United States

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Northeastern 

Research Station

Research Paper NE-730

Growth and Development 

of Planted Northern Red Oak 

on Bulldozed Skidroads 

after Clearcutting in 

Appalachian Hardwoods

James N. Kochenderfer

Mary Beth Adams

Gary W. Miller

Frederica Wood
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Abstract

Artificial regeneration of northern red oak in Appalachian clearcuts on mesic sites is hindered 

by accessibility and competition from developing vegetation. The use of skidroads as a 

planting medium was evaluated on two clearcuts with contrasting aspects in north-central 

West Virginia. Stratified acorns were planted in tree shelters at three positions (cut, middle, 

fill) on the roadbed and one position (off road) adjacent to the roadbed. Height growth, 

percent survival, competitive status, and potential crop trees (PCT) were measured after 

eight growing seasons. Bulk density and percent soil moisture and organic matter also 

were measured. Height growth was greatest on the off-road and fill positions. The overall 

height difference (1.5 feet) between off-road and fill positions was less than expected from 

measurements of soil parameters. Roadbed bulk densities were highest at the cut and lowest 

at the fill positions. Bulk densities were lowest at the off-road positions. Roadbed moisture 

content remained about 40 percent lower than that at off-road positions throughout the year. 

Increased soil depth and organic-matter content from soil deposited at the fill position may 

have offset some effects of soil compaction. Reduced competition improved the competitive 

status of all roadbed trees, though competitor trees on average were 4.4 feet taller than PCTs 

after 8 years. The results indicate that the fill portion of newly constructed skidroads can be 

used by land managers to facilitate enrichment plantings in Appalachian clearcuts.

Manuscript received for publication 10 May 2006

Cover Photo

Planted skidroads in clearcut 6.
INTRODUCTION

Although many forest stands in the central Appalachians 

that originated on mesic sites around the turn of the 

century include a large component of northern red oak 

(Quercus rubra L.), regenerating oak on these sites has 

proven diffi cult for many years (Carvell and Tryon 1961; 

Sander 1988). It is now generally accepted that large, 

competitive oak regeneration must be present when fi nal 

regeneration cuts are made (Sander 1972; Loftis 2004). 

SILVAH guidelines consider advance oak seedlings 

competitive when they are more than 3 feet tall or have 

a root-collar diameter greater than 0.75 inch (Marquis et 

al. 1992). Failure to obtain competitive oak seedlings can 

be attributed to factors such as acorn predation (Steiner 

1995), deer browsing (McWilliams et al. 2003), sporadic 

seed production (Smith 1993a), interfering understory 

vegetation (Loftis 1990), slow juvenile growth (Lorimer 

1993), reduced fi re frequency (Brose and Van Lear 1998), 

and partial cutting practices (Sander and Clark 1971; 

Trimble 1973). 

Variants of the shelterwood method entail controlling 

understory vegetation with herbicides or fi re, and, when 

necessary, fencing to exclude deer. These practices seem 

most promising where advanced seedlings are present 

(Loftis 1990; Schlesinger et al. 1993; Miller et al. 2004). 

Still, failures occur when advance seedlings are sparse, 

too small, or damaged by deer (Schuler and Miller 

1995). A major diffi culty with this approach is the long 

time required to obtain competitive oak seedlings before 

harvest. This wait might be unacceptable to many land 

managers. It was estimated by Sander and Graney (1993) 

that 10 to 20 years is required to develop competitive 

oak seedlings before fi nal harvest is possible. In many 

cases, landowners prefer an immediate harvest revenue, 

which precludes developing adequate natural advance 

reproduction. Planting oaks after commercial harvest 

operations eliminates the need to wait for advance 

seedlings, but the feasibility of such practices requires 

further study.

In certain situations, artifi cial regeneration using plastic 

tree shelters (Smith 1993b; Schuler and Miller 1996) 

to stimulate juvenile growth and protect planted acorns 

and seedlings is an alternative for shortening the time 

to develop competitive seedlings. Enrichment planting 

(Helms 1998) of seedlings with tree shelters on skidroads 

could provide managers with a regeneration technique 

for increasing the proportion of selected desirable 

species or at least maintain their presence on recently 

harvested areas. Using skidroads as planting sites can 

facilitate enrichment planting in Appalachian clearcuts, 

especially in steep topography where it often is diffi cult 

to travel off roads to plant and locate planted seedlings, 

control competing vegetation, and perform the frequent 

maintenance required with tree shelters.

In the central Appalachians, most timber is harvested 

with ground-skidding systems that require closely spaced 

road systems. After evaluating road density on nine 

logged areas, Kochenderfer (1977) found that bulldozed 

skidroad density averaged about 1 mile for each 20 acres 

logged. While this road density limits the number of 

seedlings that can be established on skidroads, their use 

allows the spatial distribution of seedlings across most 

clearcuts.

