A Handbook for Managers of 

Cultural Landscapes 

with Natural Resource Values 

A Web-based publication of: 

The Conservation Study Institute 

QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment 

Conservation and Stewardship Publication No. 5 

Written by Barbara Slaiby and Nora Mitchell, with contributions from 

Susan Buggey, Brent Mitchell and Stephen Engler, and editorial 

assistance from Leslie Hudson 

Woodstock, Vermont 

2003 
 

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This report is the fifth in the Conservation and Stewardship Publication Series produced 

by the Conservation Study Institute. This series includes a variety of publications 

designed to provide information on conservation history and current practice for 

professionals and the public. The series editor is Nora J. Mitchell, director of the 

Conservation Study Institute. Co-author of this publication is Barbara Slaiby, with 

contributions from Susan Buggey, Brent Mitchell and Stephen Engler, and editorial 

assistance from Leslie Hudson. 

The authors would like to thank Charles Birnbaum, Mary Beth Carlin, Ethan Carr, Jill 

Cowley, Shaun Eyring, Cathy Gilbert, Tonia Horton, Lucy Lawliss, Christina Marts, 

Robert Page, Charlie Pepper, and Sherda Williams for all of their help. 

The Conservation Study Institute was established by the National Park Service in 1998 to 

enhance leadership in the field of conservation. A partnership with academic, 

government, and nonprofit organizations, the institute provides a forum for the National 

Park Service, the conservation community, and the public to discuss conservation history, 

contemporary issues and practices, and future directions for the field. 

We encourage you to share the information in this publication, and request only that you 

give appropriate citations and bibliographic credits. 

Recommended citation: Slaiby, Barbara E., and Nora J. Mitchell. A Handbook for 

Managers of Cultural Landscapes with Natural Resource Values. Woodstock, Vermont: 

Conservation Study Institute, 2003. 

This publication is being made available as a web site rather than a printed document so 

that it remains a living document. Web images are not placed in the public domain by 

their appearance on this site. 

To make suggestions for further case studies, offer other ideas for tools, approaches or 

advice, or to suggest additional entries to the bibliography, please contact: 

Conservation Study Institute 

54 Elm Street 

Woodstock, Vermont 05091 

stewardship@nps.gov
 

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CONTENTS: 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

I. INTRODUCTION 

II. AN OVERVIEW OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION 

A. THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION IN THE UNITED 

STATES

B. INTERNATIONAL RECOGNITION OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION

C. DEFINITION OF “CULTURAL LANDSCAPE” 

III. METHODOLOGY 

A. LITERATURE REVIEW

B. THE CASE STUDY APPROACH

IV. FINDINGS 

A. AN OVERVIEW OF THE CASE STUDIES

B. GATHERING AND UTILIZING INFORMATION

1. TOOLS AND APPROACHES

a. Documentation 

i. Cultural Landscapes Inventory 

ii. Cultural Landscape Report 

iii. Historic Character Study 

iv. Geographic Information System Database 

v. Historic American Landscapes Survey 

b. Outside Expertise 

i. Charrettes 

ii. Expert Panels 

2. ADVICE FROM INTERVIEWEES

a. Integration Across Disciplines 

b. Integration through Documentation 

c. Ensuring Adequate Information 

C. COMMUNICATIONS: GETTING STAFF TO WORK TOGETHER
 

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1. TOOLS AND APPROACHES

a. Project Review Process Using a Team Approach 

b. Compliance Committee 

c. Natural/Cultural Resource Management Staff Integrated Work-Days 

d. Organizational Structure 

2. ADVICE FROM INTERVIEWEES

a. The Importance of Leadership 

D. THE MANAGEMENT PLANNING PROCESS

1. TOOLS AND APPROACHES

a. Sitewide Work Plans 

b. Post-project Evaluation/Project Evaluation System 

2. ADVICE FROM INTERVIEWEES

a. Involve Resource Management Staff in the Planning Process 

b. Be Realistic about Resource Limitations 

c. Take Your Time 

E. WORKING WITH OTHERS OUTSIDE THE SITE

1. TOOLS AND APPROACHES

a. Advisory Committee 

2. ADVICE FROM INTERVIEWEES

a. Respect the Public at Public Meetings 

b. Respect Your Neighbor’s Management Style 

F. NEEDS ASSESSMENT

1. GENERAL

a. Additional Professional Development 

2. SPECIFIC TO THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

a. Historic Landscape Architects 

b. Share Examples of Cultural Landscape Reports 

c. Flexible Mechanisms and Information on Partnerships 

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 

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VI. APPENDIXES 

A. INTERVIEW GUIDE

B. NATIONAL PARK SERVICE DEFINITIONS FOR CULTURAL LANDSCAPE TYPES

C. WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION DEFINITIONS OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

D. NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETINS RELEVANT TO CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

E. LIST OF INTERVIEWEES

F. SOURCE MATERIALS FOR CASE STUDIES

G. WEB SITES RELEVANT TO CULTURAL LANDSCAPES
 

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I. INTRODUCTION 

The last decade has witnessed an increasing interest in and recognition of cultural 

landscapes in the United States and worldwide, and there have been an impressive 

number of conservation successes. Various frameworks have been created to identify and 

categorize cultural landscapes, and progress is being made in developing tools and 

approaches for their management. The recognition of cultural landscapes is an exciting 

development and has focused attention on important historic, cultural, and archaeological 

resources. However, cultural landscapes present a number of management challenges: for 

example, their dynamic qualities, scale and transboundary issues, continuity of use, 

multiple ownership, and multiple jurisdictions. The primary focus of this handbook is on 

the interface of nature and culture in cultural landscapes. Since cultural landscapes result 

from the human interaction with the land, they encompass a range of natural and cultural 

values. The multidisciplinary aspect of cultural landscapes challenges our traditional 

approach to resource management, which has been discipline-oriented and has created a 

dichotomy between nature and culture. This dichotomy has proved to be a barrier to 

developing an integrated approach to landscape management. 

In response to the need for a more holistic approach to cultural landscape management, 

the National Park Service Conservation Study Institute, together with QLF/Atlantic 

Center for the Environment, initiated this project to develop a handbook for managers of 

cultural landscapes with important natural resource values. The primary audience for this 

handbook includes superintendents, site managers, resource managers, and other 

professional staff. The purpose of the project is to share some of the innovative work 

being done by resource management professionals: comprehensive approaches that 

integrate multiple values in management. By creating a web-based document that can 

easily be expanded to include more case studies and additional suggestions of tools, 

approaches, and lessons learned, we hope that this web site handbook will provide a 

forum for managers to share their experiences. We believe this shared experience will 

lead to a more successful integration of values in cultural landscape management. To 

share further case studies, offer suggestions for tools and approaches, or advice from 

experience, please contact us at: 

Conservation Study Institute 

54 Elm Street 

Woodstock, Vermont 05091 

stewardship@nps.gov 

The “Findings” section of this report presents tools and approaches developed at sites 

where some level of integration has been achieved. Also included is advice from resource 

managers gained from years of experience and deemed useful to pass on to others in 

similar professional positions. This information was identified through the analysis of all 

of the interviews conducted by researchers, which are listed in Appendix E. Many of the 

tools and approaches and much of the advice emphasize the importance of gathering and 

utilizing information from a number of disciplines for decisionmaking. The information 
 

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can be gathered by documentation, e.g., cultural landscape reports and historic character 

studies, or by outside expertise, e.g., charrettes and expert panels. A second focus is on 

getting site staff to work together more effectively through various communication 

strategies. Approaches include a team-based project review process and integrated staff 

work-days. Other tools, approaches, and advice gathered from interviews include ways to 

improve the planning process and to work with professionals and the public outside of a 

site. 

The research for this handbook also included a literature review. The result of that review 

is the bibliography. 

II. OVERVIEW OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION 

The focus of this handbook is on understanding the values of both cultural and natural 

resources in cultural landscapes and finding ways to successfully integrate this 

understanding into management. Although many tools and guidelines for managing 

cultural landscapes now exist, effective integration of natural resources into management 

planning for cultural landscapes remains a challenge. 

Because the recognition of cultural landscapes is relatively recent in the United States, 

this resource is not yet widely understood beyond the circle of professional resource 

managers. In contrast, the terms “natural resource” and “ecology” became household 

words at in the 1970s. “Natural landscapes” are usually defined as areas that have not 

been actively managed or developed. These lands have ecological systems that provide 

habitat for wildlife, retain biodiversity, purify air and water, and provide a place for 

recreation. In recent years, a better understanding has developed of the sustained periodic 

or long-term human occupation of many “natural landscapes,” since many have a history 

of land use that has significantly influenced the current ecosystem. 

“Cultural landscape” is a much less familiar term encompassing a diversity of places, 

many with significant land use history or other cultural values. Cultural landscapes 

include battlefields such as Gettysburg and Antietam; the homes and designed estate 

grounds of dignitaries, inventors, and writers; the sites held sacred by native peoples from 

prehistoric times to the present; and the valleys where our ancestors settled and farmed. 

Many cultural landscapes have maintained a continuity of land use into the present. 

Many types of cultural landscapes ranging from important historic gardens of less than an 

acre to rural vernacular historic districts of several thousand acres have been conserved. 

One important development in the past decade has been the conservation of many 

ethnographic landscapes and places of identity for aboriginal communities, illustrating 

that multiculturalism and diversity have gained recognition in the heritage preservation 

movement. Recently, a number of local initiatives have resulted in designation of heritage 
 

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areas by the U.S. Congress; this has focused attention on larger-scale landscapes where 

an array of cultural and natural values shape regional character and identity. 

A. THE EVOLUTION OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION IN THE UNITED 

STATES

Recognition of cultural landscapes as an important part of our national heritage is 

rooted in the history of historic preservation. In the United States, there are three pieces 

of national legislation with associated policies that form the legal and governmental 

framework for historic preservation: the Antiquities Act of 1906, the Historic Sites Act 

of 1935, and the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, last amended in 2000. 

These laws address the preservation of cultural resources for the benefit of present and 

future generations. The National Park Service (NPS), in cooperation with state historic 

preservation offices and certified local governments, administers the inventory, 

evaluation, and listing of significant historic properties in the U.S. through two historic 

preservation programs resulting from these laws: the National Historic Landmarks 

Program and the National Register of Historic Places. 

