Emergency Medical Services (EMS)

Recruitment and Retention

Manual

Federal Emergency Management Agency

United States Fire Administration
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United States Fire Administration.
Preface

The United States Fire Administration (USFA) publication Emergency Medical

Services (EMS) Recruitment and Retention Manual is a guidebook intended for

the use of the managers and recruiters of volunteer personnel in organizations

that provide emergency medical services. The manual also may be used

productively by EMS organizations. that employ career personnel, especially

combined career-volunteer departments.

The manual was developed for the United States Fire Administration under

FEMA contract EMW-93-C-4132 by the Transportation Research Center of the

School of Public and Environmental Affairs at Indiana University in

Bloomington, Indiana. The project development team and authors of the manual

were James A. Palmer, Project Coordinator and Research Attorney,

Transportation Research Center; John M. Buckman, Chief, German Township

(Indiana) Volunteer Fire Department, Evansville, Indiana; and Lois R. Wise,

Associate Professor, School of Public and Environmental Affairs.

Robert (“Red”) McKeon, Chief, Occum (Connecticut) Volunteer Fire

Department, and former Chairman of the National Volunteer Fire Council, and

Jack W. Snook, Chief, Tualatin Valley (Oregon) Fire and Rescue Department,

also contributed to this project.

State-level EMS departments and local-level EMS organizations in the United

States were contacted by telephone by the project team during the course of the

project in order to identify and learn about innovative, interesting, and effective

strategies being used to recruit and retain EMS volunteers. The manual could

not have been completed without the information and insights about EMS

recruitment and retention that were contributed by the contact persons with these

agencies.

A Quality Review Panel was established to review and comment on the first and

second drafts of the manual. The members of the Quality Review Panel were

Mary Beth Michos, Chief, Prince William County (Virginia) Department of Fire

& Rescue; Rohn M. Brown, Recruitment and Retention Coordinator, Office of

Emergency Medical Services, Virginia Department of Health; and Ted Halpin,

Executive Director, Ontario County (New York) ALS/Thompson Health System.

iii
Contents

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

National Trends in the Volunteer Sector ........... 1

Volunteerism in the United States .............. 3

The Role of Leadership in Volunteer Programs ........ 4

Planning for the Participation of Volunteers .......... 5

RECRUITMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Steps in Recruiting EMS Volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Use of a Dedicated Recruiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Some Relevant Laws Affecting EMS Recruitment . . . . . . . 10

Diversity in EMS Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

MOTIVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Motivating Them to Volunteer . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Getting Their Attention: Marketing . . . . . . . . 16

The Importance of Marketing . . . . . . . 17

The Three Components of Marketing . . . . . 18

Planning a Marketing Program . . . . . . . 19

Four Ways to Market . . . . . . . . . . 20

Communications Strategies . . . . . . . . . 21

Use the EMS PIER Manual . . . . . . . . . 23

Recruitment Reminder: Be Realistic . . . . . . . . 23

What Motivates Them to Volunteer for EMS . . .. . 24

Participation in Decisionmaking . . . . . . . 26

Following Up After the Application Is Received . . . . . 26

The Unspoken Concerns of Volunteers . . . . . 30

Matching Volunteers to Jobs . . . . . . . . . 31

RETENTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Volunteer Leadership Issues ................. 33

Stress Management ..................... 37

Health and Safety Risks .................. 39

Equipment Concerns .................... 39

The Performance Review as a Retention Tool ......... 40

The Exit Interview as a Retention Tool ............ 43

Retention of Career Staff ................... 44

RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION STRATEGIES . . . . . . . 47

V
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ............... 103

RESOURCES. ........................ 117

vi
Introduction

This manual presents guidance for the managers of emergency

medical services (EMS) organizations in the recruitment and

retention of volunteer personnel. The knowledge gained from

research concerning the use of volunteers in both public and

nonprofit agencies has been combined with the experiences,

practices, and ideas of EMS agencies that have successfully

recruited and retained volunteer members. Practical solutions to

common problems in the use of volunteers are suggested, and

examples of effective recruitment and retention techniques that may

be adopted by a variety of communities are described. The manual

does not specify a single, correct way to recruit and retain EMS

volunteers. The ideas and alternatives presented for EMS volunteer

recruitment and retention are possibilities, which EMS managers

may consider and adopt according to local needs, preferences, and

limitations.

National Trends

in the Volunteer

Sector

Volunteerism is a tradition in the United States. Americans have a

long history of forming voluntary groups of citizens to work on

common problems and interests, and volunteering is one of the most

commonplace activities in our society today. In a survey conducted

by the Gallup Poll, it was learned that over 80 million adults had

volunteered during the previous year and contributed more than 19.5

billion hours of effort. The savings realized by this volunteer

activity exceeded 200 billion dollars.

Emergency medical services have depended on volunteer support for

many years. The importance of volunteers to the delivery of

emergency medical services cannot be overstated. Rural America

relies almost totally on the volunteer system to provide EMS and

fire services in a timely manner. Suburban America also relies on

volunteers, but combination career-volunteer systems are being used

more frequently as a way to assist volunteers and to maintain the

current EMS system. Funding of the volunteer EMS system by the

local community has been very important for the survival of the

volunteer EMS system in many cases.

The delivery of emergency medical services by local government

was not firmly established until the 1950s. The first providers of

emergency transport to a medical facility were local funeral homes.

As time progressed and the demand for emergency medical services

increased, fire departments, hospitals, and new independent agencies

were asked to provide the services. In many cases, volunteer fire

departments became involved because of the participation of their

1
career counterparts. The involvement of both career and volunteer

fire departments made sense: they already had experience in

providing prompt emergency services, fire stations were located

throughout the communities served, and firefighters could be

cross-trained easily to perform as emergency medical technicians

(EMTs). The delivery of emergency medical services by volunteer

fire departments provided another incentive to attract volunteer

members: additional opportunities for action.

In the 196Os, the U.S. Department of Transportation developed a

training program for emergency medical technicians because of the

increasing rate of fatalities resulting from traffic crashes. The EMT

program, which consisted of 81 hours of clinical and technical

training, provided the level of knowledge and skills necessary for

the performance of lifesaving tasks on the street. In most states, the

training required today is 110 hours for an EMT and 800 to 1,200

hours for a paramedic.

In the 1970s, the television show “Emergency” depicted paramedics

in Los Angeles County, California, responding to accidents and

other emergencies to provide lifesaving treatment. The success of

“Emergency” created excitement in many communities, which now

wanted to have the same level of emergency services for themselves.

This television show did more for the rapid development of

prehospital emergency medical services than almost any other single

event. At about the same time, military medics, whose skills could

be used in the civilian EMS system, began to return from the

Vietnam War.

In the 1980s, there was an increased emphasis on productivity in

service delivery, and fire departments in many communities were

looked to as the agency that could provide an efficient lifesaving

EMS response. In the early 1980s, the National Highway Traffic

Safety Administration estimated that nearly 65% of the prehospital

EMS workforce was composed of volunteers.

In the 1990s, fire departments continued to improve their image by

providing emergency medical services, while private industry

viewed EMS delivery as a profit-making activity. When more

private ambulance providers began to offer prehospital emergency

care and transport, the competition between fire departments and

private industry was renewed. If fire departments did not change

the way they delivered emergency medical services, private industry

would replace them as the EMS provider in their communities.

With the increased competition for public funding of prehospital

emergency medical services came an increasing demand for greater

professionalism in EMS delivery. Additional training and oversight

2
requirements were established to improve the performance, image,

requirements set by government regulators dramatically increased

and attitude of prehospital EMS personnel. The training

the time demands on volunteers, and volunteer EMS agencies not

used to medical oversight began to feel the pressure from physicians

and hospitals to improve the quality of “street medicine. ”

Physician and hospital involvement in improving the quality of

emergency medical services created friction in the relationship

between volunteer EMS agencies and the medical community. In

addition, government regulations concerning EMS operations,

personnel, and equipment were seen as an unnecessary outside

interference with the right of volunteer EMS agencies to manage and

control their organizations. Volunteers have a great sense of pride,

and some initially resented this intervention by the medical

community and government regulators. However, as EMS

organizations upgraded their training and capabilities and became

more accustomed to medical and governmental oversight, the

volunteer resentment diminished and cooperative relationships with

the medical community and government regulators were created.

American society is changing rapidly, and some of these societal

changes directly influence volunteering in the United States. In

addition to these nationwide influences, there are local influences

unique to each volunteer EMS organization: the community in

which the service is provided, the organization itself, and the

individuals involved. Each of these influences--societal,

community, organizational, and individual--must be addressed when

you answer the question: “What factors influence our volunteer

program? ”

Volunteerism in Volunteers are characterized by the diversity of their backgrounds,

the United States ages, gender, and reasons for volunteering. Since almost one-half

of the population engages in volunteer activities, it is no surprise

that the “typical” volunteer can be almost anyone.

Volunteers are of all ages, with the largest number between 30 and

45. Almost a quarter of the population under age 30 and over age

65 is involved in volunteer work. Each sex is represented equally

among volunteers; almost one-half of all males and females are

involved in volunteer activities. Both white-collar and blue-collar

workers, as well as students and retirees, are represented among

volunteers.

Individuals become involved as volunteers for a variety of reasons.

The most frequently cited reasons for volunteering are:

3
The Role of

Leadership in

Volunteer

Programs

“Wanted to help others.”

“Felt obligated to give back what I got.”

“Sense of citizenship.”

“Religious feelings.”

“Interested in the work being done.”

“Desire for involvement with a group of friends.”

Volunteers usually experience a variety of motivations, ranging from

altruism to self-interest, during their volunteering “career,” and their

motivation indeed may vary considerably as they work over time

within a single organization.

The key to success in recruiting and retaining volunteers is effective

and dynamic leadership. Programs involving volunteers do not

work spontaneously. They require a leader to provide the care and

attention needed to fit together a complex system for delivering

services that matches the needs of the community and the program.

The role of the leader includes working with the program’s staff,

funding sources, and clientele to identify what needs to be

accomplished, which activities can be performed by part-time

volunteer workers, and what will motivate those volunteers to

participate. The effective performance of the leadership role

requires someone who relates well to people and understands both

their needs and wants, is flexible and can adapt to changing demands

and interests, and is able to identify potential opportunities and to

create the environment necessary to take advantage of those

opportunities.

The management of volunteer programs is a growing professional

field. While many volunteer programs are managed effectively by

volunteer leaders, many organizations now pay staff to assume

responsibility for their volunteer programs. Program directors who

work with volunteers are hired by governments to manage many

EMS delivery systems. Much time and energy is involved in

meeting both program and volunteer needs. When a volunteer fills

the primary management role in an organization, there may be a

problem with continuity in leadership. A full-time paid director

provides the needed continuity in management and is in a strong

position to represent the interests of volunteers with both paid

personnel and the general community. However, even a full-time

paid position may not be sufficient to meet all of the needs of a

sizable EMS system.

4
Planning for the

Participation of

Volunteers

EMS organizations must compete with other community

organizations to attract the most capable and committed volunteers.

The organizations that are well managed will be the most appealing

to prospective volunteers. Volunteers are more likely to join and

remain with well-run organizations with competent leaders.

Volunteer involvement has a unique place in our history. Helping

one another is an American tradition. Volunteering in EMS

organizations today has changed because our society has changed,

but the basic commitment to helping one another remains the same.

EMS leaders must be aware of and respond to these changing

conditions and trends in the future.

The first step in determining an organization’s need for volunteers

is to develop a plan with two questions: Why does the organization

need volunteers? How many volunteers are needed? The answers

to these questions will enable the organization to:

Determine the specific jobs and tasks that volunteers will

perform.

Explain to volunteers how and why they are contributing to

the mission of the organization.

Explain to any career staff why volunteers are being

sought.

Develop a plan to evaluate whether the use of volunteers

has been effective.

Why have volunteers? If an organization consists only of

volunteers, the answer is obvious. Without volunteers the

organization would not exist. In organizations that could function

without a volunteer program, volunteers can still contribute

significantly to the accomplishment of the organization’s goals.

In the planning process, it is important to list the positive and

negative points of volunteer participation in the organization. Both

the positives and negatives need to be acknowledged. The positive

factors make it worthwhile to spend energy on effective

management. Some negative factors can be altered by sound

planning and leadership, but others cannot and must be viewed

realistically. If the positive points of volunteer involvement do not

outweigh the negative points, effective leadership and management

may be insufficient to compensate for the disadvantages, and

perhaps volunteers should not be involved in the organization.

5
If everyone in the organization is committed and excited about

having volunteers, it is not necessary to spend much time in enlisting

internal support for volunteer participation. If there are complaints

about having volunteers in the organization, an attempt must be

made to enlist the support of all members of the organization to

mediate these concerns.

If volunteers are going to work with career staff, it is essential that

staff are in agreement as to the purpose and worth of the volunteer

program. It is important for all levels of career and volunteer staff

to be involved in the planning process.

It is also desirable to have the support of top management of an

organization for the volunteer program. This support can be

demonstrated by the official adoption by the governing body of the

organization of a policy endorsing the use of volunteers or by a

position statement on volunteers approved by the director of the

organization.

6
Recruitment

Recruitment is a key to the success and survival of an EMS

organization. It is the systematic, continuous process by which

capable volunteers are identified, evaluated, and enlisted as

members of the organization. The major considerations involved in

the development or improvement of an effective EMS recruitment

program are presented in this unit of the manual: the multi-step

process for recruiting and selecting volunteers! the use of a

dedicated recruiter, the relevant federal laws affecting recruitment,

and the need for and benefits of diversity in an EMS organization.

The next unit--Motivation--also provides information concerning

recruitment: how to attract and persuade individuals to volunteer as

members of an EMS organization. Specific techniques for

recruiting, as well as retaining, volunteers are described in the unit

Recruitment and Retention Strategies.

Steps in Recruiting The process for the recruitment of volunteers for an EMS

EMS Volunteers organization can be viewed as a series of steps. By following these

steps, an EMS organization will have an efficient system for

recruiting new volunteers, keeping everyone informed about the

status of the recruitment effort, and evaluating the strengths and

weaknesses of applicants for volunteer positions.

An important consideration in the recruitment process is the periodic

assessment of the organization’s needs for volunteers. A

needs-assessment strategy involves thinking about present needs, as

well as future needs that are likely to develop, and planning for how

those needs will be met: What kinds of tasks do you need

volunteers to perform? What capabilities or skills are required?

Are there sufficient volunteers with the needed capabilities to

perform those tasks? What additional training is required? How

many additional volunteers are required to undertake those tasks

now and in the future?

If a volunteer member is planning to move or take a job that

precludes or reduces his or her participation, the organization may

have a present need to replace the member by recruiting another

volunteer or by retraining or reassigning an existing volunteer. If

the organization has a general idea based on experience as to how

long, on the average, volunteers serve, it has identified a future need

resulting from turnover that can be anticipated, and the recruitment

program can be designed to ensure that an adequate number of new

volunteers are enlisted in the future. Strategic thinking today about

how the work can be organized to get the most out of available
volunteers and how upcoming needs can be addressed will enable

the manager to operate the EMS organization more efficiently and

effectively.

The basic steps to follow for recruiting and selecting volunteers are:

Develop and implement a needs assessment based on the

EMS organization’ s current volunteer staffing, existing

vacancies, and anticipated need for staffing, including

daytime volunteers.

Identify the skills, knowledge, and abilities needed and any

specific certifications required.

Prepare job descriptions based on tasks and responsibilities.

Develop a plan and timetable for the recruitment of the

various types of volunteer personnel and skills needed.

Implement the recruitment plan for the volunteer personnel

currently needed. Provide feedback, encouragement, and

information to potential volunteers during the recruitment

process.

Implement a system for evaluating potential volunteers that

is compatible with applicable civil rights laws. The

evaluation system used may be an existing system or a new

system developed by the organization; however, the

procedures employed in the system must be valid and

reliable. Skill or knowledge tests, if appropriate, or

open-ended interview forms should be administered. Tests

based on the performance of real tasks offer the most

reliable information about the relative abilities of candidates

for volunteer positions and are more easily shown to be

valid if challenged in court.

Rate or rank order the applicants based on established

criteria.

Select the candidates with the best qualifications.

Develop a schedule compatible with current and anticipated

needs for volunteers for bringing the selected candidates on

board. Schedule followup contacts with qualified candidates

placed on a waiting list.

Implement an orientation and training program for new

volunteers.
Assess the progress of new volunteers and make

recommendations as to changes needed in performance or

training.

Use of a Dedicated The responsibility for an EMS organization’s recruitment efforts

Recruiter should be assigned to a dedicated recruiter or volunteer coordinator,

who does not need to be an operational member of the organization,

in order to ensure a continuous, professional approach to the

identification and enlistment of a competent volunteer workforce for

the organization.

The recruiter selected must be enthusiastic, dedicated, motivated,

and sold on the product, which is the importance of the EMS

organization and its work to the community. A casual attitude

towards recruitment will not achieve the results needed. It is more

important for the EMS organization to take the time to select the

right person to sustain the recruitment program with the right

attitude than simply to assign the job of coordinating the recruitment

effort to anyone in the organization.

The dedicated recruiter is responsible for developing a program to

recruit individuals into the organization. The recruiter is not solely

responsible for the actual recruiting. Recruiting is the job of every

member of the EMS organization. All members must participate in

implementing the recruitment program and in identifying and

attracting capable individuals who express an interest in the

organization.

One of the first things that a recruiter should do is to train other

members of the organization how to recognize an opportunity to

recruit and to follow through with recruitment opportunities. The

recruiter should develop print materials that explain the organization

and its mission and activities and ensure that these materials are

available for distribution by the membership and in public facilities

throughout the community.

The assignment of a dedicated recruiter is vital to the overall success

of the EMS organization. The person assigned this task is as

important to the organization as other staff members. If proper

attention to the manpower needs of the EMS organization is not

maintained, EMS managers can expect problems in maintaining

adequate staffing levels and the organization’s ability to perform its

mission, and the morale of its membership will suffer.
Some Relevant Depending upon the state in which an EMS organization operates,

Laws Affecting different laws pertaining to the conditions of employment may apply

EMS Recruitment

when an EMS manager makes decisions about recruiting, selecting,

and using volunteer EMS personnel. It is not feasible to list the

relevant laws of all fifty states, but it is possible to provide a brief

summary of the most important federal laws affecting employment.

Fair Labor Standards Act

The Fair Labor Standards Act, which has been implemented by the

Department of Labor (DOL) since 1938, is designed to protect

employees from being coerced by their employers into volunteering

at their place of employment. The FLSA was extended through

amendments in 1966 and 1974 to include most state and local

government employees. Fire departments and EMS organizations

need to understand that FLSA is the law and DOL is actively

enforcing the FLSA regulations. Noncompliance continues to cost

fire and EMS departments money both in violation fines and in

compliance costs, which are usually retroactive.

The purpose of FLSA is to set minimum wage and overtime pay

standards for employees. These requirements are enforced by

DOL’s Wage and Hour Division (WHD), and its compliance efforts

center around employee complaints of employer’s alleged violations

of FLSA. DOL can initiate legal action against employers who

violate FLSA to recover back wages due employees and can also

seek to restrain employers from future violations.

In the 1985 case Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit

Authority, 469 U.S. 528, the U.S. Supreme Court held that the

Congress does have the authority to apply the FLSA minimum wage

and overtime pay requirements to state and local government

employees who are engaged in traditional governmental activities.

As a result, state and local units of government are required, among

other things, to compensate those government employees in

traditional activities who work overtime with cash wages rather than

compensatory time off,

Volunteers who receive no compensation and perform wholly

charitable services, such as mentoring a needy child, are not subject

to the FLSA requirements. Volunteers who receive some type of

compensation, whether monetary or in-kind, may be entitled to

additional pay or overtime consideration. FLSA applies only to

individuals considered to be “employees. ” The act itself offers little

guidance for determining whether someone is an employee or a

volunteer. There is no definition for the term “volunteer.” An

10
“employee” is “any individual employed by the employer”;

“employ“ means “to suffer or permit to work. ”

To determine whether an employment relationship exists for the

purposes of the FLSA, DOL looks at the following four major

factors: education, benefits, competition for open positions, and

wages.

Each EMS organization is encouraged to contact its local legal

counsel for advice as to its potential liability under FLSA.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 provides the basis for equal

employment opportunity and forbids discrimination in employment

on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, and sex. By

interpreting Title VII broadly, the courts have set precedents

affecting a number of recruitment and retention issues, especially in

the area of testing. Because they are used as a basis for making

choices, interviews are considered a test instrument under this law

and must be free of discrimination.

Selection tests for new recruits and for placement according to law

must be job-related. If members of certain groups are more likely

to be turned down than others, the fairness of the selection

procedure should be reexamined.

Equal Pay Act of 1963

The Equal Pay Act of 1963, which is an amendment to the Fair

Labor Standards Act, prohibits different rates of pay for equal work

based on a person’s sex. This law applies when:

the working conditions are the same;

the jobs are the same; and

the jobs require similar skills, responsibilities, and efforts.

Differences in pay between a male and female EMT doing the same

work could be justified, for example, if they are the result of any of

the following:

a seniority system;

a merit system;

a production-based pay system; or

a factor other than sex.

11
Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) of 1974

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act protects workers who

are forty years of age or older from discrimination in applying for

employment or from discrimination on the job. It is a violation of

federal law to discharge individuals at a specific chronological age

unless a mandatory retirement age exists for their occupational

category. Assumptions may not be made about an individual’s

physical abilities based on his or her chronological age. In fact,

preselection queries regarding age, date of birth, or other proxies

are a violation of ADEA.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1992

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1992 (ADA) extended to

individuals with disabilities the civil rights protections that are

afforded to others under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. As in the

case of the Title VII protections for minority group members and

women, the full implications of the act will depend on court

interpretations of the law.

There are two important aspects of the ADA that affect EMS

organizations. The first is the requirement that many public

facilities must be accessible to individuals with disabilities. This

mandate may have consequences for facilities of an EMS

organization; it may mean that it will be easier to transport

individuals using wheelchairs and other equipment.

The law also forbids employers from discriminating against

individuals with disabilities who can perform the essential tasks of

a specific job, even if they cannot perform other marginal job

duties, if an employer can make a reasonable accommodation. The

ADA represents a very important change in policy towards

individuals with disabilities even though its application to volunteer

workers is still unclear. The fact that individuals with disabilities

have valuable skills and talents to contribute to an EMS organization

is the key point for managers of volunteer services to consider,

12
Diversity in EMS In many communities in America, it is apparent that the population

Organizations is becoming more diverse. It will be difficult and unwise to carry

out a recruitment program based on the traditional image of an EMT

volunteer; there just aren’t enough of them. EMS managers should

value diversity by recognizing that capable volunteers come in

different packages with different personal lifestyles, values, and

priorities, by reaching out to the entire population of potential

volunteers when recruiting new members, and by not making

assumptions about whether or not individuals would or could

perform EMS tasks based upon their age, sex, race, ethnicity, or

disabilities,

Older individuals will become increasingly important as volunteers

as our population continues to retire earlier and enjoy good health.

Women are often under-represented in EMS organizations even

though they are as competent as men in serving as EMS volunteers.

Members of different racial and ethnic groups want to participate in

the network of active citizens just like everyone else, but need extra

encouragement to become involved. Individuals with disabilities can

perform many tasks that are of great value to EMS organizations.

A strategy for recruitment that reflects the philosophy of valuing

diversity means developing and executing a plan to reach out to

nontraditional volunteers. It means giving everyone equal access to

membership, training opportunities, and decisionmaking and

listening to their ideas, solutions, and concerns. The participation

of nontraditional volunteers can both enrich and improve the

operation of an EMS organization.

Valuing diversity also means taking responsibility to ensure that

individuals from different backgrounds are integrated into the

organization and made to feel they are an important part of the EMS

team. The EMS manager should be aware that these individuals
may be sensitive about being different or not one of the group and

that adjustments may need to be made to accommodate them. For

example, the organization’s facilities may need to be modified so

they are wheelchair-accessible, and special equipment may be

required to enable individuals with disabilities to field phone calls.

The range of sizes for uniforms, boots, or other equipment may

need to be increased.

Diversity in cultural backgrounds raises some other issues about

managing volunteers. Individuals from some cultures may not react

to praise or criticism the same way as others or may be reluctant to

claim responsibility for their own accomplishments. Religious

holidays or family priorities may need to be taken into consideration

when scheduling certain volunteers for work. EMS managers will

need to be aware of such cultural differences when evaluating,

motivating, and encouraging volunteers. Flexibility is required in

managing a diverse volunteer membership.

