seedfall

Roe, Arthur L. 1955b. Cutting practices in Montana larch-Douglasfir. Northwest Science. 29: 23-34.

Keywords: shelterwood, seed tree, block clearcutting, seed

supply, seedbed, composition, seed source

Roe, Arthur L. 1956. The effect of competition in old growth western

larch-Douglas-fir stands. Montana Academy of Sciences. Proc. 16:

41-45.

Keywords: pre-logging and post-logging growth

Roe, Arthur L. 1966. A procedure for forecasting western larch seed

crops. Res. Note INT-49. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station. 7 p.

Keywords: cone production, ranking

Roe, A.L.; Benson, R.E. 1966. Evaluating growth performance of

young stands. Res. Note INT-44. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 7 p.

Keywords: diameter potential, growth potential, tree growth,

stand growth, comparing stands, stand treatment

Roe, Arthur L.; Squillace, A.E. 1953. Effect of cutting methods on

logging costs in larch-Douglas-fir. Journal of Forestry. 51: 799-802.

Keywords: shelterwood, seed-tree, marking, silvicultural

objectives, volume, tree size, tree defect
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 55

Running, Steven W.; Hungerford, Roger D. 1983. Spatial extrapolation of meteorological data for ecosytem modeling applications,

symposium proceedings; reprinted from: Proceedings of the 16th

conference on agriculture and forest meteorology; 1983 April 25-29;

Fort Collins, CO. Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society.

Keywords: mountain meteorology model, air temperature,

relative humidity, incoming radiation.

Schmidt, Wyman C. 1961. Effects of some treatments on the dormancy of western larch seed. Missoula, MT: University of Montana.

63 p. Thesis.

Keywords: stratification, hydrogen peroxide, steeping, treatment time, germinative capacity

Schmidt, Wyman C. 1962. Rapid viability tests for western larch

seed. Proceedings of the Montana Academy of Sciences. 21: 26-32.

Keywords: hydrogen peroxide, cold soak, thiourea, germinative capacity

Schmidt, Wyman C. 1966. Growth opportunities for young western

larch. Res. Note INT-50. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station. 4 p.

Keywords: diameter, height, crown length, stand density

Schmidt, Wyman C. 1969. Seedbed treatments influence seedling

development in western larch forests. Res. Note INT-93. Ogden, UT:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Forest and Range Experiment Station. 7 p.

Keywords: site preparation, competition, seedling development

Schmidt, Wyman C. 1978. Some biological and physical responses to

forest density. In: Forestry for quality of life/25-2: eighth world

forestry congress. (1978) October 16-28; Jakarta. Printed by P.T.

Gramedia, Jakarta, Indonesia: 1-12.

Keywords: thinning, tree crowns, diameter, height, volume,

water yield, insect relationships

Schmidt, Wyman C. 1980. Understory vegetation response to harvesting and residue management in a larch/fir forest. In: USDA

Forest Service. Environmental consequences of timber harvesting

in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests: Symposium proceedings;

1979 September 11-13; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-90.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 221-248.

Keywords: Larix occidentalis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, larch/

Douglas-fir, residues utilization, prescribed burning, shrubs,

herbs, silvicultural system.

Schmidt, Wyman C. 1989. Management of young Larix occidentalis

forest in the Northern Rocky Mountains of the United States. In:

Wollmerstadt, J. Phol, R.; Thomasius, H., eds. Proceedings of

IUFRO Working Party S1.05-03; treatment of young forest stands;

1989 June 19-23; Dresden, East Germany: Technischen Universitat:

246-253.

Keywords: western larch, stand density, tree growth, animal

damage, water use

Schmidt, Wyman C. 1998. Stand density in relation to biological

functions in young western larch forests. In: Bamsey, Colin R., ed.

Stand density management: planning and implementation: Proceedings of a conference; 1997 November 6-7; Edmonton, Alberta,

Canada: Clear Lake Ltd.: 101-111.

Keywords: Larix occidentalis, crown development, diameter,

height, volume, shrubs, phenology, water use, cone production, wood density, mortality, damage,

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Fellin, David G. 1973. Western spruce budworm damage affects form and height growth of western larch.

Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 3: 17-26.

Keywords: Choristoneura occidentalis, Larix occidentalis,

apical dominance.

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Fiedler, Carol E.; McCaughey, Ward E. 1995.

Vegetation responses to silviculture and woody residue treatments

in a western larch forest. In: Schmidt, Wyman C.; McDonald, Kathy

J., (comps). Ecology and management of Larix forests: a look

ahead—proceedings of an international symposium; 1992 October

5-9; Whitefish, MT, USA. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-319. Ogden,

UT:U.S.Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Research Station: 375.

Keywords: Larix occidentalis, harvest cutting, prescribed

fire, shrubs, herbs

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Friede, Judy L., Compilers. 1996. Experimental forests, ranges and watersheds in the Northern Rocky Mountains: a compendium of outdoor laboratories in Utah, Idaho, and

Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-334. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agricultury, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 117 p.

Keywords: forest research, range research, watershed research, demonstration forests, Northern Alliance, Northern

Rocky Mountains

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Gourley, Mark. 1992. Black Bear. In: Black

Hugh C.., tech. ed.. Silvicultural approaches to animal damage

management in Pacific Northwest forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNWHTR-287. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 309-331.

Keywords: Larix occidentalis, feeding, cambium, tree vigor,

learned behavior, silvicultural practices, stand density

Schmidt, Wyman C.; McCaughey, Ward M.; Schmidt, Jack A. 1995.

Western larch growth and pertubations in stands regulated for 30

years. In: Schmidt, Wyman C.; McDonald, Kathy J., (comps). Ecology and management of Larix forests: a look ahead—proceedings of

an international symposium; 1992 October 5-9; Whitefish, MT,

USA. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-319. Ogden, UT:U.S.Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 281.

Keywords: Larixoccidentalis, diameter growth, height growth,

snow bend, western spruce budworm, black bear

Schmidt, Wyman C.; McDonald, Kathy J., comps. 1995. Ecology and

management of Larix forests: a look ahead. Proceedings of an

international symposium; 1992 October 5-9; Whitefish, MT, USA.

Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-319. Ogden, UT:U.S.Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 521 p.

Keywords: larch, western larch, Larix occidentalis, ecology,

international larch management

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Schmidt, Jack A. 1979. Recover of snow-bent

young western larch. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-54. Ogden, UT: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest

and Range Experiment Station. 13 p.

