USDA United States 

De artrnent 

of Lgricu~ture 

Forest Service 

Rocky Mountain 

Research Station 

General Technical 

Report RMRS-GTR-54 

June 2000 

Managing for Enhancement 

of Riparian and Wetland 

Areas of the Western United 

States: An Annotated 

Bibliography 

Compilers: 

David A. Koehler 

Allan E. Thomas 

This file was created by scanning the printed publication.

Errors identified by the software have been corrected;

however, some errors may remain.
Abstract 

Koehler, David A.; Thomas, Allan E., comps. 2000. Managing for enhancement of riparian and 

wetland areas of the Western United States: an annotated bibliography. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

RMRS-GTR-54. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station. 369 p. 

This annotated bibliography contains 1,905 citations from professional journals, symposia, 

workshops, proceedings, technical reports, and other sources. The intent of this compilation was 

to: (1) assemble, to the extent possible, all available and accessible publications relating to 

riparian management within a single source or document; (2) provide managers, field biologists, 

researchers, and others, a point of access for locating scientific literature relevent to their specific 

interest; and (3) provide, under one cover, a comprehensive collection of annotated publications 

that could dessiminate basic information relative to the status of our knowledge. 

Key words: fisheries, geomorphology, grazing impacts, hydrology, riparian habitat, riparian 

restoration, riparian vegetation, watersheds, wetlands. 

The Compilers Contents 

David A Koehler and Allan E. Thomas both recently Page 

retired from the Idaho State Office of the Bureau of Land Introduction ................................................................. 1 

Management, U.S. Department of the Interior. Koehler Journals List .............................................................. 3 

was a Rangeland Ecologist and Thomas was a Senior Keyword List ............................................................ 5 

Wildlife Biologist. Both are now pursuing second careers Bibliography ........................................................ 11 

as environmental consultants in the private sector. Keyword Index ........................................................ 355 

Rocky Mountain Research Station 

324 25th Street 

Ogden, UT 84401 
Managing for Enhancement of Riparian and Wetland 

Areas of the Western United States: 

An Annotated Bibliography 

Compilers: David A. Koehler and Allan E. Thomas 

INTRODUCTION 

The manuscript that follows has been a 

work-in-progress for nearly 20 years. In 1979, 

the Idaho State Office (ISO) of the Bureau of 

Land Management, United States Department of 

the Interior, began the process of collecting 

relevant publications and technical references to 

riparian and wetland sites and their 

management. Over that term, many colleagues 

and employees have contributed to the collection 

after encountering articles in the technical 

literature, copying them, and sending them to 

the central collection point. At this point in 

time, the assemblage of material fills almost two 

complete file cabinets and technical citations 

continue to proliferate. Periodically, IS0 has 

attempted to publish and distribute 

bibliographies of the contemporary literature; 

technical bulletins containing these listing were 

published: Thomas and Wentzell(1986); Cuplin 

(1 987); Clifton and Thomas (1 988); Fisher and 

Thomas (I 990). By 1995, when we conceived 

the idea of consolidating all of the assembled 

material into a comprehensive annotated 

bibliography, the subject area had become an 

extremely popular one. Symposia addressing 

riparianlwetland problems and solutions were 

being scheduled in many locations and 

professional journals offered increasingly more 

pertinent information. Our project, which 

seemed straightforward and simple at its 

inception, became a matter of pursuing a 

moving target. That target was not only moving, 

but accelerating. 

This report makes no claims to represent a 

comprehensive or regionally complete collection 

of available citations. We recognized that 

logistical parameters would limit the scope and 

entirety of our efforts. Almost certainly, there 

are dozens --if not hundreds-- of other sources 

and papers that we were not able to access from 

our base of operations. Our apologies are 

extended to contributors to the collective 

literature if their efforts are not acknowledged 

here. Given time, resources, and access to other 

databases, this report could have been expanded 

considerably. However, there is a point beyond 

which it is no longer is practical to proceed, at 

which additional efforts yield diminishing 

results. This product is not without limitations 

but is as complete and thorough as 

circumstances would allow. 

The annotations included in the body of this 

report are aimed at a primary audience of 

ecologists, biologists, students, scientists, and 

natural resource managers who may employ the 

information for basic knowledge or utilize the 

material as building blocks for management 

strategies, resource decisions, planning 

documents, and expanded research. A review 

of the literature reveals many overlaps among 

issues common to agriculture, landscape 

ecology, engineering, land use planning, 

biology, and other disciplines. The content of 

the abstracts and annotations has been tailored to 

interpret the biological implications of the 

various citations, even though the source 

document frequently had an engineering or other 

orientation. In short, the emphasis of this report 
was to provide a biological perspective to the 

issues and problems facing riparian areas and 

wetlands along with an ecosystem-based 

foundation for management and remedial 

actions. 

There are 1,905 citations contained in this 

review, of which 1,837 are annotated. These 

vary considerably in length, based on the critical 

issues expounded in the original article or paper 

and also on the complexity of these. Papers 

which contained a single subject of observation 

or examination were obviously given less space 

than complex studies addressing multiple issues. 

Papers that extended beyond our scope of 

interest were similarly abbreviated to restrict our 

citation to the essential information that directly 

regarded our relatively narrow focus. 

Frequently papers originating in other regions of 

the United States, or even other countries, were 

included if they were perceived to be of general 

interest. In no way does the annotated 

information chosen for this document reflect the 

general merit or substance of the papers 

represented within. 

A list of professional journals follows this 

introduction, some of which contributed 

multiple entries and others that offered 

relatively few, in some cases only a single 

citation. The list length, however, testifies to the 

rapid expansion of general interest in riparianwetlands management that has been generated in 

recent years. 

The journals list, in turn, is followed by a 

keywords list, arranged alphabetically. This list 

has been consolidated and trimmed from the 

original draft, which contained various 

permutations of the same terms or subjects. 

Various authors employed different terms, 

depending on their own personal preference or 

professional discipline. Many of these terms 

were redundant or reiterative and were 

eliminated for the sake of simplicity. 

Conversely, a certain degree of specificity was 

admittedly lost during these reductions. 

Initially, we also considered arranging keywords 

under a primary ordination of general subject or 

search terms, with relevant keywords listed in a 

secondary ranking. This consideration was 

rejected, however, because of an emphasis on 

simplicity and the self explanatory nature of 

most keywords. Within the main text, all 

references have been assigned keywords. 

During the course of several editorial reviews, 

some keywords were added and some deleted. 

Those that remain were selected to adequately 

represent the subject matter without redundancy, 

overlap, or esoteric language 

Finally, the citations with annotations are 

contained in the main body of the text and these 

are arranged alphabetically. There are a few of 

these that were submitted without journal 

references by our contributors and in all but a 

few of these we were able to locate the 

originating journal through secondary sources. 

When that was not possible, the citations were 

allowed to remain with a "unspecified" 

attribution. Keywords are assigned to all 

citations and in an addendum to the text, 

keywords are listed with all of the citations and 

entries that relate to them in order to facilitate 

any search for subject material. 

Many people contributed time and efforts to 

the compilation of this manuscript. These 

include, but are not limited to the following, 

whom we gratefully acknowledge: 

Paul Cuplin, Lucinda Eslick, Dr. Helen Fisher, 

Karl Gebhardt, Harriet Thomas, Jim Klott, 

Charlene Vullo, Sharon Olendorff, Melinda 

Rittacco, Dave Brunner, and Dr. Warren Clary. 

Special thanks are owed to Kim Peterson, 

who formatted and helped edit the manuscript. 
JOURNALS LIST 

Acta Theriologica 

Agricultural Engineer 

Agricultural History 

Agricultural Research 

Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 

American Association for the 

Advancement of Science 

American Geophysical Union Transactions 

American institute of Hydrology 

American Journal of Science 

American Journal of the Soil Science Society 

American Midland Naturalist (The) 

American Society of Civil 

Engineering Transactions 

Annals of the Association of the 

American Geographer 

Artic and Alpine Research 

Australian Journal of Ecology 

Biogeochemistry 

Biological Conservation 

BioScience 

California Fish and Game 

Cal-Neva Wildlife Transactions 

Canadian Field Naturalist 

Canadian Geographer 

Canadian Journal of Botany 

Canadian Journal of Fish Aquatic Science 

Canadian Journal of Forest Resources 

Condor (The) 

Coniferous Forest Biome Bulletin 

Conservation Biology 

Desert Plants 

Earth Surface Processes 

Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 

Ecological Applications 

Ecological Modeling 

Ecological Monitoring 

Ecological Monographs 

Ecology 

Engineering Geology 

Environment 

Environmental Conservation 

Environmental Geology 

Environmental Law 

Environmental Management 

EPA Journal 

Fisheries 

Forest Ecology and Management 

Forest Science 

Fly Fisherman 

Freshwater Biology 

Geology 

Geological Society of America Bulletin 

Green Thumb (The) 

Great Basin Naturalist 

Hydrological Science and Technology 

Hydrological Sciences 

Holarctic Ecology 

Hydraulic Engineer 

Idaho Law Review 

Idaho Wildlife 

IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and 

Remote Sensing 

International Association of Sedimentologists 

Journal of Applied Ecology 

Journal of Arid Environments 

Journal of the Arizona-Nevada 

Academy of Science 

Journal of Biogeography 

Journal of Canadian Forest Resources 

Journal of Environmental Management 

Journal of Environmental Quality 

Journal of Environmental Systems 

Journal of Fish Biology 

Journal of Fisheries Management 

Journal of Forestry 

Journal of Freshwater Ecology 

Journal of Geomorphology 

Journal of Hydrological Engineering 
Journal of Hydrological Science 

Journal of Hydrology 

Journal of the Idaho Academy of Science 

Journal of the Institute of Water Engineers 

and Scientists 

Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 

Journal of Range Management 

Journal of Research of the U.S. 

Geological Survey 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 

Journal of Water Resource Planning 

and Management 

Journal of Wildlife Management 

Land and Water 

Landscape Ecology 

Landscape and Urban Planning 

Line Rider (The) 

Madrono 

Montana AgResearch 

Murrelet (The) 

National Wildlife 

Natural Areas Journal 

New York Fish and Game Journal 

New Zealand Agricultural Science 

North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management 

Northwest Science 

Oecologia 

Oikos 

Photogrammetric Engineering and 

Remote Sensing 

Prairie Naturalist 

Quaternary Research 

Range Magazine 

Rangelands 

Rangeman's Journal 

Renewable Resources Journal 

Restoration Ecology 

Restoration & Management Notes 

Restoration: Newsletter for the 

Oregon Sea Grant 

Rivers 

Science 

Sheep Research Journal, Special 

Edition: 1994 

Soil Science of America Society 

South African Journal of Science 

Southwest Habitater 

Southwestern Naturalist (The) 

TOPS 

Transactions of the 53rd North American 

Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 

Transactions of the American 

Geophysical Union 

Transactions of the American Fisheries 

Society 

Transactions of the American Society 

of Agricultural Engineers 

Transactions of the American Society of 

Civil Engineers 

Tree Physiology 

Trees 

Tropical Ecology 

Unreferenced 

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 

Biological Report 

Verhandlung Internationale 

Vereinigung Limnologie 

Verhandlungen der Internationalen 

Vereinigung fur Theoretische und 

Angenwandte Limnologie 

Water Resources Bulletin (American 

Water Resources Association) 

Water Resources Research 

Weed Technology 

Western Birds 

Western Jounal of Applied Forestry 

Western Wildlands 

Wild Earth 

Wildlife Society Bulletin 

Wilson's Bulletin 

Zeitschrift fur Geomorphlogie 
KEYWORD LIST 

A 

ACID MINE WASTES 

ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT 

AERIAL PHOTO 

AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS 

AIR TEMPERATURE 

ALDER 

ALGAE 

ALPINE LAKES 

AMPHIBIANS 

ANADROMOUS FISH 

AQUACULTURE 

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS 

AQUATIC PLANTS 

ARCVIEW 

ARROYOS 

ARTHROPODS 

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 

ASPECT 

ASPEN 

ASSESSMENTS 

AVIAN ECOLOGY 

AVIFAUNA 

B 

BACKWATERS 

BAT SPECIES 

BEAVER 

BEDLOAD 

BELOW-GROUND BIOMASS 

BELOW-GROUND HERBIVORY 

BENTHIC BIOMASS 

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES 

BIODIVERSITY 

BIOENGINEERING 

BIOGEOMORPHIC TECHNIQUES 

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 

BIOLOGICAL INTEGRITY 

BIOMASS 

BIOREMEDIATION 

BIOTIC INDICES 

BIOTIC POTENTIAL 

BITTERBRUSH 

BLM 

BOREAL FOREST 

BOSQUE 

BROWN-HEADED COWBIRD 

BROWSING EFFECTS 

BUFFER STRIPS 

BUFFER ZONES 

BULL TROUT 

BUTTERFLIES 

C 

CANADIAN RIVER 

CANOPY 

CARRYING CAPACITY 

CHANNEL DYNAMICS 

CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY 

CHECK DAMS 

CHEMICAL BUDGETS 

CHEMICAL RESPONSES 

CHEMICAL SINKS 

CLASSIFICATION 

CLEAN WATER ACT 

CLIMATE 

COBBLE MULCH AGRICULTURE 

COLD DESERT SHRUBS 

COLIFORM BACTERIA 

COLLABORATION 

COLORADO RIVER 

COLORADO SQUAWFISH 

COLUMBIA RIVER 

COMPACTION 

CONFLICT RESOLUTION 

CONNECTIVITY 

CONSENSUS 

CONSERVATION 

CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 

CONTAMINATION 

COTTON WOOD 

COVER 

COWFISH 

COWFISH MODEL 

CREATED WETLANDS 

CRMP 

CULTURAL IMPACTS 

CULTURAL VALUES 

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS 

CUTTHROAT TROUT 

CUTTINGS 

D 

DAMS 
DECISION MAKING 

DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS 

DECOMPOSER FOOD CHAIN 

DEER BROWSING 

DEFINITIONS 

DEFOLIATION 

DENDROCHRONOLOGY 

DESERT SCRUB 

DESERT STREAMS 

DESERT TORTOISE 

DESIRED FUTURE CONDITIONS 

DETRITUS 

DEWATERING 

DIFFUSE-SOURCE POLLUTION 

DISTURBED WILDLANDS 

DIVERSION SITES 

DORMANCY 

DRAINAGES 

DREDGING 

DROUGHT EFFECTS 

DRYLAND PLANTS 

E 

ECOLOGICAL CONDITION 

ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS 

ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY 

ECOLOGICAL NICHES 

ECOLOGICAL PERTURBATIONS 

ECOLOGICAL SITE 

ECONOMIC VALUES 

ECONOMICS 

ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT 

EDGE EFFECT 

EDUCATION 

EFFLUENTS 

ELK GRAZING 

EMERGENT VEGETATION 

ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT 

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 

EPHEMERAL STREAMS 

EROSION 

EROSION CONTROL 

EUTROPHICATION 

EVALUATION 

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 

EVOLUTION 

EXCLOSURES 

EXOTICS 

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 

F 

FECAL MATERIAL 

FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY 

COMMISSION 

FENCING 

FERTILIZATION 

FIELD KEY 

FIRE IMPACTS 

FISH DISPERSAL 

FISH HABITAT 

FISH MANAGEMENT 

FISH POPULATIONS 

FISHERlES 

FLOOD IMPACTS 

FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT 

FLUVIAL PROCESSES 

FOOD CHAINS 

FOOD WEBS 

FORAGE PRODUCTION 

FOREST EDGE 

FOREST LAYERS 

FOREST MANAGEMENT 

FOREST SUCCESSION 

FOREST WETLANDS 

FORESTRY MANAGEMENT 

FRAGMENTATION 

FRESHWATER CONSERVATION 

G 

GALLERY FOREST 

GAP ANALYSIS 

GARTER SNAKES 

GEOLOGY 

GEOMORPHOLOGY 

GILA RIVER 

GIs 

GLOBAL WARMING 

GLOSSARY 

GRAMINOIDS 

GRAZING IMPACTS 

GRAZING TREATMENTS 

GREEN-LINE METHOD 

GREENHOUSE EFFECT 

GROUNDWATER 

GROWING SEASONS 

GROWTH RATES 

GULLY CONTROL 

H 

HABITAT MANAGEMENT 
HEADCUTTING 

HEAVY METALS 

HERBICIDES 

HERBIVORY 

HERPETOFAUNA 

HISTORIC RECORDS 

HUMAN IMPACTS 

HYDRAULICS 

HYDROCHEMICAL INFLUENCES 

HYDROELECTRIC IMPACTS 

HYDROGEOMORPHIC 

HYDROLOGIC UNIT AREA 

HYDROLOGY 

HYDROPHYTES 

1 

IMPACT MITIGATION 

INDIAN TREATY FISHING RIGHTS 

INERTIA VALUES 

INFILTRATION 

INSTREAM STRUCTURES 

INTEGRATED USE 

INTERDISCIPLINARY TEAMS 

INTERESTED PUBLICS 

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

INVENTORY 

INVERTEBRATES 

IRRIGATION IMPACTS 

ISOTOPE ANALYSIS 

L 

LACUSTRINE ECOLOGY 

LAGOMORPHS 

LAND ETHICS 

LAND USE 

LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY 

LARGE WOODY DEBRIS 

LEGAL ACTIONS 

LIGHT ABSORPTION 

LITTER FALL 

LITTORAL ZONE 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS 

LOGGING IMPACTS 

LOTIC ECOSYSTEMS 

M 

MACROFAUNA 

MACROHABITAT 

MACROINVERTEBRATES 

MAMMALS 

MANAGEMENT PLANS 

MAPPING 

MARSHES 

MATERIAL TRANSFER 

MEADOWS 

MEDUSA1 IEAD 

MICROBIOLOGY 

MICROHABITATS 

MIGRATION 

MINED LAND RECLAMATION 

MINING IMPACTS 

MITIGATION 

MITIGATION BANKING 

MODELING 

MONITORING 

MOOSE 

MOWING 

MULE DEER 

MULTIDISCIPLINARY STUDIES 

MULTIPLE USE 

MULTISCALE ANALYSIS 

MULTIVARIANCE ANALYSIS 

MYCORRHIZAE 

N 

NATIONAL CONSERVATION AREA 

NATIVE FISHES 

NATIVE UNGULATES 

NATURAL AREAS 

NEOTROPICAL BIRDS 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION 

NUTRIENT CYCLES 

0 

OILIGAS IMPACTS 

OLD-GROWTH FOREST 

OPEN SPACE 

ORGANIC DEBRIS 

P 

PARASITISM 

PARK MANAGEMENT 

PARTICLE SIZE 

PARTNERSHIPS 

PASSIVE RESTORATION 

PATHOGENS 

PEATLANDS 

PEBBLE COUNTS 

PECOS RIVER 

PERMITTING 
PFANKUCH STREAM CHANNEL 

EVALUATlON 

PHOTO PLOTS 

PHOTOSYNTHESIS 

PHREATOPHYTES 

PINYON-JUNIPER 

PLANNING 

PLANT COMMUNITIES 

PLANT IDENTIFICATION 

PLANT MATERIALS 

PLANT PHENOLOGY 

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 

PLANT PRODUCTION 

PLANT PROPAGATION 

PLANT TISSUE 

PLANT YIELDS 

PLANT-SOIL RELATIONSHIPS 

PLANTINGS 

PLATTE RIVER 

PLAYAS 

POINT SOURCE POLLUTION 

POLICY 

POLITICAL ISSUES 

POLLUTION 

POPULATION DYNAMICS 

POTHOLES 

PRECIPITATION 

PREDATION 

PREHISTORIC DISTURBANCE 

PRESCRIBED BURNING 

PRESCRIBED GRAZING 

PRIMARY PRODUCTION 

PROPER FUNCTIONING CONDITION 

PROTECTED RIVERS 

PROTOCOLS 

PUBLIC COMMENT 

PUBLIC LAND 

PUBLIC TRUST DOCTRINE 

PUEBLO INDIANS 

PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE 

R 

RANGE MANAGEMENT 

RANGELAND ECOSYSTEMS 

RANGELAND HEALTH 

RANGELAND STREAMS 

RAPTORS 

RECREATION IMPACTS 

RECRUITMENT 

REDOX POTENTIAL 

REFERENCE SITES 

REGULATIONS 

REMOTE SENSING 

REPTILES 

RESEARCH 

RESEEDING 

RESERVOIRS 

RESILIENCY 

RESOURCE CONFLICTS 

REST ROTATION 

RESTORATION PROJECTS 

RIO GRANDE 

RIPARIAN 

RIPARIAN CONDITION 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY 

RIPARIAN ENHANCEMENT 

RIPARIAN FOREST 

RIPARIAN HABITAT 

RIPARIAN HEALTH 

RIPARIAN ISSUES 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE 

RIPARIAN PASTURES 

RIPARIAN PLANTS 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION 

RIPARIAN RIGHTS 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS 

RIPARIAN STRUCTURES 

RIPARIAN STUDIES 

RIPARIAN VALUES 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION 

RIPARIAN ZONES 

RIPARIAN-WETLAND INITIATIVE 

RIVER ECOLOGY 

RIVER MEANDERS 

ROAD IMPACTS 

ROOT DEPTH 

RUNOFF 

RUSHES 

S 

SAGEBRUSH 

SALINITY 

SALMON RECOVERY 

SALMON RIVER 

SALMONIDS 

SALT MARSHES 

SALT-CEDAR 

SALT-TOLERANCE 

SAMPLING 

SANITARY LANDFILLS 
SCENIC QUALITY 

SCIENCE 

SEASONAL POOLS 

SECONDARY SUCCESSION 

SEDGES 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 

SEDIMENTATION 

SEED BANK 

SEED PRODUCTION 

SHADING 

SHARP-TAILED GROUSE 

SHOOT GROWTH 

SHORELINES 

SILT REMOVAL 

SKAGIT RIVER 

SMALL MAMMALS 

SMZ 

SNAKE RIVER 

SNOW MELT 

SOCIAL VALUES 

SOIL TEMPERATURE 

SOIL-WATER CONDITIONS 

SOILS 

SOLAR RADIATION 

SOUTHWESTERN DESERT STREAMS 

SPATIAL SCALE 

SPAWNING HABITAT 

SPECIES DISTRIBUTION 

SPECIES RECOVERY 

SPECIES RICHNESS 

STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES 

STATE PARKS 

STEELHEAD 

STEWARDSHIP 

STOCK PONDS 

STORM EVENTS 

STREAM ECOLOGY 

STREAM FLOW 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS 

STREAM TEMPERATURE 

STREAM VELOCITY 

STREAMBANK PROTECTION 

STREAMBANK STABILITY 

STREAMBEDS 

STRESS 

STUBBLE HEIGHT 

SUCCESSION 

SURFACE WATER-GROUNDWATER 

INTERACTION 

SUSTAINABILITY 

SWEETWATER RIVER 

T 

TECHNIQUES 

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS 

TERRESTRIALIAQUATIC INTERACTIONS 

TOPSOIL 

TOXICOLOGY 

TRANSPLANTS 

TREE DISTRIBUTION 

TREE PRODUCTS 

TREE SIZE 

TREND 

TRIBAL LANDS 

TROUT 

U 

UPLAND VEGETATION 

URBAN IMPACTS 

UTILIZATION 

UV RADIATION 

v 

VEGETATION MANAGEMENT 

VEGETATION MANIPULATION 

VIDEOGRAPHY 

VOLUNTEERS 

WARM WATER STREAMS 

WASTEWATER 

WATER ALLOCATION 

WATER BALANCE 

WATER BANKS 

WATER CONSERVATION 

WATER CYCLES 

WATER FEATURES 

WATER ISSUES 

WATER LAW 

WATER LEVELS 

WATER LOSS 

WATER PERMITS 

WATER POTENTIAL 

WATER QUALITY 

WATER REGIMES 

WATER RELATIONS 

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 

WATER RIGHTS 

WATER SOURCES 

WATER STRESS 
WATER SUPPLY 

WATER TABLE EFFECTS 

WATER TEMPERATURES 

WATER TRAPPING 

WATER TREATMENT 

WATER TURBIDITY 

WATER YIELD 

WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT 

WATERSHED 

WESTERN JUNIPER 

WETLAND LOSSES 

WETLAND MITIGATION 

WETLAND MITIGATION BANKING 

WETLANDS 

WETLANDS SEED BANK 

WHITE-TAILED DEER 

WHOOPING CRANES 

WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS 

WILD UNGULATES 

WILDERNESS 

WILDFIRE 

WILLOW 

WINDTHROW 

WOODY DEBRIS 

Y 

Y ELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 

Y ELLOWSTONE RIVER 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Abbruzzese,B; Allen,AB; Henderson$; 

Kentula,ME (1988): Selecting sites for comparison 

with created wetlands. Unreferenced, 291-297. 

This paper describes a study conducted in 

Oregon by the US EPA to evaluate the success of 

wetland creation and restoration required as 

compensation for wetland losses permitted under 

Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. Methods for 

selecting natural wetlands to compare with created 

wetlands are described. Results of the selection 

process and the advantages and disadvantages of the 

method are discussed. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

2. Abernathy,Y; Turner,RE (1987): US forested 

wetlands: 1940 - 1980. BioScience 37(10), 721-727. 

Forested wetlands are undergoing rapid changes 

from conversions to other uses. This article assesses 

the magnitude of those changes by summarizing 

USDA Forest Service field surveys from 1940 to 

1980. The authors estimate that there has been a 

selective loss of forested wetlands up to five times 

higher than nonwetland forests over the past 40 

years. The total loss of 2.74 million ha has occurred 

mostly in the Mississippi River valley floodplain 

where most of the forested wetlands are. Loss rates 

are continuing, albeit irregularly from one decade to 

the next. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; WETLANDS] 

3. Adams,B; Fitch,L (1995): Caring for the green 

zone: Riparian areas and grazing management. 

Alberta Riparian Habitat Project. Publication No. 

1-581. ISBN: 0-7732-1435-6.37 p. 

Three decades of research by range managers, 

biologists, and hydrologists have shown us the value 

of riparian areas for forage production, maintenance 

of fish and wildlife populations and providing water 

to sustain human communities. It is now clear that 

the two percent of the rangelands which are riparian 

areas are disproportionately more important than 

their size would indicate. The key message is, 

riparian areas have significant importance, they are 

different from uplands and need to be managed 

differently. Research results also show us the 

difficulty of restoring the functions and values of 

these areas, after years of damage. By comparison, 

careful and thoughtful management has been shown 

to maintain riparian areas and all their functions and 

values. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

4. Adams,KR (1985): Annual phenological 

profiles of plants in and adjacent to two riparian 

habitats in southeastern Arizona. p.485-488. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

and Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

A suite of plants growing near a fresh water 

stream and in a cienega in southeastern Arizona at 

5000 - 6000 ft was observed and studied over a 

12-month period. Dates of flowering and fruiting and 

periods of leaf growth and stem elongation were 

recorded for trees, shrubs, herbaceous perennials and 

annuals growing in saturated and well-drained soils. 

Phenological profiles can provide insight into: a) 

animal use of wetlands, b) timing of reproductive 

events of closely related species, and c) the role local 

factors may play in phenological responses. 

[PLANT PHENOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN PLANTS] 

5. Adams,PC; Viereck,LA (1992): Multivariance 

analysis of woody plant succession on the Tanana 

River in interior Alaska. p. 4-10. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; and Wambolt,CL 

Icomp.]. Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Woody plant succession on Alaskan floodplains 

was analyzed using multivariate techniques. 

Numerical classification results were consistent with 

the well-described vegetation chronosequence. 

Variation in community composition was high in 

intermediate stages, but decreased in later 

successional stages. Analyses support the contention 

that physical, fluvial controls of early succession are 

dampened by biotic factors in later successional 

stages. 

[FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT; 

MULTIVARIANCE ANALYSIS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SUCCESSION] 

6. Adler,R (1996): The Clean Water Act: Has it 

worked? EPA Journal 20(1-2), 10-16. 

In many ways, the Clean Water Act has been 

successful in the last twenty years. Pollution from 

point sources has been dramatically reduced and 

some threats to human health and the environment 

have also declined. Many problems continue, 

however, including the following: I) we continue to 

release large amounts of toxic and other pollutants 
into our water, causing cumulative contamination of 

water, sediment, fish, and wildlife; 2) relatively little 

has been done to stop polluted runoff from farms, 

lawns, and city streets; and 3) the biological health 

of our waters is still declining. A revised CWA 

would address these flaws in the present law. 

[CLEAN WATER ACT; CONTAMINATION; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY] 

7. Agee,J (1979): Controlling water pollution 

from grazing activities. p.15-17. In: Cope,OB 

[ed.]. Forum: Grazing and riparianlstream 

ecosystems. 3-4 November 1978. Denver, CO. 

Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

The water quality management planning for 

non-point sources like livestock grazing is primarily 

a state responsibility. The federal government, EPA, 

has very little regulatory authority to deal with 

non-point sources. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY] 

8. Agee,JK (1987): Successional dynamics in 

forest riparian zones. In: Streamside 

management: Riparian, wildlife, and forestry 

interactions. An interdisciplinary symposium. 

11-13 February 1987. University of Washington. 

Seattle, WA. 

Forest riparian zones are characterized by 

disturbance, and maintain a reservoir of 

disturbance-oriented species within a matrix of 

usually less frequently disturbed forest. Disturbance 

can be high frequency1 low magnitude, maintaining a 

stable distribution of riparian communities over time. 

Or, it can be low frequencyihigh magnitude, resulting 

in periods where early-successional and 

late-successional species alternate dominance. 

Disturbance is most often caused by flooding and its 

associated effects: sediment deposition, bank cutting, 

debris torrents, landslides, etc. Concurrently, edges 

of riparian areas are often buffered from direct 

effects of landscape-level disturbances such as fire, 

although indirect effects through water-based 

disturbance are likely to occur. A typical forest 

riparian zone will exhibit decreasing disturbance by 

landscape-level processes and increasing disturbance 

by water-based disturbance processes toward its core. 

The result is a zone with diverse species composition 

and structure. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN ZONES; SPATIAL SCALE] 

9. Ainslie, BJ; Post,JR; Pau1,AJ (1998): Effects of 

pulsed and continuous electrofishing on juvenile 

rainbow trout. North American Journal of 

Fisheries Management 18:905-918. 

Injury rate varied from 15 to 39 percent, with 

PDC causing a greater number, but less severe, 

injuries than DC sampling. Electroshocking reduced 

mean growth rates of rainbow trout, but there were 

no statistically different differences in growth 

between treatment groups. Length growth was 

significantly reduced with increasing severity of 

injuries. Growth was directly impaired by the 

occurrence of associated spinal injury. Extrapolation 

of the experimental data to field studies in which 20 

percent or less of the population is sampled suggested 

reductions of 3 percent or less in mean population 

growth with DC or low frequency PDC 

electroshocking. 

[INVENTORY; MONITORING; TROUT] 

10. Aitchison,SW (1977): Some effects of a 

campground on breeding birds in Arizona. 

p.175-182. In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. 

coord.1. Importance, preservation, and 

management of riparian habitats: A symposium. 9 

July 1977. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-43. 

Over a three-year period, breeding bird densities 

were found to be similar between a constructed 

campground and a relatively natural area when the 

campground was closed to campers. Once the 

campground was opened for human use, the breeding 

bird population decreased in density and diversity. 

On the control site, the population either remained 

the same or increased. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

11. Alados,CL; Emlen,JM; Wachocki,B; 

Freeman,DC (1998): Instability of development 

and fractal architecture in dryland plants as an 

index of grazing pressure. Journal of Arid 

Environments 38,63-76. 

Developmental instability has been used to 

monitor the well-being of natural populations 

exposed to physical, chemical, and biological 

stressors. Grazing pressure imposed by presumably 

co-adapted wild herbivores enhances developmental 

stability in species habituated to moderate grazing, 

like Oryzopsis hymenoides, but stresses plants such as 

Chrysothamnus greenii that prefer disturbed 

environments. These grazing effects are probably due 

to the impact grazing has on competitive 

relationships and not to the direct action of the 

herbivores on the plants. 

[DRYLAND PLANTS; GRAZING IMPACTS] 
12. Alexander,EB; Kissinger,E; Huccker,RH; 

Cullen,P (1989): Soils of southeast Alaska as sinks 

for organic carbon fixed from atmospheric carbon 

dioxide. p.203-210. In: Alexander,EB [ed.]. 

Proceedings of Watershed '89: A conference on 

the stewardship of soil, air, and water resources. 

USDA Forest Service. Juneau, AK. 215 p. 

More organic carbon is stored in soils than in 

living biomass. Most very poorly drained soils 

contain much more organic C than the vegetation on 

them. The average soil organic C on the Tongass 

National Forest was found to be 28 kmlm2, 

compared to a world mean of 10 kglm2. It is 

increasing because: I) many glaciers in southeast 

Alaska are receding, exposing more land to 

colonization by plants, and 2) organic matter 

continues to accumulate in Histosols, which cover 

about 114 of the land in southeast Alaska. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS] 

13. Alexander,EB led 1. (1989): Proceedings of 

Watershed '89: A conference on the stewardship 

of soil, air and water resources. 21-23 March 

1989. Juneau, AK. USDA Forest Service. Juneau, 

AK. 215 p. 

The proceedings of a conference in which some 

of the papers deal with riparian, wetland, or 

watershed issues. However, not all of the papers are 

relevant to this bibliography. 

[BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WATERSHED] 

14. Allan,DR; Marlow,CB (1992): Effects of 

cattle grazing on shoot population dynamics of 

beaked sedge. p.89-91. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wamboldt,CL 

[comp.]. Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Grazing effects on number of new shoots 

produced by beaked sedge were examined on grazed 

and protected plots for two years. In the second year, 

grazed plots produced 27.4 percent more shoots than 

ungrazed plots. The greatest difference between 

grazed and ungrazed plots was in July. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; POPULATION 

DYNAMICS; SEDGES; SHOOT GROWTH] 

15. Allan,JD; Flecker,AS (1993): Biodiversity 

conservation in running waters. BioSciencc 43(1), 

33-43. 

In terms of biological diversity, streams and 

rivers are both rich in species and severely imperiled. 

Habitat degradation and species invasion are the 

greatest threat to these systems. However, multiple 

factors frequently interact in the demise of species. In 

the coterminous United States, only 2 percent 

(<100,000 km) of the 5.2 million km of streams are 

of high enough quality to warrant federal protection. 

Present methods of protection address segment 

conservation instead of entire watersheds, the 

equivalent of forest fragments. A national policy of 

protected waters is urgently needed. Since habitat 

quality is of vital importance to biodiversity 

preservation, protective measures aimed at both 

instream and near-stream habitat conditions will 

benefit ecosystem functions and individual species. 

[BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIVER 

ECOLOGY; WATER QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

16. Allan,PF; Anderson,WL (1955): More 

wildlife from our marshes and wetlands. 

p.589-596. In: Water: The yearbook of 

agriculture. 84th Congress. House Document No. 

32. 

Marshlands have been shrinking in size since 

colonial days as a result of industrial expansion, 

urbanization, agricultural drainage and development, 

sedimentation, and landfill of wetlands. [In 1955,l 

--Waterfowl and furbearers were the principal marsh 

products of economic value and the need to preserve 

marshes was becoming more urgent to maintain or 

expand production of those harvestable species. 

{Reviewer's Note: In this early paper, there is no 

focus on marshes or wetlands as critical links in 

larger systems or scenarios. They are perceived as 

entities which produce specific marketable products 

instead of entities with important intrinsic values.} 

[ECONOMICS; MARSHES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

17. Allen,DR; Marlow,CB (1994): Shoot 

population dynamics of beaked sedge following 

cattle grazing. Journal of Range Management 

47(1), 64-69. 

The authors studied the effects of cattle grazing 

on shoot density and flux in Montana beaked sedge 

stands for two years. Mean shoot density increased 

more in grazed than in ungrazed plots and ended 

12- 16 percent higher. Mean shoot emergence was 20 

percent greater in the grazed than in the ungrazed 

plots. Mean shoot height declined similarly in grazed 

and ungrazed plots, indicating that shoot productivity 

was equal between treatments. Beaked sedge was 

tolerant of light to moderate grazing, given adequate 

regrowth between spring and fall treatments. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN PASTURES; 
SEDGES] 

18. Allen,EB; Niering,WA (1997): Riparian 

restoration. Restoration Ecology 45(5), 1. 

An editorial that introduces a Special 

Supplement for the December 1997 volume of 

Restoration Ecology. Restoration research is 

especially needed for riparian wetlands, which are 

near the top of our national agenda. Papers contained 

in this volume will provide guidelines for riparian 

restoration efforts on both a national and global scale. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

19. Allen,EO (1968): Range use, foods, condition, 

and productivity of white-tailed deer in Montana. 

Journal of Wildlife Management 32(1), 130-141. 

White-tailed deer use of vegetation types on the 

Missouri River floodplain and islands was surveyed. 

Meadows and alfalfa fields, respectively, accounted 

for 40 and 33 percent of summer observations, and 

22 and 35 percent of fall observations. Fifty percent 

of winter and 19 percent of spring observations were 

in the cottonwood forests adjacent to the river. 

Weed-infested fields accounted for 26 and 53 percent 

of winter and spring observations, respectively. 

Western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), 

occurring in the cottonwood vegetation type, was the 

most important food type. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WHITE-TAILED DEER] 

20. Allen,HH (1997): Bioengineering approaches 

to streambank stabilization at several sites within 

the United States. In: Proceedings of the Society of 

Wetland Scientists. 18th annual meeting. 

Restoration and Management Notes 16:1:92. 

This paper contains the findings of a four-year 

study of bioengineering techniques for erosion 

control on streambanks. Wide arrays of results are 

reported for techniques including dormant willow 

posts and emergent vegetation. The ability of planted 

willow posts to maintain themselves was noteworthy, 

even after four major flooding events. 

[BIOENGINEERING; EROSION CONTROL; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STREAMBANK 

STABILITY; WILLOW] 

21. Allen,SD (1985): Estimating the economic 

value of recreation resources: A legal and policy 

perspective. p.426-432. In: Johnson, RR; Ziebell, 

CD; Patton, DR; Ffolliott, PF; Hamre, RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-1 8 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Recent hearings on hydroelectric development in 

Montana by the Federal Energy Regulatory 

Commission shows that decision-makers can 

perceive recreation economics. A case study 

examines testimony presented on the estirnated value 

of recreation at a dam site and the role and analyses 

of the outcomes. 

[HUMAN IMPACTS; RECREATION IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

22. Allen-Diaz,B; Jackson,RD (1998): Cattle 

grazing effects on oak woodland spring 

ecosystems. p.146. In: Potts, DF led.]. Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

Three watersheds in northern California were 

studied to determine the effects of cattle grazing on 

the vegetation, channel morphology, water quality, 

and cold spring macroinvertebrates. With few 

exceptions, sites persisted as stable plant 

communities regardless of grazing intensity. No 

significant grazing treatment effects were detected in 

channel morphology or water quality parameters 

such as nitrate, orthophosphate, dissolved 0, 

temperature, or pH. Repeated measures ANOVA 

indicated that insect family richness was significantly 

reduced on moderately grazed compared to lightly or 

ungrazed plots. The study suggests that attributes 

such as vegetation cover, channel morphology, or 

water quality which are commonly measured by 

rangeland and riparian systems may not be sensitive 

to grazing effects in this riparian ecosystem. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY; WATER QtJ ALITY; WATERSHED] 

23. Allen-Diaz,B; .lackson,RD; Fehmi,,JS (1998): 

Detecting channel morphology changes in 

California's hardwood rangeland spring 

ecosystems. Journal of Range Management 51(5), 

514-518. 

Changes in spring and subsequent creek channel 

morphology were estimated with permanent 

cross-sectional transects perpendicular to flow. Three 

grazing treatments (none, light, and moderate) were 

applied to two 5 ha pastures for five years on 

pastures containing a perennial spring and creek. No 

grazing effects on channel morphology were 

detected. Channel change over time appeared to be 

related to precipitation patterns. Cross-sectional 

transects on stream channels did not appear to be 
adequate to detect channel changes in low-flow 

springicreek systems. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RIPARIAN 

PASTURES; STREAM ECOLOGY] 

24. Allred,MD (1993): Little Bear River 

hydrologic unit area. p.359-363. In: Tellman, B; 

Cortner, HJ; Wallace, MG; DeBano, LF; Hamre, 

RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The Little Bear River Watershed consists of 

nearly 200,000 acres in northern Utah, of which 88 

percent is privately owned. Since 1990, the USDA 

Soil Conservation Service has undertaken planning 

and implementation for the Hydrologic Unit Area. 

The establishment of strong linkages between 

agencies has been critical to the implementation of 

water quality and riparian management applications. 

[HYDROLOGIC UNIT AREA; PLANNING; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; WATER 

QUALITY] 

25. Almand,JD; Krohn,WB (1978): The position 

of the Bureau of Land Management on the 

protection and management of riparian 

ecosystems. In: Strategies for protection and 

management of floodplain wetlands and other 

riparian ecosystems. Callaway Gardens, GA. I I13 December 1978. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report GTR-WO-12. 

This paper discusses the USDI Bureau of Land 

Management's policy and procedures for protection 

and management of riparian ecosystems. Past abuses 

of riparian habitats are recognized as are future 

opportunities for improved management. Recent 

legislative/executive mandates require land managers 

to protect the natural function of riparian ecosystems. 

The result is a comprehensive program to adequately 

protect and manage components of riparian 

ecosystems. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

26. Amaranthus,M; Jubas,H; Arthur,D (1989): 

Stream shading, summer streamflow and 

maximum water temperature following intense 

wildfire in headwater streams. p. 75-78. In: 

Proceedings of the symposium on fire and 

watershed management. 26-28 October 1988. 

Sacramento, CA. USDA Forest Service. Pacific 

Southwest Forest and Range Station. Berkeley, 

CA. General Technical Report PSW-109. 164 p. 

Adjacent headwater streams were monitored for 

post-fire shade, summer streamflow, and maximum 

water temperature following the Silver Complex Fire 

in southern Oregon. Variation in maximum water 

temperature increase was strongly correlated to 

streamflow and percent total streamside shade. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; STREAM TEMPERATURE] 

27. Ambasht,RS; Singh,MP; Sharma,E (1984): 

Soil, water and nutrient conservation by certain 

riparian herbs. Environmental Management 18, 

99-1 04. 

In order to assess experimentally the quantitative 

roles in binding the soil nutrient, nutrient 

conservation, and retarding runoff and soil erosion, 

six herbaceous species dominant on the bank of the 

River Gomti at Jaunpur, India, were selected. Young 

seedlings of these species were sown on sloping 

experimental plots in the Botanic Garden, Banaras 

Hindu University. Known quantities of water were 

sprayed on vegetated and bare plots, and runoff water 

and soil were collected in separate contained 

reservoirs. The physical-chemical properties of the 

soil of the bare plot, vegetated plots and eroded soils 

were compared to determine the role of these 

herbaceous species in maintaining soil quality and 

fertility. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; SOILS] 

28. American Fisheries Society (1997): 

Watershed restoration: Principles and practices. 

Williams, JE; Wood,CA; Dombeck,MP [eds.]. 

American Fisheries Society, Sewickley, PA. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WATERSHED] 

29. Ames,CR (1977): Wildlife conflicts in 

riparian management: Grazing. p.49-58. In: 

Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.]. 

Proceedings of the Symposium on importance, 

preservation, and management of the riparian 

habitat. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service General Technical Report RM-43. 

Grazing has a negative effect on riparian zones 

which constitute a small but critically important part 

of the overall range resource. Riparian types in 

southern Arizona have increased in the last 100 years 

due to stream eutrophication. This is most apparent 

where streams pass through grassland types. 

Effective protection of grazed riparian types can only 

be accomplished through fencing. 
[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

30. Anderson,BW; Drake,J; Ohmart,RD (1977): 

Population fluctuations in nocturnal rodents in the 

lower Colorado River Valley. p. 183-1 92. In: 

Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.]. 

Importance, preservation, and management of 

riparian habitats: A symposium. 9 July 1977. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-43. 

Examination of population fluctuations in a 

sample of over 10,000 rodents (five species) along 

the lower Colorado River Valley revealed distinct 

cycles (seasonal and annual) in (Perognathus 

penicillatus) and (Dipodomys merriami). There was a 

general population decline over the term of the study. 

There was significant interspecific asynchrony in 

different vegetation types. Significant interspecific 

asynchrony in population fluctuations renders the 

task of evaluating habitat difficult and subject to 

error unless carried out for prolonged periods in 

various vegetation types. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 

31. Anderson,BW; Engel-Wilson,RW; Wells,D; 

Ohmart,RD (1977): Ecological study of 

southwestern riparian habitats: Techniques and 

data applicability. p.146-155. In: Johnson,RR; 

Jones,DA [tech. coord.1. Proceedings of the 

Symposium on the importance, preservation, and 

management of riparian habitat. 9 July 1977. 

Tucson, AZ. General Technical Report RM-43. 

This paper presents techniques used in a 

comparative ecological study of bird and rodent 

populations along the Lower Colorado River. Data 

were collected to examine faunal community 

relationships to various plant community types and to 

gain detailed knowledge of species' vegetational 

preference and niche within the riparian habitat. 

Parameters such as habitat breadth, habitat and niche 

overlap, and dispersal are instructive for the 

determination of a species' niche. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; ECOLOGICAL NICHES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 

32. Anderson,BW; Higgins,A; Ohmart,RD 

(1977): Avian use of salt-cedar communities in the 

lower Colorado River Valley. p.128-136. In: 

Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.]. Importance, 

preservation, and management of riparian 

habitats: A symposium. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-43. 

Bird densities and species diversities in saltcedar (Tamarix chinensis) stands of the lower 

Colorado River Valley were determined on a 

seasonal basis. Results showed the salt-cedar 

community supported fewer birds than native 

communities, although tall, dense stands were 

valuable for nesting doves and rarer bird species 

along the lower Colorado River. 

[AVIFAUNA; COLORADO RIVER; 

PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SALT-CEDAR] 

33. Anderson,BW; Ohmart,RD (1977): 

Vegetation structure and bird use in the Lower 

Colorado River Valley. p.23-33. In: Johnson,RR; 

Jones,DA Itech. coord.1. Importance, 

preservation, and management of riparian 

habitat: A symposium. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-43. 

Relationships between the avifauna and the 

structure of plant communities are presented. 

Correlations between bird population parameters and 

vegetation structural characteristics were found to 

vary seasonally. Mean habitat breadth of all species 

is narrowest with respect to vegetative structure in 

winter and broadest in summer. Winter requirements 

are different but equally as important as breeding 

requirements and should receive at least equal 

attention. The requirements of wintering visitors 

should receive special attention because they showed 

a higher degree of habitat specialization. 

[AVIFAUNA; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

34. Anderson,BW; Ohmart,RD (1977): 

Climatological and physical characteristics 

affecting avian population estimates in 

southwestern riparian communities using transect 

counts. p.193-200. In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA 

[tech. coord.]. Importance, preservation, and 

management of riparian habitats: A symposium. 9 

July 1977. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-43. 

Strong winds (20 - 50 kmlph) may reduce avian 

censusing accuracy but winds below 20 kmlph 

appear not to affect avian estimates. During winter, 

optimum census time is from 1 hour after sunrise to 

2.5 hours after sunrise. In summer, the optimum 

period is 0.25 hours before sunrise to 1 hour after. 

[AVIFAUNA; CLIMATE; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

35. Anderson,BW; Ohmart,RD (1979): Riparian 

revegetation: An approach to mitigating for a 
disappearing habitat in the Southwest. p. 481-487. 

In: Swanson,GA (tech. coord.]. The mitigation 

symposium: A national workshop on mitigating 

losses to fish and wildlife habitat. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-65. 

Revegetation of two test plots was implemented 

in riparian habitats along the lower Colorado River in 

Arizona and California to test the feasibility of using 

this technique to enhance operations or mitigate 

habitat losses. The data base consisted of plant and 

vertebrate community data collected monthly for a 

period of six years. Significant plant and animal 

correlations developed through community models 

led to the design of plant communities that 

predictably would provide maximum wildlife use 

values. Plant community development on 

revegetation sites have thus far produced higher 

wildlife values than predicted. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

36. Anderson,BW; Ohmart,RD (1985): 

Managing riparian vegetation and wildlife along 

the Colorado River: Synthesis of data, predictive 

models, and management. p.123-127. In: Johnson, 

RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Monthly vegetative and wildlife data were used 

to develop predictive models over a 7-year period in 

order to design wildlife enhancement projects. 