The creation of an environment that welcomes cultural diversity may

require some special effort. Special training concerning issues

related to diversity may need to be provided for the membership.

Trainers with expertise in this field are available to provide special

diversity programs, films, and group problem-solving exercises.

There is a risk, however, that diversity training can be

counterproductive by bringing to the surface but not resolving

personal prejudices.

Creating the Right Environment

Valuing diversity means making individuals feel welcome. Jokes

about one’s heritage or appearance may not be appreciated, and

expressions used without any thought about their content may be

offensive. Some signs, calendars, and wall art may be perceived as

degrading or embarrassing. Such organizational behavior will put

some members on the defensive or make them feel inferior. An

EMS organization that tolerates racial or ethnic bigotry, personal

slurs, or sexual harassment is not a welcome place.

There are no secret formulas for changing the culture and attitudes

of an organization, but one thing is critical to any change: EMS

managers must lead by example. A manager cannot practice or

tolerate behavior that is offensive to minority groups, females,

seniors, or disabled volunteers. A manager cannot change people,

but can demonstrate what is allowable in the EMS organization.
Motivation

The purpose of recruitment is to motivate individuals to volunteer

their capabilities, time, and energy for the benefit of the EMS

organization and the accomplishment of its lifesaving mission. EMS

managers and recruiters need to understand the basic principles and

techniques for marketing their organization and motivating potential

recruits to enlist as volunteers.

Motivation is a comprehensive topic. There are many different

theories about HOW to motivate people to join an organization and

even more theories about WHAT motivates people. Let’s start with

HOW.

Motivating Them Most people really do things based on impressions they have rather

to Volunteer than through some thoughtful analysis of the pro’s and con’s of a

course of action. Decisions about joining voluntary organizations

often come about that way. People get an impression that it would

be challenging or interesting to serve as an emergency medical

technician, and something confirms that idea and motivates them

into action.

How do people get impressions that make them think about joining

an EMS organization? Positive impressions can be gained through

relatives, friends, or coworkers who are active volunteers, through

public-relations advertising, and through television programs or

movies about EMS. In addition, EMS managers can create

situations that make a positive impression through special events and

promotions. A variety of approaches for persuading individuals to

volunteer may be required because, according to the “three times

rule, ” a message must be heard or seen at least three times before an

individual will be persuaded to act.

Once this idea has been planted in someone’s mind, he or she can be

moved to action by a friend, relative, or co-worker who actively

recruits them, by an event the EMS organization creates in which

people come forward to explore the possibility of volunteering, and

by mailings, phone calls, or advertisements designed to persuade

people to enlist.

Some individuals are more rational. They volunteer for a specific

reason, like getting experience that will help them in their career.

These individuals will think more about the benefits of being a

member of an EMS organization and may want more information

describing just what these advantages are. They may want to know

15
what kind of equipment they will become qualified to use and what

sort of emergency medical training or certification they will receive

from their volunteer work. They may want to know whether anyone

before them has had success in converting his or her volunteer

experience into regular employment. They also may want to know

more about the disadvantages or costs to them, such as the

equipment they will have to buy, the time they will need to invest in

training, or the time and expense required for recertification in the

future. They usually want enough information to make a reasonably

informed decision. Booklets and information sheets can be very

helpful here.

If the EMS organization is located where there is more than one

volunteer service, some individuals may try to compare the

advantages and disadvantages in order to decide which one offers

them the best opportunity, For this reason, an EMS manager might

want to keep abreast of the recruitment incentives that similar

volunteer services are offering so the EMS organization can try to

be competitive with them in attracting new people.

Word-of-Mouth Recruitment

EMS volunteers and their friends, relatives, and neighbors are

excellent recruiters, especially when they have a positive EMS

experience to share. They are the best recruiters not only because

of their contacts with other people, but also because they can convey

something about the nature of EMS work. This type of recruitment

can be enhanced by providing volunteer members with professional

business cards and basic organizational flyers. Volunteers recruited

this way usually have a more realistic picture of what EMS work

entails and even a familiar face in the organization to show them the

ropes. As a result, they are less likely to drop out in the initial

period after their enlistment.

One down side to relying on existing EMS volunteers and their

friends, neighbors, and relatives is that it tends to limit the cultural

diversity of the volunteer force because many individuals limit their

social contacts to others like themselves. If an EMS organization

relies on social networks for volunteers, it probably will want to

make a special effort to reach out to under-represented groups in the

community for volunteers as well.

Getting Their

Attention:

Marketing

Marketing has been around since time began, but it’s been going by

other names, such as sharing, trading, exchanging, or bartering. It

is the caring trade of value for value. For an EMS organization that

needs volunteers, marketing involves the identification and offer of

16
something valued by volunteers in exchange for their uncompensated

services.

The true worth of marketing comes when all parties involved in an

exchange relationship are convinced they have received the greatest

value. People can relate to value in many instances only when they

literally can feel the value. In emergency medical services this may

be hard to do, but is not impossible.

Value can be felt by the community in several ways. One way is by

receiving emergency care or other services from the EMS

organization; another way is by learning about an EMS

organization’ s activities through an effective public-relations

program,

Like any of the tools needed to manage a well-run program,

marketing requires hard work, creative problem-solving, and

innovative thinking to be successful.

The Importance

of Marketing

Marketing is important to the overall success of an EMS

organization:

1. In recruitment. Marketing is the bridge between potential

volunteers and the EMS organization. It defines what is needed and

what benefits are available, in addition to the incentives offered to

prospective volunteers, to attract and involve them in the

organization.

2. In volunteer retention. The value given to volunteers in tangible

and intangible rewards is what keep volunteers coming back and

stimulates them to tell others about their good feelings, which feeds

back into further recruitment.

3. For the organizational climate. Happy volunteers who feel good

about their work create a climate that stimulates creativity,

enjoyment, and achievement. It simply feels good to work and be

there.

4. In gaining organizational support. When an EMS manager

needs the support of the organization’s administration, board

members, peer-level department heads, and volunteers, marketing

provides the basic leverage that allows the manager to define an

exchange relationship (what’s in it for them and for the manager) to

attain the manager’s goals.

5. In winning public support. EMS managers need the support of

the general public for the organization’s programs, events, and
philosophies. Marketing again holds the key to attaining this

support. Public relations can play a key role here.

6. In resource development. When an EMS manager needs goods,

services, or dollars, the marketing orientation is the magic that will

produce results. In fact, marketing is the key to getting what the

manager needs without spending dollars: the art of fundraising.

7. In obtaining members, participants, and consumers. Marketing

is also the key in getting people to accept the EMS organization’s

services and/or products. Proper application of marketing convinces

others to become involved with the organization when they see there

is great value to themselves for that involvement.

Too often, marketing is the missing tool in the EMS manager’s

toolbox, with the result that issues begin to arise concerning

recruitment, retention, and fundraising. As shrinking resources,

increased requirements for volunteers’ time, and greater demands

from the public affect EMS organizations more dramatically each

year, EMS managers must master this tool in order to achieve the

EMS organization’ s goals.

The Three

Components of

Marketing

Marketing is made up of three components: publics, markets, and

the exchange relationship. Let’s define all three.

1. Public. A public is any identifiable segment of the community

in which the EMS organization operates. Publics are groups with

whom the EMS organization might or might not want to have a

relationship. When identifying publics, the EMS manager doesn’t

worry about or try to judge whether or not he or she might someday

want to interact with them. They simply exist.

2. Market. A market is an identified public with whom the EMS

organization decides it wishes to establish a trade relationship. To

put it in simpler terms: they have what the organization needs or

wants. On a list of 100 publics, an EMS manager may find six

markets that could meet the organization’s needs if they choose to

do so. The trick is having a list of publics from which to choose.

Without it, EMS organizations suffer from resource nearsightedness,

never realizing how many potential resources are available to them.

3. Exchange Relationship. This is the keystone of success. It is the

bargain that is struck between the EMS organization and the

markets. It is the essence of marketing: the trade of value for

value. The characteristics of the exchange relationship are:
Honesty and fairness.

No hidden agendas or pitfalls.

A user-oriented position.

A targeted approach.

Highest concern for what the other party will receive of

value.

Attention to the organization’s success in attaining its goals.

A lot of homework.

Planning a

Marketing

Program

When thinking about marketing the EMS organization, it is essential

that the EMS manager understand the four-step planning process that

will bring success.

In most instances, EMS managers begin with step #2--their needs;

as a result, they find themselves with many problems, including

resource nearsightedness. The manager must first think of what the

organization has:

What business are you in?

What’s your product?

Three product classifications:

The expected product? It is critical to learn each

volunteer’s expectations before beginning work in order

to compare them to reality.

The augmented product?

The potential product?

What business does the public think you’re in?
What products does the public think you offer?

Four Ways to

Market

There are many things that go into marketing, but there are four

basic ways to market: advertising, publicity, promotion, and

personal selling.

1. Advertising. Advertising is a campaign that is designed,

pretested on target markets, posttested for results, and presented

through selected media in order to influence people to accept a

product or idea. It usually has a theme or slogan, is targeted to

specific audiences, and has a cost. Too frequently, EMS

organizations misunderstand the purpose of advertising, and

consequently they omit testing, targeting, and life-cycle checks,

thereby making their ads ineffective.

Advertising can serve an EMS organization by making people aware

of what it does, what it needs, and how it can be contacted.

Advertising usually is designed for quick consumption, not lengthy

reading, and for creating familiarity.

Many EMS managers confuse advertising with marketing, thinking

they have a wonderful recruitment campaign underway, for

example, with 24 ads in newspapers and 100 posters in stores. This

is not a recruitment campaign; it is an advertising effort that can

augment recruitment through personalized asking, but by itself is not

going to be successful in attracting volunteers or donors.

The most remembered and successful advertising of this century was

the “Uncle Sam Wants You!” campaign that appeared in every post

office and train station across the United States. Had the posters

and ads, however, not been backed up by recruitment offices,

appeals, the draft, and the fervor of people wanting to help their

country, the ads themselves would have fallen short of their goal.

2. Publicity. Publicity is a cost-effective technique that involves the

development and dissemination of news and promotional material

designed to bring favorable attention to a product, person,

organization, place, or cause. It is different from advertising in that

it is usually carried by the media for free and without indication of

the source; it also can be more credible than advertising. An active

public information officer for the EMS organization is required to

ensure maximum publicity.

Publicity is a creative challenge for an EMS organization as it finds

ways to use media to tell its story and express its need for support.

It is critical for an organization to check the effectiveness of its

publicity by finding out how well the public is getting its message.

20
It is publicity that plays a key role in creating impressions and

perceptions and needs to be current, clear, and realistic as it comes

across to the public.

3. Promotion. Promotion is defined as marketing activities that

project the EMS organization’s message other than by advertising,

publicity, and personal selling. Promotional efforts might include

displays, speakers bureau presentations, and booths at local fairs and

events. These efforts are usually unique and are not necessarily

expected to occur again. The creative minds within the EMS

organization can be stimulated to think of positive ways to gain

attention and share information with the public.

4. Personal Selling. The effective EMS manager understands that

some of the best recruiters for the organization are satisfied

volunteers who relate their positive experiences and encourage

others to become involved. Satisfied donors and supporters can and

do play the same role through their contributions and their influence

with others.

The catch in understanding personal selling, however, comes when

this activity is separated into its two components: spontaneous and

targeted. For the most part, the contacts made by volunteers and

supporters are sporadic and unplanned. This is spontaneous

personal selling and is difficult to measure or control. Most of the

individuals involved in this form of selling do not even realize what

it is; they are simply sharing their pleasure with others. The second

type of personal selling--targeted selling--is planned and involves

people who are interested in participating in events the public is

expected to attend. The volunteers involved in targeted selling could

even be coached as to what to say, how to act, and what to wear.

Communications There are many ways to communicate the EMS organization’s

Strategies message. Depending on the demographics of the market or the

audience, some communications strategies will work better than

others.

General Considerations

It has been demonstrated that spending a lot of money doesn’t

necessarily pay off with big results. Small items listed in newspaper

want ads may produce better results than custom-made ads on news

pages. Similarly, an ad in a flyer handed directly to an individual

may be more effective than the same ad run in a local newspaper.

If there is more than one EMS organization in your area, you may

want to pool resources and share the cost of advertising in print

21
media. Some local newspapers periodically publish a listing of

volunteer opportunities.

Direct ads that ask individuals to volunteer are one form of

advertisement, but the media also can be used to give information

about an EMS program and its activities that has a positive effect on

recruitment. News coverage, photographs of accomplishments, and

news stories that describe the role of EMS volunteers are important

opportunities for conveying information that make a positive

impression. For this reason, an EMS organization’s manager or

public information officer should maintain good relations with press

reporters even though it is not always easy to respond immediately

to their requests for information.

There are other ways to get the volunteer message out. If you have

volunteers who like to speak to the public, their appearances before

community groups are also excellent opportunities for recruitment.

A listing of opportunities for volunteering may be kept by the public

library or by the city or county government volunteer office. Local

radio and TV stations may air public service announcements at little

or no charge.

Message Content

The content of the message is as important as the way it is

communicated. Short, memorable one-liners can capture a listener’s

or reader’s interest and have the positive effect desired. The use of

a visual image in combination with a one-line message is a very

effective approach. An ad that enables someone to put himself or

herself in the picture will attract those who are motivated by civic

responsibility or social duty.

Organizational Image

The facilities, vehicles, equipment, and uniforms of an EMS

organization may capture the interest of some individuals and

operate as an incentive for volunteering. Pagers, beepers, and

mobile phones may make the opportunity to join an EMS

organization appear more attractive and interesting to some

volunteers. For this reason, the EMS manager should be conscious

of the different kinds of equipment used, the cost of the equipment

22
Use the EMS

PIER Manual

Recruitment

Reminder:

Be Realistic

to volunteers, and the use of other technical apparatus that increases

the job challenge. Potential volunteers may be reluctant to join an

EMS organization if they have to pay for their uniforms and

equipment.

The EMS PIER Manual (Publication FA-151/September 1994)

distributed by the U.S. Fire Administration and the National

Highway Traffic Safety Administration provides guidance for EMS

organizations in creating, maintaining, and enhancing their public

information, education, and relations programs. This manual is an

excellent, practical guidebook and is highly recommended for use by

all EMS organizations. It may be obtained for free from either the

USFA or NHTSA. Consult the Resources unit of this manual for

the mailing address and telephone number for these federal agencies.

Being realistic with potential recruits is especially important when

they are volunteers, who usually have fewer and weaker ties to an

organization than regular employees. When volunteers, especially

EMS volunteers, decide the job is more than they bargained for,

they can and will quit. Volunteers must not be given the impression

that the job is all glamour and happy endings. They need to be

aware of the difficult problems they will face so that when a crisis

occurs they are not completely surprised. If the EMS organization

fails to provide volunteers with sufficient notice as to the difficult

situations EMTs may face, the unanticipated emotional trauma of an

emergency run with an unsatisfactory result may lead to the

volunteer’s subsequent failure to show up for calls or even to

resignation.

By the same token, potential volunteers should be encouraged to be

honest about what they have and can do and what their own personal

limitations are. Volunteers may develop an ability to deal with

difficult situations, but if they are faced with tough problems they

are not ready for, they are likely to quit. Volunteers may not know

how they will react to the misfortune of others and should be

encouraged to think this through and make a realistic assessment of

what they can handle.

There are many ways to bring reality into the decision to volunteer.

Shared experiences, films, and roleplaying exercises are techniques

that can be used to develop a fair assessment by both the recruiter

and a potential volunteer as to whether or not that individual should

volunteer for EMS work. Realistic recruitment doesn’t mean

dwelling on the negative parts of the job, but it does mean providing

an accurate picture of what is likely to happen. The bottom line is

that volunteers themselves must have enough information about what

23
What Motivates

Them to Volunteer

for EMS

they will do in the EMS organization to make a decision that is right

for them.

Written job descriptions and signed commitment statements are

useful tools for ensuring that both the volunteer and the EMS

organization have shared expectations as to the volunteer’s role in

organizational activities.

People do different things for different reasons, and their reasons

may change over time. There is no specific formula about what or

how much of something makes a person decide to volunteer for

EMS. Everyone is different. Nevertheless, many things are known

about what motivates individuals to join and stay in voluntary

organizations.

Opportunity for Friendships and Cooperative Activities

The opportunity to develop friendships and to work cooperatively

with other people in a rewarding activity is a major reason why

volunteers enlist and remain in EMS organizations. Therefore, it’s

important that EMS teams work well together and have a successful

partnership when responding to emergency calls.

Day-to-day activities and special events that allow friendships to

develop and grow also are going to be important factors for

retaining volunteers in EMS. Moreover, because a volunteer’s

family also is affected by the demands of EMS work, special efforts

need to be made to involve spouses and other family members in the

EMS organization.

Needs related to friendship and working together can be met in

many different ways. EMS managers should decide how they can

make volunteers feel they are part of a team and prevent them from

becoming isolated and excluded from the group. The manager could

either assume or delegate responsibility for seeing that new

volunteers have a buddy assigned to help them become part of the

group.

At the same time, it must be remembered that the cliques that often

form in social groups may make some volunteers feel like outsiders

and eventually may lead to their dropping out. The isolated

volunteer needs to be integrated into the group.

Symbols of belonging to a group or organization are important

reinforcers of allegiance and membership. Uniforms, caps,

insignias, or logos on equipment and clothing promote loyalty and

a sense of belonging to the group.
Feeling of Satisfaction and Importance

The satisfaction and importance that many EMS volunteers feel as

a result of taking charge of an emergency situation and providing

lifesaving emergency care is another strong motivational force.

Altruism

A powerful reason to join and remain in organizations is the nature

of the work itself--providing onscene emergency medical care.

EMS work enables the volunteer to feel like he or she is giving

something beneficial to others, an altruistic motive. Many

Americans are motivated to volunteer as a result of a desire to do

something helpful for their community, and the belief that citizens

should give something back to society is strong in many

communities.

Sense of Achievement and Self-Esteem

EMS volunteers may develop a sense of achievement and

self-esteem from being able to do the right thing at the right time.

Achievement grows with skill and ability. Individuals who are

25
Participation in

Decisionmaking

Following Up

After the

Application Is

Received

motivated by achievement need the chance to feel like they are

developing expertise and competence as an EMS volunteer.

Successful Performance

Successful performance is a strong motivator for continued

volunteer service. The EMS manager needs to communicate to

some volunteers the realization that they have been successful by

making them aware of their own personal wins and

accomplishments. After considering the cultural differences among

individuals, the EMS manager can convey a sense of success by

acknowledging a volunteer’s accomplishments to the organization,

in the media, or at special events. By asking volunteers for their

advice and ideas about how to get things done, the manager also

demonstrates that their accomplishments have been recognized.

It’s important for EMS personnel to be able to participate in

deciding how work should be organized and who can and should do

what. They need an opportunity to:

Feel that they are doing what they do best.

Have some ability to decide how things should be done.

Be challenged by problems that are the right scale for

them to solve.

Get a sense of accomplishment for the work they do.

Feel that they are improving in their skills and ability.

Feel that they can manage the tasks assigned.

The demands of a crisis will challenge and energize volunteers if

they are prepared for such events and are adequately trained and

properly supported. They need the confidence that their support

teams and equipment will not let them down.

Bringing someone on board is not just getting them to fill out an

application. Initial followup is the key to getting someone who is

interested and has applied for membership to become a volunteer.

Feedback information should be provided to new recruits within the

first ten days after they apply for membership. The application

process should be completed efficiently so that applicants know the

results within a month. Potential volunteers can be invited to special

events or activities so they have an opportunity to become

26
acquainted with the other volunteers and the way the EMS

organization operates.

Post-Application Interview

A special interview should be conducted at the volunteer’s home or

at the EMS station soon after an application for membership has

been received. This interview is the responsibility of the volunteer

coordinator or recruitment officer, but it can be delegated to others

within the organization,

The recruit interview gives the EMS organization the chance to

provide more information about the organization as well as to learn

more about the potential volunteer and what he or she expects and

is prepared to give. It also may afford an opportunity to explain the

social aspects of the organization and the way other family members

can enjoy activities or events related to EMS.

The spouse and family of the volunteer should be included in the

interview. It is important for married individuals to be able to have

their spouses included in the EMS organization’s activities whenever

possible. The interviewer should explain to the recruit’s spouse the

level of involvement available to the recruit, the need for specialized

volunteers, and the specific opportunities available to the spouse for

participating in the activities of the organization.

All or some of the following steps may be included in the

post-application interview with each recruit:

1. Exchange of information (both written and oral). The

interviewer should request the recruited volunteer to share such

information as past work experience, interests and skills, reasons for

volunteering, and time available.

The interviewer in turn should share with the recruit such

information as the nature of the screening process, the

organizational purpose, structure, and policies, an overview of

volunteer service, the jobs other than EMT that are available, and

the general expectations and limitations of volunteers. This is the

opportunity for the organization to shine. The interviewer must

present a glowing report on the EMS organization; the positive

things about the organization should be emphasized. The

interviewer who is negative may turn off the volunteer before ever

getting started.

2. Discussion and clarification of the information. Both the

volunteer and the interviewer should be given an opportunity to ask

27
questions and make sure there is mutual understanding as to the

volunteer’s job.

3. Initial screening. Initial screening as to whether the volunteer

should become a member of the organization is mutually

accomplished by the volunteer and the interviewer.

4. Followup interview. A second, more indepth interview with the

officer of the EMS station or activity to which the volunteer is

expected to be assigned should be conducted. The officer should

discuss the specific type of job for the volunteer, the closeness of the

organization, and the relationship of the membership. The officer

should be allowed to express both the officer’s and organization’s

expectations for the volunteer.

5. Matching (negotiation of responsibilities). EMS managers often

forget about matching or placement. Matching of the volunteer is

an important aspect of the interview process. Most of the time that

a volunteer will spend in the service will not be spent on emergency

calls; instead, the majority of time will be spent at the station. The

orientation to station life can be a difficult one for the volunteer.

There are many things that need to be done around the station, and

the volunteer must realize that those responsibilities are as important

to the organization as the emergency duties.

The job description for the volunteer’s position may provide for a

trial period and explain how matching is negotiated when a change

in the volunteer’s work assignment is needed by the volunteer or the

organization. The use of a written job description ensures that the

responsibilities of the volunteer and the organization are understood

and agreed upon.

The job description should include specific and measurable tasks that

can be used to evaluate the performance of the volunteer. Criteria

should be established to evaluate the volunteer’s performance of the

assigned tasks. These criteria for rating volunteers can be as simple

as above standard, at standard, below standard, or no activity.

The job description also should include an estimate of the time

involved and identification of the supervisor to whom the volunteer

reports and is responsible. Unity of command is extremely

important to new volunteers because they want to please everyone,

but if they are responsible to more than one supervisor, they will

become confused and possibly frustrated to the point where they will

resign soon after joining the organization.

28
Top 13 Interviewing Tips

The interviewer can ensure that an interview with a recruited

volunteer is effective and productive by using the following tips for

successful interviewing:

1. Try to establish mutual trust and understanding. This initial

exposure of the potential volunteer to the EMS organization offers

an opportunity for the interviewer to engage in good public relations

even if a job is not found that fits the volunteer’s needs.

2. Let the potential volunteer know that the information shared

during the interview is confidential and will not be divulged to

others.

3. Practice effective communications: provide information clearly,

have written information and visual aids to reinforce oral

communications, and listen and check to ensure that he or she is

understood and understands the volunteer. Good communication is

a two-way exchange.

4. Value each person by remaining nonjudgmental, except in

relation to the volunteer’s ability to work within the organization in

the positions available. Try not to make assumptions.

5. Look for ability and willingness to do a job. Be alert to whether

or not the volunteer’s values are compatible with the values of the

organization.

6. Encourage the volunteer to do the talking by using open-ended

questions, such as: “What made you decide on the organization?”

7. Keep the conversation moving without losing sensitivity to the

volunteer.

8. Share enough of yourself to put the volunteer at ease. The

volunteer wants to know that the people in the organization are real.

9. Be honest about the organization and the job expectations and

limitations.

10. Guide the volunteer to avoid overextending. Enthusiasm may

cloud the volunteer’s ability to make a realistic decision. It’s better

to start slowly, then add hours and responsibilities after a trial

period if the volunteer still wants to make a greater commitment. 