Keywords: Larix Occidentalis, snow damage, crooked boles

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Seidel, Kenneth W. 1988. Western larch and

space: thinning to optimize growth. In: Schmidt, Wyman C., compiler. Proceedings—future forests of the Mountain West: a stand

culture symposium; 1986 September 29-October 3; Missoula, MT.

Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-243. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 165-174.

Keywords: Immature stands, inventor, timber quality, wildlife, water, forage, recreation, stand density, growth models,

fertilization, genetics, insect and disease impacts, economics,

lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, western white

pine, western hemlock, weatern redcedar, grand fir, spruce,

aspen.

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Shearer, Raymond C. 1973. Western larch. In:

Silvicultural systems for the major forest types of the United States.

Agric. Handb. 445. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 37-38.

Keywords: silviculture, forest types, species, ecosystem

management
56 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Shearer, Raymond C. 1990. Larix occidentalis

Nutt. Western larch. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H.,

tech coords. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb.

654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service. 1: 160-172.

Keywords: forest type, silvics

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Shearer, Raymond C.; Naumann, John R.

1983. Western larch. In: Silvicultural systems for the major forest

types of the United States. Agric. Handb. 445 (Rev.). Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 56-58.

Keywords: silviculture, forest types, species, ecosystem

management

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Shearer, Raymond C.; Roe, Arthur L. 1976.

Ecology and silviculture of western larch forests. Tech. Bull. 1520.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 96 p.

Keywords: western larch, autecology, synecology, forest damage, natural regeneration,artificial regeneration, stand development, cultural measures, growth response, yield tables

Schweitzer, Dennis L.; Ullrich, James R.; Benson, Robert E. 1976.

Esthetic evaluation of timber harvesting in the Northern Rockies—

a progress report. Res. Note INT-203. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range

Experiment Station. 11 p.

Keywords: harvesting (silvicultural) systems, visual impact

Shearer, Raymond. n.d. Coram Experimental Forest—A manipulated biosphere reserve. In: Diana Milove, ed. Crown of the continent—a perspective under the Man and Biosphere Program proceedings; 1989 August 8-10; West Glacier, MT. U.S. Department of

the Interior, Glacier National Park. 6 p.

Keywords: cooperation, long-term research, monitoring, western larch

Shearer, Raymond C. 1959a. Seed dispersal and seedling establishment on clearcut blocks in the larch-Douglas-fir type in northwestern Montana. Logan, UT: Utah State University. 72 p. Thesis.

Keywords: cone production, time of seed fall, site preparation, natural regeneration

Shearer, Raymond C. 1959b. Western larch seed dispersal over

clearcut blocks in northwestern Montana. Proc., Montana Academy of Sciences. 19: 130-134.

Keywords: seed production, seed quality, western larch,

Douglas-fir, thermal slope wind

Shearer, Raymond C. 1959c. 1958 Annual Report of Coram

Experimental Forest. Report on file, Forestry Sciences Laboratory,

Missoula, MT. 7 p.

Keywords: western larch, Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce,

subalpine fir, seed, germination

Shearer, Raymond C; Tackle, David. 1960. Effect of hydrogen

peroxide on germination in three western conifers. Res. Note INT-80.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 4 p.

Keywords: western larch, Douglas-fir, subalpine fir

Shearer, Raymond C. 1961. First-year mortality of coniferous seedlings in the western larch-Douglas-fir type. (Abstr.) Proc., Montana

Academy of Sciences. 20: 18-19.

Keywords: germination, western larch, Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir

Shearer, Raymond C. 1967. Insolation limits initial establishment

of western larch seedlings. Res. Note INT-64. Ogden, UT: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest

and Range Experiment Station. 8 p.

Keywords: surface soil temperature, aspect, direct seeding,

causes of seedling mortality

Shearer, Raymond C. 1970. Problems associated with western

larch planting stock. Proceedings of Joint Meeting of the Western

Forestry Council and the Intermountain Forestry Nurseryman’s

Association: 27-29.

Keywords: planting methods, bare root seedlings, condition,

survival

Shearer, Raymond C. 1971. Silvicultural systems in western larch

forests. Journal of Forestry. 69(10): 732-735.

Keywords: harvest cutting, regeneration, forest value

Shearer, Raymond C. 1980a. Regeneration establishment in response to harvesting and residue management in a western larch/

Douglas-fir forest. In: USDA Forest Service Environmental consequences of timber harvesting in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests:

Symposium proceedings; 1979 September 11-13; Missoula, MT.

Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-90. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station: 249-269.

Keywords: residues, tree regeneration, seed production, seed

dispersal, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir.

Shearer, Raymond C. 1980b. Western larch. In: Eyre, F.H., ed.

Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington,

DC: Society of American Foresters: 93-94.

Keywords: composition, distribution, ecological relationships,

associated vegetation

Shearer, Raymond C. 1986. Western larch cones and seeds—current Intermountain Research Station studies. In: Landis, Thomas

D., tech. coord. Proceedings: Combined Western Forest Nursery

Council and Intermountain Nursery Association meeting; 1986

August 12-15; Tumwater, WA. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-137. Fort

Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 4-10.

Keywords: cone and seed production, cone and seed mortality, factors causing mortality, frost, spacing, insects.

Shearer, Raymond C. 1989. Coram Experimental Forest—a manipulated Forest Reserve. In: Milove, Diana, cd. Crown of the

Continent—a perspective under the Man and Biosphere Program

Proceedings. 189 Aug: 840.

Keywords: cooperation, ecosystems, biodiversity

Shearer, Raymond C. 1991. Research studies of the clearcutting

regeneration harvest method. In: Genetics/Silviculture Workshop

Proceedings; 1990 August 27-31; Wenatchee, WA. U.S. Department

of Ariculture, Forest Service: 168-181.

Keywords: Even-aged, site preparation.

Shearer, Raymond C. 1996. Coram Experimental Forest. In:

Schmidt, Wyman C.; Friede, Judy L., Compilers. 1996. Experimental forests, ranges and watersheds in the Northern Rocky Mountains: a compendium of outdoor laboratories in Utah, Idaho, and

Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-334. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agricultury, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 73-80.

Keywords: forest research, Northern Alliance, Northern Rocky

Mountains

Shearer, Raymond C. 1996. Coram Experimental Forest, a “jewel”

in the Crown of the Continent ecosystem. American Conifer Society

Bulletin. 13(2): 56-58.