While recognition of historic value initially focused primarily on architecture, this 

focus has broadened in recent years to include landscapes as cultural resources. 

Although the National Park Service has recognized the significance of landscape 

characteristics and features in parks since the 1930s, there were no formal policies, 

guidelines, or standards for preserving and managing cultural landscapes until relatively 

recently. 

In the 1980s, the NPS began revising policies and guidelines for managing cultural 

landscapes included in the national park system. In 1984, Robert Z. Melnick published 

Cultural Landscapes: Rural Historic Districts in the National Park System, in which he 

noted that it was important to address the “larger landscape” as distinct from structures: 

it “often encompasses such elements as landform, plant materials, and location of 

structures.” Melnick suggested that it was first important to identify those landscapes 

and then develop methods for their evaluation. In 1985, Ian Firth published Biotic 

Cultural Resources: Management Considerations for Historic Districts in the National 

Park System, Southeast Region, in which he began to grapple with the relationship 

between natural resources and cultural landscapes, and the management of what he 

termed “biotic cultural resources”—plant and animal communities associated with 

human settlement and land use. In 1988, landscapes were formally identified as a type 

of cultural resource in NPS Management Policies, and with this a policy was 

established to recognize and protect landscapes with significant historic, design, 

archaeological, and ethnographic values. This policy also recognized the importance of 
 

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considering both built and natural features, and the dynamics inherent in natural 

processes and continued use.1

In 1994, the National Park Service expanded the Cultural Resource Management 

Guidelines, NPS-28 to include procedural guidance for managing cultural landscapes 

within the national park system. Also in the mid-1990s, the National Park Service 

developed two tools for research, planning, and stewardship activities for cultural 

landscapes. The cultural landscapes inventory (CLI) is a database that provides baseline 

information on the location, historic development, landscape characteristics and 

associated features, and management of cultural landscapes. The cultural landscape 

report (CLR) is the guide for management (frequently termed “treatment” in historic 

preservation reports) and use of the landscape. In 1999, the National Park Service 

published a manual for writing cultural landscape reports.2

Concurrently, in order to support the recognition of cultural resources, the National 

Register began to issue bulletins describing how to nominate them. Beginning in 1987, 

there have been a number of National Register bulletins that provide advice on how to 

nominate various cultural landscapes: 

• designed landscapes (Bulletin #18), 

• rural vernacular landscapes (Bulletin #30), 

• battlefields (Bulletin #40), 

• cemeteries (Bulletin #41), and 

• historic mining properties (Bulletin #42). 

In addition, in 1994, the NPS prepared Preservation Brief #36, Protecting Cultural 

Landscapes: Planning, Treatment, and Management of Historic Landscapes, which 

provides a good overview. In the 1980s, The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for 

the Treatment of Historic Properties was broadened to include landscapes, and, in 

1996, the accompanying Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes was 

published to provide advice on preservation. These NPS publications have inspired a 

number of landscape inventory efforts by state historic preservation programs and, most 

recently, by NPS itself. (See Bibliography and Appendix D for listing of relevant 

National Register Bulletins and other NPS publications.) 

B. INTERNATIONAL RECOGNITION OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION

 

1

 Robert R. Page, Cathy A. Gilbert, and Susan A. Dolan. Guide to Cultural Landscape 

Reports: Contents, Process, and Techniques. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the 

Interior, National Park Service, 1998, 7. 

2

 Ibid, 8-9. 
 

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Many countries around the world also recognize the diversity and value of cultural 

landscapes. Starting in 1984, the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and 

Cultural Organization) World Heritage Committee (formed under the auspices of the 

World Heritage Convention, an international treaty) struggled with the issue of cultural 

landscapes for almost a decade. Two issues inhibited consensus on the values that 

identify cultural landscapes: the equation of cultural landscapes with rural landscapes, 

and the requirement for a harmonious balance between nature and human activities in 

cultural landscapes. Finally, in 1992, new guidelines were adopted to specifically 

address the question of cultural landscapes. As of February 2002, there were 23 cultural 

landscapes on UNESCO’s World Heritage List. These sites are diverse and reflect a 

variety of reasons for inclusion, such as the specific technique of land use in the rice 

terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras or the spiritual beliefs of the people who live in 

Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in Australia. UNESCO is currently preparing 

management guidelines for World Heritage cultural landscapes.3

Cultural landscapes share much common ground with protected landscapes, Category V 

in IUCN-The World Conservation Union’s protected area management categories. Both 

are focused on landscapes where human relationships with the natural environment 

over time define their essential character. But, while the emphases in cultural 

landscapes have been on human history, continuity of cultural traditions, and social 

values and aspirations, the primary emphases in protected landscapes have been the 

natural environment, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem integrity. 

C. DEFINITION OF “CULTURAL LANDSCAPE” 

As would be expected from this widespread recognition and interest, there are a number 

of definitions for “cultural landscape” in use by different agencies and organizations in 

different parts of the world. The definition currently used by the U.S. National Park 

Service is: 

a geographic area, including both cultural and natural resources and 

the wildlife or domestic animals therein, associated with a historic 

event, activity, or person or exhibiting other cultural or aesthetic 

values. (Cultural Resource Management Guidelines, NPS-28)

The National Park Service recognizes four descriptive types of cultural landscapes that 

are not mutually exclusive and are relevant to properties nationwide in both public and 

private ownership. These four types are historic sites, historic designed landscapes, 

historic vernacular landscapes, and ethnographic landscapes. (See definitions in 

Appendix B.) 

 

3

 von Droste, Bernd, and Mechtild Rössler. “World Heritage Cultural Landscapes.” 

Landscape Stewardship: New Directions in Conservation of Nature and Culture. The 

George Wright Forum 17, no. 1 (2000). 
 

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The definition for cultural landscapes used by the National Park Service is of particular 

interest in this handbook since both natural and cultural resources are recognized as 

important and integral to the concept of a cultural landscape. It is this multidisciplinary 

aspect of cultural landscapes that creates current management challenges. These 

challenges arise from our traditional, rather discipline-oriented, approach to resource 

management, which has created a dichotomy between nature and culture. This 

dichotomy has proven to be a barrier to developing an integrated approach to landscape 

management because the resources most valued in certain disciplines may not be fully 

understood or appreciated by others. Cultural landscapes, rooted in the interaction of 

human activity with the natural environment, are the middle ground where the two 

traditions come together. A major challenge in some vernacular and ethnographic 

cultural landscapes is that there often are living populations who inhabit the land and 

have contemporary needs and ambitions. The scale of many cultural landscapes, which 

may stretch over thousands of acres, presents another challenge. The diversity of the 

resources—typically diverse cultural resources as well as diverse natural resources—

must also be understood and managed. It is now clear that managing cultural 

landscapes relies on a holistic approach—one that encompasses all significant aspects 

of a historic property—as these are integrated places of natural, cultural, scenic, and 

sometimes recreational values that have evolved and been layered over time. 

The landscape types recognized by the U.S. National Park Service are comparable, to a 

high degree, to the categories of cultural landscapes defined in the Operational 

Guidelines of UNESCO’S World Heritage Convention. (See Appendix C for World 

Heritage Convention definitions of cultural landscapes.) 

III. METHODOLOGY FOR THIS PROJECT 

The NPS Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment 

received a grant from the National Center for Preservation Training and Technology to 

locate and examine case studies illustrating the integrated management of cultural, 

natural, and scenic resources in cultural landscapes. These successful examples draw on 

the literature, methodologies, technologies, and practices of both natural and cultural 

resources to achieve an integrated approach to management of cultural landscapes. 

Through identification and evaluation of existing multidisciplinary cultural landscape 

programs, this research project identified a variety of strategies that foster the integration 

of natural resource management with historic and cultural resources in cultural 

landscapes. The project analyzed examples of cultural landscape preservation that 

illustrate best practices for managing cultural and natural resources in an integrated 

program. Research for this project followed two pathways: a literature search that 

resulted in a bibliography, and a series of interviews with resource professionals that led 

to the analysis of case studies and a summary of the lessons learned. These two sources 
 

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of information were synthesized to develop this handbook of tools and approaches for 

cultural landscape management. 

A. LITERATURE REVIEW

The research included a review of literature in cultural landscape management and 

related fields, as well as in natural resource management, in order to identify best 

principles and practices in examples of integrated management. This literature review 

appears in the bibliography for this report. 

B. THE CASE STUDY APPROACH

In order to identify successful examples of cultural landscape management that 

illustrate the integration of natural, cultural, and scenic resources, the project team 

evaluated a series of case studies. A preliminary list of sites for interviews was chosen 

based on several criteria. Researchers looked for a broad geographic distribution; 

variety in both scale and type of landscape (historic, designed, vernacular, and 

ethnographic); recently designated sites as well as older, long-established sites; and 

sites managed in partnership. In all but one case, researchers interviewed more than one 

staff person at each site in order to gain a broader perspective. This series of case 

studies was drawn primarily from the U.S. national park system. In compiling a list of 

potential case study sites, researchers considered suggestions made by cultural resource 

specialists in National Park Service regional offices for locations where resource 

managers were faced with interesting challenges and were responding with creative 

solutions. Researchers also drew potential sites from a network of conservation 

professionals and organizations contacted during a collaborative project that resulted in 

the preparation of The Landscape of Conservation Stewardship,

4

 thus leveraging an 

existing investment that has been identifying case studies on conservation stewardship. 

Finally, a search for potential privately managed sites was conducted through the world 

wide web. 

IV. FINDINGS 

The following is a summary of case studies and information gleaned from a series of 

interviews. (See Appendix E for a list of interviewees and sites.) The findings reflect 

observable patterns in what resource managers, planners, and other staff said about issues 

in their current working environment. Also included are thoughts or advice that 

interviewees wished to pass along to others in similar professional positions, as well as a 

synthesis of some of the lessons learned. 

 

4

 Tuxill, Jacquelyn L., ed. The Landscape of Conservation Stewardship: The Report of 

the Stewardship Initiative Feasibility Study. Woodstock, Vermont: Marsh-BillingsRockefeller National Historical Park, Conservation Study Institute, and Woodstock 

Foundation, 2000. 
 