Implementation and testing occurred during the next 

four years. 

[MODELING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

37. Anderson,DC (1994): Demographics of small 

mammals using anthropogenic desert riparian 

habitat in Arizona. Journal of Wildlife 

Management 58(3), 445-454. 

Resource managers attempting to rehabilitate 

degraded desert riverine ecosystems must understand 

the effects of vegetation management on riparian 

wildlife. The author used capture-recapture methods 

to investigate demography of small mammals in the 

xerified Colorado River floodplain, five years after 

treatment to replace salt-cedar with native woody 

plants. The site had become a mosaic of various 

vegetation types, including closed canopy 

cottonwoodlwillow. The site represents source 

habitat for most native small mammal species. High 

levels of measured biomass suggest the reclaimed site 

has potential to be important in local ecosystem 

functioning. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; SMALL MAMMALS] 

38. Anderson,DC (1994): Are cicadas 

(Diceroprocta apache) both a "keystone" and a 

"critical-link" species in lower Colorado River 

riparian communities? The Southwestern 

Naturalist 39(1), 26-33. 

Apache cicada densities were estimated to be 10 

individualslm2 within a closed-canopy stand of 

Fremont cottonwood/Goodding willow in a 

revegetated site adjacent to the lower Colorado 

River. The author estimates that up to 1.3 cm of 

water may be added to the upper soil layers annually 

through the feeding activities of cicada nymphs. This 

is equivalent to 12 percent of the annual precipitation 

received in the study area. Apache cicadas may have 

significant effects on ecosystem fhctioning via 

effects on water transport and thus act as a 

"critical-link" species in this southwestern desert 

riverine ecosystem. Cicadas emerged later within the 

cottonwood/willow stand than in salt-cedarlmesquite 

stands; this difference in temporal dynamics would 

affect their availability to several insectivorous birds 

and may help explain the birds' recent decline. 

[BIODIVERSITY; COTTON WOOD; 

INVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SALT-CEDAR] 

39. Anderson,EW (1987): Riparian area 

definition - a viewpoint. Rangelands 9(2), 70. 

The author offers the following definition for 

"riparian area": ---a distinct ecological site, or 

combination of sites, in which soil moisture is 

sufficiently in excess of that otherwise available 

locally, due to run-on andlor subsurface seepage, so 

as to result in an existing or potential soil-vegetation 

complex that depicts the influence of that extra soil 

moisture. Riparian areas may be associated with 

lakes; reservoirs; estuaries; potholes; springs; bogs; 

wet meadows; muskegs; and intermittent or perennial 

springs. The soil-vegetation complex is the 

differentiating criterion. 

[RIPARIAN; RIPARlAN HABITAT] 

40. Anderson,JW; Beschta,RL; Boehne,PL; 

Bryson,D; Gill,R; Howes,S; McIntosh,BA; 

Purser,MD; Rhodes,JJ; Zakel,J (1993): A 

comprehensive approach to restoring habitat 

conditions needed to protect threatened salmon 

species in a severely degraded river - The upper 

Grande Ronde River anadromous fish habitat 

protection, restoration, and monitoring plan. 
p.175-179. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The Grande Ronde River, a tributary to the 

Snake River, is the center of a 3,950 square mile 

watershed in northeast Oregon. It is critical habitat 

for spring chinook salmon and steelhead. The 

primary goals of the plan were to reduce sediment 

loads and summer water temperatures, and to 

re-establish natural loading of large, woody debris to 

the streams. It also proposed watershed management 

measures aimed at reducing high sediment loads 

caused by past activities. The plan is broadly 

adaptable to other northwestern watersheds that have 

undergone similar degradation. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WATERSHED] 

41. Anderson,MT (1985): Riparian management 

of coastal Pacific ecosystems. p.364-368. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Along the Pacific coast of Oregon are riparian 

areas where high value conifers stand near streams 

bearing salmonid fisheries. Riparian areas are 

managed by setting objectives that allow for limited 

timber harvest along with stream protection. Annual 

timber sale quantity is reduced by 13 percent in order 

to protect riparian values and fishery resources. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

42. Anderson,MW (1985): Protection of riparian 

lands through tax incentives. p.433-434. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Coalitions of professional societies and 

conservation groups sponsored legislative initiatives 

to protect, enhance, and manage riparian lands. Idaho 

House Bill 105 involves landowners in a voluntary 

riparian conservation program that provides a tax 

credit for costs of rehabilitation projects. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WATER LAW] 

43. Anderson,PA; Brechtel,S; Ambrock,KR 

(1988): The Alberta landowner habitat project. 

p.113-120. In: Proceedings of the national 

symposium on the protection of wetlands from 

agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, 

CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological 

Report 88(16). 

A three-year pilot project aimed at providing 

incentives to private landowners to retain and 

enhance wildlife habitat on their own lands was 

initiated in Alberta in 1986. Through field 

coordinators, these incentives are offered to 

landowners by negotiation and include rental or 

habitat retention agreements as well as various 

habitat enhancement opportunities. Various indirect 

incentives are also being promoted including signage 

and recognition to landowners and, wherever 

possible, encouragement of conservation-oriented 

farming practices. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

44. Anderson$ (1993): Livestock management 

effects on wildlife, fisheries, and riparian areas: A 

selected literature review. USDA Forest Service. 

Humboldt National Forest. 

This is a selected bibliography that focuses on 

citations, many annotated, found in the literature 

regarding the effects of livestock grazing on riparian 

habitat and aquatic and terrestrial wildlife. 102 

citations are listed. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; BIBLIOGRAPHY; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

45. Anderson,VJ; Hardin,PJ (1992): Infrared 

photo interpretation on non-riparian wetlands. 

Rangelands l4(6), 334-336. 

Despite recent debates, modifications of 

regulations, and interpretations of wetlands policies, 

delineation of wetlands will likely continue to be 

necessary by law to conserve this critical resource. 

Approaches to make this evaluation logistically 

feasible and reasonably accurate will need hrther 

attention. Interpretation of infrared aerial 

photography holds promise as a usehl technique. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

46. Andrews,ED (1979): Hydraulic adjustment of 

the East Fork River, Wyoming to the supply of 

sediment. p.169-197. In: Rhodes,DD; 

Williams,GP [eds.]. Adjustments of the fluvial 

system. Proceedings of the tenth annual 

geomorphic symposium series. Binghampton, NY. 

The increased sediment load of the East Fork 

River in western Wyoming in a single year 
downstream from the confluence with Muddy Creek 

was transported without an appreciable increase in 

water discharge. The hydraulic characteristics of the 

East Fork River downstream from the mouth of 

Muddy Creek have adjusted to the increased 

sediment load in order to maintain a 

quasi-equilibrium channel. Considerable time was 

required for a complete adjustment of the dependent 

variables. Initially, only roughness and depth adjust 

to accommodate a change in the independent 

variables. Then, after a number of years, channel 

width gradually changed until the hydraulic 

adjustment was distributed mutually among 

roughness, depth, width, and slope. Therefore, over a 

period of considerable time, the hydraulic geometry 

tends toward the minimum-variance condition. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

HYDRAULICS] 

47. Andrews,ED (1980): Effective and bankfull 

discharges of streams in the Yampa River basin, 

Colorado and Wyoming. Journal of Hydrology 

46,311-330. 

Effective discharge is defined as the increment 

of discharge that transports the largest fraction of the 

annual sediment load over a period of years. 

Increments of the average annual total sediment load 

transported by the various discharges were calculated 

by the flow-duration, sediment transport-curve 

method for gaging stations in the Yampa River basin 

of Colorado and Wyoming. A total 

sediment-transport curve was constructed for each 

gaging station by adding measured instantaneous 

suspended-sediment discharges to bedload-sediment 

discharges computed from the Meyer-Peter and 

Mueller relation. Stream flow durations were 

compiled from the respective gaging station records. 

The quantity of sediment transported by discharges 

having various frequencies may be computed by 

combining these two relations. At all gaging stations, 

the effective discharge and the bankhll discharge 

were nearly equal. Thus, the stream channels appear 

to be adjusted to their effective discharge. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

48. Andrews,ED (1982): Bank stability and 

channel width adjustment, East Fork River, 

Wyoming. Water Resources Research 18(4), 

1184-1 192. 

Surveys of eight cross sections located in 

self-formed reaches of a Wyoming river showed a 

close relation between channel morphology and 

scour and fill. Cross sections narrower than the mean 

reach width filled at discharges less than bankfull and 

scoured at discharges greater than bankfull. Cross 

sections wider than the mean reach width scoured at 

discharges less than bankfull and filled at discharges 

greater than bankfill. A resurvey six years later 

showed that cross sections that scoured at discharges 

greater than bankhll had become 2-4 feet wider, 

whereas those cross sections that filled at discharges 

greater than bankfull were unchanged. Bank stability 

and adjustment of stream channel width appeared to 

be controlled by the processes of scour and fill. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

49. Andrews,ED (1984): Bed-material 

entrainment and hydraulic geometry of 

gravel-bed rivers in Colorado. Geological Society 

of America Bulletin 95,371-378. 

In Colorado, 24 gravel-bed rivers in the Rocky 

Mountain region were selected for a detailed 

investigation of bed-material mobility and hydraulic 

geometry. Criteria for choosing the study reaches 

were: a non-braided channel with self-formed bed 

and banks, evidence of quasi-equilibrium, minimal 

flow regulation, and a streamflow gaging station of at 

least ten years. No significant differences between 

the hydraulic geometries of Colorado and British 

rivers with thick bank vegetation were found. The 

comparison of hydraulic-geometry equations for 

those rivers with thin bank vegetation determined 

that there was no difference in the 

width-versus-discharge relations. No significant 

difference was found for the exponents of the depth, 

velocity, and slope equations; however, the 

coefficient values were slightly different. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; HYDRAULICS; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

50. Andrus,C; Froehlich,H; Summers,R; 

Heimann,D; Long,B (1987): Development of 

streamside vegetation following logging or fire in 

the Oregon Coast Range. In: Streamside 

management: Riparian wildlife and forestry 

interactions. An interdisciplinary symposium. 

11-13 February 1987. University of Washington. 

Seattle, WA. 

Regrowth of riparian vegetation following clearcutting and burning is rapid along coastal streams. 

Shading to the stream, as expressed by angular 

canopy density, reached 50 percent in less than five 

years and approached levels typical of old-growth 

forest by ten. Salmonberry and alder dominated the 

early stages of succession. Conifer seedlings were 

scarce, and dense brush prevented recruitment of 
conifer seedlings beyond the first years following 

logging and burning. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SHADING] 

51. Angradi,T; Vinson,M; Contor,C; Riehle,M; 

Parker,J; Mende,B (1986): Fish population 

estimates for fenced and unfenced sections of 

Burnt Creek, Custer County, Idaho. Report to 

USDI Bureau of Land Management, Salmon 

District Office, Salmon, ID. 11 p. 

Four sites were electrofished for trout population 

estimates. Three of the study sites were located in 

grazed areas, one in an ungrazed exclosure. One site 

was in a depositional area, all others were in 

erosional areas. Highest densities of trout were found 

in the ungrazed segment. Significantly greater 

lengths were also found in the ungrazed section. 

None of the sites appeared to offer over-wintering 

habitat for trout. 

[FISH POPULATIONS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

TROUT] 

52. Anon. (1980): Management and protection of 

Western riparian stream ecosystems. Riparian 

Habitat Committee, position paper. American 

Fisheries Society, Western Division. Duff, D.led.1. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

53. Anon. (1986): Beaver management program 

for the Wood River Resource Conservation and 

Development Area. (Woods River RC&D Project 

assisted by USDA Soil Conservation Service. A 

report sponsored by the Blaine, Camas, Wood 

River, and Gooding Soil Conservation Districts). 

A beaver management committee has been 

formed by public and private land managers within 

the Wood River Resource and Conservation and 

Development Project Area in central Idaho. The 

report outlines the goals of this committee and its 

beaver management policy. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

54. Anon. (1990): The biodiversity challenge: By 

linking protected habitats, America can aid the 

survival of nature's richness. Defenders of 

Wildlife Magazine Special Report. 

The essay introduces concepts of island 

biogeography and applies these to wildlife survival 

on islands of natural habitat created by human 

conversion of landscapes. Wildlife conservation is 

discussed in terms of conservation of habitat types, 

the areal extent and continuity of habitats. 

[BIODIVERSITY; GAP ANALYSIS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

55. Anon. (1994): Riparian road guide: 

Managing roads to enhance riparian areas. 

Terrene Institute. In cooperation with the US 

Environmental Protection Agency and USDA 

Forest Service. 33 p. 

This booklet presents a number of cost-effective 

road construction practices that are easy to install and 

maintain. Their use can help local governments 

maintain clean water and safe roads while 

simultaneously enhancing and restoring the health 

and value of riparian areas. Solutions recommended 

here highlight inexpensive retrofits of roads that 

periodically wash out or erode during storms. 

Available cost information is also included. The 

guide was written primarily for local government 

personnel, elected officials, and road 

designersicontractors in the semi-arid southwestern 

United States. The general principles, however, are 

applicable to other regions of the country. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; ROAD IMPACTS] 

56. Anthony,RG; Forsman,ED; Green,GA; 

Witmer,G; Nelson,SK (1987): Small mammal 

populations in riparian zones of different-aged 

coniferous forests. The Murrelet 68,94-102. 

Small mammals were trapped in riparian zones 

in young, mature, and old-growth coniferous forests 

in spring and summer of one year. More species, but 

fewer individuals, were captured on the streamside 

transects in comparison to the riparian fringe 

transects, 15-20 m from the stream. No species was 

solely dependent on riparian zones in old-growth 

forests; however, additional studies are needed. 

[BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 

57. Anthony,RG; Forsman,ED; Green,GA; 

Witmer,G; Nelson,SK (1987): Small mammal 

populations in riparian zones of coniferous forests 

in western Oregon. In: Streamside management: 

Riparian management and forestry interactions. 

An interdisciplinary symposium. 11-13 February 

1987. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 

Small mammal populations inhabiting low order 

riparian zones in three age classes of forests were 

compared. Contrast species composition and capture 

rates for streamside vs. riparian fringe transects were 

also compared. Deer mice were the most abundant 

species and comprised 76 and 83 percent, 

respectively. Total small mammal abundance was 

greater in old growth forests than in young and 
immature forests. More species but fewer individuals 

were captured on the streamside transects in 

comparison to the riparian fringe transects. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 

58. Apple,LL (1983): The use of beavers in 

riparianlaquatic habitat restoration in a cold 

desert, gully-cut stream system: A case history. 

Proceedings of the 18th annual meeting, 

Colorado-Wyoming Chapter. American Fisheries 

Society. p. 29-35. 

This paper describes another successful 

application of riparian restoration by transplanting 

beaver to a degraded ecosystem. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

59. Apple,LL (1984): Riparian habitat 

restoration in cold desert, gully-cut stream 

systems: An innovative, cost effective, ecological 

approach. In: Proceedings of the 49th North 

American wildlife and natural resources 

conference. 23-28 March 1984. Boston, MA. 

This poster paper described a case study of 

riparian habitat restoration in southwest Wyoming. 

After reintroduction of beaver and rest from livestock 

grazing, wildlife response to improved habitat was 

monitored. Bird transects, fish surveys, and wildlife 

observations indicated that wildlife response was 

substantial. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

60. Apple,LL (1985): Riparian habitat 

restoration and beavers. p.489-490. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1 Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Materials were supplied to beavers in marginal 

habitats, resulting in habitat improvement. This 

practice was expanded to determine if both materials 

and beavers could be relocated to marginal areas. 

Results have been promising for stabilizing and 

improving riparian habitats. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

61. Apple,LL; Smith,BH; Dunder,JD; Baker,BW 

(1984): The use of beavers for riparianlaquatic 

habitat restoration of cold-desert, gully-cut 

streams in southwestern Wyoming. In: 

Proceedings of the American Fisheries 

SocietyIWildlife Society joint chapter meeting. 

8-10 February 1984. Logan, UT. 

Several studies have been initiated in this locale 

to develop techniques for restoring and 

re-establishing degraded riparian and aquatic 

habitats. A major objective has been to utilize 

primarily "natural" systems to restore the habitat 

rather than use labor- and capital-intensive artificial 

methods. After reintroduction of beaver to fenced 

and unfenced study sites, aspen trees were delivered 

to the sites of beaver activity because large materials 

for stable dam construction were not available. 

Newly built beaver dams are trapping sediment, 

reducing stream velocity, elevating the water table, 

and reducing the effects of seasonally fluctuating 

water table levels. In turn, this process is helping to 

encourage development of willow and other riparian 

plants in an expanded riparian zone, which is 

stabilizing banks and improving habitat. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

62. Armacost,LV (1979): Lower Snake River fish 

and wildlife compensation. p.408-413. In: 

Swanson,GA led.]. The mitigation symposium: A 

national workshop on mitigating losses of fish and 

wildlife habitat. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-65. 

In 1945, multipurpose water resource projects 

were authorized on the Lower Snake River without 

adequate provision for fish and wildlife 

compensation. With the realization of the impacts, 

compensation was authorized in 1976. This paper 

covers development of the plan and efforts to 

implement it. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SNAKE RIVER] 

63. Armour,CL (1979): Critique of the Diamond 

Fork aquatic study. Proceedings of the Idaho 

water resources workshop. 27-29 November 1979. 

Boise, ID. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Idaho State Office. 

This paper critiques a controversial study 

conducted at Diamond Creek, Utah. Many 

individuals have erroneously interpreted study results 

as definite proof that habitat improvement was 

attributable entirely to rest-rotation grazing and that 

rest-rotation grazing can be a management tool for 

solving most aquatic habitat problems. There were 

reportedly deficiencies in the experimental design 

that would have invalidated many of these 

conclusions. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; MONITORING; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 
64. Armour,CL (1978): Effects of deteriorated 

range streams on trout. Bulletin. Idaho State 

Office. USDl Bureau of Land Management. Boise, 

ID. 

Improper management of domestic livestock on 

western ranges has caused habitat degradation of 

trout streams in some areas. As a result, there is 

either less trout production or conditions have 

deteriorated to such a degree that the fish cannot 

survive in streams. To accommodate requirements of 

sportsmen for additional fishing opportunities and to 

achieve national objectives for better balance in 

managing resources, it is necessary for habitat 

degradation problems to be solved. Livestock can 

alter the quality of stream habitat by damaging banks 

and decreasing the density of streamside vegetation. 

Bank damage, besides contributing to erosion and the 

alteration of channels, can eliminate important trout 

habitat associated with banks. When streamside 

vegetation is cropped unacceptably, erosion and 

sedimentation are promoted. If shading is decreased, 

water temperatures can elevate to levels unsuitable 

for trout. Sedimentation can lessen trout reproductive 

success and production of aquatic insects which are 

the predominant food base. Problem resolution will 

require interdisciplinary efforts and the cooperation 

of the livestock industry. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK 

EFFECTS; STREAM ECOLOGY; TROUT] 

65. Armour,CL (1979): Livestock management 

approaches and the fisheries resource. p.39. In: 

Cope,OB led.]. Forum -- Grazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 November 1978. 

Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

This presentation provided an overview of 

grazing and fish interactions; presented examples of 

management which had been implemented to 

enhance fish habitat; and encouraged development of 

innovative management practices for improving 

rangeland fisheries. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

66. Armour,CL; Duff,DA; Elmore,W (1991): The 

effects of livestock grazing on riparian and stream 

ecosystems. Fisheries 16(1), 7-1 1. 

Stream vegetation is most affected by grazing 

because riparian-aquatic zones are grazed more 

heavily than upland terrestrial zones. Most apparent 

effects on fish habitat include: reduction of shade, 

cover and terrestrial food, increased stream 

temperature, changed water quality and stream 

morphology, and addition of sediment. Aquatic 

insect food production for salmonid species is 

reduced by streambank vegetation removal and bank 

erosion causing streambed gravel sedimentation. 

Sediments hinder fry by covering waterfront gravel 

and impairing the survival and development of 

embryos. Damaged streams also support fewer public 

recreational opportunities. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RECREATION IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SEDIMENTATION] 

67. Arno,MK (1996): Reestablishing fire-adapted 

communities to riparian forests in the ponderosa 

pine zone. p.12-13. In: The use of fire in forest 

restoration. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-341. 

Prior to 1900, Erequent, low-intensity fires 

occurred on upland forests in this forest zone at 

intervals of five to thirty years. With fire exclusion. 

dense understories and thickets of conifers 

developed, producing stands that are highly 

susceptible to a variety of insect and disease 

epidemics and severe wildfires. This paper describes 

a study in western Montana designed to create 

conditions that will allow a return of sera1 vegetation 

and will reduce the hazards of severe wildfire and 

insect and disease infestations. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

68. Arnold,JG; Williams,JR (1987): Validation of 

SWRRB -Simulator for water resources in rural 

basins. Journal of Water Resource Planning and 

Management 113(2), 243-256. 

The SWRRB model (simulator for water 

resources in rural basins) was developed for use in 

rural basins. The three major components of SWRRB 

are weather, hydrology, and sedimentation. Processes 

considered included: surface runoff, return flow, 

percolation, evapotranspiration, transmission losses, 

pond and reservoir storage, sedimentation, and crop 

growth. SWRRB can realistically simulate water and 

sediment yields under a wide range of soils, climate, 

land use, topography, and management conditions. 

Moreover, it can provide a versatile and convenient 

tool for use in planning and designing water 

resources projects. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

69. Aronson,JG; Ellis,SL (1979): Monitoring, 

maintainence, rehabilitation and enhancement of 

critical whooping crane habitat, Platte River, 

Nebraska. p. 168-180. In: Swanson,GA led.]. 

The mitigation symposium: A national workshop 
on mitigating losses of fish and wildlife habitats. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-65. 

In 1978, a portion of the Platte River from 

Lexington to Denman, Nebraska was designated as 

critical habitat for the whooping crane. Changes in 

the flow regime of the Platte River have resulted in 

modification of the "pristine" riverine habitat, 

especially with respect to increasing vegetative 

encroachment on channel islands and decreasing wet 

meadow habitat. Desirable whooping crane roosting 

and feeding habitats have been adversely affected by 

vegetative encroachment and by decreasing 

groundwater levels. This paper explores the 

vegetative succession on Platte River islands, 

compares various river stretches on the basis of 

vegetative change over time, and discusses the 

potential for monitoring, maintaining, rehabilitating, 

and enhancing critical whooping crane habitat as 

means to mitigate fbture natural andor man-made 

changes in the flow regime. 

[MEADOWS; PLATTE RIVER; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; STREAM FLOW; WHOOPING 

CRANES] 

70. Ashkenas,LR (1 995): Beyond walls: The 

myth of riparian forestry. p. 142-146. In: At the 

water's edge: The science of riparian forestry 

conference. 19-20 June 1995. Duluth, MN. 

All land use practices have significant 

influences on landscape level patterns and processes. 

Forest practices such as road construction or harvest 

can have local influences on parameters ranging from 

streamflow and water quality to riparian plant and 

animal biodiversity. When these local, 

watershed-level impacts are combined with mixed 

ownership and mixed management objectives, the 

result is usually a fragmented and dysfunctional 

landscape. To effectively manage these landscapes, 

we must address both the historical practices that 

generated current patterns and conditions as well as 

how we want the ecosystem to look and function in 

the future. Landscape views imply that we must 

integrate processes and human activities across the 

land base. 

[LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

71. Ashmore,PE; Day,TJ (1988): Effective 

discharge for suspended sediment transport in 

streams of the Saskatchewan River. Water 

Resources Research 24,864-870. 

Sediment records for the Saskatchewan River 

range from 5 to 29 years. These were used to 

determine effective discharge for suspended sediment 

load for 2 1 sites. Drainage area for these sites range 

from I0 to over 300,000 km2. Percentage duration 

of the effective discharge ranged from 0.1 to 15.0 

percent. There was a tendency for the percentage 

duration of the effective discharge to increase with 

the size of the drainage area downward through the 

drainage system. 

[RUNOFF; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; 

SEDIMENTATION; WATERSHED] 

72. Ashton,WS; Bredthauer,SR (1986): 

Riverbank erosion processes on the Yukon River 

at Galena, Alaska. p.415-423. In: Proceedings of 

the cold regions hydrology symposium. July 1986. 

American Water Resources Association. 

Periodic measurements of riverbank recession on 

the Yukon River at Galena, Alaska, have been made 

since 1946. Intensive studies of channel shape and 

riverbank erosion were conducted in 1959, 1984, and 

1985. Erosion rates varied from 0.3 mlyr at banks 

with developed vegetative protection (peat or bank 

debris) to 10.8 miyr at steep banks with active 

thermo-erosional niching. Comparison of channel 

profile measurements from June 1984 and June 1985 

indicate that the thalweg did not significantly change 

location or elevation during a 10-year recurrence 

interval flood. 

[EROSION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; 

STREAMBANK PROTECTION] 

73. Asplund,KK; Gooch,MT (1988): 

Geomorphology and the distributional ecology of 

Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii) in a 

desert riparian canyon. Desert Plants 9(1), 17-27. 

Diameter Breast Height (DBH) data were 

collected from Fremont cottonwood in a desert 

riparian canyon in west-central Arizona. Recruitment 

was found to depend on geomorphologic features and 

flood "refugia" rather than on the absence of grazing. 

Fremont cottonwood is specifically a "strandline" 

streamside species, particularly of braided 

aggradations and their associated secondary channels, 

a microhabitat that ultimately depends on upstream 

and upslope erosion. The concept of flood-subclimax 

succession explains virtually nothing of the ecology 

of obligate riparian trees. Riparian classification 

based upon geomorphology and hydrology are likely 

to have significant meaning for biogeography and 

management. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN FOREST] 

74. Atchley,JL (1989): Temperature, light, and 
soil effects on the establishment of Bebb's willow 

(Salix bebbiana). M.S. Thesis, Montana State 

University. Bozeman, MT. 54 p. 

Bebb's willow is a common riparian shrub along 

Rocky Mountain foothill streams and springs. In 

eight-year-old grazing exclosures near Norris, 

Montana, decadent Bebb's willow has not reproduced 

by seed and its establishment requirements are 

uncertain. The effects of light, temperature, and soil 

type on Bebb's willow were examined in this study. 

Significantly more seeds germinated at 20 degrees C 

than at any of four other temperature regimes. 

Seedlings grown under the highest light intensity, 20 

percent of full daylight, produced more biomass and 

taller shoots. There were no significant differences 

among soil treatments. Responses within light and 

soil treatments were not consistent. This species may 

possess a suite of reproductive strategies to establish 

under a variety of environmental conditions. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN SHRUBS; 

WILLOW] 

75. Athearn,FJ (1988): Habitat in the past: 

Historical perspectives of riparian zones on the 

White River. p.73-75. In: Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; 

Scott,ML; Miller,LK leds.). Restoration, creation, 

and management of wetland and riparian 

ecosystems in the American West. A symposium of 

the Rocky Mountain Chapter of the Society of 

Wetland Scientists. 14-16 November 1988. Denver, 

CO. 

Beginning in 1880, much of the woody 

vegetation along the White River, Colorado, was 

removed for agricultural purposes. Elimination of 

vegetation resulted in increased runoff, unstable soils, 

and a reduction of surface vegetative cover. The 

present time indicates the reintroduction of 

cottonwoods and willows for bank stabilization. 

Restoration after human disturbance is occurring as 

landowners increasingly recognize the importance of 

riparian habitat. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; RIPARIAN ZONES] 

76. Atwill,R; Tate,KW; George,MR; 

McDougald,NK (1998): Transport of 

Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts out of fecal 

patties as a function of slope during simulated 

rainfall. p.446. In: Potts, DE led.]. Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

Cattle are often perceived as a primary source of 

the protozoal parasite, C~tospovidium parvum, and 

riparian green strips are advocated as one method to 

prevent non-point source contamination of drinking 

water. This study modeled the transport of C. parvum 

oocysts that leach out of cattle manure as a function 

of slope during simulated rainfall. Slopes of 5, 12, 

and 20 percent were used. Oocysts were rapidly 

transported across the one meter grass buffer strip 

regardless of slope. Peak concentrations of oocysts in 

overland flow were higher for the steeper slopes. 

[FECAL MATERIAL; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION] 

77. Auble,GT; Hamilton,DB; Roelle, JE; 

Clayton,J; Fredrickson,LH (1988): A prototype 

expert system for moist soil management. 

p.137-143. In: Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; 

Miller,LK 1eds.l Restoration, creation, and 

management of wetland and riparian ecosystems 

in the American West. A symposium of the Rocky 

Mountain Chapter of the Society of Wetland 

Scientists. 14-16 November 1988. Denver, CO. 

Moist soil management is an intensive 

management strategy for wetland wildlife habitat. It 

involves manipulating seasonally flooded, manmade 

impoundments to provide hydrologic conditions and 

food resources for migrating waterfowl. Effective 

moist soil management requires considerable 

expertise concerning how wetland units will respond 

to management actions and how multiple objectives 

can be met with complimentary management regimes 

on sets of units. This paper describes a computer 

program that suggests management regimes for a set 

of moist soil impoundments. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

78. Aust,WM; Mader,SF; Mitchel1,LJ; Lea,R 

(1990): An approach to the inventory of forested 

wetlands for timber-harvesting impact 

assessment. Forest Ecology and Management 

33134,215-225. 

A methodology for assessment of 

timber-harvesting impacts in a tidal freshwater 

wetland was developed. Indices were chosen to 

detect changes in net primary productivity, plant 

nutrient assimilative capacity, soil nutrient retention 

and transformation, decomposition, sedimentation 

rate, hydrology, and the provision of wildlife habitat. 

Methods were chosen for data collection efficiency, 

interpretive simplicity, and ability to provide a 

relative index of the integrity and recovery rates of a 

disturbed ecosystem. This assessment enables 

wetland managers to determine which parameters are 

sensitive to functional changes. 
[FOREST WETLANDS; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

79. Austin,TA (1986): Utilization of models in 

water resources. Water Resources Bulletin 22(1), 

49-56. 

Water resources personnel were surveyed to 

determine the current and future uses of 

mathematical models in planning, design, and 

operations of watered resources systems. Eighty-six 

percent of those responding indicated they had used 

mathematical models in the past year. Lack of 

appropriate data, inadequate time and funding to do 

the modeling and lack of models that represented the 

"real world" situation were the most frequently 

mentioned constraints to model use. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

80. Baad,MF (1988): Soil-vegetation correlations 

within the riparian zone of Butte Sink in the 

Sacramento Valley of northern California. USDl 

Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological Report 

88(25), 48. 

In part of a national study, vegetation associated 

with known hydric and nonhydric soil series was 

sampled in the Sacramento Valley of California. 

Weighted averages, presencelabsence averages, and 

Michener averages were calculated for vegetation in 

each soil series or vegetation type. Currently flooded 

hydric soils were designated as wetlands based on 

vegetation. 

[CLASSIFICATION; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS] 

81. Babcock,WH (1986): Ten-mile Creek: a study 

of stream relocation. Water Resources Bulletin 

22(3), 405-41 5. 

After intensive planning, three miles of creek 

were relocated to accommodate highway 

construction near Denver, Colorado. The project was 

designed to provide fish habitat of equal or enhanced 

value to that present before construction. After 

channel excavation, rock and log fish habitat 

structures were constructed. Two years after 

construction, a flood rendered 75 percent of the 

habitat structures ineffective. Pool-riffle ratios and 

quantity and quality of spawning areas remained 

unchanged during this period. Population estimates 

indicated an increase in the number of fish after 

construction. Fish biomass estimates, as well as 

aquatic invertebrates populations, were unchanged. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

82. Backie1,A (1993): Political factors in riparian 

management issues. p.124-127. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace, MG;Debano,LF; 

Hamre;RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The author believes that America today is 

experiencing a renewed interest in democracy and an 

increased political awareness. This process will most 

likely come to include natural resource issues. Each 

individual is part of that process, with the opportunity 

to participate in environmental and natural resource 

decisions. 

[POLICY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

83. Bailey,RG (1982): Classification systems for 

habitat and ecosystems. Research on Fish and 

Wildlife Habitat. US Environmental Protection 

Agency. p.16-26. EPA 60018-82-022. 

Systems for classifying and evaluating land as 

ecosystems have evolved in different agencies of the 

federal government over the past several years. Such 

systems involve the delineation, description, and 

analysis of relatively homogenous units of land at the 

local or regional scale. The concept of the ecosystem 

has been widely accepted as a basis for organizing 

our knowledge of fish and wildlife resources and for 

considering their interaction with other resources. 

Although some commonality of ideas exists at 

present, there is no uniform approach to ecological 

land classification. Cooperative efforts are underway 

to develop common or compatible systems. As part 

of these efforts, the problem of integrating wildlife 

data into the ecological land classification process 

and of integrating landlwater ecosystem concepts 

must be resolved. 

[CLASSIFICATION; ECOSYSTEM 

MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

84. Bain,MB; Finn,JT (1988): Streamflow 

regulation and fish community structure. Ecology 

69(2), 382-392. 

An abundant (>90 percent of all fish) and diverse 

(nine species) group of small-fish species and size 

classes were restricted to microhabitat that was 

characterized as shallow in depth, slow in current 

velocity, and concentrated along stream margins 

(tributaries of the Connecticut River, Vermont). This 

group of fish was reduced in abundance in the 

regulated river and absent at the study site with the 

greatest flow fluctuation. Another fish group 

included species and size classes that used either a 
broad range of habitat or a microhabitat that was 

deep, fast, or both, and was concentrated in 

midstream areas. The density of fish in this group 

was higher in the regulated river and peaked at the 

sites with the greatest fluctuations in flow. Highly 

variable and unpredictable flow regimes appear to be 

a high-frequency disturbance that affects fish 

differently depending on the way they use stream 

habitat and acts to reduce community complexity. 

[BIODIVERSITY; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; STREAM FLOW] 

85. Baker,BW; Cade,BS (1995): Predicting 

biomass of beaver food from willow stem 

diameters. Journal of Range Management 48(4), 

322-326. 

Beaver and willow are important components of 

riparian restoration on degraded western rangelands. 

Land managers need quantitative information to 

evaluate carrying capacity and potential habitat 

quality for beavers in riparian-willow systems. This 

study was conducted in the shrub-steppe ecosystem 

of northwestern Colorado. The authors wanted to 

determine the best model to predict biomass 

components of coyote willow from basal stem 

diameters and compare model predictions to diameter 

class averages. Percentage of stem weight that was 

beaver food varied from 93.6 percent for the smallest 

stems to 12.2 percent for the largest. They concluded 

that the logistic model provided reliable estimates of 

beaver food biomass and could be used with food 

consumption rates and stem density data to evaluate 

carrying capacity for beaver. 

[BEAVER; CARRY ING CAPACITY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WILLOW] 

86. Baker,Jr.,MB (1996): Hydrology and 

watershed management in semi-arid grasslands. 

p.159-169. In: Tellman,B; Finch,DM; 

Edminster,C; and Hamre,R (eds.). 1998. The 

future of arid grasslands: Identifying issues, 

seeking solutions. Proceedings. RMRS-P-3. USDA 

Forest Service. 392 p. 

Northern Mexico and Southwest US ecosystems 

are sustained by a delicate balance under limited 

water regimes and variable climates. Past land abuse 

has resulted in severe, widespread watershed 

degradation. Hydrologic and watershed information 

for the semi-arid grassland vegetation type is 

discussed and recommendations for riparian 

restoration are provided. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

WATERSHED] 

87. Baker,Jr.,MB; Benevides-Sonorio,JDD; 

Talavera-Zuniga,E (1995): Relationship between 

precipitation and streamflow on El Carrizal 

watershed, Tapalpa, Jalisco. p.115-120. In: 

Aguirre-Bravo,C; Villa-Salas,AB [tech. eds.]. 

Partnerships for sustainable forest ecosystem 

management: Fifth Mexico1U.S. biennial 

symposium; 17-20 October 1994; Guadalajara, 

Jalisco, Mexico. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-266. 

A 789 ha watershed was gauged to study the 

hydrology of the area and to assist in the assessment 

and restoration of its riparian ecosystem. Streamflow 

for the 1994 season began one month after the first 

summer precipitation occurred. Response in daily 

flow was generally associated with rainfall amounts 

of 10 mm or more. Maximum daily flow of 5.27 and 

4.79 mm occurred following rainfalls of 60 and 35 

mm, respectively. A total of 8 1 mm of runoff was 

produced from May through October by a total 

rainfall of 990 mm. Results suggested that 

streamflow is basically generated by subsurface flow 

and will average about 10 percent of the total annual 

precipitation. 

[CLIMATE; HYDROLOGY; STREAM FLOW; 

WATERSHED] 

88. Baker,Jr.,MB; Debano,LF; Ffolliott,PF 

(1998): Riparian-watershed linkages in the 

Southwest. p.347-357. In: Potts,DF led.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Riparian ecosystems in the Southwest provide a 

unique setting for evaluating the linkages between 

them, the channel dynamics and surrounding 

watersheds. In a highly variable precipitation-runoff 

regime, erosion is a discontinuous process that 

transports sediment from source areas through a 

channel system with alternate periods of storage. 

Intermittent streamflow coupled with the 

discontinuous storage and movement of sediment 

through channel systems in response to fire, grazing, 

and vegetative manipulations is extremely complex 

and, therefore, can be difficult to interpret when 

assessing responses of southwestern riparian areas to 

management. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; EROSION; 

HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

WATERSHED] 

89. Baker,WL (1989): Classification of the 

riparian vegetation of the montane and subalpine 
zones in western Colorado. Great Basin Naturalist 

49,214-228. 

A paper that offers a classification of relatively 

undisturbed riparian vegetation, remnant from 

pre-settlement vegetation, in western Colorado. Plant 

associations include montane riparian forests, 

subalpine riparian forests, lower subalpine willow 

cam, upper subalpine willow cam and a subalpine 

wetland. 

[CLASSIFICATION; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

90. Baldwin,MF (1987): Wetlands: Fortifying 

federal and regional cooperation. Environment 

29(7), 16-20,39-43. 

Future protection of wetlands will largely 

depend on federal initiatives and authorities that can 

support and strengthen local and state programs. A 

two-pronged effort is essential. First, federal agencies 

should implement an effective, efficient wetland 

regulatory program under Section 404 of the Clean 

Water Act. Second, they must supplement that 

program with carefully focused planning to protect 

valuable and vulnerable wetlands in close 

cooperation with other federal, state, and local 

agencies, private groups, and the public. 

[CLEAN WATER ACT; POLICY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

91. Baltosser,WH (1986): Seasonal analysis of a 

southwestern New Mexico riparian bird 

community. Western Birds 17,115-131. 

The lower Gila River Valley of southwestern 

New Mexico has some of the finest riparian habitat 

and most diverse association of wildlife in the entire 

lower Colorado River drainage. Over two-thirds of 

New Mexico's total of 449 species of birds are known 

from the valley. In addition, the New Mexico portion 

of the Gila River Valley contains the greatest 

diversity of raptors in the lower Colorado River 

drainage and the largest number of endangered, 

threatened, and peripheral bird species. This study 

was conducted to examine and quantify seasonal 

changes in avian composition, density, and diversity 

along the Gila River and the results reaffirm the 

richness of avian fauna in the study area. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; GILA RIVER; RAPTORS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

92. Baltz,DM; Vondracek,B; Brown,LR; 

Moyle,PB (1987): Influence of temperature on 

microhabitat choice by fishes in a California 

stream. Transactions of the American Fisheries 

Society 1 16, 12-20. 

In this study, eight microhabitat variables 

(temperature, total depth, focal point elevation, focal 

point velocity, mean water column velocity, surface 

velocity, substrate, and cover) were used to 

determine their adequacy to discriminate among 

species' microhabitat. Two variables were especially 

important in discriminating among species. Focal 

point elevation explained between 32 and 43 percent 

of the variance in the models in which it was 

available. Temperatures made significant 

contributions in 12 of 14 models in which it was 

available. When total depth was included in a model, 

it was always more important than temperature. 

However, temperature and focal point elevation were 

the only two significant variables on two sampling 

dates. 

[FISHERIES; RlPARlAN HABITAT; STREAM 

ECOLOGY] 

93. Banister,R (1991): Eight principles of range 

management. Rangelands 13(2), 85-86. 

Dealing effectively with riparian problems has 

been hindered in the past because there has been little 

effort by the land management agencies to work 

cooperatively with ranchers in developing goals or 

using evaluation methods for solving streambank 

problems. Often the rancher has more experience and 

expertise in the critical aspects of the problem. 

Without the ranchers' input, most projects are 

doomed to failure. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

94. Barclay,JS (1980): Impact of stream 

alterations on riparian communities in southcentral Oklahoma. USDI Fish and Wildlife 

Sewice, Biological Sewices Program. 

FWSIOBS117.91 p. 

This report evaluates the effects on bird, 

mammal, amphibian, and reptile populations of 

stream channelization and stream impoundment in 

the southern grasslands region, Oklahoma. Two 

channelized streams and one impounded stream, all 

major tributaries of the Washita River, were studied. 

Present day land use was usually the most apparent 

factor determining vegetation differences between 

sites. Altered flood patterns reduced productivity on 

channelized or impounded streams, however. Bird, 

amphibian, reptile and small mammal species 

richness was reduced on channelized sites. 

Impoundment effects tended towards lower species 

diversity and higher relative abundance on 

downstream sites. 

[AMPHIBIANS; AVIFAUNA; BIODIVERSITY; 

CHANNEL DYNAMICS; MAMMALS; REPTILES; 
RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

95. Bardecki,MJ (1988): Impacts of agricultural 

land drainage on wetlands. p.15-21. In: Stuber,PJ 

Itech. coord.]. Proceedings of the national 

symposium on protection of wetlands from 

agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, 

CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological 

Report 88(16). 

A discussion of the impacts of agricultural 

drainage is presented based on a 

municipality-specific investigation of the distribution 

of drainage in Ontario, Canada. This analysis forms 

the basis for the identification of areas of concern 

regarding potential impacts on wetlands and provides 

a regional perspective on the past and present 

distributions of wetlands and their relationship to 

agricultural drainage. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

96. Barfield,BJ; Warner,RC (1981): Applied 

hydrology and sedimentology for disturbed areas. 

Oklahoma Technical Press, Stillwater, OK. 603 p. 

[CHECK DAMS; HYDROLOGY; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT; SOILS; VEGETATION 

MANAGEMENT] 

97. Barnes,HH (1967): Roughness characteristics 

of natural channels. USDI Geological Survey. 

Water Supplement Paper 1849.213 p. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY] 

98. Barron,T (1996): Rio Grande Valley State 

Park maintenance, improvements, and 

developments. p.208-209. In: Shaw,DW; 

Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired future 

conditions for Southwestern riparian ecosystems: 

Bringing interests and concerns together. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-GTR-272. 

Managing the Rio Grande Valley State Park as a 

valued riparian-wetland area is very important 

because it encourages conditions for vegetation 

growth. This growth supports a riparian community 

consisting of various insects, animals, birds, and 

fishes, as well as other wildlife. Human activity in 

riparian areas has led to historic use patterns causing 

erosion, relocation of animals and birds, and a loss of 

some valued riparian ecosystems. Riparian areas on 

the urban edge present a unique management 

challenge and opportunity. All area residents benefit 

from a properly functioning riparian-wetland 

environment. Riparian area managers must consider 

all concerns when balancing uses of riparian habitat 

from preservation of archaeological and cultural 

resources to riparian recovery, improvement, and 

development. 

[RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARlAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

99. Barron,T (1996): Restoration guidelines for 

riparian areas using dormant stock "pole" 

cuttings. p.260-261. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM 

[tech. coord.). Desired future conditions for 

Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

The Open Space Division manages seven 

thousand acres of riparian areas comprising the Rio 

Grande Valley State Park. In 1988, Open Space 

began experimenting with dormant stock cuttings. 

This paper suggests methods and procedures for 

establishing dormant stock cuttings, referred to as 

"poles". 

[OPEN SPACE; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

100. Barron,T (1996): Mitigation in riparian 

areas: Questions, concerns, and recommendations. 

p.265-266. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. 

Desired future conditions for Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

The management of seven thousand acres in the 

Rio Grande Valley State Park presents a unique 

management challenge and opportunity. The 

influence of permanent water or water flows 

produces visible vegetation and vegetative 

characteristics on the affected land. Management 

practices are designed to avoid adverse and negative 

impacts. Mitigation measures such as creating 

wetlands and land donations are encouraged. 

[RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

101. Barrow,JR (1992): Use of floodwaters to 

disperse grass and shrub seeds on native arid 

lands. p.167-169 In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wamboldt,CL Icomp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

On the Jornada Experimental Range, seeded and 

native species from root-plowed and seeded strips 
were observed to establish in substantial numbers 

down-channel from the source. The author suggests 

that flood-water has good potential as a low-input 

method of seed dispersal for revegetation of natural 

waterways. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

SEED PRODUCTION] 

102. Barry$; Tate,KW; Atwill,R; Cullor,J; 

Koopman,T; Huff,T (1998): Development and use 

of a HACCP (Hazard analysis of critical control 

points) program to protect water quality in a 

rangeland watershed. p. 443. In: Potts,DF led.] 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

The Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points 

(HACCP) program was developed for the US Army 

and NASA more than thirty years ago to identify and 

control food contaminants in food processing. In this 

application, a HACCP-based program for grazing 

cattle and feral pig management to guard against 

Crytosporidiurn and other potential pathogens was 

developed for Alameda Creek Watershed, part of the 

San Francisco water system. Grazing and feral pig 

management were defined by critical points, 

management measures, monitoring, critical limits, 

corrective actions, and recordkeeping. Further 

assessments and monitoring will help identify 

additional control points and management measures. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; PATHOGENS; WATER 

QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

103. Bartos,DL; Campbell,RB,Jr (1998): Water 

depletion and other ecosystem values forfeited 

when conifer forests displace aspen communities. 

p.427-434. In: Potts,DF [ed.] Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

The absence of fires on western landscapes, 

coupled with excessive browsing of young aspen 

trees by livestock and wildlife, has led to rapid 

displacement of aspen communities by conifer 

communities throughout the West. Previously aspen 

regenerated as clones from suckers arising from 

parent that survived frequent wildfires. Since 

European settlement, conifer trees have displaced 

more than 50 percent of the aspen communities in 

Utah. Conifer species transpire more water than 

aspen and have sparse undergrowth with relatively 

few species. Such displacement could cause the 

annual forfeiture of 375,000 acre-feet of water that 

would have been available for streamflow and the 

annual loss of 750,000 tons of undergrowth biomass 

production in the mountains of Utah. A greater loss 

would be the reduction of the numbers and kinds of 

plants and animals. 

[ASPEN; BIODIVERSITY; 

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION; SUCCESSION] 

104. Bartuska,A (1993): A river ran through it. 

p.405-407. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

This presentation offered highlights and 

concluding remarks for the symposium. Selected 

comments, statements, and remarks are reiterated in a 

summation of preceding events. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

105. Bartuska,AM; Buford,MA (1996): USDA 

Forest Service's National Wetlands Research 

Program. p.160-167. In: National hydrology 

workshop proceedings. 27 April - 1 May 1992; 

Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

This paper describes the genesis of the USDA 

Forest Service's National Wetlands Program, and 

gives a regional summary of some important 

wetlands and riparian research accomplishments of 

its eight research stations. Key program directions for 

future emphasis are also discussed. 

[RESEARCH; RIPARlAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

106. Bates,DT (1 996): Development, 

implementation, and monitoring of riparian 

standards and guidelines. p.103-107. In: National 

hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 April - 1 

May 1992; Phoenix, AZ. 

This paper discusses the development and 

implementation and results of the first year of 

monitoring of the Riparian Standards and Guidelines 

and the Riparian Management Guide (Gregory, 

1990) used on the Willamette National Forest in 

western Oregon. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES] 

107. Bathurst,JC (1985): Flow resistance 

estimation in mountain streams. Journal of 
Hydrological Engineering 11 1(4), 625-643. 

