United States

Department

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky Mountain

Research Station

General Technical

Report RMRS-GTR-136-vol. 3

September 2004

Restoring Western

Ranges and Wildlands

Volume 3

Chapters 24–29, Appendices, Index
Abstract ______________________________________

Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard; Shaw, Nancy L., comps. 2004. Restoring western

ranges and wildlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136-vol-3. Fort Collins, CO: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Pages 699–

884 plus appendices and index.

This work, in three volumes, provides background on philosophy, processes, plant

materials selection, site preparation, and seed and seeding equipment for revegetating

disturbed rangelands, emphasizing use of native species. The 29 chapters include guidelines

for planning, conducting, and managing, and contain a compilation of rangeland revegetation

research conducted over the last several decades to aid practitioners in reestablishing healthy

communities and curbing the spread of invasive species. Volume 3 contains chapters 24-29

plus appendices and index.

Keywords: rehabilitation, revegetation, plant ecology, seed, plant communities, wildlife

habitat, invasive species, equipment, plant materials, native plants

A

B

A—Hand-harvesting grass seed.

B—Certification tag.

C—Native plant propagation in greenhouse.

D—Brush machine.

E—Flail-vac harvesting needle-and thread grass.
Restoring Western Ranges

and Wildlands

i

Compilers

Stephen B. Monsen

Richard Stevens

Nancy L. Shaw

Volume 3

Chapters 24–29,

Appendices, Index

E

D

C
The Compilers _____________________________________

Stephen B. Monsen(retired), Botanist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah

Richard Stevens, Project Leader (retired), Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Basin

Research Center, Ephraim, Utah

Nancy L. Shaw, Research Botanist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise, Idaho

The Authors _______________________________________

James N. Davis is Project Leader, Big Game Range Trend Program, Utah Division of Wildlife

Resources, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah.

Sherel K. Goodrich is Ecologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Ashley

National Forest, Vernal, Utah.

Kent R. Jorgensen was Wildlife Biologist (deceased), Great Basin Research Center, Utah

Division of Wildlife Resources, Ephraim, Utah.

Carlos F. Lopez was Soil Scientist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah.

E. Durant McArthur is Project Leader and Research Geneticist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo,

Utah.

Stephen B. Monsen was Botanist (retired), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Rocky Mountain Research Station, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah. He is currently

a private natural resources consultant and volunteer worker for the Rocky Mountain Research

Station.

David L. Nelson was Plant Pathologist (retired), U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah. He

continues contractual and volunteer work for the Rocky Mountain Research Station.

Nancy L. Shaw is Research Botanist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station, Boise, Idaho.

Richard Stevens was Project Leader (retired), Great Basin Research Center, Utah Division

of Wildlife Resources, Ephraim, Utah.

Arthur R. Tiedemann was Project Leader and Range Scientist (retired), U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah.

John F. Vallentine was Professor (Emeritus), Department of Integrative Biology, Brigham

Young University, Provo, Utah.

Gordon A. Van Epps was Associate Professor (retired), Snow Field Station, Utah Agricultural

Experiment Station, Utah State University, Ephraim, Utah.

Bruce L. Welch is Plant Physiologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain

Research Station, Shrub Sciences Laboratory, Provo, Utah.

Steven G. Whisenant is Professor, Department of Rangeland Ecology and Management,

Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.

G. Richard Wilson was Director (retired), Utah State Seed Laboratory, Utah Department of

Agriculture, Salt Lake City, Utah.

ii
Contents

Volume 1: Page

Foreword by E. Durant McArthur .............................................................................iii

1. History of Range and Wildlife Habitat Restoration in the

Intermountain West .................................................................................. 1

2. The Intermountain Setting ............................................................................ 7

3. Research Background ................................................................................ 15

4. Basic Considerations for Range and Wildland Revegetation and

Restoration............................................................................................. 19

5. Restoration or Rehabilitation Through Management or

Artificial Treatments ............................................................................... 25

6. Climate and Terrain .................................................................................... 33

7. Assessing Soil Factors in Wildland Improvement Programs ...................... 39

8. Controlling Plant Competition ..................................................................... 57

9. Mechanical Plant Control ........................................................................... 65

10. Herbicides for Plant Control ....................................................................... 89

11. Vegetative Manipulation with Prescribed Burning .................................... 101

12. Seedbed Preparation and Seeding Practices .......................................... 121

13. Incorporating Wildlife Habitat Needs into Restoration and

Rehabilitation Projects ......................................................................... 155

14. Nutritive Principles in Restoration and Management ............................... 175

15. Plant Pathology and Managing Wildland Plant Disease Systems ........... 187

16. Management of Restored and Revegetated Sites ................................... 193

17. Guidelines for Restoration and Rehabilitation of Principal

Plant Communities ............................................................................... 199

Volume 2:

18. Grasses .................................................................................................... 295

19. Forbs for Seeding Range and Wildlife Habitats ....................................... 425

20. Chenopod Shrubs .................................................................................... 467

21. Composite Shrubs .................................................................................... 493

22. Rosaceous Shrubs ................................................................................... 539

23. Shrubs of Other Families ......................................................................... 597

Volume 3:

24. Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage .................................................. 699

25. Shrub and Forb Seed Production ............................................................. 717

26. Seed Germination .................................................................................... 723

27. Seed Testing Requirements and Regulatory Laws .................................. 733

28. Establishing Plants by Transplanting and Interseeding ........................... 739

29. Production and Use of Planting Stock ...................................................... 745

References ............................................................................................... 769

Appendix 1 Scientific/Common Names .................................................... 847

Appendix 2 Common/Scientific Names .................................................... 866

Index .................................................................................................. Index-1

iii

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 699

Kent R. Jorgensen

Richard Stevens

24

Chapter

Seed Collection __________________________________

Acquisition of quality seed in the quantity needed is essential

for successful restoration and revegetation programs. Seed is

grown and harvested as a crop, or collected from native stands.

In the past, when native species were seeded, it was either

collect the seed yourself, or go without. Now, there are dealers

who supply seed of many native species on a regular basis.

Some seed companies will contract for collection of specific

species.

There are many grass and forb species that are cultivated for

seed. Some of the more common species are: bluebunch wheatgrass, crested and desert wheatgrass, pubescent wheatgrass,

intermediate wheatgrass, Russian wildrye, smooth brome,

orchardgrass, Indian ricegrass, alfalfa, arrowleaf balsamroot,

small burnet, Palmer penstemon, Rocky Mountain penstemon,

Lewis flax, cicer milkvetch, crownvetch, Utah sweetvetch, and

sainfoin. Seed of a few shrubs, including mountain and Wyoming

big sagebrush, fourwing saltbush, and antelope bitterbrush are

sometimes produced in orchards. Seed of many shrubs and forbs,

and a few grass species are available only from native stands

(table 1).

Seed Collection,

Cleaning, and Storage
700 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage Table 1—Selected seed characteristics, seed collection, and seed cleaning requirements for important Intermountain grasses, forbs, and shrubs. Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Grasses Barley, 90 60 3 40,770 7/1-8/15 1-2-5 6-1-3 Spikelet Floret 2 N N bulbous Bentgrass, 90 90 2 4,851,200 7/15-9/15 1-2-4 6-2-9 Floret Floret 2 U U red Bluegrass, big 90 70 3 843,000 7/1-8/15 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 4 U U Bluegrass, 90 80 3 1,998,240 8/1-9/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 2 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 Canada Bluegrass, 95 85 2 925,000 6/15-7/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 2 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 Sandberg Brome, 90 85 1 118,745 7/15-8/30 1-2-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 2 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 meadow awn Brome, 95 90 1 60,475 8/1-9/15 1-2-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 4 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 mountain awn Brome, smooth 95 90 1 135,600 7/20-9/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 4 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 Brome, 90 80 2 120,640 8/1-9/15 1-2-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 3 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 subalpine Dropseed, sand 90 80 3 5,600,000 9/1-10/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Grain Grain 3 Y,0,1 Y,4,0 Fescue, desert 95 85 2 162,000 7/20-9/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 2 U U Fescue, 95 85 2 633,520 7/10-8/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 2 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 hard sheep awn Fescue, 95 85 2 497,370 7/1-8/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 2 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 Idaho awn Fescue, 95 85 2 680,000 7/10-8/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 2 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 sheep awn Foxtail, 90 80 2 440,390 7/1-8/15 1-4 6-2-4 Spikelet Spikelet less 3 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 meadow awns Foxtail, 90 80 2 156,415 7/1-8/15 1-4 6-2-4 Spikelet Spikelet less 3 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 reed awns Junegrass, 90 80 2 4,123,635 7/10-8/30 1-4 6-2-4 Floret Floret 2 Y,0,1 U prairie Needlegrass, 90 50 3 162,450 7/15-9/30 1-4 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 4 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 green awn Needlegrass, 90 50 3 206,180 8/1-10/15 1-4 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 4 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 Letterman awn Needlegrass, 90 50 3 94,895 8/1-9/30 1-4 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 4 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 needle-and- awn thread (con.)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 701

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage (con.) Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Grasses Oatgrass, tall 90 80 3 189,000 8/15-9/30 1-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 2 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 awn Oniongrass 90 75 3 7/1-8/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 2 U U Orchardgrass 90 85 3 477,200 7/20-9/15 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 3 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 Reedgrass, 90 70 4 574,120 7/15-8/30 1-5 6-2-4 Floret Grain 5 U U chee Ricegrass, 95 65 4 161,920 6/30-7/15 1-2-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 5 Y,0,1 Y,0,1-2 Indian hairy lemma Sacaton, alkali 90 80 3 1,750,000 8/15-10/1 1-4-5 6-2-4 Grain Grain 3 N N Squirreltail, 90 85 2 191,555 7/15-8/15 1-2-4-5 6-2-4 Spikelet Floret less 4 N N bottlebrush awn Sunflower, 90 70 2 60,000 7/15-8/30 1-2-4-5 6-2-4-5 Achene Achene 1 U U annual Timothy 90 90 2 1,246,000 7/15-8/30 1-5 6-2-4 Spikelet Grain or 2 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 spikelet Timothy, 90 85 2 7/15-8/30 1-5 6-2-4 Spikelet Grain or 2 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 alpine spikelet Wheatgrass, 90 85 2 142,640 7/15-9/15 1-2-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret less 4 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 bearded awn bluebunch Wheatgrass, 95 85 2 125,680 7/15-9/15 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 4 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 beardless bluebunch Wheatgrass, 95 80 3 115,000 8/15-11/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 3 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 western Wheatgrass, 95 85 1 319,660 7/15-10/15 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 3 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0

fairway

Wheatgrass, 95 85 1 192,785 8/1-10/15 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 3 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0

crested

Wheatgrass, 95 90 1 88,110 8/1-10/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 3 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0

intermediate

Wheatgrass, 95 85 1 87,000 8/15-10/15 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 3 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0

pubescent

Wheatgrass, 95 85 1 212,855 9/1-12/10 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 3 Y,0,1 Y,0,1

Siberian

Wheatgrass, 95 85 2 133,360 8/15-10/15 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 3 Y,0,1 Y,0,1

slender

Wheatgrass, 90 85 1 137,830 8/15-10/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 2 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0

streambank
702 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage (con.) Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Grasses Wheatgrass, tall 95 90 2 76,805 8/1-10/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 2 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 Wheatgrass, 95 85 1 137,000 7/25-9/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 3 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 thickspike Wildrye, 95 85 1 130,760 8/4-9/20 1-2-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 4 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 Great Basin Wildrye, 95 85 1 47,130 7/15-8/30 1-2-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 4 Y,0,1 Y,1-2,0 mammoth Wildrye, Russian 95 85 1 168,240 7/15-8/30 1-4-5 6-2-4 Floret Floret 4 Y,0,1 Y,1,0 Forbs Alfalfa 95 85 1 213,760 9/1-10/30 1-5 6-5 Legume Seed 5 N N Aster, 40 70 3 540,000 10/1-10/30 1-2-6 6-2-4 Achene Achene less 2 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 blueleaf pappus Aster, 40 70 3 200,000 9/15-10/30 1-2-6 6-2-4 Achene Achene less 2 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 Englemann pappus Aster, 40 70 3 2,668,235 9/15-10/30 1-2-6 6-2-4 Achene Achene less 2 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 Pacific pappus Balsamroot, 95 40 3 55,245 5/15-7/25 1-2-4 6-2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,2-3 arrowleaf g Balsamroot, 95 40 3 32,220 6/20-7/30 1-2-4 6-2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,2-3 cutleaf g Burnet, small 95 90 1 55,115 8/1-9/30 1-5 6-4 Achene Achene 5 Y,0,1 N Butterweed, 50 70 3 3,489,230 7/20-10/15 1-2 6-2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 groundsel pappus Clover, Alsike 95 80 2 680,400 7/20-8/25 1-6 6-2-4 Legume Seed 4 Y,0,1 N Clover, 95 80 2 288,000 7/20-9/30 1-6 6-2-4 Legume Seed 4 Y,0,0 N strawberry Cowparsnip 85 25 2 44,850 8/15-9/30 1-2 6-0-4 Schizocarp Schizocarp 1 Y,0,1 Y,0,1-3 Crownvetch 95 75 2 138,160 8/15-9/30 1-5 6-2-4-5 Legume Seed 4 Y,0,1 Y,0,1-3 Flax, Lewis 95 85 2 278,280 7/1-9/10 1-2-4-5 6-2-4-5 Seed Seed 3 Y,0,1-2 Y,2-4,0 Geranium, 95 60 3 65,500 8/15-9/30 1 6-4 Capsule Seed 3 Y,0,1 Y,0,2 Richardson Geranium, 95 60 3 52,550 8/15-9/30 1 6-4 Capsule Seed 3 Y,0,1 Y,0,2 sticky Globemallow, 90 20 4 500,000 7/5-8/5 1-2-4 6-2-4-5 Schizocarp Seed 5 Y,0,1 Y,0,1-3 scarlet Globemallow, 90 20 4 500,660 7/10-7/30 1-2-4 6-2-4-5 Schizocarp Seed 5 Y,0,1 Y,0,1-3 gooseberryleaf
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 703

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage(con.) Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Forbs Goldeneye, 50 40 3 1,000,000 8/1-9/15 1-4 6-2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 U Nevada Goldeneye, 50 40 3 1,054,885 8/20-9/20 1-4 6-2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 showy Goldenrod, 50 70 3 770,000 10/1-12/15 1-2 6-2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 Canada pappus Helianthella, 60 75 2 52,560 8/15-9/20 1-5 6-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 oneflower Kochia, 85 85 1 745,890 9/1-11/5 1-2 6-2-4 Bracked Bracked 1 Y,0,1 N Belvedere utricle utricle Ligusticum, 90 40 3 69,275 7/25-8/20 1-2 6-4 Schizocarp Schizocarp 2 Y,0,1 Y,0,1-3 Porter Lomatium, 75 70 3 42,225 7/1-8/15 1-2 6-4 Schizocarp Schizocarp 2 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 nineleaf Lomatium, 75 70 3 7/1-8/15 1-2 6-4 Schizocarp Schizocarp 2 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 Nuttall Lupine, 95 90 1 12,530 7/25-8/30 1-4 6-4 Legume Seed 5 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 mountain Lupine, silky 95 90 1 12,915 7/15-8/10 1-4 6-4 Legume Seed 5 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 Lupine, silvery 95 90 1 7/25-9/15 1-4 6-4 Legume Seed 5 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 Milkvetch, 95 85 2 8/10-11/15 1-5 6-2-4 Legume Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1 Canadah Milkvetch, cicer h 95 85 2 113,715 8/10-4/1 1-5 6-2-4-5 Legume Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1 Penstemon, 95 70 3 351,085 7/1-8/30 1-2 6-2-4-5 Capsule Seed 3 Y,0,1 N Eaton Penstemon, low 95 70 3 9/1-11/15 1-2 6-2-4-5 Capsule Seed 3 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 Penstemon, 95 80 3 609,675 10/1-1/15 1-2 6-2-4-5 Capsule Seed 3 Y,0,1-3 N Palmer Penstemon, 95 70 3 336,000 8/1-8/30 1-2 6-2-4-5 Capsule Seed 3 Y,0,1-3 N thickleaf Penstemon, 95 70 3 234,785 8/1-9/10 1-2 6-2-4-5 Capsule Seed 3 Y,0,1-3 Y,2-4,0 Wasatch Sage, 10 80 1 2,504,400 10/5-12/15 1-2-4-5 6-2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 Louisiana Sainfoin 95 90 1 26,305 8/1-9/30 1-2-5 6-2-4 Loment Loment 4 Y,0,1 N Salsify, 85 65 2 306,695 7/1-7/25 2-5 6-2-4 Achene Achene less 2 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 vegetable-oyster pappus
704 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage(con.) Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Forbs Sweetanise 95 60 3 29,845 8/10-9/10 1-2-5 6-4 Schizocarp Schizocarp 2 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 Sweetclover, 95 85 1 258,560 9/1-10/30 1-2-5 6-4 Legume Seed 5 N N yellow Sweetvetch, 90 60 3 33,585 7/5-8/10 1-2-4-5 6-2-4 Loment Seed 2 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 Utahh Yarrow, 50 80 1 4,123,635 8/10-11/30 1-2-5 6-2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 western Shrubs Apache plume 80 75 3 546,500 7/15-9/30 2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 N N style Ash, 90 40 3 20,350 7/15-9/10 1-2 2-4 Samara Samara 1 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-2 single leaf Barberry, 95 85 3 71,120 8/5-9/10 1 3-6-4 Berry Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,3 creeping Barberry, 95 85 3 41,770 7/15-8/20 1 3-6-4 Achene Seed 5 Y,0,1 U Fremont Bitterbrush, 95 90 1 15,370 6/15-7/20 2 4-2-4-5 Achene Seed 5 Y,0,1-2 Y,0,2-3 antelope Bitterbrush, 95 90 1 20,370 6/25-8/15 2 4-2-4-5 Achene Seed 5 Y,0,1-2 Y,0,2-3 desert Blackbrush 95 70 3 27,015 7/1-8/30 1-2 6-2-4 Achene Achene 4 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 Buckwheat, wild 95 75 3 907,200 7/28-8/30 1-2 6-2-4 Achene Achene 2 N N California flattop Buckthorn, 95 40 3 12,300 7/15-9/15 1-2 3-6-4 Drupe Stone 3 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-3 cascara Buffaloberry, 98 75 2 6,855 7/5-7/30 1-2 3-6-4 Drupe Stone 3 Y,0,1-2 Y,0,1-3 roundleaf Buffaloberry, 98 75 2 59,215 7/15-8/30 1-2 3-6-4 Drupe Stone 4 Y,0,1-2 Y,0,1-3 russet Buffaloberry, 98 80 2 10,980 8/1-9/30 1-2 3-6-4 Drupe Stone 4 Y,0,1-2 Y,0,1-3 silver Ceanothus, 98 85 3 70,000 6/10-8/15 1-2 6-4 Capsule Seed 5 Y,0,6 Y,0,1-3 deerbrushj Ceanothus, 98 75 3 82,900 7/10-8/15 1 6-4 Capsule Seed 5 Y,0,6 Y,0,1-3 Martinj Ceanothus, 98 85 3 131,860 7/10-8/15 1-2 6-4 Capsule Seed 5 Y,0,6 Y,0,1-3 redstem j
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 705

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage(con.) Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Shrubs Ceanothus, 98 85 3 124,275 8/1-8/30 1-2 6-4 Capsule Seed 5 Y,0,6 Y,0,1-3 snowbrushj Ceanothus, 98 85 3 41,000 7/1-8/20 1-2 6-4 Capsule Seed 5 Y,0,6 Y,0,1-3 prostratej Ceanothus, 98 85 3 49,000 7/1-8/20 1-2 6-4 Capsule Seed 5 Y,0,6 Y,0,1-6 wedgeleafj Cherry, 98 70 3 2,965 8/1-9/15 1-2 3-6-7-4 Drupe Stone 2 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 Bessey Cherry, bitter 98 70 3 7,020 7/1-9/30 1-2 3-6-7-4 Drupe Stone 2 Y,0,1-3 Y,1-6 Chokecherry 98 80 3 4,150 7/25-9/15 1-2 3-6-4 Drupe Stone 2 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 Cinquefoil, 70 70 3 7/10-9/30 1 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 bush Cotoneaster, 98 80 2 32,210 5/5-11/15 1-2 3-6-7-4 Pome Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-3 Pekingi Cliffrose, 95 85 4 64,615 7/5-8/10 2 2-4-5 Achene Achene less 5 Y,0,1 Y,0,1-3 Stansbury style Currant, 95 65 3 356,180 7/20-8/10 1-2 3-6-7-4-5 Berry Seed 5 Y,0,1-6 Y,0,1-2 golden Currant, sticky 95 65 3 298,000 8/15-9/30 1-2 3-6-7-4-5 Berry Seed 5 Y,0,1-6 Y,0,1-4 Currant, wax 95 70 3 251,000 7/15-8/30 1-2 2-6-7-4-5 Berry Seed 5 Y,0,1-6 Y,0,1-4 Cypress, 95 75 3 40,000 10/1-2/5 1 6-7-4 Cone Seed 2 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 Arizona Dogwood, 95 85 2 17,260 8/20-9/10 1-2 3-6-7-4 Drupe Stone 2 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-3 Redosier Elaeagnus, 98 90 2 27,600 8/20-12/15 1-2 3-6-7-4 Drupe Stone 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-3 autumn Elderberry, 95 50 4 216,770 8/15-9/25 1-2 3-6-7-4-5 Berry Stone 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 blue Elderberry, red 95 50 4 286,000 8/15-9/30 1-2 2-6-7-4-5 Berry Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 Ephedra, green 95 85 2 24,955 7/15-9/1 2 6-2-4 Seed Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,2-4,0 Ephedra, 95 85 2 19,875 7/10-7/25 2 6-2-4 Seed Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,2-4,0 Nevada Ephedra, Torrey 90 85 2 7/1-8/1 2 6-2-4 Seed Seed 5 U U Eriogonum, 80 80 1 170,000 8/15-11/30 1-2 6-4 Achene in Achene 2 U U cushion perianth
706 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage(con.) Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Shrubs Eriogonum, 95 75 3 141,310 7/25-8/20 1-2 6-2-4 Achene in Achene 2 U U Wyeth perianth Forestiera, 95 85 2 32,400 7/1-10/15 1-2 3-6-4 Drupe Stone 4 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 New Mexican Goldenweed 15 90 2 1,630,000 10/1-11/30 1-2 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 N N pappus Greasewood, 85 40 2 9/15-11/15 2 1-4 Bracted Bracted 1 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 Bailey utricle utricle less bract wings Greasewood, 85 40 2 253,400 9/15-11/15 2 1-4 Bracted Bracted 1 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 black utricle utricle less wings Hawthorn, 95 70 4 15,050 8/15-10/15 1-2 3-6-7-4 Pome Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-3 riveri Honeylocust, 98 80 4 2,800 9/1-2/15 1 7-4 Legume Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-3 commoni Honeysuckle, 90 85 4 16,525 7/15-8/10 1-2 2-6-7-4 Berry Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-3 Tatarian Honeysuckle, 90 85 4 7/15-8/10 1-2 2-6-7-4 Berry Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-3 Utah Hopsage, 75 80 1 189,950 9/10-12/15 1 2-4 Bracted Bracted 1 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 spineless utricle utricle Hopsage, 90 80 1 166,765 7/1-9/10 1-2 2-4 Bracted Bracted 1 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 spiny utricle utricle Horsebrush, 10-15 70 3 10/1-11/30 1-2 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 U U cottonthorn pappus Horsebrush, 10-15 70 3 10/1-11/30 1-2 2-4 Achene Achene less U U U gray pappus Horsebrush, 10-15 70 3 10/1-11/30 1-2 2-4 Achene Achene less U U U littleleaf pappus Horsebrush, 10-15 70 3 10/1-11/30 1-2 2-4 Achene Achene less U U U Nuttall pappus Indian apple 95 50 3 23,000 7/5-8/20 1-2 3-6-7-4 Pome Seed 3 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-2 Juniper, 98 60 4 36,500 7/1-12/30 1-2 2-6-4 Berry-like Berry-like 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 common cones cones mountain Juniper, Rocky 98 60 4 22,660 9/1-12/30 1-2 2-6-4 Berry-like Berry-like 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 Mountain cones cones
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Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage Juniper, Utah 98 60 4 8,110 9/1-12/30 1-2 2-6-4 Berry-like Berry-like 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 cones cones Kochia, foragek 90 90 4 520,000 9/25-12/15 1-2-5 2-4 Bracted Bracted 1 Y,0,3 N utricle utricle Lilac, 90 70 2 86,000 8/20-10/10 1 6-7-4 Capsule Seed 1 Y,0,1 Variable common Locust, blacki 98 85 1 23,875 9/1-11/30 1-2 2-4 Legume Seed 4 Y,0,1-2 Y,0,1-6 Mahogany, 90 80 2 55,000 7/1-9/15 2 2-4-5 Achene Achene less 2 Y,0,3 Y,0,1-3 birchleaf style mountain Mahogany, 90 80 2 51,865 7/10-9/1 2 2-4-5 Achene Achene less 5 Y,0,3 Y,0,1-3 curlleaf style mountain Mahogany, 90 80 2 50,910 7/10-7/25 2 2-4-5 Achene Achene less 4 Y,0,3 Y,0,1-3 littleleaf style mountain Mahogany, 90 80 3 59,030 7/5-9/1 2 2-4-5 Achene Achene less 2 Y,0,3 Y,0,1-3 true mountain style Manzanita, 95 70 4 42,400 6/1-8/30 1 3-6-7-4 Berry Berry 5 Y,0,3-6 Y,0,0-6 bearberryi Maple, Rocky 90 85 2 13,430 8/1-9/30 1-2 2-4 Samara Samara 1 Y,0,2 N Mountainl Mockorange, 95 65 4 5,500,000 9/1-10/15 1-2 2-4 Capsule Seed 4 Y,0,1-2 Y,0,1-3 Lewis Mountain-ash, 90 70 3 138,125 7/15-9/30 1-2 3-6-4 Pome Seed 3 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-3 American Mountain 90 60 4 7/1-8/30 1-2 2-4 Capsule Seed 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 lover Ninebark, 98 40 3 756,000 8/10-9/30 1-2 2-4 Capsule Seed 3 Y,0,1-2 Y,0,1-3 mallow Oak, Gambel 95 80 3 200 8/10-9/30 1-2 4 Acorn Acorn 1 Y,0,1 N Peachbrush, 98 70 3 7/1-9/15 1 3-6-7-4 Drupe Drupe 2 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 Anderson Peachbrush, 90 70 3 4,500 6/30-7/20 1-2 4 Drupe Drupe 2 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 desert Penstemon, 85 80 2 1,260,000 7/1-9/15 1-2 2-4 Capsule Seed 4 U U bush (con.) Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Shrubs
708 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage (con.) Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Shrubs Plum, 98 70 3 810 9/5-10/5 1-2 3-6-7-4 Drupe Stone 2 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 American Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/15-12/30 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 alkali pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/1-12/15 1-2-4-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 dwarf pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 3 10/1-12/15 1-2-4-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 Greene’s pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/1-12/15 1-2-4-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 low pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 782,070 10/15-12/30 1-2-4-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 low mountain pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/15-12/15 1-2-4-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 low narrowleaf pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/15-12/15 1-2-4-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 low stickyleaf pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/1-11/30 1-2-4-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 Parry pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/1-11/30 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 Parry, Nevada pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/15-12/30 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 rubber, Green pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 432,000 10/15-12/30 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 rubber, leafless pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/15-12/30 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 rubber, pappus leiospermus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 426,000 10/5-12/15 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 rubber, mountain pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 693,220 10/15-12/30 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 rubber, mountain pappus white stem Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 756,000 10/5-11/30 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 rubber, threadleaf pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/5-12/15 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 rubber, tubinatus pappus Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/5-12/15 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 spreading pappus
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 709

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage(con.) Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Shrubs Rabbitbrush, 10-15 75 2 10/5-12/15 1-2-6 2-4 Achene Achene less 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 vasey pappus Rockspirea 95 80 3 5,340,000 8/1-8/30 1 2-4 Achene Seed U U Rose, Woods 95 70 4 45,300 9/1-8/30 1-2 3-6-7-4 Berry-like Achene 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,4-8 hip Russian-olive 98 90 2 2,870 8/25-1/15 1-2 3-6-7-4 Drupe Stone 5 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 Sage, purple 95 70 3 349,500 5/15-7/15 1-2 2-4 Nutlet Nutlet 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 Sagebrush, 8-12 80 1 2,575,940 11/1-1/15 1-2-3 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 basin big Sagebrush, 8-12 80 1 1,924,000 10/1-11/30 1-2-3-4 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 mountain big Sagebrush, 8-12 80 1 2,466,000 10/15-12/30 1-2-3-4 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 big Sagebrush, 8-12 80 1 2,520,000 9/25-11/15 1-2 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 Bigelow Sagebrush, 8-12 80 1 907,200 10/15-11/30 1-2-3-4 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 black Sagebrush, 8 50 2 1,680,000 5/15-6/20 1-2 2-4 Achene Achene 1 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 bud Sagebrush, 8-12 80 1 4,536,000 9/15-11/30 1-2-4 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 fringed Sagebrush, 8-12 70 1 1,080,000 10/1-11/30 1-2 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 longleaf Sagebrush, 8-12 80 1 972,000 10/1-12/5 1-2-4 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 low Sagebrush, 8 70 1 472,500 10/1-12/10 1-2-4 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 pygmy Sagebrush, 8-12 70 1 9/15-12/10 1-2-4 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 sand Sagebrush, 8-12 80 1 846,000 8/15-11/30 1-2-3-4 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 silver Sagebrush, 8 70 1 498,480 10/1-11/30 1-2 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 stiff Sagebrush, 8-12 75 1 2,212,700 10/15-12/15 1-2 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 tall threetip Sagebrush, 8-12 70 1 10/1-11/30 1-2 1 or 2-4 Achene Achene 2 Y,0,1 Y,2,0 timberline
710 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage(con.) Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Shrubs Saltbush, big 90 70 1 889,410 10/15-3/15 1-2-6 1-4 Bracted Bracted 2 Y,0,1 N utricle utricle Saltbush, 95 40 2 84,000 10/1-12/30 1-2-6 1-4 Bracted Bracted 4 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 Bonneville utricle utricle Saltbush, 90 40 2 207,630 10/20-2/15 1-2 1-4 Bracted Bracted 4 U U broadscale utricle utricle Saltbush, 95 45 2 81,660 10/15-12/30 1-2-6 1-4 Bracted Bracted 4 Y,0,1 Y,2-4,0 Castle Valley utricle utricle Saltbush, 90 40 1 490,000 10/15-2/15 1-2-6 1-4 Bracted Bracted 4 Y,0,1 N cattle utricle utricle Saltbush, 90 40 2 216,825 9/1-12/15 1-2 1-4 Bracted Bracted 4 Y,0,1 N desert holly utricle utricle Saltbush, 90 40 1 197,215 9/1-12/30 1-2-6 1-4 Bracted Bracted 4 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1 falcate utricle utricle Saltbush, 95 50 2 55,365 10/20-3/1 1-2-6 1-4 Bracted Bracted utricle 5 Y,0,6 Y,0,1-3 fourwing utricle less bract wings Saltbush, 90 45 2 111,450 9/10-3/1 1-2-6 1-4 Bracted Bracted 5 Y,0,3 Y,0,1 Gardner utricle utricle Saltbush, 95 45 2 66,175 7/25-11/1 1-2 1-4 Bracted Bracted 4 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 Garrett utricle utricle Saltbush, mat 95 45 2 66,835 10/1-12/15 1-2 1-4 Bracted Bracted 4 Y,0,1 Y,0,1 utricle utricle Saltbush, 90 45 2 44,040 10/1-12/15 1-2 1-4 Bracted Bracted 4 Y,0,1 U Navajo utricle utricle Saltbush, 95 35 4 64,920 10/15-3/1 1-2-6 1-4 Bracted Bracted 5 Y,0,10 Y,0,1-6 shadscale utricle utricle Saltbush, 90 50 2 168,000 9/10-12/30 1-2 1-4 Bracted Bracted 4 Y,0,1 U trident utricle utricle Serviceberry, 95 85 2 45,395 7/10-9/15 1-2 3-6-7-4 Pome Seed 5 Y,0,3-6 Y,0,2-6 Saskatoon Serviceberry, 95 85 2 25,800 8/25-4/1 1-2 3-6-7-4 Pome Seed 4 Y,0,3-6 Y,0,2-6 Utah Snowberry, 95 80 3 76,000 8/1-9/30 1-2 3-6-7-4 Berry Seed 3 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-4 common Snowberry, 95 80 3 68,000 8/10-9/30 1-2 3-6-7-4 Berry Seed 3 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-4 longflower Snowberry, 95 80 3 54,065 8/10-9/15 1-2 3-6-7-4 Berry Seed 3 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-4 mountain
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 711

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage Table 1 (Con.) Acceptable Seed per lb at Seed Seed Seed Reproductive Reproductive percent Germination 100 percent maturity collection cleaning structure structure Storage After- Stratifi- Species Puritya Germinationa ratingb purity month/day methodc equipmentd harvested seeded timee ripeningf cationf Shrubs Spiraea, 80 80 2 1,000,000 7/15-9/30 1-2 4 Follicle Seed 2 N N Douglas Sumac, Rocky 90 40 4 62,430 9/5-3/30 1-2 3-6-7-4 Drupe Stone 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 Mountain smooth Sumac, 95 40 4 18,895 6/20-10/10 1-2 3-6-7-4 Drupe Stone 5 Y,0,1-3 Y,0,1-6 skunkbushi Virginsbower, 50 70 3 315,000 10/5-12/30 1-6 1-2-4 Achene Achene , styles 1 Y,0,1 Y,0,2-4 western removed Winterfat 50 85 1 112,270 9/25-11/25 1-2-5-7 2-4 Bracted Bracted 1 Y,0,1-2 N utricle utricle Wormwood, 8-12 70 1-2 2-4 Achene Achene 2 U U oldman Whortleberry, 80 80 3 1,500,000 7/10-9/30 1-2 3-6-7-4 Berry Seed 3 U U big

aCommonly accepted purity and germination percentage of marketed seed. Purity x total germination = pure live seed (PLS). b1 = Excellent, easy to germinate; 2 = Good germinator; 3 = Medium germinator; 4 = Hard to germinate.

c1 = Hand strip into container; 2 = Beat into container; 3 = Clip into container; 4 = Reel-type harvester; 5 = Combine; 6 = Vacuum harvester. d1 = Hammermill; 2 = Barley debearder; 3 = Dybvig with water; 4 = Air-screen separator; 5 = Gravity table; 6 = Dry; 7 = Grinder-macerator. eYears seed can be stored dry without significant Dybvig loss in viability: 1 = 0 to 3 years; 2 = 4 to 6 years; 3 = 7 to 10 years; 4 = 11 to 15 years; 5 = 16 or more years. fY = Afterripening or stratification is required. Duration: First number = weeks; second number = months.

 N = No afterripening or stratification required. U = Afterripening and stratification characteristics unknown.

gTreat seed with pesticide prior to storage.

hInoculate seed prior to seeding.

iTreat seed with sulfuric acid to germinate in laboratory.

jTreat seed with hot water bath to germinate in laboratory.

kStore seed at £7 percent moisture in sealed container. lStore seed at <15 percent moisture.
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Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage

Seed of some native grasses and forbs can be mechanically collected (fig. 1) if stands are pure and the

topography is flat; if not, beating or stripping seed by

hand into shoulder hoppers (fig. 2), tubs, boxes, trash

cans, or other appropriate receptacles is the most

widely used harvesting procedure. Fleshy fruits are

beaten or hand picked (fig. 3). A resourceful seed

collector can innovate new and easier ways to harvest

seed of most species.

Seeds of most shrubs are obtained by hand harvesting from wildland stands. Seeds can be stripped or

flailed directly into canvas hoppers (fig. 1) of various

designs, or into tubs, baskets, boxes, or trash cans.

These seed-collecting containers may be attached to

the harvester by shoulder straps, or placed directly

under the bushes and the seed stripped or beaten into

them. Seed of species like curlleaf mountain mahogany,

true mountain mahogany, Apache plume, and cliffrose

with plumed seeds are harvested by shaking or by

dislodging the seed onto canvas, heavy cloth, or plastic

that is spread under the plant. When collecting seed

from extra large shrubs or small trees, ladders or

platforms may be necessary to pick or dislodge the

fruits from the crowns.

Seed of species such as curlleaf mountain mahogany,

true mountain mahogany, and cliffrose can be picked

up directly off the ground, using an ordinary sweep

rake to pile the seed and then fork it into sacks or

boxes. Care must be taken to ensure that rocks and

large limbs are not picked up because they will damage cleaning machines. Dealers will not purchase

collected seed containing sticks, rocks, or other foreign

objects. Ground collected seed must be picked up soon

after the fruits drop or the seed will be lost to field

mice, chipmunks, birds, and other small animals

(Plummer and Jorgensen 1978).

Figure 1—Collecting seed from a wildland

stand of Salina wildrye with a reel-type, vehicle-mounted

harvester.

Figure 2—Hand collecting seed into a

shoulder-mounted seed hopper.

Figure 3—Collecting fruits of blue

elderberry.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 713

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage

A number of techniques have been developed for

collecting cones—cutting trees down, climbing trees,

shooting cones off the trees, and raiding rodent caches.

A cache may contain just a few cones or many bushels

of cones. Favorite spots for caches are small ground

depressions, cavities in and around logs, stumps, roots,

rocks, moist seeps, and along banks of small creeks

and seeps (Schopmeyer 1974b).

With the increasing demand for many species, more

interest is being shown in harvesting native seed,

especially shrub and forb species, with machines.

Mechanical harvesters, such as combines and strippers, can be effective in harvesting seed from native

stands of low-growing forbs, shrubs, and grasses

(fig. 1). The land, however, must be level, and the

species being harvested must be in a relatively pure

stand. Some species that have been harvested successfully using some type of combine or stripper are

winterfat, black sagebrush, low rabbitbrush, lupine,

penstemon, globemallow, balsamroot, showy goldeneye, mountain brome, and salina wildrye.

Several vacuum-type seed harvesters have been developed by the USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Equipment Development Center (Jorgensen 1979). A large

truck-mounted seed harvester was developed

(Plummer and others 1970a,b) and has been useful for

collecting seed of fourwing saltbush, shadscale saltbush, cliffrose, the mountain mahoganies, and a number of forbs and grasses. Custom made backpack

vacuum seed harvesters have also been developed.

When using vacuum seed harvesters, a machine is

needed that does not route the fruits through the

impeller, as it usually damages the seed.

Federal and State agencies require seed collecting

permits to harvest seed from their lands. Requirements for collecting seed from private land vary with

owner. Permits or permission should always be obtained before harvesting seed.

Seed Cleaning __________________

Cleaning seed is necessary to facilitate seeding and

to meet acceptable purity levels (table 1). Manufacturers of seed cleaning machinery, researchers, and seed

industry personnel have done an outstanding job in

developing seed processing equipment and techniques.

With a little ingenuity by the processor, equipment

and techniques for cleaning seed of most species is now

available. The processor must learn the proper operation of each machine and the best cleaning methods for

each species. Experience is the best teacher. To clean

seed, more than one step is usually required. Table 1

outlines the seed cleaning sequence and lists the

equipment required for cleaning seed of grasses, forbs,

and shrubs.

When cleaning seed of dry or fleshy fruited species,

care must be taken to keep the seed dry to prevent

severe damage to the embryo during the cleaning

process. Fleshy fruit should not be allowed to “heat up”

or ferment; this can reduce viability and may kill the

seed. Cleaning consists of removing unwanted appendages, floral parts, seedcoats, fleshy material, and

debris. Following is a description of the most commonly used equipment items and the function of each

in cleaning and processing seed.

Hammermill

Hammermills (fig. 4) are used to extract seed from

floral parts and to remove appendages. Hammermills

come in many sizes, consisting of a hooded inlet or

hopper, a central chamber with a rotating shaft that

has rows of protruding “hammers,” an interchangeable outlet screen, and a bagger. A number of outlet

screens with various hole sizes and shapes to accommodate various seed sizes are available. The holes

must be large enough to let the seed pass through

without damage, but small enough to remove appendages. Rotation speed of the central shaft should be

variable. Processors must use their best judgement

and ingenuity to set the speed of the hammermill and

choose the proper screen size to meet the requirements

of the species being cleaned. Excessive rotation speed

may not allow the seed adequate time to pass through

the screen holes with the result that seed will be

damaged. Too slow a rotation speed may not allow for

the appendages to be completely broken off. Some

species that can be successfully processed through a

hammermill include the saltbushes, sagebrushes, hopsage, penstemons, greasewood, vetches, and Lewis flax.

