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Cut along dotted line 

Military Chaplains as Peace

Builders

Embracing Indigenous Religions

in Stability Operations

Lee, Burke, and

Crayne
COLLEGE OF AEROSPACE DOCTRINE,

RESEARCH AND EDUCATION

AIR UNIVERSITY

Military Chaplains

as Peace Builders

Embracing Indigenous Religions

in Stability Operations

WILLIAM SEAN LEE

Chaplain (Colonel), ARNG

CHRISTOPHER J. BURKE

Lieutenant Colonel, USAF

ZONNA M. CRAYNE

Lieutenant Colonel, ANG

CADRE Paper No. 20

Air University Press

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama 36112-6615

February 2005
ii

Air University Library Cataloging Data

Lee, William Sean.

Military chaplains as peace builders : embracing indigenous religions in stability

operations / William Sean Lee, Christopher J. Burke, Zonna M. Crayne.

p. ; cm. – (CADRE paper, 1537-3371 ; 20)

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN 1-58566-132-5

1. Chaplains, Military—United States. 2. Peacekeeping forces (Military science).

3. United States—Armed Forces—Operations other than war. 4. War—Religious aspects. I. Title. II. Series. III. Air University (U.S.). College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education. IV. Burke, Christopher J., 1963– V. Crayne, Zonna M.

355.347—dc22

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iii
Contents

Chapter Page

DISCLAIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

ABOUT THE AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 RELIGION IN STABILITY OPERATIONS . . . . . . . 7

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 CHAPLAINS IN STABILITY OPERATIONS . . . . . . 13

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 MODIFICATIONS TO THE CHAPLAIN

SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RESPONSES TO

POTENTIAL OBJECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

v
Illustrations

Figure Page

1 Religious liaison selection based on battalion

staffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Value added of chaplain as religious liaison . . . . 17

Tables

1 Required chaplain competencies and interreligious council outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2 Recommendations for required changes and

responsible agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3 Objections and responses to chaplains as 

religious liaisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

vi
Foreword

If the reader is up-to-date on good ideas for restructuring

the Air Force, the worth of this study will be immediately apparent. On first blush, Military Chaplains as Peace Builders:

Embracing Indigenous Religions in Stability Operations, especially the first phrase, seems like a feeble topic unworthy of

our attention. What these three researchers—Chaplain (Col)

William Sean Lee, Lt Col Christopher J. Burke, and Lt Col

Zonna M. Crayne, all Air Force Fellows—did during their assignment to Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of

Government is make suggestions that bring the chaplain business into the twenty-first century. 

Religion and culture in general have been long neglected by

planners, policy makers, and diplomats. Our experience in

Phase IV, or the constructive phase, of Operation Iraqi Freedom has clearly exposed this inattention as a serious flaw in

bringing peaceful development to Iraq. These authors suggest

that military chaplains can be a part of a better solution. It is

not a case of trying to proselyte; it is rather one of engaging

local religious leaders to facilitate the stabilization process. 

Currently, US military chaplains not only provide religious

and spiritual support to military personnel and their families,

but also train to conduct religious area analyses and assessments, primarily for the purpose of advising the commander on

indigenous religious culture and practices. The thesis of this

paper is to suggest an expanded role as religious liaison, wherein

the chaplains would have a direct interface with local religious

groups and religious leaders. The chaplains would develop a dialogue, build relationships, promote goodwill, and even help create formal inter-religious councils. The authors recommend

changes affecting doctrine, training, and assignments that are

necessary to facilitate this expanded role of chaplains. 

Commanders often have a military lawyer and intelligence officer by their side when addressing operational decisions. Chaplains of the future should be equally important to the commander conducting stability operations. Our leadership must be

comfortable in the understanding that an individual does not

have to become religious in order to understand religion.

vii
Military Chaplains as Peace Builders was written as part of

the Air Force Fellows research requirement. The College of

Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education (CADRE) is

pleased to publish this study as a CADRE Paper and thereby

make it available to a wider audience within the Air Force and

beyond.

DANIEL R. MORTENSEN

Chief of Research

Airpower Research Institute, CADRE

viii
About the Authors

Chaplain (Col) William Sean Lee is an Army chaplain serving most recently as State Area Command Chaplain providing

supervision and training to all chaplains and assistants in the

Maryland National Guard. Deployed to the Pentagon after the

11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, Chaplain Lee coordinated the deployment of chaplains throughout the United

States and the world in support of the global war on terrorism.

Chaplain Lee has also served as Division Support Command

Chaplain for the 29th Infantry Division (Light), chaplain for

the 136th Combat Support Hospital, and chaplain for the 115

Military Police Battalion. He is a graduate of the US Army War

College and holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in religion from

Carson-Newman College and a Master of Divinity degree from

Southeastern Seminary. He is a board-certified chaplain through

the Association of Professional Chaplains.

Lt Col Christopher J. Burke currently serves at Headquarters

US Air Force, Washington, DC, and was previously assigned as

a National Security Fellow at the John F. Kennedy School of

Government, Harvard University. Prior to Harvard he was

commander, 2d Maintenance Squadron, Barksdale AFB, LA,

and served as squadron maintenance officer for the 20th

Bomb Squadron. His logistics background includes both

flight-line and back-shop aircraft maintenance in the B-52

and KC-135 aircraft. Colonel Burke served in the weapon system acquisition and program management career field with

the B-2 System Program Office. He also served as assistant

professor of logistics management at the Air Force Institute of

Technology (AFIT). Colonel Burke is a distinguished graduate

of the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps program at the

University of Notre Dame, where he obtained a bachelor’s degree in aerospace engineering. He also holds a doctorate in operations management from Indiana University, a master’s in

military operational art and science from Air Command and

Staff College, a master’s in acquisition logistics management

from AFIT, and a master’s in human resources from Central

Michigan University.

ix
Lt Col Zonna M. Crayne is an Air Force communicator who

most recently headed up the Information Operations and

Technology section at the Washington Air National Guard

(ANG) State Headquarters. She made significant contributions

in developing a new mission in the information operations

area for the state of Washington. As squadron commander,

she led the initiative to create the first Information Warfare

Aggressor Squadron in the ANG. Colonel Crayne is a graduate

of the Squadron Officers Course. She holds a bachelor’s degree in math/computer science from Eastern Washington University and a master’s degree in computer science from Pacific

Lutheran University.

x
Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the support and assistance

of several persons without whom this project would not have

been possible. Special thanks to Dr. Marie Danziger, John F.

Kennedy School of Government faculty advisor; Dr. David Little,

Harvard Divinity School faculty reader; Dr. David Smock, US

Institute of Peace; Dr. Douglas Johnston, International Center

for Religion and Diplomacy; and Dr. David Davis, George Mason

University subject matter expert readers and advisors. Thanks

also to many others who gave of themselves in discussion, reflection, guidance, and knowledge to sharpen the focus of our research and recommendations. They are too numerous to mention here, but equally important and appreciated.

xi
Chapter 1

Introduction

To help illustrate the vital role military chaplains can play as

peace builders, let’s begin by examining a fictional but plausible

scenario. The US intelligence community is surprised to learn

that a fundamentalist religious group calling itself the “Sword of

Allah” has seized control of both weapons of mass destruction

(WMD) and their delivery systems in the moderate Islamic Republic of Korastan. The Korastani military is a probable source

of aid from sympathizers within its ranks. The long-suspected

possession of nuclear materials and delivery capability of Korastan has been confirmed independently through both Department

of State and Department of Defense (DOD) contacts with Korastani government officials. 

Of greater immediate concern to the United States is confirmation of chemical and biological weapons and portable delivery

systems also seized by Sword of Allah operatives. These weapons

could be used against US and coalition military members in

neighboring countries. These portable weapons systems have

been relocated to undetermined sites. Though US and coalition

military forces could survive an attack with minimal casualties,

the civilian population is not nearly as prepared or trained for

such an attack. 