Keywords: fire, precipitation, vegetation, Biosphere Reserves,

research

Shearer, Raymond C. 1998. Coram Experimental Forest: Fifty

years of research. In: Interpreting the landscape through science:

Symposium proceedings; 1998 May 15-16; Kalispell, MT. Living in

the Landscape, a Flathead Community Celebration: 20-23.

Keywords: harvest, site preparation, natural regeneration,

young stand management, residues utilization, forest processes, education
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 57

Shearer, Raymond C.; Halvorson, Curtis H. 1967. Establishment of

western larch by spring spot-seeding. Journal of Forestry. 65(3):

188-193.

Keywords: seed pretreatment, seedling mortality, rodents.

Shearer, Raymond C.; Kiehn, E. Donald. 1999. Walk with larch,

paths through an ever-changing forest, Coram Experimental

Forest. 2 p.

Keywords: Coram Experimental Forest, western larch, old

growth, harvest, regeneration, stand development

Shearer, Raymond C.; Potter, Rachel W.; Kurth, Laurie L.; Asebrook,

Jennifer M. 1996. Cooperation enhances revegetation efforts in

Glacier National Park. Park Science 16(1):20-21.

Keywords: Coram Experimental Forest, pine grass, bear

grass, cut slopes, restoration, cover, seedling density

Shearer, Raymond C.; Schmidt, Jack A. 1982. Reforesting a burned

shrubfield and clearcut on a steep slope in a western larch forest of

northwest Montana. In: Site preparation and fuels management on

steep terrain, symposium; 1982 February 15-17; Spokane, WA:

Inland Empire Reforestation Council. Pullman, WA: Washington

State University: 159-165.

Keywords: prescribed burn, natural regeneration, Tordon 101,

direct seeding.

Shearer, Raymond C.; Schmidt, Jack A. 1991. Natural and planted

regeneration of interior Douglas-fir in western Montana. In:

Baumgartner, David M.; Lotan, James E., compilers and eds.

Proceedings of interior Douglas-fir—the species and its management symposium; 1990 February 27-March 1; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Cooperative Extension, Washington State University:

217-226.

Keywords: natural regeneration, planting, height growth.

Shearer, Raymond C.; Schmidt, Jack A. 1999. Natural regeneration

after harvest and residue treatment in a western larch forest of

northwest Montana. Can. J. For Res. 29(2): 274-279.

Keywords: western larch, Douglas-fir, clearcut, shelterwood,

group selection cutting, utilization, broadcast fire

Shearer, Raymond C.; Schmidt, Jack A.; Schmidt, Wyman C. 1995,

International Larix arboretum, Coram Experimental Forest Headquarters, Hungry Horse, Montana, U.S.A. In: Schmidt, Wyman C.;

McDonald, Kathy J., (comps). Ecology and management of Larix

forests: a look ahead—proceedings of an international symposium;

1992 October 5-9; Whitefish, MT, USA. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-319.

Ogden, UT:U.S.Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 518-521.

Keywords: Larix occidentalis, larch species, larch subspecies,

larch hybrids

Shearer, Raymond C.; Schmidt, Wyman C. 1987. Cone production

and stand density in young Larix occidentalis. Forest Ecology and

Management. 19: 219-226.

Keywords: western larch, spacing, pollen cone production,

western Montana

Shearer, Raymond C.; Schmidt, Wyman C. 1988. Cone production

and stand density in young western larch. In: Schmidt, Wyman C.,

compiler. Proceedings—future forests of the Mountain West: a

stand culture symposium; 1986 September 29-October 3; Missoula,

MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-243. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station:

399-400.

Keywords: spacing,

Shearer, Raymond C.; Stoehr, Michael U.; Webber, Joe E.; Ross,

Stephen D. (In Press) Seed cone production increased by injecting

pole-size Larix occidentalis Nutt. with GA 4/7. New Forests.

Keywords: western larch, seed quality, pollen cone production, tree spacing

Shearer, Raymond C.; Tackle, David. 1960. Effects of hydrogen

peroxide on germination in three western conifers. Res. Note 80.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 4 p.

Keywords: western larch, Douglas-fir, subalpine fir

Shearer, R.C.; Carlson, C.E. 1993. Barriers to germination of Larix

occidentalis and larix lyallii seeds. In: Edwards, D.G.W. compiler

and editor. 1993. “Dormancy and barriers to germination.” Proc.

Internat. Sympos. IUFRO Project Group P2.04-00 (Seed Problems).

Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, April 23-26, 1991. Forestry

Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, B.C. p 127-132.

Keywords: western larch, alpine larch, cone production, seed

quality, seed potential

Sneck, Kathleen M. Davis. 1977. The Fire History of Coram Experimental Forest. Missoula, MT; University of Montana. 134 p. Thesis.

Keywords: fire frequency, severity, fire scars, fire chronology,

vegetation diversity

Society of American Foresters (SAF). 1954. Forest cover types of

North America (exclusive of Mexico). Soc. Am. For., Washington,

D.C. 67 p.

Keywords: western larch, definition, composition, nature,

occurrence, transition forms

Spano, S.D.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Larsen, M.J.; Harvey, A.E. 1982.

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in Douglas-fir residue decayed by Fomitopsis

pinicola. Plant and Soil. 68: 117-123.

Keywords: Acetylene reduction, clostridium, Douglas-fir,

enterobacter, klebsiella, wood decay

Stark, Nellie M. 1979. Nutrient losses from timber harvesting in

larch/Douglas-fir forest. Res. Pap. INT-231. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and

Range Experiment Station. 41 p.

Keywords: harvest, nutrient cycling, water quality.

Stark, Nellie M. 1980. Light burning and the nutrient value of

forage. Res. Note INT-280. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station. 7 p.

Keywords: prescribed burning, wood residues, forage nutrients, browse stimulation

Stark, N.M. 1980. The impacts of utilization on nutrient cycling. In:

USDA Forest Service, Environmental consequences of timber harvesting in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests: Symposium proceedings; 1979 September 11-13; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-90.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 123-136.

Keywords: harvest, nutrient cycling, water quality

Stark, N. ca 1983. The nutrient content of Rocky Mountain vegetation: A handbook for estimating nutrients lost through harvest

and burning. Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station, School of Forestry, Univ. of Mont., Missoula. Misc. Publ. No. 14.

81 p.