Debearder

A debearder (fig. 5) consists of a horizontal beater

assembly that rotates inside a steel drum. The beater

Figure 4—Hammermill used to remove

seed appendages.
714 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage

assembly consists of a shaft with projecting arms

that are pitched to move the seed through the drum.

Stationary posts protrude inward from the drum and

restrain the seed from rotating with the beaters,

causing vigorous rubbing action between seeds, pods,

heads, and multiple seeds against the arms, posts, and

each other. The time seed remains in the unit is varied

by regulating a weighted discharge gate. Care should

be taken to ensure that seeds do not remain in the

debearder until they overheat. This machine can be

used to remove awns, tails, styles (fig. 6), and husks to

separate seed from flower heads and capsules, break

up stems (fig. 7), and to polish seed. Considerably less

seed is damaged in the debearder than in the

hammermill. The debearder is versatile and can be

successfully used to clean seed of many species.

Dybvig Separator

The Dybvig (fig. 8) is a large macerator that consists

of a spinning, flanged plate at the bottom of a seed

hopper. The rotation speed of the flanged plate can be

changed to meet the requirements of each species. A

Dybvig is used to clean both fleshy and dry fruits.

The first step in cleaning fleshy fruits is to run the

fruit through a Dybvig. The fleshy fruit is thrown

against the plate and side of the hopper, which removes the flesh from the seed. A stream of water is

required when cleaning fleshy fruits. There are several other types of macerators, but none that outperforms the Dybvig in removing seed from fleshy fruit.

When working with small lots of fruit, a home blender

has been successfully used. To reduce damage, the

steel blades in the blender should be replaced with

heavy rubber blades or covered with rubber tubing

(Plummer and Jorgensen 1978). Seed appendages can

Figure 5—Debearder used to clean seed of a

large number of grass, forb, and shrub species.

Figure 6—(A) Freshly collected cliffrose seed with

styles. (B) Cleaned cliffrose seed that has been run

through a debearder to remove styles, and an airscreen separator to remove debris from the seed.

Figure 7—Unprocessed winterfat seed (left)

and seed processed through a debearder (right).

A

B
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 715

Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage

Figure 8—Dybvig seed cleaner used to remove

seed from fleshy fruits.

be removed from dry fruits with a Dybvig separator.

Dry seed is put in the Dybvig and treated until the

appendages are removed.

Air-Screen Separator

The air-screen separator combines air, gravity, and

screens with various hole sizes to clean and separate

seed from impurities. Cleaners vary in size from twoscreen (fig. 9) models to large eight-screen types.

Regardless of the number of screens, the seed cleaning

Figure 9—Air-screen separator used to remove floral parts, leaves, chaff, and debris from seed.

principle is the same. The top screen removes the large

material and impurities, letting the seed and smaller

trash pass through. The second and subsequent screens

retain and separate the seed from impurities (fig. 6).

The seed then passes through a stream of air that

blows out empty and light seed and other trash. The

heavy seed is then dropped or augered into a collection

container.

Gravity Separators

A gravity table is used to separate light, medium,

and heavy seed and impurities from each other. A

gravity table consists of a table with a cloth or wire

screen that can be tilted in two directions at various

pitches and a flow of air that comes up through the

table top. As the table moves back and forth and air

moves up through and between the seed, the seed and

material are separated by weight and deposited in

appropriate containers. This machine has great utility

for separating and removing sticks and other debris of

the same size as, but of different weight than the

seed being cleaned. Seed of the same species and seed

lot can be separated into various size-weight classes.

Depending on the size of the machine, 200 to 500 lb

(91 to 227 kg) of seed per hour can be separated and

brought to the desired purity. Seed of many species

can be cleaned to 98 percent or greater purity with a

gravity table.

Grinder-Macerator

The grinder-macerator consists of a rotating shaft

with fingers that beat and rub the seed collection.

After fleshy fruit is run through the Dybvig water

process, all material is dried. It is then run through a

macerator to separate dried skin and pulp from the

seed. Seed is then separated out with an air-screen

separator and gravity table. Dry seed in capsules can

be removed from the capsules with a macerator.

Seed Storage ___________________

A seed inventory is essential to any successful seeding

project. Quality seed must be available when needed.

Many species do not produce a high yield of viable seed

every year. Therefore, seed must be harvested and

stored during years of good seed production to offset

years when poor or no seed crops are produced. Storage

of commercially produced seed is also required.

Seed must be stored properly to ensure retention of

maximum viability. The seeds must be well dried before

they are stored in a warehouse or granary, and then

they must be kept dry (Justice and Bass 1978). In arid

climates such as Nevada and Utah, no special seed

storage facilities or techniques are required for most

species, other than making sure the seed is dry when

put in storage. Seed of some species are best stored at
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Chapter 24 Seed Collection, Cleaning, and Storage

a specific moisture content. In order to maintain viability of forage kochia seed, moisture content must be

lowered to and maintained below 7 percent (Jorgensen

and Davis 1984). In more moist or humid climates,

some means of artificial drying is necessary before and

during storage (Schopmeyer 1974b). With proper storage conditions, seed viability can be retained for many

years (Stevens and Jorgensen 1994).

Regardless of the storage method, certain steps

should be taken to properly store seed: (1) the seed

should remain dry; (2) temperature and humidity

should be kept low, preferably with little fluctuation;

(3) seed should be kept in rodent-free storage areas;

and (4) good housekeeping practices pay dividends

(Schopmeyer 1974b).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 717

Gordon A. Van Epps

Richard Stevens

25

Chapter

The success or failure of range restoration and revegetation

programs depends on procurement of an adequate supply of

quality grass, forb, and shrub seed. Rangeland species seed is

either grown commercially or collected from wildland stands.

Commercially produced seed of numerous grass species is available (Asay and Knowles 1985b; Horton and others 1990; Sours

1983). A few site-specific grass species of limited commercial

demand are collected from native stands, but in general the seed

of most grasses are grown under cultivation. The latter is not

true for many forbs, or most shrubs. Seed of several native and

introduced forbs seeded on rangelands are now commercially

available. They include cultivars of alfalfa, cicer milkvetch,

crownvetch, various clovers, arrowleaf balsamroot (fig. 1), flax,

sainfoin, globemallow, small burnet (fig. 2), western yarrow,

Utah sweetvetch (fig. 3), and several penstemon species

(Rumbaugh and Townsend 1985; Stevens and others 1985c;

Van Epps 1966). Seed of numerous forbs must still be collected

from wildland stands. This is especially true for some sitespecific forbs. Also, seeds from nearly all shrub species are

collected from wildland populations.

Shrub and Forb

Seed Production
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Chapter 25 Shrub and Forb Seed Production

Figure 1—Balsamroot seed production

field in full bloom.

Figure 2—Seed production field of small

burnet ‘Delar’.

Figure 3—‘Timp’ Utah sweetvetch starting

to flower in a seed production field.

Figure 4—Seed orchard of ‘Immigrant’

forage kochia.

Figure 5—Antelope bitterbrush seed orchard.

Recently, however, specific ecotypes of several shrubs

species have been released (Carlson and others 1984;

Noller and others 1984) and some seed is being produced commercially (fig. 4, 5). Considerable work is

being done on selection, breeding and improvement of

a number of shrub species that may eventually lead to

commercial seed production (McArthur and others

1985; Monsen and Davis 1985; Stevens and others

1996; Stutz and Carlson 1985; Van Epps 1966).

A prime requirement for successful restoration and

revegetation of range and wildlands is the use of

plant material from a seed source of proven adaptability to the planting site. Often, the amount of seed

required is not available from either wildland populations or from materials previously released from

breeding and selection programs. This void can be

filled by encouraging development of shrub seed

orchards and forb and grass seed fields. Seed production principles, procedures and techniques are fairly

well established for many grass and legume species.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 719

Chapter 25 Shrub and Forb Seed Production

Utah (Horton and others 1990) has developed a grass

seed production guide. Wyoming and Montana have

guides for grass and legume seed production

(Holzworth and Wiesner 1985). Seed production information can be obtained from Agricultural Experiment Stations, the Natural Resources Conservation

Service, and State Crop Improvement Associations.

The technology for growing seed crops of forbs (except

legumes) and shrubs is extremely limited. Researchers in Utah (Stevens and others 1996) have recently

published a guide for seed production of a number of

forbs and shrubs. Available cultural and management practices have been adapted from agronomic,

horticultural, and forestry seed production principles

and techniques, from initial studies of a few shrub and

forb seed production plantations, and from years of

observations.

Seed is harvested from native stands, cultivated

orchards, and croplands. Seed quality and genetic

identity (verification of the source) are of prime importance.

Official seed certifying agencies in every State provide third party verification of cultivar/germplasm

source, identity, and purity. The parent certification

organization, the Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies, has established minimum requirements

and standards, defined seed classes and generations,

and developed tagging specifications for member agencies. These are explained in detail in chapter 27.

In Utah, seed certification is a service performed by

the Utah Crop Improvement Association (UCIA) in

cooperation with the Utah Agricultural Experiment

Station at Utah State University and the Division of

Plant Industry of the Utah Department of Agriculture

and Food. Anyone may apply to grow certified seed,

but the UCIA must be contacted before planting to

consider land eligibility, germplasm/variety origin,

and ensure familiarity with certification procedures.

Application forms and copies of the seed certification

standards may be obtained by contacting: Utah Crop

Improvement Association, Utah State University,

Logan, UT 84322-4855.

After planting, fields must be rogued to remove other

species and off-types. Weeds, particularly noxious

prohibited or restricted ones, must be controlled. Seed

fields will be inspected at least once before harvest by

a UCIA representative. Wildland stands are also inspected by UCIA representatives. Once inspected,

seed from these stands can be certified to the appropriate class. Seed identity and freedom from contamination must be maintained during harvest and storage. Conditioning facilities are also inspected. A

sample of the cleaned seed is submitted to an approved seed laboratory for analysis. If the seed sample

meets the certified seed analysis standards, certification is completed by proper labeling. Only seed

produced in accordance with the regulations of the

UCIA and labeled with an official tag or bulk certificate can be represented as Utah Certified Seed(Stevens

and others 1996).

Management of Native Seed

Production Areas _______________

Advantages associated with use of seed collected

from wildlands are: (1) species adaptation to the

seed collection site is known; (2) the plants are established and generally mature; (3) there is normally a

large choice in species from which to choose; (4) ecotypes

can normally be found that are adapted to most site

conditions; and (5) natural biological insect controls may

be present. Some disadvantages are: (1) it is sometimes difficult to acquire the right to harvest or manage for seed production; (2) distance, time, and expense is involved in traveling to check on the potential

seed crop, its maturity, and in harvesting; (3) often, the

seed crop is small due to unfavorable weather conditions, animal grazing, or insect damage; (4) seeds may

be costly to harvest; and (5) seed sources available may

not be adapted to the site intended for rehabilitation.

Several management practices have been used to

improve seed production from selected wildland populations. They include: fencing to prevent game and

livestock grazing, removal of undesirable plants (even

from within the species being managed), and thinning to enhance seed production and facilitate harvesting. All of the above practices have the potential

for increasing seed production and improving seed

quality. The removal or flagging of rocks and removal

of scattered plants of other species from a native stand

may change a normally hand collected population to

one in which machine harvesting could be used, thereby

increasing harvesting efficiency and the amount of

seed harvested. A good example would be the use of a

head stripper or beater mounted on the front of a

vehicle (see chapter 24) for harvesting arrowleaf

balsamroot. Pruning some species may be advisable to

improve seed harvesting. Proper and timely spraying

for insect control may also increase seed yield and

seed quality. Timely seed harvest is very important

with some species; especially those whose seed is shed

quickly after maturity.

Shrub and Forb Seed Orchard

Establishment and

Management ___________________

Cultivation of seed crops has a number of advantages. Management practices that can enhance seed

production include: time of seeding, seedbed preparation, depth of seeding, row spacing, planting methods, fertilization, irrigation, weed and insect control,
720 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 25 Shrub and Forb Seed Production

and time and method of harvest. Utah, Wyoming,

and Montana have published guides for the field

production of grass and legume seeds (Holzworth and

Wiesner 1985; Horton and others 1990). Shrub and

forb seed production practices have been developed

for a few species (Stevens and others 1996).

The prospective seed producer needs to select a

species or variety, and decide whether to plant seeds,

seedlings, or vegetative propagules based on plant

release specifications and available resources.

Seed orchards of dioecious species such as fourwing saltbush (fig. 6) should be planted from stem

cuttings to establish the proper ratio of pistillate to

staminate plants.

Location of the orchard or seed field is of the utmost

importance. It can be the most critical factor in

determining if a seed production operation succeeds

or fails. Questions that should be addressed in selecting the location of a seed orchard or seed field are: is

the site suitable for the species being established with

respect to soil, climatic conditions, terrain, accessibility; are: labor force and equipment available; what

type of irrigation is available if needed; and what kind

of isolation is there from plants of the same species?

Location of the seed orchard at a slightly lower elevation and more southerly latitude than the site from

which the mother plants originated could be beneficial. Selection of this type of site has the potential for

providing a longer growing season and improving

accessibility for performing necessary cultural practices and seed harvesting. Soil characteristics should

meet the needs of the species being planted. Antelope bitterbrush, for example, can be found on both

acidic and basic soils, but seed from sources originating on acid soils grow poorly on basic soils and do

not produce good seed crops. Species such as bitterbrush, sagebrush, and rabbitbrush should be planted

on wind-free areas to reduce seed losses during the

time of seed maturity. Mature seed crops can easily be

lost when a strong wind disperses the seed just prior

to the planned collection dates. Species that mature

late should be planted in areas with fairly open winters or late snowfall.

Seed orchards should be located near an available

labor force so that cultural practices and seed harvesting can be accomplished efficiently. Availability

of adequate equipment for the various cultural practices must be considered.

Plants within orchards that have been developed

through hybridization or selection should be isolated

from other plants of the same species to prevent

undesirable crossing and to comply with seed certification isolation requirements.

The design of a seed orchard is influenced by several factors. These include: plant size, which has an

influence on spacing and population density; row

Figure 6—Seed orchard of ‘Rincon’ fourwing

saltbush.

width, which will affect the type of mechanical equipment used and cultural treatments; row planting

directions in relation to land slope, wind, snow accumulation, spraying, seed harvesting; and the sexual

nature of the plant (hermaphroditic, dioecious, or

monecious); adequate pollination; and the concept of

including several plant species in an orchard to encourage biological insect control.

Individual plants, when allowed to grow without

competition, are often much larger than anticipated.

In wildland situations, they are normally observed

growing where they are in equilibrium with the environment. This should be considered for each species

and ecotype when designing a seed orchard. Rows

must be wide enough to operate cultivation, spraying,

and harvesting equipment. Plant density will affect

the amount of seed produced. However, distances

between plants need to be such as to lessen the stress

for moisture and space as the plants grow to maturity.

Planting of rows along the contour should be considered for better erosion control, equipment use, and

more effective seed harvest on slopes. Where plant

size allows close spacing in the rows, consideration

might be given to running the rows in the direction

that will make the most effective use of moisture from

precipitation, especially snow. The method of seed

harvesting must also be considered when designing a

seed orchard, as some orchards may be in production

for 25 years or longer.

In areas receiving 11 to 13 inches (280 to 330 mm)

of annual precipitation, large varieties of fourwing

saltbush should have a minimum spacing of 10 ft

(3.0 m) by 16 ft (4.9 m) (fig. 6). This is more than the

8 ft (2.4 m) by 10 ft (3.0 m) spacing suggested by

McArthur and others (1978c), 15 ft (4.6 m) by 5 ft

(1.5 m) suggested by Briggs (1984), and 9 ft (2.7 m)

by 12 ft (3.7 m) suggested by Noller and others (1984)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 721

Chapter 25 Shrub and Forb Seed Production

working with medium-sized plants. Plant spacing of

12 to 16 ft (3.7 to 4.9 m) has been used successfully

with an upright type of bitterbrush. However, on a perunit of ground basis, wide spacing may not equal ideal

spacing, for example, more plants may produce less

seed per plant but more seed per unit of ground than

will fewer, larger, higher producing plants. Recommended

plants and row spacing for 22 forbs and 8 shrubs have

been developed by Stevens and others (1996).

The sex of individual plants of dioecious species

such as fourwing saltbush should be considered prior

to orchard planting (Briggs 1984; Noller and others

1984). The greater the number of pistillate plants per

unit area that can be planted and still obtain optimum

pollination, the greater will be the seed yield for the

area. One suggested design consists of several rows of

pistillate plants alternating with a single row of

staminate plants, with the rows running at right

angles to the prevailing wind (McArthur and others

1978c). The outer rows should be staminate plants.

Source of the staminate plants should be the same

as the pistillate plants to ensure compatibility and

uniformity in anthesis, and to maximize seed yields. It

is possible to use clonal material from several sources

grown under similar environments to prevent inbreeding, and also to increase the gene pool of desirable characteristics in the progeny. McArthur and

others (1978c), recommend that monecious plants of a

primarily dioecious species not be used in seed orchards because they usually produce fewer seeds.

The concept of including several plant species, including grasses and forbs, in a shrub seed orchard

for biological insect control has not been adequately

studied. A single species seed orchard can create an

unnatural condition that can encourage a population

explosion of injurious insects (Moore and Stevens

1984; Moore and others 1982). This was pointed out

by a case of walnut spanworm infestation in an antelope bitterbrush seed orchard in central Utah, on the

Nephi Experimental Farm (Furniss and Van Epps

1981). If planting more than one species proves to be

a useful control measure, then the idea of including

several species in an orchard for maximum benefit

while still maintaining the primary purpose of the

orchard for seed production would require careful

planning.

The planting design for forbs and small shrubs

will depend on mature plant size, type of material

used for planting, equipment needs, seed harvesting

techniques, and method of irrigation. Some species

such as cicer milkvetch may develop a dense stand,

while others such as Lewis flax, small burnet, or

winterfat should be maintained in rows. Row width

will vary, depending on plant size, growth habit, and

equipment used.

Items to Consider When Establishing a

Forb Seed Field

A forb seed field should be planted with seed prepared similarly to a field being prepared for a field

crop. The seedbed for transplants, however, will not

need the same preparation. One or more years fallowing of the land for soil moisture accumulation and

weed control prior to planting is an excellent management practice that can pay big dividends, especially in

direct seeded stand establishment and future labor

requirements. Competition from weeds must be controlled through pre-cultivation or through the use of

herbicides prior to planting. Weed control is a must in

seed production for several reasons: (1) weeds compete

for soil moisture, nutrients, and space; (2) weeds can

become rodent habitats; (3) weeds can interfere with

harvesting; and (4) weed seed can cause seed crop

contamination at harvest time and may prevent the

sale of seed or its certification.

Injurious insects can damage plants and seed, and

present one of the most serious obstacles to profitable seed production. Serious infestations of seed

insects in seed fields require aggressive pest management to prevent loss of the seed crop.

Rodents may become a problem in seed fields. They

can eat or cache large quantities of seed, and kill

plants by girdling the stems or damaging roots during winter periods.

If irrigation is used, the particular irrigation system chosen may have to be installed prior to planting,

and should be considered in the overall design. Optimum rates of irrigation or fertilizer application, and

their effects on plant growth and seed production,

have not yet been determined for most forb and shrub

species.

Several low-growing shrubs and forbs such as cicer

milkvetch, penstemon, Lewis flax, small burnet, forage kochia, and winterfat can be successfully combineharvested. There are some problems with cylinders

clogging when combining cicer milkvetch and winterfat, and this may also occur with other species. The

leaves and stems of cicer milkvetch can be killed in

late September or early October, using a defoliant followed by direct combining with the header being placed

on the ground. A defoliant can reduce the amount of

green forage, and facilitate threshing.

Various suction-type seed harvesting machines

have been used experimentally in seed fields. These

include backpack units, as well as those mounted on

trailers, tractors, and trucks. Under wildland conditions, the most successful method has been hand

harvesting with the use of a hopper (see chapter 24) or

other containers, though mechanical harvesting of

seed from a few species shows promise.
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Chapter 25 Shrub and Forb Seed Production

Items to Consider When Establishing a

Shrub Seed Orchard

1. Selecting planting material (if not a released

variety)

a. Select plant materials according to orchard

objectives.

b. Use rooted stem cuttings or other types of

vegetative propagules from selected clones

possessing the desired characteristics.

c. Plant seed from plants possessing desirable

characteristics.

d. Plant quality seeds and plants to assure maximum survival. A good seed orchard may be in

production for 25 years or longer.

2. Location

a. Plant within the area of adaptation. Many

ecotypes of species are site-specific. Elevation,

temperature, precipitation, and soil characteristics must be considered.

b. For ease in cultivating, spraying, harvesting,

and to reduce erosion under clean cultivation,

plant on level or minimal slope.

c. For species whose seeds are easily shattered

or disseminated, plant in wind-sheltered

areas.

d. To facilitate seed harvesting, species that mature seed late in the year (sagebrushes, rabbitbrushes, and saltbushes) should be planted in

areas with open winters or with late snowfall.

3. Design

a. Design the row width and plant spacing within

rows according to: mature plant size and

plant status; whether a plant is dioecious,

monecious or hermaphroditic; and the intended

method of seed harvest.

b. Plant rows on contour for erosion control.

c. When practical, plant rows east and west to

maximize soil moisture benefits from precipitation and snow accumulation.

d. Plant wind pollinated species with rows at

right angles to prevailing winds.

4. Management

a. Lead time and timeliness in operation are of

extreme importance. Lead time is required for

seed or clone selection, propagation of stem

cuttings, site preparation, and planting design. Timeliness in the practices of planting,

spraying, and seed harvesting is necessary.

b. Seedbed preparation should be similar to that

prepared for small grain crops.

c. Mechanical and herbicide fallowing of the

soil for a year or more prior to planting will

help control undesirable plants and improve

moisture accumulation.

d. Fence orchards for protection from livestock

and wildlife.

e. Clean cultivate within and around seed producing areas. This will decrease the likelihood

of destruction by wildfire.

f. Prune for more effective seed production and

harvesting and for removal of broken or dead

branches.

g. Weekly observations and sweeping are necessary to assess status of destructive insects.

Identify insects causing problems and develop

a control program. Care must be taken to

minimize harm to pollinator, parasite, and

predator insects that may be present.

h. For bee pollinated species, introduce bees for

more effective pollination.

5. Seed Harvesting

a. The collector must discern between good

viable seed, and poor seed that may be insectdamaged or underdeveloped. He must know

when seed is ripe and ready for harvesting.

b. Consider the use of combines or head and seed

strippers where possible.

c. Seed harvesting with various beaters, hoppers, and hand strippers are presently the

most efficient and fastest methods for some

species. Precautions must be taken to ensure

that seed is not mechanically injured during

harvest or subsequent processing.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 723

Kent R. Jorgensen

G. Richard Wilson

26

Chapter

Seed germination represents the means for survival and

spread of many plants (McDonough 1977). Germination consists of three overlapping processes: (1) absorption of water,

mainly by imbibition, causing swelling of the seed; (2) concurrent enzymatic activity and increased respiration and assimilation rates; and (3) cell enlargement and divisions resulting in

emergence of root and plumule (Evanari 1957; Schopmeyer

1974b).

Germination is most commonly expressed as germination

capacity, which is the percentage of seed that germinates

during a period of time that ends when essentially all germinable seed have germinated. Germination energy is sometimes

used in the literature. Germination energy is the percentage

of seed that germinates during a specific time interval that is

determined by the peak of germination. Germination capacity

and germination energy will generally vary considerably

within a seed lot (table 1).

Seed Germination
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Chapter 26 Seed Germination

Table 1—Mean germination energy and mean germination capacity of 18 grass, 27 forb, and 28 shrub species following

specified number of days. Germinated in the dark at 34 to 38 ∞F (1.1 to 3.3 ∞C).

Germinative energya Germinative capacityb Number of

Species Percent Days Percent Days accessionsc

Grasses

Bluegrass, Kentucky 27 70 30 365 6

Brome, mountain 54 38 77 120 7

Brome, meadow, ‘Regar’ 90 28 92 42 6

Brome, smooth southern 67 21 80 49 12

Fescue, hard sheep 58 30 82 60 12

Foxtail, meadow 75 30 80 75 8

Orchardgrass 70 28 91 45 7

Orchardgrass, ‘Paiute’ 30 56 72 112 16

Rye, mountain 45 30 49 60 5

Squirreltail, bottlebrush 75 28 95 49 8

Wheatgrass, bluebunch 85 21 93 45 8

Wheatgrass, standard crested 78 30 88 80 8

Wheatgrass, fairway crested 90 28 92 42 30

‘Ephraim’

Wheatgrass, intermediate 70 28 93 50 24

Wheatgrass, pubescent ‘Luna’ 70 28 93 50 10

Wheatgrass, tall 75 30 90 120 10

Wildrye, Great Basin ‘Magnar’ 53 50 75 250 18

Wildrye, Russian 70 28 91 49 12

Forbs

Alfalfa ‘Ladak’ 85 14 92(3)d 28 30

Alfalfa ‘Nomad’ 56 14 94(3)d 45 16

Aster, Pacific 34 120 59 180 8

Aster, Engelmann 80 150 83 180 4

Aster, blueleaf 26 90 48 180 4

Balsamroot, arrowleaf 26 98 40 175 12

Balsamroot, cutleaf 17 98 35 180 10

Burnet, small 80 21 91 35 16

Clover, strawberry 56 60 91 365 4

Cowparsnip 30 150 64 365 6

Crownvetch 35 45 55(20)d 180 12

Flax, Lewis ‘Appar’ 70 45 80 75 22

Geranium, Richardson 16 180 22 365 4

Goldeneye, showy 20 150 27 365 7

Helianthella, oneflower 50 90 90 180 10

Lomatium, narrowleaf 49 130 72 365 8

Lupine, mountain 63 36 77 98 16

Lupine, silky 73 56 95 98 10

Milkvetch, cicer 20 75 32(65)d 150 18

Penstemon, low 21 150 42 365 4

Penstemon, Palmer ‘Cedar’ 62 49 86 63 10

Sainfoin 80 21 91 35 10

Salsify, vegetable oyster 48 35 63 130 8

Sweetanise 34 180 60 365 8

Sweetvetch, Utah (shelled) 40 50 63 200 20

Sweetvetch, Utah (unshelled) 28 50 34 210 10

Sweetclover, yellow 75 14 90 42 22

Shrubs

Apache plume 23 60 63 180 8

Bitterbrush, antelope 72 42 90 56 40

Bitterbrush, desert 58 28 86 70 12

Ceanothus, Martine 33 120 38 240 8

Chokecherry, black 32 150 72 365 8

(con.)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 725

Chapter 26 Seed Germination

Table 1 (Con.)

Germinative energya Germinative capacityb Number of

Species Percent Days Percent Days accessionsc

Shrubs

Cliffrose 70 70 84 91 18

Currant, golden 37 90 70 365 7

Ephedra, green 74 56 91 70 18

Ephedra, Nevada 80 21 93 35 12

Greasewood, blacke 30 45 46 180 4

Hopsage, spiny 60 40 82 120 18

Kochia, forage ‘Immigrant’ 60 35 87 49 30

Mountain mahogany, curlleaf 53 105 68 365 16

Mountain mahogany, true 64 63 83 112 20

Peachbrush, desert 57 45 75 180 8

Rabbitbrush, mountain low 63 180 73 365 6

Rabbitbrush, mountain rubber 55 49 72 63 8

Rabbitbrush, whitestem rubber 60 42 70 56 22

Sagebrush, basin big 60 63 61 70 36

Sagebrush, black 59 42 75 91 14

Sagebrush, fringed 15 74 36 365 4

Sagebrush, mountain big 45 48 82 104 32

Sagebrush, Wyoming big 38 48 76 104 12

Saltbush, fourwinge 26 42 39 63 60

Saltbush, Gardnere 16 90 24 180 8

Serviceberry, Saskatoon 63 330 80 365 12

Serviceberry, Utah 77 104 94 210 10

Winterfat 55 14 84 28 24

a

Percentage of seed that germinate during a specific time interval that is determined by the peak of germination.

b

Percentage of seed that germinate during a period of time ending when essentially all germatable seed have germinated.

c

Number of accessions used in determining results. Two 100 seed samples per accession were evaluated.

d

Percent hard seed in parenthesis.

e

Fifty percent fill, all other species 95 to 100 percent fill.

Figure 1—Mature, viable antelope bitterbrush

seed.

A mature, viable nondormant seed (fig. 1) will

germinate (fig. 2) if placed under favorable conditions of moisture, temperature, gas exchange, and

light (for some species). There is an interdependence

between these factors as well as between age of seed

and storage conditions. The conditions that allow

Figure 2—Germinating antelope bitterbrush

seed.

germination to occur and the time required for

germination can vary dramatically between seed lots

of a species (Meyer and Monsen 1990; Meyer and

Pendleton 1990; Meyer and others 1987, 1989; Stevens

and Jorgensen 1994; Young and others 1984d).
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Chapter 26 Seed Germination

Moisture _______________________

The cells of the germinating seed cannot carry on

the vital process of germination without sufficient

water. The rate of water absorption is largely dependent upon the degree of seedcoat permeability and

availability of water. Seedcoat permeability and rate

of water uptake can be increased in some species by

mechanical, chemical, or hot water treatments (see

chapter 24). Seeds of some species will absorb the

amount of water required for germination in a short

period; others take a much longer period. Rubber

rabbitbrush will absorb the amount of water required

for germination in about 36 hours, whereas seed of

blue elderberry requires a much longer period: 180

days or more.

Too much water can be harmful to some seeds. Most

can be soaked in water for 3 to 5 days without decreasing germination, but care should be taken if

seed is soaked for longer periods.

Temperature ____________________

Seeds of many species can germinate over a wide

range of temperatures. Others germinate only within

narrow temperature ranges (Schopmeyer 1974b). Seed

of several plant species have the capacity to germinate at temperatures close to 32 ∞F (0 ∞C). Right after

snow melt, soil temperatures are generally low and

soil water levels are high. Under these conditions,

those seeds that germinate at low temperatures have

a good chance for survival, with adequate moisture

being available for continued growth.

Knowing the temperature or combination of temperatures at which a species will exhibit maximum

germination can help in determining the most ideal

time to sow the seed. Optimum germination temperatures have been determined for a number of

shrubs (Allen and others 1986a,c, 1987; Dettori and

others 1984; Evans and Young 1977a; Springfield

1972a; Young and others 1981a; Young and Evans

1981b), cool season grasses (Allen and others 1986b;

Young and Evans 1978a, 1981a, 1982, 1984; Young

and others 1981a), and forbs (Allen and Davis 1986;

Allen and others 1986b; Young and Evans 1979).

Extreme high temperature, such as in a fire can

increase germination and emergence of species like

buckbrush, smooth sumac, and lodgepole pine. Rupture of the seedcoat structure and heat inactivation

of inhibitors are possible explanations for the effect

fire has on seed germination (McDonough 1977).

Gas Exchange __________________

Most seeds will not germinate when the soil is too

wet, when seeds are planted too deep, or when conditions limit the supply of oxygen. Oxygen has to be

present for germination to take place. A low rate of

oxygen uptake permits only the earliest stages of

germination to occur. If a continual source of oxygen is

not available, germination will stop and the seed will

die. Oxygen is also essential for normal seedling development. Oxygen requirements can affect seeding

time, seeding depth, and selection of areas to seed.

The rate of oxygen absorption during seed germination and seedling development is highly variable among

species (Schopmeyer 1974b).

Light __________________________

Under natural conditions, some seeds become buried and germinate without light. However, light is

essential for seed germination of many species. Depth

of seeding should be controlled as well as possible

when sowing seeds of species having a light requirement (Schopmeyer 1974b). Indian ricegrass, western

wheatgrass, and Great Basin wildrye are a few species that germinate best in the dark (seed covered).

Mountain brome, slender wheatgrass, blue grama, big

sagebrush, and forage kochia are species that require

light to germinate.

Afterripening ___________________

Another factor encountered in the germination process is afterripening or a continuation of the maturing process after harvest. There are a number of

grasses, forbs, and shrubs that exhibit afterripening

(Stevens and Jorgensen 1994) (table 2; also see chapter 24). Seed that has been collected before fully

ripening, or seed freshly harvested can, initially, exhibit low germination that will increase after a period

of air-dry storage. This process hardens the embryo,

and in some instances helps increase the ability of

the seed to absorb the water needed for the germination process. Whether or not afterripening occurs

depends upon a number of factors, including site

differences, degree of seed maturity at harvest, conditions of storage, and ecotypic differences within species (McDonough 1977).

Dormancy______________________

Viable and uninjured seeds of most shrub species

will not germinate without seed dormancy being broken or overcome. The degree of seed dormancy varies

between species (fig. 3; table 2; also see chapter 24).

For example, forage kochia and winterfat only require

afterripening, whereas, wildrose and blue elderberry

require 1 or 2 years or cold moist stratification to

break dormancy. Most grasses exhibit little dormancy.

An exception is Indian ricegrass (Young and Evans

1984), which exhibits a profoundly dormant embryo.

Seed of most forb species, with the exception of the

legumes, posses a moderate level of dormancy. Many
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Chapter 26 Seed Germination

Table 2—Mean percent germination of seed from 39 plant species after 2 to 25 years of storage in an open warehouse (Stevens

and Jorgensen 1994).

Years of storage

Species Source 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 25

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Percent germinationa,b,c,d - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Grasses

Intermediate wheatgrass Washington 95 96 93 94 80 78– 63 13 1

Smooth brome Colorado 70 71– 52 39– 15 11 3 1 0

Winter rye Idaho 89 88 82 75– 56 48 32– 2 0

Forbs

Alfalfa Canada 69 76 75 75 70 77 66 73 67

same + hard seed 92 95 94 92 79 86– 71 78 71

Balsamroot, arrowleaf Paradise Valley, NV 40 42 37– 20 1 0 0 0

Balsamroot, cutleaf Bountiful, UT 35 28– 17 20– 4 0 0 0 0

Burnet, small Ephraim, UT 88*+ 93 91 96– 82 87 88– 69+ 83

Cowparsnip Pleasant Cr. Canyon, UT 7 8– 2 1 0 0 0 0 0

Eriogonum, Wyeth Brigham City, UT 51*+ 87 90– 64– 16– 5 – 0

Flax, Lewis Ephraim, UT 66* 72*+ 85 93 83 70– 25 8 0

Globemallow, gooseberry Benmore, UT 7 7 6 9 6 7 6 – 2

Goldeneye, showy Ephraim Canyon, UT 18 17 11 13 13– 1 0 0 0

Ligusticum, Porter Ephraim Canyon, UT 41 28 24 36– 13 0 0 0 0

Lomatium, Nuttall Ephraim Canyon, UT 69 73 73– 37– 8 2 0 0

Lupine, mountain Ephraim Canyon, UT 58 77 69 60– 26 28 13 6 1

Lupine, silky Ephraim Canyon, UT 97 99 100 99– 86 85 92– 75 76

Penstemon, Palmer Ephraim Canyon, UT 83 81 79– 65 50 – 0

Salsify, vegetable-oyster Mt. Pleasant, UT 65 65 66 66– 46 31– 13 0 0

Sweetvetch, Utah Orem, UT 59 67 58 55– 25 40 16 11 21

Shrubs

Bitterbrush, antelope Mt. Dell, UT 79*+ 86 87 94 88 88 85 84– 74

Bitterbrush, desert Bishop, CA 78 86 80 80 69 73 65 61 60

Ceanothus, Martin Manti Canyon, UT 3 5 5 12 10+ 40 36– 5 6

Cliffrose American Fork, UT 80*+ 89 89 84 89 91– 66 63

Currant, golden Manti, UT 48 – 28 27– 6 2 0

Ephedra, green Manti, UT 88 92 92 84 80 82 88– 24 2

Ephedra, Nevada Wah-Wah Valley, UT 90 93 91 85 89 91 85– 79 77

Hopsage, spineless Escalante, UT 87 92 86– 57– 13 6 0 0 0

Indian apple Ephraim Canyon, UT 42 42 42 37 39– 21 10– – 0

Mountain mahogany, curlleaf Mayfield, UT 67 63 80 76 69 64– 44 28

Mountain mahogany, true Ephraim Canyon, UT 63 65 61 68– 46– 25– 3 0 0

Rabbitbrush, whitestem Richfield, UT 80– 65– 34– 14 11– 7 0 0 0

 rubber

Sagebrush, basin big Ephraim, UT 73 82 67 70– 24– 1 0 0 0

Sagebrush, black Manti, UT 81– 66 55– 34– 5 1 0 0 0

Saltbush, fourwing Panaca, NV 32 47 40 40 50 43 37– 18 11

Serviceberry, Saskatoon Spring City Canyon, UT 91 80 91 85– 72 76– 1 0.3

Serviceberry, Utah Henrieville, UT 97 99 99 96 90– 67– 5 0

Snowberry, mountain Spanish Fork Canyon, UT 80 64 92 80– 44– 8 10 8

Winterfat Corona, NM 90 83 74– 18 7 0 0 0 0

a

Results based on four samples of 100 seeds each at 98 percent or better fill and 100 percent purity, except fill for fourwing saltbush (52 percent

fill) and Martin ceanothus (59 percent fill). b

Asterisk (*) indicates significant afterripening. c

Plus sign (+) indicates significant increase in germination between adjoining years at the 0.5 level.

d

Minus sign (–) indicates significant decrease in germination between adjoining years at the 0.5 level.
728 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 26 Seed Germination

Figure 3—Mean germination over time of multiple accessions (number of accessions listed in parenthesis

following common name) of selected grasses, forbs, and shrubs in the dark at 34 to 38 ∞F (1.0 to

3.3 ∞C). Two samples of 100 seeds each examined for each accession.

A. Bluebunch wheatgrass (8), fairway crested wheatgrass (8), meadow brome, ‘Regar’ (6), intermediate

wheatgrass (24), and pubescent wheatgrass (10).

B. Orchardgrass (7), and orchardgrass, ‘Paiute’ (16).

C. Great Basin wildrye (18) and Russian wildrye (12).

D. Bottlebrush squirreltail (8), smooth brome (6), and hard sheep fescue (12).

E. Cicer milkvetch (18), arrowleaf balsamroot (8), and blueleaf aster (8).

F. Utah sweetvetch with seed out of loment (10), and Utah sweetvetch with seed in loment (20).

G. Yellow sweetclover (22), Palmer penstemon (10), and Lewis flax (32).

H. ‘Ladak’ alfalfa (30) and small burnet (10).

I. Nineleaf lomatium (8) and sweetanise (8).

J. Mountain lupine (16) and silky lupine (10).

K. Wyoming big sagebrush (12), basin big sagebrush (36), mountain big sagebrush (32), and black

sagebrush (14).

L. Antelope bitterbrush (40) and cliffrose (18).

M. Winterfat (24), forage kochia (30), and fourwing saltbush (61).

N. Whitestem rubber rabbitbrush (22), green ephedra (18), and true mountain mahogany (20).

O. Curlleaf mountain mahogany (16) and black chokecherry (8).

A

D

C

B
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 729

Chapter 26 Seed Germination

Figure 3 (Con.)

E

F

G

H

I

J
730 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 26 Seed Germination

shrubs exhibit considerable seed dormancy. Time required for germination to occur varies between species and among accessions within a species (tables 1,

2, and 3; fig. 3) (Meyer and Monsen 1990; Meyer and

others 1987, 1989; Stevens and Jorgensen 1994). Species that require more than 4 weeks to germinate

should be fall-seeded to allow the seed sufficient time

to overcome seed dormancy. This will also ensure that

germination occurs at a time when the seedling can

take full advantage of available seasonal soil moisture. Species exhibiting little dormancy can be springseeded if the date of seeding allows sufficient time

for germination and seedling establishment prior to

the usual soil drying experienced as the growing

season progresses.

Figure 3 (Con.)

K

L

M

N

O
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 731

Chapter 26 Seed Germination

Table 3—Percent germination of the same seed lots for grass, forb, and shrub seed the year of collection and following various

years of storage in an open warehouse (Stevens and Jorgensen 1994).