In this study, we evaluated the growth and development 

of red oak seedlings established on bulldozed skidroads 

in two clearcuts in West Virginia. We also quantifi ed 

major roadbed variables such as soil density, soil 

moisture, position on roadbed, and soil chemistry 

that might be expected to infl uence tree growth on 

skidroads. This information will aid land managers when 

using bulldozed skidroads as planting sites in recently 

established clearcuts in the central Appalachians.

The Authors

JAMES N. KOCHENDERFER (retired) was 

a research forester with the USDA Forest 

Service’s Northeastern Research Station at 

Parsons, West Virginia.

MARY BETH ADAMS is a soil scientist 

and Project Leader with the Northeastern 

Research Station at Parsons, West Virginia.

GARY W. MILLER is a research forester 

with the Northeastern Research Station at 

Morgantown, West Virginia.

FREDERICA WOOD is an information 

technology specialist and data manager 

with the Northeastern Research Station at 

Parsons, West Virginia.

1
METHODS

Study Area

Skidroads in two clearcuts located on the 

Monongahela National Forest in West Virginia 

were used in this study. The clearcuts have 

opposing aspects; clearcut 4 (CC4) has an eastern 

exposure while clearcut 6 (CC6) generally is westfacing (Fig. 1). Because of these different aspects, 

site index and growth would be expected to differ 

considerably. Precipitation is distributed fairly 

evenly between dormant and growing seasons, 

and averaged 58 inches annually during the study 

period. The predominant soil on the study area 

is Calvin channery silt loam (loamy-skeletal, 

mixed, mesic Typic Dystrochrepts) underlain with 

fractured sandstone and shale of the Hampshire 

formation (Losche and Beverage 1967). Slopes 

average 28 percent on CC4 and 35 percent on 

CC6. Average elevation of the study area is about 

2,600 feet above sea level. The estimated northern 

red oak site index (base age 50) for CC4 and CC6 

is 75 and 70, respectively.

Design and Treatments

Logging was completed on both clearcuts in the 

summer of 1995. Three skidroads totaling 3,600 

linear feet in CC4 and 3,991 linear feet in CC6 (Fig. 

1) were planted using two stratifi ed red oak acorns per 

spot in the spring of 1996. Acorns were collected locally 

in the fall of 1995 from well-formed trees growing at 

about the same elevation as the planting sites. They were 

stratifi ed by burying them outdoors in rodent-proof wire 

containers in sand. Acorns were planted in transects on 

a 10- by 10-foot spacing on each skidroad (Figs. 2-3). 

The cut position was located between the toe of the 

cutbank and the inside wheel track, the middle position 

was between the wheel tracks, and the fi ll position was 

outside the outer wheel track on the level fi ll portion 

of the roadbed. An off-road planting position was 

established in the clearcuts for each transect beyond 

the infl uence of the roads (Fig. 3) to serve as a control 

for evaluating performance on the roadbed positions. 

Planting sites near stumps as well as excessively wet 

and rocky areas were avoided. Each planting spot was 

numbered and a 5-foot-tall tree shelter with a 5/8-inch 

fi berglass T post for support was installed at each spot 

immediately after planting. Acorns were used rather than 

seedlings to minimize skidroad disturbances, facilitate 

planting on the compacted skidroads, and allow natural 

root development in the different planting mediums. 

Seventy-six transects were planted in CC4 and 87 

transects were planted in CC6.

Herbicide Treatments

Competing vegetation around each tree shelter on 

alternating transects (hereafter referred to as sprayed 

vs. unsprayed) was controlled by broadcast spraying a 

1

The use of trade, fi rm, or corporation names in this paper 

is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such 

use does not constitute an offi cial endorsement or approval 

by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or Forest Service of 

any product or service to the exclusions of others that may be 

suitable. 

Figure 1.—Map of study area showing locations of the clearcuts.

2
Figure 2.—Planted skidroad (June 1996) showing planting positions used in the study.

Figure 3.—Diagram of a soil moisture-density plot and planting pattern used on skidroads.

Distance (ft)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Roadbed

Transect 1 Transect 2 Transect 3

Soil moisture transect

Soil moisture plot

Red oak seedling - Untreated

Red oak seedling - Treated

Clearcut

Cut

(inside)

Middle

Fill

(outside)

Off road

3
2-percent solution of glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl) 

glycine) as Roundup Pro1

 (41 percent) in water with 

a backpack sprayer. Herbicide was fi rst applied in 

September 1996 primarily to control grass that had 

been planted on the skidroads for erosion control and 

to control native vegetation such as Rubus spp., grasses, 

and woody vegetation developing around the off-road 

tree shelters. Additional herbicide treatments for trees 

established on the skidroads were deemed unnecessary. 