Two audiotaped communications have been received from the

Sword of Allah indicating their intent and demands. The first

communication stated their plan to immediately launch the full

arsenal of WMD against both US and coalition military forces in

neighboring countries if their demands are not met. A similar

threat was made against the “Jewish puppet of the Great Satan,”

the nation of Israel, if any military action were taken against

them. Their demands are for all Western powers to immediately

withdraw from Muslim lands, the United States pay war reparations to injured Muslims of $500 billion through the Muslim

World Congress, and the United States immediately discontinue

any military aid to Israel.

Three hours later, a second communication arrived at AlJazeera broadcasting network stating a strike would be launched

1
within eight hours unless the United States demonstrated a sincere respect for the Sword of Allah and its demands. This respect

must be indicated by a response delivered through those who

“understand the peaceful religion of Islam.” The Sword of Allah

would welcome martyrdom for their righteous cause.

Department of Defense and Department of State are working

together in consult with the United States Institute of Peace to

craft a response. Additionally, consideration is given to the issue

of geography in formulating a negotiating team. Israel and its

Arab neighbors are in a high state of military readiness. US and

coalition military forces in countries bordering Korastan are experiencing increased attacks and unrest. These attacks are by

civilians incited to action by local clerics who view this situation

as possible divine judgment on the “God-less West.” 

This scenario is all too realistic. It is not meant to focus on

any specific religion, but to simply draw an illustration. Islam

and the current situation the United States is encountering in

Iraq are used as examples throughout this research paper.

However, other religions and geographical areas of conflict are

equally applicable. To avoid this scenario becoming an actual

event, the United States must embrace religion as a diplomatic

partner. To ignore this fact is to ignore reality. This paper is a

step towards ensuring this plausible scenario never occurs.

Chaplains as Religious Liaisons

The doctrinal role of US military chaplains must be expanded

to allow for formal inclusion of indigenous religious groups and

religious leaders into stability operations. This additional role for

chaplains beyond the traditional function of providing for religious and spiritual support of military personnel and their

families might best be described as the role of religious liaison.

This additional role of religious liaison could be viewed as an expansion of the traditional chaplain role of advisor to the commander. There are current examples of US military chaplains

functioning in this expanded role. 

Chaplains of the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) regularly meet in Iraq with religious leaders. Chaplain (Capt) John

Stutz states that one of the biggest issues is the constant bombardment of misinformation about coalition forces and what

2

CADRE PAPER
they are doing for the local populace. According to Stutz, “The

problem is they are usually getting the wrong information

about something or they’re getting no information.” Stutz further states, “Our job is to make sure the facts are given to

these leaders so they can disseminate it to their communities.”1 Chaplains can provide facts about US forces’ intent and

current efforts as well as clarify misinformation. Accurate information will provide increased understanding and build

trust between the local populace and military forces. 

Chaplain (Col) Frank E. Wismer II states that in areas of Iraq

where chaplains and commanders engage indigenous religious

leaders, coalition forces have had some success in decreasing

anticoalition actions.2 Commander Emilio Marrero sought to use

his role as a Christian chaplain to create bridges with various

respected holy men in Iraq. He plainly wore the cross on his

uniform against advice of others who suggested that he keep

a low profile as a Christian chaplain. His actions have helped

mitigate one of the greatest myths among Iraqis that Americans are secular and, therefore, devils, infidels, or nonbelievers. This openness in faith proved to be a valuable asset and

offered many opportunities for positive exchanges between US

military forces and indigenous religious leaders.3

Chaplains have expressed the importance that all religious

groups be represented in efforts to engage religious leaders.

Chaplain (Maj) Dean Bonura of the 1st Brigade Combat Team,

1st Armored Division, states that his Unit Ministry Teams (UMT)

held numerous meetings with various religious leaders across

multiple faiths, from Shiite and Sunni Muslims to Armenian and

Roman Catholic bishops and priests. These meetings with religious leaders have proven essential in assisting the coalition mission.4 US Air Force chaplains and assistants deployed in theater

with air expeditionary groups also recognize the importance of

“doing their part to win the hearts and minds of the Iraqis.” For

example, while accompanying Office of Special Investigations

(OSI) agents on humanitarian missions, chaplains were able to

work among local populations.5

Dr. Elliot Cohen states that the preeminent and most crucial issue of our time is inclusion of religion in the development of US foreign policy as an element of national power and

3

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
the incorporation of indigenous religious groups and religious

leaders for stability operations.6 Notably, US policy and practice goes to great lengths to respect the value of religion for US

citizens. However, US policy and intentional practice often fail

to recognize the importance of indigenous religions when conducting military operations. The intention to consider and embrace religion in planning for stability operations could be the

determining factor between a rapid, constructive result and a

destructive, long, and costly process. 

Overview

To address the above policy issue, this paper is organized in

the following manner. Chapter 2 highlights indigenous religious

groups and religious leaders as an element of national power and

how that translates to the importance of religion in stability operations. It further illustrates DOD’s role during initial stability

operations including selection of local leadership.

Chapter 3 discusses why chaplains are the best choice to serve

as religious liaisons and provides an analysis of a given group of

candidates, based on defined criteria, validating the selection.

Numerous historical references emphasize that chaplains are

the best choice as religious liaisons during stability operations.

Examination of past conflicts shows the extensive range of value

added by chaplains. Examples are also cited of how other countries integrate their chaplains into the role of religious liaison.

Chapter 4 looks at modifications required for military chaplains to successfully serve as a religious liaison with indigenous religious groups. These include changes to authorization

levels for chaplains, as well as necessary doctrinal enhancements and additional training requirements plus actions required to transition responsibilities from the military chaplain

to other organizations.

Chapter 5 highlights recommendations of this research paper

and identifies responsible agencies. It further identifies potential

objections to the issues put forth, develops responses to those

objections, and suggests areas for future research that would

continue the steps taken with this paper.

4

CADRE PAPER
Notes

1. Joshua M. Risner, 40th Public Affairs Division, (unpublished paper). 

2. Frank E. Wismer II to W. Sean Lee, e-mail, subject: “RE: Contact and

Information request,” 1 December 2003.

3. Emilio Marrero, “From the Rivers of Babylon,” Navy Chaplain, July

2003, 1–2.

4. Dean Bonura, “Chaplains Forging Alliance with Local Religious Leaders,”

Ironside, 21 November 2003, 14.

5. Reginal Woodruff, “Chaplains Go Where Needed,” Air Force Link, 21

January 2004, http://www.af.mil/stories/story.asp?storyID=123006403.

6. Elliot A. Cohen, interviewed by author, 6 November 2003.

5

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
Chapter 2

Religion in Stability Operations

Rabbi Marc Gopin, director of the Center for World Religions,

Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolution at George Mason University

writes, “Whatever one discovers in the roots of war must become

a principle part of recovery, growth, and the visioning of new

civilization . . . if religion, culture, ethnicity are all implicated,

then they must be vindicated, and those that hold fast to them

must find a sure and true way to engage the new civilization.”1

Gopin’s statement identifies religion as a necessary element in

conflict resolution when it is part of the dynamic of conflict. 

Religion is best viewed as a force useful in stability operations rather than an issue to disregard or overcome. Often the

United States attempts to avoid religion in an effort to respect

the personal dimension of faith. Nations that do not separate

church and state perceive this attempt at respect as dismissive, thereby furthering the perception of the “God-less West.”

The United States adheres foundationally to separation of

church and state, while Islam adheres to the integration of

politics and religion. In the Muslim world, religious leaders are

often more powerful than political leaders. However, they are

often not included in the “axes of power” considered for stabilization planning and implementation by the United States according to Col William Flavin, retired, of the Peacekeeping and

Stability Operations Institute at the US Army War College in

Carlisle, Pennsylvania.2

Support of indigenous religious groups and religious leaders

can greatly impact the success of US foreign policy. They must

be included as the stabilization process is developed to realize

long-term stability. Politicians and diplomats need to understand and embrace the importance of indigenous religious leaders. Current US foreign policy does not always identify religion as

a consideration in stabilization operations and planning.3

David Smock, PhD, director of the Religion and Peacemaking

Initiative at the US Institute of Peace in Washington, DC, also advocates that religion defines the cultural identity in many societies. He also states that religion is often ignored by US

7
diplomats and policy makers in developing and implementing

foreign policy. However, the United States must embrace it as a

means toward conflict resolution and as an enabler toward longterm stability.4

In the Western world, religious beliefs and the clergy who

sustain them are still an influential force. However, this influence is not on par with the much higher degree of power normally afforded clergy in many countries where religious leaders and congregations form a wide association of influence

that communicates to a large number of citizens. This impact

is especially relevant where government is weak and lacking a

central authority powerful enough to enforce the rule of law.