Keywords: forest soil, harvest, prescribed burning

State Engineer’s Office. 1965. Water Resources Survey. Flathead

and Lincoln Counties Montana. Part I: History of land and water

use on irrigated areas. 56 p; Part II: Maps showing irrigated areas

in colors designating the sources of supply. 28 p.

Keywords: Abbot Creek, water right, climate

Tackle, David. 1962. Infiltration in a western larch-Douglas-fir

stand following cutting and slash treatment. Res. Note INT-89.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 7 p.

Keywords: compaction, skid roads, broadcast burn,

scarification
58 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Tippets, David W. 1995/1996. Larch: when affection may not be

enough to save the species. Flathead National Forest Focus. U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Winter: 4, 8.

Keywords: wildfire, research, silviculture, forest health

Tippets, David W. 1996. Western larch: flames, sunlight, and soil.

Forestry Research West. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service. May: 13-19.

Keywords: wildfire, stand replacement fire, forest health

Tobalske, Bret W. 1991. Bird populations, logging, and Red-naped

sapsucker habitat suitability based on fledging success. Missoula,

MT: University of Montana. 62 p. Thesis.

Keywords: Sphyrapicus nuchalis, abundance, fledging, logging

Tobalske, Bret W. 1992. Evaluating habitat suitability using relative abundance and fledging success of red-naped sapsuckers. The

Condor. 94: 550-553.

Keywords: Sphyrapicusnuchalis, abundance, fledging, logging.

Tobalske, Bret W.; Hutto, Richard L.; Shearer, Raymond C. 1990.

The effects of timber harvesting on the reproductive success of

red-naped sapsuckers (Sphyrapicus nuchalis): planned research.

Northwest Environmental Journal. 6(2): 398-399.

Keywords: old growth, cavity nesting, western larch, paper

birch

Tobalske, Bret W.; Shearer, Raymond C.; Hutto, Richard L. 1991.

Bird populations in logged and unlogged western larch/Douglas-fir

forest in northwestern Montana. Res. Pap. INT-442. Ogden, UT:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Intermountain

Research Station. 12 p.

Keywords: breeding birds, bird habitat, wildlife management, timber harvesting.

U.S. Department of Commerce. 1964. Climatological Data, Montana.

67 (6): 115-140. June. Weather Bureau.

U.S. Department of Commerce. 1966. Climatological Data, Montana.

69(6): 109-131. June. Environmental Science Services Administration, Environmental Data Service.

U.S. Department of Commerce. 1989a. Climatological Data,

Montana. 92(1): 1-44. January. National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, Environmental Data and Information Service,

National Climatic Center, Asheville, NC.

U.S. Department of Commerce. 1989b. Climatological Data,

Montana. 92(2): 1-44. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Data and Information Service, National

Climatic Center, Asheville, NC.

U.S. Department of Commerce. 1995. Climatological Data, Montana. 98(1): 1-44. June. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Data and Information Service, National

Climatic Center, Asheville, NC.

USDA Forest Service. 1980. Environmental consequences of timber

harvesting in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests: Symposium proceedings; 1979 September 11-13; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep.

INT-90. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 526 p.

Keywords: forest residues, wood utilization, timber harvesting, forest practices

USDA Forest Service. 1981. Harvesting and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the Northern Rocky Mountains. Symposium proceedings; 1979 November 28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech.

Rep. INT-110. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:

294 p.

Keywords: forest residues, wood utilization, timber harvesting, forest practices

U. S. Man and the Biosphere Program. 1990. The United States

Man and the Biosphere Program. Department of State Publication 9798. 24 p.

Keywords: MAB, objectives

Wicker, Ed F.; Hawksworth, Frank G. 1991. Upward advance,

intensification, and spread of dwarf mistletoe in a thinned stand of

western larch. Res. Note RM-504. (Fort Collins, CO): U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and

Range Experiment Station. 4 p.

Keywords: Arceuthobium laricis, Larix occidentalis

Wicker, Ed F.; Wells, James M. 1983. Intensification and lateral

spread of Arceuthobium laricis in a young stand of western larch

with stocking control. Can. J. For. Res. 13(2): 314-319.

Keywords: artificial inoculation, larch dwarf mistletoe, stocking level, protection, prevention

Wonn, Hagan T. 1998. Height/diameter ratio and tree stability

relationships for four Northern Rocky Mountain tree species. The

University of Montana. Master’s Thesis. 24 p.

Keywords: western larch, susceptibility, snow bend, snow

breakage, live crown ratio
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 59

Botanical namea Statusb Common namec

Trees

Abies grandis N grand fir

Abies lasiocarpa N subalpine fir

Betula papyrifera N paper birch

Larix occidentalis N western larch

Picea engelmannii N Engelmann spruce

Pinus albicaulis N whitebark pine

Pinus contorta N lodgepole pine

Pinus monticola N western white pine

Pinus ponderosa N ponderosa pine

Populus tremuloides N quaking aspen

Populus trichocarpa N black cottonwood

Pseudotsuga menziesii N Douglas-fir

Pyrus malus X apple

Thuja plicata N western redcedar

Tsuga heterophylla N western hemlock

Shrubs

Acer glabrum N Rocky Mountain maple

Alnus incana N thin-leaved alder

Alnus sinuata N Sitka alder

Amelanchier alnifolia N,P serviceberry

Ceanothus sanguineus N,P redstem ceanothus

Ceanothus velutinus N,P snowbrush or shinyleaf

ceanothus

Cercocarpus ledifolius P curlleaf mountainmahogany

Cornus stolonifera N,P red-osier dogwood

Crataegus douglasii N hawthorn

Holodiscus discolor N,P ocean spray

Juniperus communis N common juniper

Lonicera involucrata N black twin-berry

Lonicera utahensis N Utah honeysuckle

Menziesia ferruginea N fools huckleberry

Oplopanax horridum N devilsclub

Pachistima myrsinites N mountain-lover

Penstemon fruticosus X,P bush penstemon

Physocarpus malvaceus N,P ninebark

Prunus emarginata N bittercherry

Prunus pumila P,? sandcherry or

dwarfcherry

Prunus virginiana N,P chokecherry

Rhamnus alnifolia N alder buckthorn

Rhus glabra X,P smooth sumac

Ribes lacustre N swamp black

gooseberry

Ribes viscosissimum N sticky current

Rosa acicularis N prickly rose

Rosa gymnocarpa N baldhip rose

Rosa woodsii N,P Woods rose

Rubus idaeus N red raspberry

Rubus leucodermis P black raspberry

or blackcap

Rubus parviflorus N,P thimbleberry

Salix drummondiana N Drummond willow

Salix exigua N sandbar willow

Salix scouleriana N Scouler willow

Sambucus cerulea P blue elderberry

Sambucus racemosa N,P black elderberry

Shepherdia canadensis N buffalo-berry

Sorbus scopulina N mountain ash

Spiraea betulifolia N,P shiny-leaf spiraea

Symphoricarpos albus N snowberry

Taxus brevifolia N Pacific yew

Vaccinium caespitosum N dwarf huckleberry

Vaccinium globulare N globe huckleberry

Vaccinium myrtillus N low bilberry

Vaccinium scoparium N grouse whortleberry

Subshrubs or Low-woody Plants, including woody

matformers and vines (V)

