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##  Creativity in Adulthood. ERIC Digest No. 204.                                

Creativity is a concept surrounded by a number of beliefs and                   misconceptions. People believe it is limited to only a few; it                  declines seriously with age; and it is associated primarily with                uniqueness or innovation or "artists" (Adams-Price 1998; McCormick              and Plugge 1997; Runco 1996). However, research shows that creative             thinking is a universal ability that can help adults manage                     satisfying lives and that is increasingly in demand in the                      workplace. This Digest reviews some of this research in order to                identify ways to help adults discover and fulfill their creative                potential. NATURE OR NURTURE?What is creativity? Torrance's               definition is often cited: sensitivity to problems, deficiencies,               and gaps in information; making guesses, formulating hypotheses;                evaluating and testing; and communicating results (McCracken 1998).             Creativity is a complex of traits, skills, and capacities, including            the ability to work autonomously, curiosity, unconventional                     thinking, openness to experience, and tolerance of                              ambiguity (Adams-Price 1998; Albert 1996). Highly creative adults               exhibit deep knowledge of and a strong bond with their subject                  matter, as well as intrinsic motivation (Amabile 1996; Keegan                   1996). 
Creativity research has focused on personality traits of               creative individuals (Amabile 1996). This emphasis has led to the               assumptions that creativity is largely innate or immutable and                  creative people are distinct from noncreative people. Recently, more            attention is being paid to social and environmental factors that                influence creativity. Newer definitions describe creativity as the              confluence of cognitive processes, knowledge, thinking style,                   personality, motivation, and environment over the life                          span (Adams-Price 1998; Sasser-Coen 1993). It is also associated                with the creation of meaning and the drive for psychic                          wholeness ("Creativity in Later Life" 1991), a way to address and               resolve dissatisfactions and improve the quality of                             life (Adams-Price 1998), and a "profound response to the limits and             uncertainties of existence" ("Creativity in Later Life" 1991, p. 9).            For some people, creativity is an adaptive, innovative response to              environmental sources of distress such as early death of a parent or            other family problems, misfortunes, or conflicts (Adams-Price 1998;             Albert 1996), whereas in other people the coping mechanisms might be            substance abuse, depression, or withdrawal (McCormick and Plugge                1997). 
A growing body of research is examining how environmental              factors affect the creativity of men and women in different ways.               For many women, creative expression is limited by their education               and training, cultural standards, lack of social support, and                   traditional gender expectations. Pohlman (1996) finds that, for men,            creative identity is balanced by the experience of parenthood; for              women, the two roles conflict. As parents, men preserve a creative              space or "room of their own"; women cede this space to family                   demands. Women inventors (McCracken 1998) cite gender discrimination            as a hindrance to creative activity. Women artists describe                     difficult family-related choices they had to make that diverted them            from their art, although such obstacles as lack of support, money,              or child care contributed to the creative process and their identity            as artists (Kirschenbaum and Reis 1997). 
Although the artist                  suffering in solitude is a common image, creative activity is                   correlated with psychological and physical well-being, arising from             detached reflection on difficult experiences and transformation of              them ("Creativity in Later Life" 1991). Social environment, role                models, and cultural values, attitudes, and practices also inhibit              or nurture creative impulses (Powell 1994). In school and work                  environments, creativity "killers" include working under                        surveillance; restricting choices; working for inappropriate                    extrinsic rewards; fearing failure, judgment, or appearing foolish;             having to find the "right answer"; being evaluated; working under               time pressure; and competing (Amabile 1996; Grupas                              1990). CREATIVITY, ADULT DEVELOPMENT, AND AGINGEnvironmental              influences may explain in part why childhood creativity seems to be             a poor predictor of adult creativity (Albert 1996). Although most               young children are very creative, it is estimated that creativity               diminishes by 40% between the ages of 5 and 7 (Grupas 1990;                     McCormick and Plugge 1997). At these ages, formal schooling begins,             and there is some agreement that education inhibits the                         transformation of early talent into adult creativity (Albert 1996;              Amabile 1996). It may be that schooling and/or stage of cognitive               development at that age emphasizes logical rather than divergent                thinking, or that schools (and families) value conventional                     behavior, well-defined problems, and good grades (Albert                        1996). 
Albert maintains that "the creativity found among some                 adolescents and adults shows a minimal degree of continuity from                childhood" and that creativity that "does not go past puberty is                basically different from that of those children who are creative in             adolescence and adulthood" (ibid., p. 45). Keegan (1996) disagrees,             finding an essential continuity between creative child and creative             adult. He considers the differences a matter of degree, not kind,               asserting that creative adults exhibit an accumulation of knowledge,            sense of purpose, and love of their work, traits that can be                    approximated by children and adolescents. It is the acquisition of              expert knowledge that brings adults to higher levels of creative                thinking. 