Years of storage

Common names 0 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Percent germinationa,b,c,d,e- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Grasses

Brome, smooth 91 94 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00

Fescue, meadow 69* 0 + 0 99 0 0 0 0 0 00

Needle-and-thread 88 0 – 63 0 0 0 0 0 0 00

Ricegrass, Indian 55 0 0 0 0 0 63 0 0 0 0 0

Ricegrass, Indian 9* 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 49 0

Spike muhly 14* 0 + 62 0 0 0 0 0 0 00

Wheatgrass, tall 72* 0 + 0 0 91 0 0 0 0 00

Wheatgrass, tall 85 0 0 0 0 87 0 0 0 0 0 0

Wheatgrass, tall 85 0 0 0 0 92 0 0 0 0 0 0

Forbs

Astragalus, giant 88 0 0 89 0 0 0 0 0 0 00

Crownvetch 41* 0 + 0 70 0 0 0 0 0 00

Goldeneye, showy 44 0 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01

Goldeneye, showy 30* 0 + 0 0 0 75 0 0 0 00

Goldeneye, showy 39 0 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00

Milkvetch, cicer 73 0 0 0 65 0 0 0 0 0 00

Milkvetch, cicer 51* 0 + 89 0 0 0 0 0 0 00

Penstemon, Eaton 63* 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 82 0 0

Penstemon, Eaton 71* 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 87 0 0

Penstemon, Palmer 89 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 82 0 0

Penstemon, thickleaf 74 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 68 0

Sweetanise 94 0 – 0 0 0 0 0 0 44 0 0

Shrubs

Buffaloberry, silver 85 0 0 0 0 88 0 0 0 0 0 0

Honeysuckle 57 0 – 0 0 0 0 0 31 0 0 0

Indian apple 67 0 – 0 49 0 0 0 0 0 00

Indian apple 58 0 0 58 0 0 0 0 0 0 00

Oregon grape 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 0 0

Peashrub, Siberian 88 0 85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00

a

Results based on two samples of 100 seeds, each at 100 percent purity.

b

Asterisk (*) indicates significant afterripening.

c

Plus sign (+) indicates significant increase in germination between germination years at the 0.05 level.

d

Minus sign (–) indicates significant decrease in germination between germination years at the 0.05 level.

e

Zero (0) indicates no data.

Longevity ______________________

The life span of seeds is affected by many variables

such as: (1) the inherent nature of individual plant

species; (2) condition of seed at harvest; (3) cleaning

techniques; (4) storage conditions; (5) age of seed;

(6) degree of infestation by disease organisms and

insects; and (7) exposure to harmful chemicals. Fluctuating seed moisture content and high temperatures

are especially damaging to seed longevity. Storing

dried seed at low temperatures in vapor-tight containers will preserve seed viability for extended periods of

time. Seed of forage kochia, dried to a 7 percent

moisture content, and stored at room temperatures

in airtight containers, have exhibited over 90 percent

germination after 3 years. Undried seed stored at

room temperature had only 14 percent germination

after 3 years (Jorgensen and Davis 1984). In general,

seed with hard coats and low water content are longerlived, while seed with either relatively high water

content, soft seedcoats, or both are shorter-lived

(Quick 1961). There are exceptions to this generalization. Stevens and Jorgensen (1994) have reported on

the longevity of many commonly used Intermountain

species (tables 2, 3).

Location and Year of Production ___

Most species have a wide range of distribution, some

larger than others. Populations of the same species

growing under different climatic and edaphic conditions can exhibit different germination requirements.
732 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 26 Seed Germination

In work with rubber rabbitbrush, big sagebrush, and

hopsage, clear relationships between collection site

climate and seed germination patterns have been

found (Meyer and Monsen 1990; Meyer and Pendleton

1990; Meyer and others 1987, 1989). Seed source

should, therefore, be considered when purchasing

seed. Seed from sources similar to that of the proposed planting site should be given preference over

sources from locations having significantly different

environmental conditions.

Often, germination percentage of a species from the

same site will vary between years. Generally, percent

germination is higher during years of high seed production than in years of poor seed production. Antelope bitterbrush collected in central Utah during

high production years usually exhibits 95 percent or

more germination, but during years of poor seed production the germination has varied from a low of 8 percent

to a high of 68 percent.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 733

Richard Stevens

Kent R. Jorgensen

27

Chapter

Federal and State seed laws require that seed used on range

and wildland sites be officially tested and appropriately labeled

or tagged. It is the responsibility of the seed distributor (who may

be the producer, collector, or broker) toward the end user to

properly tag each container of seed to comply with these laws. An

analysis tag is always required. If seed has been Certified, a seed

certification tag will also be attached.

Seed-testing laws and truth-in-labeling laws require that all

commercial seed be tagged with the appropriate analysis tag, and

that each tag has minimum statements about seed quality and

origin. Improperly tagged seed may be subject to legal actions

that stop sale movement and use. Violation of State and Federal

laws can result in considerable fines.

Information on the analysis tag comes from two sources: 1. The

seed producer or dealer provides the common and scientific

name, variety (if applicable), lot number, State of origin, year of

harvest, and name and address of seller. 2. The laboratory performing the seed test reports percent purity, inert matter, other

Seed Testing

Requirements and

Regulatory Laws
734 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 27 Seed Testing Requirements and Regulatory Laws

Figure 1—Diagram of a typical analysis tag (dealers name and address deleted).

The seed dealer provides the following information: (a) common and scientific

name, (b) variety (or “variety not stated” when variety is not known or no variety

where none are released), (c) seed origin, (d) date of harvest, (e) lot number,

and (f) net weight. The testing laboratory provides results of: (1) percent purity,

(2) percentage of inert matter, (3) percentage of other crop seed, (4) percentage

of weed seed, (5) presence of noxious weed seed, (6) total viable seed

percentage (combination of numbers 7 and 8), (7) actual germination percentage, (8) hard or dormant seed percentage, and (9) test date.

crop seed, weed seed, noxious weed seed, germination,

hard or dormant seed, total viable seed, and test date

on the seed sample they are provided (fig. 1). The seed

laboratory also verifies the species (or crop kind) of the

seed, but cannot normally verify the cultivar or particular germplasm or accession (ecotype) of the species

as claimed by the seed producer or dealer on the

analysis tag.

All Federal, State, and private seed-testing laboratories in the United States and Canada are required to

use standard procedures as outlined in “Rules for

Testing Seeds,” published and updated annually by

the Association of Official Seed Analysts (1999). Each

State has an official seed laboratory that performs

standard tests and answers pertinent seed-testing

and regulatory questions (Stevens and Meyer 1990).

Contact information for these laboratories may be

found at www.aosaseed.com. Seed quality testing standards are now in place for some shrubs and forbs, and

for most grass species used on Western ranges and

wildlands (Association of Official Seed Analysts 1999;

Stevens and Meyer 1990). Testing procedures for many

other forbs and shrubs have not yet been standardized, accepted, and published. As a result, laboratory

tests may be inconsistent.

The certification tag identifies seed species/cultivar/

germplasm identity and purity. The Association of

Official Seed Certifying Agencies (Utah Crop Improvement Association 1999; Young 1995; Young and others

Kind: Cicer Milkvetch, Astragalus Cicer

Variety: Monarch (Certified)

Origin: Utah Lot No: W2-3048

Year of Harvest: 1993

Purity: 99.03% Total Germination: 96%

Inert: 0.38% Germ: 69%

Crop: 0.00% Hard: 28%

Weeds: 0.01% 

Noxious: None Test Date: 4/94

Net Weight: 50 lbs

a

b

c

d

1

2

3

4

5

e

f

6

7

8

9

1995) has established four germplasm development

levels: Variety/Cultivar, Tested, Selected, and Source

Identified. Generations of a Variety/Cultivar are designated as Breeder, Foundation (fig. 2), Registered

(fig. 3), and Certified (fig. 4). Classes of Pre-Variety

Germplasm (for which the generations are numerically stated on the tag) are Tested (fig. 5), Selected

(fig. 6), and Source Identified (fig. 7). These class

names are registered trademarks and can only be used

when referring to seedlots that have been Certified by

an official agency. Technically, Certified seed can only

be offered for sale or sold as Certified Breeder Class,

Certified Foundation Class, Certified Registered Class,

Certified Certified Class, Certified Tested Class, Certified Selected Class, and Certified Source Identified

Class. Noncertified seed is often referred to as “common” or “variety not stated” seed.

In Utah, seed certification is a service of the Utah

Crop Improvement Association. Certification provides

verification for the variety and germplasm. This is

accomplished through wildland and site or field increase inspections, verification of seed stock records,

and maintenance of seed identity through harvest,

storage, conditioning, bagging, and tagging. Certified

seed by definition has known germplasm identity,

high genetic purity, high germinating ability, and

minimum amounts of other crop seed, weed seed, and

inert matter.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 735

Chapter 27 Seed Testing Requirements and Regulatory Laws

Figure 2—Certified “Foundation Seed” identification tag. Foundation seed is a class

of certified seed. It can be the progeny for breeder or foundation seed and is

established for the purpose of maintaining genetic purity and identification. Designated color for this tag is white.

Figure 3—Certified “Registered Seed” identification tag. Registered

seed is progeny of breeder or foundation seed. It is used to produce

certified seed and to maintain genetic purity and identification. Designated color for this tag is violet.
736 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 27 Seed Testing Requirements and Regulatory Laws

Figure 4—Certified “Certified Seed” identification tag. Certified

seed is produced from breeder, foundation, or registered seed. It

is the class commonly sold to individuals and agencies for range

and wildland seedings. Designated color for this tag is light blue.

Figure 5—Certified “Tested Class Seed” identification tag. A

germplasm that has undergone progeny testing to prove that preferred traits are heritable to succeeding generations. Seed can come

from wildland shrubs and cultivated fields and orchards. Designated

color for this tag is light blue.

The majority of native seed occurs on Federal,

State, and State wildlife lands. Most agencies require

collecting permits. Seed is also collected from private

lands. Collectors must obtain required permits and

permission to collect seed from any lands.

Agronomic seed crops are usually sold on a bulkweight basis; seed for range and wildland seedings

are more commonly marketed on a pure live-seed

(PLS) basis. Seed analysis reports become extremely

important when the pure live-seed method is used.

To arrive at a PLS value, percent purity is multiplied

by total percent germination. For example, if a seedlot has a purity value of 50 percent and a total germination (germination plus hard or dormant seed) of

80 percent, the PLS percentage would be 0.50 x 80 =

0.40 or 40 percent. A 100 lb bag from this seedlot

would contain 40 lbs of pure live-seed (40 PLS lbs)

(weight x PLS) (Stevens and others 1996).
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Chapter 27 Seed Testing Requirements and Regulatory Laws

Figure 6—Certified “Selected Class Seed” identification tag. A

germplasm that has been compared with other germplasms and

shows some promising or identifiable trait. Seed can come from

wildland stands or cultivated seed fields and orchards. Designated

color for this tag is green.

Figure 7—Certified “Source Identification Seed” tag. The original

range or wildland collection site is known and certified. Designated

color for this tag is orange.
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Chapter 27 Seed Testing Requirements and Regulatory Laws
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 739

Richard Stevens

28

Chapter

Transplanting____________________________________

Many shrubs, trees, forbs, and grasses can be successfully

established to provide rapid, effective soil stabilization, forage,

and cover through transplanting bareroot or container-grown

stock, wildings, and stem cuttings (McArthur and others 1984a;

Monsen 1974; Shaw 1981; Stevens 1980a, 1994; Tiedemann and

others 1976).

Successful transplanting requires that strict procedures be

followed. When transplanting by hand or when using a mechanical transplanter, general rules that need to be followed

with wildings, bareroot or container-grown stock, and stem cuttings are: (1) never allow roots or stem ends to dry, (2) keep plants

cool—do not allow them to overheat prior to planting, (3) plant

during cool periods with adequate soil moisture, (4) compact soil

around the roots at planting time, and (5) eliminate plant competition around the transplant (Ferguson and Monsen 1974; Penrose

and Hansen 1981; Ryker 1976; Stevens 1981).

Establishing Plants

by Transplanting and

Interseeding
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Chapter 28 Establishing Plants by Transplanting and Interseeding

Transplanting during the most desirable period is

essential. Within the Intermountain West, transplanting should generally be done in the spring when

chances of frost heaving have passed, soil moisture is

high, temperatures are low, and chance of rainfall is

high.

Proper handling of plant materials can determine

success or failure. Roots of bareroot stock can dry

out with as little as 30 seconds exposure to air, particularly with wind or high ambient temperatures. Roots

must be kept damp, and, if possible, cool at all times.

Roots of container stock, once out of the container, will

dry out but will tolerate longer periods of exposure

than bareroot stock. Temperatures in plastic bags and

cardboard boxes can be damaging or lethal, especially

when containers are placed in direct sunlight for short

periods of time.

Plants must to be properly placed in the soil. Care

should be taken to ensure that roots are placed vertical, with no “J” or “S” root configuration. Following

proper plant placement, soil should be firmly compacted around the roots. All air pockets must be

eliminated. Air pockets and loose soil can result in

poor anchoring, dry roots, little or no uptake of water

and nutrients, and death of the plant. Transplanting

is most successful when soil moisture is high, ambient temperatures are low, and one or more storms

(snow or rain) are expected within 5 weeks following

transplanting. In central Utah, at 4,500 ft (1,370 m)

elevation, transplanting projects completed before

March 15 will most likely occur in moist soil and

receive three to four storms within 4 to 5 weeks. At

6,000 ft (1,830 m) elevation, transplanting should be

completed by April 1.

An important factor contributing to success is the

selection of plants adapted to the planting site (Penrose

and Hansen 1981; Rehfeldt and Hoff 1977; Stevens

1981). Selected species must be able to establish and

maintain themselves. This does not mean that the

wilding transplants, or seed source for nursery stock

need to come from or near the proposed treatment

area, but it does mean that they need to be adapted to

the site.

Size of transplants can affect establishment success. Plant tops and roots can be too short or too long.

In working with shrub transplants of various sizes,

the most successful results were obtained with bareroot

stock having roots from 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm) long

and tops at least 13 inches (33 cm) long (McKenzie and

others 1980; Stevens 1979; Stevens and others 1981b)

(fig. 1). Container-grown stock should have roots as

long as the container.

Transplanting results can vary between species

(Everett 1980; Ferguson and Monsen 1974; Stevens

1980a,b; Tiedemann and others 1976) (table 1). Most

sagebrush (fig. 2) and rabbitbrush species, as well as

Figure 1—Wilding bareroot stock of basin big sagebrush (right) and Wyoming big sagebrush (left).

rhizomatous forbs and grasses transplant with good

success (Stevens and others 1981b).

The success of shrubs and forbs transplanted into

grass stands can be increased when planting is done

on spots or in strips that have been sprayed with an

effective herbicide, or on scalps that are wide and deep

enough to remove competition during establishment,

and that are effective water harvesters (fig. 3). However, scalping too deep can result in removal of the

most fertile soil and reduced plant growth (Stevens

1985a).

A specially designed implement hitch has been

developed (USDA Forest Service, Equipment Development Center, San Dimas, California Drawings

No. RM 35-1 through 09) (McKenzie and others 1980)

that will keep a transplanter at a constant depth, with

balanced pressure on the compact wheels even on

rough terrain. This hitch meets special requirements

for transplanting (Moden and others 1978a).

Very successful shrub, forb, and grass transplanting can be rapidly accomplished using a heavily
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 741

Chapter 28 Establishing Plants by Transplanting and Interseeding

Table 1—Expected success of establishment, using bareroot, container-grown, and stemcutting planting stocka

.

Bareroot and Container- Stem

Species wilding stock grown stock cuttings

Shrubs

Bitterbrush, antelope 6 4

Bladdersenna 5 4

Cliffrose 5 4

Currant, golden 8 8

Elderberry, blue 5 4

Ephedra, green 4 1

Greasewood, black 3 1

Indian apple 5 4

Kochia, forage 8 8

Mountain mahogany, curlleaf 5 2

Mountain mahogany, true 5 2

Oak, Gambel 5 2

Rabbitbrush, low mountain 7 7

Rabbitbrush, greenstem rubber 8 7

Rabbitbrush, threadleaf rubber 8 7

Rabbitbrush, whitestem rubber 8 7

Rabbitbrush, spreading 10 10

Rose, Woods 8 8 4

Sagebrush, basin big 10 10

Sagebrush, mountain big 10 10

Sagebrush, Wyoming big 8 8

Sagebrush, black 10 10

Sagebrush, silver 10 10

Saltbush, fourwing 3 1 4

Serviceberry, Saskatoon 6 4

Snowberry, mountain 9 9 3

Sumac, Rocky Mountain smooth 5

Sumac, skunkbush 5

Winterfat 6 2

Wormwood, oldman 10 10

Forbs

Alfalfa 6 8

Aster, spp. 10 10

Balsamroot, arrowleaf 1

Balsamroot, cutleaf 1

Bluebell 9

Burnet, small 6 7

Crownvetch 10 10

Flax, Lewis 8 8

Geranium spp. 3

Globemallow, gooseberryleaf 8 8

Globemallow, scarlet 8 8

Goldeneye, showy 6 9

Iris, German 10

Lupine spp. 2 6

Milkvetch, cicer 8 9

Sagebrush, Louisiana 10 10

Sainfoin 6 8

Salsify 2 8

Sweetanise 1

Sweetvetch, Utah 5 8

Yarrow, western 10 10

Grasses

Bunchgrasses 8 10

Sod grasses 10 10

a

10 = High percent of establishment can be expected when proper transplanting techniques are used.

1 = Low percent of establishment can be expected, even when proper transplanting techniques are

followed.
742 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 28 Establishing Plants by Transplanting and Interseeding

reinforced tree planter that requires hand placing of

the transplants. Rate of planting bareroot stock, using

a hand-fed transplanter, depends on soil conditions,

species being transplanted, and condition of plants.

Rates can vary from 600 to 1,100 per hour (Stevens

and others 1981b). Most shrub and many grass and

forb transplants cannot be planted successfully using

an automatic pickup and planting system found on

many modern tree planters. This is because most

transplantable shrubs (fig. 1), and many forbs and

grasses, have either wide-spreading, multiple

branched, fibrous, or fairly long root systems that will

tangle in the fingers and chains of the automatic

planting device and subsequently are not placed

properly in the soil.

A number of totally automatic transplanters have

been developed that include the bandoleer concept

Figure 2—Three year old wilding transplants

of Wyoming big sagebrush in a crested wheatgrass stand.

Figure 3—One year old wildling transplants,

planted into an intermediate wheatgrass stand.

(Moden and Hansen 1980): the dribbler type (Moden

and others 1978a), the steep-slope planter, and the

dryland tubling planter (Larson 1980). These systems

are designed to automatically transplant container

stock grown in specially designed containers.

Many species of grasses, forbs, and shrubs are available as container-grown stock. Container-grown stock

has several advantages over bareroot stock. Roots of

container-grown stock are established in a growth

medium, and plants are available when needed.

Bareroot stock is not usually lifted until the frost is

out of the soil, delaying the acquisition of planting

stock in some years.

Bareroot stock has several advantages over containergrown stock. Bareroot stock, when properly planted,

establishes quicker, generally has a higher rate of

survival (Crofts and Parkin 1979), and is more evident

because of increased plant size (Monsen 1980b; Stevens

1980a). Bareroot stock is generally older (1 to 3 years)

(Stevens 1981) than is container stock (3 to 4 months)

(Penrose and Hansen 1981), and has strong woody

stems and root systems. Container-grown stock has

generally been grown under forced conditions, resulting in young, sometimes weak, spindly plants. Bareroot

transplants, especially wildings, are truly hardened,

having been grown in the out-of-doors. Lack of bulky

packaging and soil makes bareroot stock easier to

handle, both on and off the planting site. Initial

purchase price, transplant cost, and cost per established plant of container stock is greater than that of

bareroot stock (Crofts 1980). Cost of bareroot nursery

stock is generally low. The cost of wildings can be

especially low; most sagebrushes, rabbitbrushes,

winterfat, and some grasses and forbs, are locally

abundant and require little expenditure and effort

to obtain.

Interseeding ____________________

Within the Intermountain West, vast areas have

been seeded with, and are dominated by crested and

intermediate wheatgrass, and other perennial and

annual grasses. Hundreds of thousands of acres are

also dominated by unproductive shrub and forb

communities.

Interseeding of useful shrubs, forbs, and grasses

into less productive and single species communities

can provide a means for improving animal habitat,

forage production, forage quality, community diversity, and soil stability.

The addition of shrubs and forbs into grass communities can actually improve the nutritional quality

of a range, especially during periods when grasses

are dry (midsummer, fall, and winter), and crude

protein value is generally low (Rumbaugh and others

1981; Van Epps and McKell 1978). A monotypic stand
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 743

Chapter 28 Establishing Plants by Transplanting and Interseeding

of any one species is poor habitat for most wildlife.

Transplanting and interseeding can increase vegetative diversity. As the diversity of a plant community

increases, so does the diversity of bird, mammal,

reptile, and insect life it can support (Reynolds 1980).

Interseeding has often been done to improve big

game and livestock ranges by introducing shrubs and

forbs (fig. 4) (Barnes and Nelson 1950; Monsen 1980a,b;

Plummer and others 1968; Stevens and others 1981b)

into otherwise less productive communities.

Interseeding is an effective means for seeding desirable species into cheatgrass and tarweed stands

(Arizona Interagency Range Technical Subcommittee

1969; Giunta and others 1975) and for improving

native grass ranges (Derscheid and Rumbaugh 1970;

Lang 1962; Nyren and others 1980; Rumbaugh and

Figure 4—(A) Four year old stand of alfalfa and

bitterbrush, interseeded into cheatgrass. (B) Five

year old interseeding of big sagebrush, alfalfa, forage kochia, and small burnet into intermediate

wheatgrass.

A

B

others 1965). Interseeding can also be a means of

reducing forage losses and plant death caused by

insects and disease. When erosion hazards are high,

when the preparation of a complete seedbed is impractical, or when the purpose of an improvement project

is to modify rather than replace the present plant

community, interseeding is an alternative to complete

community destruction and seedbed preparation (Jordan 1981; Vallentine 1989).

To effectively interseed into existing vegetation, competitive plants within and near the seeding area need

to be eliminated. Two effective means to remove competiting vegetation are scalping and herbicides. Removal methods have to: (1) be deep and wide enough

to remove or kill all seeds, crowns, and rhizomes of

competing vegetation; (2) allow for effective establishment of the seeded species before a reinvasion of

competitive vegetation occurs; and (3) be of such a

shape and size, when scalping or pitting is used, as to

be effective water harvesters (Jordan 1981; Stevens

and others 1981b).

Competitive vegetation can be killed in strips or

spots with appropriate herbicides (Eckert 1979;

Nyren and others 1980; Stevens 1985a). Fall drilling

or broadcast seeding can then be done in the sprayed

strips or spots. This technique has several advantages.

It allows seeding to be done in the most fertile soil, and

the litter that is left in place can protect seedlings from

frost and heat, provide for retention and detention of

surface water, and reduce evaporation.

Mechanical removal of competiting vegetation has

been done with various types of pitters and scalpers

(Giunta and others 1975; Jordan 1981; Larson 1980;

Monsen 1980a; Nyren and others 1978; Schumacher

1964; Stevens 1979; Vallentine 1989; Wright and others

1978) and with rototillers (Smoliak and Feldman 1978).

How wide the scalp or pit needs to be to eliminate

competition depends on the vigor and type of existing

vegetation, species being interseeded, and type of site

being interseeded. Care must be taken to ensure that

the most fertile soil is not eliminated by scalping too

deep (Stevens 1985a). Drier sites require wider scalps

because of increased competition for moisture. In

arid areas, summer fallowing may even be required

(Bement and others 1965). Scalps made on the contour, with cross dams, can catch and hold additional

moisture from snow and rain (Branson and others

1962; Stevens 1978) and can enhance chances of seedling establishment and subsequent plant growth. In

planting shrubs in cheatgrass, Giunta and others

(1975) found that seedling establishment was superior in 24 inch (61.0 cm) wide scalps as opposed to 4, 8,

and 16 inch (10.2, 20.3, and 40.6 cm) wide scalps. In

the Northern Great Plains (Derscheid and Rumbaugh

1970) it was found that scalps 6 inches (15.2 cm) wide

were sufficient for seeding alfalfa and cool season

grasses into native sod. Russian wildrye interseeded
744 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 28 Establishing Plants by Transplanting and Interseeding

into native sod in Wyoming did not do well in scalps

less than 18 inches (46 cm) wide (Rauzi and others

1965). When seeding native shrubs into crested

wheatgrass, Van Epps and McKell (1978) found that

the scalps should be at best 40 inches (100 cm) wide,

with optimum spacing being 60 inches (150 cm). Seedling establishment varied in three scalp widths in

intermediate wheatgrass. The widest scalps (30 inches

[76 cm] wide and 9 inches [23 cm] deep) resulted in the

most plants per linear foot (30 cm) of scalp. Established plants in the wider scalps were also the largest,

and flowered sooner following seeding.

Figure 5—Four Hansen browse seeders

being used to establish desirable shrubs and

forbs in an annual grass community.

Figure 6—Wyoming big sagebrush seeded in

conjunction with crested wheatgrass. Sagebrush

was seeded separately through outside seed

drops of a rangeland drill.

A number of seeding devices have been developed

that can be used effectively in conjunction with various types of scalpers. The Hansen browse seeder has

been used to establish desirable shrubs and forbs into

single species stands (fig. 5). The thimble seeder and

the seed dribbler (Larson 1980) are both designed to

sow cleaned seed of any size and shape as well as

trashy or plumed seed. Seed of selected species can be

sown concurrently, yet separately, through various

types of drills. This type of seeding reduces interspecies competition and improves establishment (fig. 6).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 745

Nancy L. Shaw

29

Chapter

Introduction _____________________________________

Vegetation can be rapidly established on disturbed sites by

planting stock alone or in combination with direct seedings.

Types of planting stock commonly used range from bareroot or

containerized seedlings to pads of native vegetation. Inclusion of

planting stock in rehabilitation or restoration projects requires

careful scheduling, selection of adapted plant species, and use of

appropriate propagation, handling, and planting techniques to

maximize plant establishment and first-season growth.

Production and Use

of Planting Stock
746 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

Planting stock may be used to advantage in a number of situations.

1. Drastically disturbed areas such as mined sites

may be revegetated to quickly provide soil stabilization (Everett 1980; Hungerford 1984; Institute for

Land Rehabilitation 1978, 1979) (fig. 1). Rocky or

unstable surfaces, steep slopes, and eroding streambanks are inaccessible to most drill seeding equipment

and provide poor seedbed conditions if broadcast or

aerially seeded. Planting stock can be placed in the

most favorable microsites to maximize establishment.

Large stock with well developed root systems is used

to reduce plant burial or displacement by soil movement.

2. Quantity and quality of cover and forage provided

for livestock and big game on critical rangeland sites

may be improved and the grazing season lengthened

or altered by planting shrubs on seeded grasslands or

depleted winter ranges (Medin and Ferguson 1980;

Shaw and others 1984; Rumbaugh and others 1981,

1982) (fig. 2).

3. Windbreak, shrub thicket, and conservation

plantings are established using planting stock of species with known growth habits or wildlife values.

Plants are placed in desired configurations to enhance

project objectives (Alcorn and Dodd 1984; Johnson and

Anderson 1980; Shaw and others 1984; Snyder 1983).

4. The aesthetics of campgrounds, recreation areas,

roadways, and construction sites are enhanced by

landscaping with adapted planting stock. Attractive, low-maintenance, native or introduced species

may be selected (Stark 1966; Steger and Beck 1973;

Tipton and McWilliams 1979; Wilson and others 1984).

5. Severely disturbed range sites such as holding

areas, trailing lanes, or powerline corridors may be

reclaimed through a combination of seeding and

transplanting.

Figure 1—Shrubs planted on phosphate mine

spoil to provide erosion control and improve

wildlife habitat.

Figure 2—Shrubs planted into a crested wheatgrass monoculture to improve upland game bird

cover.

6. Several problems associated with seed procurement, germination, seeding, and seedling establishment may be reduced or avoided by using planting

stock:

a. Erratic seed production, low seed quality, and

the difficulty of collecting seed from native

stands contribute to limited availability and

high seed prices of some species (Young and

others 1984a; Young and Young 1986). Production of container or bareroot seedlings maximizes the number of plants ultimately obtained from costly seed.

b. Some species are extremely difficult to propagate from seed, but stock can easily be grown

from vegetative material.

c. Roundleaf buffaloberry, desert peachbrush,

Rocky Mountain maple, and mountain snowberry are valuable species for habitat improvement projects, but develop slowly from

direct seeding (Monsen and Plummer 1978).

Establishment and development are enhanced when species are planted as seedlings

or rooted cuttings and provided with adequate

protection from competing vegetation.

d. Problems associated with seeding and early

seedling survival, such as soil crusting, rodent

predation, late frosts, and cold or drought conditions are reduced by using planting stock.

Planning _______________________

Revegetation projects must be carefully planned.

Maps and descriptions of the proposed planting site as

it will appear following site preparation procedures

may be used to subdivide the area into relatively

homogenous units based on slope, aspect, soil conditions, and planting goals. This information, along

with descriptions of predisturbance vegetation or
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 747

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

vegetation of the surrounding area, particularly

sites in earlier successional stages, is used to select

suitable plant species for each planting unit.

If a need for planting stock is recognized, the

number and size of plants required should be determined. If transplant stock of several species is required, cost, scheduling, and propagation procedures

may vary widely. Consequently, planning must be

completed well in advance of the proposed planting

date to ensure availability of high quality, adapted

plant materials. Several factors must be considered in

selecting an appropriate propagation technique for

each species:

1. Ease of propagation. Propagation techniques

for many Intermountain shrub species are provided in

table 1. Ease of propagation varies widely among

species; many are easily and inexpensively grown

from seed, but complex seed dormancy and long wet

prechilling requirements complicate propagation of

others. Species such as willows and poplars are easily

propagated from hardwood cuttings, but vegetative

propagation of many other species is impractical.

Nurserymen or others experienced in plant propagation and available literature should be consulted to

determine the best propagation technique for each

species and planting situation.

2. Source of seed or vegetative material. Scheduling and requirements for adapted material may

dictate the choice of propagation technique. “Off the

shelf” purchases of container or bareroot stock originating from populations adapted to the planting site

are only occasionally available, thus it is frequently

necessary to collect the seed or vegetative material

required to propagate site-adapted planting stock.

3. Number of plants required. Large numbers of

plants are most easily and inexpensively obtained

from seed, hardwood cuttings, sprigs, or in some cases,

wildings. More costly or time consuming methods of

vegetative propagation such as layering or root cuttings should be considered only for plants that are

difficult to propagate by other means or needed only

in small quantities.

4. Time requirements. Propagating bareroot or

container stock from seed may require 3 months to

3 years from the time of seed collection to outplanting.

Seed collection dates range from spring to late fall

depending on the species and geographic location.

Total production time may be shortened if suitable

seed sources can be obtained from seed banks or

commercial dealers. Seed banks are particularly valuable when the need for seedlings is not recognized

until after the seed crop has matured, as is often the

case when planning post-fire revegetation projects.

Seed banks are valuable for maintaining supplies of

local populations and seeds of species that produce

seed crops infrequently.

The best time for collection of vegetative material

also varies widely by species. Wildings and hardwood

cuttings of easily rooted species may be gathered

during the dormant period and transplanted in spring

as soon as weather and soil conditions permit. Greenhouse or field propagation of other species may require

2 or 3 years.

5. Nurseries and facilities. Federal tree nurseries generally produce seedlings under contract for

State and Federal agencies. Seedlings produced by

State nurseries may be purchased by government

agencies, but are also available to the public, with

some restrictions. State and private nurseries produce

seedlings on both a speculation and contract basis.

Some nurseries produce only selected species or utilize

only specific propagation techniques or planting

schedules. If there are no local nurseries, shipping

distances and costs may become a major factor in

selecting the propagation technique and nursery.

Special facilities may be required to hold seedlings

in a dormant or hardened condition until they are

transplanted. Cold storage areas or snow caches are

used to store dormant bareroot seedlings, wildings, or

vegetative material until site conditions are suitable

for planting. Hardened container seedlings may be

held in a shadehouse. If stock is to be used on sites at

higher elevations than the nursery site, it may be held

in a cooler, outdoors at the planting site, or at a

convenient site at the same elevation to prevent it

from initiating growth prior to planting. Personnel to

care for the plants, a shaded area, and a water supply

must be available.

6. Cost. Cost of planting stock depends on the cost

for procuring seed or vegetative material, the propagation technique, and shipping, holding, and planting

costs. Large containerized plants or seedlings are generally the most costly, while wildings and cutting

material that do not require nursery propagation are

least expensive.

Propagation Methods ____________

Seed

Bareroot and container seedlings of many species

can be grown from seed. Seed sources must be carefully selected to provide site-adapted seedlings. Adequate, high-quality seed must be procured to ensure

that required numbers of seedlings are produced.

Potential seed sources include: (1) purchases made

directly from seed collectors, (2) purchases from seed

dealers, (3) plants in wildland stands, (4) native stands

managed for seed production, and (5) named varieties
748 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock Table 1—Propagation methods for selected shrubs and trees adapted to the Intermountain region. Vegetative propagation Seed propagation Wildings (W) Root Crown Germination Warm Container Bareroot Special stem layers (L) cuttings Suckers divisions Stem cuttings pre- pre- Wet pro- pro- considera- Species rhizomes (R) (season)a (season)a (season)a Typeb Seasona Facilityc treatment treatmentd prechille ductionf duction tionsg - - - - - - Days - - - - - - Alder, thinleaf L H W G 0 0-90 R, M 1-0 1 Apache plume W W H ES, F 0 0 R,M 1-0 21 Ash, single- leaf 0 60-120 S 1-0,2-0 1 Aspen, W W G 0 0 R, M 1-0 17 quaking Barberry, Se Su, F G Oregon L H W G 0-60 30-196 M, S 2-0 3,12 Birch, western Immerse paper L S S G in H2Oe 0 30-90 R, M 1-0 16 Bitterbrush, S S, FLD G 48 hour antelope W, L H F G H2O soak 0 14-90 M 1-0 6,8,(12) or 1% H2O2 soak 5 hrse Bitterbrush, S S G desert W H F G 0 90 M 1-0 6,8,12 Blackbrush 8 2-0 Buffaloberry, roundleaf 0 60-90 S 1-0,2-0 3 Buffaloberry, 20-30 min russett W X H2SO4 soak 0 0-60 M 1-0,2-0 3 Buffaloberry, silver X 0 0-90 M 1-0,2-0 3 Ceanothus, Se Su G deerbrush L F,W H W G Hot H2O 0 0-90 R, M 1-0 7,8 Ceanothus, Se Su G Martin W,L F,W H W G Hot H2O 0 Yes M 1-0 7,8 Ceanothus, Se Su G prostrate W,L F, W S H W G Hot H2O 0 90-115 M 1-0 7,8,12 Ceanothus, Se Su G Hot H2O, or 0 60-112 R,M 1-0 7,8 redstem W F,W H W G 48 hr soak in 100 250 ppm GAe Ceanothus, Se Su G snowbrush W, L F, W H W G Hot H2O 0 63-90 R, M 1-0 7,8 Ceanothus, Se Su G wedgeleaf W F, W H W G Hot H2O 0 90 R, M 1-0 7,8,12 (con.)
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 749

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock Table 1—(Con.) Vegetative propagation Seed propagation Wildings (W) Root Crown Germination Warm Container Bareroot Special stem layers (L) cuttings Suckers divisions Stem cuttings pre- pre- Wet pro- pro- considera- Species rhizomes (R) (season)a (season)a (season)a Typeb Seasona Facilityc treatment treatmentd prechille ductionf duction tionsg - - - - - - Days - - - - - - (con.) Cherry, Bessy W W S LS, ESu G 0 120 M 1-0 3 Cherry, bitter W W S LS, ESu G 0 90-126 R, M 1-0 3 Chokecherry, common western W,L,R W S LS, ESu G 0 120-160 R, M 1-0 3 Cinquefoil, S Su G bush W S Se Su G 0 0 R, M 1-0 15 Cliffrose, 48 hr, H2O Stansbury W soak plus 0 30 M, S 1-0 12 30 min

H O2 2 soake

Cottonwood, S Su G, N, U

narrowleaf L W H F, W G, N, U 0 0 R, M 1-0 17

Currant, Se Su G

golden W, L S H F, W G, N 0 60 M 1-0 6,8

Currant, Se Su G

sticky W, L S H F, W G, N 0 140 M, S 1-0 3

Currant, S Su G

wax W, L S H F, W G, N 0 120-150 M, S 1-0 3

Cypress,

Arizona H W G 0 21-30 M, S 1-0,2-0 1,12

Dogwood, Se Su G

redosierg W, L S H W G 0 60-90 R, M 1-0,2-0 3

Elderberry Se Su G

blue W F, S S S H W G 60-90 30-210 R, M 1-0 4

Ephedra,

green

M 1-0 9,12

Ephedra,

Nevada

M 1-0 9,12

Ephedra,

Torrey L R, M 1-0 9,12

Eriogonum,

sulfurflower W 0 Yes M 1-0 12

Eriogonum,

Wyeth W

M 1-0 12
750 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock (con.) Greasewood, black 0 0-25 M, S 1-0,2-0 10,11 Hawthorn, S Su G 0.5-3 hr river L H W G H2SO4 soakd 90-120 84-112 M, S 1-0,2-0 13 Honeysuckle, Se Su G Utah L H W G 0 60-90 R, M 1-0 3 Honeysuckle, Se Su G Tartarian L H W G 0 60-90 R, M 1-0 3 Hopsage, Se Su, F G 10,11, spiny H W G 0 14-90 M, S 2-0 12,19 Juniper, common Se LSu, EF G 30 min 1,4, mountain H W G H2SO4 soakd 60-90 90+ S 2-0 12,20 Juniper, Rocky Se LSu, EF G 30 min 1,4, Mountain H W G H2SO4 soakd 120 120 S 2-0 12,20 Juniper, H W G 30 min 1,4, Utah Se W G H2SO4 soakd 120 120 S 2-0 12,20 Lilac, S ES G common L W S S H W G 0 0-90 R, M 1-0,1-1 Locust, H W, ES G, N Hot H2O or black W S S Su G 10-120 min 0 0 R, M 1-0 11

H2SO4 soak

Manzanita, SE Su G 2-24 hr

bearberry L F H F to ES G H2SO4 soakd 60-120 90-120 M, S 2-0 4,5,12

Maple,

bigtooth W S LS G 180 180 M 1-0,2-0 7,8

Maple, Rocky

Mountain W, L S LS G 180 180 M 1-0,2-0 7,8

Mountain-ash,

American W 0-75 60-150 M 2-0 3

Mountain

mahogany,

birchleaf 0 30-120 M 1-0 4

Mountain

mahogany, 10-20 min

curlleaf H2SO4 soak 0 30-120 M 1-0 4,12

Table 1—(Con.)

Vegetative propagation Seed propagation

Wildings (W) Root Crown Germination Warm Container Bareroot Special

stem layers (L) cuttings Suckers divisions Stem cuttings pre- pre- Wet pro- pro- consideraSpecies rhizomes (R) (season)a (season)a (season)a Typeb Seasona Facilityc treatment treatmentd prechille ductionf duction tionsg

- - - - - - Days - - - - - -
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 751

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock (con.) Mountain mahogany, little-leaf 0 30-120 M 1-0 (12) Mountain 48-hr H2O wash mahogany, plus 30 min 3% true Se F G H2O2 soake 0 30-120 M, S 1-0 Ninebark, S S, Su G mallowleaf W, L S Se Su G

H F, W G 0 30-77 M, S 1-0,2-0 1

Oak, Gambel W, L S 22

Olive, S Su G

autumn L H W G 0 10-90 R, M 1-0 3

Peachbrush, S LS, ESu G

Anderson W Se LSu, F G 0 Yes M, S 1-0 3

Peashrub, Se Su, F G 10-12 hr

Siberian L S H W G H2O soak 0 12-60 R, M 1-0

Penstemon, S LS, ESu G

bush W, L Se LSu, F G 0 Yes M 1-0 5-12

Plum,

American W W S S G 0 90-150 R, M 1-0 3

Poplar S Su G, N, U

W H W, F G, N, U R, M 1-0

Rabbitbrush,

rubber W G 0 0 R, M 1-0 21

Raspberry, 50-60 min

blackcap W, L S S G H2SO4 soakd 60 90 M

Rock spirea S Se Su G 6 mo after- 0 126 M 1-0 1

ripening

Rose, S Su G

Woods L W S H F, W G 0 30 R, M 1-0 4-11

Sage, Se Su G

purple H W G M, S 1-0,2-0 1

Sagebrush,

big W H W G 0 15 R,M 1-0 10-12

Sagebrush,

black W S H S G 0 10 R, M 1-0 10-12

Table 1—(Con.)