Antennaria microphylla N,P rosy pussytoes

Antennaria neglecta N,P field pussytoes

Antennaria racemosa N raceme pussytoes

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi N kinnikinnick

Berberis repens N Oregongrape

Chimaphila umbellata N princes-pine or

pipsissewa

Clematis columbiana N (V) clematis or

virgins-bower

Cornus canadensis N bunchberry dogwood

Linnaea borealis N twinflower

Lonicera ciliosa N (V) orange honeysuckle

Lycopodium annotinum N clubmoss

Lycopodium complanatum N ground cedar

Pyrola secunda N one-sided wintergreen

or sidebells pyrola

Rubus pubescens N dwarf red black

raspberry

Selaginella densa N compact lesser-clubmoss

Veronica serpyllifolia N thyme leaved speedwell

Xerophyllum tenax N,P beargrass

Perennial Herbaceous Plants

Achillea millefolium N yarrow

Achillea nobilis X yarrow

Actea rubra N baneberry

Adenocaulon bicolor N pathfinder or trail-plant

Agropyron intermedium X intermediate

wheatgrass

Agropyron repens X quack grass

Agropyron spicatum N,P bluebunch wheatgrass

Agrostis alba X redtop

Agrostis exarata N bentgrass

Agrostis scabra N tickle-grass

Alisma plantago-aquatica N American waterplantain

Allium cernuum N nodding onion

Appendix A: Coram Experimental Forest Flora Checklist (1998) ___________

This checklist was compiled by Peter F. Stickney, plant ecologist, retired from USDA Forest Service, Intermountain

Research Station. The species listing is through Sept. 21, 1998.

Botanical namea Statusb Common namec

Shrubs
60 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Alopecurus pratensis X meadow foxtail