In those situations it is often clergy and networks of congregations that contribute significantly to local stability.5

In relating foreign policy and the conduct of military operations in the Islamic world, the United States must recognize that

maintaining stability and building peace require that we accurately communicate our plans and intentions to all levels of Muslim society. It is through communication and understanding that

we may win the hearts and cooperation of the local populace.

Victory for moderate Muslims over an extremist minority vying

for control in many Muslim nations depends upon the United

States effectively filling the “information gap.” Miscommunication can lead to misunderstandings and misperceptions of US

intent and plans. Stability operations require a parallel campaign resulting in national institutions committed to freedom,

tolerance, and basic human rights for all citizens.6

Opposition forces often employ an asymmetric strategy using

religion, religious symbolism, and religious misinformation as

tools for recruitment and enlisting support. Recognition of this

strategy affords the United States an opportunity to develop a

strategic and operational response.7 Secretary of Defense Donald

H. Rumsfeld, responding to an inquiry about how well the

Department of Defense intentionally brings indigenous religious

leaders into the planning and implementation process for stability operations, stated: “Overall we are not doing a good job . . .

of trying to include religious leaders to show respect for their

faith as part of stability operations.”8

8

CADRE PAPER
Role of Military Leadership

Military operations are conducted in four phases, with Phase

IV being stability operations. Preferably this phase begins with

official cessation of hostilities and ends when the situation is

stable and secure for transition to the Department of State.

Phase IV of Operation Iraqi Freedom posed unique challenges

due to continued violent opposition to the presence of US forces.

Attacks on the civilian population by groups vying for power produced continuing instability and difficulty in transitioning control from Department of Defense to Department of State. L. Paul

Bremer III, the former diplomat and counterterrorism official

who led the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) beginning in

May 2003, expressed confidence that Iraqis can build a democracy that values religious and political freedom.9

US military forces in hostile areas are the primary on-scene

resource to carry out stability operations. Although the State

Department plays a major role in coordinating the development of freedom and democracy in a post-conflict nation, it

can do so only within the context of security provided by US

armed forces. US military commanders on the ground are responsible for securing the safety, welfare, and livelihood of the

local population. It is tactical combatant forces in theater who

conduct initial governance operations and remain on the

ground in oversight until the political transition essential to

stability or peace efforts is complete.10

DOD is effectively in charge not only of the military aspects

of the counterinsurgency, but also of reconstruction work and

political development. In most provinces, US military officers

selected local government officials representative of their respective populations.11 US military officers in Iraq spend much

of their time meeting with local sheiks and apportioning the

thin funds at their disposal for rebuilding. It is not unusual for

US Army officers to go out in the morning on a patrol and return in the afternoon for an internal meeting about dispersing

small grants to local health clinics. Clearly the burden of responsibility for stability operations remains with the military

commanders on the ground in Iraq.12

Leadership of the 1st Armored Division, located in eastern

Baghdad, committed itself to building a partnership with local

9

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
religious leaders to enhance the CPA’s mission to stabilize the

city. They recognized the significant role religious leaders would

play in a mission committed to stabilization and peace for the region. The unit began forging alliances through neighborhood advisory councils and via networking from existing contacts with

indigenous religious leaders, thereby establishing rapport for

further dialogue.13

For Iraqis, religion has been tied to the political process

and governing body. The CPA currently has no policy regarding interaction with religious groups and religious leaders

and generally has a laissez-faire approach to building an interreligious forum. Furthermore, there is no articulated or written policy that guides the CPA’s relationship with indigenous

religious leaders in the reconstruction of Iraq. Lack of these

policies may be due to a Department of State misinterpretation of the US principle of separation of church and state as

applicable to US foreign policy. Additionally, it may relate to

the practice of prohibiting the endorsement of a specific religion as a matter of US policy or practice.14

Indigenous religions and religious leaders are critical factors

to be included in stability operations. Conrad C. Crane and Andrew W. Terrill of the Strategic Studies Institute at the US Army

War College state that any “culturally-based efforts by the

United States to assume away differences between Americans

and Iraqis can only doom the effort for rebuilding.”15 It is important to note that even without a formal US policy or strategy

to assess religious issues for inclusion in stability operations,

Crane and Terrill cite 19 of 135 tasks considered necessary to

the reconstruction of Iraq—three “critical,” five “essential,” and

11 “important”—that are either religious in focus or are impacted by the religious culture. Having established that religion

is a key defining element in culture that is essential for consideration in stability operations, the question of who will address

the issue and how they will do so must be explored. 

Notes

1. Marc Gopin, “Engaging the Future: Religion, Human Rights and Conflict

Resolution,” Online Fall Forum: Facing History, 15–31 October 2003, http://

www.facinghistory.infopop.net/3/Open Topic accessed 23 October 2003.

10

CADRE PAPER
2. William Flavin, telephone interview with author, 19 January 2004.

3. Yehezkel Landau, Healing the Holy Land (Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace, September 2003), 5.

4. David Smock, interviewed by author, 7 October 2003.

5. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of

World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), 109–115. 

6. Joseph A. Lieberman, “Lifting the Theological Iron Curtain,” National

Interest, Fall 2003, 8.

7. Stephen J. Blank, Rethinking Asymmetric Threat (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, 2003).

8. Donald H. Rumsfeld, keynote address, Eisenhower National Security

Conference, Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center, Washington, DC, 25 September 2003.

9. Susan Sachs, “Bremer Expects Rise in Violence as Iraq Builds Democracy,” New York Times, 12 December 2003, A-26+.

10. Nadia Schadlow, “War and the Art of Governance,” Parameters 33

(2003): 88, 90, 91–93.

11. Sachs, “Bremer Expects Rise in Violence.”

12. Peter Maass, “Professor Nagl’s War,” New York Times Magazine, 11

January 2004, 23.

13. “Local Religious Leaders Create Alliance,” Coalition Scimitar, 21 November 2003, 9, 12.

14. Frank E. Wismer II, e-mail: “RE: Contact and Information request” to

W. Sean Lee, 1 December 2003.

15. Conrad C. Crane and Andrew W. Terrill, Reconstructing Iraq: Insights,

Challenges, and Missions for Military Forces in a Post-Conflict Scenario

(Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, 2003), 42.

11

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
Chapter 3

Chaplains in Stability Operations

In his book, Faith-Based Diplomacy: Trumping Realpolitik, Dr.

Douglas Johnston advocates the use of military chaplains in stability operations. He states that the multifaith experience and extensive interpersonal skills military chaplains possess are attributes perfectly suited for the inclusion of religion into stability

operations.1 Dr. Johnston, president of the International Center

for Religion and Diplomacy in Washington, DC, further states in

his article, “We Neglect Religion at Our Peril,” that military chaplains can develop in-depth understanding of the religious and

cultural distinctions in a given environment through their personal interactions with indigenous religious communities.2

Military chaplains are uniquely suited and positioned within

the US military structure to function as the initial component

resource to provide for inclusion of local religious groups into

stability operations. For comparison purposes, figure 1 contrasts the most likely candidates among US military personnel

for religious liaison when evaluated against the criteria defined

below. Although figure 1 is specific to US Army personnel,

13

Civil

Affairs Limited Yes Yes No 4

Chaplain Yes Yes Yes Yes 1

Intel

(S-2) Limited No No Yes 5

Personnel

(S-1) Limited Yes Limited Yes 2

Judge

Advocate No Yes Yes Yes 3

Training Skills Credentials Accessibility Final Ranking

X = Criteria Categories

Y = Personnel Evaluated

X

Y

Figure 1. Religious liaison selection based on battalion staffing
other military services have similar candidates that can be

evaluated by the same criteria. 