Examination of the flow resistance of 

high-gradient gravel and boulder-bed rivers, using 

data collected in British mountain rivers with slopes 

of 0.4 - 4 percent, shows that there are differences in 

resistance variation between mountain and lowland 

rivers and that between-site variations do not 

necessarily reflect at-a-site variations. The influences 

of nonuniform channel profile, sediment size 

distribution, channel slope and sediment transport are 

reviewed, but the data do not allow any 

quantification of these effects. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; HYDROLOGY; 

STREAM FLOW] 

108. Batson,FT; Cuplin,PE; Crisco,WA (1987): 

The use of aerial photography to inventory and 

monitor riparian areas. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management. Technical Reference 1737-2. Aug., 

1987. Denver Federal Center. Denver, CO. 

The report describes technical considerations and 

procedures for acquisition and use of aerial 

photography for riparian area inventory and 

monitoring. Preplanning is crucial and considerations 

such as area selection, film type, and time of day or 

season of flight, and scale of photography are 

discussed. Other issues such as when to begin initial 

paperwork, specifications, and flight map 

preparations, leading to the procurement of aerial 

photography, are also discussed. Procurement options 

are discussed, as well as various analytical and 

procedural methods. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; MONITORING; REMOTE 

SENSING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

109. Bauer,S; Burton,T; Thomas,A (1 994): 

Livestock grazing: Fishery concerns and 

recommended actions. p.105. In: Summit 

showcase displays and ecosystem case studies. 

USDI Bureau of Land Management Summit. 

Incline Village, NV. April, 1994. 

This poster paper illustrated that livestock 

grazing and healthy riparian habitat are not mutually 

exclusive. Improved grazing strategies were shown 

that have had high levels of compatibility with 

streamlriparian habitats. Critical habitat factors for 

resident salmonids were presented along with 

proposed standards for grazing utilization. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; UTILIZATION] 

11 0. Bauer,SB; Burton,TA (1 993): Monitoring 

protocols to evaluate water quality effects of 

grazing management on western rangeland 

streams. Submitted to: US Environmental 

Protection Agency, Washington, DC by Idaho 

Water Resources Research Institute. University of 

Idaho. Moscow, ldaho 83843.179 p. 

This document describes a monitoring system to 

assess grazing impacts on water quality in streams of 

the western United States. The protocols were 

developed to assess water quality improvement from 

stream restoration projects funded under the Clean 

Water Act Amendments of 1987 and the Coastal 

Zone Management Act as amended in 1990. The 

monitoring methods were selected for application by 

natural resource professionals. The project goal is to 

describe methods that are easy to use and 

cost-effective. This is achieved by using methods that 

reduce sample frequency, minimize the need for 

specialized equipment, and reduce costly laboratory 

analysis. The document focuses primarily on the 

attributes of the stream channel, stream bank, and 

streamside vegetation of wadeable streams that are 

impacted by grazing and are important to support 

aquatic life. These characteristics are sampled during 

the low flow conditions in the summer when streams 

can be waded. The methods require relatively 

inexpensive equipment compared to standard water 

chemistry analysis techniques. Implementation 

requires fielding a trained interdisciplinary team. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; INTERDISCIPLINARY 

TEAMS; MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WATER QUALITY; WETLANDS] 

11 1. Bayha,K (1978): Instream flow 

methodologies for regional and national 

assessments. Instream Flow Information Paper 

No. 7. USDI Fish and Wildlife ServicelOBS-78/61. 

98 p. 

[FISHERIES; HYDROLOGY; STREAM FLOW; 

WA'I'ER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

112. Bayley,PB (1995): Understanding large 

river-floodplain ecosystems. BioScience 45(3), 

153-157. 

Ecologists in temperate countries have not 

benefitted from studying relatively unperturbed 

systems in order to understand how their systems 

functioned naturally. Prevailing economic 

perspectives of rivers are grossly distorted by 

government subsidies and the inability of most 

economists to value natural resources unless they are 

currently being exploited and are thus in the market 

economy. Less impacted tropical river floodplains, 

whose ecological attributes seem to be shared among 

all systems, have contributed to ecological and 

economic knowledge; although many of these are 
also undergoing rapid development in pursuit of 

advanced technology. Large-scale processes and 

benefits common to relatively pristine systems in 

some tropical areas, however, are sufficiently known 

to indicate that significant economic advantages, in 

addition to benefits associated with increased 

biodiversity and stability would result from 

restoration of impaired systems. Our cultural 

development has caused river-floodplain ecosystems 

in most temperate areas to be more adversely affected 

than most other natural systems. It has also almost 

destroyed our ability to study their ecology. 

[BIODIVERSITY; ECONOMICS; FLOOD 

IMPACTS; FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT; 

HYDROLOGY] 

113. Beall,JT; Elliott,W (1994): West Eugene 

wetlands project. p.175-177. In: Summit showcase 

displays and ecosystem case studies. USDI Bureau 

of Land Management Summit. Incline Village, 

NV. April, 1994. 

The West Eugene Wetlands Partnership, 

composed of BLM, The Nature Conservancy, Lane 

Council of Governments, Lane County, and the city 

of Eugene, Oregon, was formed to acquire and 

manage wetlands and other connected open spaces. 

The effort has dramatically improved the relationship 

of the Bureau with other public entities. 

[COLLABORATION; PARTNERSHIPS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

114. Beaudry,PG (1989): Hydrology of the 

Skeena River floodplains I: Implications to 

herbicide use. p.165-171. In: Alexander,EB led.]. 

Proceedings of Watershed '89: A Conference on 

the stewardship of soil, air, and water resources. 

USDA Forest Service, Alaska Region, Juneau, 

AK. 

Based on the annual groundwater regime, 

stratigraphy of deposits, soil characteristics, soil and 

air climates, and chemicaliphysical properties of 

herbicides, inferences were made about the probable 

herbicide fate in the coastal alluvial environment. 

[HERBICIDES; HYDROLOGY; WATER 

QUALITY] 

115. Beaudry,PG (1989): Hydrology of the 

Skeena River Floodplains 11: Flood hazard 

classification for silviculture. p.173-178. In: 

Alexander,ED led.]. Proceedings of Watershed 

'89: A conference on the stewardship of soil, air, 

and water resources. USDA Forest Service. 

Juneau, AK. 

This paper describes a flood hazard classification 

for planning silvicultural treatments to the floodplain. 

To develop the classification, survival and growth of 

Sitka spruce were related to frequency, duration, and 

depth of flooding. Certain morphological and 

topographical features of the floodplain were 

identified as being unfavorable for the establishment 

and growth of Sitka spruce. Using aerial photography 

and a five-category frequencyiduration classification, 

the user can identify site specific flooding potential. 

Description of each class is included along with Sitka 

spruce growth potential relative to flood hazard. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; HYDROLOGY; PLANTINGS] 

116. Becker,R (1 996): The citizen volunteer. 

p.210-211. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. 

Desired future conditions for Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Citizen organizations and their volunteers 

provide substantial resources to the land management 

agencies which include volunteer time, effort, and 

funding. Through their assistance, habitat projects are 

completed. Volunteers, likewise, benefit from the 

experience. A sense of "stewardship" evolves from 

this process. The mutual benefits to both agencies 

and volunteers are discussed in an effort to hrther 

promote the recruitment and retention of volunteers. 

[RIPARlAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; VOLUNTEERS] 

117. Beckman,BR; Larsen,DA; Pawlak, BL; 

Dickhoff, WW (1998): Relation of fish size and 

growth rate to migration of spring chinook salmon 

smelts. North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management l8:537-546. 

Juvenile chinook salmon were separated by size 

into small and large categories and reared at both 

normal (cool) and elevated temperatures. Fish from 

warm water groups displayed significantly higher 

growth rates through the spring. Fish with relatively 

higher spring growth rates moved downstream 

sooner than fish with relatively slower growth rates. 

Fish with relatively higher growth rates moved 

downstream sooner than smaller growth fish. Smolt 

size and migration were also related with larger fish 

moving downstream sooner than smaller fish. 

[ANADROMOUS FISH; FISH HABITAT; 

STREAM TEMPERATURE] 

1 18. Bedell,TE led.] (1984): Range watersheds, 

riparian zones and economics: interrelationships 

in management and use. Proceedings of the 1984 

Pacific Northwest range management short 
course. 25-27 January 1984. Pendleton, OR. 

Oregon State University. Corvallis, OR. 

This short course facilitated by Oregon State 

University included 19 presentations in three subject 

classes. Fifteen of the presentations were developed 

into formal papers. The principles represented in 

these proceedings were intended to provide the basis 

for future management decisions involving riparian 

areas and their resources. 

[ECONOMICS; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

119. Beecher,HA (1990): Standards for instream 

flows. Rivers 1 (2), 97-109. 

Instream flow standards are not clearly defined 

in laws of most western states. Such a standard 

should imply a formula that would incorporate 

biological and hydrological information to assign a 

range of instream flows for a stream. Ambiguity in 

instream flow standards has led to unresolved 

controversy over water allocation. A clear policy 

would reduce costly delays in water resource 

planning. Five elements of an unambiguous instream 

flow standard are identified: goal, resources to be 

considered, unit of measurement, benchmark time 

period, and protection statistic. Future water 

management options and instream resource levels are 

influenced by choices pertaining to each of these 

elements. 

[HYDROLOGY; STREAM FLOW; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

120. Beechie,TJ; Sibley,TH (1997): Relationships 

between channel characteristics, woody debris, 

and fish habitat in northwestern Washington 

streams. Transactions of the American Fisheries 

Society 126,217-229. 

Relationships between large woody debris 

(LWD) and pool area spacing varied with channel 

slope and width for streams in second-growth forests. 

Pool-spacing and percent pool were correlated with 

an interaction between LWD abundance and channel 

slope, suggesting that the influence of LWD changes 

with channel slope. Low-slope channels were less 

sensitive to LWD abundance because pools were 

formed by mechanisms other than LWD. There was 

no significant relationship between woody debris and 

percent gravel. Relationships among percent gravel, 

channel width, and channel slope were adequately 

explained by the channel's capacity to transport 

particles of various sizes. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; FISHERIES; 

LARGE WOODY DEBRIS] 

121. Behmer,DJ; Hawkins,CP (1986): Effects of 

overhead canopy on macroinvertebrate 

production in a Utah stream. Freshwater Biology 

16,287-300. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; 

MACROINVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

122. Behnke,RJ (1979): Value and protection of 

riparian ecosystems. p.164-167. In: Swanson, GA 

[ed.]. The mitigation symposium: A national 

workshop on mitigating losses of fish and wildlife 

habitats. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-65. 

The riparian ecosystem is a zone of highly 

concentrated values associated with fish, wildlife, 

recreation, and water quality. Multiple use 

management on federal lands has often severely 

degraded riparian zones and associated values. This 

abuse must be corrected. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; MULTIPLE USE; 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

123. Behnke,RJ; Raleigh,RF (1978): Grazing and 

the riparian zone: Impact and management 

perspectives. p.262-267. In: Proceedings of the 

symposium, Strategies for protection and 

management of floodplain wetlands and other 

riparian ecosystems. 11-13 December 1978. 

Callaway Gardens, GA. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report WO-12. 

Overgrazing impacts of livestock on riparian 

vegetation are magnified in arid and semi-arid 

regions. Typical stream habitat changes resulting 

from overgrazing of riparian vegetation, trampling of 

stream banks and increased erosion include: 

widening and shallowing of the stream bed, gradual 

stream channel trenching or braiding dependent upon 

soils and substrate composition, silt degradation of 

spawning and invertebrate food producing areas, loss 

of streamside and instream cover, increased water 

temperatures and velocities, decreased terrestrial food 

inputs, and a 3-4 fold decrease in trout biomass in 

grazed vs. ungrazed systems. Recommendations for 

reparations and management are presented. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMWT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

124. Behrens-Tepper,JC; O'Leary,JT; 

Anderson,DC (1985): Focused recreation use in 

riparian ecosystems: A taxonomy of user types. 

p.216-218. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebel1,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. 
Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Data from a 1980 survey of recreation users 

provided the basis to examine anglers by amount of 

participation at rivers and streams, sociodemographic 

background and conservation activity involvement. 

Each factor appeared to facilitate identification of 

different user types that should be considered in 

managinglplanning riparian environments. 

[RECREATION IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

125. Beier,AE (1998): Managing rangeland water 

resources - The changing legal landscape. 

p.271-279. In: Potts, DF led.]. Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

Water quality degradation associated with 

grazing has not, historically, been regulated. 

Increased high quality water demand has generated a 

greater interest in managing land-use activities. 

Public policy relating to grazing and water quality is 

currently being reshaped, as demonstrated by a recent 

Federal Court decision (Oregon Natural Desert 

Association v. Thomas, 946 F. Supp. 1534 

(D<OR> 1996)). The court found that grazing 

activities do cause a "discharge" and that state 

certification is required before a federal agency can 

issue a permit. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; POLICY; WATER QUALITY] 

126. Beier,P; Barrett,RH (1987): Beaver habitat 

use and impact in Truckee River Basin, 

California. Journal of Wildlife Management 51(4), 

794-799. 

Step-wise regression was used to identify factors 

for habitat use by beavers on streams. Increasing 

stream width and depth and decreasing gradient had 

the strongest positive effects on habitat use; food 

availability variables added little further explication. 

Some abandoned colony sites appeared to have been 

located on physically unsuitable habitat, whereas 

others appeared to be physically suitable sites 

abandoned due to resource depletion. The fact that 

few unused or noncolonized reaches were classifi ed 

as suitable habitat suggests that suitable habitat has 

been saturated. Local extirpation of quaking aspen 

and black cottonwood occurred on 4 - 5 percent of 

stream reaches. Willow demonstrated good vigor 

despite heavy use in most reaches. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

127. Bell,DT; Johnson,FL; Gilmore,AR (1978): 

Dynamics of litter fall, decomposition, and 

incorporation in the streamside forest ecosystem. 

Oikos 30:76-82. 

Dynamics of the litter stratum of a streamside 

forest ecosystem are described. Changes in litter fall, 

leaf decomposition, and soil organic matter content 

were determined in relation to time and to the 

coenocline of canopy species induced by the gradient 

of flood variables. Slower decomposition rates in the 

upland resulted in turnover rates exceeding one year. 

All leaf litter falling in the floodplain section of the 

gradient was either decomposed or washed into the 

stream during flood each year. Soil organic matter in 

the upland averaged 4.17 percent and showed an 

increase between autumn levels and those recorded 

after decomposition of leaf matter was nearly 

completed. 

[DECOMPOSER FOOD CHAIN; LITTER FALL; 

ORGANIC DEBRIS; STREAM ECOLOGY] 

128. Belt,GH; O'Laughlin,J; Merrill,T (1992): 

Design of riparian forest buffer strips for the 

protection of water quality: Analysis of scientific 

literature. Idaho Forest, Wildlife and Range 

Policy Analysis Group. Report No. 8. University of 

Idaho. Moscow, ID 83843. 

This report summarizes the research-based 

knowledge in the current scientific literature 

concerning the effectiveness of streamside buffer 

zones in protection of water quality. More than 300 

papers were located and reviewed; almost 100 were 

relevant and are cited in this report. Cited papers 

addressed the definitions of buffer strips, their 

effectiveness for reducing impacts of forest practices, 

their effect on water quality and fish habitat, issues 

surrounding them, and the available models for 

utilization. 

[BUFFER STRIPS; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

WATER QUALITY] 

129. Ben-David,M; Hanley,TA; Schell,DM 

(1998): Fertilization of terrestrial vegetation by 

spawning Pacific salmon: The role of flooding and 

predator activity. Oikos 83, 47-55. 

This study evaluated the influences of 

marine-derived nutrient transport by spawning 

Pacific salmon on terrestrial vegetation using stable 

isotope analysis. Collected data fiom 5 plant species 

in transects fiom stream to upland forests indicated a 
significant decrease in N values occurred with 

increase in distance and relative elevation from the 

stream in 3 of 5 species. Results indicate that salmon 

carcasses contribute to the nitrogen pool available to 

riparian vegetation. The spatial distribution of 

marine-derived N is apparently determined by 

flooding and the activity patterns of piscivorous 

predators. 

[FERTILIZATION; FOOD WEBS; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SALMONIDS] 

130. Benedict,NB (1984): Classification and 

dynamics of subalpine meadow ecosystems in the 

southern Sierra Nevada. p.92-95. In: Warner,RE; 

Hendrix,KM [eds.] California riparian systems: 

Ecology, conservation and productive 

management. 17-19 September 1981. Berkeley, 

CA. 

In the Sierra Nevada, subalpine meadows are an 

important high elevation riparian vegetation type. 

The study of meadows has proceeded in two 

directions: classification and studies of meadow 

dynamics. Current research in both topics is 

discussed. 

[CLASSIFICATION; HYDROLOGY; MEADOWS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

131. Bengeyfield,P; Svoboda,D (1 998): 

Determining allowable use levels for livestock 

movement in riparian areas. p. 243-257. In: 

Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRS specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

This paper offers proposed guidelines designed 

to restore and maintain riparian function in the 

presence of grazing by determining acceptable use 

levels for the following parameters: browse levels on 

riparian shrubs, stubble height, streambank alteration, 

and forage utilization. Use levels are determined by 

setting a desired future condition (DFC), and 

assessing the potential, sensitivity, and inherent 

stability of the riparian areas. This approach has seen 

on-the-ground applications for maintaining 

functioning riparian areas and to initiate recovery of 

functioning-at-risk riparian areas. 

[DESIRED FUTURE CONDITIONS; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

STUBBLE HEIGHT; UTII,IZATION] 

132. Bentrup,G; Hoag,JC (1998): The practical 

streambank bioengineering guide: User's guide 

for natural streambank stabilization techniques in 

the arid and semi-arid Great Basin and 

Intermountain West. USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service; Plant Materials Center. 

Aberdeen, Idaho. 

This publication is a user's guide to natural 

stream stabilization techniques for the arid and 

semi-arid Great Basin and Intermountain West. It 

was produced primarily for the professional 

conservationist who provides technical resource 

assistance to individual landowners. The user should 

understand that riparian areas are complex 

ecosystems and that restoration efforts require 

interdisciplinary teams. This publication provides an 

easy to understand guide for coordinators of riparian 

restoration projects. The first part of the guide covers 

the basic principles of restoration and bioengineering. 

The second part consists of detailed, illustrated 

technique sheets for different bioengineering 

methods, including how to install, materials, type of 

use, and other special considerations. 

[BIOENGINEERING; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STREAMBANK 

STABILITY] 

133. Berg,DR (1995): Riparian silvicultural 

system design and assessment in the Pacific 

Northwest Cascade Mountains, USA. Ecological 

Applications 5(1), 87-96. 

Active management of riparian zones can be 

economically as well as ecologically beneficial. 

Restoration of riparian forests is simulated with 

forest growth models. Logs were generated using the 

model to be of sufficient size to resist annual floods 

in salmon habitat streams on the west side of the 

Pacific Northwest Cascade Mountains. The economic 

feasibility is reported at real interest rates. Economic 

viability depends on initial volume removed, costs of 

regeneration and monitoring, volume of thinnings, 

and interest rate. Harvest operations allow for the 

restoration of forest structure and composition that is 

beneficial for salmonid habitat in areas where the 

primary forest has been replaced with early sera1 

hardwood species and fiercely competitive shrubs. 

This silvicultural system restores natural functions of 

riparian forests of watersheds in the Pacific 

Northwest. 

[ECONOMICS; FOREST MANAGEMENT; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

134. Bergstrom,D (1985): Beavers: biologists 

"rediscover" a natural resource. p.1-5. In: 

Forestry Research West. October 1985. USDA 

Forest Service. 
In recent years, foresters have begun to utilize 

beavers as biological agents to restore degraded 

streambanks and riparian areas. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

135. Berris, SN; Harr, RD (1987): Comparative 

snow accumulation and melt during rainfall in 

forested and clear-cut plots in the western 

Cascades of Oregon. Water Resources Research 

23(1), 135-142. 

Absence of forest vegetation affected both snow 

accumulation and amount of energy available for 

melt during rainfall in the transient snow zone of the 

western Cascade Range of Oregon. Intercepted snow 

melted in the forest canopy and reached the ground 

as melt-water, therefore, water equivalents were 

commonly 2-3 times greater in the clear-cut plots that 

in the forested plot. During a rain-on-snow event, 

water outflow in the clear-cut plot was 21 percent 

greater than in the forested plot. During the common 

period of melt, total energy available in the clear-cut 

plot was 40 percent than that in the forested plot. 

Greater wind speeds in the clear-cut plot caused the 

combined sensible and latent heat transfers there to 

be almost 3 times those in the forested plot. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; PRECIPITATION; 

WATERSHED; WATER YIELD] 

136. Beschta,RL (1997): Riparian shade and 

stream temperature: an alternative perspective. 

Rangelands 19(2), 25-28. 

Increased levels of shading for water quality 

limited streams would greatly improve summertime 

stream temperatures in most situations. In many 

instances, it may even be possible to reduce 

maximum temperatures so that they no longer exceed 

state water quality standards. It is clear that achieving 

improved levels of riparian shade and decreased 

summertime temperatures will require landowners to 

change those management practices that have 

contributed to current conditions. 

[RIPARIAN CONDITION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

STREAM TEMPERATURE] 

137. Beschta,RL; Platts,WS (1986): Morphologic 

features of small streams: Significance and 

function. Water Resources Bulletin 22(3), 369-379. 

Where channel morphology is modified or 

structural features added, stream dynamics and 

energy dissipation need to be considered. Unit stream 

power (the time-rate loss of potential energy per unit 

mass of water) can be reduced by adding stream 

obstructions, increasing channel sinuosity, or 

increasing flow resistance with large roughness 

elements such as woody root systems, logs, boulders, 

or bedrock. Pools, which vary in size and shape and 

causative factors, are important rearing habitat for 

fish. Riffles represent storage locations for bed 

material and are generally utilized for spawning. 

Particle sizes and distributions of bed materials 

influence channel characteristics, bedload transport, 

food supplies for fish, spawning conditions, cover, 

and rearing habitat. Engineered structures for 

modifying habitat may alter stream characteristics but 

channel morphology must ultimately be matched to 

the hydraulic, geologic, and vegetative constraints of 

a particular location. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

138. Best,LB; Stauffer,DF; Ceier,AR (1 978): 

Evaluating the effects of habitat alteration on 

birds and small mammals occupying riparian 

communities. p.117-124. In: Proceedings of the 

National Symposium on strategies for protection 

and management of floodplain wetlands and other 

riparian ecosystems. 11-13 December 1978. Pine 

Mountain, GA. 

Birds and small mammals were censused along 

stream segments that represented a range of habitats 

from open fields to closed-canopy woodlands. The 

reciprocal of Simpson's Index was used to express 

breadth of habitats selected and nest-site specificity. 

The general application of using an index of niche 

breadth in conjunction with conventional plant and 

animal sampling techniques to assess species' 

susceptibility to habitat alteration was discussed. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SMALL MAMMALS] 

139. Bettinger,P; Sessions,J; Johnson,KN (1998): 

Ensuring the compatibility of aquatic habitat and 

commodity production goals in eastern Oregon 

with a Tabu search procedure. Forest Science 

44(1), 96-1 12. 

A land management scheduling model is 

presented for ensuring the compatibility of aquatic 

habitat quality and commodity production goals in 

forest management. This model uses Tabu search 

procedures to select feasible land management 

activities (timber harvesting and road system 

management) subject to an even-flow constraint and 

aquatic habitat goals, as represented by stream 

sediment and temperature indices. The model was not 

without certain limitations but it demonstrated that 

moderately complex aquatic habitat quality 

evaluation techniques, with spatial elements, can be 

nested inside a land management scheduling model. 
[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; MODELING; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

140. Bettis lII,EA; Thompson,DM (1985): Gully 

erosion. Rangelands 7(2), 70-72. 

Former gullies and the erosion resulting from 

their growth have molded many landscapes. The 

process is active today and will continue to be far 

into the future. Our understanding of factors 

contributing to gully initiation is inconclusive. 

Somewhat better understood are the processes and 

factors involved in gully growth and degradation. 

Both subjects are urgent research needs. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; EROSION; GULLY 

CONTROL] 

141. Bevenger,GS; King,RM (1 995): A pebble 

count procedure for assessing watershed 

cumulative effects. USDA Forest Service. 

Research paper RM-RP-319.17 p. 

Land management activities can result in the 

delivery of fine sediment to streams. Over time, such 

delivery can lead to cumulative impacts to the aquatic 

ecosystem. Because numerous laws require Federal 

land managers to analyze watershed cumulative 

effects, field personnel need simple monitoring 

procedures that can be used directly and consistently. 

One approach to such monitoring is described. The 

approach involves sampling a longitudinal reach of 

stream channel several hundred feet long using a 

zigzag pebble count procedure that crosses all habitat 

features within a stream channel. The approach 

accommodates reference (nonimpacted) and study 

(impacted) reaches so that impact comparisons can 

be made. Case studies are described. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; MONITORING; PEBBLE 

COUNTS; WATERSHED] 

142. Bezanson,CE; Hughes,LE (1989): A 

riparian zone - One story. Rangelands 11(2), 

56-57. 

A rest-rotation grazing system implemented in 

northern Arizona, which allows 6 months of grazing 

and 6 months of rest, has resulted in considerable 

improvement of the riparian zone. The system has 

also promoted the sprouting of young cottonwoods. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN ENHANCEMENT; SOUTHWESTERN 

DESERT STREAMS] 

143. Biddlecomb,ME (1994): Railroad Valley 

wetlands enhancement. p.105. In: Summit 

showcase displays and ecosystem case studies. 

USDl Bureau of Land Management Summit. 

Incline Village, NV. April, 1994. 

A cooperative venture between BLM, Ducks 

Unlimited (DU), and Round Mountain Gold 

Company (RMGC) to maintain and enhance a 

wetlands Wildlife Management Area (WMA) near 

Tonopah, Nevada, is described. Cooperative efforts 

like this one have the advantage of shared costs and 

expertise on projects that may otherwise not be 

affordable or logistically possible. Moreover, the 

opportunities for good public relations advance the 

relationship between the agency and the public it 

serves. 

[COLLABORATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

144. Bilby,RE (1981): Role of organic debris 

dams in regulating the export of dissolved and 

particulate matter from a forested watershed. 

Ecology 62(5), 1234-1243. 

Organic debris dams accumulate organic 

material in a stream which obstructs water flow. 

Debris dams trap sediments in the pool formed 

upstream from them and the dam structure itself 

collects organic matter. In this study, a 175 m stretch 

of stream was cleaned of debris dams. Following 

dam removal, export of dissolved matter increased 

slightly due to an increase in the concentration of 

dissolved organic carbon in the stream water during 

periods of high discharge. Dam removal brought 

about a 6 percent increase in the export of dissolved 

matter and a 500 percent increase in the export of 

both fine particulate and coarse particulate matter. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; ORGANIC DEBRIS; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

145. Bilby,RE (1984): Removal of woody debris 

may affect stream channel stability. Journal of 

Forestry, 82:609-613. 

Although many states mandate the removal of 

logging debris from streams, accumulations of which 

may obstruct passage of anadromous fish, stream 

cleaning may have other deleterious effects. 

Monitoring a Washington stream demonstrated large 

changes in channel structure during the first high 

flow after cleaning. Nearly 60 percent of woody 

debris moved downstream during the storm, channel 

cross sections were substantially altered, and the 

number, area, and volume of pools declined. Degrees 

of channel rearrangement were greater than in 

comparable undisturbed streams. Subsequent storms 

caused much less debris movement and channel 

change than the first storm. 

[LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN FOREST; RUNOFF] 
146. Bilby,RE (1987): Interaction of aquatic and 

terrestrial systems. In: Streamside management: 

Riparian, wildlife, and forestry interactions. An 

interdisciplinary symposium. 11-13 February 

1987. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 

Interactions between terrestrial and aquatic 

ecosystems depend upon the size of the aquatic 

system. Properties of the riparian zone along smaller 

streams control nearly all the features of those 

waters. Woody debris input from the riparian zone, 

may be a major determinant of channel form and 

regulates transport of particulate material through the 

system. Shade from streamside vegetation moderates 

water temperature, and root systems help stabilize the 

banks. Shading of the water also limits aquatic plant 

growth. The primary energy source for small streams 

is provided by the input of terrestrial litter from 

riparian vegetation. Control of properties of the 

aquatic system by riparian areas decreases as stream 

size increases. While aquaticlterrestrial interactions 

are similar for all-sized streams, the relative influence 

of one system on the other changes appreciably with 

stream size. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

TERRESTRIALIAQUATIC INTERACTIONS] 

147. Bilby,RE; Likens,GE (1 980): Importance of 

organic debris dams in the structure and function 

of stream ecosystems. Ecology 61(5), 1107-1 113. 

Removal of all organic debris from a 175-m 

stretch of second order stream led to a dramatic 

increase in the export of organic carbon from the 

ecosystem. Coarse organic particulate organic matter 

(<1 mm) export increased by 138 percent; fine 

organic particulate carbon export increased 632 

percent. Measurement of standing stock of coarse 

particulate organic matter revealed that debris dams 

were important for accumulating this material. Debris 

dams contain almost 75 percent of the standing stock 

of organic material in first order streams; 58 percent 

in second order streams, and 20 percent in third order 

streams. Organic debris dams are important 

components of the small stream ecosystem and allow 

it to be processed into finer size in headwater 

tributaries before being transported downstream. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; ORGANIC DEBRIS; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

148. Bilby,RE; Wasserman,LJ (1989): Forest 

practices and riparian management in 

Washington State: Data-based regulation 

requirement. p.87-94. In: Gresswel1,RE; 

Barton,BA; Kershner,JL [eds.]. Practical 

approaches to riparian resource management. An 

educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 1989. 

Billings,Montana. 

Since 1986, separate regulations were devised 

for eastern and western Washington due to the 

differences in vegetation, climate, and timber 

management strategies. In western Washington, 

where clear-cutting is the predominant harvest 

method, regulations were based on existing data on 

large organic debris (LOD) loading in channels 

coupled with simulation models of stand dynamics. 

Data for eastern Washington were collected 

specifically for the purpose of developing new 

regulations. Uneven-aged management is the most 

common silvicultural technique practiced in this area. 

Regulations were designed to maintain LOD levels 

observed in unmanaged stands and were based on the 

relationship between stand density and LOD 

frequency. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; ORGANIC DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

149. Binns,NA (1979): Quantification of fluvial 

trout habitat in Wyoming. p.215-228. In: 

Transactions of the American Fisheries 

Society. lO8(3):213-226. 

This paper describes the development of a 

Habitat Quality Index (HQI) to provide objective and 

quantitative evaluations of the trout fishery resource 

in non-monetary terms. HQI is based on trout 

standing crop and is derived from measurements of 

biologically relevant attributes. 

[FISHERIES; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

150. Binns,NA (1986): Stabilizing eroding stream 

banks in Wyoming, a guide to controlling bank 

erosion in streams. Wyoming Game and Fish 

Department Bulletin. Cheyenne, WY. 42 p. 

This guidebook summarizes some key principles 

of river mechanics and details bank stabilization 

methods used on Wyoming streams, The structures 

and techniques described in this publication have 

been used successhlly to stabilize eroding banks and 

provide effective bank protection. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STREAMBANK 

PROTECTION] 

151. Binns,NA; Eiserman,FM (1979): Evaluation 

of fluvial trout habitat in Rocky Mountain 

streams. p.361-364. In: Swanson,GA led.]. The 

mitigation symposium: A national workshop on 

mitigating losses of fish and wildlife habitats. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 
RM-65. 

A Habitat Quality Index (HQI) was developed to 

quantify fluvial trout habitat in Wyoming. As an aid 

to the mitigation process, the HQI has been used to 

document and quantify the deterioration of trout 

habitat and populations caused by man's activities. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; TROUT] 

152. Biswell,HH (1968): Water control by 

rangeland management. p.740-746. In: Water for 

peace: International conference. 23-31 May 1967. 

Rangeland water can be regulated by controlling 

the intensity and season of grazing and prohibiting 

livestock on areas susceptible to compaction. In areas 

of deep soils and excess precipitation, water runoff 

can be increased by replacing deep-rooted species 

with shallow-rooted species (such as desirable 

grasses and forbs). This cannot occur in areas where 

precipitation is less than 18 inches annually. In areas 

of relatively high rainfall and erodible soils, runoff 

and erosion can be lessened by planting deep-rooted 

plants (such as shrubs and trees) to increase water 

storage capacity. 

[EROSION; HYDROLOGY; RUNOFF; 

WATERSHED] 

153. Bjornn,TC; Burns,DC; Collotzi,AW; 

Newhouse,HW; Platts,WS (1980): A method for 

predicting fish response to sediment yields. USDA 

Forest Service, Intermountain and Northern 

Regions. A working draft. 35 p. 

The process defined in this report to evaluate the 

sediment effects on the fishery as an output from 

linear programs identifies sedimentlfish interactions 

in one step but allows the user to take a multi-step 

process that may provide more accuracy. The process 

identifies sediment impacts as only one of the 

components that influence a fishery. The user must 

consider that other conditions that impact fish 

biomass such as temperature, nutrients, and water 

flows may be more important and must still be 

evaluated by the user based on individual concerns. It 

is possible that any one of these variables may have 

more influence on the fish population than sediment. 

[CLASSIFICATION; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SEDIMENTATION] 

154. Black$; Broadhurst,P; Hightower,J; 

Schauman,S (1985): The value of riparian habitat 

and wildlife to the residents of a rapidly 

urbanizing community. p.413-416. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Two surveys tested the values of residents. In the 

first, the community's knowledge and preference for 

riparian habitat and wildlife was established. The 

second survey established the position of the specific 

values among a broader range of human values. The 

results indicate that residents value natural habitat. 

This suggests important policy implications for the 

management of urban water systems. 

[ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; URBAN 

IMPACTS] 

155. Blakesley,JA; Reese,KP (1986): Avian 

habitat relationships in riparian zones of northern 

Utah. Completion Report to USDA Forest Service. 

Ogden, UT. 59 p. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

156. Blakesley,JA; Reese,KR (1 988): Avian use 

of campground and noncampground sites in 

riparian zones. Journal of Wildlife Management 

52(3), 339-402. 

Use of riparian habitat by 14 avian species was 

compared during the breeding season on 

campground and noncampground sites in northern 

Utah. Multivariate analysis indicated that 7 avian 

species were closely associated with campgrounds, 

whereas 6 of 7 species associated with 

noncampgrounds were ground- or shrub-nesting, or 

ground-foraging. Results may be explained by 

vegetative differences between the 2 habitats. 

[AVIFAUNA; RECREATION IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

157. Blank,RR; Chambers,J; Linnerooth,A 

(1998): Influence of fall-prescribed burning on 

nutrient levels in riparian soils of central Nevada. 

p. 235-241. In: Potts,DF [ed.]. Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

Livestock overgrazing, fire suppression, and 

stream incision have fostered encroachment of 

sagebrush into riparian areas. Replacement of this 

sagebrush by meadow vegetation can increase stream 

flows, increase water storage, and reduce erosion. 

Prescribed burning shows promise for restoring dry 

meadows. In this study, prescribed burning increased 

extractable sulfate, potassium, and ammonium to a 

depth of 5 cm. Burning decreased extractable nitrate 

and ortho-phosphate. Lack of spring and summer 

precipitation hindered establishment of seeds sown 
after the prescribed bum. The growth of sedges and 

rushes, however, was significantly greater in post-fire 

interspaces than in unburned shrub interspaces. 

Unless conditions are favorable for spring plant 

establishment, fall prescribed burning may result in 

leaching losses of soil nutrients, and the potential for 

soil erosion. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

MEADOWS; NUTRIENT CYCLES; PRESCRIBED 

BURNING] 

158. Blank,RR; Palmquist,DE; Young,JA (1992): 

Plant-soil relationships of greasewood, Torrey 

saltbush, and allenrolfea, that occur on 

coarse-textured mounds on playas. p.194-198. In: 

Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 

Wambolt,CL Icomp.]. Proceedings - Symposium 

on ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

Plant-soil relationships at playa-sand veneer 

interfaces in the Lake Lahontan Basin of northwest 

Nevada were studied. The data demonstrated that the 

mounds were extremely saline, more saline than 

nonvegetated mound interspaces. Moreover, there 

were significant (P<0.05) differences in the 

soil-solution chemistry among the shrubs, which 

suggests that the shrubs have modified the soil 

solution through elemental cycling. Vegetative 

recruitment occurs during environmentally optimal 

periods. 

[PLANT-SOIL RELATIONSHIPS; PLAYAS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SALINITY] 

159. Blank,RR; Trent,JD; Young,JA (1992): 

Sagebrush communities on clayey soils of 

northeastern California. p.198-202. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL 

1comp.l. Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

The presence of shrubs on clayey soils has, over 

time, increased the site potential by capturing aeolian 

dust. This veneer of coarse-textured materials is a 

better seedbed than the clayey substratum, supports 

an extensive cryptogamic community, and limits the 

natural churning of the high shrink-swell clays. Past 

overgrazing has, in some instances, caused the veneer 

of aeolian dust to erode, exposing the clay 

substratum. Those sites now support a near 

monoculture of medusahead (Taeniatherum 

caput-medusae). Where medusahead invades on 

high-condition sites, wildfires may occur, and 

consequently, wind erosion increases, the aeolian 

veneer is thinned, and a permanent loss in site 

potential may occur. 

[MEDUSAHEAD; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SAGEBRUSH] 

160. Bledsoe,S (1987): Alternatives to riparian 

management regulations that would be incentives. 

In: Streamside management: Riparian wildlife 

and forestry interactions. An interdisciplinary 

symposium. 11-13 February 1987. University of 

Washington. Seattle, WA. 

This paper describes a process known as the 

Timber, Fish, and Wildlife Project (TFW). This 

agreement is designed to lead to increased protection 

for fish and wildlife habitat, water quality and tribal 

cultural and archeological sites while ensuring a 

healthy timber industry in Washington state. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

161. Bledsoe,S (1987): An alternative approach 

to the regulation of riparian management. p.239- 

244. In: Streamside management: Riparian 

wildlife and forestry interactions. University of 

Washington. Institute of Forest Resources., 

Seattle, WA. 

A forest industry proponent, bureaucrat, 

regulator and legislator comments on regulatory 

approaches to riparian management after serving as 

an agency head on the Forest Practices Board. He 

comments on the shift from the judicial forum and 

policy-making activities of the legislature to the 

politicalization of the FPB. He concludes that 

regulations are best designed to support site-specific 

decision making processes and that monitoring is 

essential. 

[POLICY; REGULATIONS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

162. Blinn,CR; Dahlman,RA (1995): Riparian 

harvesting with a soft footprint. p.76-81. In: At 

the water's edge: The science of riparian forestry 

conference. 19-20 June 1995. Duluth, MN. 

A variety of approaches are available to leave a 

soft footprint when harvesting within a riparian 

management zone (RMZ). A selection of planning 

considerations, harvesting strategies, equipment 

options, and alternatives for temporary crossings of 

streams and areas with weak or wet soils are 

discussed. The specific practices selected for 

operating in a particular RMZ needs to consider the 

operational capabilities and economic constraints that 

the logger faces. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 
RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

163. BLM (Bureau of Land Management)-USDI, 

Oregon State Office (1987): OregonIWashington 

Riparian Enhancement Plan. 13 p. 

Enhancement of riparian areas, which are key 

habitat for 80 percent of the wildlife species of 

eastern Oregon and Washington, will provide 

increased opportunities for bird watching, 

photography, and hunting upland game, waterfowl 

and big game. The improved vegetative diversity and 

productivity resulting from implementation of this 

plan will be instrumental in reaching prescribed 

condition and trend objectives. 

[RIPARIAN ENHANCEMENT; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

164. Blosser,RO (1984): The effects of fine 

sediment on salmonid spawning gravel and 

juvenile rearing habitat - a literature review. 

Technical Bulletin No. 428. 66 p. National Council 

of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream 

Improvement, Inc., 260 Madison Ave., New York, 

NY, 100016. 

This is a review of literature on the effects of 

fine sediment on salmonid spawning gravel and 

juvenile rearing habitat. This review covers 67 

references and includes a broad spectrum of subjects 

relating to salmon spawning gravels. It deals 

specifically with the biological implications of fine 

sediments to salmonid eggs and larvae. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; FISHERIES; FOREST 

MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SALMONIDS; SEDIMENTATION] 

165. Bock,JH; Bock,CE (1985): Patterns of 

reproduction in Wright's sycamore. p. 493-94. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Sewice. General Technical Report RM-120. 

In southeast Arizona, Wright's sycamore 

produces large numbers of viable seeds that fall in a 

compact fruit shadow around parent individuals. 

Drought or flash-flooding usually causes sexual 

reproduction to fail. In one site with permanent water 

and little flooding, large numbers of seedlings and 

saplings grew. Young trees grew in clumps, usually 

of similar size individuals, away from mature tree 

canopy but always in the stream channel. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

mammals of the riparian corridor in Big Bend 

National Park. p.212- 217. In: Johnson,RR; 

Jones,DA [tech. coord.). Importance, 

preservation, and management of riparian 

habitats: A symposium. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-43. 

Thirty species of terrestrial mammals inhabit the 

riparian habitats of the Park. Compared to other 

major plant communities in the Park, the rodent 

fauna of the riparian community has lower evenness, 

richness, and diversity indices. Human use and 

livestock grazing are the major impacts acting upon 

the riparian areas. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 

167. Boehne,P; House,R (1983): Stream 

ordering; a tool for land managers to classify 

western Oregon streams. USDl Bureau of Land 

Management, Oregon State Office. Tech. Note 

OR-3. 6 p. 

Increasing width and depth and decreasing 

gradient with increasing stream order were observed. 

Fish diversity increased with increasing stream order, 

with cutthroat trout inhabiting all orders and chinook 

salmon inhabiting fourth and fifth order streams. 

Fourth order streams are the most important for coho 

salmon and steelhead trout. Stream ordering can be a 

more useful tool than other stream classification 

systems for fisheries and habitat analysis in the 

Northwest. A 1 : 12,000 scale is suggested as optimal 

for fish and habitat analysis. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SPATIAL SCALE] 

168. Boggs,K (1990): A site classification with 

management information for riparian and 

wetland sites in northwest Montana. In: 

Management of riparian and wetland forested 

ecosystems in Montana. Fourth annual Montana 

Riparian Association workshop. 5-7 September 

1990. Whitefish, MT. 

Riparian/wetland sites in northwest Montana 

support a complex array of plant communities. Using 

Daubenmire's methodology based on habitat types, a 

classification was developed that describes major 

seral plant communities that are stable for time 

frames relevant to land management decisions. The 

classification is useful as a management tool. 

Management considerations include what seral stage 

a site is in, timber productivity, and forage values. 

[CLASSIFICATION; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

166. Boeer,WJ; Schmidly,DJ (1977): Terrestrial 
169. Boggs,K; Hansen,P; Pfister,R; Joy,J (1990): 

Classification and management of riparian and 

wetland sites in northwestern Montana. Draft 

Version 1. Montana Riparian Association, 

Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment 

Station, University of Montana. Missoula, MT. 

217 p. 

This publication presents a key for identifying 

riparian site types, i.e., areas occupied or potentially 

occupied by a specific riparian association (plant 

community type representing the latest successional 

stage attainable on a specific hydrologic site). 

Community types which represent disclimax or seral 

communities that are stable for time frames relevant 

to land management decisions are described. Habitat 

types are described for specific communities. Soils, 

adjacent communities and management information 

are provided for each habitat type. This classification 

is useful both as a management tool and a scientific 

reference. 

[CLASSIFICATION; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARlAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; SOILS] 

170. Boggs,K; Weaver,T (1992): Response of 

riparian shrubs to declining water availability. 

p.48-51. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

Community dominance, productivity, and 

grazing effects were recorded in a cottonwood sere 

along the Yellowstone River. The sere progressed 

from seedlings of Great Plains cottonwood and 

sandbar willow to cottonwood forests with a dense 

shrub understory, and finally, to grasslands. 

[COTTONWOOD; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS; SECONDARY 

SUCCESSION; WILLOW] 

171. Bohn,CC (1983): The response of soils, 

streambanks and instream coliform bacteria levels 

to grazing management in a riparian area. MS 

Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. 85 

P . Mammals may transmit pathogenic organisms 

through water supplies. E. coli are commonly 

measured to indicate fecal contamination of water. In 

a second-order, wildland stream in northeast Oregon, 

coliform concentrations were cyclic. Generally, 

counts were highest on July 1 but some sites peaked 

as late as August 7. Counts declined through the 

summer, reached a low by end of August, and peaked 

again in late September, after fall rains and leaf-fall 

began. Some contamination counts resulted directly 

from cattle standing in or adjacent to the water. 

Coliform counts also related to hydrologic events on 

the watershed. 

[COLIFORM BACTERIA; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; SOILS; 

WATER QUALITY] 

172. Bohn,CC (1 986): Biological importance of 

streambank stability. Rangelands 8(2), 55-56. 

New interest in streambank stability originates 

from the influence streambanks have on a stream 

system and fish habitat. Streambank stability has 

traditionally been defined from an engineering 

perspective, but stability in terms of the biological 

function means the maintenance of the channel shape 

suited to the native streambank vegetation and soils 

and the stream gradient. Streams naturally work 

slowly across a floodplain while the channel shape 

maintains regular patterns within a reach and 

sediment enters the water primarily when flows are 

big enough to carry it. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SEDIMENTATION; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

173. Bohn,CC (1989): Management of winter soil 

temperatures to control streambank erosion. 

p.69-71. In: Gresswell, RE; Barton, BA; 

Kershner, JL (eds.1. Riparian resource 

management. An educational workshop. USDI 

Bureau of Land Management. Billings, MT. 

Winter soil temperatures were measured in 

streambanks under different vegetative cover 

conditions in northeastern Nevada. Grass provided 

significant streambank insulation at two different 

elevations and aspects compared to bare soils. It was 

postulated that the formation of soil ice weakens the 

internal structure of stream banks. Weakened banks 

are less able to resist disturbance from high-velocity 

runoff and ice floes. Temperature modifications 

resulting from vegetative cover appear to be 

sufficient to reduce damage. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOIL TEMPERATURE; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

174. Bohn,CC; Buckhouse,JC (1 981): 

Interpreting coliform counts in northeast Oregon 

rangeland streams. p.15-17. In: 1981 Research in 

rangeland management, Agricultural Experiment 

Station, Oregon State University Corvallis, OR. 

Special Report 620. 

Grazed areas had the highest counts of coliform 

bacteria and controls had the lowest. Stream 
segments in pastures rested one month had counts 

similar to those rested one year. Season-long grazing 

had the greatest input. Drinking water required 

treatment even in ungrazed portions. 

[COLIFORM BACTERIA; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY] 

175. Bohn,CC; Buckhouse,JC (1985): Coliform 

organisms as an indicator of water quality in 

wildland streams. Journal of Soil and Water 

Conservation 40(1), 95-97. 

Coliform bacteria from watersheds and riparian 

zones originating from livestock can cause temporary 

and short-term declines in water quality. This result 

is not apparent on ungrazed watersheds or riparian 

pastures. 

[COLIFORM BACTERIA; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY] 

176. Bohn,CC; Buckhouse,JC (1985): Some 

responses of riparian soils to grazing management 

in northeastern Oregon. Journal of Range 

Management 38(4), 378-381. 

Various parameters were measured over five 

years on control/treatment paired plots of several 

grazing strategies in a northeast Oregon riparian 

zone. These included infiltration, sediment 

production, penetrometer penetrability, and bulk 

density. The hydrologic parameters were favored by 

rest-rotation grazing. Deferred rotation and 

season-long grazing did little to enhance, and 

sometimes hindered, hydrologic expression. 

Late-season grazing in September demonstrated a 

positive hydrologic response but late season grazing 

in October was negative. This was attributed to onset 

of fall rains and higher soil moisture content. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; SOILS] 

177. Bohn,CC; Buckhouse,JC (1986): Effects of 

grazing management on streambanks. p.265-271. 

In: Proceedings of the 51st North American 

wildlife and natural resources conference. 21-26 

March 1986. Reno, NV. The Wildlife 

Management Institute. 