29
11. Include the spouse and family of the volunteer in the interview.

It is important for married individuals to be able to have spouses

included in the organization’s activities whenever possible.

12. Don’t talk a volunteer into something he or she really doesn’t

want to do. Make sure the volunteer understands the commitment

necessary in order to remain active with the organization.

13. Look for nonverbal cues. The volunteer’s “body language” will

help the interviewer understand the feelings of the volunteer.

Avoiding Common Mistakes During the Interview

The interviewer should be aware of the common mistakes made

during recruit interviews and consciously ensure that these errors are

avoided:

Talks too much.

Does not let the volunteer answer the interviewer’s questions.

Does not stay on the topic.

Does not address the real concerns of the volunteer.

Does not hear the unasked questions.

Lacks detailed information.

Is unable to respond to the volunteer’s concerns for safety or

time constraints.

Lets prejudices influence his or her judgment.

The Unspoken

Concerns of

Volunteers

Potential recruits may have a number of concerns about themselves

and the EMS organization that they do not express. The interviewer

must ensure that these “unasked questions” are addressed:

What do I really have to do? Can I manage it? Do I have the

skill? Can I handle it emotionally?

How much time will it demand? Is there enough to keep me

interested? Will it put pressure on my regular job or family?

What danger will I be in? What are the risks?

Who benefits? Why should I do this?

30
If a waiting list for new volunteers is maintained, the EMS

organization should have some system for periodically recontacting

the wait-listed volunteers to let them know they are still in line for

a position and that the organization is looking forward to the chance

to work with them. This followup also provides an opportunity to

remove from the list those volunteers who are no longer available

for various reasons. To maintain the interest of volunteers on the

waiting list, the EMS organization should try to engage them in

organizational events and activities, and, if possible, they should be

used in some capacity until an EMS post opens up.

Matching

Volunteers to

Jobs

Successful job performance by volunteers is affected by a number

of factors, many of which are beyond the control of EMS managers

and supervisors. One thing that managers can do is to ensure that

an appropriate match is made between the kind of skills volunteers

have and the demands that will be made on them in an emergency

situation. Matching is based on the old idea that you can’t fit a

square peg into a round hole.

Mismatches between volunteers’ abilities and the jobs they are

expected to perform leave everyone unsatisfied. The victim is not

satisfied with the quality of service or treatment he or she receives,

the volunteer EMT is frustrated by his or her inability to treat the

victim properly, and the EMS team is dissatisfied with the

impression it makes on the community or hospital personnel.

Matching skills and tasks correctly is a key to good performance.

This means that managers need to assess the training requirements

for volunteers and to think carefully about the assignments they

make.

Matching the right person to the job also means that the first

volunteer through the door may not be the right person for the EMS

job that is being filled. However, a volunteer who is not appropriate

for an EMS job may be able to perform other functions for the

organization that are useful and important to the overall effort.

Many EMS organizations report successful experiences with

volunteers who do not make EMS runs but turn out to be critical

players on the team. For example, volunteers may have some of the

following needed capabilities:

mechanical skills;

accounting skills;

telephone skills;

purchasing and inventory control skills;

equipment maintenance and repair;

public speaking ability; or

fundraising skills.

31
Matching doesn’t involve just linking the skills and abilities of

volunteers with the duties they are expected to perform. Matching

also means making an appropriate connection between the personal

needs people have for achievement, friendship, and importance, for

example, and the kinds of things the EMS organization offers. If

the social aspects of participation are important to volunteers and the

organization doesn’t have many social activities or provide time for

social contact, a good match is not likely to occur. The volunteers

will not feel satisfied with the return they get for volunteer service

and are likely to quit.

EMS managers also can try to match the expectations that

individuals have about the demands volunteering will make on them

and the actual demands that are placed on them. The assignment of

work based on the volunteers’ expectations of the workload, rather

than distribution of the work evenly among all volunteers, may serve

to fulfill the expectations of many volunteers and increase their

willingness to serve. Some volunteers will want to give much time

and personal energy to the EMS organization, while others will join

with the expectation of making a weekly call at most. Tempering

demands with expectations may prevent volunteers from feeling that

they are overloaded or underutilized.

EMS managers can enhance the match between volunteers and the

EMS organization by not promising things they cannot deliver. The

number and nature of emergency calls are beyond the control of any

manager, although experience may provide some reasonable

indication of what can be expected on a weekly or even daily basis.

Finally, matching means that the volunteers should believe that there

is a reasonable balance between what they give and what they get

back in order to keep them satisfied as members of the EMS

organization. Some volunteers may start to think about quitting if

they believe they are giving more than they are getting back.

Volunteers, like paid staff, want to feel that they are getting a fair

exchange for their contribution. This is why it is so important for

EMS managers to understand each volunteer’s needs and

expectations.
Retention

Keeping volunteers in EMS organizations has become more

difficult. An EMS organization’s efforts to retain its volunteers are

as important to the success of an EMS organization as its

recruitment program. The best recruitment program is of little value

if the organization cannot retain its members. EMS managers must

identify and respond to the social, organizational, and job-related

conditions that contribute to early or increased turnover if they are

to maintain an adequate level of qualified volunteer staff for the

organization. There are many reasons why individuals discontinue

volunteer service. Today’s lifestyles and work patterns mean that

many have less extra time for volunteer work in general.

Two-career and single-parent families feel sharp time constraints.

The changes in volunteers’ lives may make it difficult for them to

continue to serve for the same length of time in the same capacities

as in the past.

The demands within EMS organizations also can have a negative

effect on retention. The requirements for becoming and remaining

an EMS professional, volunteer and career, are more stringent.

Meeting additional training and certification requirements is

time-consuming and even costly. Internal conflicts, potential health

and safety risks, work-related stress, and lack of confidence in the

use and performance of specialized equipment may contribute to

early volunteer resignations.

EMS managers need to identify alternative options and develop a

strategy for retaining their most valuable resource--the existing staff

of trained, competent volunteers. The factors within the control of

the manager that contribute to turnover need to be recognized and

eliminated if possible. The EMS manager needs to adjust to those

factors that cannot be controlled. For example, opportunities for

reduced levels of participation could be provided for volunteers

whose personal life or job require them to reduce their time

commitment to the organization. Volunteers suffering from

boredom or stress in their present positions could be reassigned to

new or less stressful jobs at least on a temporary basis. Specific

retention techniques are described in the Recruitment and Retention

Strategies unit.

Volunteer There are several issues concerning the leadership of the EMS

Leadership Issues organization that can affect the satisfaction of volunteers and their

continuation with the organization: the management style of the

organization, the management skills of the EMS manager and the

33
organization’ s officers, the communication skills of the EMS

manager, the image of the organization, and the organizational

climate.

Management Style

People want more responsibility for their own work today, both in

their places of employment and in volunteer organizations. Rigid

and hierarchical leadership styles are increasingly ineffective, but all

people expect someone to take charge and act like the leader. Most

people want to know what is expected of them. They prefer that

policies, rules, and regulations be spelled out, posted, or available

for reading.

Volunteers need to feel a sense of control over their own work and

responsibility for their accomplishments. They expect respect from

others and want to be included in decisionmaking. For example,

volunteers could be allowed to set their own goals and objectives for

improvement and performance.

Organizing people to work in teams is more common today and

many people thrive in that sort of work arrangement. Some with

very high friendship needs will need time for conversation and will

want to avoid tension and conflict in the work place.

Management Skills

Volunteers may assume that the leaders of the EMS organization at

all levels have the requisite skills to serve as managers; however,

leaders who are not managers in their private jobs may lack

fundamental management skills. Extensive training is required and

provided for volunteers who provide emergency medical services;

however, training may not be offered to volunteers who provide

management services. Volunteers who are dissatisfied with the

management abilities of the officers of the organization and their

treatment by those officers will be disinclined to remain with the

organization. Training for volunteers who are promoted to

management positions should be considered as an important

retention tool. Management training may be available for free or for

a modest fee through local, regional, and state programs provided

by EMS academies, colleges and universities, and EMS offices.

Communication Skills

Volunteer members sometimes hear what an EMS manager says

differently than the way the manager thought it was said.

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Communication patterns differ between women and men and also

across cultural groups. Communication includes an unspoken effort

to achieve status or friendship. Messages meant to convey

instructions can be garbled and misleading to the receiver.

Developing good communication skills comes partly from observing

reactions to the way the EMS manager speaks: Do they change

their posture toward you Do they grasp the meaning of your ?

instructions?

A variety of techniques to communicate effectively with volunteers

may need to be used because they are in and out of the station and

seldom all together at the same time. The EMS manager should

consider routine meetings, newsletters, written SOPS, bulletin

boards, electronic mail, orientation packets, and videotaped

presentations.

The Image of the Organization

Each EMS organization develops its own image and spirit. These

things are transferred to the community and make an impression on

potential volunteers. EMS managers can instill a sense of pride in

volunteers as well as a special camaraderie. A positive image

affects the way an EMS organization is thought about, and research

tell us that people are more interested in belonging to organizations

that they think have a positive image and are more prestigious.

Organizational Climate

Each organization has its own personality and a unique climate that

develops from the mix of people, tasks, equipment, and external

pressures that make up the organization. A critical task for an EMS

manager is to define common goals for organizational members and

harness the volunteers’ energies into achieving those shared goals.

Analysis of the organization’s climate will help to determine if the

EMS manager must work to make the organization a cooperative

workplace where people strive to maintain good work relationships.

Where the fundamental expectations of volunteers about what they

will get from being a member of an EMS organization are in conflict

with their experience, the organization’s environment will become

increasingly dysfunctional. The EMS manager should think about

the importance of matching individuals and organizations for both

good performance and retention, To that end, it might be helpful to

ask volunteer members the following questions concerning the

organizational climate:
Do you think that our organization offers you the chance to

have the kind of volunteer job that you will want in the

future?

To what extent are you made to feel that you are really a part

of our organization?

To what extent have you made social friendships with people

you have met through volunteering in our organization?

How do you feel about the appearance of our organization’s

stations?

How do you feel about the appearance of our

emergency-response apparatus?

How do you feel about our organization’s image with the

public at large?

When you first volunteered, how well were our

organization’s policies explained to you?

Do you think that there is sufficient opportunity for

advancement in our organization?

When you were first contacted, did the people who talked

with you about the organization and the opportunities within

it describe them fairly and honestly?

How do you feel about our organization’s training program?

Does the organization keep you informed about its activities

and plans?

How often do you get involved in planning and

decisionmaking in our organization?

How do you feel when you tell people that you are a member

of this organization?

To what extent do you understand just what work you are

supposed to do and what your duties are?

Do you find the work assigned to you challenging and

interesting?

In general, how well do you like your present position?
n If you were to start again, do you feel you would volunteer

for our organization?

n Do the officers and supervisors on the job set a good example

in their own work habits?

n When you seek information or help on a difficult problem,

how likely are you to get the help you need?

n Are you encouraged to offer ideas and suggestions for new or

better ways of doing things?

n Do you think that your personal problems will be given

adequate attention if you brought them to a supervisor’s

attention?

n When you are given new duties and responsibilities, how well

are they explained?

n How do you feel about the officer-member interaction?

n Please tell us any way in which we can improve our

organization.

Stress

Management

The decision to quit or drop out of an EMS organization is a

function of three different kinds of factors that affect a volunteer’s

satisfaction with his or her membership: concern about the job,

conflict with management, and pressure from family. Demands that

cannot be managed create a stress level that may become intolerable.

Any one factor or a combination of factors may produce enough

personal stress to cause someone to withdraw from volunteer

service.

At the same time, the presence or absence of other options for

volunteer service may provide the impetus for staying with or

leaving the EMS organization. If the other opportunities exist and

37
are as rewarding as participation in the EMS organization, the

stressed volunteer may be motivated to join another volunteer

organization.

Critical Incident Stress Management

EMS personnel are a unique group of people, but they are also

human like everyone else. Those individuals who deliver

emergency medical services see other humans when they are most

vulnerable as a result of a life-threatening condition or event. Death

cannot always be prevented despite the best efforts of EMS

personnel. There are so many incidents that an EMS person

responds to that could affect the psyche of the volunteer that it is

necessary for the EMS organization to have a system in place to care

for the emotional well-being of its volunteers. Volunteers who

respond to these life-threatening emergencies are subject not only to

the stresses of life but also to the effects of being exposed to

excessive risks, destruction, and human misery.

The effect of this stress can be seen in the premature resignation of

the volunteer or disruption of their health and happiness. If the right

steps are taken early enough, the loss of volunteers can be

minimized. It is imperative that EMS managers recognize the

effects of stress on volunteers and implement a critical incident

stress management system.

The U.S. Surgeon General has estimated that 80 percent of the

people who die due to nontraumatic causes actually die of stressrelated diseases. Stress is not designed by nature to kill, but rather

to enhance life. Some stress is helpful and actually essential for a

full and productive life. Without stress there would be no change,

growth, or productivity.

It is extremely important that a stress management system that

provides psychological support services be developed for the EMS

organization by someone familiar with the special personalities,

operational procedures, stressors, and needs of EMS personnel.

To assure EMS organizations that the very best support services for

their personnel are available within the community, it is important

that a special psychological support team be created. This team,

usually referred to as a critical incident stress debriefing (CISD)

team, must be prepared specifically to address the special

personalities, job- and family-related stressors, and the support

needs of EMS personnel.

If you are not aware of a CISD team, contact your local hospital or

mental health organization.
Health and Safety

Risks

Equipment

Concerns

Concern for our safety is a basic human need. Nevertheless,

individuals vary significantly in the amount of risk they are willing

to take and the things they consider threatening or dangerous. Good

management can’t change human nature, but it can minimize

unnecessary fears about personal safety. Safety consciousness is

good management in its own right.

Individuals who volunteer for EMS may not be overly concerned

about personal risks, but they still want the EMS organization to

provide valid information about the risks they may face and to take

proper precautions for their well-being, particularly in the areas of

health, safety, and equipment maintenance.

People in general are increasingly aware of the possibility of

contracting a contagious disease. Providing full and understandable

information about the nature of health risks EMS volunteers might

incur on the one hand and establishing careful procedures to follow

to avoid such risks on the other are part of the trust between

volunteers and an EMS organization. This trust means providing

safety equipment and training for EMS volunteers in the proper use

of such equipment to protect them from diseases like hepatitis,

AIDS, and tuberculosis. Information about keeping equipment and

supplies clean and sterile, when appropriate, and discarding

contaminated supplies is part of this training as well. Having safety

precautions in place protects EMS volunteers, minimizes concerns

for health risks, and enables them to reassure family members that

they are not taking unnecessary risks. Good health practices also

reduce the spread of infectious diseases among the clientele served.

An EMS manager who is concerned about retention as well as

recruitment will enforce the health and safety policies and

procedures of the organization. If an EMS volunteer is injured or

contracts a disease because rules weren’t enforced, the EMS

organization may have to be rebuilt in whole or part because of the

adverse effect on existing members and the organization’s

recruitment effort.

Materials concerning the prevention and control of health and safety

risks involved in EMS work are available from the U.S. Fire

Administration, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration,

and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Equipment must be kept in good condition. Ambulances and other

vehicles must be in proper working order, repairs should not be put

off, and maintenance schedules should be followed regularly. No

39
The Performance

Review as a

Retention Tool

one wants to make an emergency run with a vehicle that doesn’t

operate properly.

The inventory and proper storage of equipment ensures that the right

apparatus and gear are available at the moment they are needed.

Making a run without the right equipment can frustrate and endanger

volunteers and potentially compromise medical treatment.

The regular maintenance of equipment ensures that EMS personnel

can rely on the fact that equipment is operable and in the proper

location. Inventory control procedures and a checklist for outfitting

emergency vehicles are critical for emergency response. The

maintenance of safety equipment must be a high priority.

Equipment-related concerns can put stress on an EMS volunteer who

is uncertain about how the equipment will perform or whether

needed equipment is in the proper location. These concerns may

create a sense of not being in control of the situation that many

volunteers will find intolerable and may reduce their pride and

self-esteem in being an EMS volunteer. For those who are

motivated by a desire to help others, failures related to faulty or

missing equipment may make them feel useless and frustrated.

Periodic reviews or evaluations of the performance of volunteers by

their supervisors are an essential part of EMS management. When

handled effectively, these reviews can help in closing the gap

between what volunteers do and what the EMS manager needs them

to do. They also can increase the likelihood of a volunteer’s

continued participation in the organization by identifying and

responding to any dissatisfaction that volunteers have with job

assignments, training, management, and fellow volunteers.

Handling performance reviews effectively, however, is not as easy

as it might seem. A number of things can get in the way of an

effective review: the design of the evaluation forms, a heavy

workload that leaves little time for what seems like extra activities,

and the challenge of getting volunteers to accept what the EMS

manager has to say. These factors can, but need not, complicate the

review process and limit its effectiveness. There are ways to avoid

most complications and to make the review process work the way it

should.

Defining the Purpose of the Interview

What the purpose of the performance review process is, of course,

will depend to some extent on the policies established by the EMS

organization, but experience has demonstrated repeatedly that the

40
most effective reviews are those that serve only one purpose: to

help the volunteer work closer to his or her potential. Everything

that will help a volunteer belongs in the review session unless it can

be handled more effectively at some other time.

For example, the correction of a volunteer’s tendency to prolong

projects certainly would help to ensure that tasks are completed in

a more timely manner; however, the correction shouldn’t be

postponed until review time. It should be made when it is first

noticed that the volunteer is not meeting deadlines.

Clarifing the Purpose of the Review to the Volunteer

The volunteers in many EMS organizations do not clearly

understand how their work is evaluated or what performance

appraisals are all about. If the volunteers are not sure about what’s

at stake in their reviews and what’s really going on, they tend to

hold back during evaluation sessions. When pressed, they may

become defensive or angry or even more passive than usual.

By clarifying the purpose of the review before it is conducted, the

reviewer can avoid a negative response from the volunteers and save

a lot of time. If the reviewer and the volunteer being reviewed are

absolutely clear about the purpose of the review, it will be much

easier to stick to the essential points in the review session and get

the important things done.

Conducting the Review as an Exchange of Information

Performance reviews usually involve the completion of an evaluation

form that has a “report card” quality to it. The evaluation form is

only a tool to help make reviews more objective and more consistent

from volunteer to volunteer. Whether it does so depends on how it

is designed and used. Even a excellent evaluation form used under

ideal conditions is only a means (a basis for discussion) to an end

(helping the volunteer).

Report-card-type reviews seldom produce significant or lasting

improvements in volunteer performance. Grades may or may not

be motivational for children in school, but for most adults, being

graded on a job for which you are not paid may provide little

incentive to improve.

A more productive approach is to consider the review itself as

something that happens between the reviewing officer and the

volunteer. It takes the involvement of both sides to make an

effective review. There is little chance for improvement unless

41
there is agreement that improvement is needed and possible, and it

is unlikely that agreement will be reached without honest and frank

discussion. That’s why conducting a review as an exchange of

information is better than the grade-giving approach. It’s not only

easier to handle, it’s more practical.

Structuring the Interview

The reviewer should organize his or her approach to the discussion

of the topics covered in the interview and explain to the volunteer

how the interview will be structured. One approach that many

managers and supervisors have found useful is the R-A-P review

model:

n Review the past.

n Analyze the present.

n Plan the future.

With this approach, the reviewer can trace through time each of the

basic topics (such as the job proficiency) from the past through the

present and on into the future. This simple chronological sequence

is both logical and easy to remember. Consequently, when the

R-A-P approach is used, most people have no difficulty in keeping

track of where the discussion is going and what progress has been

made to date. Another significant feature of this approach is the

emphasis it places on the future. Discussion of the past and present

is much less important than planning for the future if the goal is

really to help volunteers work closer to their potential.

Approximately 25 percent of the review time should be spent on the

past, 15 percent on the present situation, and a full 60 percent on the

plan for the future, which the reviewer and volunteer work out

together.

Specifying the Essential Topics to Be Covered

Once the information exchange begins, it may be difficult to stay on

target, One way the interviewer can keep the discussion focused is

to let the volunteer know in advance the general topics that will be

covered in the review. Three essential topics that should be covered

are job performance, working relationships with others, and a

comparison of what has been accomplished since the last review

with what was planned. To establish a sense of two-way

communication, which is crucial for an effective interview, the

reviewer also should ask the volunteer if there are other topics that

42
he or she wishes to discuss. Volunteers usually want answers to the

following questions:

n How am I doing?

n What can I do to improve?

n Do I have a chance for advancement?

n what will be expected of me before the next review?

n How will my work be evaluated during that time?

n What kind of help or attention can I expect from my

supervisor?

n What changes are likely in the organization in the months

ahead and how will they affect me?

The Exit Interview Many EMS organizations do not conduct exit interviews with

as a Retention Tool volunteers who are leaving the organization because of a perception

that the organization does not need that volunteer anymore. In

reality, the exit interview can be one of the most important aspects

of a retention program if, done in a proper, timely, and professional

manner. The information gathered will help the organization in

planning for future success.

The purpose of an exit interview is to gather information from each

volunteer leaving the EMS organization in order to identify changes

or improvements that might be made to reduce turnover of

volunteers in the future.

The exit interview may provide the EMS manager with an

opportunity to get to the root of a problem or specific reason for

leaving and possibly change the volunteer’s mind or perception of

the situation. It is an excellent time for the leader to determine the

specific problem.

There are many reasons for not doing exit interviews, but the

primary reason given by most EMS managers is the time required.

It can also be an unpleasant task for the EMS manager because the

volunteer may try to affix blame for the problem on the manager or

another volunteer. This is not the time to place blame but instead a

time to determine problems.

Everyone who leaves an EMS organization should be given the

opportunity to reply, either in person or in writing to the questions

43
included in the exit interview. A standard questionnaire that can be

completed in a face-to-face interview or in writing, should be

designed for use in all exit interviews. The following questions

should be considered for inclusion in the standard exit interview

form.

Retention of

Career Staff

The turnover of compensated personnel in EMS organizations

staffed by combined career-volunteer personnel or career personnel

only presents problems and requires solutions that differ from those

associated with the turnover of volunteers.

Career personnel leave because of factors that exist both within and

outside the EMS organization and the control of its managers.

External factors, such as changes in lifestyles, family demands, and

other social responsibilities, affect the attitudes of career personnel

toward their jobs. Internal factors within the EMS organization,

such as job satisfaction, also affect the attitudes of career personnel

44
toward their work and their desire to seek a new position elsewhere.

To retain career employees, an EMS manager must keep these

internal and external factors in mind and try to make necessary

accommodations in the workplace when necessary.

The work performed by a career person, including the routine, daily

activities of the job, must be appropriately challenging to the

employee. People differ in the extent to which they need change in

their jobs and the rate at which they are ready for change.

However, a job that is no longer challenging is a major reason why

employees become restless and dissatisfied. Employees who feel

like they are in over their heads because of the demands of the job

also will look for a way out. It is the responsibility of the EMS

manager to determine what is appropriate for each individual and to

be careful to notice the way people differ from what is thought to be

typical in capabilities, interests, and motivations.

Variety is an important part of the workday for many career

personnel, but there are certain aspects of their jobs where they want

a significant degree of predictability. Volatile relationships between

managers and employees or unharmonious relations among

employees themselves may make career personnel apprehensive

about what to expect on the job and may create an intolerable

tension at work. Jobs that become routine and boring may fail to

sustain the interest of career employees. EMS managers need to

understand the differing needs for predictability and constancy that

career personnel have and to adjust the work environment and job

assignments to satisfy those needs.

Being an employee is only one of many roles we all perform. The

responsibility for small children, aging parents, or ailing relatives is

one of many external factors that can place significant demands on

a career employee. When the workplace lacks flexibility in both

formal and informal rules, employees may feel that they cannot

accommodate their other nonwork roles with their role as employee.

They may feel pressured to look for a job that is more flexible in

terms of work time and time off. The EMS manager should

consider the adoption of flexible work schedules; however, to be

successful, flexible schedules have to respond to employees’ needs

and constraints as well as to the work requirements of the EMS

organization.

Career employees also may need flexibility as they grow older.

They may desire to reduce the physical demands of the job or to

make time for other activities that they have postponed. For these

career EMS personnel, opportunities for partial employment may be

a key factor to their retention. Employees start thinking about how

they want to organize their retirement at increasingly early ages.