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A. AN OVERVIEW OF THE CASE STUDIES

While the Blue Ridge Parkway encompasses a narrow corridor of land owned by the 

federal government and managed by the National Park Service, the majority of the 

scenic viewsheds that are integral to the park’s significance are on privately owned land 

under the planning jurisdiction of local communities and 29 counties. For many of 

these counties, land use planning and growth management are just beginning to emerge; 

in the interim, there is very little in the way of viewshed protection. Park resource 

managers and planners have developed a program to engage the public, local 

stakeholders, and county and municipal governments to analyze and help protect the 

key viewsheds. 

Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area is a test case for developing a 

cultural landscape inventory on a large scale. GIS mapping has proven useful as a tool 

to identify changes in features and patterns of the cultural landscape over time. The 

park has established an agricultural leasing program to address the loss of open fields, 

as well as a committee to assess the compliance requirements of various park activities, 

allow for input from park staff, and ensure that all resource issues are addressed. 

Gettysburg National Military Park used innovative approaches in developing the 

park’s updated general management plan (GMP). An analysis of the character-defining 

features of the Gettysburg battlefield landscape was incorporated into the new GMP 

and directed resource managers toward the best approach for protecting the cultural 

landscape. The analysis process also provided a useful tool to illustrate various 

management options during public comment sessions for the GMP. 

Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park is a site where a portion of the cultural 

landscape, a historic pecan orchard, is managed as a cultural resource that remains 

economically productive. The park staff has worked to develop a management plan for 

the orchard that respects its cultural and natural resource values, while continuing to 

produce a saleable crop of pecans each year. Orchard management includes an 

integrated pest management (IPM) program and a water quality monitoring regime. 

At Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller National Historical Park (MBRNHP) the Mount 

Tom Forest is one of the earliest examples of planned and managed reforestation in the 

United States. The Forest illustrates more than a century of stewardship, from the 

earliest scientific silvicultural practices borrowed from nineteenth-century Europe to 

contemporary practices of sustainable forest management. When the Mount Tom 

Forest was gifted to create MBRNHP, the National Park Service made a commitment to 

continue the tradition of careful, sustainable forest management practiced by the 

Billings and Rockefeller families. In 2002, the park, including its forest, was the pilot 

for a new documentation tool, the Historic American Landscape Survey. MBRNHP is 

currently developing a Forest Management Plan with a long-term vision for the future 

of the Mount Tom Forest. The Plan will guide forest practices, historic preservation, 
 

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natural resource protection, recreation, education and interpretation. A cultural 

landscape report and other documentation tools will inform the forest management 

plan. Working with several universities, consulting foresters, NPS Conservation Study 

Institute and the NPS Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation, the National Park 

Service is bringing the perspectives of many diverse disciplines to the planning process. 

At the Presidio of San Francisco, a unit of Golden Gate National Recreation Area, 

resource managers are also developing a vegetation management plan that includes a 

historic forest. In this case, the National Park Service is developing the plan 

cooperatively with the Presidio Trust, an independent federal agency. Because the 

Presidio is located at the edge of a densely populated urban area, public involvement is 

particularly important. A historic character study currently underway will be combined 

with knowledge of natural resources to inform management decisions. 

The Presidio’s small, 145-acre Crissy Field is included as a separate case study 

because of the complexity of developing the site’s design plan. The focus of this case 

study is on the negotiation process used to bring together a broad array of interests to 

integrate historic preservation and ecological conservation. 

Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve was established by legislation on land in private 

ownership with management responsibilities shared by a private organization, the 

National Park Trust, and a federal agency, the National Park Service. The National Park 

Service realized that the success of the park would depend on building a strong 

relationship with local communities, and that input from local people and organizations 

would be important in developing the park’s general management plan. The process 

used to develop the plan integrated research and expertise from outside experts and 

incorporated input from an advisory committee and local communities. 

B. GATHERING AND UTILIZING INFORMATION

Adequate knowledge of the cultural landscape is critical to information-based 

decisionmaking. Required knowledge includes identification and understanding of the 

natural resources, cultural forces, and historic evolution that have shaped the landscape 

existing today, including the cultural resources that represent land forms, land uses, and 

human activities over time. A multidisciplinary approach is essential to addressing the 

diverse and complex aspects of cultural landscapes. The first step may be to develop a 

framework for gathering and evaluating information on resources. The second may be 

to develop a process for analyzing the significance of the cultural landscape and its 

resources in order to inform management decisions. The tools and approaches for 

gathering information can be divided into those used for documentation-driven 

decisionmaking and for counsel-driven decisionmaking. 

1. TOOLS AND APPROACHES

a. Documentation 
 

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i. Cultural Landscapes Inventory 

The cultural landscapes inventory (CLI), developed by the National Park Service, 

identifies the cultural landscapes at a site and provides information on their location, 

historic development, landscape characteristics and associated features, and 

management. It is useful if baseline information provided in the CLI is available at 

the time a cultural landscape report (see description below) is undertaken. The CLI 

was implemented throughout the National Park Service in 1997, but inventories were 

initially carried out on relatively small-scale sites. Delaware Water Gap National 

Recreation Area is a test case for creating a CLI on a large (nearly 70,000-acre), 

parkwide scale. (See Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area case study.) 

ii. Cultural Landscape Report

The cultural landscape report (CLR) is used by the National Park Service as the 

principal management (treatment) document for cultural landscapes. The CLR 

summarizes a site’s history, documents existing conditions, and evaluates the 

landscape’s historic significance. A CLR guides management decisions for a 

landscape’s physical attributes, biotic systems, and uses based on an understanding of 

historic significance. The Guide to Cultural Landscape Reports: Contents, Process, 

and Techniques was published by the National Park Service in 1998, providing 

procedural and practical information related to preparing a CLR. 

iii. Historic Character Study 

A historic character study evaluates the “characteristics and features that define and 

illustrate the significance of the landscape” (Guide to Cultural Landscape Reports: 

Contents, Process, and Techniques). Mapping of these features provides a tangible 

illustration of cultural values, and, if mapped at the same scale as natural resources, 

allows for multidisciplinary discussions and the identification of opportunities for 

protection of a mix of values. This tool is particularly valuable for sites more than 

several hundred acres containing large areas of natural systems. (See Presidio Forest 

case study.) 

iv. Geographic Information System Database 

Geographic information system (GIS) mapping can be used to see how characterdefining features of the landscape have changed over time. Historic aerial 

photographs can be scanned and known points such as road intersections identified. 

The first layer created from the old photographs can then be overlaid on a second 

layer created from the current image, within the same view and in the same 

coordinate system, to identify changes in features such as field patterns, forests, and 

structures. (See Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area case study.) 

Another use of GIS is to map resources and compare overlays of natural and cultural 

resources. The natural resources might include soils, wetlands, vegetation types, and 

wildlife habitats. Cultural resources might include historic structures, archaeological 

sites (both prehistoric and historic), and Native American burial sites. Color-coding 
 

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can be used to allow resources of highest priority for protection to stand out. By 

analyzing the GIS maps, the resource management staff is able to identify areas 

where natural and cultural resources might be managed in concert, and where there 

are potential conflicts that will need to be resolved. 

v. Historic American Landscapes Survey 

The Historic American Landscapes Survey (HALS) program was established by the 

National Park Service in October 2000 as a sister program to the Historic American 

Buildings Survey (HABS) and the Historic American Engineering Record (HAER). 

HALS is intended to document significant historic landscapes throughout the United 

States with narrative history, drawings, and photographs. Guided by HALS 

professionals, teams of students in landscape architecture, architecture, planning, 

horticulture, and related disciplines, as well as interested professionals, conduct 

fieldwork for HALS through short-term projects. The teams record significant 

historic landscapes nationwide through measured and interpretive drawings, largeformat photography, written narratives, and other documentation techniques. HALS 

encourages partnerships with private, governmental, and educational institutions to 

develop landscape documentation and encourage landscape preservation. MarshBillings-Rockefeller National Historical Park served as a pilot site for the HALS 

program in 2002. 

b. Outside Expertise 

i. Charrettes 

A charrette, a form of organized brainstorming, is a workshop with a physical design 

component. It brings together experts from various disciplines, allowing them to 

consider important issues together over a short period of time. In general, a charrette 

is most useful to generate ideas for a more in-depth planning process. (See MarshBillings-Rockefeller National Historical Park case study.) 

ii. Expert Panels 

Many sites have used an expert panel composed of a multidisciplinary team to gather 

advice and define the scope or data requirements for developing management plans. 

Panel members can share information and perspectives gleaned from years of 

experience or research at a variety of sites. The use of an expert panel can reduce the 

time and cost necessary for gathering this information. Panel members can also 

identify gaps in knowledge and help determine how these gaps might be addressed. In 

order to reduce the amount of time consumed by this process, the panel can be 

charged with specific tasks or questions. (See Tallgrass Prairie National Park case 

study.) 

2. ADVICE FROM INTERVIEWEES

a. Integration Across Disciplines 
 

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Many sites are beginning to look for input from many divisions within the park as 

well as outside experts as a means to make certain that all perspectives are 

represented in discussions and considered in planning and management actions or 

decisions. This approach allows resource managers to gather a greater amount of data 

and expertise. It is important that when using this multidisciplinary approach gathered 

from many sources, that the resource management staff ensure that the information is 

integrated. 

b. Ensuring Adequate Information 

Because cultural landscape documentation methodologies are relatively new, this 

information may lag behind that for natural resources. Several cultural resource 

specialists within the National Park Service felt this disparity was a serious concern 

and a barrier to cross disciplinary integration. As a result, they believe it is critical 

that there be commitment to gathering cultural landscape documentation in parallel 

with natural resource information. 

c. The Importance of On-going Documentation 

On-going documentation is an important role for resource managers and maintenance 

staff so that any changes made at a site are recorded and may, if necessary, be 

reversed at some point in the future. It was suggested that this is most often 

recognized by the maintenance staff who deal with historic structures, but that those 

who manage natural or cultural landscapes may not view documentation as a priority. 

Interviewees noted that it is important at every site to develop a procedure for 

documentation of changes made to all resources, and to make sure that all staff 

members understand the procedure and follow it for every project. 