Despite limitations imposed by methodology, 

this study produced some insights into the complex 

relationship between bank dynamics and grazing 

management. Streambank retreat may increase as 

animal use increase, both in numbers and in years. 

There was more bank-edge retreat on grazed 

treatments with big game access than in ungrazed 

treatments. Numerically, there was more bank retreat 

on treatments that had big game access and higher 

livestock numbers. Ice related and runoff related 

bank disturbances occurred during the study and 

appeared to be linked to season-long grazing. Ice and 

animals, however, appear to exert very different 

forms of disturbance on channel walls and geometry. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY; WATER QUALITY] 

178. Bohn,CC; Megahan,WF (1991): Changes in 

sediment storage in the South Fork Salmon River, 

Idaho. p. 12-23. In: Proceedings of the fifth 

federal intragency sedimentation conference. 

18-21 March 1991. Las Vegas, NV. 

A large volume of sediment was deposited in the 

upper 60 miles of the South Fork Salmon River in 

1965. A survey of the sediment storage in 1989 

demonstrated that large amounts of material, 

primarily sands, have been transported out of the 

study area in the ensuing 24 years. As much as 78 

percent of the sand and gravel have moved out of the 

study area. The particle size distribution of the stream 

bed describes a shift toward larger particles. Results 

suggest that the sources of sediment have stabilized 

to some degree and that stream power has been 

sufficient to transport sediment out of the study area. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; 

WATERSHED] 

179. Boldt,CE; Uresk,DW; Sevenson,KE (1978): 

Riparian woodlands in jeopardy on northern 

Great Plains. p.184-189. In: Proceedings, National 

Symposium on strategies for protection and 

management of floodplain wetlands and other 

riparian ecosystems. Atlanta, GA. 

Deciduous tree and shrub species occurring in 

woody draws are being threatened by multiple 

impacts, of which the most visible and detrimental is 

cattle damage. The solutions include combinations of 

fencing, resprouting, and under planting. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

180. Bolen,EG; Smith,LM; Schramm,Jr.,HL. 

(1989): Playa lakes: Prairie wetlands of the 

southern High Plains. BioScience 39(9), 615-623. 

Playas have received little study focused on their 

ecological structure and fbnction as wetland 

ecosystems. Future investigations should emphasize 

primary production, energy flow, and nutrient 

budgets. Future quantifications of these processes 

will allow integration of playa ecosystems with other, 

more thoroughly investigated wetlands. Furthermore, 

better understanding of these processes will provide a 

foundation for uses and management of playas. 
[PLAYAS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 

FLOW; WATER RIGHTS; WETLANDS] 

181. Bond,CE; Rexstad,E; Hughes,RM (1988): 

Habitat use of twenty-five common species of 

Oregon freshwater fishes. Northwest Science 

62(5), 223-23 1. 

The purpose of this paperistudy was twofold. 

The first objective was to determine the use of 

physical habitat by the 25 most common native 

freshwater fishes of Oregon, and the second was to 

evaluate the use of a large computer database of 

museum records in the determination. Habitat use 

identified by this study was generally consistent with 

the subjective evaluations of field ichthyologists, and 

the study revealed additional information for some 

species. A large computer database compiled from 

field notes of many collectors allowed useful 

generalizations concerning species habitat, even 

though methods of collecting and recording differed 

greatly. Small databases also permit greater 

quantification than is typical of species accounts and 

more robust habitat descriptions than those gleaned 

from a small number of site specific studies. 

[FISH DISPERSAL; FISH POPULATIONS; 

FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

182. Bonomo,T (1996): Public involvement and 

consensus building in the Verde River Watershed 

in central Arizona. p.230-236. In: Shaw,DW; 

Finch,DM [tech. coord.1. Desired future conditions 

for Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

The Verde Watershed Association is the central 

point for consensus building and public involvement 

in water issues in the Verde River Watershed. The 

association is an outgrowth of efforts toward the 

resolution of watershed issues without passing new 

laws, initiating regulations, or entering the win-lose 

arena of litigation. The association is premised on the 

idea that truly effective river management and 

protection strategies cannot succeed without local 

consensus and support. The establishment of the 

Verde Watershed Association and subsequent 

activities surrounding the association resulted in the 

national organization American Rivers removing the 

Verde River from its list of the 20 most endangered 

rivers in the United States. 

[CONSENSUS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIVER 

ECOLOGY; WATER ISSUES; WATERSHED] 

183. Booth,DT (1992): Bitterbrush dormancy - a 

discussion. p. 208-21 1. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [comp.]. 

Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Seed dormancy in bitterbrush may be due to: (1) 

direct interference with the cell metabolism (inhibitor 

theory), or (2) an oxygen deficient, non-dormant 

embryo (the hypoxic theory). Results to date indicate 

that bitterbrush seed-coat chemicals will inhibit 

glycolysis. 

[BITTERBRUSH; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SEED 

PRODUCTION] 

184. Boring,KK; Boring,L; Harris,T; Cubbage,F 

(1988): Section 404 Federal Wetlands Regulation: 

defining wetlands and Corps jurisdiction. TOPS. 

Spring 1988.21 p. 

A review of federal law that has evolved 

regarding the waters of the United States that fall 

under the 404 permit requirements administered by 

the COE (Corps of Engineers). Comparison of the 

scientific concept of wetlands with the current 

method of wetlands delineation employed by the 

COE. 

[CLEAN WATER ACT; REGULATIONS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

185. Born,SM; Rumery,C (1989): Institutional 

aspects of lake management. Environmental 

Management 13(1), 1-13. 

The major barriers to successful lake 

management are institutional but these aspects have 

received little attention. These institutional factors 

include: overlapping areal jurisdictions among 

governmental units, fragmented functional program 

responsibilities, ineffective coordination, limited 

authority, financial constraints, private sector roles, 

and inadequate public awareness and consensus. 

Because lake management programs with 

institutional shortcomings rarely realize their goals, it 

is critical to assimilate, evaluate, and apply this 

experience in order to effectively manage lake 

resources. 

[LACUSTRINE ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

186. Bornette,G; Amoros,C; Lamouroux,N 

(1998): Aquatic plant diversity in riverine 

wetlands: The role of connectivity. Freshwater 

Biology 39,267-283. 

The study tested the hypothesis that intermediate 

connectivity to a river results in propagule inputs to 
wetlands, whereas excessive connectivity causes less 

competitive species to be eliminated, with no 

recruitment of new species. As a consequence, very 

low or very high nutrient levels should decrease 

species richness by selecting specialized species, 

whereas intermediate nutrient levels should favor the 

co-occurrence of species with contrasting nutrient 

requirements. In the study, the most frequently 

flooded channel showed the highest species richness 

and occurrence or rare and fugitive species, because 

of floods which compensate competition by scouring 

sediments and plants, and afford regeneration niches 

for propagules. In this case, conservation of 

biodiversity necessitates propagule sources at the 

level of the river landscape. 

[BIODIVERSITY; CONNECTIVITY; 

ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

187. Borutski,D (1988): The Alberta streambank 

fencing program. p.133-137. In: Mutz,K; 

Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK 1eds.l. 

Restoration, creation, and management of 

wetlands and riparian ecosystems in the American 

West. A symposium of the Rocky Mountain 

Chapter of the Society of Wetland Scientists. 

14-1 6 November 1988. Denver, CO. 

The streambank fencing program in Alberta has 

experienced a high degree of public support because 

of dramatic increases in fish populations and angling 

use. Landowner concerns, however, continue to be 

problematical. Strategies to address these concerns 

include: financial and other forms of compensation 

for lost agricultural production in riparian areas, 

implementation of low-impact grazing systems, and 

land exchanges to acquire desirable riparian areas. 

[RIPARIAN ENHANCEMENT; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

188. Bottom,DL; Howell,PJ; Rodgers,JD (1 985): 

The effects of stream alterations on salmon and 

trout habitat in Oregon. Oregon Dept. of Fish and 

Wildlife. Portland, OR. 70 p. 

Many pollution problems are to some extent the 

products of natural processes. Erosion and mass soil 

movements have always occurred and will continue. 

Flooding in winter and spring and low water 

flows-warm water during the summer are normal 

cycles for many streams. Fish are adapted to the 

environment in which they have evolved and have 

survived many perturbations and changes in their 

habitats. Many natural processes are beneficial to fish 

production even though they may have negative 

short-term impacts. Runoff from the land contains 

nutrients that increase stream productivity. Bank 

cutting and landslides release spawning gravel and 

add structural elements to streams. Soil and water are 

both organs of a single landscape. Principal habitat 

problems affecting fisheries begin when land use 

practices greatly accelerate these processes. 

Salmonids are not able to tolerate many of the large 

scale changes brought about by land use practices. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

189. Boughton,WC (1986): Evaluating partial 

areas of watershed runoff. Journal of Irrigation 

and Drainage Engineering 113(3), 356-366. 

Variations in surface storage capacity over a 

watershed produce partial areas of saturation 

overland flow, which vary from storm to storm. A 

method is described by which the proportions of the 

watershed that contributes overland flow in different 

storms and at different times during the same storm 

can be determined by analysis of rainfall and runoff 

records. The method was demonstrated on two 

catchments in Australia. The calculated amounts and 

proportions of surface storage capacity were 

incorporated into water balance models of watershed 

runoff to show the accuracy of runoff estimation. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; RUNOFF; 

WATERSHED] 

190. Boule,ME (1988): Wetland creation and 

enhancement in the Pacific Northwest. p.130-135. 

In: Zelazny, J; Feierbend, JS leds.). Increasing 

our wetland resources. National Wildlife 

Federation Proceedings. Washington DC. 

Enhancement and creation of wetlands have 

become common components of suburban 

development activities in western Washington and 

elsewhere. Enhancement of storm water storage 

functions has often been a key goal of project design, 

but concern for water quality, fisheries and wildlife 

habitat, and aesthetic values is also important. Design 

of enhancement projects should be based on 

incorporation of these elements into overall project 

goals and objectives as defined by the project 

proponent and the regulatory agencies. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

191. Bovee,KD (1982): A guide to stream habitat 

analysis using the instream flow incremental 

methodology. Instream Flow Information Paper 

No. 12. USDl Fish and Wildlife 

ServicelOBS-82126.248 p. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 
FLOW] 

192. Bowers,W; Hosford,B; Oakley,A; Bond,C 

(1979): Wildlife habitats in managed rangelands. 

The Great Basin of southeastern Oregon. Native 

trout. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report PNW-84.16 p. 

All land management activities on managed 

rangelands will have some impacts on fish habitats; 

those in the riparian zone will have the greatest 

impacts. Native trout populations of the Great Basin 

exhibit predictable responses to alterations in their 

habitats; optimum production of native trout is 

therefore achievable through careful habitat 

management. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; TROUT] 

193. Bowers,W; Hosford,W; Oakley,A; Bond$ 

(1979): Native trout habitat in managed 

rangelands. In: Thomas,JW; Maser$ led.]. 

Wildlife habitats in managed rangelands -- the 

Great Basin of Southeastern Oregon. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

PNW-80. 

There were studies available that defined the 

habitat components necessary for good trout 

production, identified limiting factors, and described 

land-use conflicts. Data specific to southeastern 

Oregon and other locations were synthesized to 

provide rangeland managers with the information 

necessary to make the best possible decisions with 

respect to fish habitat management. The objectives of 

the authors were to present those data in ways that 

would assist managers in evaluating trade-offs while 

achieving short-term management goals and provide 

a tool that could be used in long-range land use 

planning. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; TROUT] 

194. Braasch,S; Tanner,GW (1989): Riparian 

zone inventory. Rangelands 1 1 (3), 103-1 06. 

Riparian zones were characterized at 13 

locations along Jim Creek in southern Colorado using 

the Pfankuch Channel Stability Rating, which 

considered the vegetative aspects along the stream 

bank. Within each zone, various attributes were 

evaluated visually and then ranked numerically. 

Evaluations were influenced by both cattle and 

beaver impacts. 

[BEAVER; GRAZING IMPACTS; INVENTORY; 

PFANKUCH STREAM CHANNEL 

EVALUATION] 

195. Braatne,JH; Hinckley,TM; Stettler,RF 

(1992): Influence of soil water on the physiological 

and morphological components of plant water 

balance in Populus trichocarpa, Populus deltoides, 

and their FI hybrids. Tree Physiology 1 I, 325-339. 

Patterns of leaf growth and whole-plant water 

balance in Populus trichocarpa, P. deltoides, and 

their F1 hybrids were studied during a soil drying 

cycle. Survival was more strongly correlated with the 

hydraulic conductivity than with the dehydration 

tolerance of leaf tissues. Collectively, responses 

suggested that F1 hybrids were more drought 

resistant than either parental species and highlight the 

importance of whole-plant studies of functional 

relationships between plant growth, water balance 

and hydraulic conductivity. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

SOI1,-WATER CONDITIONS] 

196. Rradford,JM; Farrel1,DA; Larson,WE 

(1973): Mathematical evaluation of factors 

affecting gully stability. Soil Science Society of 

America Proceedings 37,103-107. 

A study of the factors influencing the stability of 

gully banks was conducted. A two-dimensional 

stability analysis was completed using the Simplified 

Bishop Method of Slices. Where the angle of internal 

friction was =<35 degrees, vertical, saturated, or 

near-saturated gully walls in loessial soils will fail if 

a ground water table exists at the base of the wall and 

if the cohesion for the saturated soil system is zero at 

a hydrostatic pressure of zero. The calculated 

stability for gully banks is relatively insensitive to 

slope height and soil bulk density. Tension cracks 

that open back from the gully face do not materially 

influence stability. The effect of infiltration rate into 

the soil on the stability of the gully wall depends 

upon the rate of water conductivity through the soil 

or the level of the ground water table. Increasing 

infiltration rate decreases stability. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GULLY CONTROL; 

SEDIMENTATION; SOILS] 

197. Bradford,JM; Piest,RF (1977): Gully wall 

stability in loess-derived alluvium. Soil Science 

Society of America Proceedings 41, 115-122. 

An instrumented vertical slope was used to 

investigate triggering mechanisms that initiate gully 

wall failure in loess-derived alluvium. Relevance of 

hydrology, soil morphology, and soil mechanics to 

gully slumping was examined. Conventional limit 

equilibrium slope stability methods were of little 

value in predicting failure volumes or in 

understanding the failure mechanics. The geometry 
and time of failure are greatly influenced by the 

structural features of loess-derived alluvium and by 

the dependence of the shear strength on the pore 

water pressure within the soil. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GULLY CONTROL; 

SEDIMENTATION; STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

198. Bradley,C (1993): A conservation and 

management strategy for riparian forests in 

southern Alberta. p.246. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH (tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The strategy document contains a statement of 

vision and mission, guiding principles, and 

recommended goals, objectives, and actions. 

[CONSERVATION; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

199. Bradshaw,S (1993): The river through the 

recreationist lens. p. 43-45. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Sewice. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The River Restoration Funds in Montana is a 

rewarding initiative that involves partnerships 

between sportsmen and landowners. Emphasis should 

be on similar programs on a larger scale. Approaches 

that are permanent and effective will only arise out of 

a sense of shared responsibility. 

[PARTNERSHIPS; RECREATION IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

200. Brady,W; Patton,DR; Paxson,J (1985): The 

development of southwestern riparian gallery 

forests. p.39-43. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Riparian gallery forests along two southwestern 

rivers are described in a developmental continuum 

ranging from nursery bar to mature forest. Habitats 

suitable for tree production are recognizable by their 

position relative to the active water course. Sites are 

typically located in overflow channels and only 

receive flow during flooding. Floods and subsequent 

aggradation appear to be the major variables for the 

natural sequence of development within riparian 

stands. 

[GALLERY FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

201. Braun,R (1986): Livestock grazing in 

riparian zones: Ensuring fishery protection in 

federal rangeland management. Anadromous Fish 

Law Memo. Issue No. 37. October 1986. 18 p. 

Natural Resource Law Institute, Lewis and Clark 

College, Portland, OR. 

This memo discusses: 1) the functions of riparian 

ecosystems and information about the benefits of 

riparian zone restoration; 2) the conflict between 

livestock grazing and restoration of riparian zones; 3) 

the evolution of range management policy from the 

enactment of the Taylor Grazing Act through recent 

judicial interpretation of the Public Rangeland 

Improvement Act of 1978, and (4) the role of the 

Cleun Water Act in limiting BLM discretion to 

forestall or scale down riparian zone restoration, 

including the availability of citizen suits to enforce 

agency compliance with water quality laws. The 

memo concludes that the agencies involved must 

give a high priority to implementing a program for 

rehabilitation of streamside ecosystems. 

[CLEAN WATER ACT; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WATER LAW] 

202. Braun,RH (1986): Emerging limits on 

federal land management discretion: Livestock, 

riparian ecosystems, and Clean Water Law. 

Environmental Law 17(43), 43-79. 

Historically, unregulated use of the public range 

by domestic livestock destroyed the health and 

benefits of vast quantities of riparian ecology. 

Although recent evidence demonstrates that riparian 

systems have remarkable restorative capacity, there is 

currently no national program to begin that 

restoration. The lack of such a program is largely due 

to the fact that federal land management law provides 

no judicially enforceable duties to restore damaged 

ecological systems. This article discusses the 

ecological role of riparian systems, the history of 

their destruction, and the failure of land management 

law to adequately address their restoration. The 

article concludes that agency discretion to ignore 

ecological restoration is substantially constrained by 

resource specific statutes such as the Clean Water 

Act. 

[CLEAN WATER ACT; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; WATER LAW] 
203. Bravo,M (1993): A view from the Hualapai 

tribe. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH Itech. coord.1. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

The Hualapai tribe owns lands which include 

108 miles of frontage on the Colorado River within 

the Grand Canyon. At present, the tribe is involved in 

several cooperative projects regarding environmental 

issues with contractors and consultants. They are now 

seeking equity with federal and state agencies in 

dealing with concerns and problems related to 

riparian management. 

[COLORADO RIVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

204. Brayton,D Scott (1984): The beaver and the 

stream. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 

March-April 1984,108-109. 

Riparian restoration using beavers instead of 

bulldozers is attracting wide attention. In Wyoming, 

beavers incorporated old truck tires provided by 

biologists into aspen log dams which now collect 10 

X more sediment than normal log dams. Three years 

after beaver introduction, willows have returned in 

abundance, and the water table rose to encourage 

growth of aquatic vegetation. Marsh and wet 

meadow habitat were created and more wildlife are 

seen in the area. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

205. Breeding,NA (1996): Management plan for 

the Rio Cebolla watershed, Sandoval County and 

Rio Arriba County, New Mexico. p.346-350. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM (tech. coord.1. Desired 

future conditions for Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-GTR-272. 

The upper 16.8 miles of the Rio Cebolla 

watershed were studied to identify water-related 

management concerns. Land ownership is divided 

between private, state, and federal. Recreation is the 

predominant activity, particularly fishing and 

camping. Other major land users are residents of the 

Seven Springs Community, cattle grazers, and fish 

hatchery employees. In 1994-95, a program to 

reintroduce now vanished Rio Grande cutthroat trout 

into the less accessible reaches of the river was 

undertaken. Water quality problems include 

eutrophication of Fenton Lake reservoir, riparian 

damage, and heavy sediment in the river. As a result, 

fish productivity is low, fishing is poor, and scenic 

enjoyment is spoiled. A watershed management plan 

is proposed to remedy these problems. 

Implementation of the plan is cost-effective, as the 

benefitlcost ratio equals 2.5. Benefits are derived 

from the value of an angler day. 

[FISH HABITAT; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER 

QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

206. Bren,LJ (1993): Riparian zone, stream, and 

floodplain issues; A review. Journal of Hydrology, 

150: 277-299. 

The effects of forest management on streams, 

riparian zones, and floodplains has become a focal 

issue in recent years. There is general agreement that 

such areas should be managed in a state of 

"naturalness", although the definition of that term is 

subject to debate. A number of management 

standards have been recognized, however, and some 

quantified. Issues regarding upland catchments 

particularly relate to direct disturbance in the zone, 

changes in the flow of woody debris into the stream, 

or disturbance to the environment by occurrences 

upstream or downstream. For large rivers, the most 

common issue is the effect of river management on 

flooding forests. Most collected data and information 

tends to be at a local level, but the concept of 

"cumulative effects" has much potential value. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; LARGE WOODY 

DEBRIS; RIPARIAN ZONES; RIPARIAN 

FOREST] 

207. Brenner,FJ (1986): Evaluation and 

mitigation of wetland habitats on mined lands. In: 

The 1986 national symposium on mining, 

hydrology, sedimentology, and reclamation. 8-12 

December 1986. Lexington, KY. 

Wetland evaluation and mitigation criteria based 

on ecological principles is proposed as a guide to 

both regulatory agencies and the mining industry. 

These criteria may include Habitat Evaluation 

Procedures (HEP) developed by USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service andlor other operational variables 

concerned with the severity of impact and the costs 

and technical aspects of mitigation. Regional 

numerical indices should be developed for 

established wetlands that impacted wetlands can be 

compared with on a regional basis. Mitigated 

wetlands should be concerned not only with the 

principle species being impacted by mining but also 

with the ecology of the region. 

[HYDROLOGY; MINING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 
(1991): Steel rod oxidation as a hydraulic 

indicator in wetland soils. American Journal of 

the Soil Science Society 55,856-862. 

Depth of rusting on steel rods is proposed as an 

inexpensive means of determining depth to the water 

table. In laboratory microcosms, the steel rod rusting 

depth exactly matched water-table levels under both 

permanently flooded and drained conditions. Under a 

rapidly fluctuating hydrology, however, once heavy 

rust formed on the rods, it did not dissolve upon 

partial flooding. 

[HYDROLOGY; SOILS; WATER TABLE 

EFFECTS] 

209. Briggs,M (1 995): Evaluating degraded 

riparian ecosystems to determine the potential 

effectiveness of revegetation. p.63-67. In: 

Roundy,BA; McArthur,ED; Haley,JS; Mann,DK 

Icomp.1. Proceedings: Wildland shrubs and arid 

land restoration symposium. 19-21 October 1993. 

Las Vegas, NV. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-GTR-315. 

Revegetation is often limited in its ability to 

improve the condition of degraded riparian 

ecosystems. In some cases, revegetation has been 

implemented in riparian areas that were fully capable 

of coming back naturally. In other instances, 

plantings were made in riparian sites where they 

could not survive. To accomplish riparian 

revegetation most effectively, the causes of site 

decline and the current ecological condition of the 

site need to be understood. This can best be 

accomplished by evaluating the condition of the 

riparian ecosystem from a watershed perspective that 

takes into consideration how perturbations in 

surrounding ecosystems may be affecting site 

conditions. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WATERSHED] 

210. Briggs,MK (1996): Riparian ecosystem 

recovery in arid lands. 1st ed. University of 

Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. 159 p. 

Ecosystem managers have an increased need to 

restore riparian ecosystems in the arid West that have 

been degraded by land and water management 

practices. The author emphasizes several concepts 

that should be fundamental to restoration projects but 

are often ignored. One of these is that the underlying 

causes of degradation need to be identified before 

restoration projects are undertaken. He also 

advocates considering multiple impacts, interactions 

between impacts, and site history when assessing 

causes of site degradation. Causes can be complex 

and difficult to assess and may include depletion of 

water availability by ground water pumping, 

alteration of flood water regimes, overgrazing by 

cattle, and increased soil salinity from upstream 

agricultural activities, and others. Another related 

concept is that riparian restoration is often best 

accomplished by restoring natural processes or 

conditions, then allowing these factors to restore the 

ecosystem naturally. Because of resiliency, most 

riparian ecosystems will undergo natural recovery 

over time. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

21 1. Briggs,MK (1 997): Riparian river 

restoration and conservation - Some lessons from 

the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico. In: 

Proceedings of the Society of Wetland Scientists. 

18th annual meeting. Restoration and 

Management Notes 16(1):92. 

Four factors play a critical role in stemming 

ecological decline and improving riparian site 

stability: 1) recovery strategies need to address the 

principal causes of ecological decline; 2) strategies 

need to be developed from a watershed perspective; 

3) an awareness of current conditions such as stream 

flow, depth-to-groundwater, and soil chemistry is 

critical to an effective riparian recovery plan; and 4) 

working with local community peoples can provide 

crucial benefits to increase long-term effectiveness. 

[COLLABORATION; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

STREAM FLOW; WATERSHED] 

212. Brinson,MM (1980): Riparian and 

floodplain ecosystems functions, values, and 

management. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Biological Sewices Program, Eastern Energy and 

Land Use Team. Kearneysville, WV. 7 p. 

This is a preview summary of a iiture 

manuscript that would focus on the functions, values, 

and management of riparian and floodplain 

ecosystems. The purpose of that effort was to 

document and interpret the available information so 

that consequences of riparianlfloodplain alteration 

and deterioration could be assessed at a national 

level. 

[ECONOMICS; FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

213. Brinson,MM (1988): Strategies for assessing 

the cumulative effects of wetland alteration on 

water quality. Environmental Management 12(5), 

655-662. 

Three fundamental wetland categories should be 
recognized for the assessment of cumulative impacts 

on wetlands: basin, riverine, and fringe. Basin, or 

depressional, wetlands are located in headwater 

areas, and capture runoff from small areas. Riverine 

wetlands interface extensively with uplands. Fringe 

wetlands are very small in comparison with the large 

bodies of water that flush them. The relative 

proportion of these wetland types within a watershed 

and their reactive status to past impacts can be used 

to develop strategies for wetland protection. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; WATERSHED; 

WETLANDS] 

214. Brinson,MM; Swift,BL; Plantico,RC; 

Barclay,JS (1981): Riparian ecosystems: Their 

ecology and status. USDI Fish and Wildlife 

Sewice, Biological Services Program. 

FWSIOBS-81117. 

This is a comprehensive manuscript that 

addresses the functions, values, and management of 

riparian and floodplain ecosystems. It documents and 

interprets available information on these ecosystems 

so that consequences of their alteration and 

degradation can be assessed on a national level. The 

document focuses on the issues of major concern that 

might impinge upon riparian and floodplain 

ecosystems. It also discusses the common properties 

of these ecosystems in order to simplify 

recommendations and decisions that affect their 

management and protection. 

[CLASSIFICATION; FLOODPLAIN 

MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

215. Britton,CM; Cornely,JE; Sneva,FA (1980): 

Burning, haying, grazing, and non-use of flood 

meadow vegetation. p.7-9. 1980 Progress Report, 

Research in rangeland management, Agricultural 

Experiment Station, Oregon State University 

Cowallis, OR. Special Report 586. 

This study evaluated vegetative response to 

burning and grazing plots that had been in non-use 

for 3 years. Burning provided the greatest maximum 

height and yield of vegetation after non-use. Grazing, 

however, produced the most desirable overall 

response. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

MEADOWS; VEGETATION MANIPULATION; 

WETLANDS] 

216. Britton,CM; Sneva,FA (1979): Effects of 

haying and non-use on flood meadow vegetation. 

p. 5-7. In: Research in rangeland management. 

Oregon State University. Cowallis, OR. Special 

Report 549. 

Management of flood meadow vegetation 

appears to have dramatic effects on the ability of 

these areas to produce and the species composition of 

what is produced. This study compared an area that 

was hayed with an area that was not. The comparison 

was made through measurements of herbage yield 

and plant species composition. Non-use had a 

pronounced effect on meadow vegetation. 

[MEADOWS; RIPARlAN HABITAT] 

217. Brock,JH (1985): Physical characteristics 

and pedogenesis of soils in riparian habitats along 

the upper Gila River basin. p.49-53. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton;DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH (tech.coord.1. Riparian ecosystems and 

their management: Reconciling conflicting uses, 

16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Knowledge of soils in southwestern riparian 

habitats is minimal. Soil profiles in the riparian zone 

on the Gila and San Franscisco Rivers were studied. 

The soils that support trees can be classified as 

Torrifluvents or on the more stable sites as 

Haplustolls. Coarse textures and low water holding 

capacity are dominant characteristics. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS] 

21 8. Brode,JM; Bury,RB (1984): The importance 

of riparian systems to amphibians and reptiles. 

p.30-36, In: Warner,RE; Hendrix,KM (eds.1. 

Proceedings of the California riparian systems 

conference. 17-19 September 1981. Davis, CA. 

University of California. Berkeley, CA. 

California has a rich herpetofauna which 

includes about 120 native species. Riparian systems 

provide habitat for 83 percent of the amphibian and 

40 percent of the reptile species. Amphibians and 

reptiles utilize these systems to varying degrees and 

can be classified according to the type of use. 

Riparian systems provide corridors for dispersal and 

also allow certain species to use otherwise unsuitable 

environments. Timber harvesting and water 

diversions are detrimental to amphibians and reptiles 

in the zone of influence of such activities because 

their entire life histories occur in the riparian zone. 

[HERPETOFAUNA; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

219. Brothers,TS (1984): Historical vegetation 

change in the Owens River riparian woodland. p. 

75-84. In: Warner,RE; Hendrix,KM 1eds.l 

California riparian systems: Ecology, 

consewation and productive management. 17-1 9 
September 1981. Berkeley, CA. 

Human-caused vegetation change in the Owens 

River, California, is evaluated. Greatest changes have 

occurred below the intake of the Los Angeles 

Aqueduct, where drying of the channel has 

eliminated most native riparian cover and allowed 

invasion of salt cedar. Fire, water management, and 

other factors may have reduced tree cover above the 

aqueduct intake and encouraged proliferation of 

weedy native shrubs. Present scarcity of tree 

seedlings suggests that one or more of these factors 

continues to inhibit tree regeneration. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; HUMAN IMPACTS; 

PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

220. Brouha,P; Chappell,W (1997): A watershed 

call to arms. Fisheries 22(5), 4. 

Current understanding and knowledge of the 

effects of chemical, biological, and mechanical 

processes in North America's streams and rivers is 

often inadequate and not well applied. Public policies 

often aggravate watershed problems. Inadequate and 

misapplied policies are a major cause of continued 

deterioration of many of our watersheds. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WATERSHED] 

221. Brown,AV; Lyttle,MM; Brown,KB (1998): 

Impact of gravel mining on gravel bed streams. 

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 

127: 979-994. 

Gravel mining in Arkansas streams significantly 

altered the geomorphology, fine particle dynamics, 

turbidity, and biotic communities. Stream channel 

form was altered by increased bankfull widths, 

lengthened pools, and decreased riffles in affected 

reaches. Fine particulate organic matter transported 

from riffles to pools was decreased. Biofilm organic 

content was decreased on flats and increased on 

remaining riffles. Density and biomass of large 

invertebrates and density of small invertebrates were 

reduced by mined sites. Total densities of fish in 

pools and game fish in pools and riffles were 

reduced. Silt-sensitive species of fish were less 

numerous downstream from mines. Many attempts at 

restoration or mitigation prove to be ineffective. 

Mining gravel from streams results in irreconcilable 

conflicts. 

[FISH HABITAT; MINING IMPACTS; RIVER 

ECOLOGY; WATER QUALITY] 

222. Brown,BT; Trosset,MW (1989): Nesting 

habitat relationships of riparian birds along the 

Colorado River in Grand Canyon, AZ. The 

Southwestern Naturalist 34(2), 260-270. 

Vegetation structure and the numbers of shrubs 

were measured at nest sites of 1 1 species of riparian 

birds in a tamarisk community to characterize 

breeding habitat by species. Riparian birds exhibited 

significant differences in their use of nesting habitat. 

Bell's vireo, yellow warbler, and yellow-breasted 

chat were relative generalists in their use of nesting 

habitat, while common yellow-throat and Bullock's 

oriole were relative specialists. Bell's vireo and 

American coot used the most dissimilar habitats. 

Willow flycatcher and yellow warbler consistently 

used habitat most similar to that used by other 

species. The tamarisk community created by the 

operation of the Glen's Ferry Dam represents the 

ecological equivalent of native habitat for some 

riparian birds, and its presence has enhanced 

breeding habitat for these 1 1 species of birds. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; CLASSIFICATION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SALT-CEDAR] 

223. Brown,CB; Murphy,WT (1955): 

Conservation begins on the watersheds. p.161-165. 

In: Water: The yearbook of agriculture. 84th 

Congress. House document No. 32. 

At the time of writing, the concept of small 

watershed management was just beginning to be 

applied on the ground. National programs of 

assistance to landowners had not provided adequate 

aid in the resolution of interrelated community 

problems. Such problems included local agricultural 

and urban flood control, mutual irrigation 

developments, drainage improvements on creeks, 

local water supplies, pollution abatement on 

tributaries, wildlife habitat improvements, and 

stabilization of eroded and degraded lands. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; PLANNING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATERSHED] 

224. Brown,CR (1990): Avian use of native and 

exotic riparian habitats on the Snake River, 

Idaho. M.Sc. Thesis, Colorado State University, 

Ft. Collins, CO. 60 p. 

Avian use in 5 riparian habitat types (willow, 

Russian olive, willow-Russian olive mix, river birch 

and hackberry) was inventoried during the winter and 

breeding seasons, 1989. Twenty-two species were 

observed during winter inventories and 36 species 

observed during the breeding season of which 2 1 

species bred in the study area. Willow sites had 

higher species richness and density than the exotic 

Russian olive sites. 

[AVIFAUNA; BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 
225. Brown,DE (1981): Evolution and riparian 

dynamics. p.288-290. In: Warner,RE; 

Hendrix,KM eds.]. Proceedings of the California 

riparian systems conference. 17-19 September 

1981. Davis, CA. 

Perennial streams and marshes in Arizona have 

been mapped and classified under a new wetland 

classification system. The latter is systematic, 

universal, and hierarchical, and recognizes 

evolutionary relationships. Biogeography was an 

important consideration. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

226. Brown,DE; Carmony,NB; Turner,RM 

(1977): Inventory of riparian habitats. p.10-13. In: 

Johnson, RR; Jones, DA [tech. coord.1. 

Importance, preservation, and management of 

riparian habitat: A symposium. USDA Forest 

Service, General Technical Report RM-43. 

The paper presents a recently published map of 

Arizona's perennial streams and important wetlands. 

Perennial streams were illustrated rather than riparian 

vegetation because the streams were of more direct 

biotic significance and were more identifiable. 

[INVENTORY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

227. Brown,DE; Lowe,CH; Hausler,JF (1 977): 

Southwestern riparian communities: Their biotic 

importance and management in Arizona. p. 

201-211. In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA Itech. coord.]. 

Symposium on the importance, preservation and 

management of the riparian habitat. 9 July 1977. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-43. 

Various riparian communities occurring in 

Arizona and the southwest and their biotic 

importance are described. Recommendations are also 

made regarding management of streamside 

environments and watersheds. These include 

classification and inventory; determination of 

limiting factors; establishment of study areas; 

regulation and elimination of livestock grazing; water 

management projects; and watershed conservation. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

228. Brown,DE; Lowe,CH; Pase,CP (1 979): A 

digitized classification system for the biotic 

communities of North America, with community 

series and association examples for the Southwest. 

Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of 

Science 14(1), 1-16. 

[CLASSIFICATION] 

229. Brown,GW (1970): Predicting the effect of 

clear-cutting on stream temperatures. Journal of 

Soil and Water Conservation 25,ll-12. 

Temperature changes that occur between two 

points on a stream are strictly proportional to the 

surface area of the stream and the heat load applied 

between those points. They are also inversely 

proportional to flow. Adequate estimates of the heat 

load can be made with solar radiation data if the 

stream is uniformly exposed to sunlight. This 

technique can be used by foresters to predict the 

effect of clear-cutting on stream temperatures. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; SOLAR RADIATION; 

STREAM TEMPERATURE] 

230. Brown,GW; Beschta,RL (1985): The art of 

managing water. Journal of Forestry. October, 

1985,604-61 5. 

The forestry profession, sensitive to 

environmental problems, is in a good position to 

manage the nation's forest water resources but they 

face scientific, legal, social, and political issues. It is 

time to reinvest in water research for forestry, 

especially studies relating directly to intensive forest 

operations. 

[WATER QUALITY; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

231. Brown,CW; Krygier, JT (1971): Clear-cut 

logging and sediment production in the Oregon 

Coast Range. Water Resources Research 7(5), 

1 189-1 198. 

The impacts of clear-cutting, road construction, 

and slash burning were studied for 11 years. 

Sediment production was doubled after road 

construction but before logging in one watershed and 

tripled after burning and clear-cutting. Felling and 

yarding did not contribute significantly to sediment 

production. Conclusions were limited because of 

annual variation for each watershed, variation 

between watersheds, and variation with stage of the 

process. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; SEDIMENTATION; 

WATERSHED] 

232. Brown,J (1993): Play hard, play fair, 

nobody hurt. p.128-129. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian Management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

Strategies for river protection should include: 1) 

maintaining a regular presence at the statehouse and 
being available to legislators and agency personnel; 

2) avoid using deceptive tactics, gross exaggerations 

or misleading half-truths; and 3) those playing the 

political game must be sensitive and respectful to the 

needs and limitations of others. 

[POLITICAL ISSUES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIVER ECOLOGY] 

233. Brown,JE (1 994): Oregon's Forest Practices 

Act and riparian rules. p.51-59. In: 

Fredericton,NB led.]. Proceedings of the 

symposium on riparian zone management. 

Canadian Forest Service (Maritimes Region). 

Natural Resources Canada. 

Recent legislation amending Oregon's Forest 

Practices Act called for the Board of Forestry to 

review its classification of waters of the state and 

make appropriate changes to its riparian 

administrative rules. The Legislative Assembly did 

not provide any direction about the expected levels of 

protection for fish, wildlife, biodiversity, etc. To 

further complicate matters, the parties involved in 

negotiating the development of the Bill would not 

agree to a negotiated process to establish the levels of 

protection and develop the rules. Rather, they 

demanded that the Department of Forestry follow 

wherever "good science" might lead. Additionally, 

the Legislature constrained the project by 

establishing a deadline. The Department staff is 

currently working to redraft the administrative rules. 

[FOREST MANAGEMENT; POLICY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

234. Brown,JK (1989): Effects of fire on aquatic 

systems. p. 106-110. In: Proceedings of the wild 

trout IV symposium. Mammoth, WY. 18-19 

September 1989. 

Fire affects spawning areas and food habitat in 

streams by indirectly influencing water flow, 

nutrients, erosion, sedimentation, debris, and water 

temperature. The response of vegetation following 

fire is the most important factor affecting aquatic 

areas. Effects of fire on aquatic systems vary over 

time tending to be detrimental at first but often 

beneficial later. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

235. Brown,MK; Parsons,GR (1979): Waterfowl 

production on beaver flowages in a part of 

northern New York. New York Fish and Game 

Journal 26(2), 142-153. 

Waterfowl were observed on numerous 

occasions on selected beaver flowages in upstate 

New York. These flowages were classified as new 

active, old active, or abandoned. New active 

flowages were used to a greater degree than the other 

classifications. The use by waterfowl of these 

flowages was concluded to be sufficient to warrant a 

beaver management program that would in turn 

benefit waterfowl. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATERFOWL 

MANAGEMENT] 

236. Brown,TC; Daniel,TC (1991): Landscape 

aesthetics of riparian environments: Relationship 

of flow quantity to scenic quality along a wild and 

scenic river. Water Resources Research 27(8), 

1 787-1 795. 

The relationship between flow quantity and 

scenic quality was measured for a "wild and scenic" 

river in Colorado. Respondents' scenic beauty 

judgements of video sequences depicting the river at 

flow rates of 120 to 2650 cfs were scaled to an 

interval scale measure of perceived scenic beauty 

following psycho-physical procedures. Regressions 

of scenic beauty on variables describing flow 

increased up to about 1 100 - 1500 cfs and then fell as 

flow continued to increase. Optimum flows for scenic 

quality typically occur for two short periods each 

year, during the ascending and descending portions 

of the annual late spring runoff season. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SCENIC QUALITY; 

STREAM FLOW] 

237. Brunsfeld,SJ; Johnson,FD (1985): Field 

guide to the willows of east-central Idaho. College 

of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences, 

University of Idaho, Moscow, ID. Bulletin No. 39. 

95 p. 

An illustrated handbook for field identification 

of willow species growing in east-central Idaho. A 

key for species identification is included. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN PLANTS; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

238. Brussock,PP; Brown,AV; Dixon,JC (1985): 

Channel form and stream ecosystem models. 

Water Resources Bulletin 21(5), 859-866. 

The authors propose to classify running water 

habitats based on their channel form which can be 

considered in three different sedimentological 

settings: a cobble and boulder bed channel, a gravel 

bed channel, or a sand bed channel. The physical 

factors - relief, lithology, and runoff - were selected 

as state factors that control all other interacting 

parameters associated with channel form. Integrating 

these factors produced seven distinct stream regions 
each representing a succession of channel forms 

downstream. These applications refine the River 

Continuum Concept by recognizing the nonrandomness of the effects of geomorphology on 

stream ecosystems. This is a regional perspective of 

streams that enhances the geographical 

considerations affecting study areas. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

239. Bryan,RB; Campbell,IA (1982): Surface 

flow and erosional processes in semiarid mesoscale channels and drainage basins. p.123-133. In: 

Proceedings of the Exeter symposium: Recent 

developments in the explanation and prediction of 

erosion and sediment yield. July 1982. IAHS Publ. 

No. 137. 

Detailed studies of surface flow and initiation of 

channels and drainage networks are facilitated in 

badlands where barren, rapidly eroded surfaces offer 

ideal sites for micro and meso-scale experiments. In 

the micro-scale application, the response of 

dessicated shales depends on the detailed interaction 

of raindrop impact, particle detachment, surface 

sealing and sub-surface flow, while indurated 

sandstones and pediments yield flow and sediment 

almost instantly, even under low rainfall. The water 

and sediment flows from a complex system and 

different response thresholds pose considerable 

problems for precise monitoring in meso-scale 

applications. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; DRAINAGES; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; STREAMBANK 

PROTECTION] 

240. Bryant,HT; Blaser,RE; Peterson,JR (1972). 

Effect of trampling by cattle on bluegrass yield 

and soil compaction of a Meadowville Loam. 

Agronomy Journal 64,331-334. 

This study evaluated the tolerance of loam soils 

and bluegrass to trampling by cattle. The trampling 

pressures, repeated four times a year, were 0,60, and 

120 trips per cow. As trampling pressure increased, 

maximum resistance to the penetrometer was 

encountered closer to the soil surface. The height of 

forage at trampling had no significant effect on either 

the force required to penetrate the soil or depth of 

soil at which maximum resistance to penetration was 

encountered. Increasing trampling pressure had a 

significantly adverse effect on forage yield for 

tramplings in June and September. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

SOILS] 

241. Bryant,LD (1982): Livestock response to 

riparian zone exclusion. Journal of Range 

Management 35(6), 780-785. 

The best alternative for rapid restoration of 

streamside riparian zones is fencing. While excluding 

the major portion of the riparian zone by fencing, use 

by cows with calves and by yearlings was evaluated 

on the remaining portion. Both classes of livestock 

generally selected the riparian zone over the uplands 

throughout most of the summer grazing season. Both 

classes of livestock reversed their selection in favor 

of upland vegetation in the latter part of the season. 

Slopes less than 35 percent were preferred. Cows 

were more selective in use of certain plant 

communities than yearlings and, contrary to usual 

findings, distributed themselves over the range better 

than yearlings. Neither salt placement nor alternate 

water location away from the riparian zone 

influenced livestock distribution appreciably. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

242. Bryant,LD (1985): Livestock management 

in the riparian ecosystem. p.285-289. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Sewice. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Intensive, long-term livestock grazing has 

occurred along most streams in the western United 

States. Although most livestock grazing on public 

lands is now under some form of management, many 

riparian areas are below "good" in ecological 

condition, with forage production considerably below 

normal. Eight years of research in northeast Oregon 

indicates that forage production was increased 1-4 X 

through timing and season of grazing. Grazing 

systems did not statistically affect plant composition 

but production of graminoids and forbs were 

increased dramatically. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING 

TREATMENTS] 

243. Bryant,LD; Skovlin,JM (1982): Effect of 

grazing strategies and rehabilitation on an eastern 

Oregon stream. p.27-30. In: Proceedings: Habitat 

disturbance and recovery. California Trout, Inc., 

San Francisco, CA. 

Planting conifers adjacent to the riparian zone 

was not successful even where cattle did not graze. 

Since conifers within the riparian zone or adjacent 

flood plain can provide important shade and cover, 

however, a successful methodology should be 
pursued. Streambanks can be stabilized by planting 

native shrub cuttings, and growth can be accelerated 

if they are protected from grazing. Browsing of 

native shrubs, primarily mountain alder, averaged 

between 60-65 percent, where cattle, deer, and elk 

had unlimited access, regardless of grazing treatment. 

Big game apparently accounted for 25-30 percent of 

this use. This degree of browsing did not appear to be 

detrimental to established shrubs, it could have 

adverse effects on natural regeneration and stand 

recruitment. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

244. Bryant,MD (1983). The role and 

management of woody debris in west coast 

salmonid nursery streams. North American 

Journal of Fisheries Management. 3:322-330. 

Management techniques for small streams in 

logged watersheds frequently include debris removal. 

Many stream cleaning techniques, however, overlook 

important habitat requirements ofjuvenile salmonids. 

Reviews of past management practices show little 

systematic evaluation or monitoring of biological or 

physical effects. This paper discusses: I) past vs. 

current management of woody debris resulting from 

logging operations; 2) summarizes the role of woody 

debris and its effect on salmonid habitat; and 3) 

presents general guidelines for debris management in 

anadromous salmonid streams. 

[FISH HABITAT; LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; 

LOGGING IMPACTS] 

245. Bryant,MD (1985): Changes 30 years after 

logging in large woody debris, and its use by 

salmonids. p.329-334. In: Johnson,RR, 

Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Changes in large woody debris in fourth- and 

fifth-order salmon streams with logged, unlogged, 

and partially logged riparian zones were documented 

over a 30-year period. Most changes in the amount of 

large woody debris occurred in the logged systems. 

During and immediately after logging large increases 

were noted. Amounts in the other categories 

remained relatively stable. Thirty years after logging, 

habitat formed as a result of large debris provided 

important rearing areas for juvenile salmonids. 

Results from this study emphasize the importance of 

managing riparian zones as a source of large organic 

debris. 

[FISHERIES; LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; 

LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

246. Bryant,MD; Everest, FH (1998): 

Management and condition of watersheds in 

southeast Alaska: The persistence of anadromous 

salmon. Northwest Science 72(4), 249-269. 

Numerous intact or lightly disturbed watersheds 

are present throughout southeast Alaska that support 

abundant and diverse populations of anadromous 

salmonids. Significant human disturbance of the 

watersheds did not begin until the 1950's with the 

advent of commercial logging. The most intensive 

logging occurred in the first 20 years when there 

were few constraints. As a result, there is a legacy of 

streams with deteriorating habitat from that period. 

Escapement records on specific watersheds that were 

most affected by management are lacking. The 

present status of salmon stocks may be attributed to 

abundant intact watersheds, high marine survival, 

and escapement levels that fully seed most 

watersheds. Intact watersheds are the key to 

maintaining sustainable salmon stocks in this region. 

[ANADROMOUS FISH; FISH HABITAT; 

LOGGTNG IMPACTS; WATERSHED] 

247. Buckhouse,JC (1980): Water quality and its 

relationship to range livestock. p.1-3. In: 

Proceedings of the 1980 summer meeting of the 

American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 15-18 

July, 1980. San Antonio, TX. 

There have been many concerns in recent years 

over the compatibility of domestic livestock and 

other multiple uses. It appears that with appropriate 

managerial constraints, livestock can be compatible, 

and even an important managerial tool, in 

rangelandlriparian ecosystems. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; STREAMBANK 

STABILITY; WATER QUALITY] 

248. Buckhouse,JC (1984): Riparian shrubby 

vegetation protection against herbivore browsing. 

Water Resources Research Institute, WRRI-94. 

Corvallis, OR. 8 p. 

Plastic caps can be used to protect replanted 

shrubs from browsing by livestock. The caps provide 

adequate protection and divert the livestock to older 

shrubs. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

249. Buckhouse,JC (1984): Riparian shrubby 

vegetation protection against herbivore grazing. 
p.1-2. 1984 Progress report -- Research in 

rangeland management. Agricultural Experiment 

Station, Oregon State University Corvallis, OR. 