45
Partial retirement can be a viable alternative to the loss of a good

employee who is ready to do something else or who finds full-time

employment too demanding. Partial retirement can be structured in

a wide variety of ways, including shorter work days, reduced work

weeks or months, or even seasonal employment. Partial retirement

options extend the working lives of many employees and are

attractive for people in their early fifties as well as those closer to

the traditional retirement age. Partial retirement is particularly

useful where the work is physically stressful, but also is attractive

to employees in a wide range of different occupational groups.

Market factors play an important role in an employee’s willingness

to remain in an organization. Obviously, in depressed economic

periods when other employment opportunities are scarce, employees

are likely to remain in an organization, even when they are

dissatisfied with the conditions of their job. As soon as the market

improves, however, they are likely to leave for other employment.

Low turnover therefore cannot be assumed to mean a satisfied

workforce. The demand for the skills that EMS personnel have may

also increase because of changes in the market. In these cases, the

competition for and retention of employees may become a matter of

the organization’s ability to pay. Most employees, however, will

not move from a satisfactory job just for higher pay. Their daily

routine, social life, professional identity, and job satisfaction may be

more important to them than higher pay. If the pay differential

between a career employee’s present job and outside opportunities

is relatively small, EMS management needs to point out the positive

conditions of the job, other than compensation, as a way of retaining

employees who have outside opportunities. To the extent that the

EMS organization provides opportunities for career development

and personal growth, there is a good chance that career personnel

can be retained.

46
Recruitment and Retention Strategies

An effective recruitment and retention program for an EMS

organization consists of a package of methods, techniques, or

strategies that identify, attract, and keep qualified volunteer

members. There is no right or perfect package of strategies, but

there are strategies that are more effective than others. The

recruitment and retention strategies selected for inclusion in the

organization’s package or program should be those that have

demonstrated effectiveness, can be implemented by the organization

at a reasonable cost, and meet the needs of the organization and its

membership.

EMS organizations with exemplary recruitment and retention

programs were identified by state EMS directors and specialists in

EMS recruitment and retention. An analysis of these exemplary

programs revealed those recruitment and retention strategies that

have been proved effective in actual practice. Either individually or

in combination with other strategies. These effective strategies (and

the number of the page where the description of each strategy

begins) are:

Annual volunteer recognition event (p. 50)

Availability of nonoperational opportunities (p. 51)

Buddy system (p. 53)

Clearly written job descriptions (p. 54)

Competitive testing for promotions (p. 55)

Encouragement of family participation (p. 56)

Formal recognition system (p. 57)

Free insurance (p. 59)

Free meals during long-distance runs (p. 60)

Free personal equipment and protective clothing (p. 61)

Free training (p. 63)

Informal recognition system (p. 65)

47
Length of service awards program (LOSAP) (p. 66)

Mentoring (p. 68)

Movie theater advertisement (p. 70)

Multilingual recruitment (p. 72)

New, well-maintained vehicles (p. 73)

Open house (p. 75)

Out-of-town conferences (p. 77)

Participation-based compensation (p. 79)

Physical activities (p. 82)

Piggybacking of recruitment activities (p. 83)

Print advertisements (p. 84)

Recruiter incentives (p. 86)

Stipend (service account) for volunteers who meet

minimum weekly participation requirements (p. 88)

Targeted recruitment (p. 90)

24-hour central telephone access by prospective volunteers

(P. 92)

Vacancy announcements (p. 94)

Volunteer EMT week (p. 95)

Welcome wagon (p. 97)

Youth development programs (p. 98)

Youth education (p. 100)

A description of each of these strategies is provided in the following

pages. For each strategy the following information is presented: (1)

its applicability (is it appropriate for recruitment, retention, or

both?), (2) a general description of the strategy, (3) any special

implementation requirements, (4) the strengths of the strategy, (5)

any drawbacks or deficiencies of the strategy, (6) its cost, (7) its

48
overall effectiveness as a recruitment and/or retention tool, (8) an

example of its use if known (i.e., the experience of at least one EMS

organization that has used the strategy successfully), and (9) the

name, address, and telephone number of a person who can be

contacted to obtain more information about using the strategy.

49
METHOD ANNUAL VOLUNTEER RECOGNITION EVENT

APPLICABILlTY Retention

DESCRlPTlON An annual event is conducted to recognize publicly the contributions

made by volunteers. The event may be a banquet, dinner dance, or

other evening ceremony at which the contributions of volunteers are

acknowledged by means of awards and other forms of recognition.

IMPLEMENTATION A public-recognition event requires careful planning. Arrangements

REQUIREMENTS must be made for such requirements as a facility, food service,

entertainment, recognition certificates or plaques, event programs and

reports, floral displays, souvenirs, gifts, or mementos, and publicity. A

coordinator or committee to plan and implement the event will need to

be designated.

STRENGTHS Recognition events provide positive reinforcement of the significant

value of the contributions made by volunteers and elicit a sense of

personal accomplishment and pride by individual volunteers. Public

acknowledgment that the contributions made by volunteers are

appreciated will increase the likelihood that they will continue as

members of the EMS organization. The events also provide an

opportunity to publicize the valuable contribution made by the

organization and its volunteers to the community.

DRAWBACKS The cost of the event may be a problem for some organizations.

COST There may a significant cost for the recognition events: however, this

cost may be covered by inclusion as a planned item in the

organization’s budget and by contributions of time, products, and

services by volunteers and local businesses.

FFFECTIVENESS Appreciation events are considered to be an essential, valuable

retention method.

EXAMPLE The Odenton Volunteer Fire Company 28 of Odenton, Maryland, is a

%-person, largely volunteer organization that provides fire-suppression

and basic-life-support/transport services for a community of 25,000. The

fire company conducts an annual spring dinner dance to observe the

anniversaries of the establishment of the fire company and its ladies

auxiliary, acknowledge the achievements of all of its volunteers, and

specifically recognize the outstanding achievements of the top ten

volunteers in terms of fire responses, EMS responses, total responses,

university training hours, practical training hours, and instructional

training hours. The printed program for the dinner dance acknowledges

the volunteer contributions and provides statistics on the company’s

activities for the previous calendar year. A two-person banquet

committee plans and coordinates the dinner dance.

CONTACT PERSON Charles D. Rogers, Chief

FOR FURTHER Odenton Volunteer Fire Company 28

INFORMATION 1425 Annapolis Road

Odenton, MD 21113

(410) 674-4444
METHOD

APPLICABILITY

DESCRIPTION

AVAILABILITY OF NONOPERATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

Recruitment and retention

EMS agencies have a need for many nonmedical services that can be

provided by volunteers. These nonoperational services include such

diverse activities as equipment maintenance, community relations,

public education, training, dispatching, administration, planning,

clerical support, photography, mapping, coordination of social

functions, and even recruitment. Many potential volunteers do not

qualify or do not wish to participate as operational personnel (EMTs or

paramedics) because of age, physical disability, or lack of interest, but

still are willing or can be motivated to serve as a volunteer in a

nonoperational capacity. In addition, operational personnel suffering

from burnout or loss of interest often are reinvigorated and achieve

satisfaction by performing nonoperational functions. Many EMS

organizations provide a range of nonoperational volunteer opportunities

as an alternative path for participation by volunteers.

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

The EMS organization must identify the needed services that can be

performed by other than operational personnel, define the knowledge

and skill requirements for the nonoperational jobs, and expand its

recruitment program to target and enlist nonoperational volunteers to

perform the needed services.

STRENGTHS The provision of nonoperational services by volunteers reduces or

eliminates the need to use operational personnel to perform those

functions instead of or in addition to their life-support functions. The use

of nonoperational volunteers enables the EMS organization to draw on a

larger pool of potential volunteers to meet its needs. The community

image of the organization is enhanced by the variety of citizens able to

participate in its activities. Operational personnel whose participation

might be decreased or even terminated because of stress or loss of

interest can continue with the organization in a nonoperational role.

DRAWBACKS There do not appear to be any significant drawbacks: however, if a

volunteer EMT or paramedic is reassigned to a nonoperational job, the

organization may lose its investment in time and money.

COST There are no significant costs: in fact, the use of nonoperational

volunteers may result in a decrease in costs since the financial

investment involved in training and qualifying operational personnel is

not required.

EFFECTIVENESS Many staff or support functions of an EMS organization can be

performed effectively by nonoperational personnel, and the

organization can be successful recruiting volunteers who are not able or

interested in serving as an EMT or paramedic. The turnover rate for

nonoperational volunteers will be similar to that of operational

volunteers. The involvement of nonoperational volunteers is a very

efficient use of available volunteer manpower.

51
EXAMPLE The Sedona Fire Department of Sedona, Arizona, is a combined

career-volunteer organization that provides fire and ALS services from 8

stations for a sparsely populated tourist area covering 126 square miles.

The EMS division of the department has a 76 -person staff, including 14

full-time and 3 part-time paid personnel and 59 volunteers. The

department makes extensive use of nonoperational volunteers to

perform tasks that otherwise would need to be done by operational

staff or that it could not otherwise provide. The following departmental

needs are filled by appropriately trained volunteers: mapping,

photography, maintenance, clerical services, and preplanning. The

department’s management and operational personnel have given the

nonoperational volunteers a high approval rating.

CONTACT PERSON Gary Zimmerman

FOR FURTHER Public Information Officer

INFORMATION Sedona Fire Department

2860 Southwest Drive

Sedona, AZ 86336

(602) 282-6800

52
METHOD BUDDY SYSTEM

APPLICABILITY Recruitment

DESCRIPTION The buddy system is a recruitment method that targets the personal

contacts of existing members as potential recruits. Each existing

member is enlisted as a recruiter and is expected to solicit individuals.

with whom the veteran member is familiar, usually friends and relatives,

as volunteer members of the EMS organization. The EMS organization

may set annual recruitment goals: the usual target is one new volunteer

per veteran member each year.

The EMS organization must formalize the "buddy system" by requiring or

REQUIREMENTS at least encouraging veteran-member participation in recruitment

setting recruitment goals for the membership, and providing recruitment 

information (e.g., promotional handout or brochure) to veteran

members.

STRENGTHS The existing members are an excellent source of informed recruiters.

They are aware of the requirements for satisfactory job performance,

tend to associate with individuals who have similar interests, capabilities,

and work schedules, and want the organization to continue as an

rganization. They know their friends and relatives as

therefore are well situated to assess, contact, and

DRAWBACKS Good emergency-care providers are not necessarily good recruiters.

Some existing members may be reluctant to solicit friends and 

acquaintances to become members or to take any responsibility for

recruitment. The recruitment of buddies may result in "inbreeding" that

does not contribute to a diverse membership. If the existing

membership does not include females, blacks, non-English speakers, or 

other minorities, the buddy system may prepetuate organization staffing

that is not representative of the area served.

COST There is minimal additional cost, if any, but the time expended by the

entire membership on recruitment will increase.

EFFECTIVENESS The buddy system will increase the number of recruits, but alone will not

meet the volunteer staffing needs of the organization.

EXAMPLE The Basalt Fire Protection District, headquartered in Basalt, Colorado, is

responsible for fire, rescue, and emergency-care services for a

low-population, mountainous, 494-square-mile resort area. Basalt Fire

and Rescue provides BLS and ALS services through its 28-member,

all-volunteer EMT staff: 19 ALS ambulance personnel and 9 first

responders. The “buddy method” is the primary recruitment technique

used by the department. Each veteran member Is expected to recruit

at least one new volunteer per year, and most new members are signed

up by means of the buddy system.

CONTACT PERSON Steven G. Howard, Chief

FOR FURTHER Basalt Rural Fire Protection District

INFORMATlON P.O. Box 801

Basalt, CO 81621

(303) 927-3365
METHOD

DESCRlPTlON

CLEARLY WRITTEN JOB DESCRIPTIONS

The EMS organization develops and distributes written descriptions for all

job classes or positions within the organization for both volunteer and

paid personnel. The written descriptions clearly and succinctly lay out

for each job the position title, a general summary of the position, the

minimum time requirements, the training and certification requirements,

the tasks assigned to the position, and the criteria for evaluating

performance.

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

The organization management must specify and write job descriptions

for all occupational classes or positions within the organization.

Personnel publications are available to provide guidance for the

development of job descriptions; sample descriptions may be obtained

from other local EMS organizations on state-level EMS, fire, or rescue

agencies or associations.

STRENGTHS Well-written, clear job descriptions ensure that prospective and current

members of the organization understand the expectations established

for each occupational class or position and the basis for evaluating

performance: as a consequence, these individuals are better able to

decide whether to volunteer as a member or to seek promotion. The

written descriptions provide organization managers and supervisors an

objective basis by which to establish accountability, evaluate

performance, and make initial enlistment and subsequent promotional

decisions.

DRAWBACKS

COST

None.

The only cost is the time required for the development or acquisition and

periodic review of job descriptions.

EFFECTIVENESS Written job descriptions contribute to the overall effectiveness

of the entire recruitment and retention process, although they alone will

not have any significant impact on the process.

54
METHOD COMPETITIVE TESTING FOR PROMOTIONS

APPLICABILITY Retention

DESCRIPTION Competitive testing is a formal procedure for the ranking and selection

of candidates for promotion within an EMS organization on the basis of

objective personnel evaluation criteria. Points are assigned to each

applicant for an occupational class, slot, or position within the

organization on the basis of seniority, written-test results, and

oral-interview results. Applicants then are listed in rank order according

to total points received. The applicant highest on the ranking list is

offered the next open slot for which the applicant has qualified. Formal

promotional procedures are administered by a review or merit board

established by the governing body for the EMS organization.

IMPLEMENTATION The promotional procedures prescribed in any applicable state or local

REQUIREMENTS legislation must be observed. If state or local law does not apply, the

governing body for the organization must authorize and specify the

promotional process, including the frequency of the testing (often annually)

and the points to be assigned for seniority, written tests, and oral

interviews. If permitted by law, the written testing or the entire

competitive-testing process can be contracted out to a private testing

service or operated internally by the organization through a review or

merit board. If the process is not contracted out, the organization must

write or purchase objective written tests, administer and grade the tests,

assign points, and post the test results. Personal interviews must be

scheduled, conducted, and scored: the final ranking lists must be

posted.

STRENGTH The objectivity of the process ensures that the most qualified members

are promoted. Favoritism is eliminated because the process is

administered in a fair, impartial, and equal manner and is open to all

organization members.

DRAWBACKS Competitive testing removes control of promotions from organization

managers, who have had the opportunity over time to know and

observe the leadership potential and other qualifications of

applicants. The cost of administration of a formal promotional process

may be too much for many agencies, especially smaller departments.

The testing may be more appropriate for larger agencies that have

numerous candidates for open positions.

COST Contracting out the promotional process can be costly. If the process is

administered within the organization, there will be a significant cost in

terms of time and money (e.g., purchase of testing instruments).

EFFECTIVENESS Competitive testing will have a modest positive impact or retention.

Some members may be encouraged to remain with the organization if

fair opportunity to advance to leadership or desirable

positions.

55
METHOD ENCOURAGEMENT OF FAMILY PARTICIPATION

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention

DESCRIPTION The family-oriented approach to EMS staffing involves the active

recruitment of volunteers from the same household, especially

husband-wife pairs. Recruitment efforts emphasize the benefits to both

the community and the family of members in the same household

working together in a shared volunteer activity.

IMPLEMENTATION Recruitment activities target families as potential volunteer members.

REQUIREMENTS

STRENGTHS Family-oriented recruitment can attract more volunteers for the same

effort. The participation of multiple members from the same family can

result in a greater commitment to and a longer duration of participation

within the local EMS organization. The involvement of husband-wife

teams can lessen the stresses on family life that often result when only

one spouse is an EMS volunteer.

DRAWBACKS Family involvement may result in greater-than-normal membership losses

when a single volunteer decides to resign for whatever reason. Families

that participate together in EMS will tend to leave together.

COST No additional cost.

EFFECTIVENESS Famiily recruitment often can result in family enlistment. Even if only one

family member participates, the EMS operation has not expended any

additional effort for the recruitment of the single participant.

EXAMPLE The New Durham Fire Department of New Durham, New Hampshire,

provides fire-supression and rescue services for a New England

community of 2,300 population. The department is staffed by 30

volunteers, including 8 fire-trained, 2 EMS-trained, and 20 cross-trained

personnel. Recruitment is by word of mouth; family and female

participation is encouraged. Five husband-wife teams have joined the

service.

CONTACT PERSON Terry Jarvis, Captain

FOR FURTHER New Durham Fire Department

INFORMATION Box 100

New Durham, NH 03855

(603) 859-3220

56
METHOD FORMAL RECOGNITION SYSTEM

APPLICABILITY Retention

DESCRIPTION A formal recognition system is the regular practice of an EMS

organization to acknowledge the contributions and achievements of Its

volunteer members by the presentation of awards to those members

who meet eligibility criteria set and publicized internally by the

organization. Anything can be used as an award, although they

typically include, either alone or in combination, a printed

acknowledgment with the recipient’s name inscribed (such as a

certificate or plaque), an item of value (such as a cash or gift

certificate), and a recognition event (such as an awards dinner for

members and their spouses). Awards may be presented for any

significant achievement: length-of-service milestones, meritorious acts,

overall performance (e.g., “EMT of the Year”), level of participation,

promotions, and skill-development achievements (e.g., certification,

completion of training program). Many organizations believe that as

many awards as possible (including humorous awards) should be given

as long as the volume of awards does not diminish the value and

credibility of the recognition system.

IMPLEMENTATION

An awards committee or task force should be designated to design and

administer the recognition system, arrange for the production and

REQUIREMENTS presentation of awards, and make recommendations concerning the

recognition system to agency management. The type and frequency

of the awards to be given, the qualification criteria for receipt of

awards, and the process for the nomination of recipients for competitive

awards must be specified by the EMS organization through its awards

committee and publicized within the organization. The organization

must develop and observe an internal procedure for monitoring and

acknowledging members who qualify for automatic awards, such as

length of service or promotions. The process for nominating, evaluating,

and selecting the recipients of competitive awards must be

implemented on a regular cycle according to the frequency with which

the awards are given. Spouses of the recipients of major awards should

also be recognized, perhaps with a corsage or companion plaque, in

order to acknowledge the important role of family members of

volunteer members and to stimulate interest by other spouses. After the

recognition system has been announced and expectations created,

teh awards must be made as promised in fair and consistent manner.

STRENGTHS Formal recognition creates interest in reaching acheivable goals,

promotes pride in the organization, promotes a competitive spirit

among volunteer members, and demonstrates the organization's

appreciation for the efforts of it's members.

DRAWBACKS The value of awards may be diminished if the organization fails to

recognize the volunteers who meet the criteria for receipt of an award,

gives out undeserved or unearned awards, or requires award recipeints

to pay of the costs associated with the award (e.g., tickets to a

recognition dinner-dance). If too many awards are given, the

recognition system may lose it's meaningfulness and credibility.
COST

EFFECTIVENESS

There are modest costs associated with the purchase or production of

awards (plaques cost $15-20 each): however, some costs may be

reduced or avoided. For example, certificates can be prepared with a

personal computer and laser printer or by a volunteer member with

graphics-design skills.

Formal recognition is a effective, low-cost management practice that

maintains the interest, morale, and level of participation of volunteer

members and thereby contributes to lower and less frequent turnover of

members.

58
METHOD

APPLICABILITY

DESCRIPTION

FREE INSURANCE

Recruitment and retention

The EMS organization pays the premiums for health, disability, workmen’s

compensation, and/or life insurance to cover its volunteer members.

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

The provision of insurance requires approval by the governing body for

the EMS organization and an appropriation by the applicable fiscal

body. The types and coverage of and carrier for the insurance to be

provided must be selected. Premiums must be paid regularly according

to the amounts and schedule prescribed by the carrier. Any state

requirements must be observed.

STRENGTHS Free insurance coverage demonstrates that the EMS organization cares

for the health and welfare of its volunteer members. Organization-pald

insurance either eliminates the need for members to assume the cost for

insurance or allows them to supplement their existing coverage.

DRAWBACKS

COST

Cost.

Insurance plans can be expensive depending on the number of

volunteers to be insured and the types of insurance to be provided,

although a larger organization may realize lower rates because of the

greater pool of individuals to be insured.

EFFECTIVENESS People respond to financial inducements that remove the need for

out-of-pocket expenses that would otherwise need to be paid. Free

insurance is a financial incentive that is less attractive than

compensation but obviously more appealing than no coverage.

Organization-provided insurance coverage contributes positively to the

overall recruitment and retention effort.

59
METHOD FREE MEALS DURING LONG-DISTANCE RUNS

APPLICABILITY Retention

DESCRlPTlON Free meals are provided by an EMS organization for volunteer members

who make long-distance ambulance runs beyond a minimum distance

or running time to an emergency-care facility. The meal cost is

assumed by the organization by reimbursement of the out-of-pocket

meal expense by eligible volunteer members or by maintenance of an

organizational charge account at one or more restaurants that may be

used by volunteer members.

IMPLEMENTATION A free-meal Incentive requires an appropriation to pay for the meals

REQUIREMENTS and a procedure to provide compensation for the meals.

STRENGTHS The free meals show that an EMS organization appreciates its volunteers.

By taking time to consume a free meal, the volunteers are able to rest,

relax, and refresh themselves before the return trip. This time out

enables them to wind down and prepare for a safe return.

DRAWBACKS There is a cost for this retention incentive.

COST There is a modest cost for this perquisite, which is the product of the

number of long-distance runs times the number of staff per run times the

average cost per meal. For example, if an EMS organization makes 200

long-distance runs per year, each run Includes a 2-person staff, and the

average cost per meal is $5, the total annual cost is $2,000.

EFFECTIVENESS A free-meal policy alone is not a significant retention incentive, but as

part of a package of strategies that demonstrate that an EMS

organization values its volunteers members it can contribute to a

reduced turnover rate.

EXAMPLE The Upper San Juan Hospital District, which has its headquarters in

Pagosa Springs, Colorado, is a special service district specifically

organized to deliver ambulance service for a rugged, rural,

1,800-square-mile area in the southern part of the state. ALS services are

provided by a 33-person staff: 3 career members and 30 volunteers who

are compensated by call ($15 for local runs, $40 for runs to Durango).

The nearest hospital is located in Durango, Colorado, 65 miles from the

district headquarters. Volunteer members make about 350 round-trip

runs to Durango each year. In addition to their compensation per call,

volunteers who travel to the Durango hospital are provided a free meal

at one of the two Durango restaurants where the EMT association

representing district members has a charge account. The hospital

district donates $2,000 annually to the association, and the association

uses the unrestricted donation to pay for the meals in Durango. The free

meals are a small perquisite that is highly valued by the volunteer

members, who appreciate the opportunity to eat for free and rest

before returning from Durango.

CONTACT PERSON Eric Schmidt

FOR FURTHER Upper San Juan Hospital District

INFORMATION P.O. Box 4189

Pagosa Springs, CO 81157

(303) 731-5811
METHOD FREE PERSONAL EQUIPMENT AND PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

APPLICABILITY Retention

DESCRIPTION Personal equipment and protective clothing are provided by an EMS

organization at no cost to its volunteer members, either as standard

issue or as an earned reward based on performance, to ensure that they

have essential personal gear for undertaking emergency-care or rescue

procedures. The free gear may include a fully equipped jump bag

(stethoscope, BP cuff, splints, bandages, and other medical supplies), a

seperate stethoscope and BP cuff, an oxygen regulator, a glass punch

or seat-belt cutter for vehicle extrication work, or protective clothing for

rescue work.

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

The personal gear must be purchased and distributed to eligible

members. If the EMS organization provides personal gear based on the

level of participation of volunteers, it must establish the criteria (runs,

in-service hours, points) for receipt of the free gear.

STRENGTHS The provision of free personal gear ensures that recipeints have the

necessary tools to perform their jobs, demonstrates that recipeints are

valued members of the organization, and increases the personal

confidence and satisfaction of reipeints in performing their jobs.

Individually issued personal gear can be maintained in the member's

personal motor vehicle and will be available for immediate use.

DRAWBACKS There is a significant cost to providing free gear. If a free-gear policy

has not been in effect previously, the start-up costs for providing free

gear to veteran members will require substantial one-time expenditures.

COST The cost of providinfg free gear is substantial (e.g., $100-$200 for a

jumpsuit and $300-$500 for a properly equiped jump bag).

EFFECTIVENESS A free-gear policy demonstrates that volunteer members are valued

members of the organization and that each member's personal

capabilities and readiness are important. The policy results in increased

pride in and commitment to the organization and, as a result, reduced

turnover of volunteer personnel.