C. COMMUNICATION: GETTING STAFF TO WORK TOGETHER

Sites that contain cultural landscapes with both natural and cultural values require a 

decisionmaking process that is viewed as fair and reasonable by all parties. This 

process can include various professionals such as historians, archaeologists, wildlife 

biologists, foresters, hydrologists, ethnologists, landscape architects, architects, 

engineers, interpreters, and maintenance staff. The process should include steps that 

establish and maintain communication between managers within different divisions at 

the site. One important role of the site manager is to create a team from an often diverse 

group of people. Even if staff in different divisions do not get along or work well 

together, it is the manager’s job to make sure the staff is communicating about all key 

management issues. The process may also involve bringing together representatives of 

different disciplines through special committees or work teams. 

1. TOOLS AND APPROACHES

a. Project Review Process Using a Team Approach 
 

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Management of the complex and diverse natural, cultural, scenic, and other values of 

cultural landscapes requires consistent information flow, active communication in 

planning, and participation in decisionmaking among multiple staff members, often 

from different disciplines. One common observation by both natural and cultural 

resource managers interviewed was that they were frequently unaware of projects 

until the actual work was begun. Because of this, they were not able to be involved in 

the decisionmaking process while their input might still affect the outcome. Their 

sites had no comprehensive list of proposed or funded projects, or there was no 

mechanism in place for their involvement in the planning or priority-setting process. 

The Blue Ridge Parkway’s Resource Planning and Professional Services Division has 

developed a project review process that minimizes conflicts between cultural resource 

and natural resource managers. Previously, anyone proposing a project at the park 

would carry out the planning and design phase on their own, then send out the plan 

for others to review. At that late stage in the process, reviewers might be reluctant to 

ask for any major changes. As part of the pre-implementation phase of the new 

process, all players who will have an interest in a proposed project review that project 

in the field before any design work begins. This generally happens in the spring for 

all projects proposed for that year. The group first identifies all the natural and 

cultural resources that will be affected, then designs solutions that consider all 

natural, cultural, and scenic resource concerns. This is the point where negotiation 

takes place on planning and management issues. The team stays together throughout 

the course of the project, with the Resource Planning and Professional Services 

Division acting as the coordinator. Park planning and resource management staff 

believe this new process works well and effectively integrates natural and cultural 

resource concerns. 

b. Compliance Committee 

This is an interdisciplinary team that meets at regularly scheduled intervals to assess 

the compliance requirements of various site activities. At Delaware Water Gap 

National Recreation Area, the compliance committee meets once a month and 

includes a representative from the superintendent’s office, three division chiefs, and 

professional staff at various levels from all the major disciplines. The committee chair 

is responsible for making sure that all important resource-related issues are addressed. 

Although these meetings are not always easy, they provide an opportunity for all of 

the various participants’ concerns to be “laid out on the table.” 

At Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, the compliance committee has 

yielded several valuable benefits that further the park’s goals for resource 

management and environmental leadership: 
 

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• The existence of the committee has raised awareness throughout park staff that 

planning and compliance reviews should be considered for a variety of park 

activities, not just major development projects. 

• Having a recognized committee that meets regularly provides a structured process 

for development of standard operating procedures for compliance reviews. The 

information is then available to any staff member responsible for coordinating or 

managing a park activity. This structure has eliminated the need for staff members 

to determine on their own who needs to be contacted and make those contacts 

individually. 

• Regular meetings of interdisciplinary or interdivisional groups of coworkers 

create a real sense of teamwork that is invaluable when discussing problems and 

finding solutions to challenging compliance issues. 

• Regular compliance meetings make more efficient use of staff time, because up to 

eight different projects can be reviewed at one meeting. Formerly, each project 

would have required an individual meeting, meaning that the same staff members 

would have had to attend up to eight different meetings to accomplish what is 

now done in a single session. 

c. Natural/Cultural Resource Management Staff Integrated Work-Days 

One cultural resource manager arranges staff work-days with both natural and 

cultural resource staff members working side-by-side on a project requiring physical 

labor. Chosen work sites have both natural and cultural resource components. 

Working together tends to break down barriers and promotes a better working 

relationship back in the office. Volunteers from the local community often participate 

as well. 

d. Organizational Structure 

Although there may be many ways to achieve an integration of interests in 

management at a site, several interviewees indicated that one method they felt worked 

well was to place all staff responsible for cultural and natural resource management 

within the same division. This allows for daily interaction and increases the 

likelihood that everyone will have at least some information on various projects 

before any work actually begins, and will know enough about the projects to know 

when they should be involved at some level. Several interviewees suggested that 

integrating natural and cultural resource staff within the same division forces staff to 

work together at an overall management level, rather than an individual project level. 

Placing all resource management staff within the same division also allows for valueladen philosophical discussions to take place over an extended period of time in a 

relaxed, nonconfrontational atmosphere, rather than during project management 
 

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negotiations when tensions can be high. It allows for an exchange of ideas and an 

educational process so that everyone reaches at least a basic understanding of and 

appreciation for the importance of all the resources at a site. 

Another reason suggested for creating a combined division is that the cultural and 

natural resource staff members then feel they are at an equal level when trying to 

achieve integration during the decisionmaking process. By placing all staff within one 

division under a single division chief, the chief ultimately becomes responsible for 

integration. If that individual does his or her job well, the atmosphere within the 

division promotes discussion and learning from one another across disciplines. Staff 

members need to feel the freedom to express their opinions openly without the fear of 

criticism or censure, and should understand the importance of listening to and 

considering the concerns of others. Staff members also need to appreciate their 

responsibility for airing their concerns openly. Frank debate among all the staff 

allows them to work together as a team to resolve issues. 

2. ADVICE FROM INTERVIEWEES

a. The Importance of Leadership 

Several interviewees expressed the importance of supervisors creating a “safe” 

environment for resource management staff, in which all members feel comfortable in 

expressing views openly and honestly without fear of recrimination. Staff members 

also understand the importance of listening to and considering the concerns of others. 

Staff meetings should be seen as the time to get concerns “out on the table.” In order 

to create this atmosphere, supervisors need to develop leadership skills. 

D. THE MANAGEMENT PLANNING PROCESS

It is important that sites develop a comprehensive approach to planning rather than using 

an ad hoc approach for each individual project. In this way, planners and managers are 

better able to see the “big picture” and the interrelationships among projects. When 

evaluation is built into the planning process, the process becomes a learning experience. 

1. TOOLS AND APPROACHES

a. Sitewide Work Plans 

It was suggested that parks and other protected areas would do well to set priorities 

for projects sitewide, through a sitewide work plan. This prevents individuals from 

pursuing project funding and then having to return that funding if other managers 

determine the project is not a priority, or if the project conflicts with plans or 

priorities of other divisions. 
 

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b. Post-project Evaluation 

After a project has been completed, it is important to step back and look at what 

worked well and what did not. Time for reflection can be built into the system, 

becoming a routine part of the process, so that it is no longer possible to immediately 

go on to the next project without learning something from the last. 

In order to evaluate the success of a project, measurable goals and outcomes must be 

determined in advance. For example, 20 years ago, professionals involved in fire 

management believed that success was achieved when the fuel load was reduced. 

Today managers introduce fire as a natural component and are looking for success 

based on clearly-defined ecological indicators.

2. ADVICE FROM INTERVIEWEES

a. Involve Resource Management Staff in the Planning Process 

One interviewee recommended that both cultural and natural resource management be 

integral, active components of all site planning, and that cultural and natural resource 

management staff be included “at the table” from the very beginning. It was 

suggested that resource management staff might be excluded from the site planning 

process because they are seen as obstacles, pushing to protect everything without 

compromise. It was also suggested that both cultural and natural resource managers 

take a more holistic view, realizing that they cannot protect “every blade of grass” 

and that, at times, there will need to be compromise. 

While it may be more enjoyable for resource managers to spend time in the field 

conducting inventories and collecting data, they should also recognize the importance 

of using that data to promote protection, which requires time away from the field in 

planning and negotiation.

b. Be Realistic about Resource Limitations 

When resource managers evaluate management options, they need to be realistic 

about limitations in staffing and funding. For example, the decision to replant a 

historic orchard will require initial funding, then continued funding and staffing for 

maintenance for years to come. It may also mean the use of chemical fertilizers and 

pesticides—even if an integrated pest management (IPM) program is adopted—and 

the continued monitoring of water quality. This should be viewed as a long-term 

decision that has a basis in the site’s management planning documents and is not the 

whim of the current site director. 

c. Take Your Time 
 

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As a resource manager, it often is not important how quickly goals are achieved but 

that they are achieved eventually. If we assume that parks and other protected areas 

exist in perpetuity, managers must accept that it may take a long time to reach a 

desired end, and that they may not witness that end personally. As long as managers 

do all that they can to maintain the resources in their care, they should gather all the 

information possible to make good decisions and not be rushed. 

E. WORKING WITH OTHERS OUTSIDE THE SITE

Many case studies illustrate that parks and protected areas no longer work in isolation. 

Consequently, it can be useful for resource managers to be aware of the views and values 

of site visitors and surrounding communities, and to recognize that the interests of 

stakeholders in the public are not homogeneous. It may be important to bring members of 

the public into the decisionmaking process so that they can contribute their knowledge 

and also understand the reasons that shape decisions. This can help to build a 

constituency more willing to support resource protection. In some areas, local opposition 

to federal ownership can mean that a federal-private or federal-state partnership is the 

only way to manage a site and that a management program needs to be based on a 

complex of interests and long-term vision of the future. 

Education is important in that it creates good stewards and a constituency for protection 

of natural, cultural, and scenic resources. If there is a collaborative method to directly 

involve the public, people gain a greater appreciation for a site, its mission, and its 

resources. (See Blue Ridge Parkway case study for more information on the view area 

scenic quality assessment process.) 

Cultural landscapes involve not only resource protection but protection of all the values 

of the place, often including intangible values based on meanings and associations. As an 

example, it is important to work with indigenous people to understand their traditional 

knowledge of the places they hold sacred, which are often natural rather than built 

resources. 