Two additional broadcast herbicide treatments were 

applied around the off-road trees in September 1997 and 

1999 to ensure survival and development of the off-road 

trees, where competing vegetation was more intense. A 

4-foot-radius circle was sprayed around the off-road trees 

with the same herbicide and solution concentration used 

in earlier treatments.

Tree Measurements

Total height to the nearest 0.1 foot, survival status, and 

animal damage were recorded for each tree. Trees were 

measured during April in 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 

2001, and 2004, but only 2004 measurements are 

analyzed here. In addition to the regular measurements 

in 2004, potential crop trees (PCT) that had developed 

from the planted acorns were selected. These trees were 

in an intermediate or higher crown class, at least 6 feet 

tall, and of good form and vigor. Smith and Lamson 

(1986) recommended restricting crop-tree selection in 

intermediate crown classes to relatively tolerant trees such 

as oaks and maples. Trees more than two-thirds of the 

height of crop trees where crowns extended within 10 

feet of a crop tree crown were designated as competitor 

trees. Total height to the nearest 0.1 foot and species 

were recorded for the tallest competitor trees around each 

crop tree. The competitive status (number of free-togrow crown sides) was determined for each PCT using 

the crown-touching, crop-tree release concept (Lamson 

et al. 1988). This was determined by dividing each PCT 

crown into four quadrants beginning at due north and 

proceeding clockwise around tree crowns. Crown sides 

were considered free to grow so long as competitor tree 

crowns did not touch or overlap PCT crowns.

Soil Moisture and Density

Three plots were established randomly on each of the 

roads in the clearcuts to measure soil moisture and 

density. Each road was divided into numbered 50-foot 

segments; four segments were chosen randomly for the 

location of the soil density-moisture plots and trenches 

for collecting soil samples. The highest numbered 

segment selected on each road was used for the soil 

trench. Each plot (Fig. 3) consisted of three transects of 

four measurement points located at the road positions 

described previously for the planting spots. Soil-moisture 

measurement points were offset (outside the 4-foot spray 

circle) where necessary to avoid the infl uence of the spray 

treatments.

A Troxler Model 3440 Nuclear Surface Moisture Density 

Gauge1

 was used to measure dry soil bulk density (g cm-3) 

and moisture content (% by volume) at the 4-, 8-, and 

12-inch depths. The following procedure was used at 

each measurement point: (1) a metal rod 0.75 inch 

in diameter was pounded into the roadbed and then 

extracted, (2) the soil surface was leveled to avoid air 

spaces at the soil-instrument interface, (3) a 1-minute 

reading was made at each depth as defi ned earlier, and 

dry density and moisture content were recorded, and 

(4) after the measurements were made, a 6-inch piece of 

0.75-inch plastic pipe with a 4-inch square plywood cap 

was inserted into each hole.

A complete set of moisture measurements on both 

clearcuts required 2 days to complete. We used weather 

forecasts to avoid periods of unsettled weather so that 

measurements were not interrupted by rain storms. The 

fi rst set of measurements was made in August 1995 and 

continued until April 1999. Depending on weather 

conditions, monthly measurements usually began in April 

and ended in December. After evaluating the data in July 

1997, we determined that sampling intensity could be 

reduced to one plot per road. Beginning in July 1997, we 

continued measurements on one representative plot on 

each road in both clearcuts. This change enabled us to 

complete measurements on both clearcuts in one day. 

Soil Analysis

In January 1999, trenches 18 to 24 inches deep were 

dug across three skidroads with a backhoe at randomly 

chosen locations in each clearcut. Soil samples for organic 

matter determinations were collected at 2-foot intervals 

4
along these trenches at depths of 6, 12, 18, and 24 

inches. In several cases, unweathered bedrock prevented 

sample collection at the 24-inch depth. Control soil 

organic-matter samples were collected near each trench 

at the same depths from pits located on undisturbed 

soil adjacent to the road. Percent organic matter was 

determined at the USDA Forest Service’s Timber and 

Watershed Laboratory at Parsons, West Virginia, by loss 

on ignition at 400oC for 4 hours.

Statistical Analysis

Initially, all data sets were tested for normal distributions 

using the Shapiro-Wilks test (SAS Inst. 2003). No 

data set was distributed normally. Several common 

transformations were applied to data on height, bulk 

density, soil moisture, and organic matter, though 

only a log transformation of organic matter improved 

normality. Data for the two clearcuts were analyzed 

separately because the effect of aspect was considered 

large enough to be of biological signifi cance. Transects 

were considered the experimental unit, with seedlings 

within transects the sampling unit. Because of the spatial 

requirement of roadbed sampling sites, treatments could 

not be randomly selected within a transect. However, 

because the spacing was far enough apart that seedling 

growth would most likely not be affected by adjacent 

seedlings between or among transects, we considered the 

samples to be independent. Tree height was determined 

each year, but analyzed statistically only for 2004. Tree 

height, bulk density, and soil moisture were tested by 

analysis of variance (ANOVA) on ranks and the TukeyKramer HSD test for mean differences. Soil organic 

matter was tested by ANOVA and the Tukey-Kramer 

HSD test for mean differences (SAS Inst. 2003).