EXAMPLE The Danville Life Saving Crew Of Danville, Virginia, is an all-volunteer,

nonprofit organization that provides ALS services for Pittsylvania County, a

largely rural area covering 293 square miles and including a population of

83,000, of which 60,000 reside in Danville. The organization Is staffed by 130

volunteers: 25 paramedics, 20 cardiac technicians, and 85 EMT-As. The

vehicle fleet includes 6 ALS units, 2 crash trucks, and 2 quick-response

vehicles.

The crew provides everything required by a volunteer member at no

charge. Crew members receive free training, clothing, and two-way

portable radios. The clothing provided includes three coats (lightweight,

heavyweight, and dress), shirts, slacks, shoes, and coverall suits. The

medical packs stored in the personal vehicles of members may be stocked

with crew-provided supplies. The $200,000 annual budget of the crew is

funded entirely through public and corporate donations.

61
CONTACT PERSON Douglas Young

FOR FURTHER Public Information Officer

INFORMATION Danville Life Saving Crew

202 Christopher Lane

Danville, VA 24541

(804) 792-2739

62
METHOD

APPLICABILITY

DESCRIPTION

FREE TRAINING

Recruitment and retention

The EMS organization provides free onsite training for its membership

and/or reimburses its members for participation in off-site training. The

training programs may be basic, entry-level (BLS), advanced-level (ALS),

supervisory or leadership, and in-service or continuing-education

learning opportunities.

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

Any in-house training requires the planning and coordination of an

annual Instructional program: arrangement and scheduling of

appropriate facilities: identification, scheduling, and payment of

qualified instructional staff: development or procurement of instructor’s

materials and audiovisuals: identification and procurement of

appropriate student materials and expendables: development and

Implementation of course evaluation procedures: purchase/

development and maintenance of testing materials and records: and

development and maintenance of attendance records. Many

organizations maintain an in-house library of audiovisual materials and

reference texts. Reimbursement for offsite training must be authorized

by the governing body of the organization, reimbursable expenses (e.g.,

lodging, food, travel, and registration fee) must be specified, and

appropriate funding for reimbursement of allowable expenses must be

provided.

STRENGTHS Free training benefits both the participating members and the EMS

organization. Free educational opportunities, especially training that is

required for membership with the organization or for state certification,

are a strong inducement to attract potential volunteers who otherwise

would be required to assume the significant cost of mandatory training.

Free training at any level increases knowledge and skill levels, improves

the capability of the participating members and the organization to

provide competent services, increases the confidence of the

participating members in performing their duties, reduces the risk of

liability of the participating members and organization for any

unintended outcomes in providing emergency care, and facilitates

education-based advancement within the organization.

DRAWBACKS Training is expensive, especially offsite training programs, and requires a

substantial commitment of time and energy by participating members.

Significant training requirements, even if met by in-house training

programs, may operate as a disincentive to recruitment and an

obstacle to continued retention, especially if the combined training and

regular work load are perceived as being too burdensome.

COST There are significant costs in providing or reimbursing members for

participation In training programs. Reimbursable offsite training is more

expensive than organization-provided training as the full tuition and

other participation costs must be paid. Organization-provided, in-house

training Is much less expensive: the major costs are for any outside

instructors ($lO-$25 per hour) required, student materials, and

consumables. Payment for offsite training may be prohibitive for many

departments.

63
EFFECTIVENESS

EXAMPLE

CONTACT PERSON

FOR FURTHER

INFORMATION

 Free training is considered to be a very effective recruitment tool by

removing the need for assumption of significant out-of-pocket expenses

 for required training by prospective volunteers. Since many members

are reluctant to expend their own monies for advanced or leadership

 training but are willing to devote their personal time to participate in

training, free training eliminates a serious impediment to participation by

existing members. Free continuing and advanced training encourages

existing members to remain and progress within the organization.

Fire Company No. 1 of the Hanover Fire Department in Hanover,

Pennsylvania, offers BLS service for a municipality of 14,300 and part of

an adjoining township. ALS support is provided by a local hospital. The

fire company is a combined career-volunteer operation with two

full-time career staff and 30 volunteers. The career personnel staff a

single ambulance during weekdays, while the volunteers provide

weekday backup and primary coverage at other times.

Each volunteer member of the fire department is allocated $750 per

year to be expended for any kind of fire- or EMS-related training or

education, as well as for protective clothing and necessary equipment.

The allowable training expenses include tuition or registration fees and a

per diem of $75 per day for meals and lodging: travel costs are not

reimbursable. Application for training funds must be made to and

approved by the fire commissioner and ambulance captain and be in

accordance with guidelines of the state and the firemen’s relief

association of the fire department. At least 10 volunteer members use

their allowance for additional training each year.

The source of the funding for the annual allowances is the state-required

2% assessment on the value of fire insurance policies issued in

Pennsylvania by out-of-state Insurance companies. The 2% assessment

is distributed to and administered by the firemen’s relief association of

each local fire department according to a formula based on property

values and population. The funds may be used for training, purchase of

protective clothing and equipment, and death-benefit and retirement

plans for volunteers. The Hanover Fire Department receives $40,000 per

year in 2% funds for its three fire companies.

James Roth

Fire Commissioner

Hanover Fire Department

44 Frederick Street

Hanover, PA 17331

(717) 637-3877
METHOD INFORMAL RECOGNITION SYSTEM

APPLICABILITY Retention

DESCRIPTION An informal system for the recognition of the important contributions

made by volunteer members of an EMS organization is as essential as a

system of formal awards to acknowledge member achievements.

Informal recognition is accomplishaed in numerous, personal ways by

organization managers: saying “thank you” to members for specific

activities, involving members in the decision making process of the

organization, inquiring about the welfare of the member’s family,

treating volunteers as equal members of the organization with paid

staff, sending notes of appreciation to the member’s family,

remembering the member’s birthday, and celebrating the member’s

anniversary date with the organization. Informal recognition is

accomplished in any way that communicates to the member and the

member's family that they are valued as individuals and as key

members of the organization family.

IMPLEMENTATION The only requirement is continous concern, attentiveness, and

REQUIREMENTS thoughtfulness by EMS managers in recognizing the role and

contributions made by each individual member and the member’s

family.

STRENGTHS Informal recognition reinforces in a personal way that individual

volunteers and their families are important, valued members of the EMS

organization and Increases the likelihood that members will wish to

continue to serve a friendly, caring organization.

DRAWBACKS None.

Cost None.

EFFECTIVENESS The intangible effects of personal concern and attention to individual

members and their families cannot be weighed but should not be

underestimated. Most individuals desire to be acknowledged for their

efforts and to participate in a caring, friendly, and supportive

organization. Informal recognition contributes in an immeasurable way

to the continued participation of volunteer members of an EMS

organization.

65
METHOD LENGTH OF SERVICE AWARDS PROGRAM (LOSAP)

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention

DESCRIPTION A Length of Service Awards Program (LOSAP) is a deferredcompensation or “pension” program for volunteer members of an EMS

organization. Monthly benefits are paid to members who qualify after a

minimum number of years (typically 5 to 10 years) of active service (i.e.,

the member becomes “vested”). Benefits are usually based on a fixed

monthly dollar amount per year of active service and may be paid

when the member retires from the organization at a prescribed

retirement age. Benefits to vested members typically may be drawn

down at different retirement ages, usually not less than 55, but may be

paid at reduced levels at the earlier retirement ages. Benefits are paid

automatically to vested members when the members reach any

agency-imposed mandatory retirement age. LOSAPs are funded by

contributions by the organization or local appropriating body to a

self-administered local LOSAP plan or a state or private plan.

IMPLEMENTATION A feasibility study of the anticipated cost of contribution/compensation

REQUlREMENTS alternatives at different retirement ages for a LOSAP must be

conducted. A determination must be made as to whether to have a

self-administered plan or buy into a state or private plan. The minimum

period for vesting, the age(s) of optional or mandatory retirement, the

monthly payments (including any payments based on years of service),

the basis for earning years of service, and the desirability, amount, and

duration of survivor’s benefits must be determined. Contributions must

be made to the LOSAP plan administrator in the amount and according

to the schedule prescribed for the plan. Appropriate monthly payments

must be made to vested retired members or their survivors. The timely

submission of paperwork is vital to ensure benefits are not jeopardized

and are paid in a timely manner.

STRENGTHS LOSAPs are a strong inducement for volunteers who are older (35 years

of age) to enlist with the organization or who have served for some time

(8 to 10 years) to remain with the organization in order to qualify for the

LOSAP benefits.

DRAWBACKS LOSAPS require a significant outlay, regardless of the type of plan

involved, and may be prohibitively expensive. Self-administered plans

require time and expense to administer and involve financial risk in

planning investments. LOSAPs do not appear to be very effective in

recruitment or retention with younger, shorter-term members.

COST LOSAPs are very costly ($150 to $200 per month payout premium). Total

cost is dependent on the size of the pool of LOSAP participants and the

target monthly payout.

EFFECTIVENESS LOSAPs contribute positively to the recruitment and retention of older

individuals, but are less effective with younger individuals.
 EXAMPLE

CONTACT PERSON

FOR FURTHER

INFORMATION

Emergency medical services in Montgomery County, Maryland, a highly

populated area northwest of Washington, DC, are provided by the 1,700

career and volunteer members of the 17 independent fire departments

and 2 independent rescue squads operating in the county. The

Montgomery County Fire and Rescue Commission develops and

implements policy, standards, and regulations for fire, rescue, and

emergency medical services provided within the county. The

Department of Fire and Rescue Services, a division of county

government, supports the commission and the fire and rescue

corporations and is the employer of all paid fire, rescue, and EMS

personnel in the county,

Montgomery County provides a LOSAP for volunteer fire, rescue, and

EMS personnel that is funded through annuities and general-budget

appropriations. Volunteers are entitled to retirement compensation as

follows: (1) 25 years of credited service, eligible for retirement at age 60

with $200 per month for life plus $10 per month for each additional year

of credited service over 25 years: (2) 15 years of credited service,

eligible for retirement at age 65 with $10 per month for each year of

credited service: and (3) 10 years of credited service, eligible for

retirement at age 70 with $10 per month for each year of credited

service. Spouses of deceased members vested under LOSAP are

entitled to one-half of the members’ retirement entitlement as a

survivor’s benefit. Years of service are credited on the basis of a point

system. The accumulation of 50 points within a year entitles the member

to one year of credited service. Points are earned according to a

schedule of pointable activities such as participation in drills, training,

standbys, sleep-ins, and emergency responses.

Donald D. Flinn

Volunteer Coordinator

Montgomery County Department of Fire

and Rescue Services

101 Monroe Street

Rockville, MD 20850

(301) 217-2484

67
METHOD MENTORING

APPLICABILITY Retention

DESCRIPTION Mentoring is the process by which new members of an EMS organization

receive the support and guidence of an experienced, veteran member

during the first 6 months to 2 years of the new member's participation

with the organization. The mentors serve as a volunteer “big

brother/sister” or “buddy” to new members during the time, typically a

formal probation period, when they face the greatest uncertainties,

stresses, and self-doubts relating to their participation as a volunteer.

IMPLEMENTATION A mentoring program requires the internal recruitment of a cadre of

REQUIREMENTS volunteer mentors with the experience, interpersonal skills, and interest

to assume the additional responsibility of adviser to one or more new

members of the organization. A mentor coordinator to administer the

mentoring program needs to be appointed. The mentor coordinator is

responsible for the recruitment of new mentors and the matching of

mentors with new members according to mentor-member similarities,

member needs, and mentor strengths. Guidelines must prepared to

define the role of the mentors and the advisory services each mentor is

expected to provide. A brief training program for new mentors should

eloped for presentation by the mentor coordinator or a veteran

mentor.

STRENGTHS Mentoring exploits an existing resource (i.e., veteran volunteer

members) to increase the volunteer retention rate. Veterans who have

experienced the same uncertainties, stresses, and self-doubts are well

suited to assist new members In avoiding and overcoming the common

problems that all new members face. Careful matching of mentors with

new members increases the likelihood that their relationship will be

successful and that their will be few early dropouts.

DRAWBACKS There may be an insufficient number of qualified existing personnel who

are willing to assume the additional responsibility as a volunteer mentor.

COST There is little additional cost since mentoring involves the use of existing

members who provide extra service as volunteer mentors.

EFFECTIVENESS Mentoring is a low-cost, effective retention tool that decreases the

number of volunteers who resign from the organization during the

time when the risk of dropping out is the greatest (i.e., from Initial

enlistment through the first year).

EXAMPLE Emergency medical services In Montomery County, Maryland, a highly

populated area northwest of Washington DC, are provided by the 1,700

career and volunteer members of the 17 independent fire department

and 2 Independent rescue squads operating in the county. The

Montgomery County Fire and Rescue Commission develops and

implements policy, standards, and regulations for fire, rescue, and

emergency medical services provided within the county.
EXAMPLE

(continued)

CONTACT PERSON

FOR FURTHER

INFORMATION

Each new volunteer or paid member of a fire or rescue company or the

Department of Fire and Rescue Services is assigned a veteran member

to serve as a mentor during the first two years of the new member’s

service. In addition, members undergoing ALS training are assigned an

ALS-trained preceptor for the duration of the training period. A 2-hour

mentor orientation is provided for new mentors; new preceptors receive

longer, more formal training. Mentors receive a distinctive “mentor”

badge and each month are assigned one to two new members to

advise. Mentors are matched with new members according to their

similarities, such as sex, personality, and likes/dislikes. A checklist is

provided as a guide for mentors to follow during the initial orientation for

the new members with whom they have been matched. Each mentor

and assigned new member determine the kind of relationship they will

have, including the nature and frequency of their contacts. The

mentoring program has reduced turnover by increasing the number of

recruits who become full members by fulfilling the training requirements

and satisfactorily completing the one-year probationary period.

Donald D. Flinn

Volunteer Coordinator

Montgomery County Department of Fire

and Rescue Services

101 Monroe Street

Rockville, MD 20850

(301) 217-2484

69
METHOD MOVIE THEATRE ADVERTISEMENT

APPLICABILITY Recruitment

DESCRIPTION A promotional slide or movie clip encouraging volunteer participation in

the local EMS organization is run before each showing of a feature

movie in local theaters.

IMPLEMENTATION The managers or advertising representatives for independent or chain

REQUIREMENTS movie theaters in the EMS service are are contacted concerning the

showing of the promotional ad before each movie on each screen in

the affected theaters. A movie clip or slide may need to be produced

by the EMS organization for each screen on which the ad is to be

displayed. A charge for the showing of the ad will need to be paid if

the theater does not display public-service announcements for free.

STRENGTHS The movie-theater advertising is an inexpensive way to reach

a captive audience of potential volunteers and, at the very least, to

publicize the service within the community. In addition, the audience

reached by the ad is one that apparently has uncommitted evening or

week-end time available for recreation and perhaps for volunteer

activities.

DRAWBACKS Some theaters may not accept public-service or commercial

advertisements. EMS candidates who express an interest in volunteering

as a result of the ad will need to be screened carefully to identify the

few who meet the qualifications for acceptance, including time

demands and probable longevity of service.

COST There may be a cost for the production of a slide or film clip if the EMS

organization cannot obtain the service for free by a local advertising

agency or a volunteer proficient in desktop publishing with a

personal computer. Theaters that charge for the showing of the ad may

handle the production of a slide upon the submission of rough copy and

any photographs to be included.

EFFECTIVENESS The movie-theater ad approach can contribute as a sufficient low-cost

or even no-cost component of an overall volunteer recruitment

program. The ad alone, however, could never attract a sufficient

number of volunteers to meet the staffing needs of an EMS organization.

The ad also serves a public-relations function by reminding the

community of the important service provided by the volunteer

organization.

EXAMPLE The Bethesda-Chevy Chase Rescue Squad of Bethesda, Maryland, is a

combined volunteer-paid organization with 140 uncompensated

volunteers and 8 paid staff that provide ambulance and rescue services

to Bethesda, Chevy Chase, and upper northwest Washington, DC. The

rescue squad recruits volunteers by means of newspaper and theater

ads, billboards, brochures distributed at fairs, stores, and libraries, and

contacts during the annual fundraising drive.

70
EXAMPLE

[continued)

CONTACT PERSON

FOR FURTHER

INFORMATION

The movie-theater advertisements are promotional slides shown in the

10 theaters of a cinema chain located in the rescue squad’s service

area. The rescue squad arranged for the placement of the ads by

contacting the account manager for the cinema chain. For

approximately $250 per week, the slide is shown for several seconds,

along with other commercial ads, before each feature film at each of

the theaters. The ad is displayed about 210 times each week (3

showings of each movie x 10 theaters x 7 days) for a cost of about $1.20

per display. The slide was produced by the cinema chain for free upon

submission of rough copy and a photograph by the rescue squad. The

rescue squad estimates that 5% to 10% of the volunteers accepted by

the squad had applied for membership after viewing the ad: the total

number of theater goers who contacted the squad as a result of the ad

is not known.

Lewis German, Assistant Chief

Bethesda-Chevy Chase Rescue Squad

5020 Battery Lane

Bethesda, MD 20814

(301) 652-0077

71
METHOD MULTILINGUAL RECRUITMENT

APPLICABILITY Recruitment

DESCRIPTION Mulitlingual recruitment is employed in areas where English is not the

primary languarge of a significant portion of the population.

Recruitment materials and presentations are provided in both English

and a non-English language, which usually is Spanish, of a significant

segment of the public in order to create a volunteer and career

workforce that is representative of the community as a whole.

IMPLEMENTATION Multilingualism in recruitment requires the replicant of recruitment

REQUIREMENTS materials and media in the non-English languages anf the selection

and assignment of volunteer and/or paid personnel proficient in the

non-English languages to serve as recruiters.

STRENGTHS Multilingual recruitment promotes a diverse volunteer membership

representative of the community. The use of non-English recruitment

materials, media, and personnel, coupled with the targeting of the

non-English recruitment effort to areas where English is not the primary

language, will increase the number of volunteer members of the EMS

organization and will contribute to the development of a diverse

volunteer membership.

DRAWBACKS Multilingual recruitment may increase recruitment costs.

COST Multilingual recruitmentmay increase recruitment costs; however, the

costs of replicating recruitment materials and media in a second

language may well be offset to an extent by a decreased need to

produce as many English-language recruitment materials and media.

EFFECTIVENESS Multilingual recruitment is targeted recruitment and such as is effective

in increasing the involvement of the targeted audience, which in this

case is the non-English-speaking population that the EMS organization

serves and from which it recruits new members.

EXAMPLE Volusia County Fire Services, which is headquarters in DeLand, Florida,

provides fire, rescue, and nontransport BLS and ALS services for a

population of 168,000 residing in the 1,200-square mile unincorporated

area of Volusia County. The department is staffed 76 career and 620

volunteer personnel, including 22 career and 6 volunteer paramedics.

Twenty-two rescue vehicles, including 4 ALS rescue trucks, operate out

of 20 stations. The department serves a multiethnic region with a

significant Hispanic population. As a result, firefigthers are required to

learn Spanish, and recruitment is conducted in both English and Spanish.

CONTACT PERSON Frank Pocica, Quad Chief.

FOR FURTHER Volusia County Fire Services

INFORMATION 123 W. Indiana Avenue

DeLand, FL 32720-4619

(904) 736-5941

72
METHOD NEW, WELL-MAINTAINED VEHICLES

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention

DESCRIPTION The EMS organization periodically purchases new ambulances and

other vehicles and ensures that they are well maintained and clean.

IMPLEMENTATION The acquisition of new vehicles requires approval of the governing body

REQUIREMENTS of the organization and an appropriation. Design specifications must

be prepared and standard equipment-acquisition procedures

implemented. A preventive-maintenance schedule for all vehicles must

be established and observed. All vehicles must be washed and waxed as

needed to ensure they are always clean and presentable.

STRENGTHS The general public and potential recruits are attached to new, shiny,

clean equipment. The vehicles therefore serve as a magnet for

inducing prospective volunteers to approach the EMS organization and

its personnel and to inquire about membership in an organization that

provides attractive, well-maintained vehicles for its membership. The

availability and use of such vehicles creates pride, confidence, and

enthusiasim among the existing membership.

DRAWBACKS Thereis a significant cost in purchasing and replacing organization

vehicles. The high cost of vehicle acquisition may limit the ability of

some organizations to replace or add vehicles as frequently as desired.

COST Ambulances and other EMS-related vehicles are expensive; however,

since ambulances are required In any event, there are no new initial

costs in implementing this strategy. The frequency of replacement of

existing vehicles will be the critical factor in determining the ultimate

long-term costs for vehicle acquisition and whether the organization

can maintain a fleet that is as new as preferred. Any costs for vehicle

maintanece and cleansing should already be provided for in the

organization's existing budget.

EFFECTIVENESS Clean, well-maintained, relatively new vehicles have a positive

magnetic effect on both present and prospective volunteer members

of the EMS organization. The quality and condition of the organization’s

vehicle fleet contribute in an unquantified way to the overall

effectiveness of its recruitment and retention program.

EXAMPLE The Manchester Volunteer Recue Squad of Chesterfield, Virginia, near

Richmond, is an all-volunteer, independent nonprofit organization that

provides BLS and ALS services for a population of 115,000. The rescue

squad is staffed by 80 senior members (including 34 EMT-As, 16 cardiac

technicians, and 3 paramedics), 13 junior members (ages 16 to 21), and

33 auxiliary members. An average of 9 to 10 emergency runs are made

by the squad each day.

The rescue squad has six ambulances: five ALS vehicles, one BLS vehicle,

and one ALS quick-response vehicle. All vehicles are either rechassied

or replaced every five years. A new ambulance has been purchased
EXAMPLE

(continued)

CONTACT PERSON

FOR FURTHER

INFORMATION

each year for the past four years. Each vehicle is evaluated periodically

by the squad’s new vehicle committee, which determines which vehicle

should be refurbished or replaced each year. An allocation of $75,000

out of a total squad budget of $210,000 is earmarked for the vehicle

improvement program. The squad is supported by public donations

received during semiannual fundraising, license tag monies, and

auxiliary contributions. By having the highest-quality, best-looking

vehicles, the rescue squad believes that the public is impressed and is

more willing to contribute to the organization: potential recruits are

attracted to the squad: and existing members are motivated to

maintain the vehicles.

Kathy Langley

Training Officer

Manchester Volunteer Rescue Squad

P.O. Box 198

Chesterfield, VA 23832

(804) 276-4349
METHOD OPEN HOUSE

APPLICABILITY Recruitment

DESCRIPTION An open house is a public enevt conducted by an EMS organization at

its facilities to provide community education that promotes the public

health and safety (e.g., injury or fire prevention or use of 9-1-1), to inform

the public as to the nature and value of the services provided by the

organization, and to attract and recruit potential volunteer members for

the organization. The open house typically consists of activities that

have public appeal (demonstration of EMS and rescue techniques and

equipment and inspection of the organization’s facilities and its

ambulance, rescue, and fire vehicles) coupled with educational

displays, videotapes, and free items for distribution (e.g., posters,

brochures, smoke detectors). Attendance at the event by individuals

interested in EMS affords an apportunity for recruitment of new

volunteers. Recruitment may be accomplished by setting up a

designated recruitment table or booth staffed by organizational

personnel, making recruitment materials (brochures, sign-up forms)

available, and continuous showing of promotional videotape

IMPLEMENTATION The recruitment component of an open house requires modest

REQUIREMENTS preparation. A readily identified recruitment table must be provided;

knowlegeable, verbal, and presentable staff must be scheduled to

staff the table; and print materials (brochures and sign-up forms) must

be made available. If videotapes are used, arrangements must be

made for a TV an VCR.

STRENGTHS The open house enables the EMS organization to realize multiple

objectives, such as community education, public relations, and

volunteer recruitment, for a single outlay of time and money.

Recruitment can be conducted with success on the organization’s

premises with a receptive population that has demonstrated its interest

in the organization's activities by virtue of attendance at the

open-house event.

DRAWBACKS The open house is not a selective recruitment method and may

therefore attract individuals who are not well suited to be EMS

volunteers.

COST There is little or no additional cost if recruitment is piggybacked on an

open house whose primary, publicized purpose is other than recruitment

(e.g., promotion of fire or injury prevention or demonstration of a new

ambulance or rescue vehicle).

EFFECTIVENESS The open-house method is a shotgun approach intended to attract as

many people tp the station as possible. A significant number of

volunteers can be recruited from the large pool of attendees.