Special Report 71 5. 

Plastic-mesh bud caps have been used 

inexpensively to protect replantings in forest clearcuts. Their application to riparian zone plantings 

needs feasibility testing to determine if quick, 

low-cost rejuvenation of overgrazed streambanks 

might be possible while continuing to permit 

livestock needed livestock browsing of mature 

riparian vegetation. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

250. Buckhouse,JC (1985): Water and people: 

Common denominators in riparian zones. 

p.369-370. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-1 8 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

There are many approaches to allocating water. 

People are much harder to manage since they work 

from diverse social, psychological, economic, and 

aesthetic backgrounds. Any approach that brings 

people together makes the most sense for multiple 

use management. 

[COLLABORATION; HUMAN IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER ALLOCATION] 

251. Buckhouse,JC (1986): Riparian responses to 

various grazing systems and to periodic ice flows. 

p. 79-86. In: Gudmundsson,O. [ed.]. Grazing 

research at northern latitudes workshop. 5-10 

August 1986. Hvanneyri, Iceland, NATO 

Advanced Science Institutes Series: Series A. Life 

Sciences, Vol. 108. 

The rest-rotation grazing system appeared to 

favor increased infiltration, while deferred rotation 

and season-long grazing did not enhance and 

probably hindered it. Infiltration responded positively 

to a short-duration, high-intensity deferred rotation 

scenario in September and negatively to the same 

application in October because of the onset of fall 

rains. No grazing and season-long grazing following 

long periods of rest (4 years) appeared to be 

associated with the least bank loss. Season-long 

grazing for five consecutive years was associated 

with the most bank sloughing. Winter processes are 

also powerful influences on bank erosion. Major ice 

floes caused bank erosion throughout the whole 

stream system without regard to previous grazing 

treatment. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

252. Buckhouse,JC; Bohn,CC (1983): Response 

of coliform bacteria concentration to grazing 

management. p.1-7. In: 1983 Progress Report 

--Research in Rangeland Management. 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University Corvallis, OR. Special Report 682. 

T-tests were applied to determine if coliform 

counts changed significantly within grazing 

treatments/systems. Although large numerical 

differences were seen, differences between grazing 

systems were not statistically significant. The number 

of colonies and the range of the counts generally 

decreased the first year livestock were not present. 

These numbers, however, were not statistically 

significant. Interpretation of coliform data from 

non-point sources must be cautious and must 

recognize a large number of sources of variation. 

Recent literature suggests large indicator bacteria 

populations are present in the bottom sediments and 

may or may not track with pathogenic organisms. 

[COLIFORM BACTERIA; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

GRAZING TREATMENTS; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

WATER QUALITY] 

253. Buckhouse,JC; Gaither,RE (1982): Potential 

sediment production within vegetative 

communities in Oregon's Blue Mountains. Journal 

of Soil and Water Conservation March-April, 

1982, 120-1 22. 

A Rocky Mountain infiltrometer that simulated 

convectional rainstorms of 10 cm in 28 minutes was 

utilized to generate potential sediment losses from 10 

natural ecosystems in Oregon's Blue Mountains. The 

grassland ecosystem produced a potential sediment 

loss of 43 1 kmlha. Sagebrush and juniper ecosystems 

showed potential sediment losses exceeding the 

losses in all other ecosystems with rates of 1,284 and 

1,572 kmiha, respectively. As ecological condition 

class andlor vegetative productivity class changed 

within ecosystems, statistically significant changes in 

potential sediment production occurred. 

[HYDROLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; SOILS; 

WATERSHED] 

254. Buckhouse,JC; Skovlin,JM (1979): 

Streambank erosion in a Blue Mountain stringer 

meadow in response to livestock and big game 

grazing management. p. 2-4. In: Progress report -- 
Research in rangeland management. Agricultural 

Experiment Station, Oregon State University, 

Corvallis, OR. Special Report No. 549. 

Streambank erosional losses in response to 

several management schemes continue to be 

investigated on Meadow Creek in the Blue 

Mountains of Oregon. Evidence indicates that after 

two years of grazing treatment, no significant 

differences were apparent. It appeared that the over 

wintering processes of high water ice floes and 

channel physiognomy were at least as important in 

this stream system as the grazing management 

schemes under investigation. 

[EROSION; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

STREAMBANK PROTECTION] 

255. Buckhouse,JC; Skovlin,JM; Knight,RW 

(1981): Streambank erosion and ungulate grazing 

relationships. Journal of Range Management 

34(4), 339-340. 

Erosional patterns of streambanks were studied 

for 3 years in the Blue Mountains of Oregon. 

Livestock grazing use at the rate of 3.2 hdAUM (8 

acresIAUM) had not accelerated streambank 

degradation. Most erosion occurred during wintering 

periods and this erosion has been independent of 

grazing season treatments. It appeared that high 

runoff and occasional ice flows were the most 

significant factors in bank cutting on this stream. 

[EROSION; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIVER 

ECOLOGY; STREAMBANK PROTECTION] 

256. Buckhouse,J; Todd,R (1998): Making 

watershed management a community activity. 

p.291. In: Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management 

and water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Watershed management education is predicated 

upon three principles: 1) ecological reality and 

sustainability, 2) economic stability, and 3) social 

acceptability. The process of providing solid 

ecological principles and facts to local communities, 

where grass roots development of local watershed 

plans take place is described. 

[PLANNING; WATERSHED] 

257. Buckner,DL; Wheeler,RL (1988): 

Construction of cattail wetlands along the East 

Slope of the Front Range of Colorado. p.126-131. 

In: Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller, LK 

[eds.]. Restoration, creation, and management of 

wetland and riparian ecosystems in the American 

West. A symposium of the Rocky Mountain 

Chapter of the Society of Wetland Scientists. 

14-16 November 1988. Denver, CO. 

This paper describes the objectives, methods, 

and results of construction of 12 acres of cattail 

wetland at Boulder Reservoir and discusses 

recommended procedures and potential problems for 

similar projects along the east slope of the Front 

Range, Colorado. Use of live topsoiling was a 

feasible means of establishing wetland vegetation 

quickly, with a high diversity of species. Cattails 

were propagated by seed resulting in almost-mature 

stands in about four months. The creation of 

appropriate hydrological conditions was more critical 

than propagating wetland species. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

258. Budd,WW; Cohen,PL; Saunders,PR; 

Steiner,FR (1987): Stream corridor management 

in the Pacific Northwest: I. Determination of 

stream corridor widths. Environmental 

Management 11(5), 587-597. 

Growth in King County, Washington, has placed 

pressure on stream corridors. Past studies and 

existing literature were used to provide guidelines for 

determining optimal stream corridor widths. 

[BUFFER ZONES; RIPARIAN ZONES; 

WATERSHED] 

259. Bul1,EL; Skovlin,JM (1982): Relationships 

between avifauna and streamside vegetation. 

p.496-506. In: Transactions of the forty-seventh 

North American wildlife conference. 

The avifauna is influenced by the deciduous 

vegetation in riparian habitats. One group of birds, 

the deciduous users, is particularly dependent on 

shrubs and deciduous trees for nesting and feeding. 

By understanding the associations between birds and 

habitat, management activities can be implemented to 

provide appropriate habitat for desired species. 

Removal of vegetation that reduces structural 

diversity also reduces bird diversity. Management by 

limited entry or closure during the spring nesting 

season may restore habitat and, as a result, maintain 

bird populations. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

260. Bunte,K (1996): Analysis of the temporal 

variation of coarse bedload transport and its grain 

size distribution: Squaw Creek, Montana, USA. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-GTR-288.124 p. 

A continuous record of coarse material bedload 
transport was obtained for an entire snowmelt at 

Squaw Creek, a gravel-bed mountain stream. The 

measuring principle, the Magnetic Tracer Technique, 

makes use of naturally magnetic rocks (andesites) 

which induce a voltage peak as they pass over a 

detector log installed across the channel bottom. 

Signal rates were counted for 1 -hour and 5-minute 

intervals and yielded a 17-day and a 3-day time 

series. Bedload transport exhibits recurring wave 

patterns and disintegrates into fluctuating and 

pulsating transport features as the temporal resolution 

is increased. The wide scatter in the relationship 

between bedload transport and discharge indicates 

that other parameters than flow affect bedload 

transport as well. 

[BEDLOAD; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

261. Burghduff,AE (1934): Stream improvement. 

California Fish and Came 18 (1932-34), 113-1 18. 

Stream improvement is a phase of conservation 

that may be divided into two classes of endeavor: 1) 

retardation of stream flow by the construction of 

dams or weirs; and 2) storage of water near the 

source of streams to be released in a continuous 

quantity sufficient to maintain stream flow during 

that portion of the year when streams would normally 

be low or dry. Numerous examples of stream 

improvements in California are discussed. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STREAM 

IMPROVEMENTS] 

262. Burgi,PH; Karaki,S (1971): Seepage effect 

on channel bank stability. Journal of Irrigation 

and Drainage Engineering 97(No. IRl), 59-72. 

Seepage flow frequently occurs across 

boundaries of unlined channels but the effect on bank 

stability is not clearly understood. Due to a general 

opinion that seepage effects are small, they are 

generally neglected in channel design. The basic 

objective of this study was to develop an empirical 

relationship between the seepage forces acting on a 

side slope of a channel and the stability of the side 

slope with various flow conditions present in the 

channel. The relationship shown provides significant 

insight into the process of channel side slope erosion 

when ground water seepage is prevalent. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; STREAMBANK 

STABILITY; SURFACE WATERGROUNDWATER INTERACTION] 

263. Burke,IC; Reiners,WA; Schimel,DS (1989): 

Organic matter turnover in a sagebrush-steppe 

landscape. Biogeochemistry 7,11-31. 

Laboratory incubations of N-amended soils from 

a sagebrush steppe in south-central Wyoming 

indicate that nutrient turnover and availability have 

complex patterns across the landscape. Total and 

available N and P and microbial C and N were 

highest in topographic depressions characterized by 

tall shrub communities. 

[LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY; NUTRIENT CYCLES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS] 

264. Burke,TD; Robinson,JW (1979): River 

structure modifications to provide habitat 

diversity. p.556-561. In: Swanson,GA led.]. The 

mitigation symposium: A national workshop for 

mitigating losses of fish and wildlife habitat. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-65. 

A discussion of the beneficial and detrimental 

effects of the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and 

Navigation Project and descriptions of structure 

modifications used to improve fish and wildlife 

habitats, flood carrying capacity, and accretion 

control. Methods include notched, rootless, and low 

elevation structures. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

265. Burkham,DE (1976): Hydraulic effects of 

changes in bottom-land vegetation on three major 

floods, Gila River in southeastern AZ. USDI 

Geological Survey. Professional Paper 655-5. 14 p. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

266. Burns,JW (1981): Public values and 

riparian systems. p. 226-227. In: Warner,RE; 

Hendrix,KM (eds.]. California riparian systems 

conference. 17-19 September 1981. University of 

California. Davis, CA. 

[ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

267. Burns,RG; Huendo,LM; Neary,DC (1995): 

Low cost methods to control sedimentation from 

roads. p.121-127. In: Aguirre-Bravo,C; VillaSalas,AB 1comp.l. Partnerships for sustainable 

forest ecosystem management: Fifth Mexico1U.S. 

biennial symposium. 17-20 October 1994. 

Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. 

Throughout the world there are many km of 

roads or natural surface roads located along streams. 

Sediment reduces the water quality for human uses 

and aquatic ecosystem productivity. One objective of 

road management should be to protect adjacent 
resources, such as streams and riparian areas. 

Common practices presented in this paper can be 

built by hand or machines using resources that are 

commonly available in the area. These include: wing 

ditches, sediment traps, berms, weeps, outslopes, 

humps, and relief pipes. These practices are 

described and illustrated. 

[ROAD IMPACTS; SEDIMENTATION; STREAM 

IMPROVEMENTS; WATER QUALITY] 

268. Bury,RB (1987): Ecological relationships of 

riparian systems and associated uplands: 

Amphibians and reptiles. In: Streamside 

management: Riparian wildlife and forestry 

interactions. An interdisciplinary symposium. 

11-13 February 1987. University of Washington. 

Seattle, WA. 

This paper discusses the occurrence and 

abundance of amphibians and reptiles in aquatic and 

riparian zones in the Pacific Northwest. Most species 

of herpetofauna have distinct habitat preferences or 

associations. Stream size is an important determinant 

of the fauna as well as development of the riparian 

zone. Composition of herpetofauna varies across a 

gradient from headwaters through a transition to 

rivers. Many species use the riparian zone for cover 

and breeding habitat, but in the Pacific Northwest the 

riparian zone is relatively narrow and often bordered 

by extensive stands of conifers. This zone is 

functionally an extension of the aquatic habitat, 

which the author defines as an interdependent unit: 

the bank - aquatic- riparian Zone (BAR). 

[HERPETOFAUNA; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

269. Busby,FE (1979): Riparian and stream 

ecosystems, livestock grazing, and multiple-use 

management. p.6-12. In: Cope,OB led.]. Forum -- 

Grazing and riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 

November 1978. Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, 

I nc. 

Unregulated livestock grazing in an area through 

which a trout stream flows can result in a 

retrogressive process, but it does not have to result in 

these impacts. This paper discusses: I) trends of 

livestock grazing and other uses of western 

rangelands in which riparianlstream habitats occur; 2) 

implications of use trends to past and present 

ecological condition of riparianlstream habitat; and 

3) range, livestock, and multiple-use management 

approaches that might help improve and maintain 

desirable riparian and stream ecosystem conditions. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

MULTIPLE USE; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

270. Busch,DE (1995): Effects of fire on 

southwestern riparian plant community structure. 

The Southwestern Naturalist 40(3), 259-267. 

Studies of plant water- and salinity-relations 

suggest that halophytic riparian shrubs may recover 

from burning more efficiently than do mesophytic 

trees. A compilation of fire records from the lower 

Colorado River floodplain was used to assess the 

change in riparian community structure resulting 

from fire. Approximately 37 percent of the riparian 

vegetation in the study area burned during the 

12-year period evaluated. Fire extent was associated 

with the area of salt-cedar burned, whereas fire 

affected disproportionately small areas formerly 

dominated by mesquite. Salt-cedar and arrow-weed 

were dominant in post-fire riparian communities. 

Arrow-weed replaced riparian trees in response to 

fire in habitats dominated by cottonwood1willow and 

mesquite. Species turnover was low over the post-fire 

periods evaluated, so the replacement of riparian 

forests by water- or salinity-stress tolerant shrubs can 

be considered long-lived. 

[EXOTICS; FIRE IMPACTS; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN SHRUBS; 

SALT-CEDAR] 

271. Busch,DE; Scott,ML (1995): Western 

riparian ecosystems. p.286-290. In: Our living 

resources: A report to the nation on the 

distribution, abundance, and health of U.S. plants, 

animals, and ecosystems. USDI National 

Biological Survey. Washington, DC. 

Health of natural riparian ecosystems is linked to 

the periodic occurrence of flood flows, associated 

channel dynamics, and the preservation of base flows 

capable of sustaining high floodplain water tables. 

Establishment of native riparian vegetation is 

diminished when the frequency and magnitude of 

peak river flows are reduced. Water uptake and 

water-use patterns indicate that native trees are 

replaced by non-native species in riparian ecosystems 

where streamflows are highly modified. Additional 

factors threaten riparian integrity including: 

groundwater pumping, grazing, timber harvest, and 

land-clearing. Studies underway will focus on the 

effects of global climate change on the encroachment 

of exotic plants into riparian ecosystems. 

[EXOTICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

272. Busch,DE; Smith,SD (1992): Fire in a 

riparian shrub community: post-burn water 

relations in the Tamark-Salk association along 

the lower Colorado River. p.52-55. In: Clary,WP; 
McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL 

Icomp.]. Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Hydraulic efficiencies in willow and salt-cedar 

may contribute to differences in fire recovery. Higher 

water potentials in burned salt-cedar relative to 

unburned plants and the opposite response in willow 

provide evidence that post-fire water stress is reduced 

in the former but not the latter. Diurnal patterns of 

stomata1 conductance are also consistent with the 

existence of more vigor in burned salt-cedar than 

burned willow. 

[EXOTICS; FIRE IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN SHRUBS; SALT-CEDAR; 

WATER STRESS; WILLOW] 

273. Butt,AZ; Ayers,MB; Swanson,S; Tueller,PT 

(1998): Relationship of stream channel 

morphology and remotely sensed riparian 

vegetation classification. p. 409-416. In: Potts,DF 

led.]. Range management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

This study suggests that there may be greater 

utility in monitoring stream restoration and 

management by combining observations of remotely 

sensed and ground based data along the entire stream. 

The authors classified the reaches of two streams in 

the Lake Tahoe Basin according to the Rosgen 

system; and simultaneously used airborne 

multispectral videography to produce riparian 

vegetation maps. Combining these data allowed them 

to examine the relationships between the stream 

morphology and riparian vegetation over large areas. 

Significant differences among stream reach types 

were found in vegetation cover estimates. The 

current data, however, is still insufficient to derive 

strong inferences using multiple regression. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; CLASSIFICATION; 

REMOTE SENSING; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

274. Butterick,M (1993): A view from the federal 

government. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; Debano,LF; Hamre,RH Itech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM - 226.419 p. 

The Watershed Protection Approach (WPA) 

continues to be an effective program for U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) by 

refocusing the existing programs of EPA and other 

state and federal agencies on pollution and habitat 

degradation problems. The basic components of this 

strategy are: I) risk-based geographic targeting; 2) 

stakeholder involvement; and 3) integrated solutions. 

Lessons learned from this program will be applied to 

future watershed planning efforts. 

[POLLUTION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WATERSHED] 

275. Caffrey,J; Rivers,J (1993): The Bluewater 

Creek story - rebuilding a land ethic. p.391-394. 

In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

Debano,LF; Hamre,RH Itech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

The Bluewater Creek watershed in the Zuni 

Mountains of northwest New Mexico has a long 

history of man-caused exploitation and land abuse. A 

rehabilitation program, beginning in 1986, utilized 

funding for reforestation, watershed structures, and 

recreation improvements to promote multi-resource 

management of the area. Large numbers of 

volunteers, partners, and cooperators contributed to 

the variety and success of the completed project. This 

project was remarkable for two primary reasons: 

short-term resource recovery and public involvement. 

[COLLABORATION; LAND USE; PLANTINGS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

276. Cagney,J (1993): Riparian area 

management: Green-line riparian-wetland 

monitoring. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Technical Reference 1737-8. 45 p. 

The green-line monitoring method is a viable 

alternative for developing the vegetation portion of 

an Activity Plan. Green-line vegetative data are an 

ideal complement to data collected by wildlife and 

fishery biologists, soil scientists, and hydrologists, in 

order to evaluate the complex relationships found in 

riparian areas. The method is described and 

illustrated with photos and diagrams. 

[GREEN-LINE METHOD; MONITORING; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

277. Calamusso,B; Rinne,JN (1996): Distribution 

of the Rio Grande cutthroat trout and its 

co-occurrence with the Rio Grande sucker and 

Rio Grande chub on the Carson and Santa Fe 

National Forests. p.157-167. In: Shaw,DW; 

Finch,DM Itech. coord.1. Desired future conditions 

for Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 
interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Studies were initiated in June, 1994, by the 

USDA Forest Service to update knowledge on the 

distribution of the Rio Grande cutthroat trout and it's 

co-occurrence with two native cypriniforms, Rio 

Grande sucker and the Rio Grande chub. Rio Grande 

cutthroat trout has been reduced to 5-7 percent of its 

former range. The decline is continuing. Remaining 

populations of pure Rio Grande cutthroat need to be 

protected and management efforts to reintroduce the 

species into its former range need to continue. 

[FISH MANAGEMENT; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; TROUT] 

278. Cale,WG; Henebry,GM; Yeakley,JA (1989): 

Inferring process from pattern in natural 

communities. Can we understand what we see? 

BioScience 39(9), 600-605. 

The study of pattem, isolated from the biological 

processes that generate it, is not likely to advance 

ecosystem theory. That is because multiple process 

configurations can produce the same pattern, 

understanding and predictive capability. Pattern must 

evolve from analysis of fundamental ecological 

processes. A hypothetical system is presented as a 

model of two natural processes. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; ECOSYSTEM 

MANAGEMENT; LAND USE; LANDSCAPE 

ECOLOGY; MODELING] 

279. Calhoun,J (1987): Riparian management 

practices of the Washington Department of 

Natural Resources. In: Streamside management: 

Riparian wildlife and forestry interactions. An 

interdisciplinary symposium. 11-13 February 

1987. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 

The Washington State Department of Natural 

Resources has been practicing riparian protection 

practices on its 2.1 million acres of forest land for 20 

years. Operational experience and technical 

knowledge of riparian systems have increased 

through time as public policy has developed. The 

Department's Forest Management Plan was adopted 

in 1984. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

280. Callicott, JB (1991): Conservation ethics 

and fishery management. Fisheries 16(2), 22-28. 

All decisions and all actions are necessarily 

based on both facts and values. From a practically 

infinite variety of possibilities, we choose certain 

ends as well as the technical ends to achieve them. 

Ethics or morality - the science of value - is 

therefore inescapable. A brief history and analysis of 

the several ethics governing the American 

conservation movement since its inception are 

provided. But, because Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic is 

firmly grounded in evolutionary and ecological 

biology, it ought to provide the moral anchor for 

conservation in the present and in years ahead. 

[CONSERVATION BIOLOGY; FISHERIES; 

LAND ETHICS] 

281. Cameron,FW (1993): Malheur National 

Wildlife Refuge. p.364-368. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre;RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The land use pattem of Malheur National 

Wildlife Refuge has been dominated by livestock 

grazing for 140 years. Currently, grazing is still 

allowed but only in circumstances that benefit 

wildlife objectives. Consequently, there has been a 

transition in which 100,000 AUMs were reduced on 

the Refuge and only 15 percent of the available 

habitat is presently utilized by livestock. Other 

changes include the current encouragement of willow 

regrowth when previously they were considered 

counterproductive. Such changes in management 

direction require the involvenlent and participation of 

all affected interests. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

HISTORIC RECORDS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

282. Campbel1,AG; Franklin,JF (1979): Riparian 

vegetation in Oregon's western Cascade 

Mountains: composition, biomass, and autumn 

phenology. Coniferous Forest Biome. Bulletin 14, 

p.90. 

Sixteen understory plant communities in the 

riparian zones of small streams were identified and 

described. They ranged from pioneer communities on 

gravel and rock to well-developed shrub 

communities on flood plains and terraces. The Acer 

circinatum community had the widest distribution but 

the Rubus spectabilis/Ribes bracteosum community 

was more common. Biomass estimates were made for 

3 stream segments. Abscission and fall senescence 

for 13 species were monitored. Leafy and herbaceous 

detrital input was timed. Rates of leaf fall and 

decadence were related to environmental factors. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 
283. Campbel1,CJ (1970): Ecological implications 

of riparian vegetation management. Journal of 

Soil and Water Conservation 25(2), 49-52. 

Managing riparian vegetation in the Southwest 

to increase water yield may require selective clearcutting rather than complete removal of riparian 

plants to maintain a biological balance and prevent 

thermal pollution, channel erosion, and destruction of 

aquatic and wildlife habitats. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE; WATER YIELD] 

284. Campsey,L (1991): Riparian management 

improves western rangeland. Rangelands 13(1), 

26-27. 

The efforts of rancher Bill Gibbs of Wells, 

Nevada were recognized for improving riparian 

conditions on his public lands allotment. Water 

developments, grazing systems, salting practices, and 

erosion control structures have contributed to 

streambank and riparian recovery. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

285. Canterbury,RA; Smith,BH (1981): Energy 

development in the overthrust belt of 

southwestern Wyoming: Present problems and 

future potentials for aquatic resources on public 

lands. In: Proceedings of the 16th annual 

meeting. Colorado-Wyoming Chapter, American 

Fisheries Society. 25-26 February 1981. Laramie, 

WY. 7 p. 

[MINING IMPACTS; OILIGAS IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

286. Cantor,LF; Whitham,TG (1989): 

Importance of below ground herbivory: Pocket 

gophers may limit aspen to rock outcrop refugia. 

Ecology 70(4), 962-970. 

Aspens may be limited to rock outcrops that are 

largely inaccessible to pocket gophers and act as 

rehgia from below ground herbivory. The authors 

found that distributions of pocket gophers and aspen 

were nonoverlapping 93 percent of the time. Pocket 

gophers were almost always associated with the deep 

soils of mountain meadows while the centers of 

aspen clones were almost always associated with 

rock outcrops. Although tree ring analyses indicate 

that aspens grow best in the deep soils of meadows in 

the absence of pocket gophers, when pocket gophers 

encounter aspens, tree mortality can be high. 

[ASPEN; BELOW-GROUND HERBIVORY; 

MEADOWS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL 

MAMMALS] 

287. Capen,DE; Low,JB (1980): Management 

considerations for nongame birds in Western 

wetlands. p.67-77. In: Proceedings, Management 

of western forests and grasslands for nongame 

birds. 11-14 February 1980. Salt Lake City, UT. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-86. 

Management practices which may enhance 

habitat for birds include manipulating water levels; 

maintaining isolated stands of emergent vegetation; 

creating islands and furrows; altering the composition 

of emergent vegetation; and controlling livestock 

access. The practices benefit most wetland birds, 

game and nongame, but may be selectively employed 

to favor certain groups of nongame species if 

management practices dictate. Four types of wetlands 

which are distinguished by degree of water 

permanence, soil salinity, and composition of aquatic 

habitats are described. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; WETLANDS] 

288. Carling,PA; Williams,JJ; Kelsey,A; 

Glaister,MS; Orr,HG (1998): Coarse bedload 

transport in a mountain river. Earth Surface 

Processes and Landforms 23, 141-157. 

Coarse bedload transport dynamics were 

investigated utilizing hydrodynamic and sediment 

transport data obtained in an extensively 

instrumented study reach in Montana. Data show that 

initiation of bedload transport was accompanied by a 

reduction in bed roughness and by changes in bulk 

dynamic parameters. For larger discharges, coarser 

fractions of the bed material mobilized, and bedload 

transport rates and average hydraulic parameters 

stabilized. As discharge reduced, mobile coarse 

particles became less frequent and deposited fine 

particles were removed, resulting in an increase in 

bed roughness. Bedload pulses were aperiodic but 

spatially variable. 

[BEDLOAD; HYDROLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; 

STREAM FLOW] 

289. Carlson,JR (1991): Selection, production, 

and use of riparian plant materials for the western 

United States. p.55-67. In: Proceedings, 

Intermountain Forest Nursery Association. 12-16 

August 1991. Park City, UT. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-211. 

Riparian plantings are established to restore 

native plant communities, stabilize streambanks and 

shorelines, restore fish and wildlife habitat, improve 

surface and ground water quality, and control weedy 

phreatophytes. Native planting stock may be 
collected from local sources or provided by 

commercial nurseries. Source guidelines are based on 

relatively narrow target areas inferred from riparian 

site classifications and constrained by limited 

knowledge of the genetic structure of plants. Riparian 

plant cultivars are developed with specific structural 

attributes. Nurseries should emphasize production of 

large plant materials, such as stumps and poles. 

[PHREATOPHYTES; PLANT MATERIALS; 

PLANTINGS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

290. Carlson,JR; Conaway,GL; Gibbs,JL; 

Hoag,JC (1992): Design criteria for revegetation 

in riparian zones of the Intermountain area. 

p.145-150. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt;CL [tech. coord.1. 

Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 29- 

31 May 1991. Sun Valley, ID. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

Design criteria for the USDA Soil Conservation 

Service channel vegetation practice for the 

Intermountain area consider watershed condition, 

geomorphology, stream types, community types, 

stream size, velocity, sinuosity, and bank slope, 

uniformity, and stratigraphy. Performance standards 

address benefits to soil stability, fish and wildlife 

habitat, water quality and esthetic and recreational 

value. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RIPARIAN ZONES] 

291. Carlson,JY; Andrus,CW; Froehlich,HA 

(1990): Woody debris, channel features, and 

macroinvertebrates of streams with logged and 

undisturbed riparian timber in northeastern 

Oregon, USA. Canadian Journal of Fish Aquatic 

Science 47(6), 1 103-1 1 1 1. 

Macroinvertebrate communities and several 

aspects of fish habitat were examined for northeast 

Oregon stream segments. Amounts of woody debris 

in streams and pools formed by the debris were 

similar between undisturbed and logged sites. Pool 

volume was inversely related to stream gradient and 

directly related to the amount of woody debris in the 

stream. Stream surface substrate composition was not 

significantly different between streams in logged and 

undisturbed areas. Macroinvertebrate density was 20 

to 1 13 percent greater at the logged sites and 

diversity was similar at undisturbed and logged sites. 

Macroinvertebrates were most abundant at lower 

elevation streams and at streams less shaded by 

surrounding vegetation. Timber harvesting does not 

appear to have damaged aquatic insect habitat and 

pool abundance was not altered, suggesting the 

habitat's carrying capacity for fish was not affected. 

[FISHERIES; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

MACROINVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

292. Carpenter,SR; Caraco,NF; Correll,DL; 

Howarth,RW; Sharpley,AN; Smith,VH (1998): 

Non-point pollution of surface waters with 

phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications 

8(3), 559-568. 

The major sources of phosphorous and nitrogen 

to aquatic ecosystems are agriculture urban activities. 

Non-point inputs of nutrients are difficult to measure 

because they derive from activities dispersed over 

wide areas of land and are variable in time. Based on 

a review of scientific literature, the authors conclude 

that: 1) eutrophication is a widespread problem in 

rivers, lakes, estuaries, and other water bodies; 2) 

non-point pollution results primarily from 

agricultural and urban activity; 3) inputs of P and N 

to agriculture in the form of fertilizers exceed outputs 

in produce; 4) nutrient flows to aquatic ecosystems 

are directly related to animal stocking densities; 5) 

excess fertilization causes a P surplus to accumulate; 

and 6) excess fertilization and manure production on 

agricultural lands create surplus N, which is mobile 

in many soils and often leaches to aquatic 

ecosystems. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; FERTILIZATION; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES; RUNOFF] 

293. Carson,MA; Griffiths,GA (1987): Influence 

of channel width on bedload transport capacity. 

Hydraulic Engineer 113(12), 1489-1509. 

Influence of channel width on bedload capacity 

in river reaches of given slope, water discharge, and 

channel-bed material is examined. The view that 

transport capacity is a decreasing hnction of width is 

shown to be dependent upon an invalid premise. The 

contrary view that transport capacity increases as 

channel width increases are also considered but are 

shown to be inconsistent with transport formulas. The 

existence of an optimum width that maximizes 

capacity is demonstrated. 

[BEDLOAD; CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

294. Carson,RG; Edgerton,PJ (1989): Creating 

riparian wildlife habitat along a Columbia River 

impoundment in north-central Washington. 

p.65-69. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL Icomp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on shrub ecophysiology and 
biotechnology. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-256. 

Irrigated riparian plantings totaling 37.5 ha were 

developed to compensate for habitats lost as the 

result of an increase in the operating level of Ruhs 

Woods Lake. Twenty four species of shrubs and trees 

were planted to provide forage and cover for wildlife. 

Soil characteristics, deer browsing, grass 

competition, and individual species' moisture needs 

have influenced development of the plantings. 

[BROWSING EFFECTS; PLANTINGS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

295. Carson,RG; Peek,JM (1987): Mule deer 

habitat selection patterns in north-central 

Washington. Journal of Wildlife Management 

51(1), 46-51. 

Habitat selection and movement patterns of mule 

deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were studied in northcentral Washington to evaluate the effect of habitat 

loss resulting from water impoundment. Deer 

preferred the conifer and riparian cover types and the 

Breaks Land Form during summer and winter. Big 

sagebrush and bitterbrush cover types were also 

preferred during winter. Orchard development in this 

area had eliminated large amounts of habitat. 

[BITTERBRUSH; MULE DEER; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SAGEBRUSH] 

296. Carter,V (1986): An overview of the 

hydrologic concerns related to wetlands in the 

United States. Canadian Journal of Botany 64, 

364-374. 

There is a tremendous diversity in wetland types 

and wetland vegetation in the United States, caused 

primarily by regional, geologic, topographic, and 

climatic differences. Wetland hydrology, a primary 

driving force influencing wetland ecology, 

development, and persistence, is poorly understood. 

The interaction between groundwater and surface 

water and the discharge - recharge relationships in 

wetland affect water quality and nutrient budgets as 

well as vegetative composition. Hydrologic 

considerations necessary for an improved 

understanding of wetland ecology include detailed 

water budgets, water chemistry, water regime, and 

boundary conditions. These hydrologic functions 

include: flood storage and flood-peak 

desynchronization; recharge and discharge; base flow 

and estuarine water balance; and water quality 

regulation. Expanded research and data collection are 

needed. 

[GROUNDWATER; HYDROLOGY; WETLANDS] 

297. Caruso,BS; Ward,RC (1998): Assessment of 

non-point pollution from inactive mines using a 

watershed-based approach. Environmental 

Management 22(2), 225-243. 

The watershed-based approach methodology was 

designed to use limited stream discharge and 

chemical data from synoptic surveys to derive key 

information required for targeting impaired water 

bodies and critical source areas for detailed 

investigation and remediation. It was presented in 

this article as steps in a framework including 

evaluation of existing datalinformation and 

identification of data gaps; definition of assessment 

infonnation goals for targeting and monitoring data; 

data collection, management, and analysis; and 

information reporting and use for targeting. 

[ASSESSMENTS; MINING IMPACTS; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

298. Case,RL; Kauffman,JB (1997): Wild 

ungulate influences on the recovery of willows, 

black cottonwood, and thin-leaf alder following 

cessation of cattle grazing in northeastern Oregon. 

Northwest Science 71(2), 115-125. 

Restoration of degraded riparian ecosystems is 

of great importance to recovery of Columbia River 

salmonids and riparian-obligate wildlife species. 

Willows, thin-leaf alder, and black cottonwood are 

important features of regional riparian ecosystems 

and have multiple functional roles that influence 

biodiversity, water quality, water quantity, and 

aquaticlterrestrial food webs and habitats. Livestock 

removal and big game exclosures have been 

suggested as passive means to riparian restoration. 

On Meadow Creek, cattle were removed in 199 1 and 

elk- and deer-proof exclosures were constructed. 

After two years, significant increases in height, 

crown area, crown volume, stem diameter, and 

biomass were measured both inside and outside the 

exclosures. Mean crown volume of willows increased 

550 percent inside of wild ungulate exclosures and 

195 percent outside. Black cottonwood increased 773 

percent inside of exclosures and 808 percent outside. 

Thin-leaf alder increased 1,046 percent inside and 

198 percent outside. Wild herbivores were found to 

have significant influences on the rate of growth for 

the parameters of height, crown area, crown volume, 

and standing biomass. Riparian plants displayed an 

inherent resilience and adaptations to natural 

disturbance processes. Additionally, however, there 

was a rapid and positive response to cessation of land 

use activities, like cattle grazing, that had caused 

habitat degradation and prevented recovery. 
[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS; RlPARlAN VEGETATION; 

WILD UNGULATES] 

299. Chadde,SW; Pfister,RD; Hansen,PL (1 989): 

Management implications for riparian dominance 

types of Montana. p.83-85. In: Gresswell,RE; 

Barton,BA; Kershner,JL [eds.]. Practical 

approaches to riparian resource management. An 

educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 1989. Billings, 

MT. 

A classification system of Montana's riparian 

plant communities, based on dominant species, was 

developed by the Montana Riparian Association. The 

dominance-type approach allows land managers to 

identify, inventory, and map riparian communities, 

plus it provides basic management information for 

each type. A weakness of this classification method is 

the broad and overlapping range of environments 

spanned by individual dominance types. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

300. Chadde,SW; Shelly,JS; Bursik,RJ; 

Moseley,RK; Evenden,AG; Mantas,M; Rabe,F; 

Heidel,B (1998): Peatlands on National Forests of 

the Northern Rocky Mountains: Ecology and 

conservation. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RMRS-GTR-11.75 p. 

Peatlands can be an important contributor to 

local and regional biological diversity. They may 

also have considerable scientific value as repositories 

of pollen and ash deposits, providing insight into 

post-glacial vegetation and climates. This report 

describes physical components, vegetation, vascular 

and nonvascular flora, and invertebrate fauna on 

peatlands. Detailed site descriptions of 58 

northwestern peatlands are included. 

[INVERTEBRATES; PEATLANDS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; WETLANDS] 

301. Chadwick,DH (1990): The biodiversity 

challenge. Defenders of Wildlife Magazine. 

Portland, OR. 14 p. Defenders Magazine Special 

Report. 

The essay introduces concepts of island 

biogeography and applies these to wildlife survival 

on islands of natural habitat created by human 

conversion of landscapes. Wildlife conservation is 

discussed in terms of conservation of habitat types, 

the areal extent and continuity of habitats. The author 

believes that conservation is evolving again and that 

the challenge now is to conserve the nature of nature 

- the power to connect, to sustain, to heal, and to 

invent. This is the substance of biodiversity and 

landscape linkages. 

[BIODIVERSITY; GAP ANALYSIS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

302. Chainey,S; Yates,G; O'Leary,B (1993): 

Groundwater and surface flow models used to 

simulate impacts and benefits to riparian 

vegetation caused by flood control and water 

supply management projects. p.240. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

San Simeon Creek, a central California coastal 

stream, supports a channel riparian forest that could 

potentially be affected by groundwater extraction for 

the nearby community of Cambria. A 

one-dimensional finite difference groundwater flow 

model was "embedded" in a conjunctive use 

operations and storage model to show the 

interrelation of surface flow in the creek, surface 

diversions, seasonal depth to water table, and 

evapotranspiration water use by riparian vegetation. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; GROUNDWATER; 

HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

WATER SUPPLY] 

303. Chalk,DE (1979): Prcdicting impacts of a 

proposed irrigation water conservation project on 

wildlife habitat. p.305-309. In: Swanson,GA led.]. 

The mitigation symposium: A national workshop 

on mitigating losses of fish and wildlife habitat. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-65. 

Irrigation improvements on 84 percent of the 

treatable land in the Uintah Basin, Utah, could reduce 

water available to phreatophytes by 40 percent, 

resulting in the conversion of 19,800 acres of 

wetlands to upland habitat. Twenty-three percent of 

the water presently diverted for irrigation is 

consumed by phreatophytes. 

[PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

304. Chambers,JC; Blank,RR; Zamudio,DC; 

Tausch,RJ (1999): Central Nevada riparian areas: 

Physical and chemical properties of meadow soils. 

Journal of Range Management 52(1), 92-99. 

There is little existing information on western 

riparian soils or the factors that influence them even 

though soil characteristics are important for 

classifying riparian ecosystem types and evaluating 
condition. This study examined the effects of 

drainage basin geology and water table depth on soil 

morphology and soil physical and chemical 

properties of meadow sites. High water table sites 

had organic matter, total nitrogen, cation exchange 

capacity, and extractable K, but lower pH than low 

water table sites. Additionally, high water table sites 

had lower percentage sand, lower bulk densities, and 

higher soil moisture retention. Significant differences 

in pH, extractable K, and extractable P existed among 

drainages that were explainable largely from the 

parent materials. Drainages with chert, quartzite, and 

limestone had higher silt and clay, neutral pH, and 

high levels of extractable P. Drainages formed in 

acidic volcanic tuffs, rhyolites, and breccia were 

characterized by coarser textured soils and low pH 

and extractable P. In riparian areas, soil table depth 

interacts with soil parent material to significantly 

affect soil morphology and soil physical and 

chemical properties. These factors vary over large 

and small spatial scales, therefore, must be carehlly 

interpreted when classifying ecosystems or 

evaluating condition. 

[CLASSIFICATION; MEADOWS; SOILS; WATER 

TABLE EFFECTS; WATERSHED] 

305. Chambers,JC; Farleigh,K; Tausch,RJ; 

Miller,JR; Germanoski,D; Martin,D; Nowak,C 

(1998): Understanding long- and short-term 

changes in vegetation and geomorphic processes: 

The key to riparian restoration. p. 101-110. In: 

Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

This paper examined the linkages between past 

and present vegetation and geomorphic processes, 

natural and human-caused disturbance, and current 

stream and riparian ecosystem dynamics. Study 

watersheds were located in central Nevada and were 

characterized by high-gradient, low-flow streams. 

Vegetation and geomorphic processes during the past 

1 1,500 years have tracked temperature and rainfall 

patterns. Dry and cool periods exhibited low species 

numbers and significant hillslope erosion, the 

creation of side-valley alluvial fans, and aggradation 

of valley floors. More recent and warmerlwetter 

periods resulted in higher species numbers, a decline 

in hillslope erosion and sediment supply to stream 

channels, and a tendency toward stream incision. 

Recent down-cutting occurred after about 290 YBP 

and has been accelerated by human activities such as 

roads and livestock grazing. At present, floods that 

are capable of entraining channel bed sediment are 

controlling down-cutting and riparian ecosystem 

dynamics. 

[CLIMATE; GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

306. Chambers,SM (1996): The riparian species 

recovery plan: A status report. p.277-280. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch, DM [tech. coord.]. Desired 

future conditions for Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-GTR-272. 

Several state and federal agencies in Arizona and 

New Mexico are collaborating on the development of 

a strategy for the restoration of riparian systems. The 

strategy that is taking shape is a package of formats, 

methods, and information that can guide local groups 

in developinglimplementing riparian restoration 

plans. The major elements of the preliminary strategy 

are described. 

[COLLABORATION; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

SPECIES RECOVERY] 

307. Chan,S (1994): Dynamics of planted conifers 

and hardwoods in the understory of hardwood 

dominated riparian zones. p.17-18. In: The 

ecology and management of Oregon Coast Range 

forests: A mid-term COPE symposium. 29-31 

March 1994. Gleneden Beach, OR. Coastal 

Oregon Productivity Enhancement Program; 

Oregon State University. Cowallis, OR. 

Successful regeneration of trees in hardwood 

shrub dominated riparian areas will likely require 

active management of the vegetation to promote the 

successful establishment and growth of trees. This 

may mean that short-term disturbances are necessary 

to achieve long-term riparian restoration goals. 

Elimination of hardwoods and shrubs is unlikely to 

occur through mechanical means, nor would it be 

ecologically desirable. However, substantial thinning 

of the hardwood and shrub complex may be 

necessary to create conditions favorable for the 

establishment of trees to provide vegetative 

complexity and woody structure. Growing conditions 

and vegetative development are not static. Active 

monitoring and evaluation are critical to determine if 

managementlrestoration objectives are being met. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

308. Chaney,E; Elmore,W; Platts,WS (1990): 

Livestock grazing on western riparian areas. US 

Environmental Protection Agency. 45 p. 
This is a glossy, semi-technical presentation 

intended for wide public distribution. It contains a 

series of color photographs which show successful 

riparian enhancement applications in various 

locations in the western U.S. It also addresses 

riparian functions, values, and issues, and documents 

best management practices in riparian zones. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

ENHANCEMENT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE] 

309. Chaney,E; Elmore,W; Platts,WS (1993): 

Managing change: Livestock grazing on western 

riparian areas. U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency. Denver, CO 80202. 

This document is a topical sequel and companion 

piece to its predecessor "Livestock grazing on 

western riparian areas" (1 990). Together the two 

publications are intended to provide an overview of 

the functions and values of western riparian areas, the 

causes and effects of degraded riparian areas and 

water quality, and case studies representative of 

problems and opportunities involving improved 

grazing practices on riparian areas. They are 

designed to foster broader understanding of how 

grazing management can enhance water quality and 

overall productivity of rangeland watersheds. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN; WATER QUALITY] 

310. Chang,HH (1985): Water and sediment 

routing through curved channels. Hydraulic 

Engineer 11 1(4), 644-658. 

This paper describes a mathematical model for 

water and sediment routing through curved alluvial 

channels. The model applies to alluvial streams with 

nonerodible banks. In the simulation of the evolution 

in stream bed profile, the effect of transverse flow is 

tied in with the aggradation and degradation 

development. River flow through curved channels is 

characterized by the changing curvature, to which 

variations of flow pattern and bed topography are 

closely related. Simulation of these changing features 

is based upon the fluid dynamics governing the 

growth and decay of transverse circulation along the 

channel. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; MODELING; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

31 1. Chapman,DW (1962): Effects of logging 

upon fish resources of the West Coast. Journal of 

Forestry. August, 1962,533-537. 

[FISHERIES; LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

312. Chapman,DW (1979): Summarization of 

sessions. p. 75-76. In: Cope,OB led.]. Forum -- Grazing and riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 

November 1978. Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, 

Inc. 

A synopsis of the professional and topical papers 

presented at this forum, along with suggestions on 

how all of the various viewpoints expressed at this 

forum can be integrated and reconciled. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN ISSUES] 

313. Charlton,FG (1982): River stabilization and 

training in gravel-bed rivers. p. 635-652. In: 

Gravel bed rivers. (Eds: Hey,RD; Bathurst,JC; 

Thorne,CRI. John Wiley and Sons Ltd., New 

York, NY. 

Boundary characteristics of rivers with gravel 

beds vary widely. There is a great range in sizes and 

shapes of bed material in different rivers, while the 

sizes and grading of bank material often change with 

elevation and short distances along a bank and 

between banks of the same river. The composition of 

the bed and banks of some rivers is examined to 

establish how these variations might affect the choice 

of river training methods. This paper reviews the 

variety of methods used to control and train natural 

river channels. These range from the direct methods 

of protecting banks using revetments, through 

semi-direct methods based on training fences of 

different types to the indirect methods including 

spurs and sills to control the main current, and 

structures to control the bed levels and water levels. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; STREAMBANK 

PROTECTION] 

314. Chavez,L (1996): Above-below diversion 

study. p.145-150. In: National hydrology 

workshop proceedings. 27 April - 1 May 1992; 

Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

Stream channel conditions were studied above 

and below diversion sites on 20 streams in Colorado. 

Ninety-one percent of the channel reaches showed a 

decrease in a bankhll cross-sectional area, below 

diversions. Eighty-five percent sustained a decrease 

in bankfill width and 88 percent had decreased in 

mean depth at bankfull. D50 particle sizes of 

streambed material decreased in seventy-two percent 

of the reaches. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; DIVERSION SITES; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY] 

315. Cheng,JD (1989): Streamflow changes after 

clear-cut logging of a pine beetle-infested 
watershed in southern British Columbia, Canada. 

Water Resources Research 25(3), 449-456. 

In response to clear-cut logging over 30 percent 

of a watershed, annual and monthly water yields and 

annual peak flows increased, and annual peak flow 

and half flow volume occurrence dates arrived earlier 

than for pre-logging conditions and for a no-cut 

control watershed. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

STREAM FLOW] 

316. Childers,DL; Gosselink,JG (1990): 

Assessment of cumulative impacts to water quality 

in a forested wetland landscape. Journal of 

Environmental Quality 19,455-464. 

Improvement of the aquatic ecosystem can be 

achieved in a number of ways, including the 

reestablishment of natural hydrologic flow wherever 

possible, the use of agricultural practices that reduce 

runoff, the protection of forested corridors along 

streams, and the mitigative creation of new buffering 

zones. In this conservation plan, site-by-site 

permitting occurs within the context of a 

comprehensive plan for managing the renewable 

resources of an entire Basin landscape; a plan based 

on the intensity of past cumulative impacts to the 

ecosystem. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; ENVIRONMENTAL 

MANAGEMENT; WATER QUALITY; 

WETLANDS] 

31 7. Chilman,KC; Foster,D; Everson,A (1 985): 

Using visitor perceptions in river use planning, 

1972-1984. p.393-97. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH /tech. coord.1. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Determining recreational carrying capacity for 

large wildland areas is complex and controversial. At 

Ozark National Scenic Rivenvays in Arkansas, 

visitor perception information has been gathered 

periodically since 1972. The data provides strong 

support for the carrying capacity rationale used for 

river use planning. Implications for other carrying 

capacity management decisions are discussed. 