Vegetative propagation Seed propagation

Wildings (W) Root Crown Germination Warm Container Bareroot Special

stem layers (L) cuttings Suckers divisions Stem cuttings pre- pre- Wet pro- pro- consideraSpecies rhizomes (R) (season)a (season)a (season)a Typeb Seasona Facilityc treatment treatmentd prechille ductionf duction tionsg

- - - - - - Days - - - - - -
752 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock Saltbrush, 3-10 mo after- 1,4,6, fourwing NTSe Su G ripening 0 0-50 R,M 1-0 8,12 Saltbrush, 6 mo after- Gardner W, L S S, Su G ripening, 0 0-21 M 1-0,2-0 12 Leach in H2O Saltbush, H W G 1,4,6, shadscale L, R Se F G 0 0-50 R, M, S 2-0 8,12 Serviceberry, 1,4,, Saskatoon W, L W S S S LS, ESu G 0-77 90-180+ R, M 1-0 6,8 Serviceberry, Utah W, L W S S S LS,ESu G 60-180 M 1-0,2-0 2 Snowberry, S S G 4-6 mo after- common W, L, R S S H F, W ripening 90-120 120-180 R, M 1-0,2-0 3,4 at 41 ∞C Snowberry, S LS, ESu G 4-6 mo after- longflower W, L, R S S Se S, F G ripening HW G at 41 ∞C 90-120 120-180 M, S 1-0,2-0 3 Snowberry, S S G 4-6 mo after- mountain W, L, R S S H W G ripening 90-120 120-180 M 1-0,2-0 3 at 41 ∞C Spiraea, S ES G Douglas L S S H W G 0 0 M 1-0 1 Sumac, Rocky Mountain smooth L W W H W G Hot H2O 0 0-90 M 1-0 3 Sumac, skunkbush L W H W G Hot H2O 0 30-90 M, S 1-0 3 Virginsbower, western W,L S S S,LSu G 0 60-180 R,M 1-0 1 Willow, S S coyote W, L, R W H F, W G, N, U 0 0 R, M 1-0 14 Willow, S S purpleosier W, L, R W H F, W G, N, U 0 0 R, M 1-0 14 Willow, S S G, N, U Scouler W H F, W G, N, U 0 0 R, M 1-0 14(con.) Table 1—(Con.) Vegetative propagation Seed propagation Wildings (W) Root Crown Germination Warm Container Bareroot Special stem layers (L) cuttings Suckers divisions Stem cuttings pre- pre- Wet pro- pro- considera- Species rhizomes (R) (season)a (season)a (season)a Typeb Seasona Facilityc treatment treatmentd prechille ductionf duction tionsg - - - - - - Days - - - - - -
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 753

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock Winterfat, 9-13 wk after- common W Se Fl, Su G ripening 0 0 R, M 1-0 1,4 Wormwood, old man S Se S, Su G, N, U 15 Wortleberry, Se S, Su G big S H W G 30 S 1-0

aSeason of collection: EF = Early fall; ES = Early spring; ESu = Early summer; F = Fall; FL = Flowering; FLD = Flowering, leaf development; LS = Late spring; LSu = Late summer; W = Winter. bStem cutting type: H = Hardwood; NTSe = Nonterminal semihardwood; S = Softwood; Se = Semihardwood.

cFacility required for stem cutting propagation: G = Greenhouse; N = Bareroot nursery; U = Plant unrooted.

dPretreatment substitutes for warm pretreatment.

ePretreatment substitutes for wet prechilling.

fContainer production period (excludes hardening): R = Rapid growth (0 to 3 months); M = Moderate growth (4 to 6 months); S = Slow growth (6 + months).

References:

Ferguson, retired, Provo, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station (personal communication).

Landis and Simonich (1984).

Long, L. Tekoa, WA: Plants of the Wild (personal communication).

Prag, R., Prag, P. Williams, OR: Forest Farm (personal communication).

Wenny, D. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, Idaho State Nursery (personal communication).

gSpecial Considerations:

(1) Low seed fill common. (2) Seed frequently infested by insects. (3) Remove all pulp from seeds. (4) Seed characteristics vary widely with ecotype or collection. (5) Seedlings susceptible to crown or

root rot. (6) Seedlings sensitive to frost. (7) Seedlings sensitive to stem rot. (8) Seedlings sensitive to damping off. (9) Fragile root and stem systems. (10) Bareroot seedlings develop thick taproot. (11) Bareroot

seedlings may develop brittle or sharp branches or prickes. (12) Plants evergreen. (13) Store fresh seed at room temperature prior to H2SO4 treatment. (14) Seed viability drops within 10 days if stored at room

temperature. Viability may be extended to about 1 month if imbibed seed is kept in cold storage in a sealed container. (15) Poor establishment from seed. (16) Seed dried to 1 to 3 percent water content and

stored at 36 to 38 ∞F (2 to 3 ∞C). (17) Seed viability drops following 2 weeks to 1 month of open storage. Longevity has been increased to at least 4 years by drying seed to a 5 to 8 percent water content and

storing it in sealed containers at 36 ∞F (2 ∞C). (18) Grows very slowly for first 6 weeks. (19) Sheds all leaves by midsummer. (20) Two years of warm and cold cycles under field conditions may be required to

relieve dormancy. (21) Seed difficult to plant. (22) Acorns should be sown immediately, held under cold, damp conditions, or stored dry in sealed containers at 32 to 36 ∞F (0 to 2 ∞C). If acorns are attacked

by weevils, treat by soaking in water 120 ∞F (49 ∞C) for 30 minutes. hReferences:

Alvarez-Cordero and McKell 1979, Ansley 1983, Bowns and West 1976, Campbell 1984, Doran 1957, Everett and Gautier 1981, Everett and Meeuwig 1975, Everett and others 1978b, Gratkowski 1973,

Hartmann and others 1990, Holloway and Zasada 1979, Institute for Land Rehabilitation 1979, Landis and Simonich 1984, Long 1986, Mahlstede and Haber 1957, McArthur and others 1983a, Nord 1959b,

Okafo and Hanover 19778, Phipps and others 1983, Plummer 1974b, Schier 1980, Schopmeyer 1974b, Schoenike 1981, SEAM 1976, Shaw 1984, Shaw and Monsen 1984, Sheat 1963, Stark 1966, Toogood

Table 1

1980, Vories 1981, Wieland and others 1971, Wiesner and Johnson 1977.

—(Con.)

Vegetative propagation Seed propagation

Wildings (W) Root Crown Germination Warm Container Bareroot Special

stem layers (L) cuttings Suckers divisions Stem cuttings pre- pre- Wet pro- pro- consideraSpecies rhizomes (R) (season)a (season)a (season)a Typeb Seasona Facilityc treatment treatmentd prechille ductionf duction tionsg

- - - - - - Days - - - - - -
754 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

or selected populations grown in seed fields, seed

orchards, or cutting blocks by nurseries or commercial

growers (fig. 3).

If seed is purchased from private collectors, the

collection date and a site description including elevation, slope, aspect, soil type, and vegetation should be

provided. Seed should originate from the vicinity of

the planting site or from populations known to be

adapted to it. Although seed transfer guidelines have

not been established for native Intermountain species,

characteristics and site requirements of a number of

frequently collected shrub populations have been

documented (McArthur and others 1984a; Tiedemann

and Johnson 1983; Tiedemann and others 1984b).

The range of adaptability varies widely among populations of some species; thus available information

must be considered carefully in selecting a seed source.

Named varieties of several important shrub and forb

species have been released for commercial seed production following testing by the U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Natural Resource Conservation Service,

and cooperating agencies (Peterson and Sharp 1994).

Description, uses, and range of adaptation of each

release are provided in literature available from the

Natural Resource Conservation Service. A number of

forb varieties have been selected by private growers or

seed companies for commercial production. The quality of seed produced under agricultural conditions

should exceed that of wildland collections as improved

cultural techniques are developed.

Only small quantities of seed are needed to produce

container or bareroot orders. Seedlots required for

orders can be easily collected during years of average

or better seed production (Mirov and Kraebel 1939;

Plummer and Jorgensen 1978). One pound of highquality antelope bitterbrush seed, for example, contains about 15,000 seeds and produces 6,000 to 8,000

bareroot seedlings.

Figure 3—Subalpine willow stool block at a nursery.

Seed collection must be planned in advance, and

seed maturation monitored closely as seed collection

dates fluctuate widely from year to year (Swingle

1939; Vories 1981; see table in chapter 24). Adverse

weather conditions, insect infestations, or other unexpected events may lead to rapid crop deterioration

or failure, necessitating selection of alternative collection sites. Timing of seed collection is critical because some species such as antelope bitterbrush and

Ceanothus spp. disperse their seed rapidly following

maturation (Young and others 1984a; Young and

Young 1986).

Commercial seed dealers generally clean seed prior

to sale. Most nurseries have conditioning plants and

will clean seedlots received for nursery production.

The nurseryman should be contacted in advance for

scheduling requirements, costs, and recommended

seed handling, storage, and shipment procedures. In

general, freshly collected seeds should be spread on

trays or screens and allowed to air dry. Bulk may be

reduced by screening to remove rocks, branches, and

twigs (Young and others 1984a). Fumigation may be

necessary if insect infestation is a problem. Dried and

screened seed may be placed in sealed containers or in

cloth or paper bags and stored in a dry area until

shipment. Special procedures must be followed to

maintain seed viability of willow, birch, oak, and other

species (table 1).

Fleshy fruits should be delivered to the seed cleaning facility immediately following harvest. They should

not be stored in plastic bags nor allowed to heat

excessively prior to drying. Most should be air dried if

cleaning is delayed. Some species such as serviceberry

and chokecherry are extremely difficult to clean once

the pulp is dry. By contrast, some flesh should be left

on elderberry and Greene’s mountain ash and allowed

to decompose slightly to improve germination.

Seedlots must be cleaned carefully to obtain high

purity levels and maintain seed quality. High purities

are required to maximize uniformity of seed distribution and subsequent seedling development in nursery

beds and to simplify seed pretreatment, germination,

and planting procedures for container production.

Species such as sagebrush and rabbitbrush, that are

difficult to process are often marketed at low purities

(see table in chapter 24). Additional cleaning to obtain

at least 50 or 60 percent purity may be required to

produce bareroot or container seedlings of these species (Stein and others 1986).

Long-term seed storage requirements for many Intermountain species are summarized by Hartmann

and others (1990), Redente and others (1982),

Schopmeyer (1974b), and Vories (1981). Optimum

storage methods and the effect of various storage

methods on the duration of seed viability have not

been examined for most Intermountain plant species.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 755

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

Although seeds of many species can be stored in a

warehouse (see tables in chapters 24 and 26), small

lots collected for nursery production should be stored

under cold, dry conditions if they must be kept for

prolonged periods to maintain seed quality. Seeds

should be placed in sealed, moisture-proof containers

and stored at 32 to 50 ∞F (0 to 10 ∞C) (Copeland and

McDonald 1985; Justice and Bass 1978). Below

freezing temperatures (0 to 32 ∞F [–18 to 0 ∞C]) are

effective if the added cost is justified. Optimum water

contents for storage of native forb and shrub seeds

have not been determined, but maximum safe seed

water contents for many tree species is about

9 percent (Hartmann and others 1990; Stein and others

1986). Relative humidity in storage should be less

than 70 percent and, if possible, less than 50 percent.

Specific storage conditions must be provided for

winterfat, rabbitbrush, sagebrush, oak, some maples,

willows, cottonwoods, and spiny hopsage to maximize

their longevity (Schopmeyer 1974b; Kay and others

1984) (table 1).

Seed weight and results of recent purity and germination or viability tests are needed to calculate the

amount of seed required to produce the requested number of seedlings (Heit 1966). If recent tests have not

been conducted, the nursery may test the seed or submit

samples to a laboratory for testing. Results of purity,

seed weight, and viability tests may be obtained from

State or private seed laboratories. Viability is determined by tetrazolium staining (Stein and others 1986).

Germination tests may require 2 weeks to 6 months

or longer depending on wet prechilling requirements.

Germination and tetrazolium test procedures have

not been standardized for most native species. Consequently, only a limited number of laboratories will test

some species, and results may vary among laboratories. Procedures for sampling seedlots, submitting

seed samples for testing, and interpreting test results

are provided by Stein and others (1986).

Many native plant species require presowing treatments to overcome seed dormancy (Heit 1971;

Schopmeyer 1974b; Vories 1981) (table 1). Acid or

mechanical scarification, hot or cold wet pretreatments, hormone application, dry heat, hot water, and

various chemical pretreatments are commonly used.

The level of treatment required varies with species

and seedlot. Treatments are completed by the nursery. Most pretreatments require only 1 or 2 days. Wet

prechilling commonly requires 0.5 to 6 months, depending on the species. Required wet prechilling treatments may be completed in the laboratory for container or bareroot production, or by summer or fall

seeding for bareroot production.

Production of Bareroot Seedlings

Scheduling sequences for production of bareroot

seedlings are outlined in figure 4. Separate schedules

should be constructed for each species, illustrating the

timing and duration of each step. Seed collection,

cleaning, afterripening (if required), testing (purity,

seed weight, and germination or viability), and

presowing treatments must all be completed prior to

the proposed sowing date. The nursery may take

responsibility for some or all of these steps, but early

planning and coordination with the nursery manager

is essential to ensure that all operations are completed

in a timely manner.

The quantity of seed required to produce the desired number of seedlings is determined using the

formula shown in figure 5 (modified from Williams

and Hanks 1976). Predictions of seedling survival

and culling rates based on previous production experience with the species or seedlot at the nursery site

determine, or in many cases, limit the usefulness of

these calculations. Accurate seeding rates are critical

to meet production targets and maximize seedling

uniformity and density. Achieving desired seedling

Figure 4—Generalized scheduling alternatives for producing shrub seedlings in a bareroot nursery.

Seed collection

cleaning, testing,

afterripening, and

presowing treatments

Summer sow1

Fall sow1

Spring sow1

1-0 production2

2-0 production2

Fall lift

Spring lift

Fall plant

Overwinter

storage

Spring plant

1

Seeding dates:

Summer seed— species requiring both warm and cold germination pretreatments.

Fall seed—species requiring wet prechilling or nondormant species.

Spring seed—nondormant species.

Appropriate laboratory warm or cold pretreatments may substitute for the summer or fall seeding requirements.

2

Stock grown in nursery beds for one or two growing seasons.
756 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

density continues to be a challenge in producing bareroot stock of many native plants.

Nondormant seed may be either fall or spring sown.

Species requiring wet prechilling are either fall sown

or wet prechilled in the laboratory and spring sown.

Species with both warm and cold pretreatment requirements may be field sown in summer to induce

germination by the following spring. Alternatively,

pretreatments may be completed in the laboratory

and the seeds spring sown. As germination requirements become better understood for each species,

there is a trend toward increased use of artificial warm

and cold pretreatments and spring sowing.

Fall sowing may be preferred for species that germinate in early spring as muddy or frozen nursery beds

may make early spring seeding impossible. Consequently, some fall-sown seedlings may attain greater

size than spring-sown seedlings after one growing

season. However, depending on the nursery site, seedlings emerging early in spring may be exposed to late

frosts.

Shrubs are commonly grown using modifications of

techniques developed for conifer seedling production

(Duryea and Landis 1984) as cultural practices for

individual species have not been defined. Seedlings

are grown in nursery beds for one or two growing

seasons until plants reach adequate size for transplanting (table 1). Seedlings of some species may be

root or top pruned to improve uniformity, encourage

development of fibrous roots and simplify lifting, handling, and planting (Williams and Hanks 1976). Hardened bareroot seedlings may be lifted in fall or early

spring (fig. 6). Shrub seedlings are usually hardened

after the first few frosts in fall, the onset of low

temperatures, or following leaf fall (Williams and

Hanks 1976). The oscilloscope method described by

Ferguson and others (1975) has also been used to

evaluate seedling dormancy.

Figure 5—Formula for determining the amount of seed required to

produce the required number of plantable seedlings. Sample data

provided by USDA Forest Service, Lucky Peak Nursery, Boise, ID.

Grading criteria have not been established for most

native shrub species (fig. 7). Nurseries often market

seedlings on the basis of shoot length. Several items

should be considered in writing specifications for individual species:

1. All dead, damaged, diseased, and obviously undersized seedlings should be rejected.

2. Experience may indicate size or morphological

characteristics that may be correlated with planting

success. Carpenter (1983), for example, reported

greater survival of antelope bitterbrush seedlings

with branched compared to unbranched stems.

3. Large seedlings may be required for dry, rocky, or

erodible planting sites.

4. Seedlings with bulky, spreading root and shoot

systems are difficult to pack or plant using conventional hand or mechanical planting equipment. Such

plants may be root pruned in the nursery during the

growing season. Otherwise, bulky seedlings should

Figure 6—Lifting 1-0 shrub seedlings, USDA

Forest Service, Lucky Peak Nursery, Boise, ID.

 

Wt (lb) = N

(P) (G) (n) (NSF) (1- C)

Antelope Fourwing

bitterbrush saltbush

N = number of plantable seedlings required 1,000 1,000

P = purity (decimal) .99 .97

G = germinability (decimal) .93 .38

n = number of seeds per pound of cleaned seed 15,850 58,145

NSF = nursery survival factor (decimal) .75 .60

C = culling rate (decimal) .30 .40

Wt (lb) = weight of seed required to .13 .13

produce N seedlings
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 757

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

be trimmed before packing or, in extreme cases,

discarded.

5. Tops may be pruned in the field or after lifting to

decrease shoot and root ratios.

Fall lifted seedlings may be field planted immediately if soil water is adequate. These seedlings

should be held at ambient temperatures or at the

6 inch (15 cm) soil temperature at the planting site,

whichever is lowest, until planting (Dahlgreen 1976).

Seedlings that cannot be fall planted may be held in

cold storage or “heeled in” at a convenient site for

early spring planting. Both techniques are useful for

ensuring availability of seedlings for planting low

elevation sites in early spring, possibly before weather

and soil conditions would permit lifting at the nursery.

Cold storage is usually preferable, as conditions are

controlled. Seedlings placed in cold storage are stored

in cardboard boxes or other containers and held at

28 ∞F (–2 ∞C). Temperature of the cooler is gradually

raised to about 34 to 36 ∞F (1 to 2 ∞C) or higher at the

time of spring lifting or prior to outplanting. Spring

lifted seedlings may be held in cold storage until

remote or high elevation planting sites become accessible in late spring or early summer.

“Heeling in” is a particularly useful technique for

species that retain leaves through winter and tend to

mold in cold storage if subfreezing temperatures cannot be provided. Seedlings are placed close together in

long trenches with the roots vertical, covered with

sandy soil to about 1 inch (2.5 cm) above the root collar

and thoroughly irrigated to eliminate air pockets

around the roots. Trenches are separated to prevent

Figure 7—Variation in root and shoot development of 1-0 Saskatoon serviceberry bareroot seedlings grown in a single nursery plot.

(Vertical scale in inches.)

planting or lifting activities in one trench from interfering with seedlings in adjacent trenches. Diseased or damaged seedlings are culled prior to “heeling in,” and healthy seedlings are treated with an

appropriate fungicide if disease problems are anticipated. Trenches are mulched to preserve soil moisture, decrease frost heaving, and reduce deep freezing of the soil. “Heeled in” seedlings should be lifted for

planting prior to bud break in spring (Williams and

Hanks 1976). “Heeling in” requires additional handling, and seedlings stored in this manner are exposed to variable and often adverse environmental

conditions.

Production of Container Stock

Most container plants are sold as 6 to 18 inch (15 to

46 cm) seedlings. Larger stock may be grown to fill

specific needs. Schedules for producing container seedlings of two shrub species are illustrated in figures 8

and 9. Similar schedules should be developed for

each species grown. Main areas of consideration for

planning are seed procurement, preparation for planting, seedling production, and hardening. Total time

required from seed collection to planting may range

from 3 months to 2 or 3 years depending on the species

and the propagation facilities available. Seed procurement and preparation for planting involve the same

steps and considerations as described for bareroot

production, namely seed source selection, procurement, cleaning, afterripening, testing, and sowing

pretreatments.

Figure 8—Production schedule for growing

native plants in containers: creeping Oregon

grape (Mahonia repens)—germinants (modified from Landis and Simonich 1984).
758 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

Figure 9—Production schedule for growing

native plants in containers: Rocky Mountain

juniper (Juniperus scopulorum)—transplants

(modified from Landis and Simonich 1984).

Several production facilities are used to produce

container seedlings. These include a production greenhouse, a coldframe or shadehouse to harden plants,

and a shadehouse to hold seedlings until planting.

Refrigerated storage is used to maintain dormant

stock of conifer seedlings for late spring plantings, but

has not received extensive use in the shrub industry

(Landis and Simonich 1984). Individual nurseries

have adopted cropping schedules compatible with

their facilities, propagation systems, geographic location, and markets. Two or three crops of some species

may be grown during a year in fully controlled greenhouses. Other greenhouses produce seedlings only

during spring and summer.

The selection of appropriate containers for producing native plant seedlings is dependent upon the

species’ growth rate and habit and expected conditions at the outplanting site. Ray LeachR Supercells

(fig. 10a), Spencer-LemaireR Book Planters (fig. 10b),

and other special containers designed for production

of conifer seedlings, are often used (Tinus and

McDonald 1979). These containers have vertical internal ribs or grooves to prevent root spiraling. Species

with spreading root systems and rapid growth, such

as blue elderberry, and planting stock for dry, rocky, or

unstable sites should be grown in larger, pot-shaped

containers. Additional types of containers have been

useful in specialized situations. Tubelings, for example, are seedlings grown in long, narrow containers. This has resulted in improved survival rates for

plantings on arid mine spoils (Hodder 1970).

Seeding techniques, potting mixtures, and greenhouse or lathhouse cultural practices for propagation

have been reviewed by Aldon (1970a), Augustine and

others (1979), Carlson (1976), Ferguson (1980),

Ferguson and Monsen (1974), Landis and Simonich

(1984), Nelson (1984), and SEAM (1976). Seeding

dates are more flexible for container stock than for

bareroot stock. However, more extensive production

experience and research is still needed to refine the

light, irrigation, temperature, nutrient, and other

requirements for the production of individual species.

“Hardening” is a critical phase in the production of

container stock. This procedure increases the ability of

planting stock to survive following outplanting on

wildland sites. Plants propagated in the greenhouse

under optimum conditions grow rapidly, producing

soft, tender branches that are highly sensitive to

unfavorable environmental conditions. Hardening is

achieved by reducing the plant’s growth rate, increasing stored carbohydrates, and heightening tolerance to stress (Penrose and Hansen 1981). It is

accomplished by gradually shortening the photoperiod, reducing nighttime temperatures, leaching

Figure 10—Commonly used containers for greenhouse production of shrub seedlings: (a) Spencer-LaMaireR book containers; (b) Ray LeachR

supercells.

a

b
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Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

excess nitrogen from the planting medium, turning off

CO2 generators, fertilizing with low nitrogen and high

phosphorus and potassium fertilizers, and placing

the plants under mild drought stress (Landis and

Simonich 1984). These conditions somewhat parallel

the natural conditions experienced by plants in fall.

Hardened plants are inured to stresses encountered in

handling and planting as well as to low temperatures

of refrigerated storage or outplanting sites. Hardening may be scheduled to meet chilling requirements

of some species and provide dormant planting stock

for early spring planting. The degree of hardening

required depends on the species, proposed outplanting

date, and expected weather conditions at the planting site. Time required varies from 1 to 3 months

with longer periods needed to prepare plants for

early spring or high elevation plantings. Maintenance of plants in an adequately hardened condition

prior to outplanting is critical to plant survival and

establishment.

Vegetative Propagation

Although many plants are most easily and cheaply

grown from seed, there are problems associated

with seed propagation of some species or populations: (1) lack of sufficient seed supplies, (2) complex

seed dormancy, (3) slow field establishment, (4) maintenance of genetic or gender identity, and (5) cost

(Norris 1983).

These problems may be avoided through vegetative

propagation. Vegetative material propagated may

consist of entire plants (wildings); hardwood, semihardwood, softwood, or herbaceous stem cuttings: or

specialized cuttings from runners, stolons, stem

layers, suckers, crowns, roots, or rhizomes. Other

techniques such as propagation of leaf cuttings, grafting, and tissue or cell culture, have received limited

use with Intermountain species, but may become more

common in the future, particularly in research.

General techniques for collection and propagation of

vegetative materials are described in standard horticultural texts (Chadwick 1954; Doran 1957; Hartmann

and others 1990; Mahlstede and Haber 1957; Sheat

1963; Toogood 1980). References describing techniques for propagating individual genera or species

are provided in table 1. Many of these techniques were

developed for related species and have received only

limited use. In addition, propagation success varies

with individual collections. Most species can be propagated vegetatively by one or more techniques, but

these vary widely in special treatment, equipment, or

facilities required. Unrooted cuttings of oldman wormwood, for example, root readily when planted in wet

soil (Plummer 1974b), but cuttings of curlleaf mountain mahogany are difficult to root, even in a fully

equipped greenhouse (Ferguson and Monsen 1974).

Excess material of difficult-to-propagate species

should be gathered to cover expected losses. Nursery

managers should be consulted when determining the

most appropriate technique for propagating each species and developing nursery or greenhouse production

schedules.

For species easily propagated from hardwood cuttings or rhizomes, large numbers of plants may be

obtained readily and at a reasonable cost. Stock blocks

of named shrub varieties or widely adapted populations of commonly requested species have been installed at some nurseries (fig. 11). Bulbs, corms, runners, offsets, root cuttings, and divisions of some forbs

are also easily gathered. However, collection of large

quantities of root cuttings, stem layers, suckers, and

crown divisions of many shrub and tree species is

difficult and time consuming. These techniques are

useful only when small to moderate quantities of

otherwise unavailable material are required.

Wildings

“Wildings” are seedlings or mature plants dug from

native stands during the dormant period. They provide sources of inexpensive, readily available, siteadapted planting material and are particularly valuable if small to moderate quantities of one or more

species are needed to quickly restore disturbed sites

(DeYoe 1983; Everett and Kulla 1976). They also

provide a source of planting stock for some species that

are difficult to propagate from seed or cuttings, and

they are a source of minor species that might otherwise be omitted from plantings. Wildings should not

be collected from public lands without permission

from the appropriate agency.

Dense natural seedling stands often develop following favorable years for seed germination and seedling establishment. Numerous seedlings of big sagebrush, black sagebrush, rubber rabbitbrush, and

fourwing saltbush may be found growing along roadways or in other disturbed areas. Grass and forb seedlings often cover the ground surrounding mature plants.

Seedling clusters of bitterbrush and serviceberry

Figure 11—New Populus stool beds at a nursery.
760 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

develop from rodent caches (Everett and Kulla 1976),

while seedlings of snowbrush ceanothus and other

species may germinate from seed reserves in the soil

following clearcutting or burns (Gratkowski 1973).

Most of these seedlings rapidly succumb to competition or other adverse factors. Consequently, minimal

disturbance to the community results if small quantities of seedlings are carefully collected.

Wilding collection areas should be selected near

the planting site and should be similar in soil type,

elevation, slope, aspect, and shading. However, root

and shoot growth habits of seedlings growing on steep

slopes may not be desirable for transplanting. Wildings should be harvested in early morning when water

stress is low. Seedlings may easily be dug from sandy

to loamy soils by loosening the soil around root systems with a fork or shovel and pulling the seedlings by

hand. A weeder or undercutter may be required to

loosen heavy or dry soils. Seedlings must be carefully

removed from the soil to minimize root damage. Diseased or damaged seedlings should be discarded. If

necessary, tops can be pruned to decrease shoot to

root ratios (DeYoe 1983). Harvested seedlings are

usually stored in a cooler until used. However, seedlings may also be dug with some native soil remaining

on the roots and planted in containers. In either case,

the seedlings may be field planted directly or propagated in a nursery or greenhouse to provide larger

planting stock.

Temporary nurseries for producing wildings may

be established on range or agricultural lands. Seedlings should be grown on readily accessible sites with

easily tilled soils. Propagation may simply entail heavy

fall seeding and lifting after one or two growing seasons. More ambitious projects may provide minimal

maintenance such as protection from grazing or predation, weed control, irrigation, or application of soil

amendments. Burning may be used to break seed

dormancy of Ceanothus and Arctostaphylos seeds in

soil seed banks. Protection, irrigation, fertilization,

and reduction of competition around “mother” plants

in native stands provides another approach to production of wildings.

Mature plants or large “pads” of vegetation are

sometimes transplanted to rapidly improve aesthetics

of disturbed sites and to meet legal requirements for

restoration of native plant communities on mining

disturbances in arid and semiarid areas (Luke and

Monsen 1984). These provide immediate centers for

vegetative spread, reproduction from seed, and wildlife cover. Plants or pads of vegetation are sometimes excavated from a site prior to disturbance and

held for later replanting. Cultural treatments such as

weed or disease control, fertilization, or irrigation

may be applied to the vegetation during this period.

Mature vegetation may also be obtained from areas

adjoining disturbances at the time of revegetation.

The Vermeer Tree Spade, capable of excavating and

hauling up to eight shrubs or small trees, and the

Dryland Sodder, a front-end loader modified to load

and unload sod strips without disturbing root systems

or soil structure, were cooperatively developed by the

USDI Bureau of Land Management and the USDA

Forest Service, Missoula Equipment Development

Center, to aid in transplanting mature plant materials (Hallman 1982, 1984).

Cuttings

Timing of collection and techniques for handling

cuttings should be discussed with a nurseryman or

other plant materials specialist. In some cases the

nursery may harvest the cuttings. The two major

types of cuttings are described.

Hardwood Cuttings—Hardwood cuttings are

prepared from previous years’ or older growth. They

can be gathered quickly in large quantities, transported over long distances, held in cold storage for

long periods, and are more durable than other types

of cuttings. Many deciduous and some evergreen

shrubs and trees are easily and inexpensively propagated from hardwood cuttings (table 1).

Moderately vigorous plants growing in full sunlight should be selected for cutting. Long branches of

2 year old, and in some cases older growth, are harvested. Branches are transported in bundles with the

basal ends together, stored in a cool area, and not

allowed to dry. Branches are cut into lengths of 4 to

30 inches (10 to 76 cm) or more with a bandsaw.

Acceptable diameters generally range from 0.25 to

1 inch (0.6 to 2.5 cm) (Hartmann and others 1990).

One cut should be made at an angle to mark either

the tops or bases of the cuttings. Shoot apices of

branches from evergreen species can be used, but

apical growth of deciduous species is usually discarded as it contains low levels of carbohydrates.

Hardwood cuttings can be used in a variety of

ways to provide scheduling flexibility and appropriate planting stock for site conditions (Chadwick 1954;

Hartmann and others 1990). In areas with mild climates, dormant cuttings may be gathered and planted

immediately in fall. Alternatively, bundles of cuttings may be trimmed to desired lengths, packed in

moist, well-drained sawdust, sand, or sandy soil and

stored underground in an unheated cellar or in a

refrigerated room at approximately 40 ∞F (4 ∞C) until

spring. Bundles may be stored horizontally or vertically, and either upright or inverted. Initiation of root

or leaf growth in storage indicates lower storage temperatures are required. Cuttings of willows, hybrid

poplars, and other easily rooted species callused in

storage may be field planted on moist sites without

rooting, or following initiation of rooting (fig. 12a to

12d).
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Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

Figure 12—Preparation of cottonwood cuttings: (a) Sorting cottonwood whips by size.

(b) Cutting cottonwood whips into sections. (c) Soaking cottonwood cuttings in Captan

solution. (d) Placing dried cuttings into bags for storage.

a

b

c

d

Many willow cuttings can be collected in early spring

and stored for short periods or planted immediately

while still dormant (Malespin 1985; McCluskey and

others 1983). Dipping or soaking bases of cuttings in

solutions or powders of root inducing chemicals such

as indolebutyic acid, napthalene acetic acid, and indoleacetic acid promotes rooting of some species

(Hartmann and others 1990; Williams and Hanks

1976). Soaking cuttings in 3 percent Captan for 10 to

15 minutes, followed by thorough drying, reduces

fungal invasion. Tips may be treated with a sealant

to reduce desiccation after planting. These treatments may be completed prior to storage or in the

field for single-day cutting and planting operations.

Cuttings of easily rooted species may be rooted in a

greenhouse or bareroot nursery to produce stock with

well developed root systems for outplanting on disturbed sites. Cuttings of species that are difficult to

root should be grown in a greenhouse or hot frame

until adequate root systems have developed; time

required varies from 1 to 16 months (Hartmann and

others 1990; Williams and Hanks 1976).

Softwood and Semihardwood Cuttings—A

number of native and introduced shrub and tree species can be propagated by one or both of these techniques (table 1). Stock blocks of commonly used windbreak and shelterbelt species maintained at nursery

sites provide convenient sources for both types of

cuttings.

Softwood and semihardwood cuttings require greater

care, more elaborate nursery facilities, and are more

costly to propagate than hardwood cuttings (Hartmann

and others 1990; Janick 1979). They differ from hardwood cuttings in that they are taken from new, nondormant stems during the growing season. Softwood

cuttings are collected from succulent, new spring

growth of deciduous or evergreen species that have

not begun to lignify. Semihardwood cuttings are collected from partially lignified branches following the

first flush of spring growth. Retention of leafy material

is essential as these cuttings contain low quantities of

stored food materials, necessitating production of food

supplies during the rooting period. These cuttings root
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Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

rapidly, but use of greenhouses, mist systems, and

special techniques are required to promote rooting,

maintain high humidity levels, and prevent wilting.

Once rooted, cuttings must be carefully hardened

prior to outplanting.

Softwood and semihardwood cuttings should be collected from healthy plants growing in full sunlight.

Good cuttings can usually be obtained from lateral

branches of shrubs. Branches exhibiting average

amounts of growth provide the best material. Early

spring trimming will usually force growth of numerous lateral shoots from which cuttings can be made.

Cuttings should be gathered in the morning when

stems are turgid (Norris 1983), wrapped in moist

burlap, and stored in coolers out of the sun for delivery

to the nursery. Cuttings are trimmed to 3 to 6 inches

(8 to 15 cm) for greenhouse planting, slightly longer

cuttings are required for field planting in the nursery.

The basal cut is usually made just below a node.

The timeframe for collection of softwood cuttings

varies among species and can be very narrow

(Hartmann and others 1990). Softwood cuttings are

highly perishable and must be handled carefully to

prevent desiccation. Cuttings of herbaceous plants

are made in the same manner as softwood cuttings.

Rooting success of softwood and herbaceous cuttings

maintained in good condition is generally high and

occurs rapidly, generally within 2 to 5 weeks.

Semihardwood cuttings are taken from woody evergreen species and partially matured wood of broadleaved deciduous species. Semihardwood cuttings can

usually be collected over a longer period than softwood

cuttings. They are slightly less perishable, but generally root more slowly (Hartmann and others 1990;

Janick 1979).

Specialized Stems

Layering—Layering, the production of adventitious roots by a stem, is a natural means of vegetative

reproduction for some shrubs and many grasses and

forbs.

Willows, cottonwoods, currants, and other species

have been maintained in stool blocks at nurseries for

propagating by layering. The method has potential for

other native shrubs, including Ceanothus species, serviceberry, some bitterbrush ecotypes, and hawthorn.

Layers are formed by several stem structures:

1. Stem layers are formed when adventitious roots

develop from decumbent branches touching the

ground. New shoots are generated and the entire

branch generally remains attached to the parent

plant. Stem layers often develop on prostrate growth

forms of antelope bitterbrush and some Ceanothus

species.

2. Suckers are shoots produced from adventitious

buds on roots or the root crown. Shrubs and trees

such as mallowleaf ninebark, currant, black locust,

raspberry, and Rocky Mountain smooth sumac produce suckers that may be carefully excavated and

separated from the parent plant during the dormant

season. Suckers frequently root more readily than

stem cuttings, but are generally available in smaller

quantities.

3. Runners and stolons are specialized stems that

grow horizontally, producing new plants at internodes. Offsets are stolons with one internode. Plants

producing these structures include wild strawberry,

redosier dogwood, and many grasses.

4. Crown divisions are formed when new shoots of

many perennial forbs and multistemmed shrubs are

produced from the periphery of the crown, gradually

adding to its diameter. Small numbers of plants may

be obtained by dividing the crowns of these species.

The most successful divisions are obtained from the

peripheral portions of the crown. Crowns of early

flowering herbs are best divided late in the growing

period while late flowering herbs should be divided

early in spring. Shrubs are divided with a shovel or

hatchet during the dormant period. Shoots and roots

of divisions are trimmed to a manageable size and

outplanted or propagated in a nursery.

Several techniques are available for artificially inducing “layers” as a means of vegetative propagation

(Janick 1979). Layered stems may be separated from

the parent plant and immediately outplanted or they

may be grown in the nursery or greenhouse to produce

larger plants with more extensive root systems. Layering is a useful technique for propagating plants that

are difficult to grow from cuttings because water and

nutrients are provided by the parent plant throughout

the rooting period. Although layering techniques are

easily mastered, they are somewhat labor intensive,

and usually are not suitable for producing large numbers of plants.

Root Cuttings—Root cuttings are infrequently

used in propagating native plants as they are generally difficult to harvest. Trees and shrubs such as

sumacs, black locust, chokecherries, and lilac that

produce suckers can be propagated from root cuttings. The cuttings consist of short sections of young

roots. New stems are produced from adventitious buds

and roots are generated from the cut ends of the old

root or from the base of the developing stem. Root

cuttings are gathered during the dormant period

when carbohydrate supplies are high (Hartmann and

others 1990). Cuttings should be taken from healthy

young plants. Small plants may be completely excavated, the cuttings removed, and the plant replaced in

the soil. Root systems of larger plants may be partially
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Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

excavated and the soil replaced once the cuttings are

harvested. Polarity of the cuttings may be maintained

by marking the distal ends with a slanting cut. Cuttings are packed in a damp medium such as spaghnum

moss, sand, or sawdust, and stored at 36 to 40 ∞F (2 to

4 ∞C) until propagated or field planted. Delicate root

cuttings of grasses and forbs are cut into sections 1 to

2 inches (3 to 5 cm) long and propagated in flats in a

greenhouse or hothouse. As plants begin to develop

they are transplanted to other flats or nursery rows for

further growth prior to outplanting. Thicker cuttings,

0.25 to 0.5 inches (0.6 to 1.3 cm) in diameter, are

packed in bundles with the tops together and stored

under cool, moist conditions for several weeks. They

are then cut into pieces 2 to 6 inches (5 to 15 cm) long

and planted vertically about 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm)

apart in a greenhouse or outdoor nursery bed with the

top of the cutting at or slightly below the soil surface.

These cuttings grow slowly as their regenerative tissues are less active. Successful propagation of root

cuttings requires that optimal environmental conditions be provided in terms of light, temperature, humidity, and application of plant growth hormones.

Precautions must be taken to avoid conditions conducive to proliferation of diseases.

Rhizomes—Some species (tables 1, 2) produce

specialized stems or rhizomes that grow horizontally

near or slightly beneath the soil surface. Aerial shoots

develop terminally from the rhizome or its branches

and roots develop from adventitious buds in nodal

areas. Many grasses, forbs, and shrubs used for soil

stabilization have been selected for their rhizomatous habit and rapid growth. Rhizomes increase soil

stability by spreading through the soil and producing

masses of stems, roots, and new rhizome branches.

Rhizomes should be collected in early spring or late

fall. They may be handled like root cuttings, but are

more susceptible to drying. Rhizomes are easily propagated by dividing them into segments, each containing

a nodal area. Rhizome pieces (“sprigs”), particularly

those of grasses and forbs, may be treated as bareroot

stock and planted immediately, or they may be propagated and sometimes further divided in a nursery or

greenhouse before outplanting. If planted at adequate

densities on field sites, sprigs grow rapidly and improve vegetative cover and soil stability.

The “sprigger,” a modified potato harvester, was

developed by the USDI Bureau of Land Management

and the USDA Forest Service, Missoula Equipment

Development Center to harvest large quantities of

sprigs for revegetation of mine sites, roadways, and

other disturbances (Hallman 1982, 1984) (fig. 13).

Patches of rhizomatous vegetation growing near disturbed areas may be selected to provide site-adapted

material. Mowed vegetation is undercut with the

sprigger, lifted onto a conveyor system, and offloaded

Table 2—Some grass and forb species that can be propagated from rhizomes.

Grasses Forbs

Alpine timothy Pacific aster

Bluebunch wheatgrass Small burnet

Chee reedgrass Canada goldenrod

Desert saltgrass Cicer milkvetch

Western wheatgrass Low penstemon

Streambank wheatgrass Louisiana sage

Thickspike wheatgrass Pearly everlasting

Utah sweetvetch

(some accessions)

Western yarrow

onto a truck. The sprigs may then be broadcast over

the disturbance and covered. Nutrients, water, and

mulch may be added as part of the operation. This

equipment should be used only in authorized areas.

Handling and Planting ___________

Bareroot seedlings are subjected to adverse conditions from lifting to field planting. Exposure to rapid

changes in environmental conditions and physical

damage incurred during lifting, handling, transfer

between storage areas or to the field site, and planting

may weaken the seedling, decreasing initial growth

and survival. Dahlgreen (1976) lists four critical factors that must be controlled by proper storage and

handling practices:

1. Temperature (long-term storage). Seedling temperatures must be reduced to 28 to 34 ∞F (–2 to 1 ∞C)

after packing and held at a constant temperature. At

higher temperatures respiration rate increases, food

reserves are depleted, plants may break dormancy,

and disease becomes a problem. Temperature should

be increased gradually prior to planting.