RESULTS

Percent survival based on the initial number of planted 

positions and number of PCTs after eight growing 

seasons are shown by planting position for the two 

clearcuts in Table 1. The two clearcuts were analyzed 

separately because of a priori decisions about differences 

related to aspect. Survival averaged 77 percent in CC4 

and 81.1 percent in CC6. There were no consistent 

differences in survival between sprayed and unsprayed 

transects. The percentage of PCTs (percentage of original 

Table 1.—Number of trees, percent survival, and potential crop-tree percentages, by clearcut, planting position, and treatment after eight growing seasons

All trees Potential crop trees

Planting position

Unsprayed Sprayed Unsprayed Sprayed

Number of 

trees

Percent Number of 

trees

Percent Number of 

trees

Classifi ed Number of 

trees

Classifi ed

survival survival as PCT as PCT

Percent Percent

Clearcut 4

Off road 30 76.9 29 78.4 23 59.0 26 70.3Cut 26 66.7 31 83.8 8 20.5 15 40.5Middle 29 74.4 32 86.5 14 35.9 17 45.9Fill 30 76.9 27 73.0 22 56.4 21 56.8

Clearcut 6

Off road 36 81.8 37 86.0 32 72.7 34 79.1Cut 33 75.0 31 72.1 19 43.2 18 41.9Middle 33 75.0 35 81.4 16 36.4 24 55.8Fill 41 93.2 36 83.7 32 72.7 32 74.4

5
planting sites that qualifi ed as PCTs in 2004) 

was higher for sprayed trees in both clearcuts 

(Table 1). PCTs averaged 43 percent and 

53.4 percent for unsprayed and sprayed trees 

in CC4, and 56.3 and 62.8 percent, for 

sprayed and unsprayed trees in CC6. The 

number of PCTs was highest at the off-road 

and fi ll positions in both clearcuts. These 

relationships were consistent across herbicide 

treatments. The number of PCTs was lowest 

at the cut and middle road positions.

Mean height (feet) of all trees by planting 

position is shown for each clearcut in Figure 

4. Analysis of 2004 height data revealed 

that trees growing in the off-road positions 

generally were the tallest, followed closely by 

those in the fi ll position. Trees growing in the 

middle and cut positions were signifi cantly 

shorter than trees in the fi ll or off-road positions. 

The average height of off-road trees was about 

1.5 feet greater than that of trees growing on 

roadbed fi lls. Trees on the cut and middle road 

positions averaged 5.9 and 6.8 feet in CC4 and 

CC6, respectively.

In CC4, the average height of unsprayed and 

sprayed off-road trees in 2004 was 9.3 and 11.1 

feet respectively (Fig. 5). The average height of 

unsprayed and sprayed off-road trees in CC6 in 

2004 was nearly identical at 10.5 feet. In 2004, 

the average height of fi ll position trees was 8.1 

and 9.5 feet in CC4 and CC6, respectively. 

Sprayed trees on road fi lls were on average 

about 1 foot taller than unsprayed trees in both 

clearcuts. 

The average height of PCTs and competitor trees 

are compared in Table 2. Except for the sprayed 

cut position, competitor trees in all planted 

positions in CC4 were signifi cantly taller than 

the PCTs. In CC4, the competitor trees around 

unsprayed and sprayed PCTs were an average of 

5.1 and 4.2 feet, respectively. In CC6, the average 

height of both sprayed and unsprayed trees was 

nearly 5 feet greater than that of potential crop 

Clearcut 4 Clearcut 6

Mean height (ft)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Off road 

Cut

Middle 

Fill

Figure 4.—Mean height of all trees by planting position after 8 years.

1998 2000 2002 2004

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Off road - Tube

Off road - Tube and Spray 

Cut - Tube

Cut - Tube and Spray 

Middle - Tube

Middle - Tube and Spray

Fill - Tube

Fill - Tube and Spray

Year

1998 2000 2002 2004

Mean height (ft)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Clearcut 4

Clearcut 6

Figure 5.—Mean height (1997-2004) of all trees by planting position and 

treatment for each clearcut.

6
trees after eight growing seasons. The average 

distance between competitor tree and PCT 

crowns was 1.6 feet.

Average competitive status (number of freeto-grow sides of the PCT) was lowest for 

unsprayed off-road trees in both clearcuts 

(Table 2), where less than one side of PCT 

crowns were free to grow. But competitive 

status increased to an average of three freeto-grow sides in those planted at the offroad sites and receiving herbicide treatment. 