Research on adult creativity typically depicts a bell               curve, with a peak in the 30s and 40s and a noticeable drop                     afterward, leading to stereotypes of decline and deterioration in               later life. However, Simonton (Adams-Price 1998; "Creativity in                 Later Life" 1991) puts several qualifiers on this notion of                     decline: 
--The curve is merely a statistical average with numerous            exceptions. 
--The trajectory varies greatly across                            disciplines. 
--Quantity of creative output may decline, but not               quality. 
--Substantial individual differences in creative                     potential outweigh age differences. 
--"Late bloomers" attain                  creative peaks at later ages. 
--A secondary peak or resurgence                often occurs after the late 60s. 
Bronte's (1997) Long Career Study            supports these assertions. Among the 150 adults studied, over half              started their most creative period around age 50, some after                    retirement. Bronte suggests that recent increases in life expectancy            and the slowing of physical aging are changing observed                         developmental patterns. She also notes that "youth is the most                  creative period of life only in a short lifetime" (p. 11). Both                 Bronte and Kastenbaum ("Creativity in Later Life" 1991) suggest that            healthy adults may not experience creative declines, but for others             cognitive, sensory, or physical impairments may hinder creative                 expression. However, musicians aged 65-94 (Kahn 1998) largely                   described themselves as healthy or well despite arthritis, hearing              loss, and other impairments. Kahn concludes that regular                        participation in creative activity contributes to self-perceptions              of well-being. Lindauer (in Adams-Price 1998) concurs: the                      substantial number of artists who remained creative into old age                suggests that involvement in creative activity has a positive,                  therapeutic effect. 
Older adults do seem to experience a decrease             in divergent thinking, the ability to generate a quantity of novel              ideas. However, taking a life-span developmental approach,                      Sasser-Coen (1993) considers this not a decline but a qualitative               change in the creative process, because with age comes an increase              in crystallized intelligence and integrative or convergent thinking.            Later life may afford more time for reflection and creative pursuits            aimed at the construction of one's life story, the filling-in of                those gaps and discontinuities referred to earlier.                             Adams-Price (1998) concludes that the association of creativity with            novelty and innovation is appropriate for the characteristics of                youthful thinking, but late-life creativity reflects aspects of                 late-life thinking: synthesis, reflection, and wisdom. ENHANCING              ADULTS' CREATIVE POTENTIALIn summary, creativity is a confluence            of personality traits, ways of thinking and knowing, and social and             environmental influences. It is a universal ability that does not               decline with age but changes qualitatively with cognitive                       development and the accumulation of life experience and expert                  knowledge. Formal schooling may hinder rather than foster creative              thinking. In fact, some research implies that creativity training               does not directly improve creativity, although it may enhance                   academic achievement (Albert 1996) or develop skills relevant to                creative performance (Amabile 1996). 
What can educators do to help            people develop their creative potential, to lead more enriched and              rewarding lives, and to make productive and meaningful contributions            in the workplace, community, and civil society? There is consensus              that the environment in work and educational institutions is a great            influence. The organizational climate should encourage assertion of             ideas, not rely on order and tradition, and not make people afraid              to fail. Other environmental factors include the following (Amabile             1996; Edelson in press; Powell 1994): providing time and resources;             developing expertise; giving positive, constructive feedback that is            work or task focused; encouraging a spirit of play and                          experimentation; providing a mix of styles and backgrounds with                 opportunities for group interaction; making a safe place for risk               taking; allowing free choice in task engagement; offering rewards               that recognize achievement or enable additional performance but                 maintain intrinsic motivation rather than controlling behavior.                 Surveillance and evaluation are detrimental, as are stress and                  pressure unrelated to the project (Amabile 1996). 
Amabile suggests            the use of creativity heuristics that guide problem solving and                 invention: rearranging/juxtaposing elements of a problem;                       brainstorming--less concern with the validity of an idea than with              its value in generating further ideas; making the familiar strange              and the strange familiar; and generating hypotheses by using                    analogies, accounting for exceptions, and investigating                         paradoxes. 
Edelson (1996) describes an innovative method for                  teaching creativity and leadership to adults in a corporate setting             who wished to overcome fear of failure and the inhibiting influences            of stress within their industry. Using a technique called "lizard               therapy," each participant cut out and colored a lizard they then               placed on a picture of a stone wall in areas of their choosing. The             participants created a colony and then talked about life as a                   reptile and why each lizard inhabited a specific location on the                wall. The exercise highlighted the importance of modifying the                  corporate culture through collective individual behavior so that the            environment could become more hospitable to creative behavior. It               demonstrated that having fun at work and acting creatively were                 compatible with being professional and productive. 