Figure 13—“Sprigger” used to collect rhizomatous

planting stock.
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Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

2. Water. Water is translocated poorly at low temperatures. Consequently, stored seedlings must be

maintained at high humidity levels to reduce transpiration and prevent desiccation and decomposition of

food reserves. Roots should be kept moist, but not

submerged in water. Root tips are most susceptible to

drying.

3. Exposure. Exposure of seedlings to direct sunlight, high temperatures, frost, or wind during or following planting may result in desiccation and physiological damage.

4. Environmental change. Steep humidity and

temperature gradients encountered between lifting

and planting will stress seedlings. Consequently, handling and exposure must be minimized. Ideally, seedlings should be transported from the nursery in refrigerated trucks, or containers packed with snow and

delivered to a snow cache, or storage facility at or near

the planting site without intermediate transfers or

repacking. Effective snow cache systems have been

described by Dahlgreen and others (1974).

Seedlings must be kept in a cool, humid environment at the field planting site (Cleary and DeYoe

1982; DeYoe 1986). Dahlgreen (1976) suggests that

approximately 24 to 48 hours before planting, seedlings should be dipped in water, wrapped in wet

burlap, and allowed to acclimate. The water dip replaces water lost during shipping and covers roots

with a film of water to protect them from drying during

planting. Seedling temperature should be allowed to

rise to the 8 to 10 inch (20 to 25 cm) soil temperature

or the air temperature, whichever is lower. Acclimating plants should be protected from wind, sunlight,

and frost.

Careful planning and handling is also essential to

maintain the quality of container stock prior to

planting. Logistics and labor requirements must be

considered because containers are bulky to transport,

handle, and store. A holding area is required for

container stock that cannot be planted immediately.

The area should be well-drained and provide some

protection from extreme weather conditions, animals,

and mechanical damage. The north side of a building

is sometimes adequate. A temporary lathhouse or

shaded area may be constructed from shade cloth,

snow fence, or strips of canvas. Shipping boxes should

be opened when plants arrive and the plants watered

as needed. Plants should be checked daily for drying

or other potential problems. Dark-colored containers

should not be placed in full sunlight, even for a few

hours, as soil temperatures on the southwest side of

the containers can rise rapidly, causing considerable

root damage in a short period of time. Maintenance of

an adequate level of hardening can be difficult if

stock must be transported long distances without

refrigeration or if plants must be held at a lower

elevation than the planting site for extended periods.

Fall planting can be successful in areas with mild

climates if soil temperatures permit development of

new roots before the onset of winter. Fall planting

should be attempted only when precipitation has

moistened the upper soil layers and the ground is not

frozen. Frost heaving is a potential hazard with fall

planting. Little root development normally occurs

before the ground freezes, thus planted seedlings are

poorly anchored.

Spring planting while soil water is high is a common

practice in most parts of the Intermountain region.

Every effort should be made to hold bareroot and

container seedlings in a dormant or hardened condition

and to plant before native plants of the same species

break dormancy at the planting site. Nondormant

stock must be planted after danger of frost has passed,

which may not occur until soils have begun to dry.

Cool, overcast, humid days with light rain or snow

provide optimal planting weather. Penrose and Hansen

(1981) recommend planting only when windspeeds are

below 20 mi/hr (32 km/hr) and air temperatures are

between 32 and 64 ∞F (0 and 18 ∞C).

Tools and Equipment ____________

A number of tools may be used for eliminating

competing vegetation and handplanting bareroot

stock. These include (Larson 1980; Larson and

Milodragovich 1982):

1. MacLeod—a combination hoe and rake used for

scalping on sites with sandy or loamy soils (fig. 14a).

2. Planting hoes—a group of tools available in styles

useful for planting bareroot or container stock. Blades

may be mounted to facilitate planting on hillsides or

on level ground. The sides and back of the blade are

used for scalping.

3. Hoedad—a widely used tool for both planting and

scalping. It is useful for sites with heavy or rootbound

soils, but difficult to use on compacted soil or rocky

ground (fig. 14b).

4. Planting bars are used only for planting, not

scalping. They are useful for planting in hard or rocky

soils or in confined spaces where the ground is covered

with debris. Care must be taken to remove air pockets

near the roots when using a planting bar. Compaction

of heavy soils with this tool may inhibit root growth

and increase frost heaving (fig. 14c).

5. Planting shovels and planting spades are particularly useful for planting large stock and for planting in

deep, loose soils (fig. 14d).

6. Dibbles are designed for planting container seedlings (Larson and Milodragovich 1982). They are easy

to handle and are particularly useful for sandy or

loamy soils and confined spaces. They should not be
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Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

Figure 14—Tools for hand scalping and planting: (a) MacLeod, (b) planting hoe, (c) planting bar,

(d) planting shovel, (e) dibble with attached scalper, and (f) auger. (Photographs provided by USDA

Forest Service, Missoula Equipment Development Center.)

used in heavy soils as they tend to compact soil around

the planting hole and can contribute to frost heaving.

Once the seedling is planted, the root plug must be

covered with a layer of native soil to prevent moisture

from wicking through the planting medium and to

reduce the possibility of frost heaving. Dibble tips

matching many container sizes are available. Scalping blades can be attached to some dibbles (fig. 14e).

7. Gas-powered backpack augers may be used to

prepare planting holes for a crew of planters. The

augered hole must be large enough to accommodate

the root system of the bareroot or container seedling.

The auger operator should not work too far ahead of

the planting crew as the planting hole interiors and

soil excavated from them dry quickly on sunny days.

Augers are useful in confined areas but are not effective on rocky, sandy, or clay soils or on sites with

extensive surface debris. They are difficult to operate

safely on steep slopes (Larson 1980; fig. 14f).

Favorable microsites free from large rocks, shallow

soils, or drainage problems should be selected for

planting each seedling. Roots of bareroot stock should

be placed vertically in the planting hole and fanned

out against its wall. Care must be taken to keep the

plug of soil around the root system of container plants

intact. Soils must be carefully compacted around the

root system of planted seedlings to obliterate airpockets

without crushing the roots (fig. 15, 16). The plant

should not be planted too high as the upper portion of

the root system will desiccate. Planting too deep must

also be avoided. Watering and mulching may be beneficial in dry areas (Long and others 1984). Depressions should be formed around each plant to catch

water. Furrows or pits are sometimes constructed to

catch water around plants on rangeland sites. Plastic

mulch should be used in clump, thicket, or windbreak

plantings to direct water toward the plant and reduce

weed problems (Snyder 1982).

a b c

f

d e
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Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

Figure 15—Techniques for planting bareroot stock with standard hand-planting tools (Greaves and

Hermann 1978).

Correct procedure for planting bare-root stock with an auger. 

Steps: 1. Use auger to dig a vertical hole to desired depth. 

2. Insert and hold tree at proper depth in hole. 3. Pack bottom 

half of hole with soil. 4. Pack soil in top of hole and firm around 

the seedling. When firming the soil be careful not to scuff the 

seedling, as it can kill the seedling.

Correct procedure for planting bare-root stock with a planting hoe. 

Steps: 1. Swing hoe to get full vertical penetration; hoe blade must

be vertical, not slanted. 2. Lift handle and pull to widen hole. 3. Place

seedling in hole at proper depth while using hoe to hold back soil.

4. Pack soil at bottom of hole. 5. Pack soil at top of hole. 6. Firm soil 

around seedling. When firming the soil be careful not to scuff the

seedling, as it can kill the seedling.

Correct procedure for planting bare-root stock with a shovel 

or tiling spade. Steps: 1. Insert shovel into soil vertically, with 

the blade reversed. Push handle forward. Pull soil back and 

out of hole. 2. Straighten back of hole. Insert tree at proper 

depth. 3. Pack soil at bottom of hole. 4. Pack soil at top of 

hole and firm soil around seedling. When firming soil be 

careful not to scuff the seedling, as it can kill the seedling.

Correct procedure for planting bare-root stock with a planting bar. 

Steps: 1. Insert bar at angle shown and push forward to upright 

position. 2. Remove bar and place seedling at the proper depth.

3. Insert bar vertically about 2 inches toward the planter from the

seedling. 4. Pull bar handle toward planter to firm soil at bottom of 

roots. 5. Push bar handle forward to firm soil at top of roots. 6. Insert 

bar vertically about 2 inches from last hole. 7. Push forward then pull 

backward to fill hole. 8. Fill in last hole by stamping with heel. 9. Firm

soil around seedling. When firming soil be careful not to scuff the 

seedling, as it can kill the seedling.
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Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

Figure 16—Proper planting of bareroot seedlings and common planting errors (Weadick 1976).

Transplant spacing depends on project objectives,

characteristics of the site being planted, and expected

mortality rates. Seedlings may be planted in a random

pattern or in clusters using mixtures of species to

create natural-appearing stands. Most shrub seedlings are slow-growing. If planted with seeded grasses

or amid competing weedy species, survival rates may

be low and time to maturity may increase substantially (Van Epps and McKell 1983). This problem

may be alleviated by planting seedlings in scalps

from which herbaceous competition has been removed (Geist and Edgerton 1984; Stevens and others

1981b). Organic or plastic mulches may be used to

control competition in windbreak or cluster plantings

(Snyder 1982).

Labor requirements and costs for hand planting

are high compared to standard seeding methods. Individual crew members may plant 300 to 1,200 seedlings

per day, depending on their experience, and on the

terrain, soil conditions, and seedling size. Handplanting permits the selection of the most favorable sites

for planting and is the only means of planting on steep,

rocky sites. Mechanical planters may be used to plant

on moderate or level terrain.

Seedling Protection _____________

Seedling survival and growth are enhanced by protection from adverse climatic conditions, insects, disease, and predation by birds and mammals. Such

protection may be afforded through care in site selection, site preparation practices, and seedling or site

treatments during the establishment period. A few

examples of protection approaches are provided (DeYoe

and others 1985; Penrose and Hansen 1981; Stoszek

1976).

A properly 

planted shrub

‘L’ roots

Hole shallow

‘U’ and ‘J’ roots

Hole shallow

Root ends often

Exposed to air

Jammed roots

Hole too narrow

and shallow

Compacted roots

Hole too narrow

Roots exposed

Hole too shallow

Too deep

Leaves buried

Hole o.k.

Shrub position poor

Inadequate tamping

Roots drying likely due

to depression at left

Planted in

rotten wood 

Roots not in 

damp mineral

soil

Planted on

mound

Roots apt

to dry out

Not vertical

Shrub not planted

vertical to the

horizonal plane

Air pocket

showing

improper tamping
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Chapter 29 Production and Use of Planting Stock

Physical Site Factors

1. Use species and accessions adapted to site conditions. On severely disturbed sites early seral species

may be more appropriate than late seral or climax

species present in predisturbance vegetation.

2. Use furrows, pits, and mulches to collect and

retain water in arid areas.

3. Provide supplemental water to establish seedlings on very arid sites or to maintain seedlings during

unusually dry seasons on any site.

4. Use erosion control structures or place materials

on the soil surface to reduce soil and water erosion.

Larger planting stock is less likely to be uprooted in

such situations.

5. Select protected microsites. If high soil surface

temperatures are expected, use planting stock with

large stem caliper and good root to shoot ratios.

Temperatures greater than 130 ∞F (55 ∞C) near the

soil surface can be lethal to phloem and cambial cells.

Retain shade (taller weeds and shrubs) during site

preparation, but plant seedlings on microsites from

which vegetation has been removed.

6. Frost heaving is minimized by planting larger

seedlings, covering the soil plug of container seedlings

with native soil, and providing a cover of sod, litter,

and debris.

7. Damage resulting from late frosts may be decreased by: avoiding frost prone sites, planting strips

of frost tolerant species as cover crops to protect

developing species, or avoiding destruction of heatinsulating ground cover material.

Animals

1. Gophers feed in the root zone and prefer broadleafed forbs. Their activities are controlled by baiting

or trapping. Treatments must be reapplied as needed

for one or more growing seasons. Federal registration

and regulations concerning use of rodenticides should

be checked prior to use.

2. Big game control methods include:

Repellents—A number of chemicals are available for repelling deer and other animals from

conifer seedlings and other plants (DeYoe and

Schaap 1987; DeYoe and others 1985). Effectiveness of these substances has been highly

variable .

Plants with low palatability—Such plants

should be selected when it is desirable to reduce big game use of sites such as highway

right-of-ways.

Fencing—This is generally not economical,

but may be an option on small, critical sites.

Solar-powered, electrical, and other temporary

fencing is used for this purpose.

Insects and Diseases

Use of adapted species is the best approach for

reducing insect and disease problems. Other forms of

control are generally reserved for extreme situations.

Competing Vegetation

A variety of chemical and mechanical treatments

are available for reducing competition with native and

exotic species (Vallentine 1980). Depending on the site

and species present, consideration should be given to

retention of some original vegetation to provide shade,

frost protection, insect predators, or an alternate forage source for livestock or big game.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 769

References

References

Abbott, M. L. 1991. Structural characteristics of cover on elk winter

range in north central Arizona. Flagstaff: Northern Arizona

University. 36 p. Thesis.

Abbott, M. L.; Fraley, L., Jr.; Reynolds, T. D. 1991. Root profiles of

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Stevens, R. 1985a. Depth of interseeding scalps can affect growth of

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Stevens, R. 1985b. Interseeding with a modified Sieco fireplow can

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producing certified seed. Seed World. 133: 14–15.

Young, S.; Kitchen, S.; Armstrong, J.; Watson, V. 1995. AOSCA

approves certification guidelines for wildland collected seed. Seed

World. 133: 20–21.

Young, V. A.; Payne, G. F. 1948. Utilization of “key” browse species

in relation to proper grazing practices in cutover western white

pine lands in northern Idaho. Journal of Forestry. 46: 35–40.

Young, V. A.; Robinette, W. L. 1939. A study of the range habits of

elk on the Selway Game Preserve. Bull. 9. Moscow: University of

Idaho, School of Forestry. 47 p.

Youngberg, C. T.; Wollum, A. G. 1976. Nitrogen accretion in developing Ceanothus velutinus stands. Soil Science Society of America

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Youngblood, A. P.; Mauk, R. L. 1985. Coniferous forest habitat types

of central and southern Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-187. Ogden,

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 89 p.

Youngblood, A. P.; Padgett, W. G.; Winward, A. H. 1985. Riparian

community type classification of eastern Idaho-western Wyoming. R4-Ecol-85-01. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 78 p.

Zach, R.; Crichton, V. F. J.; Stewart, J. M.; Mayoh, K. R. 1982. Early

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Zager, P. E. 1980. The influence of logging and wildfire on grizzly

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USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 847

Appendices

Appendices

Scientific name Common name

A. Plants

Abies fir

Abies concolor fir, white

Abies grandis fir, grand

Abies lasiocarpa fir, subalpine

Abies magnifica fir, California red

Acer maple

Acer glabrum maple, Rocky Mountain

Acer grandidentatum maple, bigtooth

Acer negundo boxelder

Achillea millefolium alpicola yarrow, timberline

Achillea millefolium lanulosa yarrow, western

Achillea millefolium millefolium yarrow, European*

Achnatherum hymenoides ricegrass, Indian

Achnatherum thurberianum needlegrass, Thurber

Adenostema chamise

Agastache urticifolia giant hyssop, nettleleaf

Agoseris agoseris

Agropyron wheatgrass

Agropyron spp. wheatgrass, crested*

Agropyron albicans wheatgrass, Montana

Agropyron cristatum wheatgrass, fairway crested*

Agropyron dasystachyum wheatgrass, streambank

Agropyron dasystachyum wheatgrass, thickspike

Agropyron desertorum wheatgrass, desert*

Agropyron desertorum wheatgrass, standard crested (desert)*

Agropyron elongatum wheatgrass, tall*

Agropyron fragile wheatgrass, Siberian*

Agropyron intermedium wheatgrass, intermediate*

Agropyron junceum wheatgrass, rushleaf*

Agropyron repens quackgrass*

Appendix 1: Scientific and Common Names
848 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

Agropyron repens x A. spicatum wheatgrass, NewHy*

Agropyron scribneri wheatgrass, Scribner

Agropyron sibiricum wheatgrass, Siberian*

Agropyron smithii wheatgrass, bluestem

Agropyron smithii wheatgrass, western

Agropyron spicatum wheatgrass, bluebunch

Agropyron spicatum wheatgrass, Snake River

Agropyron subsecundum wheatgrass, bearded*

Agropyron trachycaulum wheatgrass, slender

Agropyron trichophorum wheatgrass, pubescent*

Agrostis stolonifera bentgrass, carpet

Agrostis stolonifera bentgrass, redtop

Agrostis stolonifera redtop*

Allenrolfea iodine bush

Alnus alder

Alnus incana alder, speckled

Alnus tenuifolia alder, thinleaf

Alopecurus arundinaceus foxtail, creeping (foxtail, reed)*

Alopecurus pratensis foxtail, meadow*

Ambrosia ragweed

Amelanchier serviceberry

Amelanchier alnifolia serviceberry, Saskatoon

Amelanchier pumila serviceberry, dwarf Saskatoon

Amelanchier utahensis serviceberry, Utah

Amorpha canescens amorpha, leadplant

Amsinckia fiddleneck

Anaphalis margaritacea pearly everlasting

Andropogon gerardii bluestem, big

Angelica pinnata angelica, small leaf

Aquilegia coerulea columbine, Colorado

Arceuthobium mistletoe, dwarf

Arctostaphylos manzanita

Arctostaphylos patula manzanita, greenleaf

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi manzanita, bearberry

Aristida three-awn

Aristida purpurea three-awn, purple

Aristida purpurea longiseta three-awn, Fendler

Aristida purpurea longiseta three-awn, red

Arnica arnica

Arrhenatherum elatius oatgrass, tall*

Artemisia sagebrush

Artemisia abrotanum wormwood, oldman*

Artemisia abrotanum nana wormwood, dwarf*

Artemisia absinthium wormwood, common*

Artemisia arbuscula sagebrush, low

Scientific name Common name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 849

Appendices

Scientific name Common name

Artemisia arbuscula thermopola sagebrush, hotsprings (cleft-leaf)

Artemisia argillosa sagebrush, coaltown

Artemisia bigelovii sagebrush, Bigelow (flat)

Artemisia cana sagebrush, silver

Artemisia cana bolanderi sagebrush, Bolander silver

Artemisia cana cana sagebrush, plains silver

Artemisia cana viscidula sagebrush, mountain silver

Artemisia dracunculus sage, tarragon

Artemisia filifolia sage, sand

Artemisia frigida sagebrush, fringed

Artemisia longifolia sagebrush, longleaf

Artemisia longiloba sagebrush, alkali (early)

Artemisia ludoviciana sagewort, Louisiana

Artemisia ludoviciana sage, Louisiana (wormwood)

Artemisia nova sagebrush, black

Artemisia pedatifida sagebrush, birdsfoot

Artemisia pygmaea sagebrush, pygmy

Artemisia rigida sagebrush, stiff (scabland)

Artemisia rothrockii sagebrush, rothrock

Artemisia spinescens budsage

Artemisia spinescens sagebrush, bud

Artemisia tridentata sagebrush, big

Artemisia tridentata spiciformis sagebrush, subalpine big (snowbank,

 timberline, or spicate big)

Artemisia tridentata tridentata sagebrush, basin big

Artemisia tridentata vaseyana sagebrush, mountain big

Artemisia tridentata wyomingensis sagebrush, Wyoming big

Artemisia tridentata xericensis sagebrush, foothills big (xeric big)

Artemisia tripartita sagebrush, threetip

Artemisia tripartita rupicola sagebrush, Wyoming threetip

Artemisia tripartita tripartita sagebrush, tall threetip

Asclepias subverticillata milkweed, whorled

Aster aster

Aster chilensis aster, Pacific

Aster engelmannii aster, Engelmann

Aster foliaceus aster, alpine leafybract

Aster glaucodes aster, blueleaf

Aster laevis aster, smooth

Astragalus locoweed

Astragalus milkvetch

Astragalus canadensis milkvetch, Canadian

Astragalus cicer milkvetch, cicer*

Astragalus filipes milkvetch, Snake River (milkvetch, basalt)

Astragalus galegiformis astragalus, giant

Atriplex saltbush
850 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

Atriplex aptera saltbush, wingless

Atriplex bonnevillensis saltbush, Bonneville

Atriplex buxifolia saltbush, Gardner

Atriplex canescens saltbush, fourwing

Atriplex confertifolia saltbush, shadscale

Atriplex confertifolia shadscale

Atriplex corrugata saltbush, mat

Atriplex cuneata saltbush, Castle Valley clover

Atriplex cuneata saltbush, cuneate

Atriplex falcata saltbush, falcate

Atriplex gardneri saltbush, Gardner

Atriplex garrettii saltbush, Garrett

Atriplex hymenelytra saltbush, desert holly

Atriplex lentiformis saltbush, big (quailbush)

Atriplex navajoensis saltbush, Navajo

Atriplex nuttallii saltbush, Nuttall’s

Atriplex obovata saltbush, broadscale

Atriplex polycarpa quailbush

Atriplex polycarpa saltbush, allscale

Atriplex polycarpa saltbush, cattle

Atriplex polycarpa saltbush, quail

Atriplex robusta saltbush, robust*

Atriplex semibaccata saltbush, Australian*

Atriplex torreyi saltbush, Torrey

Atriplex tridentata saltbush, trident

Avena elatior oatgrass, tall*

Balsamorhiza balsamroot

Balsamorhiza hookeri balsamroot, hairy

Balsamorhiza macrophylla balsamroot, cutleaf

Balsamorhiza sagittata balsamroot, arrowleaf

Bassia hyssopifolia bassia, fivehook

Betula birch

Betula glandulosa birch, bog

Betula occidentalis birch, water

Betula papyrifera birch, paper

Betula pendula birch, European white

Betula pubescens birch, downy*

Bouteloua grama

Bouteloua curtipendula grama, sideoats

Bouteloua eriopoda grama, black

Bouteloua gracilis grama, blue

Bromus bromegrass

Bromus anomalus brome, nodding

Bromus biebersteinii brome, meadow*

Bromus carinatus brome, California

Scientific name Common name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 851

Appendices

Bromus carinatus brome, mountain

Bromus ciliatus brome, fringed

Bromus erectus brome, meadow*

Bromus inermis brome, Hungarian*

Bromus inermis brome, smooth*

Bromus japonicus brome, Japanese*

Bromus pumpellianus brome, Pumpelly’s

Bromus rigidus brome, ripgut*

Bromus riparius brome, meadow*

Bromus rubens brome, red*

Bromus tectorum brome, downy

Bromus tectorum cheatgrass*

Bromus tomentellus brome, subalpine

Buchloe dactyloides buffalograss

Calamagrostis reedgrass

Calamagrostis canadensis reedgrass, bluejoint

Calamagrostis epigeios reedgrass, chee*

Calamagrostis montanensis reedgrass, plains

Calamagrostis rubescens pinegrass

Camphorosoma monspeliaca camphorfume, Mediterranean*

Caragana arborescens peashrub, Siberian*

Caragana arborescens pygmaea peashrub, pygmy*

Cardaria draba whitetop*

Carduus nutans thistle, musk*

Carex sedge

Carex aquatilis sedge, water

Carex aurea sedge, golden

Carex disperma sedge, softleaved

Carex douglasii sedge, Douglas

Carex elynoides sedge, blackroot

Carex festivella sedge, ovalhead

Carex hoodii sedge, hood

Carex lanuginosa sedge, woolly

Carex lenticularis lipocarpa sedge, Kellogg

Carex microptera sedge, smallwing

Carex nardina sedge, Hepburn

Carex nebrascensis sedge, Nebraska

Carex nigricans sedge, black alpine

Carex praegracilis sedge, slim

Carex rostrata sedge, beaked

Carex rupestris sedge, rock (curly)

Carex saxatilis sedge, russet

Carex scirpoidea sedge, downy

Carex simulata sedge, analogue

Carex vallicola sedge, valley

Scientific name Common name
852 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

Scientific name Common name

Castilleja hispida painted cup, sulphur

Ceanothus buckbrush

Ceanothus ceanothus, buckbrush

Ceanothus cuneatus ceanothus, wedgeleaf

Ceanothus fendleri ceanothus, Fendler

Ceanothus greggii ceanothus, desert

Ceanothus integerrimus ceanothus, deerbrush

Ceanothus lemmonii ceanothus, Lemmon

Ceanothus martinii ceanothus, Martin

Ceanothus prostrata ceanothus, prostrate

Ceanothus sanguineus ceanothus, redstem

Ceanothus velutinus ceanothus, snowbrush

Celtis reticulata hackberry, netleaf

Centaurea biebersteinii knapweed, spotted*

Centaurea repens knapweed, Russian*

Centaurea solstitialis starthistle, yellow

Centaurium venustum centaury, charming

Ceratoides lanata winterfat

Ceratoides lanata ruinina winterfat, big

Ceratoides lanata subspinosa winterfat, foothills

Ceratoides latens winterfat, Pamirian*

Cercocarpus mountain mahogany

Cerocarpus betuloides mountain mahogany, birchleaf

Cerocarpus intricatus mountain mahogany, littleleaf

Cerocarpus ledifolius mountain mahogany, curlleaf

Cerocarpus ledifolius intermontanus mountain mahogany, intermountain curlleaf

Cerocarpus montanus mountain mahogany, true

Chondrilla juncea skeletonweed, rush*

Chorispora tenella mustard, blue

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum daisy, oxeye*

Chrysothamnus rabbitbrush

Chrysothamnus albidus rabbitbrush, alkali

Chrysothamnus depressus rabbitbrush, dwarf

Chrysothamnus eremobius rabbitbrush, Pintwater

Chrysothamnus gramineus goldenrod, Panamint rock

Chrysothamnus greenei rabbitbrush, Greene’s

Chrysothamnus humilis rabbitbrush, Truckee

Chrysothamnus linifolius rabbitbrush, spreading

Chrysothamnus molestus rabbitbrush, Arizona

Chrysothamnus nauseosus rabbitbrush, rubber

Chrysothamnus nauseosus albicaulis rabbitbrush, mountain whitestem rubber

Chrysothamnus nauseosus consimilis rabbitbrush, threadleaf rubber

Chrysothamnus nauseosus hololeucus rabbitbrush, basin whitestem rubber

Chrysothamnus nauseosus hololeucus rabbitbrush, whitestem rubber

Chrysothamnus nauseosus leiospermus rabbitbrush, leiospermus rubber
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 853

Appendices

Scientific name Common name

Chrysothamnus nauseosus mohavensis rabbitbrush, Mohave rubber

Chrysothamnus nauseosus nauseosus rabbitbrush, green rubber

Chrysothamnus nauseosus salicifolius rabbitbrush, mountain rubber

Chrysothamnus nauseosus turbinatus rabbitbrush, turbinate rubber

Chrysothamnus nauseosus utahensis rabbitbrush, Utah green rubber

Chrysothamnus paniculatus rabbitbrush, Mojave

Chrysothamnus parryi rabbitbrush, Parry

Chrysothamnus parryi nevadensis rabbitbrush, Nevada

Chrysothamnus pulchellus rabbitbrush, southwestern

Chrysothamnus vaseyi rabbitbrush, Vasey

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus rabbitbrush, low (yellow)

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus yellowbrush

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus lanceolatus rabbitbrush, mountain low

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus puberulus rabbitbrush, hairy low

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus stenophyllus rabbitbrush, narrowleaf low

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus viscidiflorus rabbitbrush, stickyleaf low (Douglas)

Cirsium arvense thistle, Canada*

Clematis ligusticifolia virginsbower, western

Coleogyne ramosissima blackbrush

Collomia linearis collomia, slenderleaf

Colutea arborescens bladdersenna, common*

Cornus dogwood

Cornus stolonifera dogwood, redosier

Coronilla varia crownvetch*

Cotoneaster acutifolia cotoneaster, Peking*

Cowania cliffrose

Cowania stansburiana cliffrose, Stansbury

Crataegus hawthorn

Crataegus columbiana hawthorn, Columbia

Crataegus douglasii hawthorn, Douglas

Crataegus rivularis hawthorn, river

Crataegus succulenta hawthorn, yellow*

Cupressus arizonica cypress, Arizona

Cynosurus echinatus dogtail*

Dactylis glomerata orchardgrass*

Delphinium nuttallianum larkspur, low

Delphinium occidentale larkspur, tall

Deschampsia caespitosa hairgrass, tufted

Descurainia mustard, tansy

Descurainia tansymustard

Descurainia pinnata tansymustard

Descurainia sophia tansymustard, flixweed*

Digitaria californica cottontop, Arizona

Distichlis saltgrass

Distichlis spicata saltgrass, inland
854 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

Dryas dryas

Elaeagnus angustifolia Russianolive*

Elaeagnus commutata silverberry

Elaeagnus umbellata autumn eleagnus (autumn olive)

Elaeagnus umbellatum olive, autumn*

Eleocharis palustris spikerush, common

Elymus wildrye

Elymus angustus wildrye, Altai*

Elymus aristatus wildrye, purple

Elymus canadensis wildrye, Canada

Elymus cinereus wildrye, Great Basin

Elymus dahuricus wildrye, Dahurian*

Elymus elymoides squirreltail, bottlebrush

Elymus flavescens wildrye, yellow

Elymus giganteus wildrye, mammoth*

Elymus glaucus wildrye, blue

Elymus junceus wildrye, Russian*

Elymus lanceolatus lanceolatus wheatgrass, thickspike

Elymus macrourus wheatgrass, thickspike

Elymus multisetus squirreltail, big

Elymus salinus wildrye, Salina

Elymus simplex wildrye, low creeping (alkali)

Elymus trachycaulus wheatgrass, slender

Elymus triticoides wildrye, beardless (creeping)

Elymus wawawaiensis wheatgrass, Snake River

Elytrigia smithii wheatgrass, western

Ephedra ephedra, jointfir

Ephedra nevadensis ephedra, Nevada

Ephedra torreyana ephedra, Torrey

Ephedra viridis ephedra, green

Epilobium angustifolia fireweed

Equisetum horsetail

Erigeron speciosus fleabane, Oregon

Erigeron ursinus fleabane, Bear River

Eriogonum buckwheat

Eriogonum fasciculatum buckwheat, wild California flattop

Eriogonum heracleoides buckwheat, Wyeth

Eriogonum heracleoides eriogonum, Wyeth

Eriogonum niveum eriogonum, snow

Eriogonum ovalifolium eriogonum, cushion

Eriogonum umbellatum buckwheat, sulfur

Eriogonum umbellatum eriogonum, sulfur

Eriogonum wrightii buckwheat, Wright

Eriogonum wrightii eriogonum, Wright

Erodium cicutarium alfileria (filaree) *

Scientific name Common name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 855

Appendices

Euphorbia esula spurge, leafy*

Eurotia lanata winterfat

Fallugia paradoxa Apache plume

Festuca fescue

Festuca arizonica fescue, Arizona

Festuca arundinacea fescue, tall (fescue, alta or reed) *

Festuca elatior fescue, meadow*

Festuca idahoensis fescue, Idaho

Festuca ovina duriuscula fescue, hard

Festuca ovina duriuscula fescue, hard sheep*

Festuca ovina ovina fescue, sheep (fescue, alpine)

Festuca ovina sulcata fescue, sulcata sheep

Festuca rubra fescue, red*

Festuca thurberi fescue, Thurber

Forestiera neomexicana forestiera, New Mexico

Fragaria strawberry, wild

Fraxinus anomala ash, singleleaf

Fraxinus pennsylvanica ash, green

Geranium geranium

Geranium richardsonii geranium, Richardson

Geranium viscosissimum geranium, sticky

Gleditsia triacanthos honeylocust

Grayia brandegei hopsage, spineless

Grayia spinosa hopsage, spiny

Gutierrezia matchbrush

Gutierrezia (Xanthocephalum) snakeweed

Gutierrezia microcephala matchbrush, small head

Gutierrezia microcephala snakeweed, threadleaf

Gutierrezia petradoria snakeweed, goldenrod

Gutierrezia pomariensis snakeweed, orchard

Gutierrezia sarothrae snakeweed, broom

Gutierrezia sphaerocephala snakeweed, roundleaf

Halimodendron halodendron salt-tree, Siberian*

Halogeton glomeratus halogeton*

Haplopappus goldenweed

Haplopappus bloomeri goldenweed, rabbitbrush

Haplopappus carthamoides goldenweed, largeflowered

Haplopappus greenei goldenweed, Greene’s

Haplopappus macronema goldenweed, whitestem

Haplopappus resinosus goldenweed, Columbia

Haplopappus suffruticosus goldenweed, shrubby

Hedysarum boreale boreale sweetvetch, Uinta (northern)

Hedysarum boreale gremiale sweetvetch, Utah

Hedysarum boreale utahense sweetvetch, Utah

Hedysarum coronarium sweetvetch, sulla

Scientific name Common name
856 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

Helianthella uniflora helianthella, oneflower

Helianthus annuus sunflower

Heracleum lanatum cowparsnip

Hesperochloa kingii fescue, spike

Hilaria jamesii curly grass

Hilaria jamesii galleta

Holodiscus oceanspray

Holodiscus discolor oceanspray, creambush

Holodiscus dumosus oceanspray, bush

Holodiscus dumosus oceanspray, rock

Holodiscus dumosus rockspirea

Hordeum barley

Hordeum brachyantherum barley, meadow

Hordeum bulbosum barley, bulbous*

Hordeum jubatum barley, foxtail

Hordeum vulgare barley, beardless*

Iris germanica iris, German*

Iva axillaris povertyweed

Ivesia gordonii ivesia, Gordon

Juncus rush

Juncus arcticus balticus rush, Baltic

Juncus drummondii rush, Drummond

Juncus ensifolius rush, swordleaf

Juncus longistylis rush, longstyle

Juncus torreyi rush, Torrey

Juniperus juniper

Juniperus ashei juniper, Ashe

Juniperus communis montana juniper, mountain

Juniperus horizontalis juniper, creeping

Juniperus occidentalis juniper, western

Juniperus osteosperma juniper, Utah

Juniperus scopulorum juniper, Rocky Mountain

Kochia americana molly, gray (green)

Kochia prostrata kochia, forage*

Kochia scoparia kochia, Belvedere

Kochia scoparia summercypress, Belvedere*

Koeleria macrantha junegrass, prairie

Krascheninnikovia lanata winterfat

Lactuca serriola lettuce, prickly*

Larrea tridentata creosotebush

Lathyrus lanszwertii peavine, thickleaf

Lathyrus latifolium peavine, perennial*

Lathyrus sylvestris peavine, flat

Lathyrus zionis peavine, Utah

Lepidium pepperweed

Scientific name Common name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 857

Appendices

Lepidospartum latisquamatum scalebroom

Leymus angustus wildrye, Altai*

Leymus cinereus wildrye, Great Basin

Leymus racemosus wildrye, mammoth*

Leymus triticoides wildrye, beardless (creeping)

Ligusticum porteri ligusticum, Porter

Ligusticum tenuifolium ligusticum, narrowleaf

Linum perenne lewisii flax, Lewis

Lolium multiflorum rye, annual

Lolium multiflorum ryegrass, Italian*

Lolium perenne ryegrass, perennial*

Lolium pratense rye, meadow

Lomatium dissectum lomatium, carrotleaf

Lomatium graveolens lomatium, stinking

Lomatium nuttallii (kingii) lomatium, Nuttall

Lomatium triternatum lomatium, nineleaf (narrowleaf)

Lonicera honeysuckle

Lonicera ciliosa honeysuckle, western trumpet (honeysuckle, orange)*

Lonicera involucrata honeysuckle, bearberry

Lonicera tatarica honeysuckle, Tatarian*

Lonicera utahensis honeysuckle, Utah

Lotus corniculatus deervetch, birdfoot

Lotus corniculatus trefoil, birdsfoot*

Lupinus lupine

Lupinus alpestris lupine, mountain

Lupinus argenteus lupine, silvery

Lupinus nevadensis lupine, Nevada

Lupinus sericeus lupine, silky

Lycium barbarum matrimony vine*

Madia madia; tarweed

Madia glomerata tarweed, cluster

Mahonia barberry; Oregon grape

Mahonia aquifolium barberry, shining

Mahonia fremontii barberry, Fremont

Mahonia repens barberry, creeping

Malcomia africana mustard, African*

Medicago alfalfa

Medicago falcata alfalfa, sicklepod*

Medicago lupulina medick, black*

Medicago sativa alfalfa*

Melica bulbosa oniongrass

Melilotus clover, sweet

Melilotus alba sweetclover, white*

Melilotus officinalis sweetclover, yellow*

Mertensia arizonica bluebell, tall

Scientific name Common name
858 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

Mertensia bluebell

Muhlenbergia asperifolia muhly, alkali

Muhlenbergia richardsonis muhly, mat

Muhlenbergia wrightii muhly, spike

Onobrychis viciaefolia sainfoin*

Orobanche broomrape

Oryzopsis hymenoides ricegrass, Indian

Osmorhiza chilensis sweetroot, spreading

Osmorhiza occidentalis sweetanise

Pachistima myrsinites mountain lover

Panicum millet*

Panicum capillare witchgrass

Pascopyrum smithii wheatgrass, western

Penstemon penstemon

Penstemon cyananthus penstemon, Wasatch

Penstemon eatonii penstemon, Eaton (firecracker)

Penstemon fruticosus penstemon, bush

Penstemon humilis penstemon, low

Penstemon linarioides penstemon, toadflax

Penstemon pachyphyllus penstemon, thickleaf

Penstemon palmeri penstemon, Palmer

Penstemon platyphyllus penstemon, sidehill

Penstemon rydbergii penstemon, Rydberg

Penstemon sepalulus penstemon, littlecup

Penstemon spectabilis penstemon, showy

Penstemon strictus penstemon, Rocky Mountain

Peraphyllum ramosissimum Indian apple

Petradoria rockgoldenrod

Phalaris arundinacea canarygrass, reed*

Philadelphus syringa

Philadelphus lewisii mockorange, Lewis

Philadelphus microphyllus mockorange, littleleaf

Phleum alpinum timothy, alpine (mountain)

Phleum pratense timothy*

Physocarpus alternans ninebark, dwarf

Physocarpus capitatus ninebark, Pacific

Physocarpus malvaceus ninebark, mallow

Physocarpus monogynus ninebark, mountain

Picea spruce

Picea engelmannii spruce, Engelmann

Picea pungens spruce, blue

Pinus pinyon

Pinus albicaulis pine, whitebark

Pinus aristata pine, bristlecone

Pinus contorta pine, lodgepole

Scientific name Common name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 859

Appendices

Scientific name Common name

Pinus edulis pinyon

Pinus flexilis pine, limber

Pinus jeffreyi pine, Jeffrey

Pinus longaeva pine, bristlecone

Pinus monophylla pinyon, singleleaf

Pinus monticola pine, western white

Pinus palustris pine, longleaf

Pinus ponderosa pine, ponderosa

Poa bluegrass

Poa alpina bluegrass, alpine

Poa ampla bluegrass, big

Poa bulbosa bluegrass, bulbous*

Poa canbyi bluegrass, Canby

Poa compressa bluegrass, Canada*

Poa cusickii bluegrass, Cusick’s

Poa fendleriana bluegrass, mutton (bluegrass, longtongue)

Poa fendleriana muttongrass

Poa longiligula muttongrass, longtongue (longtongue bluegrass)

Poa nevadensis bluegrass, Nevada

Poa pratensis bluegrass, Kentucky*

Poa reflexa bluegrass, nodding

Poa scabrella bluegrass, pine

Poa secunda bluegrass, Sandberg

Polygonum knotweed

Polygonum douglasii knotweed, Douglas

Populus cottonwood; poplar

Populus angustifolia cottonwood, narrowleaf

Populus balsamifera poplar, balsam

Populus deltoides cottonwood, eastern

Populus fremontii cottonwood, Fremont

Populus tremuloides aspen, quaking

Populus trichocarpa cottonwood, black

Potentilla cinquefoil

Potentilla fruticosa cinquefoil, shrubby (cinquefoil, bush)

Potentilla glandulosa cinquefoil, gland

Prosopis mesquite

Prosopis glandulosa mesquite, honey

Prunus americana plum, American

Prunus andersonii Anderson peachbrush

Prunus andersonii desert almond

Prunus andersonii peachbrush, Anderson

Prunus besseyi cherry, Bessey*

Prunus emarginata cherry, bitter

Prunus fasciculata peachbrush, desert

Prunus spinosa blackthorn*
860 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