The middle road planting positions in 

both clearcuts generally had the highest 

competitive rating regardless of treatment. 

The average competitive status of unsprayed 

and sprayed roadbed positions was 3.1 and 

3.4 feet respectively, when data from both 

clearcuts were combined. This suggests that 

herbicide use did not signifi cantly enhance 

the competitive status of PCTs except in 

the off-road position. The most common 

competitor trees in both clearcuts were 

yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipfera L.), 

black birch (Betula lenta L.), and black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.). Yellow-poplar was 

the most common competitor in CC4 and 

black birch the most common competitor 

in CC6. There was a signifi cant height 

difference (

α= 0.05) between unsprayed and 

sprayed PCTs competitor trees except at the 

sprayed cut position in CC4.

Figure 6 shows mean bulk density (g cm-3) 

by planting position, year, and soil depth 

for both clearcuts. Roadbed bulk densities 

at all three depths were highest at the cut 

position and lowest at the fi ll position in both 

clearcuts. Bulk densities were consistently 

lowest at the off-road positions. Across all 

depths on the roadbeds in both clearcuts, 

mean bulk density was 27 percent higher 

than at off-road positions on adjacent 

undisturbed soils. Mean soil density varied 

signifi cantly (

α=0.05) with planting position 

Table 2.—Average height and competitive status of potential crop trees (PCT)a and average height of tallest competitor tree, by clearcut, planting 

position, and treatment after eight growing seasons

Unsprayed Sprayed

Planting position Number of trees PCT height Competitor height Competitive statusb Number of trees PCT height Competitor height Competitive statusb

-------- Feet -------- --------Feet --------

Clearcut 4

Off road 23 10.6a c 16.0b 0.8 26 11.5a 17.1b 3.0

Cut 8 7.6a 12.3b 3.0 15 8.7a 10.5a 3.5Middle 14 8.2a 14.3b 3.1 17 7.6a 13.1b 3.9Fill 22 9.5a 13.5b 3.1 21 10.2a 14.1b 3.5

Clearcut 6

Off road 32 10.8a 15.9b 0.3 34 11.0a 18.2b 3.0Cut 19 8.4a 14.1b 2.8 18 8.4a 13.2b 3.1Middle 16 9.3a 14.0b 3.4 24 8.8a 12.3b 3.4Fill 32 10.6a 15.7b 2.9 32 10.7a 14.2b 3.1

a Trees selected for PCTs were in an intermediate or higher crown class, at least 6 feet tall, and of good form and vigor.b The average number of PCT sides (0-4) free to grow where competitor and crop-tree crowns were not touching or overlapping.c For a given planting position, PCT and competitor mean heights followed by different letters are signifi cantly different at α=0.05 (ANOVA on ranks followed by 

Tukey-Kramer HSD test). 7
and soil depth. Mean bulk densities at the 8-inch depth 

were 1.19 and 1.77 g cm-3 at the off-road and cut 

positions, respectively. Differences among positions on 

the roadbeds, though signifi cant, were much smaller. 

There was a small but signifi cant increase in bulk density 

with depth at each planting position.

Bulk density and soil moisture were inversely related, 

and differences in soil moisture content were signifi cant 

(α=0.05) between all planting positions in both clearcuts. 

Mean soil moisture content (% by volume) was highest at Bulk density (dry) (g cm-3) 0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Road position

Clearcut 6

Off road Cut Middle Fill

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0 1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

Road position

Clearcut 4

Off road Cut Middle Fill

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

4-inch depth

8-inch depth

12-inch depth

Figure 6.—Mean soil dry bulk density for both clearcuts by planting position 

(1995-99) at depths of 4, 8, and 12 inches. Bars represent one standard 

deviation.

the off-road position and lowest at the cut 

position in both clearcuts (Fig. 7). Average 

soil moisture content at the 8-inch depth 

was 29 and 13.8 percent at the off-road 

and cut positions, respectively. Moisture 

content on the roadbeds increased from 

the cut toward the fi ll. There were small 

but signifi cant declines in soil-moisture 

content with depth at all positions. 

Mean monthly soil-moisture trends for 

the off-road and roadbed positions and 

precipitation for the 5-year period (1995 

to 1999) are shown in Figure 8. Soilmoisture depletion and recharge patterns 

were similar but soil-moisture content 

on the off-road positions in the clearcuts 

remained about 40 percent higher than on 

the roadbed positions throughout the year. 

Moisture contents on both off-road and 

roadbed positions were highest during the 

dormant season and lowest during midsummer. Soil-moisture content declines 

by March, reaching its lowest level in July. 

Except for a brief decline in SeptemberOctober, it gradually returns to dormantseason levels.