Anaphalis margaritacea N,P common pearlyeverlasting

Angelica arguta N angelica

Apocynum N dogbane

androsaemifolium

Arabis hoeboellii N Holboell rockcress

Arceuthobium laricis N,P larch dwarfmistletoe

Aralia nudicaulis N wild sasparilla

Arenaria capillaris N sandwort

Arnica cordifolia N heart leaf arnica

Arnica latifolia N,P mountain arnica

Arnica rydbergii N Rydberg arnica

Artemisia absinthium X absinthium

Aster conspicuus N showy aster

Aster engelmannii N Engelmanns aster

Aster laevis N,P smooth aster

Aster modestus N great northern aster

Astragalus canadensis N Canada milkvetch

Athyrium filix-femina N lady fern

Botrychium virginianum N Virginia grapefern

Bromus carinatus N,P California brome

Bromus inermis X,P smooth brome

Bromus vulgaris N brome

Calamagrostis canadensis N bluejoint reedgrass

Calamagrostis rubescens N pinegrass

Callitriche verna N water starwort

Calochortus apiculatus N sego lily

Calypso bulbosa N fairy-slipper

Campanula rotundifolia N bellflower

Cardamine pensylvanica N bittercress

Carex concinnoides N northwest sedge

Carex cusickii N Cusick sedge

Carex deweyana N Dewey sedge

Carex geyeri N elk sedge

Carex lasiocarpa N slender sedge

Carex limnophila N pond sedge

Carex microptera N small winged sedge

Carex rossii N Ross sedge

Carex vesicaria N inflated sedge

Castilleja hispida N harsh paintbrush

Castilleja miniata N common paintbrush

Castilleja sulphurea N sulfur paintbrush

Centaurea maculosa X spotted knapweed

Chrysanthemum X oxeye-daisy

leucanthemum

Cinna latifolia N woodreed

Circaea alpina N enchanters nightshade

Cirsium arvense X Canada thistle

Claytonia lanceolata N springbeauty

Clintonia uniflora N queenscup

Corallorhiza maculata N spotterd coralroot

Corallorhiza mertensiana N Mertens coralroot

Corallorhiza striata N striped coralroot

Corallorhiza trifida N yellow coralroot

Coronilla varia X crown vetch

Crepis acuminata N hawksbeard

Cypripedium montanum N mountain ladyslipper

Dactylis glomerata N,P orchardgrass

Danthonia intermedia N,P timber oatgrass

Deschampsia cespitosa P tufted hairgrass

Deschampsia elongata N slender hairgrass

Disporum hookeri N Hooker fairybell

Disporum trachycarpum N wartberry fairybell

Dryopteris austriaca N woodfern

Dryopteris filix-mas N male fern

Elymus glaucus N,P blue wildrye

Epilobium angustifolium N fireweed

Epilobium glandulosum N willowherb

Epilobium watsonii N Watson willowherb

Equisetum arvense N common horsetail

Equisetum fluviatile N water horsetail

Equisetum hyemale N scouringrush

Equisetum sylvaticum N wood horsetail

Equisetum variegatum N variegated

scouringrush

Erigeron peregrinus N subalpine daisy

Eriogonum flavum N yellow buckwheat

Erythronium grandiflorum N glacier lily

Festuca arundinaceae X,P tall fescue

Festuca occidentalis N western fescue

Festuca rubra P red fescue

Fragaria vesca N wild strawberry

Fragaria virginiana N wild strawberry

Galium boreale N northern bedstraw

Galium trifidum N small bedstraw

Galium triflorum N sweetscented bedstraw

Geum macrophyllum N geum

Glyceria elata N tall mannagrass

Glyceria grandis N American mannagrass

Goodyera oblongifolia N rattlesnake-plantain

Gymnocarpium dryopteris N oak fern

Habenaria dilatata N white bogorchid

Habenaria orbiculata N round leaf orchid

Habenaria saccata N slender bog orchid

Habenaria unalascensis N rein-orchid

Heracleum lanatum N cow-parsnip

Heuchera cylindrica N alumroot

Hieracium albertinum N hawkweed

Hieracium albiflorum N white hawkweed

Hieracium aurantaicum X king devil

Hieracium cynoglossoides N hawkweed

Hieracium floribundum X hawkweed

Hieracium gracile N subalpine hawkweed

Hypericum perforatum X goatweed or

St. John’s-wort

Iliamna rivularis N wild hollyhock

Juncus parryi N Parry rush

Juncus tenuis N slender rush

Lathyrus ochroleucus N peavine

Lemna minor N duckweed

Limosella aquatica N mudwort

Linaria vulgaris X butter and eggs

Listera caurina N twayblade

Listera cordata N heartleaf twayblade

Lomatium dissectum N fernleaf biscuitroot

Botanical namea Statusb Common namec

Perennial Herbaceous Plants

Botanical namea Statusb Common namec

Perennial Herbaceous Plants
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 61

Lomatium sandbergii N Sandberg biscuitroot

Lotus corniculatus X,P birdsfoot trefoil

Lupinus argenteus P silvery lupine

Lupinus caudatus N tailcup lupine

Lupinus laxiflorus N spurred lupine

Luzula campestris N field woodrush

Luzula parviflora N smallflower woodrush

Lycopus uniflorus N bugleweed

Melica subulata N oniongrass

Mentha arvensis N field mint

Mitella nuda N mitrewort

Monotropa uniflora N Indian-pipe

Nuphar polysepalum N spatter-dock

Oryzopsis asperifolia N roughleaf ricegrass

Oryzopsis exigua N little ricegrass

Osmorhiza chilensis N sweetroot

Pedicularis bracteosa N lousewort

Pedicularis contorta N lousewort

Pedicularis racemosa N lousewort

Penstemon albertinus N Albert penstemon

Penstemon confertus N yellow penstemon

Penstemon fruticosus X,P shrubby penstemon

Penstemon venustus X,P Blue Mountain

penstemon

Petasites sagittatus N arrowleaf coltsfoot

Phleum pratense X timothy

Plantago major X plantain

Poa compressa X,P Canada bluegrass

Poa pratensis X,P Kentucky bluegrass

Potentilla argentea X silvery cinquefoil

Potentilla glandulosa N sticky cinquefoil

Potentilla gracilis N cinquefoil

Potentilla palustris N marsh cinquefoil

Potentilla recta X sulpher cinquefoil

Prenanthes sagittata N prenanthes

Prunella vulgaris X selfheal or healall

Pteridium aquilinum N bracken fern

Pterospora andromedea N pinedrops

Pyrola asarifolia N pink pyrola

Pyrola chlorantha N greenish pyrola

Ranunculus acris X meadow buttercup

Rumex acetosella X sheep sorrel

Rumex crispus X curly dock

Rumex salicifolius N willow dock

Sagina saginoides N irish moss

Sanicula marilandica N snake-root

Scirpus microcarpus N small-fruited bulrush

Sedum lanceolatum N lanceleaf stonecrop

Sedum stenopetalum N common stonecrop

Senecio hydrophilus N alkali marsh butterweed

Senecio integerrimus N western groundsel

Senecio pseudaureus N streambank butterweed

Senecio serra N butterweed groundsel

Senecio triangularis N arrowleaf groundsel

Silene parryi N Parry silene

Sium suave N waterparsnip

Smilacina racemosa N false Solomon’s seal

Smilacina stellata N starry false Solomon’s

seal

Solidago canadensis P Canada goldenrod

Sparganium minimum N burreed

Spiranthes romanzoffiana N hooded ladiestresses

Stellaria calycantha N northern starwort

Stellaria crispa N crisped starwort

Stenanthium occidentale N stenanthium

Stipa occidentalis N needlegrass

Streptopus amplexifolius N twisted stalk

Tanacetum vulgare X tansey

Taraxacum laevigatum X redseed dandelion

Taraxacum officinale X common dandelion

Thalictrum occidentale N meadowrue

Tiarella trifoliata N false miterwort

Trifolium hybridum X alsike clover

Trifolium pratense X red clover

Trifolium repens X,P Dutch white clover

Trillium ovatum N trillium or wake-robin

Trisetum canescens N trisetum

Trisetum spicatum N spike trisetum

Veratrum viride N false hellebore

Veronica americana N veronica or speedwell

Vicia americana N vetch

Viola adunca N early blue violet

Viola canadensis N Canada violet

Viola glabella N stream violet

Viola macloskeyi N white violet

Viola orbiculata N roundleaf violet

Annual, biennial or short lived perennial Herbaceous

Plants

Arabidopsis thaliana X mouseear cress

Arabis glabra X towermustard

Arenaria serpyllifolia X thymeleaf sandwort

Cardamine pensylvanica N bittercress

Cirsium vulgare X bull thistle

Collinsia parviflora N blue-eyed Mary

Conyza canadensis N horseweed

Dianthus armeria X Deptford pink

Dracocephalum N dragonhead

parviflorum

Epilobium paniculatum N annual willowherb

Erigeron acris N bitter fleabane

Erigeron philadelphicus N Philadelphia fleabane

Erigeron strigosus N daisy fleabane

Filago arvensis X filago

Gentiana amarella N annual gentian

Geranium bicknellii N Bicknell geranium

Gratiola neglecta N American hedge-hyssop

Lactuca biennis N tall blue lettuce

Lactuca serriola X prickly lettuce

Lolium multiflorum P Italian ryegrass

Lychnis alba X white campion

Madia glomerata N cluster tarweed

Matricaria matricarioides N pinapple weed

Medicago lupulina X black medic

Melampyrum lineare N cow-wheat

Botanical namea Statusb Common namec

Perennial Herbaceous Plants

Botanical namea Statusb Common namec

Perennial Herbaceous Plants
62 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Melilotus alba X white sweetclover

Melilotus officinalis X yellow sweetclover

Microsteris gracilis N microsteris

Myosotis micrantha X annual for-get-me-not

Poa annua X annual bluegrass

Polygonum douglasii N Douglas knotweed

Ranunculus uncinatus N little buttercup

Sanguisorba occidentalis N annual burnet

Senecio vulgaris X groundsel

Spergularia rubra X sandspurry

Tragopogon dubius X salsify or oyster plant

Trifolium agrarium X hop clover

Verbascum thapsus X mullein

a

Botanical nomenclature: Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973)

b

Indiginous status in Coram Experimental Forest

N Native plant species

X Exotic plant species (unintentional introduction)

P Species planted or seeded for experimental purposes

(intentional introduction)

? Exotic introduction status uncertain c

Local usage given preference

Botanical namea Statusb Common namec

Annual, biennial or short lived perennial Herbaceous

Plants
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 63

Scientific name Common name

Accipiter cooperii Cooper’s hawk

Aegolius acadicus Saw-whet owl

Bombycilla cedrorum Cedar waxwing

Bonasa umbellus Ruffed grouse

Bucephala sp. Goldeneye sp.