1. TOOLS AND APPROACHES

a. Advisory Committee 

The use of an advisory committee with representation from a site’s surrounding 

community, including local government entities and special interests, has proven to 

be an effective means of building local support. In the case of Tallgrass Prairie 

National Preserve, an advisory committee was created legislatively when the preserve 

was established, and was involved in developing the preserve’s general management 

plan. 

2. ADVICE FROM INTERVIEWEES
 

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a. Respect the Public at Public Meetings 

It was suggested that, during public hearings, those conducting the meetings should 

be respectful of people’s time. Avoiding revisiting issues that have been addressed at 

previous public meetings is one way to do this. Otherwise, those conducting the 

meetings may be viewed as indecisive or as wasting citizens’ time. 

b. Respect Your Neighbor’s Management Style 

If there are differences in the management styles of the staff at a site and the 

neighboring property owners, it is important to respect the neighbors’ management 

styles and decisions. Often there is more common ground than there are differences, 

so try to focus on the common areas. 

F. NEEDS ASSESSMENT

When asked for information that is needed, for changes that should be made, or for ideas 

for future programs, interviewees came up with the following suggestions. 

1. GENERAL

a. Additional Professional Development 

For staff members who work at the ground level, it is helpful to have tools that can be 

used in making day-to-day decisions. One suggestion was to create hands-on 

workshops for park staff on various aspects of cultural landscape management. The 

workshops could be designed so that participants work in teams including natural and 

cultural resource managers and maintenance and interpretative staff, and would work 

together resolving issues at their own site or on case studies from other locations. 

2. SPECIFIC TO THE U.S. NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

a. Additional Professional Staff 

Hire additional professionals such as historic landscape architects to work for groups 

of parks (a cluster) on specific projects for two or three weeks at a time. 

b. Share Examples of Cultural Landscape Reports 

Make high-quality examples of cultural landscape reports available to other sites.

c. Flexible Mechanism and Information on Partnerships 

Create accessible information and examples of cooperative agreements and other 

partnership tools. This is especially important for smaller parks with small staffs and 
 

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therefore limited expertise. Parks should have access to model agreements for 

working with other federal agencies and local nonprofit organizations on 

collaborative projects. 
 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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CULTURAL LANDSCAPES THEORY AND PHILOSOPHY

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Management.” Landscape and Urban Planning 40 (1998): 1–3, 123–130. 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

Van Lier, H., ed. “Sustainable Land Use Planning.” Landscape and Urban 

 Planning 41 (1998): 2. 

Young, Kenneth R. “Wildlife Conservation in the Cultural Landscapes of the Andes.” 

Landscape and Urban Planning 38 (1997): 3–4, 137–147. 

CULTURAL AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Al-Kodmany, K. “Using Visualization Techniques for Enhancing Public Participation in 

Planning and Design: Process, Implementation, and Evaluation.” Landscape and 

Urban Planning 45 (1999): 37–45. 

Australia ICOMOS. Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of 

Cultural Significance [the Burra Charter]. Canberra: Australia ICOMOS, 1999. 

Bennett, Andrew F. “Habitat Linkages––A Key Element in an Integrated Landscape 

Approach to Conservation.” Parks 7, no. 1 (1997): 43–49.

Bennett, G., ed. Towards a European Ecological Network. Arnhem, The Netherlands: 

Institute for European Environmental Policy, 1991. 

Bernbaum, Edwin. “Sacred Mountains: Implications for Protected Area Management.” 

Parks 6, no.1 (1996): 41–48. 

Boothby, John. “Framing a Strategy for Pond Landscape Conservation: Aims, Objectives, 

and Issues.” Landscape Research 24, no. 1 (1999): 67–83. 

Brown, Jessica, and Brent Mitchell. “Extending the Reach of National Parks and 

Protected Areas: Local Stewardship Initiatives.” In National Parks and Protected 

Areas: Keystones to Conservation and Sustainable Development, J.G. Nelson and 

R. Serafin, eds. NATO ASI Series, Vol. G 40. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1997. 

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New Directions in Conservation of Nature and Culture.” The George Wright 

Forum 17, no. 1 (2000). 

Buggey, Susan, and Genevieve Keller, eds. “Managing Cultural Landscapes,” APT 

Bulletin 31, no. 4 (2000). 

Chiarappa, Michael J. “Domesticated Waters: Delaware Bay Oystering’s Science and 

 Technology.” CRM: Cultural Resource Management 21, no. 2 (1998): 11–12. 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

Corbett, Tony, Marcus Lane, and Chris Clifford. Achieving Indigenous Involvement in 

Management of Protected Areas: Lessons from Recent Australian Experience. 

Aboriginal Politics and Public Sector Management Research, Paper no. 5. Griffith 

University, Centre for Australian Public Sector Management, 1998. 

 

Crook, Darren S., and Anne M. Jones. “Traditional Irrigation and Its Importance to the 

Tourist Landscape of Valois, Switzerland.” Landscape Research 24, no. 1 (1999): 

49–65. 

Davis, Frank W., David M. Stoms, and Sandy Andelman. “Systematic Reserve Selection 

in the USA: An Example from the Columbia Plateau Ecoregion.” Parks 9, no. 1 

(1999): 31–41. 

Dillon, David. “Deep in the Heart: How Does a Rural Region of Texas Preserve Its 

Character While Accommodating Change? The LBJ Heartland Council Blazes 

New Trails.” Historic Preservation 45, no. 5 (1993): 28–37, 91. 

Eyring, Shaun. “Vegetation Management in Large Cultural Landscapes: Techniques for 

Preserving Historic Fields and Vistas.” Bulletin of the Association for 

Preservation Technology 30, no. 1 (1999): 21–27. 

Eyring, Shaun, and Lucy Lawliss. “Preserving Battlefield Terrain: Technologies for 

Earthworks Management.” APT Bulletin 31, no. 4 (2000): 13–19. 

Gobster, Paul H. “An Ecological Aesthetic for Forest Landscape Management.” 

Landscape Journal 18, no. 1 (1999): 54–64. 

Goriup, Paul. “The Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy: 

Integration of Ecological Agriculture and Grassland Conservation.” Parks 8, no. 3 

(1998): 37–46. 

Green, Bryn. “Re-evaluating Nature: Cultural Landscape Conservation.” Built 

Environment 23, no. 3 (1997): 210–20. 

Gustanski, Julie Ann, and Roderick H. Squires. Protecting the Land: Conservation 

Easements Past, Present, and Future. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2000. 

Harrison, Richard, ed. Manual of Heritage Management. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994. 

Hunziker, Marcel, and Felix Kienast. “Potential Impacts of Changing Agricultural 

Activities on Scenic Beauty––A Prototypical Technique for Automated Rapid 

Assessment.” Landscape Ecology 14, no. 2 (1999): 161–176. 

Jamieson, Walter, ed. Conserving the Rural Landscape: A Symposium. Calgary: Alberta 

Community Development and the Centre for Livable Communities, 1995. 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

Jankowski, Achim, Wendy Shearer, and John E. Zvonar. “Micro-Drilling Devices for 

Landscape Conservation.” Bulletin of the Association for Preservation 

Technology 30, no. 1 (1999): 37–41. 

Jardel, Enrique J., Eduardo C. Santana, and Sergio Graf. “The Sierra de Manantián 

Biosphere Reserve: Conservation and Regional Sustainable Development.” Parks

6, no. 1 (1996): 14–22. 

Johnson, Martha, ed. Lore: Capturing Traditional Environmental Knowledge. Hay River, 

NWT: Dene Cultural Institute and the International Development Research 

Centre, 1992. 

Keller, Genevieve P. “The Inventory and Analysis of Historic Landscapes.” Historic 

Preservation Forum 7, no. 3 (1993): 26–35. 

King, Michael, and Ueta Faasili. “A Network of Small, Community-Owned Village Fish 

Reserves in Samoa.” Parks 8, no. 2 (1998): 11–16. 

Knight, Richard L., and Peter B. Landres, eds. Stewardship across Boundaries. 

Washington, DC and Covelo, CA: Island Press, 1999. 

Land Ethics and Dodson Associates. Linking the Past to the Future: A Landscape 

Conservation Strategy for Waterford, Virginia. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of the Interior, National Park Service, in cooperation with the 

Waterford Foundation, 1992. 

Larsen, Knut Einar, ed. Nara Conference on Authenticity in Relation to the World 

Heritage Convention/Conference de Nara sur l’Authenticité dans le Cadre de la 

Convention du Patrimoine Mondial. Japan: UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 

Agency for Cultural Affairs, ICCROM, and ICOMOS, 1995. 

Lewis, Peirce. “Common Landscapes as Historic Documents.” In History from Things: 

Essays on Material Culture, Steven Lubar and W. David Kingery, eds. 

Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993. 

Lucas, P.H.C. Protected Landscapes: A Guide for Policy Makers and Planners. London: 

Chapman and Hall, 1992. 

Mastran, Shelley. Rural Conservation. Washington, DC: National Trust for Historic 

Preservation, 1993. 

Meier, Lauren, and Nora J. Mitchell. “Principles for Preserving Historic Plant Material.” 

CRM: Cultural Resource Management 13, no. 5 (1990): 1724. 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

Mitchell, Nora J. “Cultural Landscapes: Concepts of Culture and Nature as a Paradigm 

for Historic Preservation.” Ph.D. dissertation, Tufts University. Ann Arbor, MI: 

UMI Dissertation Services, 1996. 

Mitchell, Nora, and Katherine T. Lacy. “Cultural Landscapes: Reading Stories Written on 

the Land.” History News 52, no. 3 (1997): 25–27. 

Mitchell, Nora, and Robert R. Page. “Managing the Past for the Future.” Historic 

Preservation Forum 7, no. 3 (1993): 46–61. 

O’Donnell, Patricia. “The Treatment of Historic Landscapes.” Historic Preservation 

Forum 7, no. 3 (1993): 36–45. 

Paine, Cecelia, and James R. Taylor. Cultural Landscape Assessment: A Comparison of 

Rural Cultural Landscape Assessment Methods and Their Potential for 

Application within the Niagara Escarpment. Guelph, ON: Landscape Research 

Group at Guelph, University of Guelph, 1995. 