Mean organic matter by planting position 

and depth is shown in Figure 9. ANOVA 

indicated signifi cant differences between 

some planting positions and soil depths. 

Within the roadbed, organic-matter 

content was highest on the fi ll and lowest 

on the cut position. Differences in organic-matter 

content were signifi cant (α=0.05) between the fi ll and 

cut positions and between those and other planting 

positions. Differences in organic-matter content between 

off-road and middle of the road planting positions 

were small and nonsignifi cant. Calculated over all four 

sampling depths, mean organic-matter content was 1.80, 

3.93, 5.01, and 3.65 percent for the cut, middle, fi ll, 

and off-road planting positions, respectively. In general, 

organic-matter content declined with soil depth (Fig. 9). 

Generally, fi ll positions showed the effects of additions of 

8
organic matter rich soil, while soils in the cut positions 

showed removal.

DISCUSSION

Overall survival after eight growing seasons was 

acceptable (Table 1) and did not consistently improve 

following the use of herbicides. Tree survival was 

affected more by damage from black bear (Ursus 

americanus) than from soil parameters or competition 

(Fig. 10). Bear apparently use the roads for travel 

because damage was more prevalent 

on trees growing on roadbeds than on 

off-road trees in clearcuts. In 2004, 

43 percent of the trees measured had 

sustained some type of bear damage, and 

failure to classify trees as PCTs often was 

the result of bear damage. The relatively 

high percentage of PCTs at the off-road 

and fi ll planting positions is attributed 

to the better growing conditions and less 

bear damage at those positions. 

The percentage of trees classifi ed as 

PCTs on CC4 generally was greater in 

sprayed than unsprayed transects, while 

the herbicide application had less effect 

on the percentage of PCTs on CC6. The 

additional growing space provided by the 

spray treatments generally increased the 

percentage of trees classifi ed as PCTs. This 

favorable response to the spray treatments 

was more pronounced on CC4, where 

competition was more intense.

The high percentage of trees qualifying as 

PCTs on CC6 is attributed to the ability 

of red oak to be more competitive on 

lower quality sites. Smith (1983) found 

that red oak seedlings growing on a fair 

site (site index 62) in West Virginia were 

more competitive with intolerant species 

than on good sites (site index 75). When 

northern red oak and yellow-poplar 

were grown from seed in containers with 

varying resources, red oak seedlings outgrew yellowpoplar under lower levels of light intensity, soil moisture, 

and soil fertility. However, Kolb et al. (1990) found 

that this relationship was reversed when resource levels 

were high. The authors concluded that red oak was 

better adapted to compete in moderately unproductive 

environments. The difference in the percentage of trees 

classifi ed as PCT between the sprayed and unsprayed 

generally was smaller in CC6 than in CC4, an additional 

indication of lower site quality in CC6. 

Road position

Clearcut 6

Off road Cut Middle Fill

0

10

20

30

40 1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

Moisture (%)

0

10

20

30

40

Road position

Clearcut 4

Off road Cut Middle Fill

0

10

20

30

40

4-inch depth

8-inch depth

12-inch depth

Figure 7.—Mean soil-moisture content for both clearcuts by planting position 

(1995-99) at depths of 4, 8, and 12 inches. Bars represent one standard 

deviation.

9
is attributed to adverse impacts created during road 

construction, including removal of top soil, reduced soil 

depth, exposure of denser subsoils, and, of course, soil 

compaction.

Differences in height-growth response between the two 

clearcuts to the herbicide treatments can be attributed 

to competition differences that refl ect site quality and 

species composition. Vegetation development following 

harvesting was more vigorous on the more productive 

site found on east-facing CC4. In addition, pin cherry 

(Prunus pensylvanica L.), which has a lower crown 

density than other trees, accounted for 13 percent of the 

competitor trees on CC6 but only 2 percent on CC4.

The lack of a large difference in PCT height within 

planting positions between unsprayed and sprayed trees 

(Table 2) is perhaps not surprising. While height growth 

usually is consistent over a wide range of stand densities 

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Mean monthly soil moisture (%) 10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Off road

Road 

Month

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Mean monthly precipitation (inches) 0

2

4

6

8

a.

b.

Figure 8.—(a) Mean monthly soil-moisture trends for offroad and roadbed planting positions, and (b) mean monthly 

precipitation (1995-99).

Road position

Off road Cut Middle Fill

0

2

4

6

8

10

Organic matter (%)

0

2

4

6

8

10

0

2

4

6

8

10 Clearcut 4

Clearcut 6

6-inch depth

12-inch depth

0

2

4

6

8

10 18-inch depth

24-inch depth

Height growth of trees growing on the fi ll portion of 

the roadbeds was comparable to that observed on the 

off-road positions. The overall height differential of 

1.5 feet between off-road and fi ll positions is less than 

might be expected from the large differences in some soil 

parameters. The increased soil depth and organic matter 

content that resulted from the additional soil deposited 

on the fi ll portion of the roadbed (Fig. 11) would be 

expected to improve growing conditions and may have 

lessened the effect of compaction from road construction. 