Prunus tomentosa cherry, Nanking*

Prunus virginiana chokecherrry, common

Prunus virginiana demissa chokecherry, western

Prunus virginiana melanocarpa chokecherry, black

Psathyrostachys juncea wildrye, Russian*

Pseudoroegneria spicata wheatgrass, bluebunch

Pseudoroegneria spicata inerme wheatgrass, beardless bluebunch

Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas-fir

Puccinellia airoides alkaligrass, Nuttall

Purshia bitterbrush

Purshia glandulosa bitterbrush, desert

Purshia tridentata bitterbrush, antelope

Quercus oak

Quercus gambelii oak, Gambel

Quercus undulata oak, wavyleaf

Ranunculus testiculatus buttercup, bur*

Rhamnus purshiana buckthorn, cascara*

Rhus sumac

Rhus aromatica (trilobata) sumac, skunkbush

Rhus glabra sumac, Rocky Mountain smooth

Ribes currant; gooseberry

Ribes aureum currant, golden

Ribes cereum currant, wax

Ribes viscosissimum currant, sticky

Robinia pseudoacacia locust, black*

Rosa wildrose

Rosa acicularis rose, prickly

Rosa gymnocarpa rose, baldhip

Rosa nutkana rose, Nootka

Rosa woodsii rose, Woods

Rubus blackberry, blackcap

Rubus leucodermis raspberry, black (blackcap)

Rubus parviflorus thimbleberry

Salicornia glasswort

Salix willow

Salix amygdaloides willow, peachleaf

Salix bebbiana willow, Bebb (beaked)

Salix boothii willow, Booth

Salix brachycarpa willow, barrenground

Salix drummondiana willow, Drummond (beautiful)

Salix exigua willow, coyote (sandbar)

Salix geyeriana willow, Geyer

Salix glauca willow, grayleaf (glaucous)

Salix lasiandra willow, whiplash (Pacific)

Salix lasiolepis willow, arroyo

Scientific name Common name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 861

Appendices

Salix lutea willow, yellow (shining)

Salix planifolia willow, plainleaf (tealeaf)

Salix purpurea willow, purpleosier*

Salix scouleriana willow, Scouler (mountain)

Salix wolfii willow, Wolf

Salsola iberica thistle, Russian*

Salvia dorrii purple sage

Sambucus elderberry

Sambucus cerulea elderberry, blue

Sambucus racemosa elderberry, red

Sambucus racemosa melanocarpa elderberry, black

Sanguisorba minor burnet, small*

Sanguisorba muricata burnet, small*

Sanguisorba occidentalis burnet, western

Sanguisorba sitchensis burnet, Alaskan

Saponaria officinalis bouncing-bet*

Sarcobatus greasewood

Sarcobatus baileyi greasewood, Bailey

Sarcobatus vermiculatus greasewood, black

Scirpus acutus bulrush, tule

Scirpus maritimus bulrush, saltmarsh

Secale cereale rye, winter*

Secale montanum rye, mountain*

Senecio serra groundsel, butterweed

Shepherdia buffaloberry

Shepherdia argentea buffaloberry, silver

Shepherdia canadensis buffaloberry, russet

Shepherdia canadensis soapberry

Shepherdia rotundifolia buffaloberry, roundleaf

Sidalcea oregana checker-mallow, Oregon

Sisymbrium altissimum mustard, tumble*

Sitanion hystrix squirreltail, bottlebrush

Sitanion jubatum squirreltail, big

Smilacina Solomon-plume, fat

Smilacina racemosa Solomon-seal, western

Solidago goldenrod

Solidago canadensis goldenrod, Canada

Solidago multiradiata goldenrod, low

Solidago parryi goldenrod, Parry

Sorbus americana mountain ash, American

Sorbus scopulina mountain ash, Greene’s

Sorbus sitchensis mountain ash, Sitka*

Sphaeralcea globemallow

Sphaeralcea coccinea globemallow, scarlet

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia globemallow, gooseberryleaf

Scientific name Common name
862 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

Scientific name Common name

Sphaeralcea munroana globemallow, munro

Sphaeralcea rivularis globemallow, stream

Spiraea betulifolia spiraea, bridal wreath (birchleaf)

Spiraea densiflora spiraea, subalpine

Sporobolus dropseeds

Sporobolus airoides sacaton, alkali

Sporobolus cryptandrus dropseed, sand

Stellaria starwort

Stipa needlegrass

Stipa columbiana needlegrass, Columbia

Stipa columbiana needlegrass, subalpine

Stipa comata needle-and-thread

Stipa lettermanii needlegrass, Letterman

Stipa thurberiana needlegrass, Thurber

Stipa viridula needlegrass, green

Suaeda seepweed

Suaeda suffrutescens sumpbush, desert

Suaeda torreyana seepweed, desert

Symphoricarpos snowberry

Symphoricarpos albus snowberry, common (white)

Symphoricarpos longiflorus snowberry, desert (longflower)

Symphoricarpos occidentalis snowberry, western

Symphoricarpos occidentalis wolfberry

Symphoricarpos oreophilus snowberry, mountain

Syringa villosa lilac, late*

Syringa vulgaris lilac, common*

Taeniatherum caput-medusae medusahead*

Tamarix ramosissima cedar, salt*

Taraxacum dandelion*

Tetradymia horsebrush (cottonthorn)

Tetradymia argyraea horsebrush, striped

Tetradymia axillaris horsebrush, longspine

Tetradymia canescens horsebrush, gray

Tetradymia comosa horsebrush, hairy

Tetradymia filifolia horsebrush, threadleaf

Tetradymia glabrata horsebrush, littleleaf

Tetradymia nuttallii horsebrush, Nuttall

Tetradymia spinosa horsebrush, spiny

Tetradymia stenolepis horsebrush, Mohave

Tetradymia tetrameres horsebrush, fourpart

Thalictrum meadowrue

Thalictrum fendleri meadowrue, Fendler

Thamnosma montana bush, turpentine

Thinopyrum intermedium wheatgrass, intermediate*

Thinopyrum intermedium wheatgrass, pubescent*
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 863

Appendices

Scientific name Common name

Thinopyrum ponticum wheatgrass, tall*

Toxicodendron rydbergii ivy, poison

Tragopogon dubius salsify, vegetable-oyster (goat’s beard)*

Trifolium clover

Trifolium fragiferum clover, strawberry*

Trifolium hybridum clover, alsike*

Trifolium pratense clover, red*

Trifolium repens clover, white*

Trisetum spicatum trisetum, spike

Triticum aestivum x Secale cereale triticale*

Tsuga heterophylla hemlock, western

Tsuga mertensiana hemlock, mountain

Typha cattail

Ulmus pumila elm, Siberian*

Vaccinium blueberry; whortleberry

Vaccinium membranaceum huckleberry, mountain

Valeriana, edulis valerian, edible

Veratrum californicum skunk cabbage

Vicia americana vetch, American

Vicia cracca vetch, bramble

Viguiera multiflora goldeneye, showy

Viguieria goldeneye

Viguieria multiflora nevadensis goldeneye, Nevada

Viola nuttallii violet, Nuttall’s

Viola purpurea violet, goosefoot

Vulpia microstachys fescue, desert

Wyethia mule-ears

Yucca yucca

Yucca brevifolia Joshua tree

Zuckia arizonica zuckia, Arizona

Zuckia arizonica siltbush

Zuckia brandegei hopsage, spineless

B. Mammals

Alces alces moose

Alces alces shiras moose, Shiras

Antilocarpa americana pronghorn (antelope)

Bos taurus cattle, domestic*

Canis latrans coyote

Capra hircus goat, domestic*

Castor canadensis beaver, American

Cervus elaphus elk

Cynomys prairie dog

Dipodomys kangaroo rat

Equus asinus burro, domestic or feral*
864 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

Equus caballus horse, domestic or feral*

Erethizon dorsatum porcupine

Lepus jack rabbit

Lepus americanus hare, snowshoe

Lepus californicus jack rabbit, black-tailed

Lynx rufus bobcat

Marmota marmot

Microdipodops kangaroo mouse

Microtus vole

Mustela weasel

Neotoma woodrat

Odocoileus hemionus columbianus deer, black-tailed

Odocoileus hemionus hemionus deer, mule

Odocoileus virginianus deer, white-tailed

Onychomys grasshopper mouse

Oreamnos americanus mountain goat

Ovis aries sheep, domestic*

Ovis canadensis sheep, bighorn

Ovis canadensis canadensis sheep, Rocky Mountain bighorn

Ovis canadensis nelsoni sheep, desert bighorn

Pecari tajacu javelina

Perognathus pocket mouse

Peromyscus deer mouse

Rangifer tarandus caribou caribou, woodland

Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus caribou, barren ground

Spermophilus townsendii ground squirrel, Townsend’s

Spilogale and Mephitis skunk

Sus domesticus hog, domestic or feral*

Sylvilagus cottontail

Sylvilagus nuttalli cottontail, mountain

Tamias chipmunk

Taxidea taxus badger, American

Thomomys, Geomys, Papogeomys pocket gopher

Ursus americanus bear, black

Ursus arctos horribilis bear, grizzly

Vulpes and Urocyon fox

C. Birds

Alectoris chukar chukar*

Bonasa umbellus grouse, ruffed

Branta canadensis goose, Canada

Callipepla californicus quail, California

Callipepla gambelii quail, Gambel’s

Carduelis redpoll

Carduelis pinus siskin, pine

Scientific name Common name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 865

Appendices

Catharus ustulatus thrush, Swainson’s

Centrocercus urophasianus sage-grouse

Colinus viginianus bobwhite

Columba fasciata pigeon, band-tailed

Cyrtonyx montezumae quail, Mearn’s

Cyrtonyx montezumae quail, Montezuma

Dendragapus canadensis grouse, spruce

Dendragapus obscurus grouse, blue

Dryocopus pileatus woodpecker, pileated

Meleagris gallapavo turkey, wild

Meleagris gallapavo merriami turkey, Merriam’s

Parus gambeli chickadee, mountain

Pedioecetes phasianellus grouse, sharp-tailed

Perdix perdix partridge, gray*

Phasianus colchicus pheasant, ring-necked*

Regulus calendula kinglet, ruby-crowned

Selasphorus platycercus hummingbird, broad-tailed

Sphyrapicus nuchalis sapsucker, red-naped

Sphyrapicus thyroideus sapsucker, Williamson’s

Sphyrapicus varius sapsucker, yellow-bellied

Tympanuchus prairie-chicken

Zenaida macroura dove, mourning

D. Insects

Apoidea bee

Aroga websteri moth, sagebrush defoliator

Caelifera and Ensifera grasshopper

Coleophoridae moth, case-bearing

Coleoptera beetle

Diptera fly

Elateridae wireworm

Formicidae ant

Gryllidae cricket

Hymenoptera wasp

Lygus lygus bug (leaf bug)

Malacosoma caterpillar, tent

Noctuidae cutworm

Tephritidae tephritid fly (fruit fly)

Vespinae hornet

E. Bacteria and Fungi

Acremonium coenophialum endophytic fungus of tall fescue

Claviceps purpurea ergot (fungus of wildrye)

Frankia frankia (nitrogen-fixing bacteria)

Gymnosporangium rust (several fungi of serviceberry)

Scientific name Common name
866 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

Common name Scientific name

A. Plants

agoseris Agoseris

alder Alnus

alder, speckled Alnus incana

alder, thinleaf Alnus tenuifolia

alfalfa Medicago

alfalfa* Medicago sativa

alfalfa, sicklepod* Medicago falcata

alfileria (filaree) * Erodium cicutarium

alkaligrass, Nuttall Puccinellia airoides

amorpha, leadplant Amorpha canescens

Anderson peachbrush Prunus andersonii

angelica, small leaf Angelica pinnata

Apache plume Fallugia paradoxa

arnica Arnica

ash, green Fraxinus pennsylvanica

ash, singleleaf Fraxinus anomala

aspen, quaking Populus tremuloides

aster Aster

aster, alpine leafybract Aster foliaceus

aster, blueleaf Aster glaucodes

aster, Engelmann Aster engelmannii

aster, Pacific Aster chilensis

aster, smooth Aster laevis

astragalus, giant Astragalus galegiformis

autumn eleagnus (autumn olive) Elaeagnus umbellata

balsamroot Balsamorhiza

balsamroot, arrowleaf Balsamorhiza sagittata

balsamroot, cutleaf Balsamorhiza macrophylla

balsamroot, hairy Balsamorhiza hookeri

barberry Mahonia

barberry, creeping Mahonia repens

barberry, Fremont Mahonia fremontii

barberry, shining Mahonia aquifolium

barley Hordeum

barley, beardless* Hordeum vulgare

barley, bulbous* Hordeum bulbosum

barley, foxtail Hordeum jubatum

barley, meadow Hordeum brachyantherum

bassia, fivehook Bassia hyssopifolia

bentgrass, carpet Agrostis stolonifera

bentgrass, redtop Agrostis stolonifera

birch Betula

Appendix 2: Common and Scientific Names
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 867

Appendices

birch, bog Betula glandulosa

birch, downy* Betula pubescens

birch, European white Betula pendula

birch, paper Betula papyrifera

birch, water Betula occidentalis

bitterbrush Purshia

bitterbrush, antelope Purshia tridentata

bitterbrush, desert Purshia glandulosa

blackberry, blackcap Rubus

blackbrush Coleogyne ramosissima

blackthorn* Prunus spinosa

bladdersenna, common* Colutea arborescens

bluebell Mertensia

bluebell, tall Mertensia arizonica

blueberry Vaccinium

bluegrass Poa

bluegrass, alpine Poa alpina

bluegrass, big Poa ampla

bluegrass, bulbous* Poa bulbosa

bluegrass, Canada* Poa compressa

bluegrass, Canby Poa canbyi

bluegrass, Cusick’s Poa cusickii

bluegrass, Kentucky* Poa pratensis

bluegrass, mutton (bluegrass, longtongue) Poa fendleriana

bluegrass, Nevada Poa nevadensis

bluegrass, nodding Poa reflexa

bluegrass, pine Poa scabrella

bluegrass, Sandberg Poa secunda

bluestem, big Andropogon gerardii

bouncing-bet* Saponaria officinalis

boxelder Acer negundo

bromegrass Bromus

brome, California Bromus carinatus

brome, downy Bromus tectorum

brome, fringed Bromus ciliatus

brome, Hungarian* Bromus inermis

brome, Japanese* Bromus japonicus

brome, meadow* Bromus biebersteinii

brome, meadow* Bromus erectus

brome, meadow* Bromus riparius

brome, mountain Bromus carinatus

brome, nodding Bromus anomalus

brome, Pumpelly’s Bromus pumpellianus

brome, red* Bromus rubens

brome, ripgut* Bromus rigidus

Common name Scientific name
868 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

brome, smooth* Bromus inermis

brome, subalpine Bromus tomentellus

broomrape Orobanche

buckbrush Ceanothus

buckthorn, cascara* Rhamnus purshiana

buckwheat Eriogonum

buckwheat, sulfur Eriogonum umbellatum

buckwheat, wild California flattop Eriogonum fasciculatum

buckwheat, Wright Eriogonum wrightii

buckwheat, Wyeth Eriogonum heracleoides

budsage Artemisia spinescens

buffaloberry Shepherdia

buffaloberry, roundleaf Shepherdia rotundifolia

buffaloberry, russet Shepherdia canadensis

buffaloberry, silver Shepherdia argentea

buffalograss Buchloe dactyloides

bulrush, saltmarsh Scirpus maritimus

bulrush, tule Scirpus acutus

burnet, Alaskan Sanguisorba sitchensis

burnet, small* Sanguisorba minor

burnet, small* Sanguisorba muricata

burnet, western Sanguisorba occidentalis

bush, turpentine Thamnosma montana

buttercup, bur* Ranunculus testiculatus

camphorfume, Mediterranean* Camphorosoma monspeliaca

canarygrass, reed* Phalaris arundinacea

cattail Typha

ceanothus, buckbrush Ceanothus

ceanothus, deerbrush Ceanothus integerrimus

ceanothus, desert Ceanothus greggii

ceanothus, Fendler Ceanothus fendleri

ceanothus, Lemmon Ceanothus lemmonii

ceanothus, Martin Ceanothus martinii

ceanothus, prostrate Ceanothus prostrata

ceanothus, redstem Ceanothus sanguineus

ceanothus, snowbrush Ceanothus velutinus

ceanothus, wedgeleaf Ceanothus cuneatus

cedar, salt* Tamarix ramosissima

centaury, charming Centaurium venustum

chamise Adenostema

cheatgrass* Bromus tectorum

checker-mallow, Oregon Sidalcea oregana

cherry, Bessey* Prunus besseyi

cherry, bitter Prunus emarginata

cherry, Nanking* Prunus tomentosa

Common name Scientific name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 869

Appendices

Common name Scientific name

chokecherrry, common Prunus virginiana

chokecherry, black Prunus virginiana melanocarpa

chokecherry, western Prunus virginiana demissa

cinquefoil Potentilla

cinquefoil, gland Potentilla glandulosa

cinquefoil, shrubby (cinquefoil, bush) Potentilla fruticosa

cliffrose Cowania

cliffrose, Stansbury Cowania stansburiana

clover Trifolium

clover, alsike* Trifolium hybridum

clover, red* Trifolium pratense

clover, strawberry* Trifolium fragiferum

clover, sweet Melilotus

clover, white* Trifolium repens

collomia, slenderleaf Collomia linearis

columbine, Colorado Aquilegia coerulea

cotoneaster, Peking* Cotoneaster acutifolia

cottonthorn (horsebrush) Tetradymia

cottontop, Arizona Digitaria californica

cottonwood Populus

cottonwood, black Populus trichocarpa

cottonwood, eastern Populus deltoides

cottonwood, Fremont Populus fremontii

cottonwood, narrowleaf Populus angustifolia

cowparsnip Heracleum lanatum

creosotebush Larrea tridentata

crownvetch* Coronilla varia

curly grass Hilaria jamesii

currant Ribes

currant, golden Ribes aureum

currant, sticky Ribes viscosissimum

currant, wax Ribes cereum

cypress, Arizona Cupressus arizonica

daisy, oxeye* Chrysanthemum leucanthemum

dandelion* Taraxacum

deervetch, birdfoot Lotus corniculatus

desert almond Prunus andersonii

dogtail* Cynosurus echinatus

dogwood Cornus

dogwood, redosier Cornus stolonifera

Douglasfir Pseudotsuga menziesii

dropseed, sand Sporobolus cryptandrus

dropseeds Sporobolus

dryas Dryas

elderberry Sambucus
870 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

elderberry, black Sambucus racemosa melanocarpa

elderberry, blue Sambucus cerulea

elderberry, red Sambucus racemosa

elm, Siberian* Ulmus pumila

ephedra Ephedra

ephedra, green Ephedra viridis

ephedra, Nevada Ephedra nevadensis

ephedra, Torrey Ephedra torreyana

eriogonum, cushion Eriogonum ovalifolium

eriogonum, snow Eriogonum niveum

eriogonum, sulfur Eriogonum umbellatum

eriogonum, Wright Eriogonum wrightii

eriogonum, Wyeth Eriogonum heracleoides

fescue Festuca

fescue, Arizona Festuca arizonica

fescue, desert Vulpia microstachys

fescue, hard Festuca ovina duriuscula

fescue, hard sheep* Festuca ovina duriuscula

fescue, Idaho Festuca idahoensis

fescue, meadow* Festuca elatior

fescue, red* Festuca rubra

fescue, sheep (fescue, alpine) Festuca ovina ovina

fescue, spike Hesperochloa kingii

fescue, sulcata sheep Festuca ovina sulcata

fescue, tall (fescue, alta or reed) * Festuca arundinacea

fescue, Thurber Festuca thurberi

fiddleneck Amsinckia

filaree Erodium cicutarium

fir Abies

fir, California red Abies magnifica

fir, grand Abies grandis

fir, subalpine Abies lasiocarpa

fir, white Abies concolor

fireweed Epilobium angustifolia

flax, Lewis Linum perenne lewisii

fleabane, Bear River Erigeron ursinus

fleabane, Oregon Erigeron speciosus

forestiera, New Mexico Forestiera neomexicana

foxtail, creeping (foxtail, reed)* Alopecurus arundinaceus

foxtail, meadow* Alopecurus pratensis

galleta Hilaria jamesii

geranium Geranium

geranium, Richardson Geranium richardsonii

geranium, sticky Geranium viscosissimum

giant hyssop, nettleleaf Agastache urticifolia

Common name Scientific name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 871

Appendices

glasswort Salicornia

globemallow Sphaeralcea

globemallow, gooseberryleaf Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia

globemallow, munro Sphaeralcea munroana

globemallow, scarlet Sphaeralcea coccinea

globemallow, stream Sphaeralcea rivularis

goldeneye Viguieria

goldeneye, Nevada Viguieria multiflora nevadensis

goldeneye, showy Viguiera multiflora

goldenrod Solidago

goldenrod, Canada Solidago canadensis

goldenrod, low Solidago multiradiata

goldenrod, Panamint rock Chrysothamnus gramineus

goldenrod, Parry Solidago parryi

goldenweed Haplopappus

goldenweed, Columbia Haplopappus resinosus

goldenweed, Greene’s Haplopappus greenei

goldenweed, largeflowered Haplopappus carthamoides

goldenweed, rabbitbrush Haplopappus bloomeri

goldenweed, shrubby Haplopappus suffruticosus

goldenweed, whitestem Haplopappus macronema

gooseberry Ribes

grama Bouteloua

grama, black Bouteloua eriopoda

grama, blue Bouteloua gracilis

grama, sideoats Bouteloua curtipendula

greasewood Sarcobatus

greasewood, Bailey Sarcobatus baileyi

greasewood, black Sarcobatus vermiculatus

groundsel, butterweed Senecio serra

hackberry, netleaf Celtis reticulata

hairgrass, tufted Deschampsia caespitosa

halogeton* Halogeton glomeratus

hawthorn Crataegus

hawthorn, Columbia Crataegus columbiana

hawthorn, Douglas Crataegus douglasii

hawthorn, river Crataegus rivularis

hawthorn, yellow* Crataegus succulenta

helianthella, oneflower Helianthella uniflora

hemlock, mountain Tsuga mertensiana

hemlock, western Tsuga heterophylla

honeylocust Gleditsia triacanthos

honeysuckle Lonicera

honeysuckle, bearberry Lonicera involucrata

honeysuckle, Tatarian* Lonicera tatarica

Common name Scientific name
872 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

honeysuckle, Utah Lonicera utahensis

honeysuckle, western trumpet Lonicera ciliosa

 (honeysuckle, orange)*

hopsage, spineless Grayia brandegei

hopsage, spineless Zuckia brandegei

hopsage, spiny Grayia spinosa

horsebrush (cottonthorn) Tetradymia

horsebrush, fourpart Tetradymia tetrameres

horsebrush, gray Tetradymia canescens

horsebrush, hairy Tetradymia comosa

horsebrush, littleleaf Tetradymia glabrata

horsebrush, longspine Tetradymia axillaris

horsebrush, Mohave Tetradymia stenolepis

horsebrush, Nuttall Tetradymia nuttallii

horsebrush, spiny Tetradymia spinosa

horsebrush, striped Tetradymia argyraea

horsebrush, threadleaf Tetradymia filifolia

horsetail Equisetum

huckleberry, mountain Vaccinium membranaceum

Indian apple Peraphyllum ramosissimum

iodine bush Allenrolfea

iris, German* Iris germanica

ivesia, Gordon Ivesia gordonii

ivy, poison Toxicodendron rydbergii

jointfir Ephedra

Joshua tree Yucca brevifolia

junegrass, prairie Koeleria macrantha

juniper Juniperus

juniper, Ashe Juniperus ashei

juniper, creeping Juniperus horizontalis

juniper, mountain Juniperus communis montana

juniper, Rocky Mountain Juniperus scopulorum

juniper, Utah Juniperus osteosperma

juniper, western Juniperus occidentalis

knapweed, Russian* Centaurea repens

knapweed, spotted* Centaurea biebersteinii

knotweed Polygonum

knotweed, Douglas Polygonum douglasii

kochia, Belvedere Kochia scoparia

kochia, forage* Kochia prostrata

larkspur, low Delphinium nuttallianum

larkspur, tall Delphinium occidentale

lettuce, prickly* Lactuca serriola

ligusticum, narrowleaf Ligusticum tenuifolium

ligusticum, Porter Ligusticum porteri

Common name Scientific name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 873

Appendices

lilac, common* Syringa vulgaris

lilac, late* Syringa villosa

locoweed Astragalus

locust, black* Robinia pseudoacacia

lomatium, carrotleaf Lomatium dissectum

lomatium, nineleaf (narrowleaf) Lomatium triternatum

lomatium, Nuttall Lomatium nuttallii (kingii)

lomatium, stinking Lomatium graveolens

lupine Lupinus

lupine, mountain Lupinus alpestris

lupine, Nevada Lupinus nevadensis

lupine, silky Lupinus sericeus

lupine, silvery Lupinus argenteus

madia Madia

manzanita Arctostaphylos

manzanita, bearberry Arctostaphylos uvaursi

manzanita, greenleaf Arctostaphylos patula

maple Acer

maple, bigtooth Acer grandidentatum

maple, Rocky Mountain Acer glabrum

matchbrush Gutierrezia

matchbrush, small head Gutierrezia microcephala

matrimony vine* Lycium barbarum

meadowrue Thalictrum

meadowrue, Fendler Thalictrum fendleri

medick, black* Medicago lupulina

medusahead* Taeniatherum caput-medusae

mesquite Prosopis

mesquite, honey Prosopis glandulosa

milkweed, whorled Asclepias subverticillata

milkvetch Astragalus

milkvetch, Canadian Astragalus canadensis

milkvetch, cicer* Astragalus cicer

milkvetch, Snake River (milkvetch, basalt) Astragalus filipes

millet* Panicum

mistletoe, dwarf Arceuthobium

mockorange, Lewis Philadelphus lewisii

mockorange, littleleaf Philadelphus microphyllus

molly, gray (green) Kochia americana

mountain ash, American Sorbus americana

mountain ash, Greene’s Sorbus scopulina

mountain ash, Sitka* Sorbus sitchensis

mountain lover Pachistima myrsinites

mountain mahogany Cercocarpus

mountain mahogany, birchleaf Cerocarpus betuloides

Common name Scientific name
874 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

mountain mahogany, curlleaf Cerocarpus ledifolius

mountain mahogany, intermountain curlleaf Cerocarpus ledifolius intermontanus

mountain mahogany, littleleaf Cerocarpus intricatus

mountain mahogany, true Cerocarpus montanus

muhly, alkali Muhlenbergia asperifolia

muhly, mat Muhlenbergia richardsonis

muhly, spike Muhlenbergia wrightii

mule-ears Wyethia

mustard, African* Malcomia africana

mustard, blue Chorispora tenella

mustard, tansy Descurainia

mustard, tumble* Sisymbrium altissimum

muttongrass Poa fendleriana

muttongrass, longtongue (longtongue bluegrass) Poa longiligula

needle-and-thread Stipa comata

needlegrass Stipa

needlegrass, Columbia Stipa columbiana

needlegrass, green Stipa viridula

needlegrass, Letterman Stipa lettermanii

needlegrass, subalpine Stipa columbiana

needlegrass, Thurber Achnatherum thurberianum

needlegrass, Thurber Stipa thurberiana

ninebark, dwarf Physocarpus alternans

ninebark, mallow Physocarpus malvaceus

ninebark, mountain Physocarpus monogynus

ninebark, Pacific Physocarpus capitatus

oak Quercus

oak, Gambel Quercus gambelii

oak, wavyleaf Quercus undulata

oatgrass, tall* Arrhenatherum elatius

oatgrass, tall* Avena elatior

oceanspray Holodiscus

oceanspray, bush Holodiscus dumosus

oceanspray, creambush Holodiscus discolor

oceanspray, rock Holodiscus dumosus

olive, autumn* Elaeagnus umbellatum

oniongrass Melica bulbosa

orchardgrass* Dactylis glomerata

Oregon grape Mahonia

painted cup, sulphur Castilleja hispida

peachbrush, Anderson Prunus andersonii

peachbrush, desert Prunus fasciculata

pearly everlasting Anaphalis margaritacea

peashrub, pygmy* Caragana arborescens pygmaea

peashrub, Siberian* Caragana arborescens

Common name Scientific name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 875

Appendices

Common name Scientific name

peavine, flat Lathyrus sylvestris

peavine, perennial* Lathyrus latifolium

peavine, thickleaf Lathyrus lanszwertii

peavine, Utah Lathyrus zionis

penstemon Penstemon

penstemon, bush Penstemon fruticosus

penstemon, Eaton (firecracker) Penstemon eatonii

penstemon, littlecup Penstemon sepalulus

penstemon, low Penstemon humilis

penstemon, Palmer Penstemon palmeri

penstemon, Rocky Mountain Penstemon strictus

penstemon, Rydberg Penstemon rydbergii

penstemon, showy Penstemon spectabilis

penstemon, sidehill Penstemon platyphyllus

penstemon, thickleaf Penstemon pachyphyllus

penstemon, toadflax Penstemon linarioides

penstemon, Wasatch Penstemon cyananthus

pepperweed Lepidium

pine, bristlecone Pinus aristata

pine, bristlecone Pinus longaeva

pine, Jeffrey Pinus jeffreyi

pine, limber Pinus flexilis

pine, lodgepole Pinus contorta

pine, longleaf Pinus palustris

pine, ponderosa Pinus ponderosa

pine, western white Pinus monticola

pine, whitebark Pinus albicaulis

pinegrass Calamagrostis rubescens

pinyon Pinus

pinyon Pinus edulis

pinyon, singleleaf Pinus monophylla

plum, American Prunus americana

poplar Populus

poplar, balsam Populus balsamifera

povertyweed Iva axillaris

purple sage Salvia dorrii

quackgrass* Agropyron repens

quailbush Atriplex polycarpa

rabbitbrush Chrysothamnus

rabbitbrush, alkali Chrysothamnus albidus

rabbitbrush, Arizona Chrysothamnus molestus

rabbitbrush, dwarf Chrysothamnus depressus

rabbitbrush, Greene’s Chrysothamnus greenei

rabbitbrush, low (yellow) Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus

rabbitbrush, hairy low Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus puberulus
876 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

rabbitbrush, mountain low Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus lanceolatus

rabbitbrush, narrowleaf low Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus stenophyllus

rabbitbrush, stickyleaf low (Douglas) Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus viscidiflorus

rabbitbrush, Mojave Chrysothamnus paniculatus

rabbitbrush, Nevada Chrysothamnus parryi nevadensis

rabbitbrush, Parry Chrysothamnus parryi

rabbitbrush, Pintwater Chrysothamnus eremobius

rabbitbrush, rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus

rabbitbrush, basin whitestem rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus hololeucus

rabbitbrush, green rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus nauseosus

rabbitbrush, leiospermus rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus leiospermus

rabbitbrush, Mohave rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus mohavensis

rabbitbrush, mountain rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus salicifolius

rabbitbrush, mountain whitestem rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus albicaulis

rabbitbrush, threadleaf rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus consimilis

rabbitbrush, turbinate rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus turbinatus

rabbitbrush, Utah green rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus utahensis

rabbitbrush, whitestem rubber Chrysothamnus nauseosus hololeucus

rabbitbrush, southwestern Chrysothamnus pulchellus

rabbitbrush, spreading Chrysothamnus linifolius

rabbitbrush, Truckee Chrysothamnus humilis

rabbitbrush, Vasey Chrysothamnus vaseyi

ragweed Ambrosia

raspberry, black (blackcap) Rubus leucodermis

redtop* Agrostis stolonifera

reedgrass Calamagrostis

reedgrass, bluejoint Calamagrostis canadensis

reedgrass, chee* Calamagrostis epigeios

reedgrass, plains Calamagrostis montanensis

ricegrass, Indian Achnatherum hymenoides

ricegrass, Indian Oryzopsis hymenoides

rockspirea Holodiscus dumosus

rockgoldenrod Petradoria

rose, baldhip Rosa gymnocarpa

rose, Nootka Rosa nutkana

rose, prickly Rosa acicularis

rose, Woods Rosa woodsii

rush Juncus

rush, Baltic Juncus arcticus balticus

rush, Drummond Juncus drummondii

rush, longstyle Juncus longistylis

rush, swordleaf Juncus ensifolius

rush, Torrey Juncus torreyi

Russianolive* Elaeagnus angustifolia

rye, annual Lolium multiflorum

Common name Scientific name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 877

Appendices

rye, meadow Lolium pratense

rye, mountain* Secale montanum

rye, winter* Secale cereale

ryegrass, Italian* Lolium multiflorum

ryegrass, perennial* Lolium perenne

sacaton, alkali Sporobolus airoides

sage, Louisiana (wormwood) Artemisia ludoviciana

sage, purple Salvia dorrii

sage, sand Artemisia filifolia

sage, tarragon Artemisia dracunculus

sagebrush Artemisia

sagebrush, alkali (early) Artemisia longiloba

sagebrush, big Artemisia tridentata

sagebrush, basin big Artemisia tridentata tridentata

sagebrush, foothills big (xeric big) Artemisia tridentata xericensis

sagebrush, mountain big Artemisia tridentata vaseyana

sagebrush, subalpine big (snowbank, Artemisia tridentata spiciformis

 timberline, or spicate big)

sagebrush, Wyoming big Artemisia tridentata wyomingensis

sagebrush, Bigelow (flat) Artemisia bigelovii

sagebrush, birdsfoot Artemisia pedatifida

sagebrush, black Artemisia nova

sagebrush, bud Artemisia spinescens

sagebrush, coaltown Artemisia argillosa

sagebrush, fringed Artemisia frigida

sagebrush, hotsprings (cleftleaf) Artemisia arbuscula thermopola

sagebrush, longleaf Artemisia longifolia

sagebrush, low Artemisia arbuscula

sagebrush, pygmy Artemisia pygmaea

sagebrush, rothrock Artemisia rothrockii

sagebrush, silver Artemisia cana

sagebrush, Bolander silver Artemisia cana bolanderi

sagebrush, mountain silver Artemisia cana viscidula

sagebrush, plains silver Artemisia cana cana

sagebrush, stiff (scabland) Artemisia rigida

sagebrush, threetip Artemisia tripartita

sagebrush, tall threetip Artemisia tripartita tripartita

sagebrush, Wyoming threetip Artemisia tripartita rupicola

sagewort, Louisiana Artemisia ludoviciana

sainfoin* Onobrychis viciaefolia

salsify, vegetable-oyster (goat’s beard)* Tragopogon dubius

saltbush Atriplex

saltbush, allscale Atriplex polycarpa

saltbush, Australian* Atriplex semibaccata

saltbush, big (quailbush) Atriplex lentiformis

Common name Scientific name
878 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

saltbush, Bonneville Atriplex bonnevillensis

saltbush, broadscale Atriplex obovata

saltbush, Castle Valley clover Atriplex cuneata

saltbush, cattle Atriplex polycarpa

saltbush, cuneate Atriplex cuneata

saltbush, desert holly Atriplex hymenelytra

saltbush, falcate Atriplex falcata

saltbush, fourwing Atriplex canescens

saltbush, Gardner Atriplex buxifolia

saltbush, Gardner Atriplex gardneri

saltbush, Garrett Atriplex garrettii

saltbush, mat Atriplex corrugata

saltbush, Navajo Atriplex navajoensis

saltbush, Nuttall’s Atriplex nuttallii

saltbush, quail Atriplex polycarpa

saltbush, robust* Atriplex robusta

saltbush, shadscale Atriplex confertifolia

saltbush, Torrey Atriplex torreyi

saltbush, trident Atriplex tridentata

saltbush, wingless Atriplex aptera

saltgrass Distichlis

saltgrass, inland Distichlis spicata

salt-tree, Siberian* Halimodendron halodendron

scalebroom Lepidospartum latisquamatum

sedge Carex

sedge, analogue Carex simulata

sedge, beaked Carex rostrata

sedge, black alpine Carex nigricans

sedge, blackroot Carex elynoides

sedge, Douglas Carex douglasii

sedge, downy Carex scirpoidea

sedge, golden Carex aurea

sedge, Hepburn Carex nardina

sedge, hood Carex hoodii

sedge, Kellogg Carex lenticularis lipocarpa

sedge, Nebraska Carex nebrascensis

sedge, ovalhead Carex festivella

sedge, rock (curly) Carex rupestris

sedge, russet Carex saxatilis

sedge, slim Carex praegracilis

sedge, smallwing Carex microptera

sedge, softleaved Carex disperma

sedge, valley Carex vallicola

sedge, water Carex aquatilis

sedge, woolly Carex lanuginosa

Common name Scientific name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 879

Appendices

seepweed Suaeda

seepweed, desert Suaeda torreyana

serviceberry Amelanchier

serviceberry, dwarf Saskatoon Amelanchier pumila

serviceberry, Saskatoon Amelanchier alnifolia

serviceberry, Utah Amelanchier utahensis

shadscale Atriplex confertifolia

siltbush Zuckia arizonica

silverberry Elaeagnus commutata

skeletonweed, rush* Chondrilla juncea

skunk cabbage Veratrum californicum

snakeweed Gutierrezia (Xanthocephalum)

snakeweed, broom Gutierrezia sarothrae

snakeweed, goldenrod Gutierrezia petradoria

snakeweed, orchard Gutierrezia pomariensis

snakeweed, roundleaf Gutierrezia sphaerocephala

snakeweed, threadleaf Gutierrezia microcephala

snowberry Symphoricarpos

snowberry, common (white) Symphoricarpos albus

snowberry, desert (longflower) Symphoricarpos longiflorus

snowberry, mountain Symphoricarpos oreophilus

snowberry, western Symphoricarpos occidentalis

soapberry Shepherdia canadensis

Solomonplume, fat Smilacina

Solomon-seal, western Smilacina racemosa

spikerush, common Eleocharis palustris

spirea, rock Holodiscus dumosus

spiraea, bridal wreath (birchleaf) Spiraea betulifolia

spiraea, subalpine Spiraea densiflora

spruce Picea

spruce, blue Picea pungens

spruce, Engelmann Picea engelmannii

spurge, leafy* Euphorbia esula

squirreltail, big Elymus multisetus

squirreltail, big Sitanion jubatum

squirreltail, bottlebrush Elymus elymoides

squirreltail, bottlebrush Sitanion hystrix

starthistle, yellow Centaurea solstitialis

starwort Stellaria

strawberry, wild Fragaria

sumac Rhus

sumac, Rocky Mountain smooth Rhus glabra

sumac, skunkbush Rhus aromatica (trilobata)

summercypress, Belvedere* Kochia scoparia

sumpbush, desert Suaeda suffrutescens

Common name Scientific name
880 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

sunflower Helianthus annuus

sweetanise Osmorhiza occidentalis

sweetclover Melilotus

sweetclover, white* Melilotus alba

sweetclover, yellow* Melilotus officinalis

sweetroot, spreading Osmorhiza chilensis

sweetvetch, sulla Hedysarum coronarium

sweetvetch, Uinta (northern) Hedysarum boreale boreale

sweetvetch, Utah Hedysarum boreale gremiale

sweetvetch, Utah Hedysarum boreale utahense

syringa Philadelphus

tansymustard Descurainia

tansymustard Descurainia pinnata

tansymustard, flixweed* Descurainia sophia

tarweed Madia

tarweed, cluster Madia glomerata

thimbleberry Rubus parviflorus

thistle, Canada* Cirsium arvense

thistle, musk* Carduus nutans

thistle, Russian* Salsola iberica

threeawn Aristida

threeawn, Fendler Aristida purpurea longiseta

three-awn, purple Aristida purpurea

threeawn, red Aristida purpurea longiseta

timothy* Phleum pratense

timothy, alpine (mountain) Phleum alpinum

trefoil, birdsfoot* Lotus corniculatus

trisetum, spike Trisetum spicatum

triticale* Triticum aestivum x Secale cereale

valerian, edible Valeriana, edulis

vetch, American Vicia americana

vetch, bramble Vicia cracca

violet, goosefoot Viola purpurea

violet, Nuttall’s Viola nuttallii

virginsbower, western Clematis ligusticifolia

wheatgrass Agropyron

wheatgrass, bearded* Agropyron subsecundum

wheatgrass, beardless bluebunch Pseudoroegneria spicata inerme

wheatgrass, bluebunch Agropyron spicatum

wheatgrass, bluebunch Pseudoroegneria spicata

wheatgrass, bluestem Agropyron smithii

wheatgrass, crested* Agropyron spp.

wheatgrass, desert* Agropyron desertorum

wheatgrass, fairway crested* Agropyron cristatum

wheatgrass, intermediate* Agropyron intermedium

wheatgrass, intermediate* Thinopyrum intermedium

Common name Scientific name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 881