Pärtel, Meelis, Riina Mändla, and Martin Zobel. “Landscape History of a Calcareous 

(Alvar) Grassland in Hanila, Western Estonia, during the Last Three Hundred 

Years.” Landscape Ecology 14, no. 2 (1999): 187–196. 

Pepper, Charles. “Preserving Historic Woody Plants: Case Studies of the National 

 Park Service.” Forum on Woody Plants in Historic Landscapes. Boston: 

Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 1999. 

Phillips, Adrian. “The Nature of Cultural Landscapes––A Nature Conservation 

Perspective.” Landscape Research 23, no. 1 (1998): 21–38. 

Pressey, R.L. “Applications of Irreplaceability Analysis to Planning and Management 

Problems.” Parks 9, no. 1 (1999): 42–51. 

Putney, Allen, ed. “Non-Material Values of Protected Areas.” Parks 10, no. 2 (2000). 

Stokes, Samuel N., A. Elizabeth Watson, and Shelley Mastran for the National Trust for 

Historic Preservation. Saving America’s Countryside: A Guide to Rural 

Conservation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. 

Taylor, Ken. “Reconciling Aesthetic Value and Social Value: Dilemmas of 

 Interpretation and Application.” Bulletin of the Association for 

Preservation Technology 30, no. 1 (1999): 51–55. 

Tunbridge, J.E., and G.J. Ashworth. Dissonant Heritage: The Management of the Past as 

a Resource in Conflict. Chichester and Toronto: John Wiley and Sons, 1996.
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

Tuxill, Jacquelyn L., et al., eds. The Landscape of Conservation Stewardship: The Report 

of the Stewardship Initiative Feasibility Study. Woodstock, VT: Marsh-BillingsRockefeller National Historical Park, Conservation Study Institute, and The 

Woodstock Foundation, Inc., 2000. 

Vernon, Noel Dorsey, and Charles E. Loggins. “Leimert Park’s Plaza: Cultural 

Landscape Rehabilitation and Community Revitalization.” Bulletin of the 

Association for Preservation Technology 30, no. 1 (1999): 9–14.

Von Droste, Bernd, Harald Plachter, and Mechtild Rössler, eds. Cultural Landscapes of 

Outstanding Universal Value: Components of Global Strategy. Jena: Gustav 

Fischer Verlag in cooperation with UNESCO, 1995.

Zaitzevsky, Cynthia. “The Historian and the Landscape.” Historic Preservation Forum 7: 

3 (1993): 16–25. 

ENVIRONMENT AUSTRALIA

Australian Heritage Commission and the Australian Committee for IUCN. Australian 

Natural Heritage Charter. Sydney: Australian Heritage Commission, 1996.

Lennon, J. Case Study of the Cultural Environment of the Central Victorian Goldfields.

State of the Environment Technical Paper Series. Canberra: Department of the 

Environment, Natural and Cultural Heritage, 1997. 

Pearson, M., D. Johnston, J. Lennon, I. McBryde, D. Marshall, D. Nash, and B. 

Wellington. Environmental Indicators for National State of the Environment 

Reporting: Natural and Cultural Heritage. Canberra: State of the Environment, 

Environmental Indicator Reports, 1998. 

COUNCIL OF EUROPE/EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Council of Europe. Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural 

Habitats. Bern: European Treaty Series, no. 104, 1979. 

<www.ecnc.nl/doc/europe/legislat/bernconv.html> 

––––––. European Landscape Convention. 2000. 

<http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/treaties/html/176.htm> 

––––––. Inventory and Cartography of Natural Biotopes in Europe: The Two Networks of 

Protected Areas of the Council of Europe. PE-SEM/COR (91) 2. Document 

prepared by the Directorate of Environment and Local Authorities. Strasbourg: 

Council of Europe, 1991. 
 

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A Handbook for Managers of Cultural Landscapes with Natural Resource Values 

Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

––––––. Recommendation No. R (95) 9 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States 

on the Integrated Conservation of Cultural Landscape Areas as Part of 

Landscape Policies. Strasbourg, Council of Europe, 1995. 

––––––. The European Network of Biogenetic Reserves B Resolutions. Strasbourg, 

Council of Europe: 1992. 

––––––. The Emerald Network––A Network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest for 

Europe. Document prepared by the Standing Committee for the Convention on 

the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. T-PVS (96). 

Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 7 January 1997. 

<www.ecnc.nl/doc/lynx/publications/emerald.html>

Council of Europe and CEC. Map of Natural Vegetation of the Member States of the 

European Communities and the Council of Europe. Scale 1:3.000.000. 

Explanatory notes by A. Noirfalise. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications 

of the European Communities, 1987. 

Council of Europe, UNEP, and ECNC. Pan-European Biological and Landscape 

Diversity Strategy B: A Vision for Europe’s Natural Heritage. Amsterdam: 1996. 

<www.ecnc.nl/doc/europe/legislat/strafull.html> 

European Commission. Natura 2000 B European Commission DG XI’s Nature 

Newsletter. Issue 1–4, ISSN 1026-6151, DG-XI D.2, 1997. 

 

U.S. NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

Andrus, Patrick W. Guidelines for Identifying, Evaluating, and Registering America’s 

Historic Battlefields. National Register Bulletin 40. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1992. 

Birnbaum, Charles A. Protecting Cultural Landscapes: Planning, Evaluating, and 

Management of Historic Landscapes. Preservation Brief 36. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1994. 

Birnbaum, Charles A., and Robert R. Page, eds. “Thematic Issue on Landscape 

Interpretation.” CRM: Cultural Resource Management 17, no. 7 (1994). 

Birnbaum, Charles A., with Christine Capella Peters, eds. The Secretary of the Interior’s 

Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines for the 

Treatment of Cultural Landscapes. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the 

Interior, National Park Service, 1996. 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

Derry, Anne, H. Ward Jandl, Carol D. Shull, and Jan Thormon. Rev. ed. by Patricia L. 

Parker. Guidelines for Local Surveys: A Basis for Preservation Planning. National 

Register Bulletin 24. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National 

Park Service, 1985.

Firth, Ian. Biotic Cultural Resources: Management Considerations for Historic Districts 

in the National Park System, Southeast Region. Georgia: U.S. Department of the 

Interior, National Park Service, 1985. 

Greenberg, Ronald M., ed. “Thematic Issue on Historic Transportation Corridors.” CRM: 

Cultural Resource Management 16, no. 11 (1993). 

Keller, J. Timothy, and Genevieve P. Keller. How to Evaluate and Nominate 

Designed Historic Landscapes. National Register Bulletin 18. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1987. 

King, Thomas F., and Jan Townsend. Through the Generations: Identifying and 

Protecting Traditional Cultural Places. Video. Washington, DC: National Park 

Service et al., n.d. 

McClelland, Linda Flint, J. Timothy Keller, Genevieve P. Keller, and Robert Z. Melnick. 

Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Rural Historic Landscapes. National 

Register Bulletin 30. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National 

Park Service, 1998. 

Melnick, Robert Z., Daniel Sponn, and Emma J. Saxe. Cultural Landscapes: Rural 

Historic Districts in the National Park System. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 

of the Interior, National Park Service, 1984. 

National Park Service. Cultural Resource Management Guideline, NPS-28. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1998. 

––––––. Guide to Sustainable Earthworks Management. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1998. 

<http://www.nps.gov/phso/sp/jeawoint.htm> 

Noble, Bruce J., Jr., and Robert Spude. Guidelines for Identifying, Evaluating, and 

Registering Historic Mining Properties. National Register Bulletin 42: 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1992. 

Nowakowski, H. Matthew. “Bringing the Past into the Future: New Technologies for 

CRM.” CRM: Cultural Resource Management 21, no. 5 (1998). 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

Page, Robert R., Cathy A. Gilbert, and Susan A. Dolan. A Guide to Cultural Landscape 

Reports: Contents, Process, and Techniques. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 

of the Interior, National Park Service, 1998. 

Parker, Patricia L., and Thomas F. King. Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting 

Traditional Cultural Properties. National Register Bulletin 38. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1990. 

Potter, Elisabeth Walton, and Beth Boland. Guidelines for Evaluating and Registering 

Cemeteries and Burial Places. National Register Bulletin 41. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1992. 

Westmacott, Richard. Managing Culturally Significant Agricultural Landscapes within 

the National Park System. Draft. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the 

Interior, National Park Service, 1997. 

PARKS CANADA

Buggey, Susan. “An Approach to Aboriginal Cultural Landscapes.” Agenda paper 

 for Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada, Parks Canada, 1999. 

Buggey, Susan, and Joann Latremouille. Cultural Landscapes/Cultural Resources. 

Video. Ottawa: Parks Canada, 1997. 

Doull, Ian. “Commemoration of Rural Historic Districts.” Agenda paper for Historic 

Sites and Monuments Board of Canada, Parks Canada, 1994.

Parks Canada. Guiding Principles and Operational Policies. Ottawa: Department of 

Canadian Heritage, 1994. 

<http://www.parkscanada.gc.ca/docs/pc/poli/princip/part2/part2d1_e.asp> 

Stovel, Herb, with Julian Smith. FHBRO Code of Practice. Edited by Jean-Pierre W. 

Landry and Lyette Fortin. Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services, Federal 

Heritage Buildings Review Office, 1996. 

UNESCO 

UNESCO. Biosphere Reserves: The Seville Strategy and the Statutory Framework for the 

World Network. Paris: UNESCO, 1996. 

UNESCO, World Heritage Convention. Operational Guidelines for the Protection of the 

World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Paris: UNESCO, 1996. 

<www.unesco.org/whc> 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

UNESCO. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural 

Heritage. Paris: UNESCO, 1997. <www.unesco.org/whc/world_he.htm> 

––––––. The Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. Paris: 

UNESCO, 1997. <www.unesco.org/mab> 

IUCN––THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION

(INCLUDES WORLD COMMISSION ON PROTECTED AREAS) 

Beltrán, Javier, ed. Indigenous and Traditional Peoples and Protected Areas: Principles, 

Guidelines, and Case Studies. Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series no. 

4. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge UK: IUCN––The World Conservation 

Union, World Commission on Protected Areas, 2000. 

Davey, Adrian G. National System Planning for Protected Areas. Best Practice Protected 

Area Guidelines Series no. 1. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge UK: IUCN––

The World Conservation Union, World Commission on Protected Areas, 1998. 