[HUMAN IMPACTS; RECREATION IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

318. Chischilly,S (1993): The San Juan River. 

p.323-327. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The San Juan River, which previously flooded 

periodically, has been dammed and flow controlled 

since 1962. Environmental consequences after dam 

construction include: decrease of mean river 

temperature below the dam, mean decrease in 

volume (cfs), cessation of great flood stages, and 

riverbed geomorphology alteration. Physical 

alterations have caused dramatic changes in the 

biological components. Non-native fish species have 

increased because of their adaptation to warmer 

water temperatures and native species have declined. 

Without flood stages, cottonwood recruitment does 

not occur and that species has been replaced by 

tamarisk and Russian olive. Concentration of 

contaminants in irrigation settling ponds and oil and 

gas exploration sites is affecting the health of resident 

fish species. Further alteration of the river could have 

accelerated detrimental impacts on the associated 

ecosystem. 

[COTTONWOOD; DAMS; FLOOD IMPACTS; 

RIPARlAN HABITAT; SALT-CEDAR] 

319. Christensen,KM (1985): The linear interval 

method for determining habitat selection of 

riparian wildlife species. p.101-104. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt;CL [comp.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

This technique can be used in highly 

heterogeneous habitats, incorporates both categorical 

and continuous data, yields a physiographic 

representation of habitat structure, and facilitates the 

use of multivariate statistics in data analysis. It is 

believed to be inherently superior to those techniques 

typically employed by wildlife ecologists in studies 

of habitat selection. 

[MONITORING; MULTIVARIANCE ANALYSIS; 

RIPARlAN HABITAT] 

320. Christman,C; Shaw,DW; Spann,CL; 

Luehring,P (1996): GIs applications in riparian 

management. p.327-328. In: Shaw, DW; Finch, 

DM [tech. coord.1. Desired future conditions for 

Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

GIs was used to prioritize watersheds for 

treatment needs across the USDA Forest Service 

Southwestern Region. Factors in this analysis 

included soil condition, riparian habitat, population 
centers and mining sites. 

[GIs; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATERSHED] 

321. Chung-MacCoubrey,A (1 996): Bat species 

using water sources in pinyon-juniper woodlands. 

p.166-168. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. 

Desired future conditions for Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

There is much to be learned about the 

importance of bats in southwestern ecosystems, their 

ecological requirements, and how habitats should be 

managed to sustain these important species. The 

primary objective of this study was to identify the bat 

species which use pinyon-juniper habitats of the 

middle Rio Grande Basin. Ten pinyon-juniper sites 

with permanent water on the Cibola National Forest 

were mist netted four times from May to September 

1995. Sixteen bat species were captured from the 10 

sites. The number of sites a species was captured at 

and frequency of capture varied according to species. 

[BAT SPECIES; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATER SOURCES] 

322. Cicero,C (1997): Boggy meadows, livestock 

grazing, and interspecific interactions: Influences 

on the insular distribution of montane Lincoln's 

sparrows (Melospiza lincolnii alticola). Great 

Basin Naturalist 57(2), 104-1 15. 

Lincoln's sparrows were counted in 34 California 

and Oregon meadows and habitat features that might 

influence their local occurrence were identified. This 

species was found at 72 percent of the sites. Counts 

of single males were low and not correlated with 

meadow size. Counts were highest in wet meadows 

with little damage by grazing. Singing males were 

concentrated in flooded or boggy areas near meadow 

edges, where pines provided elevated perches for 

singing and vigilance. Lincoln's sparrows breeding in 

montane meadows are potentially vulnerable to local 

extirpation because of their insular distribution, low 

population density, and fluctuating habitat 

conditions. Heavy damage from livestock grazing 

dramatically impacts local populations. 

[AVIFAUNA; GRAZING IMPACTS; MEADOWS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

323. Claire,EW; Storch,RL (1977): Streamside 

management and livestock grazing: An objective 

look at the situation. p.1-46. In: Proceedings of the 

fisheries workshop. American Fisheries Society. 

Reno, NV. 

Good streamside management within the Blue 

Mountains of eastern Oregon can be summarized 

with the following list: a) improved forage for 

livestock and wildlife; b) improved water quality and 

quantity in streams; c) reduced soil erosion; d) 

improved fish and wildlife habitat; e) improved 

recreational and visual opportunities; f) timber 

harvesting and roads will be compatible with sound 

watershed management objectives; and g) high 

quality water and water-related resources will be 

made available for downstream uses. The authors 

urge cooperation between agencies and sectors. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; SMZ] 

324. Clark,J (1993): The state role in riparian 

management. p.25 -26. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 419 p. 

Many states are beginning to look at riparian 

management as a part of larger scale planning 

strategies. Most states are also attentive to new 

management and protection criteria. The author 

suggests that the most promising approach is to 

employ a systems approach to comprehensive 

management and the accommodation of multiple 

partners. 

[COLLABORATION; PARTNERSHIPS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

325. Clark,M (1987): Institutional arrangements 

for resolving forestrylwildlife conflicts: A 

comparison of regulations, taxes and subsidies, 

and markets in habitat rights. In: Streamside 

management: Riparian wildlife and forestry 

interactions. An interdisciplinary symposium. 

11-13 February 1987. University of Washington. 

Seattle, WA. 

This poster paper compares three policy 

altematives/institutional systems for managing timber 

harvestinghabitat problems discusses the reward 

systems inherent in each application, and evaluates 

the relative efficiency of outcomes under the 

different institutional structures using a case study 

watershed and a mathematical model. 

[MODELING; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

326. Clark,P; Seyfried,M; Neal,C; Harris,B 

(1998): Use of multispectral aerial videography 

for riparian condition assessment in 
sagebrush-steppe rangelands. p. 120. In: Potts,DF 

led.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Ground-based methods, satellite imagery, and 

large scale aerial photography have all been used for 

ecological condition assessments of rangelands, but 

all have significant shortcomings. Recent 

technological advances in multispectral videography 

provides high spatial and spectral resolution, inflight 

data evaluation, inexpensive data acquisition and 

storage, and automation of many post-flight 

processing procedures. Studies were conducted at 

Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed near Boise, 

Idaho. Mature cottonwood overstories can be readily 

separated from overstories composed of juvenile 

cottonwood. Image classification accuracy for 

multilayered shrub and tree canopy and for 

herbaceous communities is being evaluated. 

[ASSESSMENTS; CLASSIFICATION; 

EVALUATION; RIPARIAN CONDITION; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; VIDEOGRAPHY] 

327. Clark,R (1993): Riparian-wetland initiative 

for the 1990's. p.243. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano LF; Hamre,RH I tech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

An updated plan for managing riparian areas and 

wetlands on federally managed public lands was 

released by the Department of the Interior's Bureau 

of Land Management in September 199 1. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN-WETLAND 

INITIATIVE] 

328. Clary,WP (1995): Vegetation and soil 

responses to grazing simulation on riparian 

meadows. Journal of Range Management 48(1), 

18-25. 

Riparian areas have not responded consistently 

to grazing systems, suggesting that more knowledge 

is needed to explain how different areas respond to 

specific stresses. Studies were conducted to 

determine herbaceous plant response to simulated 

grazing on riparian areas, including: one 

low-elevation redtop site and two high-elevation 

sedge sites in Idaho. The most consistent plant 

response among areas was rcduction in hcight growth 

and biomass production following compaction 

treatments. When both defoliation and compaction 

were considered, it appeared that spring, fall, or 

spring and fall grazing to a 5-cm stubble height on 

the redtop site did not decrease riparian herbage 

production. In contrast, when defoliation, 

compaction, and nutrient return effects were 

considered in the mountain meadow 

sedge-dominated communities, grazing once 

annually during the growing season to a 5-cm stubble 

height in the spring, or to a 10-cm stubble height in 

late summer, or at a utilization rate exceeding 30 

percent of the total annual biomass production 

reduced herbage production significantly. 

[DEFOLIATION; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; SOILS; STUBBLE 

HEIGHT] 

329. Clary,WP; Abt,S; Thornton,C (1993): 

Vegetation effects on retention of stream channel 

sediments. p.221. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.). Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

Vegetation height and biomass within a stream 

channel system are known to enhance sediment 

deposition and to improve the retention of deposits. 

These features are dependant upon the management 

of grazing livestock. In this study, the ability of a 

typical riparian graminoid (Kentucky bluegrass) to 

entrap sediments was measured. The rate of 

deposition retention was also studied. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

SEDIMENTATION; VEGETATION 

MANAGEMENT] 

330. Clary,WP; Abt,SR; Thornton,CI (1993): 

Sediment entrapment by stream channel 

vegetation. p.335-342. In: Management and 

irrigation of drainage systems. Proceedings of the 

Irrigation and Drainage DivisionIAmerican 

Society of Civil Engineers. 21-23 July 1993. Park 

City, UT. 

Degraded headwater streams are common in the 

mountainous West. It is generally recognized that 

deposited sediments are required for the natural 

rebuilding of streambanks. This study evaluated the 

effects of vegetation lengths and other attributes in 

entrapping and retaining sediments on a simulated 

stream reach in the Hydraulics Lab at Colorado State 

University. Loading and flushing of sediments was a 

function of vegetation characteristics and stream 

discharge. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SEDIMENTATION] 
331. Clary,WP; Booth,GD (1993): Early riparian 

utilization of mountain meadow riparian pastures. 

Journal of Range Management 46(6), 493-497. 

Observations suggest that spring grazing of 

riparian areas is a good management strategy because 

of a reduced tendency for cattle to concentrate along 

streams during that season. Cattle distribution was 

examined within 4 experimental pastures located 

along Stanley Creek, Idaho. Cattle were not 

disproportionately attracted to the streamside areas 

during the June period. As stocking rates increased 

from light to medium, cattle concentrated most of 

their additional use on the adjacent drier meadow. 

Utilization of riparian plant communities during the 

early summer period had no relationship to the 

amount of plant moisture content, but was negatively 

associated with surface soil moisture. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; SOILS; STUBBLE 

HEIGHT; UTILIZATION] 

332. Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 

Wambolt,CL [comp.] (1992): Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest 

Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, 

UT. 232 p. 

The proceedings included 41 papers and 

accounts of field trips from a symposium focused on 

riparian shrub communities and their habitats. Papers 

discuss values, classification methods, conditions, 

and rehabilitation techniques for riparian areas, with 

one section devoted to similar topics for upland 

shrubs. 

[CLASSIFICATION; FIRE IMPACTS; PLANT 

YIELDS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SEED 

PRODUCTION; XERORIPARIAN] 

333. Clary,WP; Medin,DE (1990): Differences in 

vegetation biomass and structure due to cattle 

grazing in a northern Nevada riparian ecosystem. 

USDA Forest Service. Research Paper INT-427. 

Ogden, UT. 8 p. 

The study area is on the West Fork of Deer 

Creek in northeastern Nevada. Plots are located 

within an 1 1-year grazing exclosure and on the 

adjacent grazed riparian zone. Cattle grazing effects 

were concentrated in the riparian, not in adjacent 

uplands. Positioning of the exclosure fence across the 

narrow Deer Creek canyon probably reduced cattle 

access to the unfenced riparian, resulting in similar 

aspen stands upstream of the exclosure and within the 

exclosure. Below the exclosure, grazing had a major 

impact on aspen regeneration and stand structure. 

Greatest vegetation biomass differences between the 

grazed and fenced areas occurred among graminoid 

species. Willow stands were extremely variable, 

masking biomass differences. There were no 

significant differences between sites for biomass of 

small shrubs, but large shrubs other than willow had 

significantly greater biomass in the grazed areas. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES] 

334. Clary,WP; Medin,DE (1992): Vegetation, 

breeding bird, and small mammal biomass in two 

high- elevation sagebrush habitats. p.100-110. In: 

Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 

Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - Symposium 

on ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

Two riparian areas, one in Nevada and one in 

Idaho were compared. Except for geomorphology, 

the two study areas had many similar environmental 

characteristics. The biological communities, 

however, differed widely in many attributes. Total 

plant biomass differed by 25-fold between the two 

areas. Differences were seen to be primarily due to 

geomorphic conditions, which far exceeded the 

variation introduced by the impact of livestock 

grazing. 

[AVIFAUNA; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SAGEBRUSH; SMALL MAMMALS] 

335. Clary,WP; Medin,DE (1993): Vegetation, 

nesting bird, and small mammal characteristics - 

Wet Creek, ID. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-293. 11 p. 

Most ground cover and herbaceous plant 

measures were similar among the riparian plant 

communities. Shrub cover was greatest in the 

Potentilla- and Salix- dominated communities while 

shrub height and biomass were greatest in the Salix 

community. Fourteen species of birds established 

nesting territories on the study reaches. Four bird 

foraging guilds were represented by the riparian 

nesters, while only one foraging guild was 

represented by the upland nesters. Nine species of 

small mammals were trapped on the study sites. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SMALL MAMMALS] 

336. Clary,WP; Shaw,NL (1992): Grazing - 

riparian issues: a Sawtooth National Recreation 

Area field trip. p.228-232. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [camp.\. 

Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 
USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Symposium attendees were offered a full-day 

field trip to the Sawtooth National Recreation Area. 

The particular focus of the tour was the relationship 

between livestock grazing and riparian stream 

conditions. Instructional demonstrations on the field 

identification of local willow species were also 

provided. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN ISSUES; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

337. Clary,WP; Shaw,NL; Dudley,JG; Saab,VA; 

Kinney,JW; Smithman,LC (1996): Response of a 

depleted sagebrush steppe riparian system to 

grazing control and woody plantings. USDA 

Forest Service. Research Paper INT-RP-492.32 p. 

Five management systems were applied to a 

depleted riparian system in sagebrush steppe for a 

period of 7 years. These treatments ranged from none 

to heavy grazing and, in some cases, planting of 

woody species. All treatments were too limited to 

significantly restore the damaged areas within the 

7-year term of study. Although some improvements 

were made in woody plant densities, little meaningful 

change occurred in the frequencies of herbaceous 

wetland plants, densities of small wildlife, or stream 

channel morphology. Without increased revegetation 

efforts, they concluded that restoration would take 

many years, possibly decades. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

PLANTINGS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

SAGEBRUSH] 

338. Clary,WP; Thornton,CI; Abt,SR (1996): 

Riparian stubble height and recovery of degraded 

streambanks. Rangelands 18(4), 137-140. 

In small stream systems, herbaceous vegetation 

enhances sediment deposition and the channel 

restoration process. Shorter length vegetation (0.5 to 

6 inches) is most effective in improving sediment 

entrapment during the deposition phase. The longer 

length vegetation (8 to 12 inches) retains a larger 

portion of the deposited sediment during the flushing 

phase. Both deposition and retention of sediments are 

building blocks in the stream restoration process. The 

authors insist that it is imperative that an optimal 

vegetation length is determined for specific stream 

conditions to accommodate grazing while allowing 

stream restoration to occur. The frequency of 

sediment loading and flushing cycles as well as 

vegetation type play important roles in the 

determination of optimum stubble height. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; STUBBLE HEIGHT] 

339. Clary,WP; Webster,BF (1989): Managing 

grazing of riparian areas in the Intermountain 

Region. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report INT-263. Ogden, UT. 11 p. 

Concern about livestock grazing in riparian areas 

and its effect upon riparian-dependent resources has 

resulted in numerous controversies about the 

appropriate management approach. This document 

provides guidance for grazing of riparian areas in a 

manner that should reduce both non-point source 

pollution and potential grazing impacts on other 

riparian-dependent resources. 

[GRAZING TREATMENTS; NON-POINT 

SOURCE POLLUTION; STUBBLE HEIGHT; 

UTILIZATION] 

340. Clary,WP; Webster,BF (1990): Riparian 

grazing guidelines for the Intermountain Region. 

Rangelands 12(4), 209-212. 

Grazing practices which intend to reduce 

impacts on the herbaceous plant community, the 

woody plant community and streambank morphology 

are recommended. Criteria of minimum season-end 

stubble heights and an emphasis on early grazing are 

aimed at the maintenance of the woody plant 

community and streambank morphology. Herbaceous 

plants can also be expected to respond favorably to 

management. Many moist site forage species have 

strong vegetative reproductive capabilities and are 

favored by early season grazing. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; STUBBLE 

HEIGHT] 

341. Clary,WP; Webster,BF (1990): 

Recommended riparian grazing practices. p.77-81. 

In: Erosion control: Technology in transition. 

Proceedings of Conference XXI of the 

International Erosion Control Association. 14-17 

February 1990. Washington, D. C. 

Management practices in any grazing system 

must provide for regrowth of riparian plants after use 

or should leave sufficient vegetation at the time of 

grazing for maintenance of plant vigor and 

streambank protection. Minimum herbage stubble 

height must be present on all streamside areas at the 

end of the growing season, or at the end of the 

grazing season if grazing occurs after frost in the fall. 

Residual stubblelregrowth should average at least 4 

to 6 inches in height to provide sufficient herbaceous 

biomass. Spring grazing should be emphasized and 
the use level limited to about 65 percent. If summer 

grazing is conducted, the suggested use level is 40 to 

50 percent, and if fall grazing is conducted, the 

suggested use level is about 30 to 40 percent. The 

key point is to end the grazing season with the 4 to 6 

inches of streamside herbaceous stubble height. 

These riparian grazing management practice 

recommendations were developed as an aid to reduce 

non-point pollution in western streams and for 

application in Best Management Practices. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; STUBBLE 

HEIGHT] 

342. Clayton,S (1996): Factors influencing Black 

Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) recruitment on 

the Upper Clark River, Western Montana. M.S. 

Thesis, Montana State University; Bozeman, MT. 

Treatments to create bare substrate - manual and 

herbicidal - had no significant effect on cottonwood 

seedling establishment or survival. The depth to 

water table, however, (measured with piezometers) at 

the time of seed release was highly correlated with 

seed establishment. More than 1,200 seedlingdm2 

established in some plots but few survived the 

summer. Highest seedling survival occurred on those 

plots where the water table was within 20 cm of the 

ground surface during the time of seed release (early 

July) and when the water table dropped to less than 

50 cm by early September. More seedlings survived 

on gravel than on sand substrate. Average lifespan of 

the cottonwood appeared to be about 100-1 50 years. 

Only 5 percent of the study area, however, was 

currently occupied with stands less than 10 years old. 

[COTTONWOOD; RIPARIAN FOREST; WATER 

TABLE EFFECTS] 

343. Clayton,SR; Moynahan,BJ; Parker,TG; 

Weisenburger,TR; Thompson,WH; Hansen,PL 

(1998): The response of streambank stabilization 

treatments to ice and a major flood event on the 

Upper Clark River, western Montana. p. 85-95. 

In: Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management and 

water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

In 1996, a study to evaluate 12 bank treatments 

was initiated emphasizing the use of native plant 

materials and other bioengineering materials. It is 

still too early to determine long-term effectiveness of 

individual treatments. However, first year survival 

was high for mature transplants, containerized 

seedlings, and vertically-planted willow cuttings. 

Treatments which best withstood flooding were on 

resloped banks and included coir fabric and toe 

protection. Installation costs varied from 

$5.58-$82.29/ft. In general, treatments requiring 

heavy equipment were less expensive than treatments 

that were labor-intensive. 

[BIOENGINEERING; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; STREAMBANK 

PROTECTION] 

344. Clements,C (1991): Beavers and riparian 

ecosystems. Rangelands 13(6), 277-279. 

Habitat changes resulting from beaver activities 

can have dramatic influences on the quality of a 

riparian system in both positive and negative ways. 

In western Nevada, beavers can eliminate black 

cottonwood from the riparian zone, but leave 

mountain alder. This, in turn, leads to changes in tree 

density, height, forest structure, cavity availability, 

and other physical aspects. Unlimited beaver 

populations can be harmful to beaver habitats and 

ultimately to the beavers themselves. Complete 

removal will eliminate a natural feature of the 

environment that is important to many other 

organisms. Beaver management is an important 

aspect of natural resource stewardship. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

345. Clemmer,P (1994): Riparian area 

management. The use of aerial photography to 

manage riparian-wetland areas. USDl Bureau of 

Land Management. Technical Reference 1737-10. 

64 p. 

This report provides basic information, concepts, 

and procedures associated with using aerial 

photography to establish baseline data for effective 

management of riparian-wetland areas. Suggestions 

for the use of various scales of photography, 

guidance for acquiring aerial photography, and 

general procedures for conducting a vegetation 

inventory are included. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; MONITORING; REMOTE 

SENSING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

346. Clifton,C (1989): Effects of vegetation and 

land use on channel morphology. p.121-129. In: 

Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL [eds.]. 

Practical approaches to riparian resource 

management. An educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 

1989. Billings, MT. 

Spatial and temporal morphologic variability in 

mountain streams may be attributed to local 

prevailing conditions. In the Blue Mountains of 

central Oregon, morphologically distinct reaches 
result from differences in the composition and 

structure of streamside vegetation, physiography, and 

land use. Comparisons of grazed and ungrazed 

meadow reaches and a forested reach loaded with 

large organic debris reveal special differences related 

to the local environmental setting. Overall, width, 

depth, and cross-section area do not increase 

systematically downstream. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; LAND USE; 

VEGETATION MANAGEMENT] 

347. Clifton,C; Thomas, AE (1988): A 

bibliography of riparian and related topics with 

emphasis on the lntermountain West. USDI 

Bureau of Land Management. Idaho State Office. 

Boise, ID. Technical Bulletin 88-2. 69 p. 

This bibliography lists relevant publications on 

the topic of riparian management in the western U.S., 

with emphasis on the lntermountain Region. The 

bulletin contains 322 referenced publications dealing 

with riparian subjects. Copies are available in both 

hard copy and diskette from Idaho State Office, 

BLM. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; BLM; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

348. Clifton,CF (1987): Effects of land use and 

vegetation on the channel morphology of Wickiup 

Creek, Blue Mountains, Oregon. MS Thesis, 

University of Wisconsin, Madison. 

Over a 50-year period without grazing, there was 

a 94 percent reduction in the channel cross section 

area. Grazed and ungrazed meadow reaches and 

forested reaches with large woody debris revealed 

specific differences related to the local environmental 

setting. Width, depth, and cross-section area did not 

increase systematically downstream. Greatest widths 

were found in the forested reach. Greatest depths 

were in the ungrazed meadow reach. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; ORGANIC DEBRIS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

349. Cline,LD; Short,RA; Ward,JV (1979): The 

inertia and resiliency of a mountain stream to 

construction impact. p. 617-620. In: Swanson,GA 

led.]. The mitigation symposium: A national 

workshop on mitigating losses of fish and wildlife 

habitat. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-65. 

Predictive indices of inertia (ability to resist 

disturbance) and resiliency (ability to recover from 

disturbance) were applied to a mountain stream in 

Colorado subjected to highway construction 

activities. Expected inertia values were exceeded as 

demonstrated by physical, chemical, and biological 

parameters. Application of ecological principles 

elucidates the discrepancy between predicted and 

observed responses. 

[INERTIA VALUES; RESILIENCY; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

350. Cline,LD; Short,RA; Ward,JV; 

Carlson,CA; Gray,HL (1983): Effects of highway 

construction on water quality and biota in an 

adjacent Colorado mountain stream. USDA 

Forest Service. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range 

Experiment Station. Research Note RM-429. 11 p. 

[ROAD IMPACTS; STREAM ECOLOGY; WATER 

QUALITY] 

351. Cline,SP; Phillips,CA (1983): Coarse woody 

debris and debris-dependent wildlife in logged and 

natural riparian zone forests - a western Oregon 

example. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-99. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; ORGANIC DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

352. Coats,RN; Leonard,RL; Goldman,CR 

(1976): Nitrogen uptake and release in a forested 

watershed, Lake Tahoe Basin, CA. Ecology 

57:995-1004. 

The supply of nitrogen is an important factor 

limiting primary productivity in Lake Tahoe, 

Californiahlevada. Factors controlling nitrification 

were studied using a soil perfusion technique. Output 

of inorganic nitrogen from the watershed to the lake 

is 10 to 33 percent of the precipitation input. 

Inorganic nitrogen is removed from snowmelt water 

almost completely by well developed conifer stands. 

Alder stands release NO3 - N to soil water especially 

in fall and early winter. Nitrification does occur in 

some coniferous forest soils in the watershed and is 

closely associated with NO3 release. The occurrence 

of significant nitrification in the watershed is related 

more to the C:N ratio and stand basal area than to 

either pH or release of toxic substances by decaying 

litter. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; WATER QUALITY; 

WATERSHED] 

353. Coats,R; Swanson,M; Williams,P (1989): 

Hydrologic analysis for coastal wetland 

restoration. Environmental Management 13(6), 

71 5-727. 

Increasing recognition of the values of tidal 

wetlands has led to interest in how to restore and 
enhance areas that have been modified by human 

activity. The policy of recognizing restoration or 

enhancement as mitigation for destruction of other 

wetlands is controversial. One key element of the 

design of a successful project is quantitative 

hydraulic and hydrologic analysis of alternatives. 

Restoration projects at two sites in California used a 

combination of empirical geomorphic relationships, 

numeric modeling, and verification with field 

observations. Experience with wetland restoration 

projects indicates the importance of post-project 

monitoring, inspection, and maintenance. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARlAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

354. Cockman,JS; Pieper,R; Clason,D (1996): 

Arroyo-riparian shrub diversity along a transition 

zone between the Sacramento Mountains and 

Tulorosa Basin, NM. p.230-236. In: Proceedings: 

Shrubland ecosystem dynamics in a changing 

environment. 23-25 May 1995. Las Cruces, NM. 

USDA Forest Service. Intermountain Research 

Station. General Technical Report INT-GTR-338. 

275 p. 

Arroyos in the Sacramento Mountains of New 

Mexico were examined to determine the type 

differences and to describe the vegetation diversity of 

the main channel relative to the surrounding 

watershed. Each arroyo was selected to represent 

foothills and a sub-mesa which characterized a shrub, 

half-shrub, grass, and forb functional group. Groups 

responded differently depending on the response 

variable (cover, density, diversity). Interactions were 

masked by the fact that these response variables were 

comprised of different species, depending on the 

location of the arroyo. 

[ARROYOS; RIPARIAN SHRUBS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

355. Colby,BG (1990): Enhancing instream flow 

benefits in an era of water marketing. Water 

Resources Research 26(6), 11 13-1 120. 

This article examines current instream flow 

policies in the western states and outlines the 

economic values generated by stream flows. The 

author argues that instream values are high enough to 

compete in the market for water rights with offstream uses when important recreation sites and 

wildlife species are involved. The paper suggests 

how western state policies might be altered to 

accommodate instream flow protection within the 

context of water marketing, with the objective of 

improving the efficiency of water allocation among 

instream and consumptive uses. 

[HYDROLOGY; STREAM FLOW; WATER 

RIGHTS] 

356. Coleman,NL (1986): Effects of suspended 

sediment on the open-channel velocity 

distribution. Water Resources Research 22(10), 

1377-1384. 

Experiments were performed in which 

suspended sediment concentration in open-channel 

bounded shear flow was varied systematically while 

flow depth, slope, and discharge were held 

essentially constant. The effect of variation in 

suspended sediment concentration on velocity profile 

characteristics was investigated. The experiments 

used both the Karman coefficient and the Coles wake 

strength coefficient to detect changes. The thickness 

of the logarithmic part of the velocity profile 

decreased as sediment concentration increased. The 

logarithmic parts of velocity profiles in 

sediment-suspending flow were shifted downward 

relative to control profiles in comparable clear flows. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION] 

357. Colman,EA (1953): Vegetation and 

watershed management. The Ronald Press Co., 

New York, NY. 412 p. 

The key relationship investigated in this book is 

that of vegetation management water control and 

supply. Plant life influences the rate at which rain and 

snow can enter the soil and groundwater reservoirs 

and slows the runoff of water and inhibits erosion of 

soils. Vegetation can be used to manage the timing, 

quality, and quantity of water harvest from 

watersheds. Riparian and phreatophytic vegetation 

also play important roles in the utilization of surface 

waters from streams and rivers and from the 

groundwater table. 

[PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; WATERSHED] 

358. Comanor,K (1998): The inefficacy of using a 

solute transport model to assess the impact of 

grazing on a small intermontane stream. p. 442. 

In: Potts,DF (ed.]. Rangeland management and 

water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Continuous loading solute experiments were 

conducted in a area of the Sierra Nevadas in two land 

use areas - one grazed, the other not. Shallow wells 

were installed near the stream in both areas using the 

Bencala method (1983). No significant responses 

were measured in each of three separate experiments; 
nor were there any significant differences in the 

timing of well responses. The connectivity of the 

stream water to shallow ground water does not 

appear to be affected by the land use of the grazing. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; NUTRIENT CYCLES; 

WATER QUALITY] 

359. Compton,BB; Mackie,RJ; Desek,GL (1988): 

Factors influencing distribution of white-tailed 

deer in riparian habitats. Journal of Wildlife 

Management 52(3), 544-548. 

Factors influencing distribution of white-tailed 

deer (Odocoileus virginianus) along the lower 

Yellowstone River in eastern Montana were 

evaluated during winter, summer and fall, 1985. The 

amount of riparian forest and shrubland cover was 

the most important factor influencing deer 

distribution and accounted for 70 percent of the 

variation observed in relative deer abundance among 

sections of the river bottom. Cattle distribution and 

amount of island area also influenced the distribution 

of deer. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WHITE-TAILED DEER] 

360. Conners,ME; Naiman,RJ (1984): 

Particulate allochthonous inputs: relationships 

with stream size in an undisturbed watershed. 

Canadian Journal of Fish Aquatic Science 41(10), 

1473-1 484. 

Four streams of a pristine boreal watershed in 

eastern Quebcc were examined to assess the 

composition, seasonal pattern and ash-free dry mass 

(AFDM) of particulate allochthonous input. Study 

sites on streams ranging from 1 st - 6th order 

exhibited significant differences in the types and 

magnitude of litter input. Composition of litter fall 

varied according to vegetation and physical structure 

of the riparian zone. Although the forest in the 

watershed is dominated by conifers, deciduous leaves 

dominated annual budgets and seasonal input 

patterns. A watershed budget calculated from results 

estimated that a total input of 729 t (ton) yr- 1 to 

streams of this 673 km2 watershed. When particulate 

allochthonous input is compared with primary 

production measurements in these streams, 8 1-95 

percent of the organic C supplied to the 1 st- and 

2nd-order streams is allochthonous but 85-95 percent 

of the supply to the 5th- and 6th-order streams is 

autochthonous. The importance of local effects 

illustrates the need for a more mechanistic approach 

in allochthonous input research. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; ORGANIC DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

361. Connin,S (1991): Characteristics of 

successful riparian restoration projects in the 

Pacific Northwest. US Environmental Protection 

Agency, Region 10, Water Division. 53 p. 

This report summarizes and evaluates thirteen 

successfd riparian enhancements in the region. 

These projects represent a wide range of geographic 

locations, disturbance histories, restoration 

techniques (Best Management Practices), and 

restoration participants. Processes related to 

successfid BMP design, implementation, and 

monitoring were evaluated for effectiveness and 

contribution to final project results. Analyses were 

conducted through questionaire surveys, personal 

interviews, and site visits. The evaluation identified 

various process-oriented characteristics which 

contributed to project success. Some of these were 

common to several or all projects. These attributes 

appear to be "key" components of success and should 

be acknowledged as operational standards for 

riparian restoration. These characteristics and 

recommendations are summarized. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; 

MONITORING; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

362. Conroy,SD; Svejcar,TJ (1991): Willow 

planting success as influenced by site factors and 

cattle grazing in northeastern California. Journal 

of Range Management 44(1), 59-63. 

This study evaluated the influence of grazing 

and selected site factors on survival and leader 

growth of planted Geyer willow cuttings. Three 

grazing treatments (early summer, late summer, and 

non-use) were evaluated on each of 3 streams in 

broad, low-gradient meadows with silt loam soils in 

the northern Sierra Nevada. There was no significant 

effect on grazing treatment on either willow survival 

or growth despite 3.5 to 5 times more defoliation use 

of the willow cuttings in the grazed pastures. Stream 

channel location (proximity) did significantly affect 

willow survival but not individual plant leader 

length. There was a clear relationship between water 

table depth, soil moisture, and willow planting 

survival but not between moisture measurements and 

leader length. Once the water table has declined to 

the point that Artemisia spp. can survive on a site, the 

chances of successfully replanting willows are 

minimal. However, even during drought years, a 

survival rate of 60 percent or greater was achieved by 

planting into Carex nebraskensis communities or 

bare ground in the channel. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; SAGEBRUSH; SOILS; 

WATER TABLE EFFECTS; WILLOW] 
363. Contor,CR; Platts,WS (1991): Assessment of 

COWFISH for predicting trout populations in 

grazed watersheds of the Intermountain West. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-278. 28 p. 

The COWFISH model, developed and applied in 

selected Montana streams, was tested on 14 streams 

in Idaho, Nevada, and Utah, where it proved to have 

little value for predicting numbers of trout in 

watersheds grazed by livestock. The model holds 

promise for estimating the health of stream channels 

and riparian complexes. 

[COWFISH; FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; MODELING] 

364. Cook,CW (1966): Factors affecting 

utilization of mountain slopes by cattle. Journal of 

Range Management 19,200-204. 

Many factors affect the utilization of mountain 

terrain by cattle and these factors are interrelated and 

exert their influence in a complicated manner. Actual 

use obtained under good management is the most 

accurate method of determining the utilization 

obtainable on a particular mountain slope. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; UTILIZATION] 

365. Cooper,DJ (1988): Mountain wetland 

vegetation dynamics. p.23-25. In: Mutz,K; 

Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK (eds.]. 

Restoration, creation, and management of wetland 

and riparian ecosystems in the American West. A 

symposium of the Rocky Mountain Chapter of the 

Society of Wetland Scientists. 14-16 November 

1988. 

Many wetland plants reproduce largely by very 

vigorous rhizomes. This can be used to the advantage 

of those trying to revegetate disturbed wetlands that 

do not have hydrologic problems. Many of the most 

common wetland species have very broad niches and 

can occur in a wide variety of situations. They can be 

propagated by stem cuttings, sprigging, soil banking 

and respreading, plugs and many other means. 

[PLANT COMMUNITIES; PLANT 

PROPAGATION; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

WETLANDS] 

366. Cooper,DJ (1988): Colorado's wetlands. The 

Green Thumb 45(2), 38-45. 

In dry regions, where water is at a premium, 

wetlands are extremely valuable ecosystems. The 

diversity of habitat is important both to wildlife and 

people. In addition, many wetlands provide other 

important functions including water quality control 

that is vital to downstream users. Wetlands should be 

preserved and protected wherever possible. Many of 

the plants occurring in these sites occur nowhere else. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER QUALITY; 

WETLANDS] 

367. Cooper,DJ (1990): Ecology of wetlands in 

Big Meadows, Rocky Mountain National Park, 

Colorado. USDI Fish and Wildlife Sewice. 

Biological Report 90(15). Washington, DC. 45 p. 

This paper describes in detail the results of 

studies of hydrology, water chemistry, soils, and 

vegetation at a wetland complex in the Rocky 

Mountain National Park in north-central Colorado. 

Five water sources affect the complex and each water 

source somewhat differently structures the 

hydrological character, vegetation, and water 

chemistry of various portions of the complex. Twelve 

plant communities that make up the complex are 

described and characterized relative to measurements 

taken throughout the complex. The water table is 

highest in March and lowest in fall and early winter. 

The growing season usually lasts only three months 

and water tables fluctuate drastically among years 

depending on the depth of the snow pack. Soil 

saturation during July is seemingly the critical 

variable for peat formation in the study area. Sites 

with a water table within 20 - 30 cm of the surface in 

July usually support peat soils. Oxidation - reduction 

potential measurements indicate that for any soil 

depth, the soils stay reduced for up to 3 weeks after a 

water table drop below that depth. 

[HYDROI,OGY; REDOX POTENTIAL; WATER 

TABLE EFFECTS; WETLANDS] 

368. Cooper,DJ; Merritt,DM; Chimner,R; 

Anderson,DC (1997): Establishment and survival 

of Fremont Cottonwood and Tamarisk on 

regulated and unregulated rivers: The Green and 

Yampa Rivers. In: Proceedings of the Society of 

Wetland Scientists. 18th annual meeting. 

Restoration and Management Notes 16:1:92. 

Cottonwood and tamarisk seedlings along a 

regulated river and an unregulated river were 

compared. Cottonwood seedlings could not establish 

near older cottonwoods due to competition for water. 

Shade was not as important as available soil water in 

all areas. The Yampa River in Colorado 

(unregulated) experienced multiple establishments of 

both species, while the Green River (regulated) had 

only sporadic establishment of tamarisk due to 

sporadic summer flows. 

[EXOTICS; RIPARlAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

SHRUBS; SALT-CEDAR; SOIL-WATER 

CONDITIONS; STREAM FLOW] 
369. Cooper,JL (1978): A technique for 

evaluating and predicting the impact of grazing on 

small stream channels. In: Transactions, 

Bonneville Chapter, American Fisheries Society. 

3-4 February 1978. Salt Lake City, UT. 17 p. 

A modification of a widely used USDA Forest 

Service technique for evaluating impacts of increased 

water yields on streambank channel substrate 

stability was employed to predict impacts of grazing 

on bank-channel stability. The technique consisted of 

adding a parameter ( percent ungulate damage) and 

correlating present and potential bank-channel 

stability. Bank features (slope, log debris, vegetation, 

rock content, shade, and vegetation palatability) 

interact to influence impact of grazing on 

bank-channel stability. 

[EVALUATION; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

MONITORING] 

370. Cooper,SD; Diehl,S; Kratz,K; Sarnelle,O 

(1998): Implications of scale for patterns and 

processes in stream ecology. Australian Journal of 

Ecology 23,27-40. 

Current knowledge of scale effects by freshwater 

ecologists is rudimentary and non-quantitative. The 

authors review issues of spatial and temporal scale in 

this paper to highlight conceptual problems relating 

to scale and some potential solutions. They 

recommend that freshwater ecologists undertake 

more multi-scale sampling and experimentation to 

examine patterns and processes at multiple scales. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SPATIAL SCALE; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

371. Cooperrider,AY (1990): Conservation of 

biological diversity on western rangelands. In: 

Transactions of the North American wildlife and 

natural resources conference. 16-21 March 1990. 

Denver, CO. Wildlife Management Institute. 

Washington, DC. 

Biological diversity at the communityhabitat, 

species, and genetic levels is threatened by our 

activities on the western rangelands. Sustainable 

ecosystems are required for sustainable economies. 

Conservation of biological diversity will require 

awareness of the relationship between biological 

diversity and sustainability. It will require awareness 

by all involved parties. 

[BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SUSTAINABILITY] 

372. Cooperrider,AY; Boyd,RJ; Stuart,HR 

(1986): Inventory and monitoring of wildlife 

habitat. USDI Bureau of Land Management, 

Denver Service Center. Denver, CO. 858 p. 

A book intended to guide field biologists and 

managers in planning, organizing, and administering 

wildlife inventory and monitoring projects. Primarily 

designed for professional wildlife biologists working 

for USDI Bureau of Land Management, much of the 

material is relevant for those working in other 

agencies or institutions. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; INVENTORY; 

MONITORING; RANGELAND ECOSYSTEMS: 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM ECOLOGY; 

WETLANDS] 

373. Cope,OB led. 1 (1979): Proceedings of the 

Forum -- Grazing and riparianlstream 

ecosystems. 3-4 November 1979. Denver, CO. 

Trout Unlimited, Inc. 94 p. 

A forum organized by Trout Unlimited, Inc. to 

bring together all interested agencies and 

organizations to present a balanced and current 

spectrum of issues as well as scientific 

state-of-the-art knowledge on grazing and 

riparianlstream management in order to derive the 

best possible management guidelines. The published 

proceedings consolidate the 30 professional and 

topical presentations under one cover. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

374. Corbett,ES; Lynch,JA (1985): Management 

of streamside zones on municipal watersheds. 

p.187-190. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech.coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Riparian zones are important in water quality 

management. Water supply considerations and 

maintenance of streamside zones from the municipal 

watershed managers' perspective are discussed. 

Management impacts affecting water quality and 

quantity on forested municipal watersheds are 

discussed in relation to the structure of the riparian 

zone. 

[HUMAN IMPACTS; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE; WATER QUALITY] 

375. Corn,PS; Bury,RB (1987): The effects of 

timber harvest on aquatic amphibians. In: 

Streamside management: Riparian wildlife and 

forestry interactions. An interdisciplinary 

symposium. 11-13 February 1987. University of 

Washington. Seattle, WA. 
Species diversity of amphibians was much lower 

in logged streams than in controls. Eleven control 

streams contained all four inventoried species. Only 

two controls had as few as two species present. Of 

the logged streams, 1 1 had one or no species present, 

and only one contained all four. Densities of all 

species were significantly greater (by 2- 10 X) in 

control vs logged streams. 

[AMPHIBIANS; LOGGING IMPACTS: RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

376 Corn,PS; Bury,RB (1989): Logging in 

western Oregon: Responses of headwater habitats 

and stream amphibians. Forest Ecology and 

Management 29,39-57. 

This paper compared the occurrence and 

abundance of amphibians between streams flowing 

through uncut forests and streams in logged stands 

where second growth has reestablished the canopy. 

Pacific giant salamanders (Dicampton ensatus), 

Olympic salamanders (Rhyacotriton olympicus), 

Dunn's salamanders (Plethodon dunni), tailed frogs 

(Ascaphus truei) were inventoried. Eleven streams in 

logged stands had one or no species present. Density 

and biomass of all four species were significantly 

greater in uncut forests. 

[AMPHIBIANS; BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

377. Corner,RA; Bassman,JH (1993): 

Contribution of legal buffer zones to non-point 

source pollution abatement following timber 

harvesting in northeast Washington. p.245. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,LF [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

Sedimentation of streams resulting from forest 

management practices is among the greatest 

non-point source pollution concerns. This study 

concluded that although riparian buffer zones can be 

instrumental in protecting against non-point source 

pollution, their effectiveness is directly related to 

physical properties and the nature of management on 

the upland area. Therefore, a legal buffer zone width 

should be calculated as a function of physical 

parameters (e.g. slope, soil permeability, soil 

erodibility) and intensity of management practices 

rather than as a designated fixed distance. 

[BUFFER ZONES; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

378. Cornwel1,J (1 990): Developing grazing 

management plans for riparian areas. USDA Soil 

Conservation Service, Boise, ID. Idaho Range 

News. April 1990. 

This article provides a topical background for 

preparing, implementing, and sustaining a 

management plan for riparian grazing. It is useful for 

providing a step-by-step outline for developing and 

using a grazing management plan. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING 

TREATMENTS] 

379. Corradini,C; Singh,VP (1985): Effect of 

spatial variability of effective rainfall on direct 

runoff by a geomorphologic approach. Journal of 

Hydrology 81(1985), 27-43. 

The importance of spatial variability of effective 

rainfall input to a direct runoff model was analyzed 

by the geomorphologic approach based on the use of 

different paths determined according to the 

Horton-Strahler ordering scheme. Actual effective 

rainfall distributions, derived from observed rainfall 

were employed. The authors argue that it is 

unreasonable to use the geomorphologic approach in 

computing basin response for spatially variable 

effective rainfall as model input. Analysis of the 

distribution throughout the basin revealed that the 

averaging scheme of the channel network, following 

the Horton-Strahler ordering scheme, was not 

appropriate. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; 

MODELING; SPATIAL SCALE] 

380. Coulson,RN; Folse,LJ; Loh,DK (1987): 

Artificial intelligence and natural resource 

management. Science 237(July), 262-267. 

Use of artificial intelligence (AI) in natural 

resource management began with the development of 

expert systems for problem-solving and 

decision-making. The use of expert systems in turn 

led to the development of other procedures. These 

include: integrated expert systems, which link 

management models with natural resource models; 

intelligent geographic information systems, which 

permit interpretation of relations within and among 

landscape data themes; and, modeling of animal 

behavior and interaction with the environment. 

[ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE; GIs; 

MONITORING; RIPARlAN HABITAT] 

381. Covich,AP; Palmer,MA; Crowl,TA (1999): 

The role of benthic invertebrate species in 

freshwater ecosystems. BioScience 49(2), 11 9-1 26. 

Benthic invertebrates in freshwater sediments are 
diverse and abundant but are often patchily 

distributed and relatively difficult to sample, 

particularly when they live in deep subsurface 

sediments. Species richness and functional 

importance of freshwater invertebrates generally go 

unnoticed until something unexpected occurs in 

ecosystems. Such changes may be caused by floods, 

drought, disease, fish kills, etc. Physical, chemical, 

and biological processes create significant horizontal 

and vertical heterogeneities in the substrata that 

provide a template for distinct niches. Some species 

have a disproportionately large impact on food-web 

dynamics and provide essential ecosystem services. 

These functions include mixing, nutrient cycling, and 

energy flow through food webs. Adequate models, 

however, for ecosystem services is lacking. Public 

understanding of these mechanisms is also poor. 

Much of flowing water eventually passes through 

subsurface zones where rich faunal diversities 

contribute to a multiplicity of services. Benthic biota 

mediate biogeochemical transformations and act 

directly to prevent buildup of carbon in the sediments 

and deoxygenation of bottom waters. They also 

sequester and move contaminants and excess 

nutrients from groundwaters and sediments and 

influence the flux of greenhouse gases. 

[FOOD WEBS; INVERTEBRATES; 

MACROINVERTEBRATES; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES; SPECIES RICHNESS; WATER 

QUALITY] 

382. Cowan,WL (1956): Estimating hydraulic 

roughness coeffkients. Agricultural Engineering 

37,473-475. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; HYDROLOGY] 

383. Cowardin,LM; Carter,V; Colet,FC; 

LaRoe,ET (1979): Classification of wetlands and 

deep water habitats of the United States. USDl 

Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological Services 

Program. FWSIOBS-79/31. 103 p. 

The classification was intended to describe 

ecological taxa, arrange them into a useful system, 

furnish units for mapping, and provide uniformity of 

terms and concepts. Wetlands are defined by plants 

(hydrophytes), soils (hydric soils), and frequency of 

flooding. Deep water habitats are also included in 

the classification. The wetlands classification has 

been in general use by the USDA Forest Service 

since its publication. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

384. Cowell,DW (1984): The Canadian Beaver, 

(Castor canadensis), as a geomorphic agent in 

karst terrain. Canadian Field-Naturalist 98(2), 

227-230. 

The karst-drainage of a beaver-occupied lake 

and a sinkhole pond resulted in dam and canal 

building by Canadian beavers. The beavers were 

unsuccessful in maintaining their habitat. Their 

activities probably enhanced karsification. 

[BEAVER; GEOMORPHOLOGY] 

385. Cowley,ER (1992): Protocols for classifying, 

monitoring, and evaluating streamlriparian 

vegetation on Idaho rangeland streams. Idaho 

Dept. of Health and Welfare. Division of 

Environmental Quality. 37 p. 

The document defines appropriate parameters 

and outlines specific monitoring protocols and 

procedures for evaluating vegetation and streambank 

stability for Idaho's small (usually less than 30 feet) 

rangeland streams. It also provides protocols for 

monitoring stream canopy cover, streambank 

stability, solar input, and establishing permanent 

photo points associated with livestock grazing and 

other activities that affect streamside (riparian) 

vegetation and beneficial uses of water. These 

protocols are directed at three of the important 

pollutant sources affecting the biological integrity of 

streams and lakes that may result from livestock 

grazing: streambank erosion, water temperature, and 

vegetation. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; MONITORING; 

PROTOCOLS; RANGELAND STREAMS; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

386. Cox,JR; Morton,HL (1985): Above-ground 

biomass quantities and livestock production in big 

sacaton riparian areas in southeastern Arizona. 

p.305-309. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebel1,CD; 

Patton,DR, Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

In southeastern Arizona, two big sacaton riparian 

sites were studied and compared. At one, the standing 

biomass was measured for 3 years. At the other, the 

standing crop was burned or mowed in February 

before grazing. Dead standing biomass accumulated 

in the fall and disappeared following precipitation in 

fall, winter, or summer. Both burning or mowing 

reduced biomass production. Stocking rates on 

mowed or burned sites were only one-third as high as 

on untreated. Total gains per pasture were 5 12 and 

235 kg on the untreated and treated, respectively. 
[FIRE IMPACTS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; MOWING] 

387. Crance,JH (1988): Relationships between 

palustrine wetlands of forested riparian 

floodplains and fishery resources: A review. USDI 

Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological Report 

88(32), 27. 