Buteo jamaicensis Red-tailed hawk

Canachites canadensis Spruce grouse

Carduelis pinus Pine siskin

Carpodacus casinii Cassin’s finch

Catharus ustulatus Swainson’s thrush

Certhia americana Brown creeper

Chaetura vauxi Vaux’s swift

Charadrius vociferus Killdeer

Coccothraustes vespertinus Evening grosbeak

Colaptes auratus Northern flicker

Contopus borealis Olive-sided flycatcher

Contopus sordidulus Western wood-pewee

Corvus corax Common raven

Cyanocitta stelleri Steller’s jay

Dendragapus obscurus Blue grouse

Dendroica coronata Yellow-rumped warbler

Dendroica petechia Yellow warbler

Dendroica townsendi Townsend’s warbler

Dryocopus pileatus Pileated woodpecker

Empidonax hammondii Hammond’s flycatcher

Empidonax oberholseri Dusky flycatcher

Falco sparverius American kestrel

Glaucidium gnoma Pygmy owl

Hylocichla ustulata Swainson’s thrush

Icterus galbula Northern oriole

Iridoprocne bicolor Tree swallow

Ixoreus naevius Varied thrush

Junco hyemalis Dark-eyed junco

Loxia curvirostra Red crossbill

Melanerpes lewis Lewis’s woodpecker

Molothrus ater Brown-headed cowbird

Myadestes townsendi Townsend’s solitaire

Nucifraga columbiana Clark’s nutcracker

Appendix B: Coram Experimental Forest Avian Checklist _______________

These birds were identified on Coram Experimental Forest and were listed in Hasbrouck (1984), McClelland (1980, 1995),

McClelland and others (1979), and Tobalske and others (1991).

Scientific name Common name

Nuttallornis borealis Olive-sided flycatcher

Oporornis tolmiei MacGillivray’s warbler

Parus atricapillus Black-capped chickadee

Parus gambeli Mountain chickadee

Parus rufescens Chestnut-backed chickadee

Passerella iliaca Fox sparrow

Perisoreus canadensis Gray jay

Pheucticus melanocephalus Black-headed grosbeak

Picoides arcticus Black-backed three-toed

 woodpecker

Picoides pubescens Downy woodpecker

Picoides tridactylus Three-toed woodpecker

Picoides villosus Hairy woodpecker

Pinicola enucleator Pine grosbeak

Piranga ludoviciana Western tanager

Regulus calendula Ruby-crowned kinglet

Regulus satrapa Golden-crowned kinglet

Seirus noveboracensis Northern waterthrush

Selasphorus rufus Rufous hummingbird

Setophaga ruticilla American redstart

Sialia currucoides Mountain bluebird

Sitta canadensis Red-breasted nuthatch

Sphyrapicus nuchalis Red-naped sapsucker

Sphyrapicus thyroideus Williamson’s sapsucker

Sphyrapicus varius Yellow-bellied sapsucker

Spinus pinus Pine siskin

Spizella passerina Chipping sparrow

Strix varia Barred owl

Tachycineta bicolor Tree swallow

Troglodytes aedon House wren

Troglodytes troglodytes Winter wren

Turdus migratorius American robin

Vermivora celata Orange-crowned warbler

Vireo gilvus Warbling vireo

Vireo olivaceus Red-eyed vireo

Vireo solitarius Solitary vireo

Wilsonia pusilla Wilson’s warbler
64 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

Appendix C: Coram Experimental Forest Small Mammal

Checklist (1998) ___________________________________________________

These small mammals were identified on Coram Experimental Forest and were listed in Gruemme (1994) and Shearer and

Halvorson (1967).

Scientific name Common name

Clethrionomys gapperi Red-backed vole

Eutamias ruficaudus Red-tailed chipmunk

Microtus pennsylvanicus Meadow vole

Mustela frenata Long-tailed weasel

Permyscus maniculatus Deer mouse

Phenacomys intermedius Montane spruce vole

Sorex cinereus Masked shrew

Sorex monticolus Dusky shrew

Sorex vagrans Vagrant shrew

Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Red squirrel

Zapus princeps Western jumping mouse
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999 65

Introduction

“The area includes approximately 2,207.3 acres (893

ha) of the Coram Experimental Forest, comprising a

total of 7,244.5 acres (2,932 ha). The Forest is situated in the western larch/Douglas-fir type of northwestern Montana ... It lies in the main drainage of

the Flathead and South Fork of the Flathead River...

The immediate general location is east of the Coram

Ranger Station, and west and south of Desert Mountain. All lands within the area are in National Forest

ownership.

“In general, the topography of the area is very steep

and frequented by numerous water eroded gullies

and small benches. Except for the Abbott Creek and

South Fork of Abbott Creek watersheds, which drain

the north central and southern portions of the area

respectively, the streams are all intermittent....”

Previous Land Surveys

“At present, practically all of the Experimental Forest area is unsurveyed for public land lines except

portions of T31N, R19W, which was surveyed by the

General Land Office in 1903. Immediately adjacent to

the western forest boundary, in Sections 10 and 11,

T30N, R19W, is located an H.E.S., No.817, of 135.7

acres (55 ha). The location of this site causes a series

of angular jogs in the boundary. This area was surveyed out jointly by the Forest Service and General

Land Office in 1918....

“A general timber reconnaissance of the South Fork

of the Flathead River was completed in 1916. The

purpose of this survey was to prepare general management plans for timber regulation, and for the

examination of bodies of timber proposed for sale. A

ten percent strip coverage was employed. Topography

was mapped on a 50-foot (15 m) contour interval, with

an intermediate 25-foot (8 m) interval used on very

rough relief, on base maps of a scale of 4-inches (10 cm)

to the mile. Volume estimates of each species in mature stands were obtained from the strip cruises and

compiled by 40-acre (16 ha) subdivisions, expressed to

the nearest M (thousand) board feet. A forest cover

map was also compiled on the survey showing forest

types, area, and limits of merchantable and accessible timber.”