EXAMPLE The Radnor Volunteer Fire Company of Wayne, Pennsylvania, is a

private, nonprofit corporation that provides fire and BLS services for a

community of 32,000 located outside Philadelphia. The BLS services are

delivered by a 45-person EMT staff (4 paid and 41 compensated per

call), of which 25 perform ambulance duty only and 20 are firefighters

who also run ambulances.
EXAMPLE

(continued)

CONTACT PERSON

FOR FURTHER

INFORMATION

During the annual fire prevention week in October, the company

conducts an open house at its station to promote fire prevention and

also to recruit new volunteers. During the two weeks before fire

prevention week, the company publicizes the open house by

announcements in the local newspaper, by PSAs on local radio, TV, and

cable stations, and by brochures distributed during educational visits to

all schools in the community. School children are urged to attend and

bring their parents. At the open house, attendees can inspect vehicles,

observe demonstrations, and receive fire-prevention information. A

recruit table staffed by members who will present the best image of the

company is set up at the open house to obtain the names of attendees

who may be interested in participating as volunteers. Leads obtained

during the open house and other fire-prevention week activities are

followed up by the company’s review committee. Approximately 2,500

attended the most recent open house, and 7 volunteers were recruited

during this activity.

George J. Fielden, Assistant Chief

Radnor Volunteer Fire Company

121 S. Wayne Avenue

Wayne, PA 19087

(610) 687-3245

76
METHOD OUT-OF-TOWN CONFERENCES

APPLICABILITY Retention

DESCRIPTION The EMS organization pays the cost for the attendance of its members

at state and national EMS and fire/rescue conferences. The expenses

incident to each conference (registration fee, per diem, travel, lodging)

are assumed by the agency for each approved attending member.

The agency offers the opportunity to members who meet its eligibility

criteria concerning (1) the member’s status within the agency (e.g., a

minimum of one year of service or regular, nonprobationary

membership), (2) the maximum number of paid conferences per

member per year (e.g., one paid conference per year), and (3) the

priority for approval of attendance if there are more applicants than

paid slots available (e.g., preference is given to members whose

previous paid attendance at a conference is not the most recent). The

organization may require the conference participants to attend all

sessions and to provide a written or oral report concerning the

conference.

IMPLEMENTATION The practice of paying for attendance in out-of-town conferences

REQUIREMENTS requires the approval of the governing body of the EMS organization

and appropriate funding. Criteria for approval of attendance and

receipt of reimbursement for eligible expenses must be specified and

applied.

STRENGTHS Agency-paid conference participation improves both the attending

members and the EMS organization. Participants obtain new

job-related information and learn new relevant skills and techniques;

they also have an opportunity to network with their peers and gain

insights and ideas from this interaction. The organization also benefits:

the attending members will become more motivated and

knowledgeable, the information gained by the attendees can be

passed along to nonattending members, and the overall morale of the

agency will be improved.

DRAWBACKS The major drawbacks are the cost involved and the loss of the

member’s time and services for regular duty while attending a

conference.

COST The cost of organization-funded participation in conferences varies

according to the location and duration of each conference. The

estimated per-member cost for attendance at a 3-day event is

$250-$500 (lodging, per-diem, and registration fee) plus travel expenses.

The estimated per-member cost for each conference will, of course,

affect the number of conference-trips the organization can subsidize

each year.

EFFECTIVENESS The provision of agency-funded participation in out-of-town

conferences generally is a positive tool that contributes to continued

retention. For most members, attendance at conferences increases

their motivation and commitment to the organization. Some members,

however, may have no interest in conferences or even resist attending

them if the opportunity is offered.
EXAMPLE

CONTACT PERSON

FOR FURTHER

INFORMATION

The Danville Life Saving Crew of Danville, Virginia, is an all-volunteer,

nonprofit organization that provides ALS services for Pittsylvania County,

a largely rural area covering 293 square miles and including a

population of 83,000, of which 60,000 reside in Danville. The

organization is staffed by 130 volunteers: 25 paramedics, 20 cardiac

technicians, and 85 EMT-As. The vehicle fleet includes 6 ALS units, 2

crash trucks, and 2 quick-response vehicles.

The organization provides everything required by a volunteer member

at no charge. Crew members receive free training, clothing, and

two-way portable radios. Attendance at conferences is paid for: each

member is automatically authorized to attend three state conferences

each year. All expenses for participation in specialized, offsite training,

symposia, or conferences will be paid for if justified and funds are

available. The $200,000 annual budget of the crew is funded entirely

through public and corporate donations.

Douglas Young

Public Information Officer

Danville Life Saving Crew

202 Christopher Lane

Danville, VA 24541

(804) 792-2739
METHOD PARTICIPATION-BASED COMPENSATION

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention

DESCRIPTION A participation-based financial reward program provides a variable

economic incentive to attract, encourage the active Involvement of,

and retain volunteers for an EMS organization. Compensation is earned

according to the level of participation in eligible activities, such as

emergency-response runs, in-service training, off-site education, time

spent in service or on stand-by, and designated nonemergency

functions of the organization. The financial reward program has a

schedule of eligible activities by which a fixed amount of compensation

or fixed number of incentive points is earned. If compensation per run

or call is provided, the financial reward earned may be a uniform

amount per call for all members or a variable amount per call based on

the employment status of the member (e.g., rank, time in service, pay

grade). The compensation scheme also may provide for reimbursement

of some or all of the out-of-pocket expenses of participation in off-site

education programs. Incentive-point systems typically provide

compensation according to a fixed value per point or provide for the

distribution of a fixed amount of total compensation to be paid to all

members according to each member’s percentage of the total

incentive points earned by the entire membership. Earned

compensation is paid on a monthly, quarterly, or annual basis,

depending on the type of financial reward program adopted.

IMPLEMENTATION The method requires the authorization of the compensation scheme by

REQUIREMENTS the governing body of the organization and an annual appropriation:

development of regulations governing the scheme, including a

schedule of compensable activities and, if compensation is to be

awarded on a per-activity or per-point basis, the values assigned to

each activity; documentation of the compensation or incentive points

earned by the volunteers: and a record keeping system for

documenting the participation and earned compensation for each

volunteer and the payment of the earned compensation.

STRENGTHS This program provides attractive incentives for the enlistment and

participation of volunteers. The variable financial reward program is

open to all volunteer members and provides compensation in a fair and

equitable manner, i.e., according to each volunteer’s contribution to

the organization.

DRAWBACKS The cost of the program may be prohibitive. If volunteers are paid on a

hourly basis, the federal Fair Labor Standards Act requires minimum

compensation of $4.50 per hour. If an organization has combined

career-volunteer staffing, the career members may resent the payments

to “volunteers.” Animosity may develop between members with little

free time (e.g., members with families) and those able to devote

considerable time to volunteer work (e.g., unmarried members). It is

difficult to discontinue a financial rewards system once started because

many members will have joined in reliance on the promise to provide

compensation. The provision of compensation gives the appearance

that the organization is not a volunteer operation and may make it more
DRAWBACKS difficult to obtain donations and support. This approach also may

(continued) encourage an over response to incidents in order to earn payment or

incentive points. It may be more difficult to anticipate and budget for

the total annual cost of the financial rewards because the cost will vary

according to the number of runs and the members’ participation in

other compensable activities.

COST The cost will depend on the number of volunteers, the dollar value of

the activities for which compensation can be earned, and the number

of compensable activities performed. For example, if an EMS

organization has 20 volunteer members who perform an average of 200

compensable activities per volunteer per year with a value of $5 per

activity, the annual cost would be $20,000.

EFFECTIVENESS People respond to financial inducements. Participation-based

compensation schemes are effective in increasing the enlistment of

volunteers and reducing turnover. They are less expensive than full-time

paid staffing but more expensive than uncompensated volunteer

systems.

EXAMPLE The Kettering Fire Department provides fire, rescue, and paramedic

(and backup BLS) services for the 61,000 residents of Kettering, Ohio, a

suburb of Dayton. The fire department is a combined career-volunteer

municipal service staffed by 50 full-time and 120 volunteer firefighters,

including 25 full-time paramedics, 10 volunteer paramedics, 25 full-time

EMTs, and 37 volunteer EMTs. Two paramedic units are manned

around-the-clock by the full-time paramedics, while two ambulances

are available for backup BLS service on an on-call basis by the

volunteer paramedics and EMTs. The city has a full-time volunteer

coordinator to recruit, retain, and recognize volunteer firefighters.

The fire department has a volunteer incentive program to provide

compensation to volunteer firefighters on the basis of incentive points

earned. Each incentive point has a value of $4. Points may be earned

for participation in (1) training, (2) emergency responses, (3) company

in-service, and (4) management as an officer. Volunteers who

participate in in-service training earn one incentive point per hour for

training in excess of 16 hours per quarter, with a maximum of 40 hours

allowed. Volunteers receive a bonus of $350 for EMT-A certification and

$100 for recertification. Volunteers earn two incentive points for timely,

full participation in an emergency response, although only 14 total

points can be awarded for minor, single-engine responses regardless of

the number of responding volunteer firefighters. All active, certified

volunteer firefighters share in a company in-service incentive, by which

incentive points (maximum of 6 points per day) are awarded quarterly

on the basis of the percentage of time a minimum-size volunteer crew

for a company Is actually in service. Incentive points also are awarded

to officers in recognition of their extra efforts. Incentive rewards

average $500 per quarter for each volunteer firefighter for a total

annual cost of approximately $240,000.
CONTACT PERSON

FOR FURTHER

INFORMATION

Joyce Conner

Volunteer Coordinator

City of Kettering

3600 Shroyer Road

Kettering, OH 45429

(513) 296-2433

81
METHOD

APPLICABILITY

DESCRIPTION

PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

Retention

Physical activities for all members of an EMS agency are conducted

periodically to meet the physical, social, and recreational needs of the

members, involve their spouses as important members of the agency’s

“family,” and promote teamwork and camaraderie among members.

Typical physical activities include softball, basketball, volleyball, and

bowling, Participation in physical activities can be formal (e.g.,

involvement in a community softball league and/or tournament) or

informal (e.g., mixed-double bowling competitions among members

and their spouses).

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

Physical activities must be planned and coordinated. A physical

activities or fun coordinator or physical activities committee should be

appointed to schedule and carry out an annual program of physical

activities. Funding may need to be provided for certain activities (e.g.,

sports equipment, league fees, team t-shirts), although costs can be

reduced or avoided through business donations and member

contributions.

STRENGTHS A well-rounded organization takes care of its members’ entire needs,

including physical exercise and social interaction, and encourages

family acceptance of the members’ participation as volunteers.

Recreational activities increase the members’ ties and commitment to

the agency, get the spouses of volunteers to “buy in” to the volunteers’

active involvement and to participate themselves in agency activities,

and fosters a spirit of comradeship among volunteer members.

Members are able to select those activities that will be the most fun and

the most rewarding.

DRAWBACKS Physical activities require time to plan and implement. Participation in

recreational activities consume additional amounts of free time of the

volunteers, although participation is voluntary. Some volunteers may

not be interested in or receive satisfaction from the physical activities

(e.g., members whose regular jobs are physically taxing).

COST The cost of recreational functions will vary according to the type of

activity. Participation in formal activities may require some expense

(uniforms, league fees, sports equipment): however, costs may be

defrayed or avoided through contributions from members and through

team sponsorship by and donations from local merchants. Informal

activities may require some expenses (e.g., volleyball and net), but

many activities require no expenditures by the EMS organization (e.g.,

bowling line charges can be borne by the participants).

EFFECTIVENESS Physical activities are one important factor contributing to reduced

turnover by satisfying the physical, social, and recreational needs of

many members, solidifying the commitment of members and their

spouses to the organization, and promoting camaraderie.

82
METHOD PIGGYBACKING OF RECRUITMENT ACTIVITIES

APPLICABILlTY Recruitment

DESCRIPTION Piggybacking involves the inclusion of recruitment in other

nonrecruitment activities that are provided or paid for by the EMS

organization and by other organizations. Examples of piggybacking are

(1) the insertion of recruitment messages In regular mailings or

newsletters, such as the mail-out of monthly utility bills, (2) the inclusion of

recruitment messages in the paid commercial advertising on the

packaging of products of cooperating businesses (e.g., pizza boxes), (3)

the addition of a recruitment pitch in presentations by EMS organization

personnel to community, church, and school groups, and (4) the

solicitation of volunteers among participants attending first-aid classes

conducted by the EMS organization and open to the public.

IMPLEMENTATION Opportunities for piggybacking recruitment messages first need to be

REQUlREMENTS identified (e.g., preexisting mailings that can be used) and then

followed up on.

STRENGTHS The major value of piggybacking is cost. It is usually free, although a

modest charge may need to be paid in some cases.

DRAWBACKS None.

COST Free or low cost.

EFFECTlVENESS Piggybacking is efficient: recruiting costs are avoided or minimized.

Whether piggybacking is effective as a recruitment tool depends on the

particular event or medium that is piggybacked.

EXAMPLE The Town of Colonie Emergency Medical Services Department of

Latham, New York, is a combined volunteer-paid municipal

organization that provides ALS and rescue services to a 60-square-mile

area outside Albany with a population of 80,000 residents and an

additional 120,000 commuters during weekdays. The department is

staffed by 200 volunteers and an additional 50 paid personnel, who

provide daytime coverage.

The department uses piggybacked recruitment to reach high-payoff

volunteers, i.e., individuals who have their roots in the community. As a

state-accredited training program, the department provides training

that is open to the public and offers an opportunity for volunteer

recruitment: in-station first-aid/CPR training for which a fee is charged

and BLS training that is funded by the state. First-aid/CPR training is

provided off-site to community associations and neighborhood groups.

The department also advertises for volunteers at no cost in the town

newsletter that is mailed periodically to all residents.

CONTACT PERSON Jonathan F. Politis, Director

FOR FURTHER Town of Colonie Emergency Medical Services Department

INFORMATION 312 Wolf Road

Latham, NY 12110

(5 18) 782-2645
METHOD

APPLICABILITY

DESCRIPTION

PRINT ADVERTISEMENTS

Recruitment

Print ads are specially designed, visual advertisements produced for

display in any print medium that accepts print advertising, such as

newspapers, magazines, newsletters, and billboards.

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

The implementation of every print ad requires concept development,

design and layout of reproducible copy, and printing or publication of

the ads. The print media in which the ads will be published or displayed

must be identified and arrangements made for publication or display,

including the cost, timing, and duration of presentation of the ads. Print

advertising can be expensive: however, many of the costs can be

avoided through in-kind contributions. The ad concept and ad

design/layout could be provided at no or reduced charge by

commercial advertising firms, freelance advertising consultants, or

graphics designers: the concept, as well as camera-ready copy, might

be obtained for free from other EMS organizations that have

implemented successful print advertising campaigns. Printers and

publishers can be requested to waive or reduce their charges for the

publication or display of the ads as a public service.

STRENGTHS Print ads can reach a wide audience of potential volunteers. The

targeting of the ads can be focused (as with company or

neighborhood-association newsletters) or unfocused (as with

newspapers and magazines), depending on the recruitment strategy of

the EMS organization. Print ads are also a good public-relations tool to

publicize the volunteer-contributed services provided to the community

DRAWBACKS The cost of producing and publishing/printing print ads can be

expensive unless the costs are waived or reduced. The EMS organization

may need to allocate additional personnel for answering telephone or

mail responses to the print ads, for screening the additional anticipated

applicants, and for training and outfitting.

COST The cost of print ads can be prohibitive for many EMS organizations

without a significant budget for recruitment. One EMS organization that

carried out a print-ad recruitment campaign reported a cost of about

$150 per person who responded to the ad and became a volunteer

member.

EFFECTlVENESS Print advertising enables an EMS organization to compete aggressively

for potential volunteers. Print ads, especially those placed in media that

enable the organization to target the recruitment message to the types

of persons the organization hopes to attract, can be very effective.

EXAMPLE Eleven independent, volunteer rescue squads of Virginia Beach,

Virginia, provide BLS and ALS services without charge for the seaside

community of 400,000. The rescue squads operate under the umbrella

of the Virginia Beach Department of Emergency Medical Services, a

municipal organization that oversees the local EMS system and trains

84
EXAMPLE volunteers for all squads. Virginia Beach reportedly has the largest

(continued) all-volunteer system in the country with 850 volunteer members.

In 1988, when faced with a rising call demand and a shortage of

volunteers, the Virginia Beach Rescue Squad spearheaded a 3-week

advertising campaign to recruit additional volunteers for all rescue

squads. Using advertising concepts developed at no cost by a Norfolk

marketing firm, the Virginia Beach squad paid about $15,000 for the

production and publication of print advertisements in a local tabloid

newspaper, which also ran a cover story on the campaign. The

campaign resulted in a flood of calls for information about joining the

rescue squads. As a result of the campaign, about 150 volunteers

became members of a rescue squad after completing EMT training.

The advertising campaign was expanded and repeated in 1990 under

the sponsorship of all 11 rescue squads. New advertising concepts were

developed by the marketing firm at no cost. The squads paid about

$2,000 for the production of newspaper advertisements, $1,500 for the

printing of table tents with modified ads for distribution to local

businesses, and $1,000 for the printing of the modified ads on billboard

posters. A local hospital paid about $10,000 for the publication of the

print ads in a local newspaper over a 2-week period, and an outdoor

advertising company contributed space on 8 billboards for display of

the recruitment posters for 45 days. The newspaper covered the

campaign with an inside story. As a result of the campaign, about 175

volunteers became members of a rescue squad after completing EMT

training.

CONTACT PERSON Rick Schoew

FOR FURTHER Volunteer Public Relations Consultant

INFORMATION Virginia Beach Department of Emergency Medical Services

c/o Rick Schoew Marketing 8, Advertising

4020 Silverwood Boulevard

Chesapeake, VA 23321

(804) 484-9603
METHOD

APPLICABILITY

DESCRlPTlON

RECRUITER INCENTIVES

Recruitment

A recruiter incentives program provides inducements for participation

by existing volunteer members in the recruitment of new volunteers for

the EMS organization. Awards can be given for the most successful

recruitments in a year and also for each successful recruitment. The

awards must be sufficiently attractive in terms of their desirability that

volunteer members will actively engage in soliciting recruits in order to

win an award. The award for the most recruitments per year should be

substantial, such as a cash bonus of $500 to $1,000 or an expenses-paid

trip for two to a vacation spot. The awards for individual recruitments

can be more modest, such as $25 to $100 In cash or merchandise.

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

The incentives program must be authorized by the EMS organization’s

governing body, and an appropriation or budget allocation must be

provided to fund the program. The ground rules for the program must

be developed and distributed to the membership. The criteria for what

constitutes a successful recruitment must be stated unambiguously.

These criteria typically include a requirement that the volunteer recruit

serve with the organization for a minimum period of time (often one

year) and must specify how a successful recruitment resulting from a

group recruitment activity (e.g., at a shopping mall or open house) will

be credited. Records must be kept as to the number of successful

recruitments per member, and arrangements for presenting the

recruitment awards, perhaps at an annual dinner, must be made.

STRENGTHS The strengths of the approach are its ability to involve existing volunteer

members as active recruiters, especially members who have effective

recruitment skills, its provision of payments to recruiters only for successful

recruitments, and its generally reasonable cost per successful

recruitment.

DRAWBACKS The approach may encourage a shotgun approach to recruitment

whereby members seek to recruit as many volunteer candidates as

possible without regard to their qualifications. Some agencies may not

be able to afford to provide sufficiently attractive recruiter incentives. If

the only award given is for the highest number of successful

recruitments, some members who do not have the time or ability to

compete with the most successful recruiters may choose not to

participate at all.

COST

EFFECTIVENESS

The approach involves some cost, which is dependent on the value and

number of the awards presented. An incentive program that includes

an award for each recruitment as well as an annual top recruiter award

will be more expensive than a program that rewards only the recruiter of

the year. The cost per recruitment could range from $25 to $300, while

the cost for the top recruiter will be more expensive ($500 to $1,000).

The recruiter incentives approach is very effective recruitment tool in

attracting new volunteers by providing a valuable inducement for

existing volunteers to serve as recruiters for the EMS organization.

86
EXAMPLE Emergency medical services in Montgomery County, Maryland, a highly

populated area northwest of Washington, DC, are provided by the 1,700

career and volunteer members of the 17 independent fire departments

and 2 independent rescue squads operating in the county. The

Montgomery County Fire and Rescue Commission develops and

implements policy, standards, and regulations for fire, rescue, and

emergency medical services provided within the county. The

Department of Fire and Rescue Services, a division of county

government, supports the commission and the fire and rescue

corporations and is the employer of all paid fire, rescue, and EMS

personnel in the county. A full-time coordinator within the department

assists the fire and rescue corporations with volunteer recruitment and

retention.

The Fire and Rescue Commission established a volunteer recruitment

cash award program in 1989 to provide financial incentives for existing

volunteer members of the independent fire and rescue corporations

and the Department of Fire and Rescue Services to actively participate

in the recruitment of new volunteer members. A recruiter award of $100

is paid to each volunteer member who successfully recruits or

participates in the recruitment of new volunteers. The recruiter must

have actively sought out and encouraged the recruited volunteer to

apply for membership in one of the fire or rescue corporations. The

volunteer member who receives the most recruiting awards during a

calendar year is the “recruiter of the year” and is given a $1,000 cash

award with an accompanying plaque. A successful recruitment occurs

when the recruited volunteer applies for and is accepted for

membership by a fire or rescue corporation or the Department of Fire

and Rescue Services, obtains certification as a Firefighter I or

EMT-Ambulance, and has served as a volunteer for 12 months. The cash

award recruitment program has operated as an effective incentive for

volunteer members to enlist new volunteers.

CONTACT PERSON Donald D. Flinn

FOR FURTHER Volunteer Coordinator

INFORMATION Montgomery County Department of Fire

and Rescue Services

101 Monroe Street

Rockville, MD 20850

(301) 217-2484
METHOD

APPLICABILITY

DESCRIPTION

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

STRENGTHS

STIPEND (SERVICE ACCOUNT) FOR VOLUNTEERS WHO MEET MINIMUM

WEEKLY PARTICIPATION REQUIREMENTS

Both recruitment and retention

A stipend or service account program provides a fixed sum of money

that each volunteer member of a local EMS organization is eligible to

receive each year by being available for calls for a minimum number of

hours per week. For each month the stipend eligibility requirements are

met, the volunteer may draw down l/12 of the annual stipend for taxfree EMS-related expenses, such as uniforms, black shoes, emergency

lights, and basic emergency equipment. The EMS-related expenses of a

qualifying volunteer may be paid either by issuance of a purchase order

to the vendor or by reimbursing the volunteer, upon presentation of a

receipt, for eligible out-of-pocket expenses. Any balance in the service

account at the end of the year is paid to the volunteer in a lump sum as

taxable compensation.

The method requires an annual appropriation, documentation of the

hours of participation by the volunteers, and a financial recordkeeping

system for documenting the accumulation of the stipend in each

volunteer’s service account and payment of eligible expenditures from

each account.

The stipend is an attractive incentive that gives the volunteer a

participation goal to work toward In order to receive the financial

reward. The volunteer need not make any out-of-pocket expenditures

by using an organization-issued purchase order to obtain EMS-related

equipment.

DRAWBACKS The cost of the stipend may be prohibitive.

COST The cost is the amount of the annual stipend times the number of

qualifying volunteer members plus the cost of administering the stipend

program. For example, If the annual stipend Is $500 for an organization

with 40 volunteer members, the annual cost for the stipends is not more

than $20,000.

EFFECTIVENESS

EXAMPLE

The method enables the local EMS organization to budget a precise,

known sum to obtain the required volunteer services, and everyone

receives a fair amount. The cost of a regular “compensation for call”

system varies according to the number of calls. This method for

compensating volunteers Is less expensive than full-time staffing around

the clock, but is more expensive than an uncompensated volunteer

system. There appears to be little turnover of volunteers as a result of the

use of the stipend method.

The Milford Ambulance Service of Milford, New Hampshire, is a 44-

person municipal service that operates a combines paid/modified

compensated-for-call system in a community of 15,000. Four paid staff

provide daytime coverage during the week, while the 40 volunteers

provide service on call on nights, weekends, and holidays. Call

88
EXAMPLE

(continued)

CONTACT PERSON

FOR FURTHER

INFORMATlON

members are not required to stay at the station if they live one to two

minutes away. The service provides an annual stipend for volunteers

who meet a minimum on-call participation requirement per week.