This literature review focuses on management 

approaches and research for the identification and 

mitigation of wetland impacts and on the importance 

of wetlands to fisheries. Productivity, species 

diversity and structure, and nutrient cycling respond 

to hydrologic regimes. Deterioration of hydrologic 

regimes of wetlands is likely to reduce habitat quality 

or quantity and may block fish access. Fishery 

resources should be given high priority when 

regulated stream flow, channelization, diking, and 

watershed practices are being evaluated. 

[FISHERIES; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

388. Crandall,KB; Colby,BG; Rait,KA (1992): 

Valuing riparian areas: A southwestern case 

study. Rivers 3(2), 88-98. 

Instream flows typically have been neglected in 

the competitive distribution of water in the West, 

because many of the benefits they provide have 

public goods characteristics and tend not to be legally 

recognized as beneficial uses of water. Economists 

have developed several techniques to value amenity 

resources, including the Travel Cost Method, the 

Contingent Valuation Method, and local economic 

impact analyses. This paper provides a brief review 

of these techniques and their application to sites with 

instream flows and riparian ecosystems. It provides 

economic data to facilitate more informed decisions 

regarding protection of streamflows, land use 

alternatives, and riparian habitat preservation. 

[ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

389. Crawford,CS; Ellis,LM; Molles,MC; 

Valett,HM (1996): The potential for implementing 

partial restoration of the Middle Rio Grande 

ecosystem. p.93-99. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM 

[tech. coord.]. Desired future conditions for 

Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

The Rio Grande currently inundates only a small 

portion of its riparian forests during late spring 

runoff. Such flood events were once responsible for 

the germination of cottonwoods and willows along 

the river, for a mosaic of wetlands mixed with 

different aged stands of forest, and for enhancement 

of decomposition and nutrient cycling. River 

regulation in this century has decoupled the linkage 

between the floodplain and the river and has led to 

senescence without replacement of the once 

dominant native cottonwoods in the Middle Rio 

Grande (MRG) valley. The authors propose that 

partial restoration can be accomplished by 

re-establishing a regime of seasonal wetting of 

riparian soils at select sites, most likely in the MRG's 

southern reach. Research at Bosque del Apache 

National Wildlife Refuge suggests that this practice 

would: 1) accelerate decomposition and nutrient 

cycling within existing stands; and 2) promote 

cottonwood-willow germination on banks and other 

cleared areas. It could also expedite the creation of 

wetlands. 

[COTTONWOOD; NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIO 

GRANDE; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

WETLANDS; WILLOW] 

390. Creamer,WH,IV; Wamboldt,CL; Rossi,RJ 

(1992): Comparison of three groups of variables 

for predicting big sagebrush forage production. 

p.217-221. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [tech. coord.]. 

Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

This paper reports modeling procedures used to 

develop regression equations to predict forage 

production available in the winter from three 

subspecies of big sagebrush of high- and low-use 

form classes. 

[FORAGE PRODUCTION; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

MODELING] 

391. Crisco,W (1990): Riparian vegetation 

analysis with low altitude aerial photography. A 

case study report, USDI Bureau of Land 

Management. Vale District, OR. 

Infrared aerial photographs of 11 riparian sites 

were obtained during two periods, 198 1 - 1982 and in 

1987, at scales from 1 : 1,790 to 1 :3,570. Vegetation 

and channel characteristics were characterized and 

acreages of each category determined. Significant 

vegetation changes were observed. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; BLM; MONITORING; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

392. Croft,AR; Hoover,MD (1951): The relation 

of forests to our water supply. Journal of Forestry 

49(4), 245-249. 
A usable water supply can be sustained only if 

the forestry profession assumes responsibility for 

water management as well as timber management. 

For that to occur, these things must happen: I) the 

forestry profession must clearly recognize and 

assume responsibility for management of water from 

forested lands; 2) the job of managing water supply 

from forested lands must be integrated with forest 

management; and 3) forestry schools must give 

adequate instruction in the hydrology of forested 

lands to prepare managers for doing their job. 

[HYDROLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

393. Cronemiller,FP (1955): Making new trout 

streams in the Sierra Nevada. p.583-586. In: 

Water: The yearbook of agriculture. 84th 

Congress. House document No. 32. 

Small, intermittent streams have been improved 

to accommodate trout spawning and summer-long 

habitat by the construction of small, 

"flow-maintenance" dams. Such dams, developed 

through cooperative efforts with sportsmen groups, 

assure the release of stored water through the summer 

to create permanent streams with excellent fishing. 

These installations become natural "trout factories" 

which have very low maintenance costs. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

TROUT] 

394. Cross,SP (1985): Responses of small 

mammals to forest riparian perturbations. 

p.269-275. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH Itech. coord.1. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-1 8 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

In southwest Oregon, trapping studies at several 

mixed conifer forest sites demonstrated a 

differentially high use of riparian habitat by small 

mammals. Harsh perturbations of this habitat 

radically affect the presence and abundance of many 

species. Riparian leave-strips were found to support 

small mammal communities comparable to 

undisturbed sites. 

[BUFFER STRIPS; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 

395. Cross,SP (1987): Small mammals and bats 

in riparian studies. In: Streamside management: 

Riparian wildlife and forestry interactions. 11-13 

February 1987. University of Washington. Seattle, 

WA. 

Small mammals, primarily insectivores and 

rodents, are well suited for studies that provide 

information regarding wildlife utilization of 

relatively small or irregularly shaped habitat areas 

such as streamside riparian zones. Natural history 

observations and quantitative comparative habitat 

studies indicate that the forest streamside riparian 

zone supports a greater abundance and diversity of 

small mammals than the neighboring upland zone. 

Habitat utilization patterns differ from species to 

species, showing various degrees of affinity for the 

riparian zone. Some species are almost restricted to 

that zone. Others may enter upland areas but occupy 

riparian zones as their primary habitat. Still others are 

primarily upland forest species but use the riparian 

zone as secondary habitat. In mature forests, the 

riparian habitat supports virtually all small mammal 

species that are also present in neighboring habitats. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 

396. Crouch,GL (1978): Effects of protection 

from livestock grazing on a bottomland wildlife 

habitat in northeastern Colorado. p.118-125. In: 

Proceedings of the lowland river and stream 

habitat in Colorado symposium. 4-5 October 1978. 

Greeley, CO. 

Vegetation on a bottomland wildlife habitat 

protected from grazing for 7 and 25 years was 

compared to an adjacent grazed tract along the South 

Platte River in northeast Colorado. Overall cover and 

height of the understory was about twice as great on 

the ungrazed area for each evaluation, but did not 

change appreciably over the 18-year interval. A 

significant decrease in the number of cottonwood 

trees occurred on both areas, particularly the grazed 

area. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

PLATTE RIVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

397. Crouch,GL (1979): Long-term changes in 

cottonwoods on a grazed and ungrazed plains 

bottomland in northeastern Colorado. USDA 

Forest Service. Research Note RM-370.4 p. 

Numbers of cottonwood trees declined between 

196 1 and 1978 on a grazed and an ungrazed 

bottomland in northeast Colorado. Cottonwoods were 

larger in diameter in 1978 but basal area stocking 

was unchanged. Trees were taller in 1978 on the 

ungrazed area, and the amounts of canopy deadwood 

were greater on both areas. Water management, 

grazing by livestock and deer, plant competition on 

the ungrazed area, and beaver-felling of young trees 

all contributed to a lack of regeneration that appears 

responsible for the general decline in overstory 
vegetation. 

[COTTONWOOD; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RIPARIAN FOREST] 

398. Crouch,GL (1984): Wildlife habitat on the 

lower South Platte River in Colorado. p.1-3. In: 

Proceedings of the Symposium on wooded draws. 

South Dakota School of Mines and Technology. 

12-13 June 1984. Rapid City, SD. 

Wooded riparian habitats present today along the 

South Platte River appear to be of recent origin. 

Early explorers found few trees and a river that 

flooded in the spring and was dry in late summer 

each year. The bottomlands could be drastically 

changed if management practices are not modified to 

favor the present environment. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; PLATTE RIVER; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

399. Crouse,MR; Kindschy,RR (1981): A method 

for predicting riparian vegetation potential of 

semiarid rangelands. p.110-116. In: Symposium 

on acquisition and utilization of aquatic habitat 

inventory information. 28-30 October 1981. 

Portland, OR. 

Predicting potential of riparian areas to recover 

after protection from livestock is difficult because 

examples of pristine riparian communities have 

generally destroyed by excessive grazing. A method 

for predicting riparian site potential is described for 

semiarid climates. This method is based on physical 

characteristics of stream and reservoir riparian zones, 

such as extent of water level fluctuation, persistence 

of flow, scouring, and soil type. Such factors have 

been organized into a key for predicting potential 

recovery. 

[CLASSIFICATION; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

400. Crumpacker,DW (1985): The Boulder 

Creek Corridor projects: Riparian ecosystem 

management in an urban setting. p.389-92. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Protection of the Boulder Creek riparian corridor 

is a major priority of the citizens of Boulder, 

Colorado. Policies for protection and management 

for the benefit of the community are described. 

[HUMAN IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

URBAN IMPACTS] 

401. Crymes,GD; Stringham,TK; Buckhouse,JC 

(1998): Methodology for measurement of riparian 

woody vegetation for the purpose of determining 

their contribution to shade on the water surface. 

p.98. In: Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management 

and water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Belt transects were employed that measured 

height, width, overhang, distance from the stream 

and compass orientation of the stream. A minimum 

of 6 diverse reaches were adopted per stream in order 

to establish statistical veracity. Belt transects were 

run parallel to the stream edge on both sides of the 

stream. Directional starting points were randomized. 

All measurements were collected during the low flow 

periods of late summer, the period in which eastern 

Oregon streams are most susceptible to temperature 

increases. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SHADING] 

402. Culler,RC (1970): Water conservation by 

removal of phreatophytes. American Geophysical 

Union Transactions 51(10), 684-689. 

Removal of phreatophytes from the Gila River 

floodplain in southeastern Arizona produces a 

significant reduction in evapotranspiration. 

Long-term benefits from phreatophyte removal 

depends on the successful establishment of 

vegetation with low consumptive use of water. 

[HYDROLOGY; PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

403. Cummins,KW; Wilzbach,MA; Gates,DM; 

Perry,JB; Taliaferro,WB (1989): Shredders and 

riparian vegetation. BioScience 39(1), 24-30. 

Stream invertebrates that feed on leaf litter 

(called shredders) are intimately tied to litter input. 

The major role of shredders in stream ecosystems is 

the conversion of large organic plant substrates 

(coarse), such as leaf litter, into smaller particles. A 

model is described that would operate on a broad 

spatial scale. The shredder-litter association 

represents the closest and most direct link between 

the dominant plant community and the biota of the 

receiving stream channel network. The model can 

provide a tool to evaluate watersheds that have been 

modified by various processes. 

[LITTER FALL; INVERTEBRATES; MODELING: 

ORGANIC DEBRIS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SPATIAL SCALE] 

404. Cuplin,P (1 978): Remote sensing streams. 
BLMIASP workshop on practical applications and 

use of color infrared and color imagery. 30 

January -1 February 1978. Denver, CO. 3 p. 

A method of stream habitat inventory using 

photo interpretation of large scale color infrared 

photography is described. The supporting methods of 

ground truth, targeting for aerial photo identification 

and photo scale, film format exposure for water 

penetration of clear water, lens filters, and 

description of acceptable weather and sunlight 

conditions for optimum film exposure are identified. 

[INVENTORY; MONITORING; RlPARlAN 

HABITAT] 

405. Cuplin,P (1981): The use of large scale color 

infrared photography for stream habitat and 

riparian vegetation inventory. USDI Bureau of 

Land Management Tech. Note 325.7 p. 

The interpretation of large scale color 

photogrammetry is a useful tool for identifying 

riparian habitat types and for monitoring the 

condition of these locations. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

406. Cuplin,P (1987): A selected annotated 

bibliography of riparian area management. USDI 

Bureau of Land Management. Technical 

Reference 1737-1.68 pp. 

This bibliography contains 135 references, with 

abstracts and keywords, which the Riparian Area 

Task Force considered the most significant 

contributions to the state-of-the-art. Those references 

were chosen from more than 1,200 reviewed. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

407. Cuplin,P; Batson,F (1985): Streamlriparian 

area inventory and monitoring using large scale 

color infrared airphotos. p.356-361. In: 

Proceedings of the (Pecora) Symposium for 

remote sensing in forest and range resource 

management. 20-22 August 1985. Colorado State 

University. Ft. Collins, CO. 

There is an increasing level of interest in 

inventory and monitoring of critical streamlriparian 

environments. The BLM has investigated the use of 

remote sensing procedures to increase the efficiency 

of traditional ground-based methodologies. Ground 

data collection combined with photo interpretation of 

large scale airphotos provide inventory and 

monitoring capability for riparian areas. Variables 

that can be photo interpreted from large scale color 

infrared airphotos and used to detect change in 

riparian areas are stream width, flood plain width, 

stream channel stability, stream shade, ground cover 

of trees, shrubs, herbaceous vegetation, bare soil, 

riparian area and width, density and structure of large 

trees and shrubs. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; MONITORING; REMOTE 

SENSING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

408. Cuplin,P; Platts,WS; Casey,O; Masinton,R 

(1985): A comparison of riparian area ground 

data with large scale airphoto interpretation. 

p.67-68. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Pa~tton,DR; 

Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH (tech. coord.1. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technicall Report 

RM-120. 

A study site in northeast Nevada was monitored 

1979-1 985. Aerial photos of the study site were 

acquired in large-scale, infrared, 9 X 9 in. format. 

Ground data and airphoto interpretation are 

compared. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

409. Dahl,TE; Johnson,CE; Frayer,WES (1991): 

Wetlands: Status and trends in the conterminous 

United States mid-1970's to mid-1980's. USDI Fish 

and Wildlife Service. Washington, DC. 2!8 p. 

Increased awareness regarding the ecological, 

social, and economic values of wetlands has resulted 

in the development of wetlands protection legislation 

and programs. Since 1983, the USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service has been monitoring the rate and 

magnitude of wetlands conversions. Since the 

mid-19801s, indications are that wetland losses are 

slowing. Programs to restore wetlands und.er the US 

Food Security Act have added about 90,000 acres to 

the nations wetlands inventory during 1987- 1990. 

[MONITORING; WETLANDS] 

410. Dahlem,EA (1979): The Mahogany Creek 

watershed -- with and without grazing. p.31-34. 

In: Cope, OB led.]. Forum -- Grazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 Novemlber 1978. 

Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

Based on photographic evidence and available 

data, reduction in livestock grazing but continued 

annual use had little or no beneficial effect on 

riparian habitat along Mahogany Creek. Only after 

complete removal of livestock use by fencing was 

significant riparian habitat improvement 

accomplished. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 
411. L)ale,HM; Garton,CE (1984): The aquatic 

macrophyte vegetation of an isolated island lake 

adjacent to Lake Nipigon, Ontario: A 

comparative study after a fifty-six year interval. 

Canadian Field Naturalist 98(3), 444-450. 

The authors had a unique opportunity to 

compare the present vegetation of an isolated island 

lake with the records of vegetation that were made 53 

years before. Since the impacts of man have been 

minimal because of rare visitations, predictions of 

change made in 1926 could be assessed. 

Additionally, comparisons were made between a 

small island lake and a larger encompassing lake. 

Decrease in some species was attributed to the 

increase in water level. Opportunistic species 

flourished. Differences in the flora of the small 

isolated lake and the larger encompassing one were 

attributed to differences in the temperature of the 

water, alkalinity, and wave action. Lack of suitable 

invading disseminules may have prevented the 

establishment of certain species in the smaller lake. 

The reasons for the absence of other species are 

unclear. 

[AQUATIC PLANTS; BEAVER; RlPARIAN 

HABITAT; SECONDARY SUCCESSION] 

412. Dalton,RS; Bastian,BT; Jacobs,JJ; 

Wesche,TA (1998): Estimating the economic value 

of improved trout fishing on Wyoming streams. 

North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management. 18:786-797. 

The objective of this study was to generate 

estimates of economic benefits of improvements on 

Wyoming fishing streams that could be used to 

evaluate different improvement projects. A mail 

survey was conducted to determine angler (both 

resident and tourist) preferences and to estimate 

economic benefits. Consumer surplus estimates for 

the complete sample were US$ I0 l /day for increased 

trout populations and US$] 32lday for doubling the 

chances of catching a large trout. These results may 

be used within a framework of net present value to 

evaluate potential projects. 

[ECONOMICS; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; TROUT] 

413. Darling,LA; Coltharp,GB (1973): Effects of 

livestock grazing on the water quality of mountain 

streams. p.1-8. In: Mayland, HF [ed.]. 

Proceeding: Water-animal relations. Kimberly, 

ID. University of Idaho. Moscow, ID. 

This study was designed to determine the type 

and extent of livestock grazing effects on the water 

quality of streams passing through grazing 

compartments. Emphasis was placed on the effect of 

livestock grazing on the bacteriological and indicator 

groups of total coliform, fecal coliform, and fecal 

streptococci, with less attention given to selected 

physical and chemical parameters. The study was 

conducted on three mountain streams in the Bear 

River Range of northern Utah. Significant increases 

in the bacterial counts were noted during th~e grazing 

of cattle and sheep at stream locations at immediately 

downstream from the grazing activity. Bacterial 

counts in streams draining grazed watersheds reached 

seasonal maximum values during the grazing season, 

while counts from the ungrazed watershed remained 

relatively low and constant. The chemical and 

physical water quality parameters showed no 

clear-cut effect from livestock grazing. 

[COLIFORM BACTERIA; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; W,4TER 

QUALITY] 

414. Darveau,M; Beauchesne,P; Belanger,L; 

Huot,J; Larue,P (1995): Riparian forest strips as 

habitat for breeding birds in boreal forest. 

Journal of Wildlife Management 59(1), 67-78. 

Riparian forest strips are usually protected from 

logging for their buffer effect on aquatic habitats. 

However, their value to terrestrial wildlife is 

generally unknown. From 1989- 1992, the ,authors 

compared bird abundance and species composition in 

5 experimental riparian forest strips (20-m, 40-m, 

60-m, and control [>300 m wide], intact strips, and 

20-m wide thinned strips), in boreal balsam fir 

stands, for three years following clear-cutting. Bird 

densities increased 30 - 70 percent in all strips the 

year after clear-cutting and decreased thereafter to 

approximately pretreatment levels. The 20- and 40-m 

wide riparian strips had the highest mean bird 

densities, but also the fastest decreases thereafter. 

The removal of 33 percent of the trees in some of the 

20-m strips resulted in a <20 percent decline of bird 

densities. There was evidence that 60-m strips are 

required for forest-dwelling birds. Bird populations 

may continue to decline in strips before regeneration 

of adjacent clear-cuts provides suitable habitat for 

forest-dwelling species. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; BOREAL FOREST; 

RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

41 5. Davidson,AS; Knight,RL (1 997): Effects of 

cottonwood forest patch characteristics on 

predation and parasitism of songbird nlest in 

northwestern Colorado. p.77. In: Abstracts. 1997 

Annual meeting of the Ecological Society of 

America jointly with The Nature Conservancy. 
Changing ecosystems: Natural and human 

influences. 10-14 August 1997. Albuquerque, NM. 

The size and shape of cottonwood forest patches 

along the Yampa River in northwest Colorado have 

dramatically changed because of agriculture and 

development. This study monitored rates of predation 

and parasitism for two seasons. Predation of both 

artificial and natural nests depended on patch shape 

for some size classes. Evidence was produced that 

even in naturally fragmented cottonwood riparian 

habitat, the size and shape of forest patches can affect 

avian nesting grounds. Restoration efforts should 

promote larger and more circular patches. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; COTTONWOOD; 

PARASITISM; PREDATION; RIPARIAN 

FOREST] 

416. Davies,BR; Walker, KF (1986): The ecology 

of river systems. Monographiae Biologicae. 

Volume 60. Dr. W. Junk Publishers. Boston, MA. 

792 p. 

A compendium of articles relating to thirteen 

major rivers of the world: six in Africa, two in North 

America, three in South America, one in Asia, and 

one in Australia. Several recurrent issues emerge as 

important: floodplain - river interactions, 

biogeographical affinities, and modifications caused 

by development, especially dams. 

[CLIMATE; DAMS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

HYDROLOGY; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

417. Davis,EA (1987): Chaparral conversion and 

streamflow: Nitrate increase unbalanced mainly 

by a decrease in bicarbonate. Water Resources 

Research 23(1), 21 5-224. 

Chaparral watershed conversion to grass by 

controlling the brush with herbicides increases water 

yield as substrate runoff to streams. Increased stream 

discharge is accompanied by several hundredfold 

increases in the filtrate concentration of the stream 

water. Nitrate concentrations remained 46 to 69 X 

above normal for 11 years or more. Nitrate 

concentration increases were balanced mainly by 

bicarbonate ion concentration decreases. One 

mechanism suggested to explain the latter was the 

reaction producing carbon dioxide and water. 

[SOILS; VEGETATION MANAGEMENT; WATER 

QUALITY] 

418. Davis,EA; DeBano,LF (1986): Nitrate 

increases in soil water following conversion of 

chaparral to grass. Biogeochemistry 2,53-65. 

A watershed in Arizona converted from 

chaparral to grassland released high concentrations of 

nitrate to stream water. The nitrate originated from 

the rooting zone of the decomposing shrubs. High 

nitrate concentrations were found in soil solutions 

from all measured depths on the converted watershed 

as compared with low nitrate concentrations found in 

an adjacent undisturbed area. 

[SOILS; VEGETATION MANAGEMENT; WATER 

QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

419. Davis,EM; Rucker,A (1993): Lessam 

learned from large-scale riparian restoration 

projects. p.186-188. Tellman,B; Cortner.,HJ; 

Wallace, MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

Large-scale restoration projects should1 have the 

following components: 1) clearly define relstoration 

goals; 2) identify physical requirements of target 

riparian habitat; 3) address multipurpose needs; 4) 

evaluate potential obstacles and use effective 

establishment techniques; and 5) plan ahead for 

appropriate timing of implementation. 

[RESTORATION PROJECTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

420. Davis,GA (1977): Management alternatives 

for the riparian habitat in the Southwest. p.59-67. 

In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.1. 

Symposium on the importance, preserva~tion and 

management of the riparian habitat. 9 July 1977. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-43. 

Southwestern riparian habitat has been 

significantly altered by exploitation from man. For 

decades, the primary or dominant use of riparian 

habitat has been water management; other values 

were not considered. Management alternalives and 

objectives are evaluated for environmental1 

consequences. 

[PLANNING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

421. Davis,GJ; Brinson,MM (1 980): R~esponses of 

submersed vascular plant communities to 

environmental change: Summary. USDl Fish and 

Wildlife Service. Biological Services Program: 

FWSIOBS-80142. 15 p. 

This report is a condensation of a more 

comprehensive, technical publication by tlhe same 

authors entitled RESPONSES OF SUBMERSED 

VASCULAR PLANT COMMUNITIES TO 

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, FWSIOBS-79/33. 

Environmental parameters include: light 
transmission, fluctuating water levels, wave action, 

sedimentation, nutrients, and seasonal effects. 

Potential impacts of various developmental activities 

are discussed briefly. The uncondensed version 

contains several tables and figures that either 

summarize data or illustrate phenomena of 

submerged vascular plants. 

[AQUATIC PLANTS; BIBLIOGRAPHY; 

RIPARlAN HABITAT; WATER QUALITY] 

422. Davis,HS (1934): The purpose and value of 

stream improvement. p.63-67. In: The 

Proceedings of the American Fisheries Society. 

The aims of stream improvement include: 1) to 

provide sufficient cover and shelter for the needs of 

the fish, 2) to prevent, as far as possible, extreme and 

rapid fluctuations in the volume of flow; 3) to 

prevent or control soil erosion and its consequent 

evils; 4) to ensure the production of fish food; 5) to 

ensure favorable temperatures for the species of fish 

to which the stream in question is best adapted; and 

6) to provide favorable conditions for natural 

propagation. Methods to achieve these objectives are 

discussed. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

423. Davis,JW (1981): Livestock vs. riparian 

habitat management - there are solutions. In: 

Proceedings of the symposium on 

wildlife-livestock relationships. University of 

Idaho. 20-22 April 1981. Coeur d'Alene, ID. 

The riparian habitat of the Southwest, once in 

great abundance along every stream, is now greatly 

reduced. Many factors account for this destruction 

but one of the most destructive forces is the 

long-term impact of livestock. Many techniques are 

being used to solve the problem including protective 

fencing and rest-rotation grazing. The most 

encouraging development is the adaptation of the 

rest-rotation system being tested on the Santa Rita 

Experimental Range. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

424. Davis,JW (1982): Livestock and riparian 

habitat management -- why not? In: Western 

proceedings, 62nd annual conference of the 

Western Association of Fish and Wildlife 

Agencies. 19-22 July 1982. Las Vegas, NV. 

Since the introduction of livestock into the 

western ecosystems, the once abundant riparian 

habitat and herbaceous forage have continued to 

deteriorate. After one hundred years, livestock 

mismanagement still appears to be the rule rather 

than the exception. On many grazing allotments, it 

continues to be a livestock and livestock 

mismanagement or a livestock and riparian 

mismanagement choice with riparian habitat and its 

associated wildlife species the losers. There are 

solutions to the problem that may permit resource 

managers the opportunity to add the option of 

livestock and riparian habitat management. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

425. Davis,JW (1986): Options for managing 

livestock and riparian habitats. In: Proceedings of 

the 51st North American wildlife and natural 

resources conference. 21-26 March 1986. Reno, 

NV. The Wildlife Management Institute. 20 p. 

The adverse effects of livestock mismanagement 

on the once abundant riparian habitats and 

herbaceous forage have been recognized 1" :or over one 

hundred years. Even with problem recognition and 

the increased emphasis on riparian habitat awareness, 

the problem still persists. On many grazing 

allotments, the management choice contirues to be 

livestock mismanagement. There are management 

choices available to mitigate or resolve the problem. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

426. Davis,RK (1989): The benefits of riparian 

development. A report to TGS Technology, Inc., 

on procedures for the economic evaluation of 

riparian protection projects of the USDII Bureau 

of Land Management. 

This study was implemented to document 

methods used to evaluate riparian improvement 

projects and provide examples of economic benefits 

of properly managed riparian areas. It reviews 

individual benefits that have been analyzed, 

monitored, and administered. It recommends 

quantification and modeling techniques and identifies 

obstacles to greater acceptance. 

[ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE] 

427. Dawson,KJ; Sutter,GE (1985): Research 

issues in riparian landscape planning. p. 408-412. 

In: Johnson RR; ZiebelLCD; Patton,DIR; 

Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

The 80-acre Putah Creek Reserve on the 
University of California (Davis) campus offers the 

opportunity to research issues related to the leveed 

floodways that flow through California's agricultural 

landscape. The integration of issues related to 

research, education, conservation, recreation, and 

flood control is explored. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; FLOOD IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; URBAN IMPACTS] 

428. Day,RT; Keddy,PA; McNei11,J; Carleton,T 

(1988): Fertility and disturbance gradients: A 

summary model for riverine marsh vegetation. 

Ecology 69(4), 1044-1 054. 

Freshwater shorelines occupy extensive areas of 

the temperate zone but there are still few conceptual 

models for pattern and process in shoreline 

vegetation. This study used multivariate analysis of 

vegetation data to describe vegetation-environment 

relationships in a set of riverine wetlands. Ordination 

showed that four vegetation types were arranged 

along two major axes: a standing crop and litter 

gradient, and a water depth gradient. The three main 

factors controlling vegetation composition were 

water depth, the effects of spring flooding in 

removing litter, and the fertility gradient produced by 

waves and flowing water. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; SHORELINES; 

WETLANDS] 

429. Dean,R (1993): Water quality tools for 

national and western non-point source control. 

p.102-106. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

This paper reviews the various programs in 

which Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is 

involved independently, or as an active partner with 

other agencies or entities. It also reviews EPA 

funding for various research and monitoring 

programs. The author also encourages agencies and 

organizations to become involved in the Coordinated 

Resource Management Plan (CRMP) process. 

[CRMP; NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER QUALITY] 

430. Dean,R (1996): Section 319 Clean Water Act 

funds: Opportunities for cooperative non-point 

pollution projects. p.141-145. In: Evans,KE 

Icomp.]. Sharing common ground on western 

rangelands: Proceedings of a IivestocWbig game 

symposium. 26-28 Feb 1996. Sparks, NV. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-GTR-343.164 p. 

This presentation outlines various opportunities 

for collaboration by utilizing Section 3 19 of the 

Clean Water Act. Non-point source pollution 

program funds are available for implementation of 

cooperative management practices on both public 

and private lands. 

[ASSESSMENTS; CLEAN WATER ACT; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY] 

431. Dearden,M; Roundy,B; Wollstenhulme,L 

(1998): Patterns of vegetation dynamics in the 

created Jordenelle wetlands. p. 346. In: Potts,DF 

led.]. Range management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

In order to mitigate for 92 acres of wetland lost 

by construction of the Jordenelle Reservoir in Utah, 

the Bureau of Reclamation created a series of 34 wet 

meadows. After four years, vegetation and species 

patterns varied with respect to topographic position 

and hydrologic regime. Species diversity decreased 

as ground became more saturated with water. 

Frequency of wetland indicator species increased 

with water availability. More species of plants were 

found in the created wet meadows compared to 

neighboring natural wetlands. A strong relationship 

was found between the position of individual species 

on the landscape and hydrologic conditions. 

[BIODIVERSITY; CREATED WETLANDS; 

HYDROLOGY; MEADOWS; WATER TABLE 

EFFECTS1 

432. Deardorff,D; Wadsorth,K (1996): 

Cooperative management of riparian forest 

habitats to maintain biological quality and 

ecosystem integrity. p.227-229. In: Shaw,DW; 

Finch,DM Itech. coord.]. Desired future 

conditions of Southwestern riparian ecosystems: 

Bringing interests and concerns together. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-GTR-272. 

The New Mexico State Land Office has initiated 

a rare plant survey of state trust land, an inventory 

and assessment of riparian areas on the trust land, and 

the development of a biological resources data base 

and information management system. Some riparian 

sites that still belong to the trust have been negatively 

impacted by livestock such that biological quality 

and ecological integrity have been reduced. Some 

sites on state trust land may have high potential for 

the development or restoration of riparian forests 
which could serve as essential habitats for 

neotropical migratory birds. The New Mexico State 

Land Office is currently studying ways to manage 

trust land and restore riparian sites. 

[ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; NEOTROPICAL BIRDS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

433. DeBano,LF; Brejda,JJ; Brock,JH (1984): 

Enhancement of riparian vegetation following 

shrub control in Arizona chaparral. Journal of 

Soil and Water Conservation 39(5), 317-320. 

Effect of upstream shrub control on the 

establishment of riparian vegetation was evaluated on 

a chaparral watershed in central Arizona. After 20 

years of increased streamflow and longer duration 

streamflow, a riparian zone below the watershed 

treated for shrub control had 7 riparian plants per 100 

m2 compared with a nearby, untreated watershed that 

had 2.3 plants per I00 m2. The increase in riparian 

vegetation has implications for water quality, 

wildlife, and water use. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RIPARIAN 

SHRUBS; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

VEGETATION MANIPULATION] 

434. DeBano,LF; Ffolliott,PF; Brooks,KN 

(1996): Flow of water and sediments through 

Southwestern riparian systems. p.128-134. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired 

future conditions for Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-GTR-272. 

The paper describes streamflow, sediment 

movement, and vegetative interactions within 

riparian systems of the Southwestern United States. 

Riparian systems are found in a wide range of 

vegetation types, ranging from lower elevation desert 

environments to high elevation conifer forests. The 

climatic, vegetative, and hydrologic processes 

operating in the southwestern environments provide a 

unique setting for discussing riparian ecosystem 

interactions with both water and sediment. Most 

streamflow at lower elevations is intermittent, and 

riparian vegetation frequently occupies channels that 

are dry at least part of the year. As a result, water 

table fluctuations in relation to streamflow and their 

subsequent effects on the establishment and 

maintenance of healthy riparian vegetation are key 

processes. At higher elevations, streamflow from 

snowmelt and rainfall is sufficient to sustain 

perennial streamflow and thereby provides a more 

consistent source of water for riparian vegetation. At 

all elevations, precipitation fluctuates widely, with 

many high-intensity, localized, convection storms 

occurring during the summer. As a result of this 

highly variable precipitation-runoff regime, erosion 

in the southwestern United States is an unsteady or 

discontinuous process that transports sediments from 

source areas through a channel system wi1.h 

intermittent periods of storage. This episodic 

transport process is characteristic of drylands in the 

southwestern United States where big storms are the 

prime movers of sediment. Intermittent sh:eamflow 

coupled with the discontinuous storage and 

subsequent movement of sediment through channel 

systems in response to fire and other disturbances is 

extremely complex, and can be difficult to interpret 

when assessing responses of southwestern riparian 

systems to management. 

[EROSION; HYDROLOGY; RiPARl AN 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SEDIMENTATION; STREAM FLOW; INATER 

TABLE EFFECTS] 

435. DeBano,LF; Hansen,WR (1989): 

Rehabilitating depleted riparian areas using 

channel structures. p.141-148. In: Gresswel1,RE; 

Barton,BA; Kershner,JL [eds.]. Riparian 

resource management. An educational workshop. 

USDl Bureau of Land Management. Billings, MT. 

Abusive land use activities have deteriorated 

valuable riparian areas in the southwest U.S. Loss of 

protective vegetative cover causes erosion which 

reduces soil moisture and channel stability necessary 

for riparian maintenance. A review of three 

rehabilitation projects in New Mexico and Colorado 

suggest that channel structures store sedirnent, 

stabilize channels, raise water tables, and enhance 

riparian plant communities. Rehabilitation planning 

should consider quantifiable treatment goals as well 

the need for specific treatments. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; RIPARIAN 

ENHANCEMENT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

436. DeBano,LF; Heede,BH (1987): 

Enhancement of riparian ecosystems with channel 

structures. Water Resources Bulletin 23(3), 

463-470. 

Manmade and natural structures can be used for 

enhancing riparian zone development. Natural 

structures include: cienegas, beaver dams, and log 

steps. These affect streamflow hydraulics and 

sedimentation and can create a more favorable 

environment for riparian zone establishm~ent. Used 

improperly, however, they can be destructive to 

existing riparian zones. Since stream processes are 
generally slow, long-time spans may pass before the 

effects of management action become visible. Also, 

the effects of large dam installations may appear a 

long distance downstream from the dam. 

Investigations must therefore be of a wide scope. 

Interactions between riparian site, channel, and 

streamflow may be so complex that an 

interdisciplinary approach is required. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; INSTREAM 

STRUCTURES; RlPARIAN RESTORATION] 

437. DeBano,LF; Rinne,JN; Medina,AL (1996): 

Understanding and managing southwestern 

riparian-stream ecosystems: National Forest 

Systems and Forest Service partnerships. 

p.96-102. In: National hydrology workshop 

proceedings. 27 April - 1 May 1992; Phoenix, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-GTR-279. 

Partnerships between research scientists and land 

managers can facilitate the application of research 

findings. Successful partnerships developed between 

scientists and field staff have been involved in 

addressing riparian-stream interactions. These 

successful partnerships involve several interpersonal 

and organizational considerations. Examples and 

keys to successful partnerships are described. 

[PARTNERSHIPS; RIPARlAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

438. DeBano,LF; Schmidt,L (1989): 

Interrelationship between watershed condition 

and health of riparian areas in southwestern 

United States. p.45-52. In: Gresswel1,RE; 

Barton,BA; Kershner,JL [eds.]. Riparian 

resource management. An educational workshop. 

USDI Bureau of Land Management. Billings, MT. 

There are sensitive hydrologic interrelationships 

between watershed conditions and the health of 

associated riparian areas in the southwestern U.S. A 

key factor in improving deteriorated riparian areas is 

to understand the balance that existed between 

watershed condition and riparian health in near 

pristine conditions. This paper discusses the 

interdependency between hydrologic processes 

operating on the upland slopes of a watershed and the 

channel processes affecting downstream riparian 

stability. 

[LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RIPARIAN 

ENHANCEMENT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

WATERSHED] 

439. DeBano,LF; Schmidt,LJ (1989): Improving 

southwestern riparian areas through watershed 

management. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-182. Ft. Collins, CO. 33 p. 

This paper reviews opportunities and watershed 

restoration techniques available for rehabilitating and 

enhancing riparian ecosystems in southwestern 

environments. It was intended to serve as a 

state-of-the-art report on riparian hydrology and 

improvement in both naturally occurring and 

man-made riparian areas throughout the Southwest. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; EROSION; RlPARlAN 

RESTORATION; STREAMBANK PROTECTION; 

WATERSHED] 

440. DeBoer,DH (1992): Constraints on spatial 

transference of rainfall-runoff relationships in 

semiarid basins drained by ephemeral streams. 

Hydrological Sciences 37, 491-504. 

Field data on drainage basin response have a 

characteristic scale which is determined by the size of 

the basin investigated, and this scale can be 

extrapolated over a limited range only. This paper 

identifies the nature of constraints on spatial scale 

transference. Spatial scale transference between 

systems of differing scale was restricted by 

morphological and functional constraints. 

Morphological constraints are caused by 

morphological elements present in large scale 

systems but absent in small ones. Functional 

constraints arise solely from the characteristics of the 

matter and energy flows in the systems of interest. 

Limits imposed upon spatial scale transferences by 

morphological and functional constraints are fuzzy 

rather than sharp in character. 

[DRAINAGES; EPHEMERAL STREAMS; 

HYDROLOGY; RUNOFF; SPATIAL SCALE] 

441. deBuys,W (1993): Moving from diverse 

viewpoints to results. p.255-260. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The author describes the efforts of the Rio 

Grande Bosque Conservation Committee to develop 

comprehensive management strategies for the middle 

Rio Grande and bosque. Historically, the public has 

demanded three components of river management: 

flood control, drainage, and irrigation. The 

committee learned that the middle Rio Grande had 

rcceived more than 70 years of biological 

management but that nearly all that management had 

been inadvcrtcnt and virtually all of it had a negative 
effect on native ecosystems. The river is managed by 

several agencies with overlapping, conflicting, and 

frequently ambiguous jurisdictions. The management 

structure of the middle Rio Grande requires a greater 

responsiveness to public concerns and inputs. The 

value of the resource is clearly greater than the sum 

of its individual uses and benefits. 

[BOSQUE; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

442. DeCraff,RM; Tilghman,NC [tech. coord.] 

(1980): Workshop proceedings: Management of 

western forests and grasslands for nongame birds. 

11-14 February 1980. Salt Lake City, UT. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report INT-86. 

535 p. 

This document contains the proceedings of the 

fourth and last regional workshop by the Nongame 

Bird Steering Committee. The workshop presented 

information on management of western forests and 

grasslands for nongame birds. Several of the papers 

relate directly to riparian habitat issues. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

443. DeLaune,RD; Patrick,WH; Pezeshki,SR 

(1987): Foreseeable flooding and death of coastal 

wetland forests. Environmental Conservation 

14(2), 129-133. 

Relationships between sedimentation, 

submergence, and deterioration, of a Mississippi 

River deltaic-plain coastal wetland forest were 

investigated. The combined effects of rapid 

subsidence, eustatic sea-level rise, and accompanying 

salt-water intrusion, resulting from atmospheric C02 

accumulation and global warming, could destroy 

much of these swamp forests and cause major habitat 

changes. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; GLOBAL WARMING; 

GREENHOUSE EFFECT; WETLANDS] 

444. Dellapenna,JW (1994): The regulated 

riparian version of the ASCE model ware code: 

The third way to allocate water. Water Resources 

Bulletin 30(2), 197-204. 

Lawyers, engineers, and hydrologists are 

accustomed to thinking of water law as falling into 

one of two incompatible models: riparian rights 

(under which water is allocated by courts according 

to the relative reasonableness of the competing uses) 

and appropriative rights (under which water is 

allocated according to the temporal priority of the 

competing uses, largely by the action of the water 

users themselves but perfected by the issuance of an 

administrative permit). Usually unnoticed is the 

existence of a third approach, called "regulated 

riparianism". Under this concept, water is allocated 

by water permits issued after an administrative 

determination of the reasonableness of the proposed 

use before the use is commenced. This practice is 

widely used in the eastern United States. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN RIGHTS; WATER 

PERMITS; WATER RIGHTS] 

445. Delmas,R, Swanson,S (1993): The 

Modoc-Washoe Experimental Stewardship 

Process. p.290-293. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The foundation for the success of this program 

has been its willingness to incorporate all interested 

publics into the resource management process. 

Consensus is a necessary component of this process. 

"It is critical that land use goals and resource issues 

be translated into realistic, measurable objectives 

from which management action, monitoring, and 

evaluation parameters can be derived". 

[COLLABORATION; CONSENSUS; 

INTERESTED PUBLICS; PLANNING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; STEWARDSHIP] 

446. Delong,MD; Brusven,MA (1998): Macroinvertebrate community structure along the 

longitudinal gradient of an agriculturally 

impacted stream. Environmental Management 

22(3), 445-457. 

Lapwai Creek in northern Idaho was sampled to 

determine if macro-invertebrate community 

composition changed along the longitudinal gradient 

and if changes followed predictions of the river 

continuum. Analysis suggested there was no 

longitudinal gradient for either number of individuals 

or functional feeding group composition. All 

locations, excluding a site receiving outflow from a 

small reservoir, had a similar community structure. 

Results suggest that agricultural changes have 

influenced community structure of the creek leading 

to a relatively homogeneous assemblage of macroinvertebrates capable of tolerating agricultural nonpoint source pollution. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; 

CLASSIFICATION; MACROINVERTEBRATES; 

NON-POWT SOURCE POLLUTION] 

447. DeMeo,TE; Loggy,WD (1989): Development 

of wetlands mapping procedures for forest 

planning in southeast Alaska. p.57-72. In: 
Alexander,EB led.]. Proceedings of Watershed 

'89: A conference of the stewardship of soil, air, 

and water resources. USDA Forest Service. Alaska 

Region. Juneau, AK. 215 p. 

Wetlands were defined using a 3-parameter 

approach employed by US Army Corps of Engineers. 

Plant species were ranked as to wetland status. 

Average areal cover of each species in each status 

category was determined. A weighted comparison 

was used to determine if each plant association was 

wetland or non-wetland. Plant associations were 

related to hydric soils. Soils were related to existing 

map units. Wetland boundaries were generated from 

existing soil maps in a geographic information 

system (GIs). 

[CLASSIFICATION; GIs; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

448. Denwars,CMT; Tranvik,LJ (1998): Effects 

of solar radiation on aquatic macrophyte litter 

decomposition. Oikos 82,51-58. 

In the littoral zone of many lakes, macrophytes 

contribute a large proportion of the primary 

production. In this study, more dissolved organic 

material (DOM) was leached from exposed detritus 

vs. shaded matter and there was a higher loss of 

particulate organic matter (POM) in the shade. 

Experiments showed that solar radiation promotes the 

leaching of DOM from littoral detritus and 

photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is also 

active in this process. 

[DECOMPOSER FOOD CHAIN; DETRITUS; 

LITTORAL ZONE; ORGANIC DEBRIS; UV 

RADIATION] 

449. DeRoo,APJ; Hazelhoff,L; Burrough,PA 

(1989): Soil erosion modeling using 'ANSWERS' 

and geographical information systems. Earth 

Surface Processes and Landforms 14,517-532. 

A model that simulates surface runoff and 

erosion was linked to a Geographical Information 

System. Model output is very sensitive to small 

changes of several input variables, such as 

infiltration, antecedent soil moisture, and soil 

roughness. Detailed information about rainfall 

intensities during an event is needed. Sensitivity and 

insufficient input data make the validation of answers 

difficult. 

[EROSION; MODELING; GIs; HYDROLOGY; 

SOILS] 

450. Deusen,MS; Adams,PW (1989): Riparian 

areas: Fish and wildlife havens. Woodland Fish 

and Wildlife Project, June 1989. Woodland Fish 

and Wildlife Center. World Forestry Center. June 

1989. Portland, OR. 7 p. 

This publication tells how riparian areas provide 

essential fish and wildlife habitat, how land use can 

affect this habitat, and briefly describes management 

practices that protect or enhance the habit,at. The 

publication is aimed to serve as a practical guide to 

woodland owners for managing riparian areas on 

private land. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

451. Deuser,CE (1 993): Tamarisk control 

methods and water table relations at Sawatone 

Spring. p.203. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

Springs and streambeds within the Lake Mead 

National Recreation Area in Arizona have: been 

heavily invaded by the alien tree, tamarisk. Removal 

using a combination of methods including 

mechanical, herbicides, and prescribed fire is 

underway. 

[EXOTICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; SALT-CEDAR.; WATER 

TABLE EFFECTS] 

452. DeVelice,RL (1990): Potential effects of 

global climate change on riparian forests. p.7. In: 

Management of riparian and wetland fi~rested 

ecosystems in Montana. 4th Annual Montana 

Riparian Association Workshop. 5-7 September 

1990. Whitefish, MT. 

Global climate change is likely to affect fire 

management policies and budgets, insect and disease 

programs, wildlife prescriptions, natural area 

management, forest tree planting and harvest 

guidelines, and other aspects of management in 

riparian forests. Current management does not 

consider the potential effects of climatic change. 

[GLOBAL WARMING; RIPARIAN FOIZEST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

453. Dewberry,C; Burns,P; Hood,L (1998): After 

the flood: The effects of the storms of 1996 on a 

creek restoration project in Oregon. Rr:storation 

& Management Notes 16(2), 174-181. 

Deposition of large woody debris in the stream 

course of Knowles Creek in southern Oregon results 

in complex dynamics of water, wood, and sediment. 

These forces are exaggerated by a high-relief terrain 

and a climate that produces torrential rainfalls. These 

combined factors have shaped the waterway and 
profoundly affected the area ecology. Since 

settlement, clearing of hillsides has drastically altered 

these dynamics. The restoration strategy there was 

designed to minimize the ecologically destructive 

results of floods and maximize their beneficial 

effects, by restoring the natural dynamics of sediment 

and organic matter to what as believed to be the 

pre-contact condition. In the hture, the valley floor 

forest must recover the capacity to stop the debris 

torrents and dam break floods. These events, in the 

past, have destroyed large amounts of salmon habitat. 

[FISH HABITAT; FLOOD IMPACTS; LARGE 

WOODY DEBRIS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

STREAM FLOW] 

454. DeYoung,T; Ridgeley,GC (1993): Instream 

flow protection: legal constraints and 

opportunities. p.76-84. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH Itech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The legal context for instream flow protection is 

constituted by an array of federal, state, and local 

laws and regulations, along with a large body of case 

law. This doctrine was designed to remove water 

from stream and river channels; therefore, it has 

inhibited efforts to protect stream flows and their 

riparian habitat. The authors advocate solutions 

achieved by cooperation instead of litigation. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM FLOW; WATER 

LAW; WATER RIGHTS] 

455. Dick-Peddie,WA; Hubbard,JP (1977): 

Classification of riparian vegetation. p.85-90. In: 

Johnson,RR, Jones,DA (tech. coord.]. Symposium 

on the importance, preservation and management 

of the riparian habitat. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-43. 

Historically, little attention has been paid to 

vegetation associated with water courses. The reasons 

for this neglect are reviewed. Today there is 

considerable interest in riparian classification which 

could have great value. A classification system for 

riparian vegetation in New Mexico is proposed. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

456. Dickson,JG (1989): Streamside zones and 

wildlife in southern U.S. forests. p.131-133. In: 

Gresswell,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL leds.]. 

Practical approaches to riparian resource 

management. An educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 

1989. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Billings, MT. 

Strips of mature trees, retained along intermittent 

streams when streams were harvested and replanted 

to pine, reduce effects of non-point pollution and 

enhance wildlife habitat. Relative abundance of 

vertebrates was related to the width of those strips. 

Virtually no squirrels were found in narrow 

streamside zones. Amphibians and reptiles were 

abundant in medium and wide streamside zones 

characterized by canopied overstory, shaded 

understory, and leaf litter. Amphibians and reptiles 

were low in abundance in dense brushy narrow zones 

with logging slash, but this habitat supported the 

highest abundance of small mammals. 