Criteria as they relate to the role and function of religious liaison were generalized into the basic core areas of training, skills,

credentials, and accessibility. Training criteria included general

knowledge of major world religions, faiths, practices, and beliefs.

Also critical is the impact of religion on society and sensitivity to

religious customs and nuances. Skills criteria were identified as

negotiation, religious diplomacy, and consensus building. While

arguable, credentials criteria were defined as how the officer’s

title or functional description might be perceived by the local

population. While not precise, this criterion can be assessed

within acceptable limits of predictability through a perceptive

study of indigenous religious history and culture. Accessibility

criteria were defined as being quickly and consistently available

to the battalion commander for religious liaison.

The battalion was used as the representative group for evaluation since it is the normal-size military element conducting

Phase IV operations. Personnel most likely to possess abilities related to liaison activity were identified from the battalion headquarters and the next highest headquarters at brigade level.

Likeliness to possess liaison skills was determined based upon

the traditional training and function of the officers selected. The

best candidates were determined to be the judge advocate general, personnel officer (S-1), intelligence officer (S-2), battalion

chaplain, and the civil affairs officer.

Using the criterion parameters stated earlier, a synopsis of

each officer’s evaluation follows. The civil affairs officer possesses

skills and credentials, but has limited training and virtually no

accessibility to the combatant commander. The intelligence officer is readily accessible to the commander, but has limited training and no necessary skills or credentials in the area of religious

liaison. The personnel officer possesses both skills and is accessible, but has limited training and credentials. The judge advocate general possesses the necessary skills, credentials and accessibility to the commander, but has no training for religious

liaison tasks. Military chaplains have the training, skills, credentials, and accessibility.3

14

CADRE PAPER
Based upon the analysis of each military specialty’s doctrine

and training compared against the established criteria, it is

clearly apparent that the initial proponent group responsible for

inclusion of indigenous religious groups in stability operations

should be military chaplains assigned to combat elements. 

Historical Precedents Involving Chaplains

During the Spanish-American War, Gen John J. “Black Jack”

Pershing used his chaplain in the Philippines as a liaison to negotiate with Catholic clergy in the north and Muslim leaders in

the south in an attempt to ease hostilities. During the post-World

War II Nuremberg trials of former Nazi war criminals, a US military chaplain was assigned to provide religious support for war

criminals. This facilitated increased cooperation of criminals

with authorities due to the unique trust engendered through the

military chaplain relationship. The symbolic and actual success

of these trials was crucial to the stability and reconstruction of

post-war Europe.4

During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, Gen H.

Norman Schwarzkopf recognized the importance of appointing

military chaplains as religious liaisons to work with indigenous

religious leaders. General Schwarzkopf designated US Central

Command Chaplain (Col) David P. Peterson as his representative

to communicate and coordinate with Saudi Arabian religious authorities. Chaplain Peterson became instrumental in fostering

friendships among indigenous religious leaders, facilitating successful execution of the war while allied with the Muslim nation

of Saudi Arabia.5

During his tenure in command of stability operations in the

Balkans, US Army general Wesley Clark used his senior command chaplain, Rabbi Arnie Resnicoff, extensively to function in

a liaison capacity. Chaplain Resnicoff was tasked to promote

goodwill with and among religiously conflicted communities and

representative clerics. According to John Brinsfield, PhD, US

Army Chaplain Corps historian, employing the chaplain as a religious liaison was verification of General Clark’s understanding

and intent that coordinating with these groups and individuals

was essential to long-term stability in the region.6 The 2001 position description for the Stabilization Force Theater Chaplain

15

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
continues to specifically designate the chaplain for liaising between military and religious leaders “involved in peacemaking

and reconciliation activities.”7

During Operation Iraqi Freedom, Brig Gen (select) Martin E.

Dempsey, commander, US Army 1st Armored Division, successfully increased the safety of his forces. He directed his chaplain

to form an Inter-Religious Council (IRC) of local clerics. This effort was an attempt to increase force protection by easing the

perceived hostility of local clerics. The IRC was to begin dialogue

aimed at increased understanding and decreased hostility toward US military operations. General Dempsey took this action

based upon his assessment that roadside bombings of coalition

troops were linked to opposition to coalition activities voiced by

local Muslim clerics. A measurable decrease in the incidence of

roadside bombings followed the first meeting with local clerics in

October 2003.8

In some theaters of operation, individual chaplains having the

same faith as indigenous religious groups were solicited to build

goodwill among the local populace through the ministry of presence. Ministry of presence is a traditional, defined function of the

chaplain usually associated with ministry among US military

troops. However, in these theaters of operation, the traditional

ministry of presence role was successfully expanded to interface

with local populations on the subject of religion. In Kosovo an

Orthodox US Army chaplain interacted with local Orthodox

clergy to promote understanding and confidence toward US military operations.9 In a more subtle attempt to promote a basis for

trust and cooperation with US Army operations in Afghanistan,

a Muslim US Army chaplain prayed with Muslims in the local

mosque at the appointed hours.10

Value Added by Chaplains

Other examples exist to illustrate how chaplains have been

drawn on by visionary commanders to connect with indigenous religious leaders and communities to increase success

and reduce risks in stability operations. However, employment

of chaplains for this mission is not a universal practice. The

value added by chaplains’ involvement depends upon the degree of secularization of a society and the number of religious

16

CADRE PAPER
groups in the society. The greater the secularization of society

and the more monolithic the religious demographic, the less

need to use chaplains for incorporation of indigenous religious

groups and religious leaders to ensure successful stability operations. The reciprocal is also true. Figure 2 depicts this relationship between the use of chaplains as religious liaisons

and the variables of secularization in a society and number of

religious groups within that society. Post-conflict, or stability

operations, in five US conflicts illustrate this principle: the

Philippines (Spanish-American War), Japan (World War II), Somalia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Iraq. 

17

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE

Iraq

Somalia

Bosnia

Japan Philippines

Y

1 2 3

X

• •

•

•

•

X = Number of Major Religious Groups/Sects/Tribes

Y = Degree of Secularization in Society/Government

As an example, the Philippines during the Spanish-American

War was a secular society with a Catholic majority and a Muslim

minority. In this situation chaplains had an intentional but

limited role as negotiators between Catholics and Muslims to

promote stability. In addition, General Pershing made sure his

troops were informed on local culture and customs and had a

basic knowledge of the Quran. General Pershing could himself

conduct lengthy conversations about religion with local imams.11

Japan was a secular society at the end of World War II (the

belief in the emperor as divine notwithstanding) with a preFigure 2. Value added of chaplain as religious liaison

Religious State

Religious Representative Government State

Secular State
dominantly Buddhist, monocultural population. It was not necessary for chaplains to act as religious liaisons with local communities to promote stability. Religious belief that allowed for

“divine wind” kamikaze suicide attacks also allowed for a citizenry subservient to US policy for reconstruction after the war.

The populace was conditioned to obey the emperor’s direction to

accept defeat and submit to American military authority.12

During Somalia operations it could be argued that the first

US administration had success in humanitarian operations by

including tribal leaders, while disregard for tribal leaders during the second US administration led to failure.13 Overall,

Somalia operations could have benefited from chaplain intervention to liaison with tribal leaders due to the lack of secularization in the society.

Bosnia-Herzegovina continues to be a secular society in practice, but dominated by ethnic politics defined by multiple religious identities. A history of atrocities in the name of religion and

a lack of religious homogeneity in the culture continue to compound the cost and difficulties associated with stability operations and nation building.14 Chaplains are having an influential

and effective role in acting as liaisons to indigenous religious

groups to promote peace and long-term stability. 

When current hostilities started, Iraq was initially a nominal

Islamic, but practically secular state. Now Iraq seems to be

quickly transforming into an Islamic religious state contested by

the various Shiite and Sunni sects. Although a sense of Iraqi national identity does exist, it does not override these religious,

tribal, and ethnic identities. Currently in Iraq the role of chaplains is still emerging as religious liaisons for stability operations.