Hockings, Marc, with Sue Stolton and Nigel Dudley. Evaluating Effectiveness: A 

Framework for Assessing the Management of Protected Areas. Best Practice 

Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 6. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: 

IUCN––The World Conservation Union, World Commission on Protected Areas, 

2000. 

 

Kelleher, Graeme, ed. Guidelines for Marine Protected Areas. Best Practice Protected 

Area Guidelines Series no. 3. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN––

The World Conservation Union, World Commission on Protected Areas, 1999. 

Task Force on Economic Benefits of Protected Areas of the World Commission on 

Protected Areas of IUCN, in collaboration with the Economics Service Unit of 

IUCN. Economic Values of Protected Areas: Guidelines for Protected Area 

Managers. Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series no. 2. Gland, 

Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN––The World Conservation Union, World 

Commission on Protected Areas, 1998. 

Task Force on Financing Protected Areas of the World Commission on Protected Areas 

of IUCN. Financing Protected Areas: Guidelines for Protected Area Managers. 

Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series no. 5. Gland, Switzerland and 

Cambridge, UK: IUCN––The World Conservation Union, World Commission on 

Protected Areas, 2000. 

SPECIFIC SITE STUDIES
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

Adams, Clare. “Recovering from a Devastating Tornado at Andrew Jackson’s Hermitage: 

A Case Study.” Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology 30, no. 1 

(1999): 43–49. 

Engle, Reed L. “Shenandoah––Managing Cultural Resources in a National Park.” CRM: 

Cultural Resource Management 21, no. 1 (1998).

Fanning, Kay, and Maureen Joseph. “Discovering Dumbarton Oaks Park: Restoring a 

Masterwork for Modern Needs.” APT Bulletin 30 (1999): 2–3, 61–66. 

Firth, Ian, and Marianne Cramer. “A Case Study in Ecosystems and Preservations: 

Lessons Learned from New York’s Central Park.” Bulletin of the Association for 

Preservation Technology 30, no. 1 (1999): 15–20. 

Keane, Robert E., Penelope Morgan, and Joseph D. White. “Temporal Patterns of 

Ecosystem Processes on Simulated Landscapes in Glacier National Park, 

Montana, USA.” Landscape Ecology 14 (1999): 311–329. 

McGuire, Diane Kostial. Beatrix Farrand’s Plant Book for Dumbarton Oaks. 

Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, 1980. 

Meier, Lauren. “Restoring Fairsted’s Woody Plants.” Forum on Woody Plants in Historic 

Landscapes. Boston: Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 1999. 

Meier, Lauren. “Restoring Landscape Character at Fairsted, the Frederick Law Olmsted 

National Historic Site.” Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology

30, no. 1 (1999): 29–35. 

Moss, Michael R., and Robert J. Milne. “Biophysical Processes and Bioregional 

Planning: The Niagara Escarpment of Southern Ontario, Canada.” Landscape and 

Urban Planning 40 (1998): 251–268. 

Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation cultural landscape publication series. 

<http://www.nps.gov/frla/publications.htm> 

O’Rourke, Eileen. “The Causse Méjan: Changing Relationships between Agriculture, 

Environment, and Society within a French National Park.” Landscape Research

24, no. 2 (1999): 141–165.

Toth, Edward. An Ecosystem Approach to Woodland Management: The Case of Prospect 

Park. Bethesda, MD: National Association for Olmsted Parks, 1991. 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

APPENDIX A 

INTERVIEW GUIDE 

In the first phase of this project, 29 interviews were conducted with professionals 

working at 12 different sites, and eight case studies chosen to present in this document. 

Before conducting the interview, researchers obtained relevant management and planning 

documents from the site, and interviewees were sent a set of questions to consider. The 

tools, approaches, and lessons learned that are described in this document were derived 

from all of the interviews, regardless of whether or not the interview site was selected for 

a case study. 

Interview Questions: 

1. Please describe your site’s mission/goals. 

2. What is the role of the cultural landscape within this mission? 

3. Site description. What are the key cultural and natural landscape features? 

4. Do you have a landscape management plan(s) in place? What are the goals of the 

plan(s)? 

5. What were the underlying motivations and circumstances leading to the management 

program, its accomplishments, and long-term vision? 

6. What disciplines/types of personnel/areas of expertise are involved in the landscape 

management program(s)? 

7. How are cultural and natural landscape management needs balanced or integrated? 

8. What are the two or three most important issues you face as a manager trying to 

integrate concerns about natural resources into cultural landscape management? 

9. How are management decisions made at your site? How do you identify your 

options/choices and then weigh these options? Do you bring other organizations or 

individuals into the decisionmaking process? 

10. Have you ever run into controversy at your site trying to balance the management of 

cultural and natural resources? How have you dealt with the conflict(s)? 

11. When carrying out research, planning, or stewardship activities at your site (e.g., 

inventories, monitoring), have you been able to integrate cultural and natural resource 

disciplines during the various phases of your work? Why or why not? Which phases? 
 

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12. Have you developed/adopted/adapted any management principles or formal 

procedures specifically for your site or from other sources? 

13. Description of management budget, funding mixes, and in-kind/matching funds. How 

are funds distributed for managing natural and cultural resources? 

14. How do you measure progress or evaluate success of management program(s)? 

15. Discuss any major impediments to success, including support that would have been 

helpful but hasn’t been available. 

16. What lessons have you learned? 

17. How do you network with other managers doing similar work/facing similar 

challenges (e.g., professional societies, journals)? 

18. Further suggestions for this study, such as: 

• Other individuals who should be interviewed at your site. 

• Other applicable sites for interviews. 

• Other sources of information. 

• Products that would be most useful to you as a manager. 

• Ideas for future programs. 

19. Would you be willing to have your contact information listed in the handbook so that 

you could serve as a resource to others?
 

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APPENDIX B 

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE DEFINITIONS 

FOR CULTURAL LANDSCAPE TYPES 

The definition for cultural landscape currently used by the National Park Service is: 

a geographic area, including both cultural and natural resources and 

the wildlife or domestic animals therein, associated with a historic 

event, activity, or person or exhibiting other cultural or aesthetic 

values. (Cultural Resource Management Guidelines, NPS-28) 

National Park Service typology: 

Historic site: the location of a significant event or activity, or a 

building or structure, whether standing, ruined, or vanished, where the 

location itself possesses historic, cultural, or archaeological value 

regardless of the value of any existing structure. 

Historic designed landscape: a landscape having historic significance 

as a design or work or art because it was consciously designed and laid 

out by a landscape architect, master gardener, architect, or 

horticulturist according to design principles, or by an owner or other 

amateur using a recognized style or tradition in response or reaction to 

a recognized style or tradition; has a historic association with a 

significant person or persons, trend, or event in landscape gardening or 

landscape architecture; or a significant relationship to the theory and 

practice of landscape architecture. 

Historic vernacular landscape: a landscape whose use, construction, or 

physical layout reflects endemic traditions, customs, beliefs, or values; 

in which the expression of cultural values, social behavior, and 

individual actions over time is manifested in the physical features and 

materials and their interrelationships, including patterns of spatial 

organization, land use, circulation, vegetation, structures, and objects; 

and in which the physical, biological, and cultural features reflect the 

customs and everyday lives of people. 

Ethnographic landscape: a landscape traditionally associated with a 

contemporary ethnic group, typically used for such activities as 

subsistence hunting and gathering, religious or sacred ceremonies, and 

traditional meetings. (NPS Preservation Brief No. 36, Protecting 

Cultural Landscapes: Planning, Treatment, and Management of 

Historic Landscapes) 
 

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APPENDIX C 

WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION DEFINITIONS 

OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPES 

35. With respect to cultural landscapes, the Committee has furthermore adopted the 

following guidelines concerning their inclusion in the World Heritage List. 

36. Cultural landscapes represent the “combined works of nature and of man” designated 

in Article 1 of the Convention. They are illustrative of the evolution of human society and 

settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities 

presented by their natural environment and of successive social, economic, and cultural 

forces, both external and internal. They should be selected on the basis both of their 

outstanding universal value and of their representativity in terms of a clearly defined geocultural region and also for their capacity to illustrate the essential and distinct cultural 

elements of such regions. 

37. The term “cultural landscape” embraces a diversity of manifestations of the 

interaction between humankind and its natural environment. 

38. Cultural landscapes often reflect specific techniques of sustainable land-use, 

considering the characteristics and limits of the natural environment they are established 

in, and a specific spiritual relation to nature. Protection of cultural landscapes can 

contribute to modern techniques of sustainable land-use and can maintain or enhance 

natural values in the landscape. The continued existence of traditional forms of land-use 

supports biological diversity in many regions of the world. The protection of traditional 

cultural landscapes is therefore helpful in maintaining biological diversity. 

39. Cultural landscapes fall into three main categories, namely: 

i. The most easily identifiable is the clearly defined landscape designed and created 

intentionally by man. This embraces garden and parkland landscapes constructed 

for aesthetic reasons which are often (but not always) associated with religious or 

other monumental buildings and ensembles. 

ii. The second category is the organically evolved landscape. This results from an 

initial social, economic, administrative, and/or religious imperative and has 

developed its present form by association with and in response to its natural 

environment. Such landscapes reflect that process of evolution in their form and 

component features. They fall into two sub-categories: 

• a relict (or fossil) landscape is one in which an evolutionary process came to 

an end at some time in the past, either abruptly or over a period. Its significant 

distinguishing features are, however, still visible in material form. 
 

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• a continuing landscape is one which retains an active social role in 

contemporary society closely associated with the traditional way of life, and in 

which the evolutionary process is still in progress. At the same time it exhibits 

significant material evidence of its evolution over time. 

iii. The final category is the associative cultural landscape. The inclusion of such 

landscapes on the World Heritage List is justifiable by virtue of the powerful 

religious, artistic, or cultural associations of the natural element rather than 

material cultural evidence, which may be insignificant or even absent. 

40. The extent of a cultural landscape for inclusion on the World Heritage List is relative 

to its functionality and intelligibility. In any case, the sample selected must be substantial 

enough to adequately represent the totality of the cultural landscape that it illustrates. The 

possibility of designating long linear areas which represent culturally significant transport 

and communication networks should not be excluded. 