History and Personnel

“A three-man crew was used regularly on all strip

and boundary surveys. The crews were characterized

Appendix D: Excerpts from the 1934 Coram Experimental Forest Timber

Survey Report ____________________________________________________

by flexibility in handling the work, all members being

familiar with each job and able to fill in at any time.

“Due to the rigid time limit set up for finishing the

survey and numerous miscellaneous jobs done on this

area, it was practically impossible to carry out any

regular system of check cruising. As a substitution

measure, individual plot checks and considerable instruction were given regularly in the field, and members of the crews exchanged frequently in the estimating job, making checks on each other’s work. In

addition, check mapping was done on all boundary

surveys and section line control....”

Forest Types and Descriptions

“Timber types were mapped in conjunction with age

classes (fig. 54). It was the duty of one man on the crew

to do all this mapping, together with topography on

the area where this was included. With a ten percent

strip coverage a standard of mapping areas closing

in to 2 1/2 acres was adhered to for individual type and

age classes. To maintain this standard considerable

investigation, or side scouting, was often necessary on

either side of the strip lines.

“Restocking cut-over areas, cut prior to 1929, with a

present cover type of ten percent stocking or more, and

experimental areas cut selectively at any time, were

designated as Restocked Cut-overs (Re-Cu). Designations of this type were accompanied by a combination

symbol listing the date of cutting and the timber type

and age class of the present cutting type. Restocked

cut-overs on the Coram Experimental Forest include

subalpine, Engelmann spruce, lodgepole pine, and

western larch, Douglas fir cover types now present.

“Only one small area on the forest, near the Desert

Mountain Lookout, has been cut over since 1929. This

was a selective cutting, removing all large trees for the

purpose of increasing the visibility around the lookout. Most of the cuttings on the Coram area were made

around the year 1916 and were included in the type

maps of the 1916 timber reconnaissance.

“In 1929, the large Half Moon fire burned into the

northwest and northeast corners of the forest. The

acreage left from this fire constitutes the only relatively recent burned-over found on the forest.”

Descriptions of 11 Forest Types Identified

in the 1934 Timber Survey

“1. Western Larch/Douglas-fir (WL-DF)—75

percent or more of volume of a mixture of these two

trees with the proportion of western larch varying
66 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-37. 1999

from 10 percent to practically pure. Lodgepole pine,

alpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and western white

pine are often found in this mixture. Western larch

is the key tree.

“2. Douglas-fir (DF)—60 percent or more of the

volume of DF present. The principal associates in

mixture are western larch, lodgepole pine, and

Engelmann spruce. If there is 10% or more of western larch present, it goes into the western larch—

Douglas-fir type.

“3. Engelmann Spruce (ES)—50 percent or more

of Engelmann spruce by volume. May be found in

pure stands, but usually associated with alpine fir,

western larch and Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, and

white bark pine.

“4. Lodgepole Pine (LPP)—50 percent or more of

lodgepole pine by volume. It is usually in pure

stands, but sometimes in mixture with alpine fir,

white bark pine, Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce and

western larch.

“5. Western White Pine (WWP)—15 percent or

more of western white pine by volume. Western larch

and Douglas-fir are usually the chief associates, with

alpine fir, white bark pine, Engelmann spruce, and

lodgepole pine also present in considerable amounts.

“6. Subalpine (Alp)—defined as containing a

varying mixture of subalpine species, none of which

are abundant enough to throw the stand into any of

the types already described, or rarely in pure stands.

Usually unmerchantable, and valuable for protective

purposes only. Principal associates of the mixture are

alpine fir, white bark pine, Douglas-fir, western

larch, Engelmann spruce, lodgepole pine, and western white pine.

“7. Brush (Br)—Areas with an existing cover of

shrubs or stunted trees usually of deciduous hardwood species.

“8. Cultivated (Clt)—an area under cultivation or

lying fallow. No cultivated type was present on the

Coram Experimental Forest, but a small area just

outside the Forest boundary on H.E.S. No. 817 was

included on the timber type and age class map.

“9. Stump Pasture (StP)—logged-off or burned-off

lands as part of a farm unit now devoted to grazing,

and upon which all the stumps and snags have not, as

yet, been removed. No stump pasture type was present

on the Coram Experimental Forest, but a small area

just outside the Forest boundary on H.E.S. No. 817

was included on the timber type and age class map.

“10. Restocked Cut-overs (Re-Cu)—restocking

cut-over areas, cut prior to 1929, with a present cover

type of 10 percent stocking or more. On experimental

areas this may include stands cut selectively at any

time. Designations of this type are usually accompanied by a combination symbol listing the date of

cutting with the timber type and age class of the

present cover type. Restocked cut-overs on the Coram

Experimental Forest include subalpine, Engelmann

spruce, and western larch, Douglas-fir cover types

now present.

“11. Restocked Burns (Re-Bu)—restocking

burned-over areas, burned prior to 1929, with a

present cover type of 10 percent stocking or more.

Designations of this type are usually accompanied by

a combination symbol listing the date of burn with

the timber type and age class of the present cover type.

Restocked burns on the Coram Experimental Forest

include subalpine, and lodgepole pine cover types

now present.”
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ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION

RMRS

The Rocky Mountain Research Station develops scientific information and technology to improve management, protection, and use of

the forests and rangelands. Research is designed to meet the needs

of National Forest managers, Federal and State agencies, public and

private organizations, academic institutions, industry, and individuals.

Studies accelerate solutions to problems involving ecosystems,

range, forests, water, recreation, fire, resource inventory, land reclamation, community sustainability, forest engineering technology,

multiple use economics, wildlife and fish habitat, and forest insects

and diseases. Studies are conducted cooperatively, and applications

may be found worldwide.

Research Locations

Flagstaff, Arizona Reno, Nevada

Fort Collins, Colorado* Albuquerque, New Mexico

Boise, Idaho Rapid City, South Dakota

Moscow, Idaho Logan, Utah

Bozeman, Montana Ogden, Utah

Missoula, Montana Provo, Utah

Lincoln, Nebraska Laramie, Wyoming

*Station Headquarters, 240 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO 80526

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