The employment of methods used and practices observed is occurring by chance. The role of religious liaison needs to be

planned and implemented through a deliberate design of foreign

policy and subsequent military doctrine of the United States.15

Foreign Military Use of Chaplains

The use of chaplains for interaction with indigenous religious

groups and religious leaders by foreign militaries further demonstrates the value of doctrinally establishing this role for US military chaplains in stability operations. The most relevant foreign

18

CADRE PAPER
military examples are from Canada and South Africa, along with

recent developments in Norway. These nations have recognized

the value of using unit chaplains in a religious liaison capacity.

Formalizing the process in an effort to produce consistent success, they are developing doctrine and policy to support and direct this chaplain function.

In his paper, “The Ministry and Theology of Reconciliation in Operations,” Padre (Maj) S.K. Moore, CD, of the Canadian Forces

Chaplain Branch, describes the integrated position and function

of Canadian Forces chaplains in stability operations. Padre

Moore states “as clergy in a theatre of operations, Canadian

Forces chaplains have a distinctive role to play in interfacing

with their civilian counterparts.”16 In describing the chaplain’s

role in relating to indigenous religious groups and populace, he

explains that their operations are permeated with the philosophy

of reconciliation. This philosophy is the understanding that longterm stability can only happen in societies when true reconciliation occurs between conflicted groups. To attain reconciliation,

the conflicted groups must enter into dialogue that acknowledges wrongs, offers and receives forgiveness, and mutually

agrees upon a shared future as a society. 

Canadian forces are primarily deployed in support of stability

operations. This practice has allowed their chaplains extensive

opportunity to understand the link between dialogues with indigenous religious leaders and identifying crucial humanitarian

support needs. Together they form a foundation for communicating the mission of stabilization forces in the reconciliation

process leading to long-term stability. Further, this dialogue with

and between indigenous leaders allows for “opportunity to share

their story . . . acknowledging their pain and suffering, and . . .

assist these religious and community leaders to . . . start the

journey of reconciliation.”17

Canadian chaplains find ease of movement among the population essential to advising the commander of probable humanitarian assistance projects that would strengthen reconciliation and stability operations. Access and freedom of

movement are believed to be possible due to the high degree of

influence and respect given to indigenous religious leaders

and transferred to military chaplains serving in populations

19

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
where these stability operations occur. Recognizing the importance of gaining and integrating support of indigenous religious groups and religious leaders for stability operations,

Canadian Forces chaplains are used and militarily trained as

the key resource tasked with this mission.18

A paper by South African Defence Force Chaplains, Ignatious

Fumaneklie Gqiba and Sybrand van Niekerk entitled, “The Role

and Influence of Chaplains in the South African National Defence

Force (SANDF),” describes the successful integration of chaplains

in SANDF for internal and regional stability operations. Due to

the long history of intertribal conflict in South Africa, the SANDF

chaplains developed a practice of mediation for peace and stability that became authorized in South African constitutional law

and defined in military doctrine.19

Internal religious advisory boards became the training ground

and template for a chaplain religious liaison role by the SANDF

when operating in regional stability operations. Chaplains trained

in peace and stability operations accompany the two motorized

infantry battalions employed by SANDF in peacekeeping missions. The chaplain functions as the “specialist in regard to religion, mediation, and negotiation between Peace and Stability

Operations (PSO) forces, non-governmental organizations and

religious groups.”20

The ability to transcend borders, as well as religious and political differences, to function in the role of negotiator between

opposing parties is facilitated by the chaplain’s religious status.

His reputation allows for dissemination of accurate information,

exertion of positive influence, and mediation aimed toward reconciliation and peaceful coexistence among indigenous religious

groups and religious leaders. SANDF chaplains are also trained

to coordinate efforts for effectiveness with other multinational

PSO chaplains in the area.21

Norway has also begun to codify the operational role of the

chaplain in stability operations. Increased Norwegian participation in international peacekeeping operations since the 1990s

has led to greater use of chaplains. According to Chaplains Nils

Terje Lunde and Bard Maeland of the Norwegian Defense Forces,

chaplains are used to sustain contact with indigenous religious

20

CADRE PAPER
leaders as “a way of contributing constructively to conflict

resolution.”22

Historical examples and current foreign military practices

give points of reference in which to frame and understand an

emerging doctrinal role for US military chaplains to serve as

religious liaisons in stability operations. The question now becomes not if the US military should follow suit, but how to go

about implementing the program.

Notes

1. Douglas M. Johnston, Faith-Based Diplomacy: Trumping Realpolitik

(New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 25–26.

2. ———, “We Neglect Religion at Our Peril,” United States Naval Institute Proceedings 128 (2002): 3, 50.

3. US Department of the Army, Legal Services, Army Regulation (AR) 27-

1, Judge Advocate Legal Services, 1996; US Department of the Army, Field

Manual (FM) 27-100, Legal Support to Operations, 2000; US Department of

the Army, AR 165-1, Chaplain Activities in the United States Army, 2000; US

Department of the Army, FM 1-05, Religious Support, 2003; US Department

of the Army, AR 381-10, United States Army Intelligence Activities, 1984; US

Department of the Army, FM 34-8-2, Intelligence Officers Handbook, 1998;

US Department of the Army, AR 600-8-103, Battalion S-1, 1991; US Department of the Army, FM 41-10, Civil Affairs Operations, 2000; and US Department of the Army, FM 3-05.401, Civil Affairs Tactics, Techniques, and

Procedures, 2003.

4. Rodger Venzke, Confidence in Battle, Inspiration in Peace: The United

States Army Chaplaincy, 1945–1975 (Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of

Chaplains, 1977), 7–11; Edward L. R. Elson, personal files, Chaplain Corps

Archives, US Army Chaplain Museum, Fort Jackson, SC, pages unnumbered.

5. H. Norman Schwarzkopf, letter to Lt Gen Khalid bin Sultan bin Abdul

Aziz, 11 December 1990, in personal files of David Peterson, Fort Belvoir, VA. 

6. John Brinsfield, interviewed by author, 19 November 2003.

7. Chaplain Position Description, Headquarters Stabilization Force

(Bosnia), 25 September 2001.

8. Greg Jaffe, “Army Finds Good Information in Short Supply in Guerrilla War,” Wall Street Journal, 6 October 2003, A1+.

9. David M. Brown, interviewed by author, 20 November 2003.

10. Ibid.

11. Conrad C. Crane and Andrew W. Terrill, Reconstructing Iraq: Insights,

Challenges, and Missions for Military Forces in a Post-Conflict Scenario

(Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, 2003), 12.

12. Ibid., 15–16.

21

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
13. Chuck Harrison, “The Limits of Type D Coercive Diplomacy in Somalia” (master’s thesis, United States Naval Postgraduate School, 1995). 

14. Scott R. Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred (New York: Rowman

and Littlefield Publishers, 2000), 63–80.

15. Donald Reynolds, telephone interview by author, 22 February 2004.

16. S. K. Moore, “The Ministry and Theology of Reconciliation in Operations” (unpublished paper, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 2003), 26. 

17. Ibid., 9.

18. Canada National Defence, Civilian-Military Cooperation in Peace, Emergencies, Crisis and War (Ottawa: Queen’s Printers, 1999), 5–7.

19. South Africa, The Bill of Rights of the Constitution of South Africa, Act

No. 108, 1996, chap. 2, sec. 15; South Africa Department of Defence Instruction, Religious Policy, 2000.

20. Ignatious F. Gqiba and Sybrand van Niekerk, “The Role and Influence

of Chaplains in the South African National Defence Force” (unpublished

paper, 2003), 13. 

21. South African National Defence Force Chaplain Service, (Pretoria:

Department of Defence, 2000).

22. Nils T. Lunde and Bard Maeland, “From Nation-building to Peacebuilding: A Half Century with the Norwegian Military Chaplaincy” (unpublished paper, 2003), 11. 