Personal,                  social, and environmental barriers to creativity might be overcome              if the popular conception of it as mysterious inspiration or genius             yields to Powell's (1994) cross-cultural definition: finding and                shaping one's life perception and telling one's experiences through             creative expression. REFERENCESAdams-Price, C. E., ed.                    CREATIVITY AND SUCCESSFUL AGING. New York: Springer, 1998. 
Albert,            R. S. "Some Reasons Why Childhood Creativity Often Fails to Make It             Past Puberty into the Real World." In CREATIVITY FROM CHILDHOOD                 THROUGH ADULTHOOD. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD DEVELOPMENT NO. 72,                 edited by M. A. Runco, pp. 43-56. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass: Summer            1996. (EJ 534 573) 
Amabile, T. M. CREATIVITY IN CONTEXT. Boulder,             CO: Westview Press, 1996. 
Bronte, L. "Learning to Change: The                 Hallmark of a Long Lifetime." ADULT LEARNING 8, nos. 5-6 (May-Aug               1997): 11-13. (EJ 550 254) 
"Creativity in Later Life." Theme                  Issue. GENERATIONS 15, no. 2 (Spring 1991). 
Edelson, P.                       J. "Creativity, the Individual and Society." Paper presented at the             Department of Philosophy and Education, Aristotle University,                   Thessaloniki, Greece, March 21, 1996. (ED 392 948) 
Edelson, P.                J. "Creativity and Adult Education." In CREATIVITY. NEW DIRECTIONS              FOR ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION NO. 81, edited by P. J. Edelson              and P. Malone. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, in press. 
Grupas,                  A. "Creative Problem-Solving." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting            of the Missouri Association of  Community and Junior Colleges,                  November 15-17, 1990. (ED 343 813) 
Kahn, A. P. "Healthy Aging: A              Study of Self-Perceptions of Well-Being." Ph.D. diss., Union                    Institute, 1998. 
Keegan, R. T. "Creativity from Childhood to                  Adulthood: A Difference of Degree and Not of Kind." In CREATIVITY               FROM CHILDHOOD THROUGH ADULTHOOD. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD                      DEVELOPMENT NO. 72, edited by M. A. Runco, pp. 57-66. San Francisco:            Jossey-Bass: Summer 1996. (EJ 534 574) 
Kirschenbaum, R. J., and               Reis, S. M. "Conflicts in Creativity: Talented Female Artists."                 CREATIVITY RESEARCH JOURNAL 10, nos. 2-3 (1997):                                251-263. 
McCormick, D. J., and Plugge, C. D. "If I Am an Artist,              What's Wrong with My Picture?" In DEEPLY ROOTED, BRANCHING OUT,                 1972-1997. ANNUAL AEE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. Boulder,            CO: Association for Experiential Education, 1997. (ED 414                       141) 
McCracken, J. L. "Examining the Impact of Formal and Informal            Learning on the Creativity of Women Inventors." In 39TH ANNUAL ADULT            EDUCATION RESEARCH CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, compiled by J. C. Kimmel,            pp. 221-226. San Antonio, TX: University of the Incarnate Word, May             1998. 
Pohlman, L. "Creativity, Gender and the Family." JOURNAL OF             CREATIVE BEHAVIOR 30, no. 1 (1996): 1-24. (EJ 521 539) 
Powell, M.             C. "On Creativity and Social Change." JOURNAL OF CREATIVE BEHAVIOR              28, no. 1 (1994): 21-32. (EJ 481 438) 
Runco, M. A. "Personal                  Creativity." In CREATIVITY FROM CHILDHOOD THROUGH ADULTHOOD. NEW                DIRECTIONS FOR CHILD DEVELOPMENT NO. 72, edited by M. A. Runco, pp.             3-30. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass: Summer 1996. 
Sasser-Coen, J.                R. "Qualitative Changes in Creativity in the Second Half of Life."              JOURNAL OF CREATIVE BEHAVIOR 27, no. 1 (1993): 18-27. (EJ 464                   099) 
This project has been funded at least in part with Federal               funds from the U.S. Department of Education under Contract No.                  ED-99-CO-0013. The content of this publication does not necessarily             reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Education               nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or                        organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. Digests may             be freely reproduced and are available                                          at <http://ericacve.org/fulltext.asp>.                                       **Title:** Creativity in Adulthood. ERIC Digest No. 204.                                **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** Web site: http://ericacve.org/digests.asp                                    **Descriptors:**  Adult Development, Adult Education, Adult Educators,  Adult                    Learning,  Aging (Individuals),  Creativity, Creativity Research,               Lifelong Learning, Teaching Methods                                          **Identifiers:** ERIC Digests                                                                 
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