Trimble and Weitzman (1956) found that total soil 

depth is an important variable that can be used with 

aspect, slope position, and slope steepness to estimate 

the productivity (site index) of most forest land in the 

northern Appalachians. Height differences between the 

off-road and fi ll positions are expected to decline as these 

trees grow older and their roots begin to fully occupy the 

additional growing space available on the road fi lls. The 

reduced growth observed on the middle and cut positions 

Figure 9.—Mean soil organic matter at depths of 6, 12, 18, and 

24 inches by planting position for both clearcuts. Bars represent 

one standard deviation.

10
(Smith 1986), responses to release have been variable. 

Some investigators, e.g., Smith and Lamson (1983) and 

Wendell and Lamson (1987), found that height growth 

was not affected by crop tree release treatments. Other 

researchers (Trimble 1974; Ward 1995) reported initial 

declines in height growth after the release of dominant 

and codominant oaks. However, height growth was not 

affected 2 to 4 years after release. In comparing the 2-year 

response of 8-year-old red oak to a 5-foot radius and a 

light overtopping only release, Schuler and Miller (1999) 

concluded that height growth is related to the degree of 

release and recommended light annual releases.

The faster initial growth rates of competing species on 

mesic sites is a major impediment to growing red oak on 

these sites (Miller et al. 2004). In this study, the height 

differences between the planted red oak and competitor 

trees, ranging from 4 to 5 feet (Table 2), were similar to 

those reported by Schuler and Miller (1999) for red oak 

of similar age planted on a mesic site in West Virginia. In 

Figure 10.-—Bear damage to a tree shelter 

and red oak tree.

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Figure 11.—Typical cross section of a skidroad showing how soil depth is increased on the outer 

portion of roadbeds.

11
this study, reduced competition on these roadbeds has 

had a positive infl uence on the competitive status of the 

PCTs. Nearly all the PCTs on the roadbeds, regardless of 

treatment, have at least two or three sides of their crowns 

free to grow after eight growing seasons. Overall, 82 

percent of the roadbed trees and 44 percent of the offroad trees had competitive status ratings of 3 or higher. 

The benefi cial effects of the spray treatments are most 

apparent on the off-road trees, where competition was 

more intense. The unsprayed off-road trees had mean 

competitive status ratings of less than 1 compared to 3 

or higher for sprayed trees. The overtopped trees would 

not be expected to respond to release, but those PCTs 

that still have two or three sides free to grow would be 

expected to benefi t from a crown-touching release at this 

time.

Compacted soils often have characteristics that are 

unfavorable for plant growth. These include high 

bulk densities and reduced porosity, which can restrict 

movement of air and water (Adams and Froehlich 1981). 

The higher bulk densities measured on the roadbeds 

in this study (Fig. 6) were attributed to compaction 

by logging traffi c and exposure of denser subsoils, 

especially on the cut portion of the roadbed. The overall 

mean roadbed bulk density of 1.63 g cm-3 across all 

planted positions and depths could be expected to 

impact tree growth. Mean bulk densities were lower at 

the fi ll position (1.53 g cm-3) but still high enough to 

affect growth. Tworoski et al. (1983) found that root 

growth of white oak seedlings in a growth chamber was 

signifi cantly reduced in a silt loam soil when bulk density 

was increased from 1.0 to 1.5 g cm-3. Simmons and Pope 

(1985) reported signifi cant declines in rooting depth 

for sweetgum (Liquidambar styracifl ua L.) and yellowpoplar seedlings as bulk density of a silt loam increased 

from 1.25 to 1.55 g cm-3. On the basis of analyses by 

Adams and Froehlich (1981), increases in roadbed 

density observed in this study translate into projected 

declines in seedling height growth of 24 percent. Our 

data partially support these analyses. Using the off-road 

position as a control, height declines average 22 percent 

on CC4 and 14 percent on CC6. Because of the reduced 

growth impacts on the fi ll portions of the roadbeds, we 

hypothesize that some aspect of site quality (moisture, 

temperature, or nutrient availability) can compensate for 

some adverse effects of high bulk density.

Although no declines in bulk density over the 5-year 

measurement period were observed, other researchers 

have documented gradual reductions in bulk density on 

compacted soils over time due to root activity and freezethaw and wet-dry cycles. Dickerson (1976) estimated 

that wheel-rutted soils in Mississippi require about 12 

years to recover, though recovery periods longer than 

23 years were reported in central Idaho (Froehlich et al. 