22

CADRE PAPER
Chapter 4

Modifications to the Chaplain Service

The first issue that must be addressed is authorization for

chaplains. Title 10 of the United States Code provides the legal

foundation for military chaplaincy. As approved by Title 10, every

branch of the US military has designated chaplains to provide for

the religious and spiritual support of military members and their

families, and to ensure the constitutional right of every military

member to free exercise of their religion. Military chaplains are

trained and prepared to specific standards through civilian and

military education to enable them to respectfully facilitate the

practice of religious traditions and faith for all military members

without violating their own beliefs.1

Current authorization for chaplain numbers and assignments

needs to be modified for successful inclusion of indigenous religious groups and religious leaders for stability operations as described in this paper. Although this section addresses US Army

requirements, similar chaplain adjustments would be necessary

for the other military services. US Army figures are critical to

stability operations since they conduct the preponderance of

stability operations. The current force structure assignment doctrine for Army chaplains, known as the “Forward Thrust Doctrine,” directs for chaplains to be deployed at a ratio of one per

battalion with a ministerial responsibility the size of the battalion area of operations.2

To successfully support the chaplain’s current responsibilities and provide for the added tasking of inclusion of native religious groups and religious leaders into stability operations,

authorized chaplain assignments should expand. Unit

strength should be increased, adding one chaplain in the

grade of major assigned to division level. This new position will

be specifically tasked with the mission of religious liaison to be

employed in stability operations. A paper generated from discussions held at the Pearson Peacekeeping Centre and written

by Emma Kay and Maj David Last also advocates for a senior

chaplain in a similar role.3

23
This additional chaplain resource would serve primarily as an

informational and operational support to battalion-level chaplains. Also, this chaplain would be responsible for ensuring successful implementation of battalion-level transition plans. These

plans transition established IRCs to civil affairs units or appropriate nongovernmental organizations (NGO) or religious nongovernmental organizations (RNGO) that agree to be involved. 

Civil affairs unit chaplain authorizations should be one chaplain assigned per unit with the primary function of coordinating

with the indigenous religions and maintaining the IRCs transitioned from the combat unit chaplains. Given the greater experience and training of chaplains to address the religious dimension of conflict, the potential access afforded as members of the

clergy, and the opportunity to build relationships as noncombatants, the function of chaplains in stability operations complements the function and mission of civil affairs units.4

According to William Flavin, the increased number and assignment of chaplains would also support the need for commanders to “establish mechanisms at the combatant command

and operational task force levels to support harmonization”

through “extensive liaison activity” to coordinate efforts aimed at

achieving stability operations objectives.5 Further, this coordination would allow for post-conflict planning below the historical

headquarters level at echelons above corps and closer to the current and latter twentieth century norm of smaller-scale American military interventions. The resulting structure would help to

avoid the possibility of winning the war tactically and operationally, but losing the peace strategically through inadequate

planning.6

Adjusting Doctrine and Training

Department of Defense policy and doctrine for the role of chaplains must be expanded to encompass the role of religious liaison to the local populace in initial stability operations. Currently,

US military chaplains are trained to conduct religious area

analyses and assessments, but primarily for the purpose of advising the commander. The expanded role as religious liaison

would allow for chaplains to directly interface with local religious

groups and religious leaders with the goal of developing dialogue,

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CADRE PAPER
building relationships, promoting goodwill, and creating formal

IRCs. To successfully accomplish this mission, military chaplains would require additional training in core competencies.

Core competencies necessary to facilitate the functional role of

religious liaison must enable the chaplain to develop an IRC that

accurately reflects the indigenous religious demographics. The

IRC could be a resource for the combatant commander to apply

toward successful stability operations. Expanded competencies

could then be incorporated into the functional action model of

Assess, Plan, Implement, and Evaluate (APIE). Table 1 organizes

the required chaplain core competencies within the APIE model

and connects their use to production of desired outcomes related

to the IRC. 

25

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE

Table 1. Required chaplain competencies and inter-religious council

outcomes

Understand –– Religious demographic

Identify –– Religious groups and

religious leaders

Determine –– Religious impact on

conflict

Defines

representative

groups on IRC

Coordinate –– Indigenous religious

contacts network

Synchronize –– IRC formation with

commanders intent and

Phase IV planning

Determines

individual

representatives on

IRC in

synchronization with

military operations

Interface –– With indigenous

religious groups and

religious leaders

Negotiate –– With groups toward

consensus

Recommend –– Action to commanders

Direct group

process toward

acceptable outcomes

Evaluate –– IRC effectiveness

Modify –– Group membership and

process

Develops responsive

dialogue based upon

shared IRC and

military concerns

Competencies

Inter-Religious

Council Outcomes

Assess

Plan

Implement

Evaluate
Assessment phase competencies would include three steps.

First is to understand key beliefs, history, percentage of the

population, and representation in government and society of

those groups that impact stability operations. Second is the

ability to identify the primary indigenous religious groups and

religious leaders. The third step is to determine whether religion is a root cause of conflict or a vehicle for nationalism and

ethnic passions.

The planning phase competencies would include two steps.

First is the ability to coordinate contacts with the indigenous

religious leaders and communities. The second step is to synchronize the plan for local contacts and the formation of the

IRC with the military staff. This council would be synchronized with the combatant commander’s intent—to include

time, location, and desired outcome for meetings. In a multinational operational area, coordination must occur between

US military chaplains and other coalition chaplains located in

the area to avoid redundancy of efforts.

The implementation phase competencies would include three

steps. The first step would be to interface successfully with indigenous religious groups and religious leaders resulting in their

participation in the IRC. The second step would be to negotiate

issues toward consensus with diverse and often conflicted religious groups. The third step would be to recommend courses of

action to the combatant commander based upon outcomes from

IRC meetings. Recommendations would also include a plan for

the transition of the IRC to civil affairs units or NGOs and

RNGOs for continued operations, thus allowing for continuity.

Finally, the evaluation phase competencies for chaplains

functioning in the role of religious liaison would be to evaluate

the effectiveness of the IRC on an ongoing basis. Chaplains

would also need to modify the membership and agenda of the

IRC to ensure the combatant commander continued effectiveness for promoting stability. 

Once the mission-specific core competencies are established,

training through the military chaplain schools must be modified

to include curriculum that will incorporate these additional core

competencies. Other modifications to training will be based on

measurable proficiency in the core competencies and measurable

26

CADRE PAPER
results in the successful interaction with native religious groups

and religious leaders.

Incorporating the recommended training and measured followup will improve support for the initial liaison efforts with the indigenous religious communities. This support will lend itself to

the establishment of an effectively functioning local IRC. The IRC

will become the channel of communication between indigenous

religious groups and religious leaders and the military commander for stability operations. It will also provide a network for

the indigenous people to voice concerns, identify issues, and to

harness interreligious cooperation. This cooperation is invaluable

in ensuring a lasting peace and religious freedom.7

Transitioning Responsibility

When the conflict area becomes stable and safe for noncombatant forces to enter, a transition of responsibility must occur.

At that point, it will be the responsibility of the combatant commander and staff to involve the chaplain as religious liaison to

plan and implement a transition. Ideally, unit chaplains would

then transition IRC responsibilities and relationships to military

civil affairs units that follow. Traditionally, civil affairs units are

responsible for the dual roles of liaising with local authorities

and coordinating with NGOs. However, changes in the staffing of

civil affairs units and a struggle to redefine their institutional

identity have marginalized these units and therefore reduced

their effectiveness.8

Though a chaplain is often part of civil affairs units, there is

no guarantee that there will always be a qualified chaplain accessible to continue the religious liaison role. Reductions in

the number of chaplains in civil affairs units after Desert

Storm have left many without one. Furthermore, their role in

civil affairs units has changed from primarily religious liaison

to the community to primarily religious support of unit members. This limited role reduces the possibility of successfully

transitioning the existing IRC to a civil affairs unit.9

Given the reduction in number and change in role of chaplains

in civil affairs units, the transition of the IRC from the combat

unit chaplain might better be made to an NGO or RNGO. This

transition will depend upon their skills, experience, training, and

27

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
accessibility in the area of operations and assessed ability to

function in coordination with the military for stability operations.