The city budgets $20,000 per annum to fund the stipend or service

account program for the 40 volunteer members of the ambulance

service. Each volunteer is eligible to receive $500 per year by being

available for calls for a minimum of 18 hours per week. For each month

the stipend eligibility requirements are met, the volunteer may draw

down $41 for tax-free EMS-related expenses. The balance of the $500

remaining in the account at the end of the year is paid to the volunteer

in a lump sum.

Ron Footit, Chief

Milford Ambulance Service

1 Union Square

Milford, NH 03055

(603) 673-1087

89
METHOD

APPLlCABlLlTY

DESCRIPTION

TARGETED RECRUITMENT

Recruitment

Targeted recruitment involves the direction of recruiting activities

toward those individuals who are most likely to participate in the EMS

organization as volunteers and to remain with the organization for a

significant duration. These individuals tend to be residents who have

their roots in the community: they work in the community, are married

and have families, or own their own homes. Nonresidents, such as

college students and individuals who work but do not live locally,

generally do not have a sufficient stake in the community and are less

likely to be long-term volunteers.

Targeted recruitment focuses on identifying and enlisting the local

stakeholders as volunteers. The recruitment communications channels

and messages are designed to reach these stakeholders, including, for

example, mailings to homeowners, door-to-door contacts in residential

neighborhoods, attendance at neighborhood association meetings,

and distribution of brochures at polling places in residential areas.

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

The activities included in a targeted recruitment program will vary

according to the opportunities available for reaching local

stakeholders.

STRENGTHS Targeting will result in a greater percentage of high-payoff volunteers

being attracted to the EMS organization.

DRAWBACKS There are no drawbacks to a targeted recruitment program: however,

no recruitment program will be 100% successful in attracting

high-payoff, long-term qualified volunteers.

COST The cost will vary according to the specific recruitment techniques

employed. Many free or low-cost opportunities are available to recruit

the targeted population by piggybacking on existing nonrecruitment

activities, such as inclusion of a recruitment flyer with the mailing of

monthly utility bills or the solicitation of volunteer participation by

individuals who attend first-aid or CPR courses open to the public,

EFFECTIVENESS Targeted recruitment will increase the number of qualified, low-risk

applicants who join the service, reduce the number of applicants who

do not qualify for membership or will drop out after participating for less

than a year, and reduce the turnover and costs associated with a high

turnover rate.

EXAMPLE The Town of Colonie Emergency Medical Services Department of

Latham, New York, is a combined volunteer-paid municipal

organization that provides ALS and rescue services to a 60-square-mile

area outside Albany with a population of 80,000 residents and an

additional 120,000 commuters during weekdays. The department is

staffed by 200 volunteers and an additional 50 paid personnel, who

provide daytime coverage.

90
EXAMPLE The department looks for high-payoff volunteers-individuals who live in

(continued) the community and plan to stay, such as residents who have families or

are homeowners. The department uses two primary targeted

recruitment techniques: (1) as a state-accredited training program, the

department provides first-aid/CPR and BLS training that is open to the

public, many of whom subsequently become volunteer members: and

(2) the department advertises for volunteers In the town newsletter that

is mailed periodically to all residents. The department obtains 30% to

40% of its volunteers at the first-aid/CPR courses and another 30% to 40%

from the town newsletter mailings.

CONTACT PERSON Jonathan F. Politis, Director

FOR FURTHER Town of Colonie Emergency Medical Services Department

INFORMATION 312 Wolf Road

Latham, NY 12110

(5 18) 782-2645
METHOD 24-HOUR CENTRAL TELEPHONE ACCESS BY PROSPECTIVE VOLUNTEERS

APPLICABILITY Recruitment

DESCRlPTlON Central telephone access involves the assignment of a single telephone

number to receive inquiries about volunteering as a member of one or

more EMS organizations within an area. Telephone access is available

24 hours per day by continuous monitoring of incoming calls and/or by

use of an answering machine or voice mail. The volunteer information

line is publicized consistently in all media and materials used to

communicate with the public or to recruit new members.

IMPLEMENTATION A single telephone number must be assigned as the access point for

REQUIREMENTS receipt of information about volunteer participation. This access point

may be the telephone number for an existing line for nonemergency

communications or a new, dedicated line to be used solely for

incoming calls from prospective volunteers. The use of a dedicated line

will more easily permit the use of an answering machine to ensure

24-hour coverage, although agencies with voice-mail capability may

add a “volunteer information” option for calls made through a general

nonemergency telephone number. To implement central telephone

access, the EMS organization must determine whether to use an existing

or a new dedicated line, make arrangements for a new line if

necessary, and publicize the central-access telephone number in all

organization communications, especially recruitment materials. If voice

mail is not available, an answering machine with extensive message

memory must be obtained and installed. Knowledgeable volunteer

staff to respond to incoming calls on a real-time or followup basis must

be scheduled.

STRENGTHS The use of central telephone access, especially when volunteer

recruitment is conducted for more than one EMS or fire organization, is

an efficient and effective way to ensure that prospective recruits are

aware of and promptly receive information about volunteer service.

DRAWBACKS There are no significant drawbacks: however, once a central number is

publicized, the administering organization must staff the line and follow

up on all incoming calls.

C0ST The only significant cost involved is the price of an answering machine

($100 to $200), although the use of a new, dedicated telephone line will

result in additional monthly user charges.

EFFECTIVENESS A well-publicized central number can facilitate volunteer recruitment.

EXAMPLE Emergency medical services in Montgomery County, Maryland, a highly

populated area northwest of Washington, DC, are provided by the 1,700

career and volunteer members of the 17 independent fire departments

and 2 independent rescue squads operating in the county. The

Montgomery County Fire and Rescue Commission develops and

implements policy, standards, and regulations for fire, rescue, and

emergency medical services provided within the county. The
EXAMPLE Department of Fire and Rescue Services, a division of county

(continued) government, supports the commission and the fire and rescue

corporations and is the employer of all paid fire, rescue, and EMS

personnel in the county. A full-time coordinator within the department

assists the fire and rescue corporations with volunteer recruitment and

retention.

The volunteer coordinator has a dedicated telephone number for

24-hour volunteer recruitment and referral information. This number is

advertised in all media used by the Department of Fire and Rescue

Services to recruit new members, including cable TV, fixed and mobile

bulletin boards, shoppers’ guides, flyer inserts, paid newspaper

advertisements, brochures, and taxi tops. Calls from prospective

volunteers on the dedicated telephone line are responded to by the

volunteer coordinator or a member of the recruitment committee. The

volunteer information line is serviced by an answering machine to

record information requests when calls cannot be handled

immediately. All telephone calls are followed up promptly to answer

questions and to provide general information about the requirements

for participation as a volunteer and information about enlistment with

specific fire/rescue companies in the county. A confirming letter is

mailed to the prospective volunteer, and a referral form is sent to the

specific company affected. Approximately 400 volunteers per year are

referred to the fire/rescue companies as a result of inquiries made

through the dedicated telephone number.

CONTACT PERSON Donald D. Flinn

FOR FURTHER Volunteer Coordinator

INFORMATION Montgomery County Department of Fire

and Rescue Services

101 Monroe Street

Rockville, MD 20850

(301) 217-2484
METHOD

APPLICABILITY

DESCRlPTlON

VACANCY ANNOUNCEMENTS

Retention

The EMS organization announces to the entire membership the

vacancies or openings in each job class, position, or slot as they occur.

The vacancies are publicized internally via bulletin-board postings, oral

announcements at roll calls and other organization functions, and

mailings to the membership, either in a newsletter or separate mailing.

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUlREMENTS

The EMS organization must be attentive to the need to inform the

membership in a timely manner of all job vacancies as they arise and to

use the normal channels for providing important information to the

membership.

STRENGTHS Timely, widespread announcement of vacancies ensures that all

members will have an opportunity to apply for and be considered for

open slots, eliminates the impression of any favoritism in personnel

decisions, and demonstrates that the organization intends to fill open

slots in a fair, impartial, and equal manner accessible to all organization

members. Open competition for vacancies should result in the

advancement of the most competent applicants.

DRAWBACKS There are no drawbacks to regularly announcing vacancies: however, if

the vacant slots announced are not filled in a fair and impartial manner,

any positive effect of open announcements will be negated.

COST The only cost is the time required for the development and

dissemination of vacancy announcements, except if separate mailings

of the vacancies are sent to the membership.

EFFECTlVENESS Regular, timely vacancy announcements as a part of the overall

retention program may have a modest positive impact on members’

decisions to remain with the organization: however, these

announcements alone will not have any significant effect. Some

members may be encouraged to remain with the organization if there is

a fair and open opportunity to advance to leadership or other desirable

positions.

94
METHOD VOLUNTEER EMT WEEK

APPLICABILITY Recruitment and retention

DESCRIPTION Volunteer EMT Week Is a concentrated 7-day campaign to recruit and

recognize volunteers for one or more EMS organizations, publicize the

Important role and activities of an EMS organization, and provide

community education that promotes the public health and safety (e.g.,

Injury or fire prevention or use of 9-1-1). The week’s events combine

several individual recruitment and retention strategies that could be

Implemented independently at any other time (e.g., open houses, TV

PSAs, and print advertisements).

IMPLEMENTATION The specific implementation requirements will vary according to the

REQUIREMENTS specific activities and events to be Included in the 7-day campaign.

Careful planning and coordination is required in any event, and a

Volunteer EMT Week coordinator or coordinating committee must be

appointed to plan and manage the week’s activities.

STRENGTHS The week combines the strengths of multiple strategies into a single,

focused campaign that ensures there will be greater public visibility and

awareness of the need for and rewards to be gained by volunteer

membership with the EMS organization. The organization can be

selective in choosing the recruitment/retention strategies to be included

in the campaign In accordance with its preferences and past

experience and success and the available funding and personnel. The

costs may shared among several EMS organizations operating within an

area by conducting a joint campaign.

DRAWBACKS The drawbacks of each lndividual recruitment/retention strategy will be

present in a combined campaign, and the cost may be prohibitive for

some agencies with Inadequate funding or personnel to carry out the

campaign.

COST The cost will vary according to the type and scope of the

recruitment/retention activities planned for the week and the need for

a cash outlay in order to undertake any of the activities.

EFFECTIVENESS An approach that combines multiple recruitment/retention strategies

Into a single campaign, such as Volunteer EMT Week, will be more

successful than any single strategy. If the individual strategies used are

effective, their use in combination also will be effective, perhaps to a

greater degree than normally would be expected because of a

synergistic effect (1 + 1 = 3).

EXAMPLE The Kettering Fire Department provides fire, rescue, and paramedic

(and backup BLS) services for the 61,000 residents of Kettering, Ohio, a

suburb of Dayton. The fire department is a combined career-volunteer

municipal service staffed by 50 full-time and 120 volunteer firefighters,

including 25 full-time paramedics, 10 volunteer paramedics, 25 full-time

EMTS, and 37 volunteer EMTs. Two paramedic units are manned

around-the-clock by the full-time paramedics, while two ambulances

are available for backup BLS service on an on-call basis by the
EXAMPLE

(continued)

CONTACT PERSON

FOR FURTHER

INFORMATION

volunteer paramedics and EMTs. The city has a full-time volunteer

coordinator to recruit, retain, and recognize volunteer firefighters.

An annual Volunteer Firefighter Week is scheduled during the summer to

recruit and recognize volunteers and to obtain city and community

support for the fire department and its volunteer program. The week’s

activities are coordinated by the city’s volunteer coordinator and

conducted in cooperation with neighboring township fire departments.

The city allocated $1,000 for expenditures associated with the week as

well as the time of the volunteer coordinator. The most recent Volunteer

Firefighter Week resulted in the enlistment of 5 volunteer recruits.

Volunteer Firefighter Week activities have included (1) a standard

slogan or theme used in all recruitment materials (“Part-Time Heroes

Needed. Full-Time Rewards”), (2) open houses held at all fire stations, (3)

recruitment flyers distributed by a local pizza company with its deliveries,

(4) a donated billboard with the recruitment message, (5) specially

designed placemats used by a local restaurant chain, (6) a fire and

rescue demonstration at which recruitment information is distributed, (7)

paid print advertisements, news coverage, feature articles, and

supporting editorials in area newspapers, (8) “thank you” messages to

volunteers in the bulletins and on the outdoor signs of local churches

and on the marquees and in the lobbies of local businesses, (9) gift

certificates for volunteers donated by local restaurants, (10) recognition

of the volunteer firefighter of the year by a local service club, (11) a

special display in the government center, (12) a city proclamation

announcing Volunteer Firefighter Week, (13) distribution of flyers

publicizing the open houses and the fire and rescue demonstration, (14)

radio and TV public service announcements, coverage of events during

the week, and interviews with volunteer firefighters, and (15) recruitment

inserts included with a local newspaper distributed in targeted areas of

the city.

Joyce Conner

Volunteer Coordinator

City of Kettering

3600 Shroyer Road

Kettering, OH 45429

(513) 296-2433
METHOD WELCOME WAGON

APPLICABILITY Recruitment

DESCRIPTION The welcome-wagon approach recruits potential volunteers by

identifying and following up with new residents in a community.

Newcomers can be identified by periodically monitoring

announcements of real-property transfers in the local newspaper,

securing a list of new subscribers for utility services (water, sewage, trash

removal) from the appropriate municipal organization, and obtaining

the names and addresses of new arrivals from a commercial business

that sells such Information for a fee or from a community welcoming

service such as welcome wagon.

IMPLEMENTATION Arrangements must be made to obtain the names and addresses of

REQUlREMENTS newcomers regularly from the chosen source (e.g., newspaper,

property records office, utilities office, and/or commercial or welcoming

service). Mail, telephone, or in-person contacts need to be made by

EMS organization staff to explain the nature of the service and need for

volunteers and to request participation by the newcomers.

STRENGTHS The approach is an inexpensive way to reach new arrivals with

information about the EMS organization and its need for volunteers.

DRAWBACKS This approach may not result in great numbers of volunteers and may

involve a cost if lists of new residents must be purchased.

COST The information can be obtained for free if newcomer names and

addresses are obtained from public sources: a cost is involved if the

information must be purchased.

EFFECTIVENESS The welcome-wagon method is a shotgun approach and therefore will

result In the enlistment of a modest number of volunteers from the large

number that are contacted.

EXAMPLE The West Manchester Township Fire Department of York, Pennsylvania,

provides fire, rescue, first-responder, and medical-assistance services for

a community of 20,000. The 15-person, all-volunteer EMT staff of the fire

department, which has a total membership of 100 active volunteers, is

BLS-trained and works closely with the volunteer West York Ambulance

Club, which operates from one the fire stations.

The department uses a welcome-wagon approach to identify and

contact new arrivals to the community about participation as volunteer

members. It monitors the property-transfer section of the local

newspaper to identify new homeowners and Is advised by the

municipal utility of new arrivals who have signed up for hook-ups for

garbage service. The new residents are then contacted by letter and

followup telephone call as to the need for volunteer assistance. This

approach has not attracted a significant number of volunteers, but at

the same time has not required much effort to implement.

CONTACT PERSON John J. Bierling, Chief

FOR FURTHER West Manchester Township Fire Department

INFORMATION 2501 Catherine Street

York, PA 17404

(717) 792-3505
METHOD YOUTH DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS

APPLICABILlTY Recruitment

DESCRIPTION A youth program is an organized project sponsored by an EMS

organization to provide precareer education and experience for male

and female youth 14 to 20 years of age (although many programs are

restricted to high-school-age youth). A youth program typically is called

a “cadet program” or, if it is affiliated with and approved by the Boy

Scouts of America, an “Explorer program.” The participating youth

receive training (CPR, first responder, BLS), respond with regular

members on emergency runs (but are not allowed to enter hazardous

environments or to provide emergency medical care), and perform

nontechnical and other approved tasks (such as restocking supplies and

equipment). Participating youth are assigned a volunteer adviser or

mentor to provide guidance and support. Youth programs are intended

to provide meaningful extracurricular activities for area youth and to

serve as a source of future volunteer members.

IMPLEMENTATION The youth program and its budget must be approved by the governing

REQUIREMENTS body of the organization, a youth coordinator and/or youth committee

must be appointed to plan and coordinate the program, a plan must

be developed to include a schedule of activities for participating youth,

eligibility requirements for participation must be specified and

distributed to sources of potential participants (such as high schools),

applicants for participation must be screened and accepted,

performance guidelines for participating youth and youth advisers must

be developed and distributed, and clothing for the participants must be

designed, purchased, and distributed.

STRENGTHS The program provides an opportunity for the participating youth to try

out EMS as a possible career at a age when career choices are being

considered and enables them to learn first-responder/BLS and

leadership skills. The participants contribute to the EMS organization by

providing assistance that otherwise would have to be performed by

volunteer or paid staff. By conducting what is a preservice EMS training

program, the organization develops a pool of trained, experienced EMS

personnel, many of whom will be motivated to continue after the

program to serve as regular volunteer members, and also performs an

important community service by offering meaningful educational and

developmental opportunities for area youth.

DRAWBACKS The program may be too expensive for many departments. At a

minimum, the youth participants must be provided minimum clothing

and gear. The program must be structured and supervision and

direction provided for the participating youth, which means that

volunteer or paid staff who otherwise would be engaged in other

important organization activities must be diverted to the youth program.

Many members may not wish to work as youth advisers or mentors

because they do not view an advisory role to be meaningful (e.g., it’s

“babysitting”) or do not want to work with teenagers. Consequently, the
DRAWBACKS organization may have difficulty in enlisting a sufficient number of

[continued) members to serve as youth advisers or may experience a high turnover

rate among youth advisers. A youth program will not be a productive

source of future recruits in some areas, perhaps rural farming

communities, where most youth move away after graduation from high

school.

COST A youth program can be expensive. There are costs for clothing and

training youth participants. Members assigned as youth advisers are not

available for other organizational activities: as a consequence, the

organization may need to incur additional costs to recruit, train, and

equip more volunteers.

EFFECTIVENESS Youth programs are usually a productive source of future recruits,

especially where youth are likely to remain in the area after high-school

graduation.

EXAMPLE Volusia County Fire Services, which is headquartered in DeLand, Florida,

provides fire, rescue, and nontransport BLS and ALS services for a

population of 168,000 residing in the 1,200-square mile unincorporated

area of Volusia County. The service is staffed by 76 career and 620

volunteer personnel, including 22 career and 6 volunteer paramedics.

Twenty-two rescue vehicles, including 4 ALS rescue trucks, operate out

of 20 stations.

The service operates a coed Explorer program affiliated with the Boy

Scouts of America for high-school youth 14 to 18 years of age. The six

stations chartered by the BSA as Explorer Posts provide an opportunity for

the current 48 participants to investigate and prepare for a

fire-service-related career. Explorers are supervised by volunteer

advisers and learn basic firefighting and first-responder skills and often

participate in community-related projects, such as fire-prevention and

recruitment activities. They are not permitted to enter burning buildings

or administer emergency medical care. It costs the sponsoring station

approximately $1,800 from its budget to provide uniforms and protective

gear for each Explorer. Over one-half of the Explorers subsequently

remain with the service as fire-rescue volunteers.

CONTACT PERSON Karen Munson

FOR FURTHER Volusia County Fire Services

INFORMATION 123 W. Indiana Avenue

DeLand, FL 32720-4619

(904) 736-5940
METHOD

APPLICABILITY

DESCRlPTlON

YOUTH EDUCATION

Recruitment

Youth programs are organized activities conducted by the EMS

organization to teach youth of various ages how to recognize, avoid,

and manage major risks to their health and safety. Educational events

can have a single focus (e.g., fire safety) or a comprehensive focus

covering all major risks. They can be targeted at certain age groups,

such as preschoolers or 5th graders, or at all youth (e.g., children

frequenting a mall). They can be provided at a station of the EMS

organization, a community facility, or wherever young people are

found: schools, malls, summer camps, day care centers, Boys/Girls

clubs, YMCAs/YWCAs, or fairs. The education can be a brief

intervention, as in the case of a safety-belt promotion at a local mall, or

last for one to three days in the case of more comprehensive efforts.

IMPLEMENTATION

REQUIREMENTS

The presentation of a youth education program requires careful

planning in identifying the risks and target group to be addressed and in

arranging for the educational event. An educational program with

appropriate audiovisual and print materials must be developed. A

facility must be identified and booked. Promotional materials must be

produced and disseminated. If the event has limited capacity for

participation, a registration process must be organized and

implemented. Materials or items to be distributed to participants must

be identified, ordered, and purchased, if necessary. Organizational staff

and outside speakers who will participate must be identified and

scheduled. Arrangements may need to be made for the appearance

or use of special vehicles or equipment.

STRENGTHS Youth education can prevent harmful events that affect youth and their

families and ensure that youth are prepared to respond appropriately

when a harmful event occurs. Youth programs can serve as a “farm

system” for future volunteers: many participating youth will be motivated

to join an EMS organization when they are older. These programs are

also good public relations. They give public visibility to the organization

and its commitment to promote the welfare of the community and its

children.

DRAWBACKS The only drawback may be the diversion of resources of the EMS

organization (staff time, vehicles, and some funding) that may be

required elsewhere for the direct delivery of EMS services.

COST The out-of-pocket expense for youth education is modest. Educational

materials and media usually can be obtained for free or on loan. The

time required for participation of volunteer staff is the major “cost.”

EFFECTIVENESS Youth education can be an effective longer-term recruitment tool,

even though recruitment should be thought of as a secondary objective

for youth programs. Many participating youth will be motivated to see

EMS as a desirable volunteer or even career opportunity. At the least,

the participants in youth programs will become community supporters

of the EMS organization.

100
EXAMPLE The Mathews Volunteer Rescue Squad of Mathews, Virginia, is an

all-volunteer, nonprofit independent organization that provides EMS and

rescue services for a very rural tourist area of 8,000 located on

Chesapeake Bay. The squad is staffed by 54 volunteers: 4 paramedics,

9 cardiac technicians, 1 shock trauma technician, 33 EMTs, and 7

drivers.

The squad operates “Camp Rescue” twice a year for area youth aged 9

to 13. Each Camp Rescue program runs for one day (9 a.m. to 4 p.m.)

for a maximum of 40 participants. The agenda for the program includes

both lectures and practical exercises to teach the participants about

the major life-threatening risks they or their families may face, such as

fire, electrocution, storm and tornado threats, heart attacks, motor

vehicle and bicycle crashes, poisons, and drugs, and the actions that

can be taken to avoid or respond to these risks. The participants learn

about the use of 911, the Heimlich maneuver, opening an airway,

rescue breathing, fire safety, bleeding control, poison prevention, burn

management, water safety, tornado safety, drug avoidance,

recognition and response to heart attacks, electrical safety, street

safety, bicycle safety, and the use of safety belts. Each participant is

provided refreshments and snacks, a first-aid kit, and a “Camp Rescue”

cap. “Camp Rescue” T-shirts may be purchased at cost. Each program

costs about $200. Approximately one-third of the participants will join

the rescue squad when they are older.

CONTACT PERSON Judy Ward

FOR FURTHER Camp Rescue Coordinator

INFORMATION Mathews Volunteer Rescue Squad

P.O. Box 723

Mathews, VA 23109

(804) 725-2800

Annotated Bibliography

Recent publications and articles concerning motivation, recruitment, retention, and

volunteerism in EMS organizations are identified and synopsized in this unit. For

the most recent information concerning these topics, there are two excellent sources

of bibliographies and photocopies of published materials: the Learning Resource

Center of the National Emergency Training Center in Emmitsburg, Maryland, and

the Florida EMS Clearinghouse in Tallahassee, Florida. Contact information for

these sources is included in the Resources unit. In addition, the EMS PIER

Manual--Public Information, Education, and Relations in Emergency Medical

Services (September 1994) listed in this bibliography provides further references to

publications concerning EMS recruitment and retention,

Motivation

Brown, Rohn M. “Volunteer Programs That Work.” Emergency (June 1993):

42(2).

Description of four innovative programs in Virginia to get and keep

qualified volunteers: flexible scheduling (40-hour crew), public EMT

and CPR training and active media and public information program,

college student volunteers, and day care programs.

Buckman, John S. “Motivating Volunteers. ” Fire Engineering (September

1993):10(2).

Brief examination of the motivational theories that influence volunteer

firefighters as an aid to recruitment, placement, training, supervision,

evaluation, and recognition of people. Issues include general

observations on human motivation, motivating achievers, motivating

affiliators, and motivating power-oriented people.