41. The general criteria for conservation and management laid down in paragraph 

24.(b).(ii) above are equally applicable to cultural landscapes. It is important that due 

attention be paid to the full range of values represented in the landscape, both cultural and 

natural. The nominations should be prepared in collaboration with and the full approval 

of local communities. 

42. The existence of a category of “cultural landscape,” included on the World Heritage 

List on the basis of the criteria set out in paragraph 24 above, does not exclude the 

possibility of sites of exceptional importance in relation to both cultural and natural 

criteria continuing to be included. In such cases, their outstanding universal significance 

must be justified under both sets of criteria. (UNESCO. World Heritage Convention. 

Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. Paris: 

UNESCO, 1996.) 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

APPENDIX D 

NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETINS 

RELEVANT TO CULTURAL LANDSCAPES 

U.S. Department of the Interior. National Park Service. Guidelines for Evaluating and 

Documenting Rural Historic Landscapes, by Linda Flint McClelland, J. Timothy 

Keller, Genevieve P. Keller, and Robert Z. Melnick. National Register Bulletin 30.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1990. 

––––––. Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Traditional Cultural Properties, by 

Patricia L. Parker and Thomas F. King. National Register Bulletin 38. Washington, 

D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1990. 

––––––. Guidelines for Evaluating and Registering Cemeteries and Burial Places, by 

Elisabeth Walton Potter and Beth Boland. National Register Bulletin 41. Washington, 

D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1992. 

––––––. Guidelines for Identifying, Evaluating, and Registering America’s Historic 

Battlefields, by Patrick W. Andrus. National Register Bulletin 40. Washington, D.C.: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1992. 

––––––. Guidelines for Identifying, Evaluating, and Registering Historic Mining 

Properties, by Bruce J. Noble, Jr., and Robert Spude. National Register Bulletin 42.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1992. 

––––––. Guidelines for Local Surveys: A Basis for Preservation Planning, by Anne 

Derry, H. Ward Jandl, Carol D. Shull, and Jan Thorman. Rev. ed. by Patricia L. 

Parker. National Register Bulletin 24. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the 

Interior, National Park Service, 1985. 

––––––. How to Apply National Register Criteria for Evaluation. Rev. ed. National 

Register Bulletin 15. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park 

Service, 1991. 

––––––. How to Evaluate and Nominate Designed Historic Landscapes, by J. Timothy 

Keller and Genevieve P. Keller. National Register Bulletin 18. Washington, D.C.: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1987. 

––––––. Researching a Historic Property, by Eleanor O’Donnell. National Register 

Bulletin 39. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park 

Service, 1991. 
 

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APPENDIX E 

LIST OF INTERVIEWEES 

Biscayne National Park 

Jim Adams, Cultural Resources Specialist (interviewed 1/19/01) 

Blue Ridge Parkway 

Gary W. Johnson, Chief, Resource Planning and Professional Services Division 

(interviewed 10/19/00) 

Laura Rotegard, Community Planner, Resource Planning and Professional Services 

Division (interviewed 10/19/00) 

Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area 

Shaun Eyring, Landscape Architect, NPS Philadelphia Support Office (interviewed 

10/24/00) 

Patrick Lynch, Resource Management Division Chief (interviewed 12/21/00) 

Zehra Osman, Park Planner (interviewed 9/29/00) 

Gettysburg National Military Park 

Deborah Darden, Chief of Resources Management (interviewed 10/23/00) 

Bert Frost, Natural Resource Specialist (interviewed 9/12/00) 

Grey Towers National Historic Landmark (U.S. Forest Service) 

Jennifer Wellington, Landscape Curator (interviewed 8/31/00) 

Kellogg House 

Gene Graham (interviewed 12/21/00) 

Louisville Olmsted Parks 

Patricia O'Donnell, LANDSCAPES (interviewed 6/12/01) 

Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park 

Dale Scheier, Chief of Maintenance (interviewed 12/11/00) 

John Tiff, Historian (retired) (interviewed 9/8/00) 

Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller National Historical Park 

John Gilbert, Facility Manager (interviewed 8/3/00) 

Kyle Jones, Park Resources Manager (interviewed 7/27/00) 

Mt. Rainier National Park 

Greg Burtchard, Cultural Resource Specialist (interviewed 1/25/01) 

Laurie Kurth, Plant Ecologist (interviewed 2/1/01) 

The Presidio of San Francisco, Golden Gate National Recreation Area 
 

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Michael Alexander, Golden Gate National Recreation Area Citizen Advisory 

Commission (interviewed 4/24/01) 

Michael Boland, Landscape Architect, Presidio Trust (interviewed 1/8/01) 

Ric Borjes, Chief of Cultural Resources and Museum Management Division, Golden 

Gate National Recreation Area (interviewed 2/6/01) 

Peter Ehrlich, Forestry Manager, Presidio Trust (interviewed 12/19/00) 

Carey Feierabend, Planning Manager, Presidio Trust (interviewed 10/16/00) 

Peter Owens, former Planner, Presidio Trust (interviewed 10/19/00) 

Carol Prince, Deputy Director, Golden Gate National Parks Association (interviewed 

5/15/01) 

Nick Weeks, Historic Landscape Architect, Golden Gate National Recreation Area 

(interviewed 12/14/00) 

Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve 

Steve Miller, Superintendent (interviewed 11/10/00) 

Yosemite National Park 

Randy Fong, Historic Architect (interviewed 1/17/01) 

Sue Fritzke, Supervisory Resources Management (Natural) (interviewed 12/20/00) 

Russell Galipeau, Chief of Resources Management (interviewed 1/4/01) 

Laura Kirn, Park Archaeologist (interviewed 1/11/01) 
 

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APPENDIX F 

SOURCE MATERIALS FOR CASE STUDIES

Blue Ridge Parkway 

Blue Ridge Parkway Official Map and Guide. 

Briefing Paper on Viewshed Analysis. 

Johnson, Gary, Will Orr, and Laura Rotegard. “A Process for Scenic Quality Analysis 

along the Blue Ridge Parkway,” March 1997. 

Lindsey, Nancy. “Blue Ridge Parkway Study Identifies Top Views in County, Urges 

Protection.” The Enterprise, 7 July 1999. 

Resource Planning and Professional Services Division of the Blue Ridge Parkway. 

“Thoughts on Implementing Citizen Assessments.” Photocopy. 

Resource Planning and Professional Services Division of the Blue Ridge Parkway. “Scenic 

Quality along the Blue Ridge Parkway in Grayson County, Virginia: A Report Prepared 

by the Resource Planning and Professional Services Division of the Blue Ridge 

Parkway,” December 1998. 

“Strategic Plan for the Blue Ridge Parkway, 1997-2002.” 

U.S. Department of the Interior. National Park Service. Corridor Management Plan: 

Phase One. Blue Ridge Parkway. Virginia/North Carolina, 30 June 1996. 

“Visual Sensitivity Mapping of the Blue Ridge Parkway Adjacent Lands, Asheville, 

North Carolina and Roanoke, Virginia,” December 1995. Draft Report. 

Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area 

“Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area General Management Plan Summary,” 

1987. 

Eyring, Shaun. “Vegetation Management in Large Cultural Landscapes: Techniques for 

Preserving Historic Fields and Vistas.” APT Bulletin 30, no. 1 (1999). 

Gettysburg National Military Park 

“Final GMP/EIS, Volume 1, Gettysburg National Military Park,” June 1999. 

Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park 

Cooperative Park Studies Unit, Department of Recreation and Parks, Texas A&M 

University. Cultural Landscape Report Analysis of Historical Vegetation, Lyndon B. 

Johnson National Historical Park. Technical Report No. 4, August 1986. 

“Final GMP/EIS, Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park,” March 1999. 

Harris, Marvin. “Taming the Wild Pecan at Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical 

Park.” Park Science 19, no. 2 (December 1999): 1, 20-21. 

The Presidio 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

“Creating a Park for the Twenty-first Century, Final General Management Plan 

Amendment,” July 1994. 

“Draft Vegetation Management Plan,” July 1999. 

“Final GMPA/EIS,” July 1994. 

“Historic Forest Characterization and Treatment Project Workshop Summary.” Olmsted 

Center for Historic Landscape Preservation. “Presidio Forest Historic 

Characterization and Treatment Study,” September 2000. 

“Summary of the Proposed Presidio Vegetation Management Plan: Maintaining a Rich 

Tapestry of Natural and Historic Landscapes at the Golden Gate,” Summer 1999. 

“Vegetation Management Plan and Environmental Assessment, Staff Report, Summary of 

Public Comment on the Draft Plan, and Recommendations for Preparation of the Final 

Plan,” October 2000. 

“Vegetation Management Plan and Environmental Assessment, Appendix to the Staff 

Report, Analysis of Public Comment Received,” October 2000. 

Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller National Historical Park 

“Draft General Management Plan/Draft Environmental Impact Statement,” April 1998. 

Marts, Christina. "First HALS Project Launched." ASLA Historic Preservation Bulletin 

12, no.2 ( 2002). 

Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve 

“Final GMP/EIS, Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve,” September 2000. 

Conard, Rebecca, and Susan Hess. Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve Legislative 

History, 1920-1996. Prepared by Tallgrass Historians L.C. for National Park Service 

Midwest Support Office, 1998, 21. Unpublished. 

Yosemite National Park 

National Register nomination form for the Yosemite Valley. 

“Yosemite Valley Plan,” November 2000. 
 

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Conservation Study Institute and QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment

APPENDIX G 

WEB SITES RELEVANT TO CULTURAL LANDSCAPES 

IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas 

(http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wcpa/protectedareas.htm) 

National Register of Historic Places 

(http://www.cr.nps.gov/places.htm) 

National Historic Landmarks 

(http://www.cr.nps.gov/landmarks.htm) 

World Heritage List 

(http://whc.unesco.org/heritage.htm) 

World Heritage Cultural Landscapes 

(http://whc.unesco.org/exhibits/cultland/ref.htm) 

National Park Service Historic Landscape Initiative 

(http://www2.cr.nps.gov/hli/) 

National Park Service Cultural Landscapes 

(http://www.cr.nps.gov/landscapes.htm)