The chaplain would evaluate the appropriateness of available

NGOs and RNGOs for a transition based in part on the requirement to be sensitive and respectful of local religious groups and

to avoid any appearance of proselytizing. It is important to differentiate between NGOs and RNGOs in functioning ability due

to NGOs being nonsectarian in nature, while some RNGOs cannot function in a nonsectarian fashion due to their constituent

mandate and mission statement. Again, chaplain training would

require competency to differentiate between those NGOs and

RNGOs appropriate for inclusion.

The US military and government have historically coordinated

with NGOs for stability operations, but have not yet effectively

coordinated with RNGOs for stability operations. Prof. Julia

Berger of Harvard University’s Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations comments on the usefulness of RNGOs. She observes

that while current Western mentality may limit religion to private

life, RNGOs demonstrate a unique mixture of religious beliefs

and sociopolitical activism throughout all levels of society that

would relate well to the Muslim world where religion and society

are fully integrated.10 The 2001 World Conference on Religion

and Peace acknowledged, “Religious communities are, without

question, the largest and best-organized civil institutions in the

world today . . . bridging the divides of race, class and nationality.

They are uniquely equipped to meet the challenges of our time:

resolving conflicts . . . promoting peaceful co-existence among all

peoples.”11

If chaplains are not accessible in civil affairs units, then

RNGOs would be the best candidates for transitioning IRCs from

initial military combat unit chaplains. Such a transition would

ensure continuity and accessibility of the IRC for ongoing stability operations for two reasons. First, religious groups and religious leaders often have a respect for other avowed religious

representatives. Second, there are RNGOs representing every

major faith group. A limited listing to illustrate this coverage includes the International Buddhist Foundation, World Jewish

Congress, Catholic Relief Services, World Vision International,

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CADRE PAPER
Muslim World League, and the International Center for Religion

and Diplomacy. 

Provided the chaplain has the core competency of awareness related to these groups, these RNGOs would serve best

for a transition from the established IRC in the absence of a

chaplain in the civil affairs unit. Whatever the ultimate coordination with or responsibility of NGOs or RNGOs, it is clear

that these groups could provide a virtual network of transition

and support for developed IRCs. Further, it is a natural “fit” for

military chaplains to work in close coordination with NGOs

and RNGOs to facilitate humanitarian operations.12

Notes

1. United States Code (USC), Title 10, subtitle B, pt. I, chap. 307, sec.

3073; USC, Title 10, subtitle C, pt. I, chap. 513, sec. 5142; USC, Title 10,

subtitle D, pt. II, chap. 843, secs. 8546, 8547.1. 

2. James Fallows, “Blind into Baghdad,” The Atlantic Monthly, January–

February 2004, 64.

3. Emma Kay and David Last, “The Spiritual Dimension of Peacekeeping:

A Dual Role for the Chaplaincy?” Peace Research 31 (1999).

4. Paul McLaughlin, The Chaplain’s Evolving Role in Humanitarian Relief

Operations (Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace, 2000), 32.

5. William Flavin, “Planning for Conflict Termination and Post-Conflict

Success,” Parameters 33 (2003): 106.

6. Conrad C. Crane and Andrew W. Terrill, Reconstructing Iraq: Insights,

Challenges, and Missions for Military Forces in a Post-Conflict Scenario

(Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, 2003), 2.

7. Douglas M. Johnston, “We Neglect Religion at Our Peril,” United States

Naval Institute Proceedings 128 (2002): 15, 18–19. 

8. Chris Seiple, The U.S. Military/NGO Relationship in Humanitarian Interventions (Carlisle, PA: Peacekeeping Institute Center for Strategic Leadership, US Army War College, 1996), 186.

9. US Department of the Army, Field Manual (FM) 3-05.401, Civil Affairs

Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures, 2003; US Department of the Army, FM

41-10, Civil Affairs Operations, 2000.

10. Julia Berger, “Religious Nongovernmental Organizations: An Exploratory Analysis,” Voluntas 14 (2003): 16.

11. World Conference on Religion and Peace (2001), “Religions for Peace”

http://www.wcrp.org/RforP/.

12. McLaughlin, The Chaplain’s Evolving Role, 32–33.

29

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
Chapter 5

Conclusions and Responses

to Potential Objections

It is apparent that religion will remain a defining element in

many societies for the foreseeable future. As the United States

conducts foreign policy and military operations, it must assess

and consider the impact of religion in societies to achieve success in operations and long-term stability in a region. 

As noted earlier, failure to do so is at our own potential peril.

Successful incorporation of indigenous religious groups and

religious leaders for stability operations will enable a greater

chance for achieving US foreign-policy goals and long-term

stability in areas of operation. 

Recommendations

Implementing the recommendations in table 2 will achieve the

necessary operational changes. Table 2 also lists those agencies

responsible for performing the modifications. These proposals

would result in a necessary shift in organizational culture for

policies to be implemented strategically, operationally, and tactically. Although the agencies listed in table 2 are specific to the

US Army, other military services have corresponding agencies to

address the transformation.

A major paradigm shift is required to understand the relationship of religion to US foreign policy and military operations. As

this paradigm shift occurs, it will be validated by the Department

of Defense embracing religion as a factor of foreign national

power to be assessed in mission planning and operations. Leadership will intentionally designate religion as a categorical imperative in intelligence operations, information warfare, threat-level

assessment, defining the operational battle space, mission planning, and execution in conducting stability operations. 

Doctrine must be developed to define how inclusion of the religious component will occur and what form it will take in individual military services, joint US operations, and joint international operations. Doctrine development and formulation can

31
Table 2. Recommendations for required changes and responsible

agencies

Recommended Changes Responsible Agencies

• Doctrinally expand chaplaincy role to include

religious liaison function in stability operations

• Headquarters, Department

of the Army (DA)

• Identify religion as a defined axis of power to

be evaluated in planning and implementation

of US foreign policy

• Department of Defense

(DOD)

• Department of State

• Establish doctrine for inclusion of religious

component in planning and operations

across range of DOD operations

• Each military branch

• Joint Forces Command

• Authorize one chaplain per civil affairs unit in

specified role of religious liaison

• G-3, Headquarters, DA

• Authorize additional chaplain slot at divisionlevel headquarters in role of religious liaison

support

• G-3, Headquarters, DA

• Field religious information virtual network for

commanders’ and chaplains’ operational use

• US Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC)

• Identify, recruit, and assign chaplains for religious liaison role• US Army Chief of Chaplains

Office

• Train chaplains to standard as religious

liaison

• TRADOC Military Schools

System

• Train officers and noncommissioned officers

in religious awareness and utilization of

chaplain as religious liaison

• TRADOC Military Schools

System
best be accomplished within an interagency planning context.

Military and nonmilitary input would allow for the strongest and

most relevant doctrine. Nonmilitary agencies should include, but

would not be limited to US Institute of Peace, US Agency for International Development, and US Department of State. 

The functional role of military chaplains should be expanded

to include the role of religious liaison during stability operations.

The role of religious liaison must be defined in official doctrine

and delineated to conform to current standards and parameters

of operation. Doctrinal mandate and delineation would mitigate

operational risk and protect chaplains in their roles as religious

liaisons. Continuing to allow or use chaplains to function unofficially as religious liaisons without the protection of doctrinal mandate incurs too great a risk. Chaplain training must ensure that

each chaplain has the competencies necessary to perform this mission and that each chaplain meets a standard that denotes and

guarantees strict tolerances within acceptable margins of error.

All civil affairs units at least one chaplain slot should have

whose primary mission is to coordinate with indigenous religious groups and religious leaders. An additional chaplain

should be assigned to the headquarters of division-size units

to support battalion chaplains and to facilitate transition of

IRCs from battalion chaplains to civil affairs units or NGOs. A

virtual network of information on religious groups, religious

leaders, regional religious history, NGOs, and RNGOs should

be developed and fielded for use by commanders and chaplains. Further, chaplain recruiting and assignments of military

school instructors and division-level chaplains should be targeted toward subject matter experts with the training and

skills for a religious liaison. Chaplains with these skills and

experience will be critical to the success of the religious liaison

role and further success during stability operations. 