Colella, Brian. “Volunteer Motivation: Problems and Solutions.” Fire Chief

(October 1992):39(5).

Description of the major motivational difficulties in the volunteer fire

service (maintenance, training participation, qualified personnel for

staff and line positions, fire call attendance, and laziness) and possible

responses to those problems. Emphasis on an award system, group

activities, and assignment of members to teams for nonfireground

activities as motivating forces.

103
Schaubroeck, John, and Ganster, Daniel C. “Beyond the Call of Duty: A Field

Study of Extra-role Behavior in Voluntary Organizations.” Human Relations

44:569(14).

Investigation of the factors influencing voluntary organization

members’ engaging in a specific extra-role behavior, i.e.,

participation in a telethon, on behalf of their organizations.

Vineyard, Sue. Secrets of Motivation--How to Get and Keep Volunteers and

Paid Staff Downers Grove, Illinois: Heritage Arts Publishing, 1991.

Explanation of the connection between motivation and volunteering,

the reasons why people volunteer, motivational theories as to what

turns people on and off, and ways to keep volunteers and paid staff.

“Watch for the Early Signs of Burnout. ” The Pryor Report 9:7.

Explanation of the need to recognize signs of burnout in oneself and

in employees and to take steps to promote a balanced sense of self

throughout the organization. A self-diagnosis for stress is included.

Suggestions for supervisors: make well-defined job functions, open

lines of communication, seek staff input, and establish an unbiased

review system.

Recruitment

Adams, Rich. “Dealing with Population Growth.” Firehouse 18 (June 1993):14.

Consideration of recruitment/retention and public image as

demographics change from rural to suburban.

Barsan, William G. “Emergency Medicine.” JAMA 265 (June 19, 1991):

3115(4).

Report of a study that demonstrates that well-trained paramedics can

perform multiple advanced trauma life-support procedures with

minimum delay and patient salvage.

Beck, David M. “Help Wanted (We Will Train).” JEMS 13 (June 1988):43(7).

Description of the evolution of EMS and its prospects in the future.

Good reference source that presents the demographics of volunteer

fire service.

104
Best, Jonathan. “EMS: A System of Response.” Firefighters News 11 (October/

November 1993):26(2).

Discussion of whether EMS provided by firefighters or health care

professionals offers the best care for a community’s money.

Bierwiler, David G. “Recruiting to Reduce Turnover.” Fire Command (August

1987):42(4).

Identification of recruiting techniques from application to selection.

Emphasis on screening application, physical-agility test, interview,

and physical examination.

Burhoe, D.A.P., and Nagele, Richard. “Recruiting in the 80s.” Firehouse

(April 1988):68(5).

Discussion of recruitment issues: reasons for joining volunteer fire

departments, identification of problems, and development of

recruitment campaigns.

EMS Volunteers for EMS Volunteers. Volunteer Emergency Medical Systems.

A Management Guide. Blacksburg, Virginia: The Institute for Leadership

and Volunteer Development, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State

University, no date.

Handbook prepared by regional EMS directors in Virginia and

Virginia Tech’s Institute for Leadership and Volunteer Development

to provide management guidance for EMS squads. Management

topics addressed include organizations and administration, corporate

structure and state licensure, risk management, financial management,

fundraising, organizing the membership, effective leadership,

planning and evaluation, public relations, and participation in the

EMS system and sources of help.

Gilbertson, Michael. “The Volunteer Crisis--Sources and Solutions.” JEMS

(June 1988):6(2).

Analysis of the reasons for the staffing crisis volunteer ambulance

services are facing and recommendation of steps that can be taken to

solve the staffing problems.

Haines, Mike. Volunteers: How to Find Them . . How to Keep Them? Publisher

and date unknown.

Handbook with ideas, questions, and exercises concerning the

planning of a recruitment program, including preparation for

recruitment, the procedures to be used once people begin to

volunteer, and the methods of recruitment to be used.

105
Holden, Roger, and Miller, Laurie. “Selecting Officers for Trauma Teams, ”

Corrections Today 55 (August 1993): 190.

Role of CISDs in reducing the stressful effects of traumatic events.

Hudgins, Edward. “Volunteer Incentives: Solving Recruitment and Attrition

Problems.” JEMS (June 1988):58(4).

Listing of incentives used to attract and retain volunteer emergency

response personnel.

Lynch, Rick. “Targeted Volunteer Recruiting.” Voluntary Action Leadership

(Fall 1990):24(5).

Eight steps for marketing a product effectively: (1) what is the job

that needs to be done? (2) who would want to do it? (3) where will we

find them? (4) how will we communicate with them? (5) what are the

motivational needs of these people? (6) what will we say to them? (7)

who will administer? (8) and how will they know what to do?

Marinucci, Richard A. “Volunteer Recruiting: A Success Story.” Fire

Engineering (August 1988):98(4).

Discussion of volunteer motivation, marketing, and obstacles.

McCurley, Steve. “Recruiting Volunteers for Difficult Positions.” Voluntary

Action Leadership (Fall 1990):22(3).

Tips for overcoming the challenges for high skill volunteers:

redesigning the job, saturating the market, undertaking a group effort

(team volunteering, cluster volunteering), conducting proper

orientation, and training up.

McCurley, Steve, and Vineyard, Sue. 101 Tips for Volunteer Recruitment.

 Downers Grove, Illinois: Heritage Arts Publishing, 1988. 

Lists of information and tips for conducting an effective volunteer

recruitment program.

Morrissey, John. “Here to Stay? Recruiting EMS Volunteers.” JEMS (February

1993):53(4).

Tips for establishing a proactive program for recruiting and retaining

volunteer members of an EMS organization.
Nestor, Lorretta Gutierrez, and Fillichio, Carl. “Research and Recruitment

Strategies: What the American Red Cross Discovered.” Voluntary Action

Leadership (Winter 1992): 15(2).

Report of research by the American Red Cross to discover what

motivates volunteers. Thirteen recommendations are made.

New York State Department of Health. Emergency Medical Services Volunteers--A

Recruiting and Retention Guide for Emergency Medical Service Agencies.

Albany, New York: New York State Department of Health, November

1987.

Guidance designed to provide EMS managers and members who

serve as recruiters with a step-by-step approach to finding, enrolling,

and keeping volunteers. Six steps to successful recruitment are

recommended: (1) analyze and plan, (2) advertise and promote, (3)

prospect for potential recruits, (4) contact and interview prospects, (5)

enroll and follow up, and (6) retain.

Nordberg, Marie. “The Case of the Missing Volunteer.” Emergency Medical

Services 18 (June 1989):13(g).

Outline of societal factors affecting the rate of volunteerism and

description of recruitment and retention strategies to deal with

shortages.

Perez, Carlos, et al. EMS PIER Manual--Public Information, Education, and

Relations in Emergency Medical Services. Report No. FA- 151 /September

1994. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration,

U.S. Department of Transportation, and U .S. Fire Administration, Federal

Emergency Management Agency, 1994.

Guidance directed to all types of EMS services for creating,

maintaining, and enhancing a public information, public education,

and public relations program, Topics addressed include starting a

PIER program, selling a PIER program, networking, funding a PIER

program, media relations, legal issues, onscene PIER, public

relations, measuring success, and resources for obtaining help.

Perkins, Kenneth B., and Weiderhold, Robert. Volunteer Firefighters in the

U.S. : A Summary of Social Characteristics and Commitment. National

Volunteer Fire Council, no date.

Statistics about volunteer firefighters.

107
Perkins, Kenneth B., and Wright, Terry. Characteristics and Survival Potential of

Volunteer Nonprofit EMS Corporations: A Virginia Sample. Blacksburg,

Virginia: The Center for Volunteer Development, Virginia Polytechnic

Institute and State University, February 1989.

Description of the findings of research concerning the characteristics

of volunteer nonprofit EMS personnel in Virginia and their

perceptions of problems faced by volunteer EMS squads in the state

and a discussion of the policy implications suggested by the research

that could affect the survival of volunteer EMS corporations.

Skeen, D. Trace. “Public/Private Sector Partnership: Myth or Reality.”

Firefighters News 11 (October/November 1993):58(4).

Description of ways to identify and integrate public/private services

and needs.

Snook, Jack W., and Olsen, Dan C. The Volunteer Firefighter: A Breed

Apart. Fort Collins, Colorado: Emergency Resource Inc., 1989.

An instructional package, including videotapes and printed materials,

designed to provide an overview of the history of volunteerism, the

information and skills necessary to determine the need for volunteers

and plan for new members, an understanding of the recruitment

process, the elements of a successful volunteer training program,

leadership skills and techniques to apply in a volunteer environment,

ways to motivate volunteers, and ideas on incentive programs.

Swan, Thomas H. “Recruiting EMS Volunteers.” JEMS 13 (June 1988):51(4).

Discussion of challenges administrators face in meeting the need for

EMS volunteers. Focus is on volunteer utilization, recruitment, and

training.

Sylvia, Dick. “Tapping Your Wealth of Volunteer Resources.” American Fire

Journal (August 1987):22(2).

Advantages that a volunteer fire department has in bringing a variety

of outside skills to the station house. Discussion of the need for good

trainers and educators and for a diversity in disciplines represented.

Thorn, Don. “Could a PR Firm Help You?” Fire Chief (September 1987):46(2).

Worthington, Kentucky, fire department’s use of a PR firm.

Recommendations made for defining a department’s need, obtaining

recommendations, and selecting a PR organization that will consider

departmental needs seriously and develop an appropriate strategy.

108
Thompson, Justin J. Recruitment and Retention of Volunteer Firefighters. May

18, 1992.

Report of data concerning volunteers and their employers (good

background).

Virginia Department of Health, Office of Emergency Medical Services. Looking

Your Best, Getting the Best, Keeping the Best. Virginia EMS Recruitment

and Retention Action Kit. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Department of

Health, no date.

Package of materials to aid EMS organizations in Virginia in planning

and implementing an effective EMS recruitment and retention

program.

Virginia Department of Health, Office of Emergency Medical Services. Tune

Into the EMS Support Team Network. Supplemental Materials to Help Start

Your EMS Support Team. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Department of

Health, no date.

Guidebook for recruiting and using volunteers to serve as

nonoperational support staff for an EMS organization.

Wanous, John P. “Effects of a Realistic Job Preview on Job Acceptance, Job

Attitudes, and Job Survival,” Journal of Applied Psychology 58:327(6).

Report of a field experiment conducted in a telephone company to

assess the effects of a realistic job preview versus an unrealistic (i.e.,

“traditional”) preview.

“What if You Called and Nobody Came?” Size Up (October 1988):8(2).

Flyer for recruiting volunteer firefighters: benefits, training,

apprentice firefighters, need, and time.

Whiting, Mark D. “Lasting Impressions.” Emergency (June 1993):44(6)

Pragmatic suggestions for rural EMS agencies in establishing and

maintaining proactive media relations. Coverage includes the reasons

for using the media, ways to get started in developing relations with

the media, and ways to maintain a continuing relationship with the

media.

Williams, Robert A. “The Future of the Fire Service.” Firehouse (April

1989):72(4).

Benefits of establishing contacts with youth groups.

109
Wilson, Marlene. How to Recruit Today’s Volunteers. Boulder, Colorado:

Volunteer Management Associates, 1983.

Training package consisting of a videotape and related materials that

provides information on demographics, motivations for volunteering,

recruitment tips, and keys to volunteer retention.

Retention

Cordes, Cynthia L., and Dougherty, Thomas W. “A Review and an Integration of

Research on Job Burnout.” Academy of Management Review 18 : 621(3 6).

Review of the literature on burnout and presentation of a conceptual

framework to improve the understanding of burnout.

“Critical Incident Stress Debriefing.” Commish (April 1992):3(3).

Discussion of how firefighters handled stress prior to the 1980s.

Identification of two ways to assist departments in dealing with stress:

CISD and employee assistance programs.

El Sanadi, Nabil. “High Performance EMS.” Firehouse (May 1993):68.

Discussion of the elements of high-performance EMS systems:

personnel, structure, and equipment and supplies.

Fullerton, Carol S.; McCarroll, James E.; Ursano, Robert, J.; and Wright,

Kathleen M. “Psychological Responses of Rescue Workers: Fire Fighters

and Trauma. ” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 62 (July 1992): 371(8).

Examination of the psychological responses of two groups of

firefighters following the performance of rescue work.

Goldfarb, Bruce. “Under Pressure.” American Medical News (November 16,

1992):23(2).

Discussion of burnout and its impact on New York City EMS

workers and methods for dealing with stressed personnel:

psychological screening to weed out the most fragile applicants and

the use of CISD and EAP programs to help workers deal with stress.

Goldfeder, William. “Retaining and Recruiting Members.” Fire Engineering

(May 1992): 10(3).

Presentation of effective activities that volunteer departments may use

in retaining active volunteers and recruiting new members.

110
Herman, Roger E. “Challenge of the Future: Keeping Good People. ” Ambulance

Industry Journal (September/October 1992):8(3).

Suggestions for retaining employees in the prehospital care industry:

find and hire good people, keep good people, create a positive

working environment, build positive relationships, help people grow,

and learn why good people work for the organization.

Kipperman, Stephanie. “Training Volunteers for Success.” Leadership (July/

September 1993):20(2).

Goals and objectives, content and focus, and means and techniques of

volunteer training programs.

Leibowitz, Zandy B.; Schlossberg, Nancy K.; and Shone, Jane E. “Stopping the

Revolving Door. ” Training and Development Journal 45:43(4).

Innovative strategies for new employee orientation. Three

models--self-managed peer groups, rolling out the red carpet, and

learning the big picture--that treat new employee adaptation as an

ongoing empowerment process are profiled.

Lipp, John L. “The Top 25 Methods to Retain Volunteers.” Voluntary Action

Leadership (Spring 1992):25(2).

List of 25 methods to retain volunteers. Best method is to engage

entire paid staff in the process.

Lynch, Richard. “Designing Volunteer Jobs for Results.” Voluntary Action

Leadership (Summer 1983):20(4).

Discussion of the four most important principles for designing a

rewarding job for volunteers.

Macduff, Nancy. “Retention: The + and - of Volunteers.” Voluntary Action

Leadership (Winter 1992): 19.

Role of paid staff in affecting volunteer retention rates. Advantages

and disadvantages of volunteers. Five questions that should be asked:

(1) who volunteers? (2) who doesn’t volunteer? (3) why don’t certain

people volunteer? (4) why do current volunteers give their time? and

(5) what benefits arise from volunteering?

MacKenzie, Marilyn. Dealing With Difficult Volunteers. Boulder, Colorado:

Volunteer Management Associates, 1988.

Explanation of the volunteer retention cycle, the types of difficult

volunteers, and principles for dealing with difficult volunteers.

111
Martin, Kathleen R. “Pulling Together to Cope With the Stress.” Nursing (May

1992):38(4).

Discussion of the Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM)

program and the seven phases of debriefing (introductory, fact,

thought, reaction, symptom, teaching, and closure).

Matin, Scott A., and Lester, David. ‘Attitudes of Emergency Medical Service

Providers Towards AIDS.” Psychological Reports 67 ( 1990) : 1314.

Report on a study of 19 mobile, intensive care paramedics and 21

RNs scored concerning their attitudes towards AIDS, their treatment

of AIDS patients, and the effect of AIDS on their continuing in

emergency-care operations.

McLeod, John. “Stress: How to Recognize It and What to Do About It.” Fire

and Rescue (January 1992):22.

Description of the reliable, established strategies that fire brigades can

use to minimize the negative effects of stress problems: self-help,

organizational change, counseling, and Critical Incident Stress

Debriefing (CISD).

Miller, Lynn E.; Powell, Gary N.; and Seltzer, Joseph. “Determinants of

Turnover Among Volunteers.” Human Relations 43 : 90l(17).

Examination of the causal sequencing of attitudes, personal situations,

and behavioral intentions as determinants of turnover among hospital

volunteers.

Nordberg, Marie. “Is Stress Killing New York’s EMTs?” Emergency Medical

Services 22 (July 1993):50(4).

Report of a study of New York EMTs’ stress following six EMT

deaths within an 8-month period.

Paulsgrove, Robin F. “Recruiting and Retaining Fire Department FPEs.”

NFPA Journal 87 (January/February 1993):58(6).

Recommendations made in response to turnover in a Texas fire

department: revising advertising procedures, introducing career

ladders, developing comprehensive orientation programs, and

expanding roles.

Pendleton, Michael; Stotland, Ezra; Spiers, Philip; and Kirsch, Edward. “Stress

and Strain Among Police, Firefighters, and Government Workers: A

Comparative Analysis.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 16 (June

1989):196(15).

112
Comparison of matched samples of police officers, firefighters, and

other municipal workers with regard to self-reports of stress and

various mental, physical, and behavior problems reflecting strain

resulting from stress.

“Postponing the Advent of Paid Firemen.” New Haven Register, January 17,

1989:8.

The contribution of pension plans to the retention of volunteer

firefighters.

National Volunteer Fire Council. Communications Committee. “White Paper:

Retention and Recruitment in the Volunteer Fire Service.” March 1993.

Discussion paper for a Retention and Recruitment Workshop held in

Emmitsburg, Maryland, on March 27-28, 1993.

National Volunteer Fire Council. Retention and Recruitment in the Volunteer

Fire Service--Problems and Solutions. Report No. FA-138/September 1993.

Emmitsburg, Maryland: Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S.

Fire Administration, August 1993.

Report on the general nationwide problems and solutions concerning

recruitment and retention in volunteer fire and rescue services.

Selig, Suzanne M., and Borton, Danny. “Keeping Volunteers in EMS.”

Voluntary Action Leadership (Fall 1989): 18(3).

Analysis of information about EMS personnel (volunteers and paid)

in a Michigan county and their satisfaction/dissatisfaction with EMS

work.

“Stress Management in the Aftermath of Disaster.” Straight Tip 3:6(2).

Presentation of excerpts from the booklet Prevention and Control of

Stress Among Emergency Workers for planning for postdisaster stress

management.

Swan, Thomas H. “Keeping Volunteers in Service.” JEMS (June 1988):55(3).

Recommended techniques for retaining experienced volunteers in

EMS agencies by meeting important psychological needs.

Swan, Thomas H. “Volunteers on Duty.” Emergency (September 1994):68(2).

Importance of formally scheduling EMS volunteers for specific duty

shifts.

113
Taylor, Vickie Harris. “Firefighters: Stress and the Psychological Profile.”

Fire and Rescue (January 1992):20.

Discussion of recurring general psychological characteristics of

firefighters: obsessive-compulsive, histrionic, action-oriented,

control, family-oriented, instant gratification, highly dedicated, or

risk taker.

U. S. Fire Administration. Emergency Medical Services Management Resource

Directory. Report No. FA-119/November 1992. Emmitsburg, Maryland:

USFA, 1992.

Quick-reference document to assist the EMS practitioner or scholar

in identifying or researching EMS resources, including pertinent

organizations and associations, computer databases, and current

reference materials, Directory includes a listing of contacts intended

to expand the network of information concerning EMS and identifies

the colleges and universities that offer certification and degree

programs in the field of EMS.

U.S. Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency. EMS

Safety--Techniques and Applications. Report No. FA- 144/April 1994.

Emmitsburg, Maryland: USFA/FEMA, 1994.

Comprehensive manual that addresses the hazards faced by EMS

providers and describes ways in which emergency responders can and

should deal with these risks.

U.S. Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency. Guide to

Developing and Managing an Emergency Service Infection Control Program.

Report No. FA-112March 1992. Emmitsburg, Maryland: USFA/FEMA,

1992.

Guidebook to assist managers of emergency service organizations in

developing, implementing, managing, and evaluating infection control

programs.

Vineyard, Sue. Beyond Banquets, Plaques and Pins: Creative Ways to Recognize

Volunteers. Boulder, Colorado: Volunteer Management Associates,

1988.

Techniques for recognizing and responding to the needs of volunteers.

114
Zimmerman, Jr., Don. “Rewarding Your Volunteers--A Retirement System Any

Department Can Afford,” Firehouse (March 1993):46(2).

Proposal for a retirement system for volunteer fire departments in

which a department’s investment in a volunteer’s retirement is

determined by a activity-based point system. The cash value per

point is computed by dividing the funds available for retirement

investment by the total points earned by all volunteers.

Volunteerism

Council for Volunteerism. “For the Newcomer: A Brief Look at Volunteer

Administration.” Voluntary Action Leadership (Winter 89-90):23(5).

Concise presentation of important issues in volunteer administration:

recruiting, interviewing, orientation, training, supervision,

relationships, recognition, firing, and evaluation.

Eden, Dov, and Kinnar, Joseph. “Modeling Galatea: Boosting Self Efficacy to

Increase Volunteering.” Journal of Applied Psychology 76 (1991):770( 11).

Report of a study of the Galatea effect, which is a boost in

performance caused by raising volunteers’ self-expectations.

Hutchinson, David C. “Writing Rules for Volunteers.” Fire Chief (July 1987):52.

Importance of a clear definition of rules and roles for the

professionalization of an organization and the value of maximum

volunteer participation in the development of the rules in increasing

efficiency.

Krajick, Kevin. “Fighting Fire With . . . What?” Newsweek 122 (December

13, 1993):730.

Description of the decline in the number of volunteer firefighters and

the problems of volunteer fire companies.

Mabra, Russell. “The American Volunteer: Unpaid Professional.” Firehouse

17 (March 1992):32(2).

Description of the typical volunteer, the reasons for volunteering, and

methods for keeping volunteers involved.
McCurley, Steve. Volunteer Management Policies. Boulder, Colorado:

Volunteer Management Associates, 1990.

Brief guidelines for conducting volunteer programs: management

procedures, recruitment and selection, training and development,

supervision and evaluation, and volunteer support and recognition.

McCurley, Steve, and Vineyard, Sue. 101 Ideas for Volunteer Programs.

Downers Grove, Illinois: Heritage Arts Publishing, 1986.

Checklists and suggestions concerning the management of volunteer

programs.

Snook, Jack W. “Volunteerism in America: Past, Present and Future.” Capstone

paper presented at Lewis and Clark College, May 1991.

Overview of the importance of American volunteerism. The concerns

and problems currently experienced by organizations using volunteers

and the difficulties expected in recruiting, training, and retaining

volunteers in the future are identified.

Thompson III, Alexander M., and Bono, Barbara A. “Alienation, Selfactualization, and the Motivation for Volunteer Labor.” Review of Radical

Political Economics 24 (Summer 1992): 115(9).

Exploration of the issue of worker motivation by examining volunteer

firefighters and why they engage in this essential activity without pay.

Thompson III, Alexander M., and Bono, Barbara A. “Work Without Wages:

The Motivation for Volunteer Firefighters.” The American Journal of

Economics and Sociology 52 (July 1993):323(21).

Theoretical and empirical exploration into the motivation of volunteer

firefighters.

“Volunteer Program Guide.” Corrections Today 55 (August 1993) : 66(5).

Guidelines for starting and maintaining a volunteer program,

identification of the qualities of a good volunteer, and some

suggestions and rules for volunteers.

Wright, Brenda White. “Some Notes on Recruiting and Retaining Minority

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Fourteen tactics for increasing minority volunteer involvement.

116
Resources

American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)

1909 K Street, N.W.

Washington, DC 20049

(202) 434-2277

Florida EMS Clearinghouse

1317 Winewood Boulevard

Tallahassee, FL 32399

(904) 487-1911

International Association of Fire Chiefs

EMS Section/Volunteer Section

4025 Fair Ridge Drive, Suite 300

Fairfax, VA 22033

(703) 273-0911

National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians

9140 Ward Parkway

Kansas City, MO 64114

(800) 346-2368

National Emergency Training Center

Learning Resource Center

16825 South Seton Avenue

Emmitsburg, MD 21727

(800) 638-1821 (outside Maryland)

(301) 447-1030 (Maryland only)

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

Office of Enforcement and Emergency Services

EMS Division

400 Seventh Street, S. W.

Washington, DC 20590

(202) 366-5440

National Volunteer Fire Council

1050 17th Street, N.W., Suite 701A

Washington, DC 20002

(202) 887-5700

117
Points of Light Foundation

(includes former National Volunteer Center)

1737 H Street, N.W.

Washington, DC 20006

(800) 879-5400

Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE)

409 Third Street, S.W.

Washington, DC 20024

(202) 205-6762

U.S. Fire Administration

Fire Technical Programs

16825 S. Seton Avenue

Emmitsburg, MD 21727

(301) 447-1231