1985). Recovery times longer than 4 years were predicted 

for silt loam soils compacted on primary skidroads in 

Indiana (Reisinger et al. 1992). Helvey and Kochenderfer 

(1990) reported a slight increase in soil density and a 

small decline in soil moisture after measuring soil density 

and moisture for 30 months on two newly constructed 

forest roads in the central Appalachians. They attributed 

these changes to compaction from raindrops and reduced 

infi ltration. After bulk density diminishes, tree growth on 

the roadbed might be expected to approach that observed 

in the off-road position.

The inverse relationships between bulk density and 

soil moisture (Fig. 7) probably can be attributed to 

reductions in both moisture storage capacity and 

infi ltration caused by soil compaction. The largest 

soil-moisture defi cits were recorded in midsummer 

on both the roadbed and off-road positions when 

evapotranspiration losses were high (Fig. 8). We were 

surprised by the magnitude of the difference (40 percent) 

in moisture content between roadbed and off-road 

positions in an area that receives large amounts of 

precipitation that is well distributed throughout the year. 

Since these differences persisted during the dormant 

season, reduced moisture storage and infi ltration capacity 

probably were the dominant factors infl uencing moisture 

content. Troendle (1970) compared soil-moisture losses 

from forested and uncompacted areas maintained barren 

with herbicides near this study area. Trends in annual 

moisture depletion and recharge were similar in both 

studies. However, in Troendle’s study, soil moisture 

contents on both the forested and barren areas were 

identical during the dormant season following moisture 

recharge that occurred in December.

12
The increased soil depth and organic-matter content at 

the fi ll position were attributed to deposition of soil from 

the cut portion of the road prism (Fig. 11). Although the 

fi ll positions had greater soil depth and higher organicmatter content, soil-moisture content and bulk density 

at depths up to 12 inches at this position were similar to 

those at other road positions. Soil-moisture contents at 

deeper depths, e.g., 12 to 24 inches, probably were higher 

on the fi ll portion of the roadbed. Both the litter layer 

of the original soil and the recently deposited soil were 

visible in 1998 when soil samples were collected. Since 

most of the additional organic matter has not had time 

to completely break down and become incorporated into 

the fi ll soil profi le, its full effect on growth may not be 

refl ected in current growth measurements.

Our results indicate that the fi ll portion of newly 

constructed skidroads in Appalachian clearcuts provides 

suitable planting sites for northern red oak. Although 

bulk density is elevated slightly on road fi lls, survival and 

height growth were comparable to those in the off-road 

positions, suggesting few major limitations to the use 

of road fi lls for enrichment planting. There are several 

advantages to using skidroads for enrichment plantings. 

Vegetation management requirements are reduced 

because fresh roadbeds provide an environment that 

is relatively free of competition for several years. Also, 

roads provide ready access to seedlings planted on them 

so seedlings can be located, tree shelters maintained, 

and vegetation managed around them if necessary. 

Confi ning plantings to road fi lls still will allow the use 

of skidroads by ATV’s, a common mode of travel on 

them in the Appalachians. A major limitation to using 

skidroads as planting sites is damage by black bears. 

Bears travel on skidroads and often damage tree shelters 

and the seedlings within them. Nonetheless, in selected 

areas, the use of skidroads as planting sites provides land 

managers with a regeneration technique that can facilitate 

enrichment plantings in Appalachian clearcuts.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors thank Clifford Phillips (retired), formerly 

with the Northeastern Research Station, for assistance in 

establishing the study and collecting the data.

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16
Printed on Recycled Paper

Kochenderfer, James N.; Adams, Mary Beth; Miller, Gary W.; Wood, Frederica. 2006. 

Growth and development of planted northern red oak on bulldozed skidroads 

after clearcutting in Appalachian hardwoods. Res. Pap. NE-730. Newtown 

Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research 

Station. 16 p.

Artificial regeneration of northern red oak in Appalachian clearcuts on mesic sites 

is hindered by accessibility and competition from developing vegetation. The use 

of skidroads as a planting medium was evaluated on two clearcuts with contrasting 

aspects in north central West Virginia. Stratified acorns were planted in tree shelters 

at three positions (cut, middle, fill) on the roadbed and one position (off road) adjacent 

to the roadbed. Height growth, percent survival, competitive status, and potential crop 

trees (PCT) were measured after eight growing seasons. Soil parameters also were 

measured. Height growth was greatest on the off-road and fill positions. The overall 

height difference (1.5 feet) between off-road and fill positions was less than expected 

from measurements of soil bulk density and moisture content. Reduced competition 

improved the competitive status of all roadbed trees, though competitor trees on 

average were 4.4 feet taller than PCTs after 8 years.

KEY WORDS: artificial regeneration; road position; herbicide release; soil moisture; soil 

bulk density
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