For chaplains to be effectively used in this expanded role of religious liaison, training on the expanded chaplain’s role and utilization must be integrated into officer training programs at all

levels. Also, officer and noncommissioned officer training should

include basic understanding of the role of religion in cultures, its

impact on all phases of combat operations, and beliefs of major

world religions. Supplemental training should also be provided

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LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
on specific areas of concern in preparation for possible combat

operations. 

It is imperative that future officers who command combat operations understand the fundamentals addressed in this paper.

Commanders often have a military lawyer and intelligence officer

by their side when substantial decisions are being addressed. In

the future, chaplains will be just as important to a commander

conducting stability operations as currently are intelligence and

legal personnel. Military leadership must be comfortable with

embracing this added value by understanding that an individual

does not have to become religious to understand religion and appreciate its importance in stability operations. 

These recommendations would doctrinally establish the chaplain as religious liaison to interface with indigenous religious

groups and religious leaders in stability operations. This policy

implementation would also assist the US military in transforming the asymmetric, soft power of indigenous religious influence

into a significant source of power for mission accomplishment,

peace, and long-term stability. 

Roadblocks to Implementation

The policy changes recommended in this research paper could

be implemented only with considerable care and institutional energy due to the sensitive, personal, and potentially volatile nature

of religious issues. Any attempt to integrate religious actors is

potentially risky given the often deep ethnoreligious tensions between and among them. In some settings, cooperation by indigenous religious leaders with any officers of the US military may be

readily perceived as collaboration with the occupiers.1 However,

if the US military accepts the inevitable necessity of integrating

religious leaders into stability operations, it must address any

roadblocks to adjusting current doctrine that tasks this requirement to military chaplains. 

There are six potential objections to this expanded role for

military chaplains as a religious liaison. Though other arguments may exist, these six were most often noted and raised the

most significant concerns. Table 3 summarizes these objections

with corresponding responses. 

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CADRE PAPER
The first objection is that this expanded role will take chaplains away from their primary focus of ministry to military

members. Historically chaplains have often assumed the role

of religious liaison unofficially. While often quite effective, they

have done so with considerable risk due to a lack of both doctrinal mandate and standard training. Further, while spiritual

and religious support of military members is important, it is

only half of the primary role for the chaplain. 

35

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE

Table 3. Objections and responses to chaplains as religious liaisons

Objections Responses

• Will distract from primary role of

chaplain

• Expands current role of advising

commanders

• Formalizes traditional unofficial

role

• Risk of incident too great • Can train to standard within

acceptable margin of error

• Chaplains should not be involved in

combat operations

• Current doctrine directs chaplain

presence in all phases of military

operations

• Chaplains are an unprotected security

risk

• Chaplain’s assistant protects the

chaplain

• Increased security is an available

option

• Violates chaplain professional and

religious ethics

• Individual decision by each

chaplain

• Chaplains customarily make

ethical decisions successfully

• Violates parameters of denominational endorsement• Liaison role acceptable to most

religious endorsing bodies

• Chaplains cannot be compelled to

violate their own beliefs
Chaplains are also doctrinally tasked with advising commanders in matters pertaining to religion, morals, and morale. Chaplain (Maj) Pete Sniffin of the US Army Chaplain Center and

School advocates that an expanded role for chaplains as religious area liaisons is justified by the current doctrinal requirement to advise commanders. It is recommended that this role be

expanded only until transition to the follow-on civil affairs units

and not long term. The short-term nature of the expanded role

depends on civil affairs units having a chaplain assigned and

trained or the appropriateness of a transition to an NGO or

RNGO. 

A second argument against an expanded role for chaplains as

religious area liaisons is that there is too great a risk of creating

an incident due to the differing capabilities of individual chaplains. In response, core competencies would be identified and

trained to a standard that ensures the best chance of success in

interactions with indigenous religious groups and religious leaders. Individual competence and ongoing training and development are the norm for all military specialties. Chaplains can be

trained to function successfully in this role with standards that

denote and guarantee strict tolerances with acceptable margins

of error. The impact of local religions on mission success cannot

be ignored, and chaplains are by far the best possible choice to

embrace these religious groups and religious leaders during

stability operations.

A third argument against chaplain involvement in stability

operations is that chaplains cannot engage in combat operations, and Phase IV stability operations is a part of combat operations. According to the Geneva convention and US military

doctrine, chaplains are considered noncombatants and forbidden to bear arms. However, US military doctrine also prescribes

for chaplains to be present to support the spiritual needs and

free exercise of religious rights of military members throughout

all phases of combat operations.2 Doctrine directs chaplains,

though noncombatants, to be active and present in support of

US service members through all phases of combat, including

Phase IV stability operations. In this regard, there is no difference between chaplains as noncombatants ministering to troops

36

CADRE PAPER
on the D-day beaches in World War II and their ministering to

troops in twenty-first-century stability operations.

A fourth argument against expanding the chaplain mission

in stability operations is that chaplains would be an unprotected security risk. Again, this argument is answered by current doctrine that directs chaplains to always function as part

of a Unit Ministry Team (UMT). The UMT includes a chaplain’s

assistant, who bears arms and is tasked with protecting the

chaplain at all times.3 Additional protection may be required

in more complicated situations, but this would be true for any

military personnel.

A fifth objection is the ethical concern that information gathered from religious leaders might be used in mission planning resulting in the loss of life. Limiting use of chaplains as religious

area liaisons to Phase IV stability operations when major combat

operations are over addresses this concern. Chaplains must consider additional ethical questions individually. Potential obstacles can be overcome with clarity of purpose, delineated standards of conduct, and clear rules of engagement.

A final objection is that having chaplains serve as religious

area liaisons violates the parameters of ministry defined by the

religious denomination that endorses and allows their service in

the military. Those few cases where it is a limiting factor would

be identified early in a chaplain’s career in initial military schooling using the recommended core competency training already

described. Also, military doctrine allows chaplains to decline to

do anything that is in violation of their personal religious convictions. Chaplains could not refuse to function as a religious liaison simply because they view the role as less intrinsically rewarding than ministry with soldiers and families.

Future Research

Research in this area should focus on identifying and clarifying chaplain core competencies and training necessary to

achieve individual proficiency. This requires detailed curriculum

that can be integrated into chaplains’ core competencies. Training should incorporate how to transition from military civil affairs units to the Department of State for long-term stability operations. Additional officer training at all levels is necessary to

37

LEE, BURKE, AND CRAYNE
understand the role of indigenous religions and how to embrace

them through the unit chaplain’s role as religious liaison. 

Another area for future research is to address why and how

indigenous religious groups would embrace chaplains. Such

a study could address the motivations and methods that

would encourage these groups to interface with chaplains of

a military toward which they may harbor ill will. As noted earlier, cooperation by indigenous religious leaders with any officers of the US military may be readily perceived as collaboration with the occupiers.

Inclusion of religion and religious leaders as potential resources for stability operations should be one part of a seamless

plan of US foreign policy and military doctrine that should be applied to State Department interventions and DOD operations.

These interventions and operations should be in conjunction

with support of US Agency for International Development, US Institute of Peace, and other agencies that aim toward building

peaceful, stable, and representative governments throughout the

global community of nations.

This research paper has illustrated the necessity of establishing military doctrine for chaplains to serve as religious liaisons to

embrace indigenous religions in stability operations. There is

much work to be addressed in this area to fully understand the

power of religion in diplomacy. However, following this path to its

conclusion will help to mitigate the possibility that the initial scenario presented in this paper ever reaches its climax.

Notes

1. David Little, professor, Harvard Divinity School, interviewed by author,

2 March 2004. 

2. US Department of Defense, Religious Support in Joint Operations, Joint

Publication (JP) 1-05, 1996; and US Department of the Army, Field Manual

1-05, Religious Support, 2003.

3. US Department of Defense, JP 1-05.

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CADRE PAPER
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41
Military Chaplains as Peace Builders

Embracing Indigenous Religions

in Stability Operations

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