Appendices

Common name Scientific name

wheatgrass, Montana Agropyron albicans

wheatgrass, NewHy* Agropyron repens x A. spicatum

wheatgrass, pubescent* Agropyron trichophorum

wheatgrass, pubescent* Thinopyrum intermedium

wheatgrass, rushleaf* Agropyron junceum

wheatgrass, Scribner Agropyron scribneri

wheatgrass, Siberian* Agropyron fragile

wheatgrass, Siberian* Agropyron sibiricum

wheatgrass, slender Agropyron trachycaulum

wheatgrass, slender Elymus trachycaulus

wheatgrass, Snake River Agropyron spicatum

wheatgrass, Snake River Elymus wawawaiensis

wheatgrass, standard crested (desert)* Agropyron desertorum

wheatgrass, streambank Agropyron dasystachyum

wheatgrass, tall* Agropyron elongatum

wheatgrass, tall* Thinopyrum ponticum

wheatgrass, thickspike Agropyron dasystachyum

wheatgrass, thickspike Elymus macrourus

wheatgrass, thickspike Elymus lanceolatus lanceolatus

wheatgrass, western Agropyron smithii

wheatgrass, western Elytrigia smithii

wheatgrass, western Pascopyrum smithii

whitetop* Cardaria draba

whortleberry Vaccinium

wildrose Rosa

wildrye Elymus

wildrye, Altai* Elymus angustus

wildrye, Altai* Leymus angustus

wildrye, beardless (creeping) Elymus triticoides

wildrye, beardless (creeping) Leymus triticoides

wildrye, blue Elymus glaucus

wildrye, Canada Elymus canadensis

wildrye, Dahurian* Elymus dahuricus

wildrye, Great Basin Elymus cinereus

wildrye, Great Basin Leymus cinereus

wildrye, low creeping/alkali Elymus simplex

wildrye, mammoth* Elymus giganteus

wildrye, mammoth* Leymus racemosus

wildrye, purple Elymus aristatus

wildrye, Russian* Elymus junceus

wildrye, Russian* Psathyrostachys juncea

wildrye, Salina Elymus salinus

wildrye, yellow Elymus flavescens

willow Salix

willow, arroyo Salix lasiolepis

willow, barrenground Salix brachycarpa
882 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

willow, Bebb (beaked) Salix bebbiana

willow, Booth Salix boothii

willow, coyote (sandbar) Salix exigua

willow, Drummond (beautiful) Salix drummondiana

willow, Geyer Salix geyeriana

willow, grayleaf (glaucous) Salix glauca

willow, peachleaf Salix amygdaloides

willow, purpleosier* Salix purpurea

willow, Scouler (mountain) Salix scouleriana

willow, plainleaf (tealeaf) Salix planifolia

willow, whiplash (Pacific) Salix lasiandra

willow, Wolf Salix wolfii

willow, yellow (shining) Salix lutea

winterfat Ceratoides lanata

winterfat Eurotia lanata

winterfat Krascheninnikovia lanata

winterfat, big Ceratoides lanata ruinina

winterfat, foothills Ceratoides lanata subspinosa

winterfat, Pamirian* Ceratoides latens

witchgrass Panicum capillare

wolfberry Symphoricarpos occidentalis

wormwood, common* Artemisia absinthium

wormwood, dwarf* Artemisia abrotanum nana

wormwood, oldman* Artemisia abrotanum

yarrow, European* Achillea millefolium millefolium

yarrow, timberline Achillea millefolium alpicola

yarrow, western Achillea millefolium lanulosa

yellowbrush Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus

yucca Yucca

zuckia, Arizona Zuckia arizonica

B. Mammals

badger, American Taxidea taxus

bear, black Ursus americanus

bear, grizzly Ursus arctos horribilis

beaver, American Castor canadensis

bobcat Lynx rufus

burro, domestic or feral* Equus asinus

caribou, barren ground Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus

caribou, woodland Rangifer tarandus caribou

chipmunk Tamias

cattle, domestic* Bos taurus

cottontail Sylvilagus

cottontail, mountain Sylvilagus nuttalli

coyote Canis latrans

Common name Scientific name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 883

Appendices

deer, black-tailed Odocoileus hemionus columbianus

deer, mule Odocoileus hemionus hemionus

deer, white-tailed Odocoileus virginianus

deer mouse Peromyscus

elk Cervus elaphus

fox Vulpes and Urocyon .

goat, domestic* Capra hircus

grasshopper mouse Onychomys

ground squirrel, Townsend’s Spermophilus townsendii

hare, snowshoe Lepus americanus

hog, domestic or feral* Sus domesticus

horse, domestic or feral* Equus caballus

jack rabbit Lepus

jack rabbit, black-tailed Lepus californicus

javelina Pecari tajacu

kangaroo mouse Microdipodops

kangaroo rat Dipodomys

marmot Marmota

moose Alces alces

moose, Shiras Alces alces shiras

mountain goat Oreamnos americanus

pocket gopher Thomomys, Geomys, Papogeomys

pocket mouse Perognathus

porcupine Erethizon dorsatum

prairie dog Cynomys

pronghorn (antelope) Antilocarpa americana

sheep, domestic* Ovis aries

sheep, bighorn Ovis canadensis

sheep, desert bighorn Ovis canadensis nelsoni

sheep, Rocky Mountain bighorn Ovis canadensis canadensis

skunk Spilogale and Mephitis

vole Microtus

weasel Mustela

woodrat Neotoma

C. Birds

chickadee, mountain Parus gambeli

prairie-chicken Tympanuchus

chukar* Alectoris chukar

dove, mourning Zenaida macroura

goose, Canada Branta canadensis

grouse, blue Dendragapus obscurus

grouse, sharp-tailed Pedioecetes phasianellus

grouse, ruffed Bonasa umbellus

grouse, spruce Dendragapus canadensis

Common name Scientific name
884 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Appendices

hummingbird, broad-tailed Selasphorus platycercus

kinglet, ruby-crowned Regulus calendula

partridge, gray* Perdix perdix

pheasant, ring-necked* Phasianus colchicus

pigeon, band-tailed Columba fasciata

bobwhite Colinus viginianus

quail, California Callipepla californicus

quail, Gambel’s Callipepla gambelii

quail, Mearn’s Cyrtonyx montezumae

quail, Montezuma Cyrtonyx montezumae

redpoll Carduelis

sage-grouse Centrocercus urophasianus

sapsucker, red-naped Sphyrapicus nuchalis

sapsucker, Williamson’s Sphyrapicus thyroideus

sapsucker, yellow-bellied Sphyrapicus varius

siskin, pine Carduelis pinus

thrush, Swainson’s Catharus ustulatus

turkey, Merriam’s Meleagris gallapavo merriami

turkey, wild Meleagris gallapavo

woodpecker, pileated Dryocopus pileatus

D. Insects

ant Formicidae

bee Apoidea

beetle Coleoptera

caterpillar, tent Malacosoma

cricket Gryllidae

cutworm Noctuidae

fly Diptera

grasshopper Caelifera and Ensifera

hornet Vespinae

lygus bug (leaf bug) Lygus

moth, case-bearing Coleophoridae

moth, sagebrush defoliator Aroga websteri

tephritid fly (fruit fly) Tephritidae

wasp Hymenoptera

wireworm Elateridae

E. Bacteria and Fungi

ergot (fungus of wildrye) Claviceps purpurea

endophytic fungus of tall fescue Acremonium coenophialum

frankia (nitrogen-fixing bacteria) Frankia

rust (several fungi of serviceberry) Gymnosporangium

*Species introduced to North America

Common name Scientific name
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 Index-1

Index

A

Acer glabrum See maple, Rocky Mountain

Achillea millefolium lanulosa See yarrow, western

Achnatherum hymenoides See ricegrass, Indian

Achnatherum thurberianum See needlegrass, Thurber

acid equivalent 97

aerial broadcasting 77, 205

aerial ignitors 85

aerial seeding 77–79, 205

fixed-wing aircraft 78

helicopter 78–79

aesthetics 133

Agropyron cristatum See wheatgrass, crested; wheatgrass, crested fairway

Agropyron cristatum x A. desertorum See wheatgrass,

crested hybrid

Agropyron dasystachyum See wheatgrass, thickspike

Agropyron desertorum See wheatgrass, crested

standard

Agropyron elongatum See wheatgrass, tall

Agropyron fragile See wheatgrass, crested Siberian

Agropyron inerme See wheatgrass, bluebunch;

wheatgrass, bluebunch bear

Agropyron intermedium See wheatgrass, intermediate

Agropyron repens x A. spicatum See wheatgrass,

hybrid: NewHy

Agropyron sibiricum See wheatgrass, crested Siberian

Agropyron smithii See wheatgrass, western

Agropyron spicatum See wheatgrass, bluebunch

Agropyron spicatum x A. dasystachyum See wheatgrass, hybrid: SL1

Agropyron trachycaulum See wheatgrass, slender

Agropyron trichophorum See wheatgrass, intermediate

Agrostis alba See bentgrass, redtop

Agrostis palustris See bentgrass, redtop

Agrostis stolonifera See bentgrass, redtop

air-screen separator 715

Aira cespitosa See hairgrass, tufted

alder, thinleaf 266–267, 270, 272, 601, 616–618, 748

alfalfa 132, 135, 136, 138, 142, 182, 183, 196, 206,

216, 220, 237, 242, 259, 264, 269, 271, 273, 275,

277, 280, 282, 284, 287, 289, 425, 448, 449–450,

702, 727, 741

Drylander 451

Ladak 450–451, 724, 728

Nomad 450, 724

Rambler 450

Rhizoma 451

Runner 451

Spreader 451

Spreader II 451

Teton 451

Travois 451

alfalfa, range type 427

alfalfa, sicklepod 447–448

alfileria 291, 427

Allenrolfea occidentalis See iodine bush

Alnus incana See alder, thinleaf

Alopecurus arundinaceus See foxtail, creeping

Alopecurus pratensis See foxtail, meadow

Alopecurus ventricosus See foxtail, creeping

Amelanchier alnifolia See serviceberry, Saskatoon

Amelanchier utahensis See serviceberry, Utah

ammonium 54

anchor chain 68–69

disk-chain 69

Dixie sager 69–70

Ely 66, 68, 70

smooth 66

swivels 231–232

Andropogon curtipendula See grama, sideoats

angelica, small leaf 269, 427

animal control See depredation

animal depredation See depredation

annuals, spring-growing 257

annuals, summer-growing 258

Apache plume 253, 273, 276, 293, 559, 561–563, 601,

704, 724, 748

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi See manzanita, bearberry

Aristida purpurea See threeawn, red

Aroga websteri See moth, sagebrush defoliator

Arrhenatherum elatius See oatgrass, tall

Artemisia abrotanum See wormwood, oldman

Artemisia arbuscula See sagebrush, low

Artemisia bigelovii See sagebrush Bigelow

Artemisia cana See sagebrush, silver

Artemisia filifolia See sandsage

Artemisia frigida See sage, fringed

Artemisia longiloba See sagebrush, alkali

Artemisia ludoviciana See sage, Louisiana

Artemisia nova See sagebrush, black

Artemisia pygmaea See sagebrush, pygmy

Artemisia rigida See sagebrush, stiff

Artemisia spinescens See budsage

Artemisia tridentata See sagebrush, big

Artemisia tripartita See sagebrush, threetip

artificial seeding 516, 539

ash, singleleaf 276, 278, 601, 650–652, 704, 748

aspen 119, 195, 214, 266–267, 748

aspen communities 118, 215, 308–309

aspen low forb 118

aspen shrub 118

aspen tall forb 118

aspen-conifer 195, 213, 269
Index-2 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

mixed forb 118

mixed shrub 118

aspen-conifer communities 9, 216, 601

aspen openings 204–205

aspen openings, upper elevation 201, 259

aster 196, 202, 223, 237, 246–248, 252, 255–256,

259, 261–262, 264, 269, 271–272, 275, 277–278,

280, 282, 289, 294, 741

aster, alpine leafybract 259, 261

aster, blueleaf 135, 261, 269, 271, 277, 289, 426–427,

433, 702, 724

Aster chilensis See aster, Pacific

aster, Engelmann 269, 289, 427, 702, 724

Aster glaucodes See aster, blueleaf

aster, Pacific 259, 261–262, 264, 269, 271, 275, 277,

280, 282, 294, 426–427, 431–432, 702, 724, 763

aster, smooth 259

Astragalus cicer See milkvetch, cicer

astragalus, giant 731

Atriplex buxifolia 481–482 See also saltbush, Gardner

Atriplex canescens See saltbush, fourwing

Atriplex confertifolia See shadscale

Atriplex corrugata See saltbush, mat

Atriplex cuneata See saltbush, Castle Valley clover

Atriplex falcata 481–482 See also saltbush, Gardner

Atriplex gardneri See saltbush, Gardner

Atriplex hymenelytra See saltbush; saltbush, desert

holly

Atriplex lentiformis See saltbush; saltbush, quailbush

Atriplex obovata See saltbush; saltbush, broadscale

Atriplex polycarpa See saltbush; saltbush, allscale

Atriplex tridentata 481–482 See also saltbush,

Gardner

auger 765

Avena elatior See oatgrass, tall

B

Balsamorhiza hookeri See balsamroot, hairy

Balsamorhiza macrophylla See balsamroot, cutleaf

Balsamorhiza sagittata See balsamroot, arrowleaf

balsamroot, arrowleaf 132, 135, 138–139, 142, 

182–183, 185, 196, 271, 275, 277, 282, 287, 

426–427, 435–436, 702, 724, 727–728, 741

balsamroot, cutleaf 271, 277, 287, 426–427, 436, 702,

724, 727, 741

balsamroot, hairy 271, 277, 426–427, 436

barberry, creeping 601, 704, 748 See also Oregon

grape

barberry, Fremont 614, 704

barberry, shining 613

bareroot stock 739–742, 747, 754–755, 763–767

barley, beardless 311

barley, bulbous 308, 311, 700

barley, common 311

barley, foxtail 269, 311

barley, meadow 259, 261, 264, 265, 269, 289, 308,

311

bassia, fivehook 264

bentgrass, carpet 310 See also bentgrass, redtop

bentgrass, creeping 310 See also bentgrass, redtop

bentgrass, redtop 208, 259, 261, 264, 265, 269, 308,

310, 345–346, 700

Streaker 298, 346

Betula glandulosa See birch, bog

Betula occidentalis See birch, water

Betula papyrifera See birch, paper

big game depredation See depredation

big sagebrush-cheatgrass 106

bighorn sheep 165–166

biological insect control 721

birch, bog 601, 618–620

birch, paper 601, 622, 748

birch, water 262, 266, 267, 601, 620–621

bitterbrush, antelope 103, 132, 135, 138, 142, 143,

181, 182, 183, 185, 196, 270, 272, 273, 276, 278,

280, 283, 288, 557, 559, 581–586, 587, 601, 704,

724, 727, 730, 741, 748

Lassen 586

bitterbrush, desert 273, 276, 293, 559, 579–581, 582,

601, 704, 724, 727, 748

blackbrush 195, 199, 232, 246, 247, 252, 253, 254,

257, 258, 293, 294, 552–555, 601, 704, 748

blackbrush communities 9, 252–253, 293, 308, 601

blackcap 751 See raspberry, black

blackthorn 577

bladersenna, common 741

bluebell 741

bluebell, tall 259, 269, 427, 452, 453

bluegrass 102

bluegrass, alpine

Gruening 298

bluegrass, big 228, 259, 269, 271, 275, 277, 282, 289,

308, 401–402, 700

Sherman 298, 402

bluegrass, bulbous 311

bluegrass, Canada 259, 269, 271, 275, 277, 282, 289,

308, 311, 402–404, 700

Foothills 298, 404

Reubens 298, 404

bluegrass, Cusick’s 311

bluegrass, Kentucky 196, 269, 308, 311, 406–408, 724

Newport 138, 298, 408

bluegrass, longtongue 311

bluegrass, mutton 308, 311, 404–406

bluegrass, nodding 311

bluegrass, pine 311

bluegrass, Sandberg 135, 182–183, 185, 264–265,

273, 275, 277, 279, 280, 282, 284–287, 291–292,

294, 308, 311, 408–410, 700

Canbar 298, 410
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 Index-3

High Plains germplasm 298, 410

Service 298, 410

boron 51, 52, 54

bouncing-bet 427

Bouteloua curtipendula See grama, sideoats

Bouteloua eriopoda See grama, black

Bouteloua gracilis See grama, blue

boxelder 602

Brillion Seeder 80

broadcast ground application 93

broadcast seeder 72, 76–77

broadcast seeding 76, 141

broadcast spray application 92

brome, California 310 See also brome, mountain

Cucamonga 298

brome, cheatgrass See cheatgrass

brome, downy See cheatgrass

brome, erect 310

brome, foxtail 310

brome, fringed 358–360

brome, Hungarian See brome, smooth

brome, meadow 259, 264–265, 269, 289, 310, 

365–367, 700

Fleet 367

Paddock 367

Regar 196, 269, 271, 275, 277, 282, 287, 298, 310,

367, 724, 728

brome, mountain 135, 138, 196, 259, 261, 264, 265,

269, 271, 289, 308, 310, 360–362, 700, 724

Bromar 298, 362

Garnet 362

brome, nodding 308, 310, 358–360

brome, red 254, 255, 310

brome, red communities 9, 253–256, 294

brome, smooth 132, 135, 138, 142, 182–183, 185,

196, 205, 259, 261, 264–265, 269, 271, 275, 277,

282, 287, 289, 310, 363–366, 700, 727, 728, 731

Achenbach 299

Lincoln 299, 365

Manchar 299, 365

northern 259, 308

Polar 299

southern 308, 724

varieties 365

brome, subalpine 259, 269, 289, 308, 700

Bromus anomalus See brome, nodding

Bromus biebersteinii See brome, meadow

Bromus carinatus See brome, California; brome,

mountain

Bromus ciliatus See brome, fringed

Bromus erectus See brome, meadow

Bromus inermis See brome, smooth

Bromus marginatus See brome, mountain

Bromus riparius See brome, meadow

Bromus tomentellus See brome, subalpine

brushland plow 66

buckthorn, cascara 266–267, 601, 704

buckwheat 652–653 See also eriogonum

buckwheat, wild California flattop 704

budsage 245–246, 291, 495, 511–513 See also

sagebrush, budsage

budsage communities 245

buffaloberry, roundleaf 273, 293, 601, 643–644, 704,

748

buffaloberry, russet 601, 642–643, 704, 748

buffaloberry, silver 262, 266–267, 601, 641–642, 704,

731, 748

bulrush, saltmarsh 263

bulrush, tule 263

Bureau of Plant Industry 2, 3

burnet, small 132, 135, 138, 142, 182–183, 185, 196,

271, 273, 275, 277, 279, 280, 282, 284, 286, 287,

294, 425, 427, 457–459, 702, 724, 728, 741, 763

Delar 459

burning, prescribed 101, 106, 160, 168

aspen communities 118–119

cheatgrass 116

effects 105

pinyon-juniper 116–117

postfire management 119

sagebrush 115–116

uses 101

C

cables 67, 68, 69 See also anchor chain

Calamagrostis canadensis See reedgrass, bluejoint

calcium 51, 54, 178–179

calcium nitrate 54

camphorfume, Mediterranean 469, 491

Camphorosoma monspeliaca See camphorfume,

Mediterranean

canarygrass, reed 135, 182–184, 196, 261, 308, 311,

396–398

Ioreed 299, 397

cattle 176, 178–179

Ceanothus 656

Ceanothus cuneatus See ceanothus, wedgeleaf

ceanothus, deerbrush 601, 658–659, 704, 748

ceanothus, desert 657–658

ceanothus, Fendler 273, 276, 601

Ceanothus fendleri See ceanothus Fendler

Ceanothus greggii See ceanothus, desert

Ceanothus integerrimus See ceanothus, deerbrush

ceanothus, Lemmon 659

Ceanothus lemmonii See ceanothus, Lemmon

ceanothus, Martin 143, 196, 222, 272, 278, 283, 290,

601, 661–662, 704, 724, 727, 748

Ceanothus martinii See ceanothus, Martin

ceanothus, prostrate 601, 659–661, 705, 748

Ceanothus prostratus See ceanothus, prostrate
Index-4 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

ceanothus, redstem 142–143, 222, 266–267, 272,

601, 662–665, 668, 704, 748

Ceanothus sanguineus See ceanothus, redstem

ceanothus, snowbrush 196, 272, 283, 288, 290, 601,

665–668, 705, 748

Ceanothus velutinus See ceanothus, snowbrush

ceanothus, wedgeleaf 601, 656–657, 705, 749

Celtis reticulata See hackberry, netleaf

Ceratoides lanata See winterfat

Ceratoides lanata subspinosa See winterfat, foothills

Ceratoides latens See winterfat, Pamirian

Cercocarpus betuloides See mountain mahogany,

birchleaf

Cercocarpus intricatus See mountain mahogany,

littleleaf

Cercocarpus ledifolius See mountain mahogany,

curlleaf

Cercocarpus montanus See mountain mahogany, true

certification, seed 734

certified seed See seed, certified

chain See anchor chain

chaining 70, 228–229, 231, 233

cheatgrass 102, 107, 254–255, 310

cheatgrass communities 9, 253–256, 294, 601

checker-mallow, Oregon 264

chemical plant control 62

chenopod 467

cherry, Bessey 573–574, 601, 705, 749

cherry, bitter 217, 222, 272, 574–575, 601, 705, 749

cherry, Nanking 577

cherry, western sand See cherry, Bessey

chokecherry 135, 142–143, 196, 266–267, 270, 272,

278, 283, 288, 290, 577–579, 601, 705, 724, 730,

749

Chrysothamnus See rabbitbrush

Chrysothamnus albidus See rabbitbrush, alkali

Chrysothamnus depressus See rabbitbrush, dwarf

Chrysothamnus greenei See rabbitbrush, Greene’s

Chrysothamnus linifolius See rabbitbrush, spreading

Chrysothamnus nauseosus See rabbitbrush, rubber

Chrysothamnus parryi See rabbitbrush, Parry

Chrysothamnus vaseyi See rabbitbrush, Vasey

Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus See rabbitbrush, low

chukar partridge 170

cinquefoil 749

cinquefoil, bush 601, 705 See also cinquefoil, shrubby

cinquefoil, gland 259, 261, 264, 427

cinquefoil, shrubby 260, 262, 266, 267, 270, 290, 

569–571

Clematis ligusticifolia See virginsbower, western

cliffrose, Stansbury 132, 135, 138, 142–143, 185, 196,

272–273, 276, 278, 280, 283, 556–559, 562, 579,

601, 705, 725, 727, 730, 741, 749

climate 29, 34–35, 124

clover 463

clover, alsike 261, 264, 427, 464, 702

Aurora 464

Dawn 464

clover, Castle Valley See saltbush, Castle Valley clover

clover, red 464

Dollard 464

Kenland 464

Lakeland 464

Pennscott 464

clover, strawberry 261–262, 264, 427, 463–464, 702,

724

clover, white 464

coarse fragment content 41, 43

cold tolerance 128

Coleogyne ramosissima See blackbrush

columbine, Colorado 259, 269, 427

communities, plant 199 See also site preparation and

seeding prescriptions; vegetation types

companion species 62

compatibility

perennial grasses 122

seeding and species 122, 133

competition, plant See plant competition

competitiveness of species 259, 261–262, 269, 271,

273, 279–280, 282, 284–287, 289, 291–293

composite shrubs 493

container stock 739–742, 747, 754, 757, 764

copper 51–52, 54

Cornus sericeus See dogwood, redosier

Cornus stolonifera See dogwood, redosier

Coronilla varia See crownvetch

Cotoneaster acutifolia See cotoneaster, Peking

cotoneaster, Peking 272, 278, 555–556, 705

cottonwood, Fremont 266–267

cottonwood, narrowleaf 266–267, 749

cover See wildlife habitat, cover

Cowania mexicana See cliffrose, Stansbury

Cowania stansburiana See cliffrose, Stansbury

cowparsnip 216, 259, 264, 269, 426–427, 441–442,

702, 724, 727

Crataegus douglasii See hawthorn, Douglas

crown divisions 762

crownvetch 135, 196, 259, 264, 269, 271, 277, 282,

289, 426–427, 437–438, 702, 724, 731, 741

Chemung 438

Emerald 438

Penngift 438

crude fat 177, 180

crude fiber 177, 180

crude protein 177, 180

cultivars 129, 138, 298, 734

Cupressus arizonica See cypress, Arizona

curly grass See galleta

currant, golden 135, 143, 196, 266–267, 601, 

690–691, 705, 725, 727, 741, 749
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 Index-5

currant, sticky 260, 602, 693–694, 705, 749

currant, wax 260, 602, 691–693, 705, 749

cut stump treatment 92

cuttings, hardwood 761–762

cuttings, stem 739, 741

cypress, Arizona 276, 278, 602, 632–633, 705, 749

D

Dactylis glomerata See orchardgrass

daisy, oxeye 427

debearder 713

deer 159, 161, 176, 515

deervetch, birdfoot 427

depredation 144–145, 163, 768

Deschampsia caespitosa See hairgrass, tufted

desert almond 572–573

desert blite 491 See also sumpweed, desert

dibbles 764–765

digestibility 181

disease, plant 601

disks 66–69

Distichlis spicata See saltgrass, inland

dixie sager 67, 69, 70

dogwood, creek See dogwood, redosier

dogwood, redosier 262, 266–267, 602, 630–632, 705,

749

dozers and blades 84

drags 71

drill seeding 205

drills 73

horizon 75

no-till 75

rangeland 73–75, 228

Truax 75

Tye 75

dropseed, sand 135, 142, 182–183, 185, 196, 262,

273, 279–280, 284, 291, 293, 308, 311, 414–416,

700

drought tolerance 127–128

Dybvig separator 714

E

ecotypes 126, 200

edges, vegetative 111

elaeagnus, autumn 602, 705

Elaeagnus commutata See silverberry

elderberry, blue 135, 143, 196, 270, 272, 276, 278,

283, 288, 290, 602, 624–625, 705, 741, 748

elderberry, red 260, 266–267, 270, 290, 602, 625–627,

705

elk 111, 158–164, 176

Elymus angustus See wildrye, Altai

Elymus canadensis See wildrye, Canada

Elymus cinereus See wildrye, Great Basin

Elymus dahuricus See wildrye, Dahurian

Elymus elymoides See squirreltail, bottlebrush

Elymus giganteus See wildrye, mammoth

Elymus glaucus See wildrye, blue

Elymus junceus See wildrye, Russian

Elymus lanceolatus lanceolatus See wheatgrass,

thickspike

Elymus lanceolatus wawawai See wheatgrass,

bluebunch; wheatgrass, Snake River

Elymus salinus See wildrye, Salina

Elymus simplex See wildrye, alkali

Elymus trachycaulus See wheatgrass, slender

Elymus triticoides See wildrye, creeping

Elymus wawawaiensis See wheatgrass, Snake River;

wheatgrass, bluebunch

Elytrigia repens x Pseudoroegneria spicata See

wheatgrass, hybrid: NewHy

energy 176–177

ephedra, green 132, 135, 142–143, 196, 272–273,

276, 278–280, 283–285, 602, 645–646, 705, 725,

727, 730, 741, 749

ephedra, Nevada 273, 276, 278–279, 281, 284–285,

293, 602, 644–646, 705, 725, 727, 749

Ephedra nevadensis See ephedra, Nevada

ephedra, Torrey 705, 749

Ephedra viridis See ephedra, green

eriogonum, cushion 269, 271, 277, 427, 705

Eriogonum heracleoides See eriogonum, Wyeth

eriogonum, sulfur 272, 283, 602, 652, 653–654, 749

Sierra sulfur buckwheat 654

Eriogonum umbellatum See eriogonum, sulfur

eriogonum, Wright 652, 654

Eriogonum wrightii See eriogonum, Wright

eriogonum, Wyeth 143, 196, 276, 278, 283, 602, 652,

652–653, 706, 727, 749

establishment 131

esthetics 60

F

Fallugia paradoxa See Apache plume

fences 172

fertilizers 53, 54, 55

application 55–56

elemental composition 54

fescue, Alpine See fescue, sheep

fescue, Arizona 311

Redondo 299

fescue, bluebunch See fescue, Idaho

fescue, desert 700

fescue, hard See fescue, hard sheep

fescue, hard sheep 132, 135, 138, 142, 196, 269, 271,

273, 275, 277, 280, 282, 284, 286–287, 289, 294,

308, 311, 389, 700, 724, 728

Durar 299, 390

fescue, Idaho 102, 139, 182–184, 280, 282, 284, 

286–287, 294, 308, 311, 386–388, 700
Index-6 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Joseph 299, 388

Nezpurs 299, 388

fescue, meadow 308, 311, 731

fescue, red 132, 269

fescue, reed 308, 384 See also fescue, tall

fescue, sheep 271, 273, 280, 282, 287, 289, 308, 311,

388, 700

Covar 299, 390

MX86 299

sulcate 259, 271, 275, 277, 280, 282, 389

fescue, spike 308, 311

fescue, tall 209, 259, 262, 264–265, 311, 384–386

Alta 269, 299, 311, 385

Fawn 299, 385

varieties 386

fescue, Thurber 269, 308, 311

Festuca arizonica See fescue, Arizona

Festuca arundinacea See fescue, tall

Festuca idahoensis See fescue, Idaho

Festuca ovina See fescue, sheep

Festuca ovina duriuscula See fescue, hard sheep

filaree See alfileria

fire effects 102–104, 107, 113–114

big sagebrush-cheatgrass 106

bitterbrush, antelope 103

bluegrass 102

cheatgrass 102

fescue, Idaho 102

habitat management 113

horsebrush 103

intensity 113

junegrass, prairie 102

mountain mahogany, curlleaf 103

needlegrass 102

oak, Gambel 103

plant succession 114

rabbitbrush 103

reedgrass, plains 102

ricegrass, Indian 102

riparian 112

sagebrush 103

severity 113

snowberry 103

squirreltail, bottlebrush 102

wheatgrass 102

fire ignitor 85

aerial ignitors 85

flame thrower 85

helitorch 85

ping-pong ball injector 85

teratorch 85

fire intensity 113

fire severity 113

firebreak 114, 115

fireline 115, 117

fireplow 84

fireweed 264, 427

fixed-wing aircraft 78

flame thrower 85

flax, Lewis 132, 135, 138, 142, 196, 264, 271, 273,

275, 277, 279–280, 282, 284, 286–287, 294, 

425–427, 443–444, 702, 727–728, 741

Appar 444, 724

fleabane, Bear River 259

fleabane, Oregon 259

fluted shaft seeder 81

foliage application 92–93

forage production 60

forbs 132, 135, 138, 142, 182–183, 185, 259, 702,

724, 727, 731, 741, 763

forestiera, New Mexico 602, 706

fox 178

foxtail, creeping 259, 289, 308, 310, 346–349, 700

Garrison 300, 349

foxtail, meadow 206, 259, 261–262, 264–265, 269,

289, 308, 310, 346–349, 700, 724

Dan 300, 349

foxtail, reed See foxtail, creeping

Fraxinus anomala See ash, singleleaf

G

galleta 183–184, 250, 279, 293, 308, 311, 390–392

Viva 300, 391

geranium 132, 741

geranium, Richardson 426–427, 438, 702, 724

Geranium richardsonii See geranium, Richardson

geranium, sticky 259, 261, 269, 289, 426, 427, 439,

702

Geranium viscosissimum See geranium, sticky

germination 601

giant hyssop, nettleleaf 427

globemallow 132, 135, 196

globemallow, gooseberryleaf 142, 182, 273, 275, 279,

280, 284–285, 287, 292–293, 427, 461–462, 702,

727, 741

globemallow, scarlet 273, 279, 284–286, 291, 293,

427, 462, 702, 741

ARS 2936 462

globemallow, stream 427

goat's beard See salsify, vegetable-oyster

goldeneye, Nevada 271, 273, 275, 280, 284, 427, 466,

703

goldeneye, showy 132, 135, 142, 196, 259, 269, 271,

275, 277, 282, 287, 289, 427, 465, 466, 703, 724,

727, 731, 741

goldenrod, Canada 269, 271, 289, 427, 460–461, 703,

763

goldenrod, low 259, 269, 427

goldenrod, Parry 277, 427

goldenweed 534, 706

gouger 84
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 Index-7

grama, black 308, 355–356

Nogal 300, 356

Sonora 356

grama, blue 308, 310, 356–358

Hachita 300, 358

Lovington 300, 358

grama, sideoats 308, 310, 353–355

Butte 300

El Reno 300

Haskell 300

Killdeer 300, 354

Niner 300, 354

Pierre 300, 355

Premier 300

Trailway 300

Vaughn 300, 355

gravity separators 715

Grayia brandegei See hopsage, spineless

Grayia spinosa See hopsage, spiny

grazing 2, 3, 128–129, 601

plant control 59

grazing management 194–198

greasewood 470

greasewood, Bailey 469, 490, 706

greasewood, black 135, 195, 247, 262, 266, 267, 292,

469, 472, 490, 491, 602, 706, 725, 741, 750

greasewood, black communities 9, 249–250, 292,

308–309, 601

Great Basin Experimental Range 16

Great Basin Station 3, 4, 16–17

greenhouse bioassay 53

grid ball 92

grinder-macerator 715

ground broadcast seeding 76, 205

groundsel, butterweed 259, 264, 270–271, 289, 427,

459–460, 702

grouse 178–179

blue 170

Columbian sharp-tail 168–169

ruffed 169–171

sage See sage-grouse

growth rate 128

Gutierrezia See matchbrush; snakeweed

Gutierrezia microcephala See matchbrush, small

headed

Gutierrezia sarothrae See snakeweed, broom

H

habitat improvement projects 156

hackberry, netleaf 602, 696–698

hairgrass, tufted 259, 261, 264–265, 289, 308, 310,

369–371

Norcoast 301, 371

Nortran 301, 371

Peru Creek 301, 371

hammermill 713

Hansen seed dribbler 79

Haplopappus See goldenweed

Haplopappus bloomeri See rabbitbrush, goldenweed

harvester

sprigger 763

harvesting, seed 712

hawthorn, Columbia 561

hawthorn, Douglas 266–267, 560–561, 602, 706, 750

hawthorn, river See hawthorn, Douglas

heat damage 103

Hedysarum boreale See sweetvetch, Utah

helianthella, oneflower 182–183, 185, 259, 270, 277,

426–427, 441, 703, 724

Helianthella uniflora See helianthella, oneflower

helicopter 78–79

helitorch 85

Heracleum lanatum See cowparsnip

herbicide effects 90–91, 96

herbicide sprayer 85–87

herbicide types 94, 97

acid equivalent 97

nonselective 94

selective 94

soil sterilant 94

toxicant 97

herbicides 89, 95, 167, 255

application 92, 98

broadcast ground application 93

broadcast spray application 92

cut stump treatment 92

foilage 92

foilage spray 93

grid ball 92

rate, calculation 97–98

safety considerations 99

soil application 92

soil injection 92

soil surface placement 92

stem 92

timing of application 98

trunk base spray 92

trunk injection 92

wipe on 92, 93

common name

clopyralid 95

dicamba 95

glyphosate 95

Oust 95

paraquat 95

picloram 95

tebuthiuron 95

triclopyr 95

type 95

uses 90
Index-8 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Hesperostipa comata See needle-and-thread

Hilaria jamesii See galleta

hoedad 764

Holodiscus discolor See oceanspray, creambush

Holodiscus dumosus See spiraea, rock

honeylocust 602, 706

honeysuckle 731

honeysuckle, bearberry 602, 623–624

honeysuckle, orange 602, 623

honeysuckle, Tatarian 262, 266–267, 272, 706, 750

honeysuckle, Utah 262, 272, 602, 623–624, 706, 750

honeysuckle, western trumpet See honeysuckle,

orange

hopsage, spineless 273, 291, 293, 469, 472, 487, 488,

602, 706, 727

hopsage, spiny 279, 281, 284, 291, 293, 469, 487,

488, 602, 706, 725, 750

Horizon drill 75

horsebrush 103, 534–536

horsebrush, cottonthorn 706

horsebrush, gray 495, 535, 706

horsebrush, littleleaf 495, 706

horsebrush, Nuttall 495, 706

horsebrush, spiny 495

horses 176, 178, 179

human activities 194, 198

hydroseeder 82

I

Indian apple 272, 276, 278, 283, 566–567, 604, 711,

727, 731, 741

inkbush See iodine bush

Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station 3,

16 See also Intermountain Research Station

Intermountain Research Station 4, 5, 17

interseeder 81

fluted shaft seeder 81

Truax single row seeder 81

interseeding 142, 742–744

iodine bush 469, 491

iris, German 427, 741

iron 51, 52, 54

J

jointfir See ephedra, green; ephedra, Nevada

junegrass, prairie 102, 271, 275, 277, 282, 287, 308,

311, 392–393, 700

juniper 108

juniper, creeping 602, 633–635

juniper, Rocky Mountain 602, 638–640, 706, 750

juniper, Utah 182–183, 185, 602, 635–638, 638, 707,

750

juniper woodlands 38

juniper-pinyon See pinyon-juniper

Juniperus horizontalis See juniper, creeping

Juniperus osteosperma See juniper, Utah

Juniperus scopulorum See juniper, Rocky Mountain

K

kinnikinnik See manzanita, bearberry

Kochia americana See molly, gray

kochia, Belvedere 703

kochia, forage 135, 138, 142, 196, 273, 276, 278, 279,

281, 283, 284, 285, 292, 293, 294, 469, 472, 489,

490, 603, 707, 730, 741

Immigrant 490, 725

Kochia prostrata See kochia, forage

Koch’s postulates 188

Koeleria cristata See junegrass, prairie

Koeleria macrantha See junegrass, prairie

Koeleria nitida See junegrass, prairie

L

land imprinter 67, 72

larkspur, tall 204

layering 762

crown divisions 762

runners and stolons 762

shoots 762

stem layers 762

suckers 762

layers 762

legumes 136, 137

Lepidospartum latisquamatum See scalebroom

Leymus angustus See wildrye, Altai

Leymus cinereus See wildrye, Great Basin

Leymus racemosus See wildrye, mammoth

Leymus salinus See wildrye, Salina

Leymus simplex See wildrye, alkali

Leymus triticoides See wildrye, creeping

ligusticum, Porter 259, 270, 426–427, 442–443, 703,

727

Ligusticum porteri See ligusticum, Porter

lilac, common 707, 750

Linum perenne lewisii See flax, Lewis

livestock grazing See grazing; grazing management

locust, black 603, 707, 750

Lomatium kingii See lomatium, Nuttall

lomatium, narrowleaf See lomatium, nineleaf

lomatium, nineleaf 426, 428, 444–445, 703, 724, 728

lomatium, Nuttall 259, 270–271, 277, 426, 428, 

445–446, 703, 727

Lomatium triternatum See lomatium, nineleaf

Lonicera ciliosa See honeysuckle, orange

Lonicera involucrata See honeysuckle, bearberry

Lonicera utahensis See honeysuckle, Utah

lupine 135, 196, 741

lupine, mountain 142, 259, 270, 282, 289, 703, 724,

727, 728

lupine, Nevada 271, 277, 280, 284, 428
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 Index-9

lupine, silky 260, 270–271, 277, 282, 287, 289, 426,

428, 446–447, 703, 724, 727–728

lupine, silvery 428, 448, 703

Lupinus argenteus See lupine, silvery

Lupinus sericeus See lupine, silky

M

MacLeod 764, 765

magnesium 51–52, 54

Mahonia aquifolium See barberry, shining

mahonia, creeping See Oregon grape

Mahonia fremontii See barberry, Fremont

Mahonia repens See Oregon grape

management 28, 32

considerations 26

climate 29

impacts on adjacent areas 31

resource values 31

soil condition 27–28, 30–31

strategy 28

vegetation condition 26–27

manganese 51–52, 54

manzanita, bearberry 601, 647–648, 707, 750

maple 195

maple, bigtooth 270, 603, 750

maple, Rocky Mountain 216, 272, 278, 600–608, 707,

750

matchbrush 493, 534

matchbrush, small head 495

McSweeney-McNary Forest Research Act of 1928 3

meadowrue, Fendler 260

mechanical plant control 62

brushland plow 66

disk plow 66

disk-chain 66

moldboard plow 66

off-set disk 66

personnel 78

Medicago falcata See alfalfa, sicklepod

Medicago sativa See alfalfa

medick, black 261–262, 264, 270, 428

medusahead 254–255

medusahead communities 253–256, 294

Melilotus officinalis See sweetclover, yellow

Mertensia arizonica See bluebell, tall

milkvetch, Canadian 703

milkvetch, cicer 132, 135, 138, 142, 196, 261, 270,

271, 277, 282, 289, 425–426, 428, 433–434, 703,

724, 728, 731, 741, 763

Lutana 434

milkvetch, Snake River 428

milkvetch, tall 428

mixed seedings 130–134

mockorange, Lewis 687–689, 707

Waterton 689

mockorange, littleleaf 689

moldboard plow 66

molly, gray 469, 488, 603

molybdenum 51–52, 54

moose

Shiras 164

moth, sagebrush defoliator 514

mountain ash, American 707, 750

mountain ash, Greene’s 266–267, 270, 272, 592–594,

601, 603

mountain ash, Sitka 594

mountain brush communities 9, 195, 216, 217, 219,

271, 308–309, 601

mountain lover 222, 266–267, 603, 707

mountain mahogany, birchleaf 138, 544–545, 707, 750

mountain mahogany, curlleaf 103, 132, 135, 142–143,

182, 183, 185, 196, 217, 272, 276, 278, 283, 

545–550, 603, 707, 725, 727, 730, 741, 750

mountain mahogany, Intermountain 546

mountain mahogany, Intermountain curlleaf 549

mountain mahogany, littleleaf 274, 276, 545, 549, 603,

707, 751

mountain mahogany, true 132, 135, 138, 142–143,

185, 196, 272, 276, 278, 283, 549, 550–552, 603,

707, 725, 727, 730, 741, 751

Montane 552

muhly, spike 731

El Vado 301

mule deer 158, 163, 178

ranges 162

multiple use 131

muttongrass 273, 275, 282, 286–287 See also bluegrass, mutton

muttongrass, longtongue 311

N

Nassella viridula See needlegrass, green

natural spread 134

needle-and-thread 182–184, 220, 228, 237, 243, 256,

273, 275, 277, 279, 280, 282, 284–286, 293–294,

308, 311, 418–419, 700, 731

needlegrass 102, 139

needlegrass, Columbia See needlegrass, subalpine

needlegrass, green 135, 142, 269, 271, 275, 277, 282,

287, 289, 308, 311, 422–424, 700

Cucharas 424

Lodorm 301, 424

needlegrass, Letterman 269, 282, 289, 308, 311, 

419–421, 700

needlegrass, subalpine 259, 269, 308, 311, 416–418,

420

varieties 418

needlegrass, Thurber 280, 284, 287, 294, 308, 311,

421–422

ninebark, dwarf 568
Index-10 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

ninebark, mallow 266–267, 567–569, 603, 707, 751

ninebark, mountain 568

ninebark, Pacific 568

nitrogen 51, 52, 54

nitrogen-free extract 177, 180

no-till drill 75

nurseries and facilities 747

nutrient content 112

nutrient requirements of range animals 176

calcium 178

dry material 176

minerals 178

phosphorus 178

protein 177, 178

vitamins 179

nutrient values of range plants 180–184

O

oak, Gambel 103, 135, 183, 185, 195, 217, 218, 603,

648–650, 707, 741, 751

oatgrass, tall 135, 206, 259, 261, 269, 271, 282, 287,

289, 308, 310, 351–353, 701

Tualatin 353, 354

oceanspray, bush 565 See also oceanspray, spiraea

oceanspray, creambush 563–565, 603

Office of Grazing Studies 3

olive, autumn 751

oniongrass 259, 308, 311, 701

Onobrychis viciaefolia See sainfoin

orchardgrass 132, 135, 142, 196, 205, 206, 216, 220,

255, 259, 264–265, 269, 271, 273, 275, 277, 280,

282, 287, 289, 308, 310, 367–369, 701, 724, 728

Berber 368

Latar 301, 368

Paiute 138, 301, 368, 724, 728

Potomac 301

Oregon grape 270, 614–616, 731 See also barberry,

creeping

Oryzopsis hymenoides See ricegrass, Indian

Osmorhiza occidentalis See sweetanise

P

painted-cup 428

painted-cup, sulphur 260

Pascopyrum smithii See wheatgrass, western

pathogen-free planting stock 189

pathogens, plant 187–190

peachbrush, Anderson 707, 751 See almond, desert

peachbrush, desert 274, 276, 284, 291, 293, 575–577,

603, 707, 725

pearly everlasting 763

peashrub, Siberian 731, 751

peavine, flat 428

peavine, perennial 428

peavine, thickleaf 270, 428

peavine, Utah 270, 428

penstemon, bush 272, 603, 694–696, 707, 751

Penstemon cyananthus See penstemon, Wasatch

penstemon, Eaton 139, 271, 277, 280, 282, 287, 289,

428, 456, 703, 731

Richfield 457

Penstemon eatonii See penstemon, Eaton

penstemon, firecracker 456

Penstemon fruticosus See penstemon, bush

Penstemon humilis See penstemon, low

penstemon, littlecup 428

penstemon, low 206, 271, 280, 282, 289, 428, 457,

703, 724, 763

Penstemon pachyphyllus See penstemon, thickleaf

penstemon, Palmer 132, 135, 138, 142, 196, 271, 273,

275, 277, 279–280, 282, 284–287, 293–294, 425,

428, 454–456, 703, 727–728, 731

Cedar 456

Penstemon palmeri See penstemon, Palmer

penstemon, Rocky Mountain 132, 135, 260, 270–271,

277, 283, 289, 425, 428, 457

penstemon, Rydberg 260, 270, 428, 457

Penstemon rydbergii See penstemon, Rydberg

penstemon, sidehill 428

Penstemon strictus See penstemon, Rocky Mountain

penstemon, thickleaf 277, 428, 457, 703, 731

penstemon, toadflax 277, 428

penstemon, Wasatch 260, 270–271, 277, 283, 289,

428, 456, 703

Peraphyllum ramosissimum See Indian apple

persistence

species 129

personnel 63

Phalaris arundinacea See canarygrass, reed

pheasant 159, 178–179

Philadelphus lewisii See mockorange, Lewis

Phleum alpinum See timothy, alpine

Phleum pratense See timothy

phosphate, single super 54

phosphate, trebel super 54

phosphoric acid (liquid) 54

phosphorus 51, 52, 54, 178, 179

Physocarpus malvaceus See ninebark, mallow

pine, ponderosa 195

pine, ponderosa communities 222–223, 309, 601

ping-pong ball injector 85

pinyon 108

pinyon-juniper 195, 224, 225, 279

pinyon-juniper communities 9, 37, 223–224, 227–228,

273, 279, 308, 601, 638

pipe harrow 67, 71

plant communities, diverse 130

plant community indicators 124

plant competition 21, 57, 61, 112, 134, 202, 207–208,

211, 214, 218, 221, 226, 235, 238, 239–240, 243,

245, 247, 249, 251–252, 255, 257–258
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 Index-11

controlling 57, 65, 147–148

biological 58, 59

burning 60

chemical 62

fallowing 62

grazing 59

herbicides 58

logging 60

mechanical 58, 62, 65

objectives 60

species 21

successional changes 59–60

plant control

herbicides 89

plant disease

fungal diseases 516

plant tissue analysis 53

planting bar 764–767

planting hoe 764–765

planting mixtures, advantages 130–133

planting season 23, 150–151

planting shovels 764–765

planting stock 745–746

plows

brushland 66–67

disk 66

moldboard 66

root 67, 73

PLS See pure live-seed (PLS)

plum, American 262, 571–572, 603, 708, 751

plume, Apache See Apache plume

Poa alpina See bluegrass, alpine

Poa ampla See bluegrass, big

Poa canbyi See bluegrass, Sandberg

Poa compressa See bluegrass, Canada

Poa fendleriana See bluegrass, mutton

Poa longiligula See bluegrass, mutton

Poa nevadensis See bluegrass, Sandberg

Poa pratensis See bluegrass, Kentucky

Poa sandbergii See bluegrass, Sandberg

Poa scabrella See bluegrass, Sandberg

Poa secunda See bluegrass, big; bluegrass, Sandberg

ponderosa pine communities 220, 271, 308

poplar 751

postfire management 119

potash 54

potassium 51–52, 54

Potentilla fruticosa See cinquefoil, shrubby

precipitation 21, 34–35

average annual 34

pronghorn antelope 111, 164–165

propagation See seed propagation; vegetative

propagation

protein 177

proximal analysis 180

Prunus americana See plum, American

Prunus andersonii See almond, desert

Prunus besseyi See cherry, Bessey

Prunus emarginata See cherry, bitter

Prunus fasciculata See peachbrush, desert

Prunus spinosa See blackthorn

Prunus tomentosa See cherry, Nanking

Prunus virginiana See chokecherry

Psathyrostachys juncea See wildrye, Russian

Pseudoroegneria spicata See wheatgrass, bluebunch

Pseudoroegneria spicata inerme See wheatgrass,

beardless

pure live-seed (PLS) 22, 139, 736

Purshia glandulosa See bitterbrush, desert

Purshia tridentata See bitterbrush, antelope

Q

quackgrass 310

quail 178, 179

quailbush See saltbush, quailbush

Quercus gambelii See oak, Gambel

R

rabbit 178

rabbitbrush 103, 493–496, 522–524

rabbitbrush, alkali 495, 533–534, 708

rabbitbrush, Douglas 603

rabbitbrush, dwarf 495, 524, 603, 708

rabbitbrush, goldenweed 534

rabbitbrush, Greene’s 495, 533–534, 708

rabbitbrush, low 135, 182–183, 185, 196, 260, 279,

285–286, 291, 293–294, 495, 531–533, 603, 708

hairy low 533

mountain low 142, 288, 290, 532, 708, 725, 741

narrowleaf low 533, 708

stickyleaf low 532–533, 708

rabbitbrush, Nevada 530

rabbitbrush, Parry 260, 272, 495, 529–531, 603, 708

rabbitbrush, rubber 132, 135, 182–183, 185, 196, 251,

262, 495, 525–529, 603, 751

green rubber 529, 708

green-stemmed rubber 526, 741

leafless rubber 708

leiospermus rubber 708

mountain rubber 270, 272, 276, 278, 283, 288, 529,

708, 725

mountain whitestem rubber 708

threadleaf rubber 266–267, 528–529, 708, 741

tubinatus rubber 708

whitestem mountain and basin rubber 270, 272,

274, 276, 278, 281, 283–284, 286, 288

whitestem rubber 138, 142–143, 525–526, 528, 725,

727, 730, 741

rabbitbrush, small 603

rabbitbrush, spreading 291, 495, 524, 603, 708, 741

rabbitbrush, Vasey 495, 531, 709
Index-12 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

rails 71–72

range, season of use 182–184

Range Seeding Equipment Committee 17

raspberry, black 590, 601

redtop See bentgrass, redtop

reedgrass, bluejoint 264–265, 310

Sourdough 301

reedgrass, chee 259, 264–265, 310, 701, 763

reedgrass, plains 102

rehabilitation 200 See also site preparation and

seeding prescriptions

resistance, host 190

resource values 31

restoration 19, 200 See also revegetation; site preparation and seeding prescriptions

history 1, 15–17

human activities 198

restored sites

grazing 194

human activities 194

management 193

post-treatment 194

revegetation 19, 29, 200, 470, 717, 746 See also

restoration; site preparation and seeding

prescriptions

artificial 29

considerations 19

cost 32

impacts on adjacent areas 31–32

plant competition 21

plant material availability 32

planting season 23

precipitation 21

pure live seed (PLS) 22

resource values 31

seed mixture 22

seedbed 23

site-adapted species and populations 21

soil conditions 27–28, 30

soil types 20

terrain 20

vegetation condition 26–27

weeds 31

history 15–17

human activities 198

impact on resources 28

range 19

site suitability 29–30

wildland 19

Rhizobium 146

rhizomes 763

Rhus aromatica See sumac, skunkbush

Rhus glabra See sumac, Rocky Mountain smooth

Ribes aureum See currant, golden

Ribes cereum See currant, wax

Ribes viscosissimum See currant, sticky

ricegrass, Indian 102, 132, 135, 138, 142, 182, 184,

196, 273, 275, 277, 279, 280, 282, 284, 285, 

286–287, 291, 293–294, 308, 311, 393–396, 701,

731

Nezpar 301, 396

Paloma 301, 397

Ribstone 397

Rimrock 301, 397

riparian communities 9, 209–210, 212–213, 263–267,

309, 601, 668

roads 172, 198

rockspirea 565–566, 709

Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station

3 See also Rocky Mountain Research Station

Rocky Mountain Research Station 5

rodents 144

roller chopper 83

root cuttings 762

root-plow 67, 73

Rosa woodsii ultramontana See rose, Woods

rosaceous shrubs 539

rose, Woods 143, 260, 262, 266–267, 270, 272, 278,

283, 288, 586–590, 603, 709, 741, 751

Roundup 96

row spacing 153

Rubus leucodermis See raspberry, black

Rubus parviflorus See thimbleberry

runners and stolons 762

rush, Baltic 263

rush, Drummond 263

rush, longstyle 263

rush, swordleaf 263

rush, Torrey 263

Russian olive 709

rye, mountain 132, 135, 142, 196, 269, 273, 275, 277,

280, 282, 284, 286–287, 294, 309, 311, 724

rye, winter 273, 275, 277, 727

ryegrass, Italian 311

ryegrass, meadow 311

ryegrass, perennial 264, 265, 311

S

sacaton, alkali 196, 262, 264–265, 279, 286, 309, 311,

413–414, 701

Salado 301, 414

Saltalk 301, 414

sage, birdsfoot 495, 522

sage, fringed 274, 495, 505–506, 604, 709, 725

sage, longleaf 495, 522, 709

sage, Louisiana 260–261, 264, 270–271, 278, 289,

426, 428, 430–431, 703, 741, 763

Summit 431

sage, oldman See sandsage
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 Index-13

sage, purple 709, 751

sage, sand See sandsage

sage, tarragon 278, 428

sage-grouse 159, 166–168

sagebrush 108, 236, 493, 494–496

sagebrush communities 115, 234–237 See also site

preparation and seeding prescriptions

sagebrush, alkali 495, 506–507

sagebrush, alkali communities 245

sagebrush, big 132, 181–183, 185, 196, 232, 294,

495, 514–521, 709, 751

big communities 9

basin big 135, 138, 142–143, 195, 238, 266–267,

274, 276, 279, 281, 288, 292, 514–521, 604, 709,

725, 727, 730, 741

Hobble Creek 518

basin big communities 135, 238, 279, 280, 308–309,

601

foothills big 272, 274, 276, 278, 279, 281, 283–284

See also sagebrush, big: xeric big

mountain big 135, 138–139, 142, 195, 232, 260,

266–267, 270, 272, 276, 278, 283, 288,

514–521, 604, 709, 725, 730, 741

Hobble Creek 518

mountain big communities 239–240, 282, 308–309,

601

spicate big 503, 514 See also sagebrush, big:

subalpine big

subalpine big 206, 290

subalpine big communities 289, 308–309

timberline big 244, 260, 289, 290, 520, 709 See also

sagebrush, big: spicate big; sagebrush, big:

subalpine big

timberline big communities 289

Wyoming big 135, 138, 142, 195, 250, 251, 274,

279, 281, 286, 288, 291, 514–521, 604, 725, 730,

741

Gordon Creek 519

Wyoming big communities 240–242, 279, 284,

308–309, 601

xeric big 514, 517 See also sagebrush, big: foothills

big

sagebrush, Bigelow 495, 500–501, 604, 709

sagebrush, black 132, 142, 143, 185, 195, 196, 228,

242, 274, 276, 285, 286, 291, 293, 495, 508–509,

604, 709, 725, 727, 730, 741, 751

black communities 243, 285

sagebrush, budsage 604, 709 See also budsage

budsage communities 245

sagebrush, coaltown 503, 522

sagebrush, early 604 See sagebrush, alkali

sagebrush, fringed See sage, fringed

sagebrush, hotsprings 500

sagebrush, longleaf See sage, longleaf

sagebrush, Louisiana See sage, Louisiana

sagebrush, low 206, 232, 279, 281, 283, 285, 495,

499–500, 506, 604, 709

low communities 244, 286

sagebrush, pygmy 495, 509–510, 604, 709

sagebrush, Rothrock 520, 522

sagebrush, sand 293, 709 See also sandsage

sagebrush, scabland See sagebrush, stiff

sagebrush, silver 232, 260, 266–267, 272, 283, 290,

495, 502–503, 604, 709, 741

Bolander silver 503

mountain silver 502, 503

mountail silver communities 244

plains silver 503

silver communities 289

sagebrush, stiff 495, 510–511, 604, 709

sagebrush, tarragon See sage, tarragon

sagebrush, threetip 232, 288, 495, 521–522, 604

tall threetip 266–267, 522, 709

threetip communities 244, 287

Wyoming threetip 522

sainfoin 132, 135, 138, 196, 261, 270, 272, 275, 278,

283, 289, 453, 703, 724, 741

Eski 454

Melrose 454

Nova 454

Onar 454

Remont 454

Runemex 454

sainfoin, common 142, 428

Salix See willow

Salix bebbiana See willow, Bebb

Salix boothii See willow, Booth

Salix drummondiana See willow, Drummond

Salix exigua See willow, coyote

Salix geyeriana See willow, Geyer

Salix glauca See willow, grayleaf

Salix lasiandra caudata See willow, whiplash

Salix lasiolepis See willow, arroyo

Salix lutea See willow, yellow

Salix planifolia See willow, plainleaf

Salix scouleriana See willow, Scouler

Salix wolfii See willow, Wolf

salsify, vegetable-oyster 428, 703, 724, 727, 741

salt desert shrub communities 246 See also site

preparation and seeding prescriptions

saltbush 469

saltbush, allscale 469, 482–483

saltbush, Australian 469

saltbush, big 469, 710

saltbush, Bonneville 469, 710

saltbush, broadscale 469, 472, 482–483, 710

saltbush, Castle Valley clover 292, 469, 472, 480–481,

604, 710

saltbush, cattle 469, 710

saltbush, cuneate See saltbush, Castle Valley clover
Index-14 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

saltbush, desert holly 469, 482–483, 710

saltbush, falcate 469, 710

saltbush, fourwing 129, 132, 135, 138, 142, 143, 182,

183, 185, 196, 251, 262, 266, 267, 274, 276, 278,

279, 281, 283, 284, 286, 291, 292, 293, 469, 471–

476, 604, 710, 725, 727, 730, 741, 751

fourwing communities 251–252, 279

Marana 475, 476

Rincon 475, 476

Wytana 475, 476

saltbush, Gardner 209, 251, 262, 266–267, 279, 291–292,

469–470, 481–482, 604, 710, 725, 752

saltbush, Gardner complex 470, 481–482

saltbush, Garrett 710

saltbush, mat 291, 469, 472, 479–480, 604, 710

saltbush, Navajo 469, 710

saltbush, quailbush 469, 482–483, 604

Casa 483

saltbush, robust 469

saltbush, shadscale 308, 604, 710, 752

shadscale communities 9, 248, 309, 601

saltbush, trident 469, 472, 710

saltbush, wingless 469

saltgrass 199, 208–209, 212, 262, 264–265

saltgrass, desert 763

saltgrass, inland 195, 310, 371–373

inland communities 9, 208–209, 262, 308-309, 601

Sambucus cerulea See elderberry, blue

Sambucus racemosa See elderberry, red See elderberry, red

sand sage See sandsage

sandsage 495, 504–505, 604

Sanguisorba minor See burnet, small

Sarcobatus vermiculatus See greasewood, black

scalebroom 534, 537

scalper 84

sedge, analogue 263

sedge, beaked 263

sedge, black alpine 263

sedge, blackroot 263

sedge, Douglas 263

sedge, downy 263

sedge, golden 263

sedge, Hepburn 263

sedge, hood 263

sedge, Kellogg 263

sedge, Nebraska 263

sedge, ovalhead 259, 261, 289

sedge, rock 263

sedge, russet 263

sedge, slim 263

sedge, smallwing 263

sedge, soft-leaved 263

sedge, valley 263

sedge, woolly 263

sedges 208, 263

seed

afterripening 700, 726

certification 139, 719

certified 137–138

cleaning 699, 713–715

collecting 699, 712, 718, 754

dormancy 127, 726, 730

field 721, 754

germination 139, 205, 723, 724, 727–728, 730–732,

746

inoculation 146

longevity 731

maturity 700

noncertified 138

orchard 718–719, 722, 754

pathogens 146–147

pelleting 76, 146

pretreatment 145–146, 755

production 719

propagation 747–748

purity 139, 700

quality 137

storage 700, 715, 731, 754–755

stratification 700

seed certification 733 See also certification, seed

seed, certified 22

seed dribbler 79–80

seed harvesters

vacuum-type 713

seed mixture 22

seed, noncertified 138

seed production 601

seed testing

requirements 733

seedbed 23, 126, 134

conditions 63

firmness 149, 150

preparation 121

climatic conditions 124

plant community indicators 124

soil

divalent ions 125

monovalent cations 125

seedbed preparation equipment 65 See also anchor

chains; cables; disks; plows

drags 71

herbicide 91

land imprinter 67, 72

pipe harrow 67, 71

rails 71

seeders 65 See also drills

aerial broadcasting 77–78

fixed-wing aircraft 78

helicopters 78–79

Brillion seeder 80

broadcast 72, 76–77
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 Index-15

hand broadcasting 76

Hansen seed dribbler 79

hydroseeder 82

interseeder

fluted shaft seeder 81

Truax single row seeder 81

land imprinter 72

seed dribbler 79–80

surface seeder 80

surface seeders 80

thimble seeder 79–80

Truax Seed Slinger 76

seeding 216

broadcast 141

depth 76, 152–153

ecotype 124

mixed 201

mixed seedings 130

mixes 122, 129

forbs 140

native species 126

plant competition 21

planting season 23

precipitation 21

pure live seed (PLS) 22

rate 22, 78

seed mixture 22

seedbed 23

site-adapted species and populations 21

soil types 20

seeding practices 121

rates 137, 139–141, 145

requirements 135, 143

separate row seeding 154

single species seeding 130, 133

species compatibility 133, 135

spot 142

seeding rates 259, 261, 269, 271, 273, 279–280, 

284–287, 289, 291–293

seeding requirements

row spacing 153

spot seeding 142

seedling

establishment 133, 134

growth rate 135

vigor 135

selenium 52

Senecio serra See groundsel, butterweed

serviceberry, dwarf Saskatoon 541

serviceberry, Saskatoon 132, 135, 142, 143, 196, 266,

267, 270, 272, 276, 278, 283, 288, 541–543, 604,

710, 725, 727, 741, 752

serviceberry, Utah 272, 274, 276, 541, 543–544, 604,

710, 725, 727, 752

shadscale 132, 135, 143, 195, 196, 228, 243, 245–247,

248, 250–253, 257–258, 279, 291–292, 294, 469,

476–478

sheep 176, 178–179, 515

Shepherdia argentea See buffaloberry, silver

Shepherdia canadensis See buffaloberry, russet

Shepherdia rotundifolia See buffaloberry, roundleaf

Shiras moose 164

shoots 762

shrub enhancement 235

shrub-herb associations 134

Shrubland Biology and Restoration Project 4

shrubs 132, 135, 138, 142, 182–183, 185, 260, 597,

704

silverberry 266–267, 604, 640–641

Sitanion hystrix See squirreltail, bottlebrush

site access 61

site improvement 122

site preparation and seeding prescriptions

aspen communities 215, 309

aspen openings 204–205

aspen-conifer communities 9, 216, 601

Bailey's (1978) 8

blackbrush communities 9, 252–253, 293, 308, 601

brome, red communities 9, 253–256, 294

cheatgrass communities 9, 253–256, 294, 601

greasewood, black communities 9, 249–250, 309,

601

juniper woodlands 38

medusahead communities 253–256, 294

mountain brush communities 9, 219, 309, 601

pine, ponderosa communities 222–223, 309, 601

pinyon-juniper communities 9, 37, 223–224, 227–228,

273, 279, 308, 601, 638

riparian communities 9, 209–210, 212–213, 263–267,

309, 601, 668

sagebrush, alkali communities 245

sagebrush, basin big communities 135, 238, 279,

280, 308–309, 601

sagebrush, big communities 9

sagebrush, mountain big communities 239–240,

282, 308–309, 601

sagebrush, subalpine big communities 289, 308–309

sagebrush, timberline big communities 289

sagebrush, Wyoming big communities 240–242,

279, 284, 308–309, 601

sagebrush, black communities 243, 285

sagebrush, budsage communities 245

sagebrush communities 235–237

sagebrush, low communities 244, 286

sagebrush, silver communities 289

sagebrush, mountain silver communities 244

sagebrush, threetip communities 244, 287

saltbush, fourwing communities 251–252, 279
Index-16 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

saltbush, shadscale 246–247, 291

saltbush, shadscale communities 9, 248, 309, 601

saltgrass, inland communities 9, 208, 209, 262, 308,

309, 601

subalpine communities 601

subalpine herblands 9, 204, 205

weeds, annual communities 308, 601

weeds, annual lowland communities 9, 257, 258

wet and semiwet meadows 9, 168, 207, 208, 308,

601

winterfat communities 251

site-adapted species and populations 21

skunk cabbage 204

snakeweed 534, 536

snakeweed, broom 495, 536

snowberry 103

snowberry, common 266–267, 604, 627, 710, 752

snowberry, desert 627–628

snowberry, longflower 278, 604, 710, 752

snowberry, longleaf 272

snowberry, mountain 143, 206, 260, 266, 267, 270,

272, 276, 278, 283, 288, 290, 604, 629–630, 710,

727, 741, 752

snowberry, western 266, 267, 604, 628–629

snowberry, white See snowberry, common

snowmold 517

snowmold disease 516

soapberry See buffaloberry, russet

softwood cuttings 761–762

soil 40, 125–126

carbon 44

condition 27–28, 30

conditions 125

erosion 28, 40

fertility 40, 52

fertilization 48

improvement 40

moisture 148–149

nitrogen 136

nutrient 40, 47, 48, 49, 50

boron 51–52

calcium 51

concentrations 51

copper 51–52

iron 51–52

magnesium 51–52

manganese 51–52

molybdenum 51–52

nitrogen 50–52

phosphorus 50–52

potassium 51–52

selenium 52

sulfur 50–51

sulphate-sulphur 52

zinc 51–52

pH 45

reclamation potential 40

aspect 47

parent material 47

texture 152

soil application 92

soil carbon 44

soil conditions 36, 39–53, 41

bulk density 41, 42

carbon 44

coarse fragment content 41, 43

depth to limiting layer 41, 44

exchangeable sodium 41, 47

organic matter 41, 44

permeability 41, 43

pH 41, 46

salinity 41, 45, 46

slope 41, 44

structure 41–42

texture 41–42

water-holding capacity 41, 43

soil factors See soil conditions

soil injection 92

soil reaction See soil, pH

soil surface placement 92

soil types 9, 20

Solidago canadensis See goldenrod, Canada

Solomon plume, fat 260, 428

Solomon-seal, western 264

Sorbus scopulina See mountain ash, Greene’s

Sorbus sitchensis See mountain ash, Sitka

species selection

climatic conditions 124–125

cold tolerance 128

compatibility 122, 133

cultivars 129, 137

drought tolerance 127–128

growth rate 135

native species 126–128

palatability 128

persistence 129

seed dormancy 127

soils 125–126

Sphaeralcea coccinea See globemallow, scarlet

Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia See globemallow,

gooseberryleaf

spikerush, common 263

spiraea 594

Spiraea betulifolia See spiraea, bridal wreath

spiraea, birchleaf See spiraea, bridal wreath

spiraea, bridal wreath 594–595, 604

Spiraea densiflora See spiraea, subalpine

spiraea, Douglas 596, 711, 752

Spiraea douglasii See spiraea, Douglas

spiraea, subalpine 596

spiraea, white 594, 595

spirea, rock 266–267, 288, 751 See also rockspirea
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 Index-17

spirea, rock spray 565

Sporobolus airoides See sacaton, alkali

Sporobolus cryptandrus See dropseed, sand

sprigger 763

squirrels 178

squirreltail See squirreltail, bottlebrush

squirreltail, big 411

Sand Hollow 301, 412

squirreltail, bottlebrush 102, 135, 182–184, 196, 264,

265, 271, 273, 275, 277, 279, 280, 282, 284–287,

291–294, 309, 311, 410–412, 701, 724, 728

Fish Creek 412

Toe Jam Creek 412

State Agricultural Experiment Stations 3, 4

steep-slope scarifier and seeder 87

stem application 92

stem cuttings 760

stem layers 762

Stipa columbiana See needlegrass, subalpine

Stipa comata See needle-and-thread

Stipa lettermanii See needlegrass, Letterman

Stipa occidentalis See needlegrass, western

Stipa thurberiana See needlegrass, Thurber

Stipa viridula See needlegrass, green

stork’s bill See alfileria

Suaeda torreyana See desert blite; sumpbush, desert

subalpine communities 601

subalpine herblands 9, 201–202, 204–205, 259

succession, plant 114

successional changes 131

suckers 762

sulfate-sulphur 52

sulphur 51, 54

sumac, Rocky Mountain smooth 272, 276, 278, 283,

604, 611–613, 711, 741, 752

sumac, skunkbush 135, 272, 276, 278, 283, 288, 604,

608–611, 711, 741, 752

Bighorn 611

sumac, smooth 143

summercypress, Belvedere 262

sumpbush, desert 469, 491

sunflower 287

sunflower, annual 701

surface seeder 80

sweetanise 196, 216, 260–261, 270, 289, 426, 428,

454, 704, 724, 728, 731, 741

sweetclover, white 429

sweetclover, yellow 135, 138, 196, 262, 264, 272–273,

275, 278–280, 283–284, 286, 429, 451–452, 704,

724, 728

Goldtop 452

Madrid 452

Yukon 452

sweetroot, spreading 270, 429

sweetvetch, northern See sweetvetch, Utah

sweetvetch, Utah 132, 135, 142, 196, 272, 275, 278,

280, 283, 287, 426, 429, 439–440, 704, 724, 

727–728, 741, 763

Timp 440

Symphoricarpos albus See snowberry, common

Symphoricarpos longiflorus See snowberry, desert

Symphoricarpos occidentalis See snowberry, western

Symphoricarpos oreophilus See snowberry, mountain

syringa See mockorange, Lewis

syringa, Lewis See mockorange, Lewis

T

tarweed, cluster 203

temperature 35

tephritid flies 526

teratorch 85

terrain 20–21, 36, 37

Tetradymia See horsebrush

Tetradymia canescens See horsebrush, gray

Tetradymia glabrata See horsebrush, littleleaf

Tetradymia nuttallii See horsebrush, Nuttall

Tetradymia spinosa See horsebrush, spiny

thimble seeder 79–80

thimbleberry 266–267, 591–592, 601, 605

Thinopyrum intermedium See wheatgrass, intermediate

Thinopyrum ponticum 320 See also wheatgrass, tall

threeawn complex 349

threeawn, fendler 310

threeawn, purple 309–310, 349

threeawn, red See threeawn, purple

timothy 132, 135, 142, 196, 205–206, 208, 215–216,

259, 261, 264–265, 269, 271, 289, 309, 311, 

399–401, 701

Clair 401

Climax 302, 400

Drummond 302

varieties 401

timothy, alpine 259, 269, 289, 309, 311, 398–399, 701,

763

timothy, mountain See timothy, alpine

tissue analysis 53

topography 9, 10, 11, 12, 13

toxicant 97

transplanter 82, 83, 740, 742

transplanting 23, 262, 739

equipment 764, 765

treatment of propagative material 190

treatments

costs 64

economic benefits 64

impacts on resources 64

visual impacts 64

trefoil, birdsfoot 272, 283

trencher 84
Index-18 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

Trifolium See clover

Trifolium fragiferum See clover, strawberry

Trifolium hybridum See clover, alsike

Trifolium pratense See clover, red

Trifolium repens See clover, white

trisetum, spike 309, 311

Truax drill 74, 75

Truax Seed Slinger 76

Truax single row seeder 81

turkey 178, 179

Tye drill 75

U

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)

Agricultural Research Service 4

Bureau of Plant Industry 2, 3

Division of Botany 2

Forest Reserves 2

Forest Service 17

Great Basin Experimental Range 16

Great Basin Station 3–4, 16, 17

Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station 3, 16

Intermountain Research Station 4–5, 17

Office of Grazing Studies 3

Rocky Mountain Research Station 5

Shrubland Biology and Restoration Project 4

Natural Resources Conservation Service 5, 17

Plant Materials Centers 4

urea 54

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 4, 17

Utah State Division of Fish and Game 16

V

vacuum-type seed harvesters 713

valerian, edible 260–261, 264, 429

vegetation condition 26

vegetation status 61

vegetation types 7, 9, 11, 13, 34, 36–38, 308, 601 See

also communities, plant

vegetative propagation 748, 759–763

vetch, American 182–183, 260, 270, 429

vetch, bramble 429

Vicia americana See vetch, American

Viguiera miltiflora nevadensis See goldeneye, Nevada

Viguiera multiflora multiflora See goldeneye, showy

violet, Nuttall 260

virginsbower, western 605, 654–656, 711, 752

vitamin A 179

W

water 171–172

water developments 171

watershed 131

weed control 62–63, 131, 147

weeds, annual communities 308, 601

weeds, annual lowland communities 9, 257–258

weeds, noxious 211

wet and semiwet meadow communities 9, 168,

206–208, 261, 308, 601

wet meadows 262

wheatgrass, beardless 310, 701 See also wheatgrass,

bluebunch

Whitmar 302

wheatgrass, bluebunch 132, 135, 139, 142, 182–184,

196, 271, 273, 275, 277, 280, 282, 284, 286–287,

294, 309–310, 337–342, 724, 728, 763

Anatone 302, 341

Goldar 341

Goldlar 302

NewHy 302, 341

P-7 302, 341

Whitmar 342

wheatgrass, bluebunch bearded 310, 701

wheatgrass, crested 182, 312, 316 See wheatgrass,

fairway crested

wheatgrass, desert 182–184, 196 See wheatgrass,

standard crested

wheatgrass, fairway crested 132, 135, 138, 142, 

183–184, 196, 262, 271, 273, 275, 277, 279–280,

282, 284–287, 293, 294, 297, 297–318, 309, 310,

315, 316, 701, 728

Douglas 302, 316

Ephraim 302, 316–317, 724

Fairway 302, 317

Nordan 316

Parkway 302, 317

Ruff 302, 317

wheatgrass, hybrid

CD-II 316

Hycrest 316–317

NewHy 262

SL-1 342

SL1 302

wheatgrass, hybrid crested

CDII 303

Hycrest 294, 303

Kirk 303

wheatgrass, intermediate 132, 135, 138, 142, 182,

196, 221, 237, 255–256, 259, 269, 271, 273, 275,

277, 279, 280, 282, 284, 286, 287, 293–294, 

309–310, 327–331, 701, 724, 727–728

Amur 303, 330

Chief 303, 330

Clarke 303, 330

Greenar 330

Greenbar 303

Greenleaf 304, 331

Luna 304, 331, 724

Oahe 303, 330

Ree 330
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004 Index-19

Reliant 303, 330

Rush 303, 330

Slate 303, 330

Tegmar 303, 331

Topar 304, 331

wheatgrass, pubescent 309 See also wheatgrass,

intermediate

wheatgrass, Siberian crested 142, 196, 246, 273, 275,

279–280, 284, 286–287, 291–293, 309–310, 314,

332–334, 701

P27 304

Vavilov 304

wheatgrass, slender 142, 196, 259, 264–265, 269,

271, 277, 282, 287, 289, 309–310, 342, 701

Adanac 304, 344

Primar 304, 344

Pryor 304, 345

Revenue 304, 345

San Luis 304, 345

wheatgrass, Snake River 309, 338

Secar 304, 338, 341, 342

wheatgrass, standard crested 132, 135, 138, 142, 271,

273, 275, 277, 279, 280, 282, 284–287, 291–294,

309–310, 313, 320–324, 724

Nordan 304, 324

Summit 304, 326

wheatgrass, streambank 209, 220, 228, 262, 271, 273,

275, 277, 279–280, 282, 284–287, 291–292, 294,

310, 320, 701, 763 See also wheatgrass,

thickspike

wheatgrass, tall 132, 135, 142, 196, 255, 261, 262,

264, 265, 271, 280, 292, 309, 310, 325–327, 702,

724, 731

Alkar 305, 326

Jose 305, 327

Largo 305, 327

Orbit 305, 327

Platte 305, 327

wheatgrass, thickspike 228, 237, 271, 275, 277, 279,

280, 282, 284, 286–287, 294, 305, 309–310, 

318–320, 702, 763

Bannock 305, 319

Critana 305

Schwendimar 305, 320

Sodar 305

Soday 320

wheatgrass, western 135, 139, 142, 182–184, 220,

228, 242, 255, 264–265, 271, 273, 275, 277, 280,

282, 284–285, 287, 291–294, 309–310, 334–337,

701, 763

Arriba 305, 336

Barton 305, 336

Flintlock 305, 336

Rodan 305, 336

Rosana 305, 336, 337

Walsh 305, 337

wheatgreass, crested 297

whortleberry 711

wilding stock 739–740, 742, 759

wildlife habitat 109–110, 112, 131, 155, 539

cover 110, 131, 157

edges, vegetative 111

security 162

thermal 161

improvement 156

management 113

wildrye, alkali 309, 311, 382 See also wildrye, low

creeping

wildrye, Altai 309–310

Eejay 306

Pearl 306

Prairieland 306

wildrye, beardless 311 See wildrye, creeping

wildrye, blue 269, 309–310, 377–379

Arlington 306, 378–379

wildrye, Canada 309–310, 373–374

Mandan 306, 374

wildrye, creeping 264, 265, 311, 383–384

Rio 384

Shoshone 384

wildrye, Dahurian

Arthur 306

James 306

wildrye, Great Basin 132, 135, 138, 142, 196, 246,

261, 264–265, 275, 277, 279, 280, 282, 284, 287,

292, 309–310, 374–377, 702, 728

Magnar 306, 376–377, 724

Trailhead 306, 377

wildrye, low creeping See wildrye, alkali

wildrye, mammoth 264, 265, 309–310, 702

Volga 306

wildrye, purple 310

wildrye, Russian 132, 135, 138, 142, 196, 262, 264,

273, 275, 279–280, 284–287, 291–293, 309, 310,

379–380, 702, 724, 728

Bozoisky-select 307, 380

Cabree 307, 380

Mankota 307, 380

Mayak 307, 381

Swift 307, 381

Tetracan 307, 381

Vinall 307, 381

wildrye, Salina 262, 291, 309–310, 381–382

wildrye, yellow 310

willow 206, 208, 210–11, 213, 262, 266–268, 668–670

willow, arroyo 268, 680–681

Rogue 681

willow, barrenground 268

willow, Bebb 268, 670–672

Wilson 672

willow, Booth 268, 605, 672–673

willow, coyote 605, 676, 752
Index-20 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-136. 2004

willow, Drummond 268, 605, 673–675

Curlew 674

willow, Geyer 268, 676–677

willow, grayleaf 268, 677–678

willow, Pacific 268

willow, peachleaf 268

willow, plainleaf 683–684

willow, purpleosier 262, 605, 752

willow, sandbar 268 See also willow, coyote

willow, Scouler 268, 605, 684–686, 752

willow, whiplash 605, 679–680

Nehalem 680

Roland 680

willow, Wolf 268, 686–687

willow, yellow 681–683

winterfat 132, 135, 138, 142–143, 182–183, 185, 196,

201, 209, 228, 236–237, 242, 245–247, 250–251,

253, 274, 276, 278–279, 281, 284–285, 291–293,

469, 470, 472, 484–486, 605, 711, 725, 727, 730,

741, 752

winterfat communities 251

Hatch 484, 488

winterfat, foothills 486

winterfat, Pamirian 469, 486, 488

wipe-on applicators 92, 93

wormwood 495 See sage, Louisiana

wormwood, common 498

wormwood, dwarf 498

wormwood, oldman 495, 497–498, 605, 711, 741, 753

wortleberry, big 753

Y

yarrow, western 260–261, 264, 270, 272–273, 275,

279–280, 283, 287, 289, 291, 294, 426, 429, 430,

704, 741, 763

yellowbrush See rabbitbrush

Z

zinc 51–52, 54

zuckia, Arizona 469

Zuckia brandegei See hopsage, spineless
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Fort Collins, CO 80526

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CAUTION:

PESTICIDES

Pesticide Precautionary Statement

This publication reports research involving pesticides. It does not

contain recommendations for their use, nor does it imply that the uses

discussed here have been registered. All uses of pesticides must be

registered by appropriate State and/or Federal agencies before they can

be recommended.

CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals,

desirable plants, and fish or other wildlife—if they are not handled or

applied properly. Use all pesticides selectively and carefully. Follow

recommended practices for the disposal of surplus pesticides and

pesticide containers.

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The Rocky Mountain Research Station develops scientific information and technology to improve management, protection, and use of

the forests and rangelands. Research is designed to meet the needs

of National Forest managers, Federal and State agencies, public and

private organizations, academic institutions, industry, and individuals.

Studies accelerate solutions to problems involving ecosystems,

range, forests, water, recreation, fire, resource inventory, land reclamation, community sustainability, forest engineering technology,

multiple use economics, wildlife and fish habitat, and forest insects

and diseases. Studies are conducted cooperatively, and applications

may be found worldwide.

Research Locations

Flagstaff, Arizona Reno, Nevada

Fort Collins, Colorado* Albuquerque, New Mexico

Boise, Idaho Rapid City, South Dakota

Moscow, Idaho Logan, Utah

Bozeman, Montana Ogden, Utah

Missoula, Montana Provo, Utah

Lincoln, Nebraska Laramie, Wyoming

*Station Headquarters, Natural Resources Research Center,

2150 Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526

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RMRS

ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION
Yarrow (Eagle, ID) and ‘Appar’ flax seed production fields Photo by Ann DeBolt