[INVERTEBRATES; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER 

QUALITY] 

457. Dickson,JG; Howard,J (1989): Small 

mammals in streamside management zones in pine 

plantations. p.375-378. In: Management of 

amphibians, reptiles, and small mammals in North 

America. Proceedings of the symposium. 19-21 

July 1988. Flagstaff, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-166. 

The study quantified captures of small mammals 

in mature hardwood or pine-hardwood strips along 

streams that flow through pine plantations in Texas. 

More small mammals were captured in the narrow 

streamside management zones (tree canopy absent 

and dense brushy vegetation) than in medium or wide 

zones. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SMALL MAMMALS; SMZ] 

458. Dickson,JG; Williamson,JH (1988): Small 

mammals in streamside management zones in pine 

plantations. p.375-378. In: Proceedings of the 

symposium: Management of amphibians, reptiles, 

and small mammals in North America. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-I 66. 

Small mammals were captured in live traps in 6 

mature-forested zones of 3 widths: narrow (<25 m), 

medium (30-40 m), and wide (50-90 m), which 

traversed young, bushy pine plantations. More small 

mammals were captured in the narrow zones than in 

the other two, respectively or together. 

[FOREST MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 

459. Dieter,CD (1991): Water turbidity in tilled 

and untilled prairie wetlands. Journal of 
Freshwater Ecology 6(2), 185-189. 

Water turbidity was compared between tilled 

prairie pothole wetlands, partially tilled wetlands, and 

untilled wetlands in South Dakota. Specific 

differences in sedimentation as measured by 

humidity were indicated. Turbidity was significantly 

higher in tilled than in untilled wetlands. Average 

turbidity was 24 times greater in tilled than in 

untilled wetlands. There was no significant difference 

in turbidity between tilled and untilled wetlands. 

Turbidity measurement may be a useful tool for 

estimating relative sedimentation rates. 

[SEDIMENTATION; WATER QUALITY; WATER 

TURBIDITY; WETLANDS] 

460. Dieter,CD; McCabe,TR (1989): Habitat use 

by beaver along the Big Sioux River in eastern 

South Dakota. p.135-140. In: Gresswell,RE; 

Barton,BA; Kershner,JL [eds.]. Practical 

approaches to riparian resource management. An 

educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 1989. USDI 

Bureau of Land Management. Billings,MT. 

Habitat use by beavers was investigated in 

grazed and ungrazed areas. Forty-eight percent of the 

trees in ungrazed areas were small (<7.5 cm), but a 

majority of trees (58 percent) in grazed areas were 

large (>30 cm). A greater proportion of trees were 

cut by beavers in ungrazed than grazed areas. Beaver 

did not select trees for cutting according to 

availability. Trees cut by beaver were significantly 

smaller in diameter than uncut trees. Mean distance 

from water for cut trees was less than for uncut trees. 

Over one-half of the trees damaged by beavers either 

resprouted or remained alive after cutting. 

[BEAVER; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

461. Dileanis,PD; Branson,FA; Sorenson,SK 

(1985): Methods for determining effects of 

controlled dewatering of small aquifers on desert 

phreatophytes in Owens Valley, California. 

p.197-200. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Ability of phreatophytic plants to tolerate and 

survive dewatering of shallow aquifers was being 

tested. On sites that had been equipped with pumping 

wells, soil moisture and plant physiological responses 

were being monitored as water levels declined. 

[DEWATERING; PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

462. Dinan,KF (1988): Wetland protection in the 

Rainwater Basin of Nebraska. p.65-72. In: 

Stuber,PJ [tech. coord.]. Proceedings of the 

national symposium on the protection of wetlands 

from agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. 

Collins, CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Biological Report 88(16). 

The Rainwater Basin covers parts of 17 counties 

in central Nebraska south of the Platte River. 

Historically, 4,000 wetlands totaling 94,000 acres 

occurred in the Basin. Today, less than 400 of these 

wetlands remain, totaling about 20,000 acres. Many 

of the Rainwater Basin wetlands have been 

dramatically altered or destroyed, primarily due to 

agricultural practices designed to gain additional 

cropland and eliminate wetlands that interfere with 

center-pivot systems. One step being taken by federal 

and state agencies to protect the Rainwater Basin is 

application of the Advanced Identification of 

Disposal Sites Process within the Clean Water Act, 

more commonly called the 230.80 Process. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; PLATTE RIVER; 

POLLUTION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

463. Dinius,SH (1987): Design of an index of 

water quality. Water Resources Bulletin 23(5), 

463-470. 

The formulation of an Index of Water Quality to 

evaluate the level of pollution in the water is 

described. A Four-Round Delphi Equation, using a 

panel of 7 nationally recognized water scientists, was 

performed to ascertain the pollutants to be included 

in the index, the relationship between the quantity of 

these pollutants in the water and the resulting quality 

of the importance of each pollution variable to each 

water use as well as to overall pollution. A 

multiplicative index was used to bring the pollutants 

together into one system. 

[POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY] 

464. Dixon,MD; Johnson,WC (1999): Riparian 

vegetation along the Middle Snake River, Idaho: 

Zonation, geographical trends, and historical 

changes. Great Basin Naturalist 59(1), 18-34. 

This research project on the Middle Snake River 

had two components: I) characterization and 

inventory of existing riparian flora, vegetation, and 

environment; and 2) mapping historic changes by 

means of historic photos and GIs. At least 185 

species of vascular plants were identified; of these, 

63 species were exotics. Vegetation was structured 

vertically into habitat types: emergent, riparian 

shrub-forb, tree, transitional grass-shrub, and upland. 
Riverbank seepage blurred this zonation at some 

sites. Coverage of riparian woodland, island riparian, 

and total riparian vegetation, and area of islands, 

have increased since the 19301s, with the biggest 

changes occurring in the 1969- 1987 period. 

[EXOTICS; GIs; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SNAKE RIVER] 

465. Dmowski,K; Kozakiewicz,M (1990): 

Influence of a shrub corridor on movements of 

passerine birds to a lake littoral zone. Landscape 

Ecology 4(2/3), 99-108. 

A pine forest was separated from a lake littoral 

zone by a meadow on one area (discontinuous), while 

these habitats were separated by a shrub strip in 

another area. This shrub strip acted as an ecological 

corridor enhancing the movement of birds between 

the forest and the littoral reed zone. Movements of 

birds were concentrated along the edge of the shrub 

strip. The spatial configuration of the landscape 

facilitated access by some forest birds to the littoral 

habitat. 

[AVIFAUNA; LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

466. Dobyns,HF (1989): Historical perspective. 

p.1-23. In: Gresswell,RE; Barton,BA; 

Kershner,JL [eds.]. Practical approaches to 

riparian resource management: An educational 

workshop. 8-1 1 May 1989. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management. Billings, MT. 

A history of use of riparian resources in North 

America from paleo-Indian times (8000 BC) to 

present. The author's thesis is that riparian 

"management" by human communities occurs only 

within the priorities for selective riparian resource 

use as defined by the social structure. Human beings 

selectively exploit resources according to their 

economic systems and technologies. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

467. Dodd,JL (1992): Viewpoint: an appeal for 

riparian zone standards to be based on real world 

models. Rangelands 14(6), 332. 

Riparian systems tolerate spatially and 

temporally scattered disturbances by domestic and 

indigenous ungulates. Managers need to recognize 

that local disturbances are a natural part of large 

ungulate herbivory that these systems evolved with. 

Local perturbations may well contribute to the long 

term good of the system. These are naturally 

occurring disturbances, whether caused by wild or 

domestic ungulates. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HERBIVORY; RIPARIAN] 

468. Dodd,JL; Smith,MA; Rodgers,JD; Siekert 

and,RE; Skinner,QD (1987): Influence of grazing 

on above ground biomass and shrub density 

associated with an ephemeral stream in Wyoming. 

Abstracts. 40th annual meeting, Society for Range 

Management. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

469. Dolloff,A (1996): Ecological role of large 

woody debris in forest streams. p.54-57. In: 

National hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 

April - 1 May 1992. Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

This paper summarizes the key role of large 

woody debris (LWD) in mountain streams and its 

importance to fish habitat. Management strategies are 

described which can promote sources of LWD and 

maturation of riparian vegetation. 

[FISH HABITAT; LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

470. DombeclqMP; Williams,JE; Wood,CA 

(1997): Watershed restoration: Social and 

scientific changes for fish biologists. Fisheries 

22(5), 26-27. 

Profound changes are impacting natural resource 

management as evidenced by the profhion of 

watershed-based community coalitions. The 

implications of these changes are substantial. First, 

proliferation of local coalitions provides a new 

framework for fish biologists to work with a broad 

spectrum of public interests. Second, these coalitions 

are vehicles to tackle fish and aquatic health 

problems at the geographic scale most conducive of 

long-term solutions. Third, because many of the 

issues that initially catalyze watershed conditions are 

related to fishlwater quality, fish biologists can 

provide a leadership role in these groups. 

[FISHERIES; WATER QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

471. Donnelly,DD (1 987): State-of-the-art 

methods of assessing wildlife values, benefits, and 

costs. In: Streamside management: riparian 

wildlife and forestry interactions. An 

interdisciplinary symposium. 11-13 February 

1987. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 

Assessment, or estimation, of values, benefits, 

and costs implies several steps that precede the actual 

valuation effort. Most attention in this paper is given 

to defining the product in terms of inputs and 

production functions. A second portion offers a 
framework for suggesting appropriate valuation 

analysis techniques considering the product, its 

economic characteristics, and the markets. Finally, 

the particular techniques available --- market 

analysis, travel cost and contingent valuation 

methods, and hedonic methods --- are briefly 

reviewed. 

[ASSESSMENTS; ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

472. Doppelt,B; Scurlock,M; Frissell,C; Karr,J 

(1993): Entering the watershed: A new approach 

to save America's river ecosystems. Island Press. 

Covelo, CA. 504 p. 

The authors recommend a nationwide, strategic 

community- and ecosystem-based watershed 

restoration initiative founded upon the principles of 

watershed dynamics, ecosystem hnction, and 

conservation biology. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WATERSHED] 

473. Dortignac,EJ (1965): Forest water yield 

management opportunities. p.579-592. In: 

International symposium on forest hydrology. 

National Science Foundation advanced science 

seminar proceedings. 29 Aug-10 Sept 1965. 

University Park, PA. Pergamon Press. NY,NY. 

Strategies are described for enhancing the 

quantity, quality, and timing of water yield from 

forested and untilled watersheds. The author regards 

as overly optimistic the estimate that 114 of the water 

now used by phreatophytes could be saved by 

management or control techniques. The removal of 

trees from stream borders and waterways may raise 

the water temperatures beyond the acceptable limits 

for game fish. Streamsidellakeside trees are also 

important for wildlife, recreation, and aesthetic 

values. In general, tree removal is not sound 

management and is unlikely to gain public 

acceptance. Reduction of vegetation mass might be 

more acceptable and still meet essential goals. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

474. Dose,JJ (1998): Major changes needed for 

restoration to succeed. Restoration: Newsletter for 

the Oregon Sea Grant. Winter, 6-7. 

The author believes that the current native 

salmon and trout restoration activities in the Pacific 

Northwest treat only the symptoms of habitat 

degradation. The notion that destructive land-use 

practices can be mitigated through increased 

spending on restoration elsewhere is misguided. The 

more productive approach, he believes, is an 

approach that protects and restores ecosystem 

processes at the watershed scale. A watershed-based 

conservation plan regards changes in agricultural and 

forestry practices, urbaniindustrial development, and 

water use as paramount. Although some federal 

mandates exist, their implementation is often 

inadequate. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; FISH HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WATERSHED] 

475. Dosskey,MG (1998): Viewpoint: Applying 

riparian buffers to Great Plains rangelands. 

Journal of Range Management 51(4), 428-431. 

Efforts have recently intensified to achieve better 

management of riparian areas, but serious concerns 

remain. Widespread acceptance and application of 

recommended riparian practices will be required to 

achieve mandated conservation goals. Success in the 

Great Plains will require recognition of the 

differences between the interests of public agencies 

and those of private landowners, and the 

development of an approach to riparian management 

that can accommodate both. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; PARTNERSHIPS; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; WATER 

QUALITY] 

476. Dougherty,S (1988): Wetlands mitigation 

banking: a policy worth pursuing in Colorado. 

p.49-54. In: Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; 

Miller,LK leds.]. Restoration, creation, and 

management of wetland and riparian ecosystems 

in the American West. A symposium of the Rocky 

Mountain Chapter of the Society of Wetland 

Scientists. 14-16 November 1988. Denver, CO. 

Mitigation banking is a concept in which a 

developer or group of developers would undertake 

measures to create, restore, enhance, or restore 

environments similar to those that will be impacted. 

The adoption and implementation of wetlands 

mitigation banking can produce win-win solutions to 

many of the present Section 404 (FWPCA) 

difficulties experienced by agencies and applicants. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WETLAND 

MITIGATION BANKING] 

477. Douglas,AJ (1989): Annotated bibliography 

of economic literature on wetlands. USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service Biological Report 89(19), 67 p. 

This bibliography focuses on valuation problems 

that arise from wetlands allocations, issues, and 

conflicts. It deals, almost exclusively with research 
and policy analysis that looks at wetlands economics. 

A brief discussion of natural resource economics 

precedes the bibliography in an effort to facilitate the 

recognition of unity of approaches and concepts 

employed in the references. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

478. Dove1,RL (1996): Cutting height effects on 

wetland meadow forage yield and quality. Journal 

of Range Management 49(2), 151-156. 

Research was conducted to determine the effect 

of clipping height on forage yield and quality of 3 

wetland meadow plant associations. 

Bluegrass-clover, grass-sedge, and sedge associations 

were cut to stubble heights of 5,l0, or 15 cm in 1988, 

1989. and 1990. Forage yield, herbage residue, crude 

protein (CP), and acid detergent fiber (ADF) were 

determined for forage harvested in June, July, and 

August. Highest forage yield, regrowth following 

clipping, and overall forage quality were obtained at 

the 5 cm clipping height in all associations. The 5 cm 

grazing height did not appear to reduce stand vigor or 

persistence as indicated by high forage yields in the 

third year of the study. Animal performance in a 

short duration grazing system would also be expected 

to be highest at the 5 cm clipping height since forage 

production was greatest at this defoliation intensity 

without decreasing forage quality or availability. 

Acid detergent fiber of the sedge association was 

lower than the 2 grass dominated associations, and 

sedge crude protein content was slightly lower than 

the other 2 associations. 

[FORAGE PRODUCTION; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

STUBBLE HEIGHT; WETLANDS] 

479. Downes,BJ; Lake,PS; Schreiber,ESG; 

Glaister,A (1998): Habitat structure and 

regulation of local species diversity in a stony, 

upland stream. Ecological Monographs 68(2), 

237-257. 

Species diversity at local scales may be regulated 

by habitat structure and complex habitats may 

normally be associated with greater species richness. 

In this study, habitat structure altered faunal diversity 

and abundances, with the majority of common 

species reaching higher abundances on creviced or 

rough surfaces. The latter were also associated with 

shifts in overall faunal composition and markedly 

smaller body sizes. Each separate element of habitat 

structure (large crevices, roughness, and macroalgae) promoted both increased species richness and 

individual density. Habitat structure also affected the 

epithelion, suggesting that sources of habitat 

complexity and heterogeneity were interwoven in 

this system. 

[FISH HABITAT; MACROINVERTEBRATES; 

SPECIES RICHNESS] 

480. Doyle,JE (1998): Watershed restoration: 

Challenges and obstacles. Fisheries 23(3), 16-17. 

The author identifies six obstacles to large-scale 

watershed restoration: 1) lack of will to form 

interdisciplinary teams; 2) many restoration efforts 

lack an effective protection component; 3) the 

realization that agencies cannot carry out restoration 

at the watershed- or river-basin-scale alone; 4) the 

difficulty in gaining consensus; 5) the commitment to 

monitoring, evaluation, and documentation; and 6) 

the leadership vacuum in many restoration programs. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

WATERSHED] 

481. Draper,SE; Rao,SG (1 986): Runoff 

prediction using remote sensing imagery. Water 

Resources Bulletin 22(6), 463-470. 

Percent imperviousness is an important 

parameter in modeling the urban rainfall-runoff 

process and is usually determined using manual 

methods such as random sampling or conventional 

accounting records. In this study, two computerized 

methods -the Laser Image Processing Scanner and 

the Video-Tape Camera system - were used for 

estimating the imperviousness of urban watersheds. 

The percent imperviousness computed by utilizing 

remote sensing imagery was used with the conceptual 

models of rainfall-runoff models. "Imperviousness" 

determined by using remote sensing imagery was as 

accurate as that obtained by the manual methods with 

significantly less time or money. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; REMOTE 

SENSING; RUNOFF] 

482. Dudley,SJ; Bonham,CD; Abt,SR; 

Fishenich,JC (1998): Comparison of methods for 

measuring woody riparian vegetation density. 

Journal of Arid Environments 38, 77-86. 

Flow resistance caused by vegetative drag 

depends on vegetation density, the area of vegetation 

projected onto a plane perpendicular to the flow 

direction per unit volume of flow. However, research 

concerning the accuracy and efficiency of field 

measurements of vegetation density is limited. 

Measurements were conducted at two willow stands 

with different vegetation densities using the 

horizontal point frame, board, and camera methods. 

Results obtained with the point frame method were 

accurate and were used as a standard in other tests. 
Results of the other methods were varied. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

483. Duff,D (1996): Conservation assessment for 

inland cutthroat trout status and distribution. 

USDA Forest Service. Intermountain Region. 120 

P . This report focuses on the current status, 

distribution and range for five subspecies of cutthroat 

trout (Oncorhynchus clarki), which are found largely 

on the national forest system lands and ecosystems in 

the Rocky Mountain and Intermountain West within 

the United States. All five subspecies are designated 

species of special concern or sensitive. All are 

presently restricted to a fragment of their former 

range, and they primarily occupy small, 

high-elevation streams in remote headwaters. Human 

activities have reduced their ranges more than natural 

occurrences. The plans, agreements, and strategies 

discussed in this report focus on the restoration of 

aquatic habitats and maintenance of existing 

populations. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; CUTTHROAT 

TROUT; FISH HABITAT] 

484. Duff,DA (1978): Livestock grazing effects on 

aquatic habitat in Big Creek, UT. USDI Bureau of 

Land Management. Technical Bulletin. Salt Lake 

City, UT 

In 1970, BLM constructed a large exclosure 

fencing off 3,300 ft of Big Creek in Utah from 

livestock grazing. Recovery of riparian habitat from 

the grazing impacts was monitored. Numerous 

instream improvement structures were placed inside 

and outside the exclosed area. By 1973, fish 

sampling showed 3.6 times more trout inside than 

outside the exclosure. Habitat inside the exclosures 

responded significantly to rest, while areas outside 

the exclosure continued to decline. 

[EXCLOSURES; FENCING; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

485. Duff,DA (1979): Riparian habitat recovery 

on Big Creek, Rich County, Utah -- a summary of 

eight years of study. In: Cope,OB led.]. Forum -- 

Grazing and riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 

November 1978. Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited 

Inc. 

The author believes that streamside riparian 

zones, whether fenced for protection or for recovery 

and later use, should become and be thought of as 

separate pastures within allotments. Since 

riparianlaquatic habitats are the most diverse and 

important in flora and fauna use as well as recreation 

and livestock uses, it would be advantageous to 

establish riparian zone pastures, with off-site water 

developments so that recovery, protection, or rest 

could be provided. This would allow utilization of 

the pasture for a specified time or season with certain 

numbers of livestock until a prescribed level of 

utilization is reached on specific woody vegetation 

used as indicator species. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING 

TREATMENTS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

486. Duff,DA; Cooper,JL (1976): Techniques for 

conducting stream habitat survey of national 

resource lands. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management Tech. Note TIN 283.72 p. 

The basic procedures in this report were 

previously developed for use in stream habitat 

surveys by the USDA Forest Service. The procedures 

proposed contain these existing methodologies, 

developed by USFS personnel in Regions 1,4, and 3, 

plus revisions added by the authors. The technical 

note provides guidance and standards for conducting 

certain types of aquatic surveys on national resource 

lands. Objectives were to provide adequate 

procedures designed to evaluate most of the common 

environmental conditions that limit aquatic habitat 

and fish production. 

[FISHERIES; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; STREAM ECOLOGY] 

487. Duff,DA; Gnehm,M; Shrader,T; Howard,L 

(1986): Indexed bibliography on stream habitat 

improvement. USDA Forest Service. 

lntermountain Region. Ogden, UT. 97 p. 

This bibliography contains 1 106 entries of 

published and unpublished references on or related to 

stream habitat improvement. Entries are categorized 

into 20 subject areas relating to both instream and 

streambank-riparian structural and non-structural 

improvement. References relate to resident and 

anadromous salmonid and cold water fish species as 

well as warm water fish species. The manuscript 

contains most of the important references to stream 

habitat from 1933 to 1985. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; FISHERIES; HABITAT 

MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

488. Duff,DA; Wydoski,RS (1982): Indexed 

bibliography on stream habitat improvement. 

USDA Forest Service. lntermountain Region. 

Ogden, UT. 98 p. 

An updated and revised bibliography containing 

828 references. References are arranged into one or 
more of 20 subject indices. The document is designed 

to serve as a basis for evaluation of past practices and 

stimulate future studies that will allow the 

establishment of effective priorities and procedures 

for the improvement and management of stream 

habitats. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

489. Duncan,KW; Schemnitz,SD; Suzuki,M; 

Homesley,Z; Cardenas,M (1993): Evaluation of 

salt-cedar control - Pecos River, New Mexico. 

p.207-210. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.). Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

Every stream or river system in New Mexico is 

infested or has the potential to be infested with saltcedar. Protection of native riparian habitat has 

become a management priority. In the past, salt-cedar 

manipulation has been cost-prohibitive. The 

development of imazapyr and imazapyr + glyphosate 

tank mixes, however, may cost as little as $60lac and 

result in a 90-99 percent control. 

[HERBICIDES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; SALT-CEDAR] 

490. Duncan,SH; Bilby,RE; Ward,JW; 

Heffner,JT (1 987): Transport of road-surface 

sediment through ephemeral stream channels. 

Water Resources Bulletin 23(1), 113-1 19. 

The majority of road drainage points in western 

Oregon-Washington enter small, often ephemeral 

streams, rather than large, fish-bearing waters. 

Therefore, impact of road-surface sediment on biota 

in permanent streams depends to a large extent, on 

transport through these small watercourses. Small 

streams were found to store large quantities of 

sediment washed from road surface. In no instance, 

did streams transport more than 45 percent of the 

added material to their mouths. Larger-sized 

sediment particles were delivered at a lower rate than 

finer material. There were significant differences in 

the transport of sediment in size categories between 

different streams, due to a much greater amount of 

woody debris in one stream. This trapped and held 

sediment as did a slightly longer and less steep 

channel. 

[HYDROLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; ORGANIC 

DEBRIS; ROAD IMPACTS; SEDIMENTATION; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

491. Duncan,SL (1984): Leaving it to beaver. 

Environment 26(3), 41-45. 

Much of the recent attention to beavers has 

emphasized the negative aspects of beaver activity: 

dams that need to be blasted to release water, culverts 

that are continually dammed, and trees that arc lost. 

However, beaver are also seen as a keystone species 

in the structure and dynamics of aquatic ecosystems. 

In habitats where they remain, they are important 

regulators of stream dynamics and morphology, with 

pervasive effects far beyond their food and space 

requirements. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

492. Dunne,T; Leopold,LB (1978): Water in 

Environmental Planning. W.H. Freeman and Co., 

San Francisco, CA. 795 p. 

This book is divided into three main parts. Part I: 

Introduction contains six field examples. Part 11: 

Hydrology discusses precipitation, interception, 

water loss, vegetative water use, soil water, 

groundwater, water balance, runoff processes, flood 

hazards, human impacts, water supply and use, and 

snow hydrology. Part 111: Geomorphology addresses 

drainage basins, hillslope processes, river channels, 

and sediment productionitransport. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

493. Durkin,P; Muldavin,E; Bradley,M; Carr,S 

(1996): A preliminary riparianlwetland vegetation 

community classification of the Upper and Middle 

Rio Grande watersheds in New Mexico. p.44-57. 

In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired 

future conditions for Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-GTR-272. 

The riparianlwetland vegetation communities of 

the upper and middle Rio Grande watersheds in New 

Mexico were surveyed in 1992 through 1994. The 

communities are hierarchically classified in terms of 

species composition and vegetation structure. The 

resulting community types are related to soil 

conditions, hydrological regime, and temporal 

dynamics. The classification is part of a 

comprehensive effort to develop a systematic 

understanding across the state of riparianlwetland 

communities and how they are influenced by specific 

hydrologic, edaphic and climatic environments. An 

overview of the classification is presented with an 

emphasis on the middle Rio Grande watershed. The 

floristic composition, structure, environmental 

relationships, and successional trends of example 

communities are briefly described. 
[CLASSIFICATION; INVENTORY; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; RIPARlAN HABITAT] 

494. Durkin,PM; Bradley,M; Muldavin,E (1997): 

Riparian plant species diversity of the Rio Grande 

and Gila, San Francisco, and Mimbres Rivers in 

New Mexico. p. 81. In: Abstracts. 1997 annual 

meeting of the Ecological Society of America 

jointly with The Nature Conservancy. 10-14 

August 1997. Albuquerque, NM. 

The study involved an inventorylcomparison 

between the Rio Grande watershed and the adjacent 

Gila, San Francisco, and Mimbres watersheds in New 

Mexico. Flows along the Rio Grande are highly 

regulated whereas the latter are unregulated. 

Diversity differences were found to be dramatically 

disparate between the two types of basins. The 

majority of permanent species introductions occur in 

the highly regulated middle segments of the Rio 

Grande. Nearly one-half of the trees occurring in the 

regulated floodplain are exotic. In the unregulated 

basins, only 16 percent of the woody species were 

exotic. The frequency of herbaceous exotics is 

similar for both conditions except for those from the 

grass family, Poaceae. In the Rio Grande basin 35 

percent of the herbaceous exotics are grasses, while 

only 7 percent of the grasses in the unregulated 

basins are exotic. 

[EXOTICS; FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; STREAM FLOW] 

495. Durst,JD (1987): Predicting riparian 

vegetation changes downstream of a large 

hydroelectric development. In: Streamside 

management: Riparian wildlife and forestry 

interactions. An interdisciplinary symposium. 

11-13 February 1987. University of Washington. 

Seattle, WA. 

Hydrologic modeling was used to predict flow 

and ice regimes during construction and operation of 

a 3-phase, 2-dam system. Stereoscopic examination 

of aerial photos in conjunction with surveyed river 

cross sections yielded empirical values for river 

discharges associated with the lower limits of 

vegetation and mature riparian communities. These 

discharges were then related to predictable 

hydrologic events which had been modeled 

previously. 

[CLASSIFICATION; HYDROELECTIUC 

IMPACTS; MODELING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

496. Dusek,GL (1990): Use of riparian areas in 

Montana by white-tailed deer. In: Management of 

riparian and wetland forested ecosystems in 

Montana. Fourth annual Montana Riparian 

Association workshop. 5-7 September 1990. 

Whitefish, MT. 

A relationship between density and distribution 

of white-tailed deer and abundance of wooded 

riparian communities has been documented along the 

lower Yellowstone River in eastern Montana. Spatial 

coverage of riparian forest and shrublands explained 

about 70 percent of the variation in relative 

abundance of deer. Livestock use and amount of 

island area also influenced relative deer abundance. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WHITE-TAILED DEER] 

497. Dworsky,RF (1998): Range management 

and control at the crossroads. p.281-290. In: 

Potts,DF led.1. Range management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

The outcome of managementlleadership in the 

range managementlwatershed interface will depend 

in large part of the effectiveness of competing 

management and control systems. These systems: 

Management by Direction, Management by Planning, 

or Management by Influence can each provide strong 

control systems within an organization. The three 

methods of leadership are explained and evaluated 

within the context of contemporary range 

management and water resource leadership. 

[MANAGEMENT PLANS; RANGE 

MANAGEMENT; WATERSHED] 

498. Eastern Energy and Land Use Team (1980): 

Summaries of riparian and stream alteration 

studies completed by the Eastern Energy and 

Land Use Team. National Water Resources 

Analysis Group. USDI Fish and Wildlife Sewice. 

Kearneyville, WV. 38 p. 

A compilation of abstracts relating to stream 

alterations and riparian studies. Most of the studies, 

however, occurred in the eastern and mid-westem US 

and were collected as a service to USFWS personnel 

in response to growing demands for a quick reference 

and overview of agency projects. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM ECOLOGY; 

STREAM FLOW] 

499. Eastern Washington University (1986): 

Symposium on monitoring aquatic and riparian 

natural areas. Cheney, WA. Eastern Washington 

University 5 p. 

Abstracts of papers regarding monitoring 

methodologies for aquaticiriparian sites. 
[MONITORING; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARlAN HABITAT] 

500. Ebersole,JL; Liss,WJ; Frissell,CA (1997): 

Restoration of stream habitats in the western 

United States: Restoration as a re-expression of 

habitat capacity. Environmental Management 21, 

1-14. 

A new method of evaluating stream biota 

dynamics is proposed that accounts for temporal 

behaviors that alter biotic interactions throughout the 

year. Restoration of stream systems is defined as a 

process that allows these systems to re-express their 

former traits. Key tasks are: 1) identification of 

historic patterns in habitat development; 2) 

identification of constraints on those developments; 

3) relief of those constraints; 4) classification of 

sensitive habitats; and, 5) protection of the diversity 

that remains. 

[BIODIVERSITY; HISTORIC RECORDS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

501. Eckert,Jr.,RE (1974): Improvement of 

mountain meadows in Nevada. USDI Bureau of 

Land Management Research Report. Reno, NV. 

45 p. 

This research report describes five methods in 

use for improving mountain meadows for livestock, 

wildlife, and site stability. These five methods 

include iris control studies, fertilization studies, tree 

and shrub transplants, and hydrologic evaluations. 

[MEADOWS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

502. Eckert,Jr.,RE (1983): Methods for 

improving mountain meadow communities. 

Proceedings of symposia: Managing 

intermountain rangelands - improvement of range 

and wildlife habitats. 15-17 September 1981; Twin 

Falls, ID. 22-24 June 1982. Elko, NV. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-157. 

Mountain meadows in poor condition were 

improved rapidly through seeding. A summer fallow 

gave excellent control of competitive vegetation. 

Mountain meadows in fair condition, but with dense 

stands of Rocky Mountain iris were improved 

through use of 2,4,-D. Small meadows improved by 

seeding or iris control may justifiably be fenced to 

meet wildlife habitat requirements. Response of 

native grass, grass-like, and forb species to nitrogen 

fertilization depended on climatic conditions, plant 

vigor, and rates of N. Routine use of N fertilizer is 

not recommended. Fertilization of small stringer 

meadows in sage grouse habitat is not recommended. 

Trees and shrub species were successfully introduced 

into the mountain meadow ecosystem with best 

results from spring planting of container grown 

stock. Peak water flow from spring runoff was 

greatest during the wettest year. Water table height 

maintained will influence the productivity of native 

and introduced species. 

[CHECK DAMS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARlAN RESTORATION; VEGETATION 

MANAGEMENT] 

503. Ecklov,AG; Greenberg,LA; Bronmark,C; 

Larson,P; Berglund,O (1999): Influence of water 

quality, habitat, and species richness on brown 

trout populations. Journal of Fish Biology 54, 

33-43. 

Discriminant analysis of data collected on 2 16 

stream sites showed that occurrence of trout at a 

locality was largely determined by oxygen conditions 

and medium-sized substrata. At localities where trout 

occurred, the density of young trout was highest in 

narrow streams with high oxygen concentrations. For 

older trout, stream size and temperature were 

negatively related to density. lntraspecific 

competition appeared to be important, as length of 

young trout was inversely related to density. Trout 

density was also related to abundance of predators 

and co-existing species. 

[FISH HABITAT; SPECIES RICHNESS; TROUT; 

WATER QUALITY] 

504. Eddleman,LE; Miller,PM (1992): Potential 

impacts of western juniper on the hydrologic 

cycle. p.176-180. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [cornp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

Precipitation, through-fall, stem flow, and 

interception of western juniper were examined in 

central Oregon. Ranges were correlated with tree 

size, and type of vegetation. Stem flow ranged from 

1 .O - 3.2 percent, through-fall from 33.0 - 52.3 

percent, and interception from 44.4 - 65.9 percent. 

Transpiration occurred year-long and reached 3.03 

lkg in summer months. Dense western juniper 

woodlands may reduce winter soil moisture recharge 

by over 50 percent. 

[HYDROLOGY; SOILS; WESTERN JUNIPER] 

505. Edmonds,RL [Ed.] (1 982): Analysis of 

coniferous forest ecosystems in the western United 
States. Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co., 

Stroudsburg, PA. 

Results from the Coniferous Forest Biome 

program have provided further insight into the 

changing nature of western coniferous forests and the 

impact of man. The program established the use of 

ecosystem analysis as a means of studying coniferous 

forests. The approach is now firmly established and it 

should help in the development of sensible land-use 

decisions. 

[FOREST MANAGEMENT; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

HYDROLOGY; ORGANIC DEBRIS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; SOILS] 

506. Ehlers,R (1956): An evaluation of stream 

improvement devices constructed eighteen years 

ago. California Fish and Game 42,203-217. 

An evaluation of stream improvement devices on 

the Kaweah River found ten of the total of 41 

improvements still in place after 18 years. Only log 

structures were still intact while rock, masonry, earth 

and crib dams were all washed out. Fifteen pools 

have resulted from the original 41 improvements. 

From all indications, the failures resulted from the 

end-cutting and undercutting action of water on the 

loose bottom and bank materials. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RIPARIAN 

STRUCTURES] 

507. Ehrhart,B; Hansen,PL (1998): Riparian 

grazing management: Strategies and techniques. 

p.191-201. In: Potts,DF [ed.]. Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

Livestock grazing in riparian zones may be 

ecologically feasible during a variety of seasons of 

use, lengths of grazing periods, and different 

vegetation community types, according to the 

evaluations of 71 ecologically functioning streams in 

Montana. The study suggests that there are numerous 

management techniques which may reduce the 

amount of time animals spend in the riparian area 

itself while in a given pasture. These may be more 

important than either the particular season or the 

length of the grazing period in the pasture. The 

consistently common denominators of good 

management were high degrees of operator 

involvement and alternative water sources. Grazing 

in riparian areas requires a much more intensive 

management to be ecologically sound. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

508. Ehrhart,RC; Hansen,PL (1997): Effective 

cattle management in riparian zones: A field 

survey and literature review. Montana BLM 

Riparian Technical Bulletin No. 3. USDI Bureau 

of Land Management. Montana State Office. 92 p. 

There is no single or simple solution on how to 

graze livestock in riparian areas in ecologically and 

economically feasible ways. Each situation requires a 

carefully considered prescription drawn up to address 

the conditions at a specific site. This approach is 

referred to as prescription grazing. There are 

numerous techniques available but the only required 

ingredients are a serious commitment and personal 

involvement on the part of managers and operators. 

This bulletin draws upon a number of previous 

compilations to summarize successful grazing 

applications and the variety of factors that contribute 

to them. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

509. Ehrhart,RC; Hansen,PL (1998): Successful 

strategies for grazing cattle in riparian zones. 

Montana BLM Riparian Technical Bulletin No. 4. 

USDI Bureau of Land Management. Billings, MT. 

48 p. 

One of the most extensive human-caused 

influences on riparian zones in the western US has 

been livestock grazing. It is well-known that 

improper grazing practices can adversely affect 

riparian areas. What is less obvious is what grazing 

management techniques are compatible with 

maintaining or improving these areas and under what 

conditions. This document discusses both general and 

specific principles for grazing cattle in riparian areas 

and employed techniques to avoid sacrificing the 

ecological or financial condition of their land. This 

bulletin is based on the substantial body of literature 

on the subject and on observationslevaluations of 

operations on more than 70 ranches in Montana. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

510. Eicher,AL (1988): Soil-plant correlations in 

wetlands and adjacent uplands of the San 

Francisco Bay estuary, California. USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service. Biological Report 88(21), 35. 

As part of a national study, a vegetation 

association with known hydric and nonhydric soils 

was sampled in California. Data on hydrolic 

conditions of each soil was also collected. Weighted 

average and index average were calculated 

(presencelabsence values were calculated for each 

soil). Five of the six hydric soils examined were 
designated wetlands by these analyses. All of the 

upland soils supported a preponderance of upland 

vegetation. 

[CLASSIFICATION; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS] 

511. Elder,RG; Moore,RC (1985): Impacts of oil 

and gas development on riparian zones in the 

overthrust belt: The role of industrial siting. 

p.379-383. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Oil and gas development in the Overthrust Belt 

of Wyoming is expanding. Concurrently, the need to 

minimize impacts to riparian systems becomes more 

important. Regulatory control is frequently 

ineffective. Due to broad powers, the Industrial 

Siting Process can play a key role in mitigating 

environmental impacts that are otherwise 

unregulated. 

[IMPACT MITIGATION; OILIGAS IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

512. Ellis,LM; Crawford,CS; Molles,Jr.,MC 

(1998): Comparison of litter dynamics in native 

and exotic riparian vegetation along the middle 

Rio Grande of central New Mexico, USA. Journal 

of Arid Environments 38,283-296. 

Exotic plants and river regulation have changed 

riparian ecosystems throughout the southwestern 

U.S. Litter dynamics were compared at sites 

dominated by native cottonwoods or exotic saltcedar. Litter production was greater at cottonwood 

sites and may have increased after accidental 

flooding for both. Decomposition was similar for 

both types of leaves and increased with experimental 

flooding for both. Forest floor litter was greater at 

cottonwood sites; litter storage decreased after 

flooding at the salt-cedar site but not at the 

cottonwood site. Flooding may help reduce the 

impact of fires by increasing decomposition and 

reducing the standing stock of forest floor organic 

matter. 

[EXOTICS; FLOOD IMPACTS; LITTER FALL; 

NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

513. Ellis,S; Danley,L (1993): Prescription for a 

troubled stream. Rangelands 15(5), 233-235. 

The management prescription for a degraded 

stream in south-central Idaho included these 

components: 1) a deferred rotation grazing system; 2) 

maintaining sufficient habitat for big game and 

upland game birds; 3) a goal of maintaining 80 

percent of the allotment in native vegetation; and 4) a 

goal of brush control on private land. In addition, 

several beavers were released in the riparian system. 

The effort required the intensive cooperation of 

federal and private landowners. 

[BEAVER; GRAZING TREATMENTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARlAN RESTORATION] 

514. Elmore,W (1987): Riparian management: 

back to basics. Paper presented at the Natural 

Resources Law Center, University of Colorado 

School of Law. 8-10 June 1987. Boulder, CO. 

The primary management focus for riparian 

ecosystems should be restoring streamside 

vegetation. In contrast to structures, riparian 

vegetation can maintain itself in perpetuity as new 

plants continually replace those that die. Riparian 

vegetation allows streams to function in ways that 

artificial structures cannot replicate. The resiliency of 

these plants enable riparian systems to withstand a 

variety of environmental conditions. To accomplish 

what is needed, a dialogue between managers, 

ranchers, and other public sectors is imperative. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

515. Elmore,W; Beschta,R (1987): Riparian 

areas: Perceptions in management. Rangelands 

9(6), 260-265. 

This topical article was intended to: 1) promote 

awareness and discussion of riparian issues by and 

among livestock owners, environmentalists, 

biologists, and the general public; 2) identify the 

characteristics and benefits of productive riparian 

systems; and 3) encourage managers of public and 

private land to reconsider the effects of traditional 

grazing practices and of recent attempts to control 

channels structurally. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; INSTREAM 

STRUCTURES; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE] 

516. Elmore,W; Cuplin,P (1984): Use of color 

infrared photography in stream habitat 

inventories. p.6-12. In: Bedell,TE led. 1. 

Proceedings of 1984 Pacific Northwest range 

management short course: Range watersheds, 

riparian zones and economics: Interrelationships 

in management and use. 25-27 January 1984. 

Pendleton. OR. 
[AERIAL PHOTO; INVENTORY; MONITORING; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

517. Elmore,W; Kauffman,B (1994): Riparian 

and watershed systems: Degradation and 

restoration. In: Ecological implications of 

livestock herbivory in the West. First Edition. 

[Eds]: Vavra,M; Laycock,WA; Pieper,RD. Society 

for Range Management. Denver, CO. 297 p. 

The authors maintain that livestock grazing can 

be present in some riparian areas during periods of 

recovery. Grazing strategies that link the uplands, the 

riparian areas and the stream channels must be used 

to accomplish effective and self-sustaining 

restoration. Various grazing strategies are described 

and evaluated. Major short-comings of grazing 

strategies that fail to result in the restoration of 

degraded riparian zones are as follows: I) they are 

applied with a cookbook approach with little analysis 

of riparian effects or recognition of the complex and 

heterogenous nature of riparian zones; 2) the grazing 

strategies utilized were developed for uplands and/or 

for herbaceous recovery with little consideration of 

woody vegetation, streambank integrity, or riparian 

function; and 3) they were developed for increased 

livestock production with similar short-comings in 

considerations of riparian values. Successfd 

management strategies must consider the following: 

a) the linkages and processes that are associated with 

full floodplain function; b) the extreme complexity of 

riparian zones; c) headwater streams have not 

received necessary levels of management attention to 

achieve landscape-level goals; d) restoration within 

the stream channel and riparian zone should 

reestablish natural ecological processes and 

communities; and e) manage to maintain connectivity 

across landscapes and minimize ecosystem 

fragmentation. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

518. Emerick,JC (1988): The restoration 

potential for wetlands impacted by acid mine 

drainage in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. 

p.109-Ill. In: Restoration, creation, and 

management of wetland and riparian ecosystems 

in the American West. 

Restoration possibilities for wetland systems that 

are presently impacted by mine drainage include: 1) 

removing the source of metals (by rechanneling 

drainages or removing tailings); 2) reducing the 

toxicological effects of some metals by judicious 

application of Ca and P to stimulate plant production; 

and 3) removing some of the soil and replacing it 

with a layer of organic mulch, then planting plugs of 

healthy vegetation on 2- or 3-foot centers. 

[ACID MINE WASTES; MINING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

519. Emmerich,WE (1998): Estimating 

prescribed burn impacts on surface runoff and 

water quality in southeastern Arizona. p.149-158. 

In: Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management and 

water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Burning effects on surface runoff, sediment 

yield, and nutrient dynamics were evaluated with a 

large rainfall simulator following spring and fall 

bums at two different soillvegetation types. The 

study was replicated in a second year and results 

were compared with unburned areas. Surface runoff, 

sediment yield, and nutrient loss were controlled 

primarily by the soils and the soils interacting with 

the vegetation. Significant season and year effects 

were found for runoff, sediment yield, and nutrient 

loss irrespective of the bum treatment. The burning 

effects were much greater than the season or year 

effects one year after the first bum. The nutrient 

dynamics showed the magnitude of the pools to be 

soil>>>biomass>>>surface runoff losses, which 

implied that there could be many bums before a 

significant amount of nutrients would be depleted 

from the soil and the ecosystem changed. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; NUTRIENT CYCLES; 

PRESCRIBED BURNING; WATERSHED] 

520. Emmett,WW (1975): The channels and 

waters of the upper Salmon River area, ID. USDl 

Geological Suwey Professional Paper 870-A. 96 p. 

The upper 1,800 square miles of the Salmon 

River drainage basin in south-central Idaho is an area 

of great scenic beauty and little-disturbed natural 

habitat. Proper use and development of this land and 

its natural resources are contingent on a multifaceted 

and detailed environmental study. This report 

emphasizes the complex interaction of hydrological, 

biological, geological, and chemical parameters. The 

report concentrates on the hydraulics and geometry 

of streamflow and the composition of stream water. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDRAULICS; 

HYDROLOGY; SALMON RIVER] 

521. Emmington,WH; Maas,KG; Tucker,GF 

(1994): Survival and growth of conifers under 

planted or released in alder dominated riparian 

zones. p.19-22. In: The ecology and management 

of Oregon Coast Range forests: A mid-term 
COPE symposium. 29-31 March 1994. Gleneden 

Beach, OR. Coastal Oregon Productivity 

Enhancement Program; Oregon State University 

Release or planting of conifers in small clearings 

or partially cut riparian zone alder stands appeared to 

be viable options for enhancing conifer survival and 

growth, thereby contributing to stream rehabilitation. 

Where planting is practiced, control of understory 

competition has short term beneficial effects. Killing 

(i.e. thinning) of 50 percent of the alder appeared to 

be a good option for restoration in the short run, but 

length of treatment effect should be determined. 

Duration of beneficial effect of thinning would 

depend on age and density of residual alder, and site 

conditions. Shade-tolerant species performed better, 

but Douglas fir did survive and grow when released 

and under planted with modest initial success. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

522. Ensign,WE; Leftwich,KN; Angermeier,PL; 

Dolloff,CA (1997): Factors influencing stream fish 

recovery following a large-scale disturbance. 

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 

126,895-907. 

Following a massive fish kill, fish distribution 

and abundance were examined. Combining results 

across scales and estimator types showed that 

distributions and abundances of 5 of 11 species in the 

reach affected by the kill were similar to those 

observed in unaffected upstream and downstream 

reaches 8-1 1 months following the perturbation. 

Indications were that 4 of 1 1 species had not 

recovered in the same time period. The authors 

attribute differences in recovery rates to differences 

in parental investment in offspring. Species 

exhibiting rapid recovery either engage in extensive 

spawning site preparation or guard the spawning site 

following egg deposition and fertilization. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

523. Erman,NA (1981): The use of riparian 

systems by aquatic insects. p.177-182. In: 

Warner,RE; Hendrix,KM [eds.]. Proceedings of 

the California riparian systems conference. 17-19 

September 1981. Davis, CA. 

Nearly all aquatic insects spend some portion of 

their lives in riparian zones. Many examples are 

given of terrestrial stages and activities of aquatic 

insects. The examples are divided into the areas of 

feeding, pupation, emergence, and egg laying. 

Special emphasis is given to recent studies on 

caddisflies (Trichoptera) in riparian systems of the 

Sierra Nevada. Knowledge of life cycles is essential 

for predicting the effect of disturbance in riparian 

areas on populations of aquatic insects. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; INVERTEBRATES; 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

524. Erwin,KL (1990): Wetland evaluation for 

restoration and creation. p.429-458. In: Wetland 

creation and restoration. [Eds.: JA Kusler; ME 

Kentula.]. Island Press. Washington, DC. 

A rapidly accessible, easily understood, and cost 

effective database on wetland creation and restoration 

projects is needed to support environmental 

regulatory agency review, decision making, and 

action on specific projects. Any comprehensive 

wetland evaluation effort must be preceded by the 

establishment of criteria which the investigator and 

regulator believe to be fundamental to the existence, 

functions, and contributions of the wetlands system 

and its surrounding landscape. Failure to address the 

wetland system's surrounding landscape leads to an 

inaccurate characterization of the wetland. Additional 

research is needed to establish the inter-relationships 

between wetlands, transitional areas, and adjacent 

uplands. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

525. Estes,CC; Orsborn,JF (1986): Review and 

analysis of methods for quantifying instream flow 

requirements. Water Resources Bulletin 22(3), 

389-398. 

Present guidelines for selecting a method to 

determine instream flow requirements and evaluating 

the validity of the results from a particular method 

are insufficient. A review of current methods for 

instream flow determinations is supplemented by a 

summary of four independent analyses. Results of 

these analyses indicate that each method can be used 

independently or collectively to generate instream 

flow recommendations, if calibrated to the area or 

site studied. 

[FISHERIES; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; STREAM FLOW] 

526. Evans,B; Babcock,H (1987): Why riparian 

management regulations are not disincentives. In: 

Streamside management: Riparian wildlife and 

forestry interactions. An interdisciplinary 

symposium. 11-13 February 1987. University of 

Washington. Seattle, WA. 

There are strong incentives to press for timber 

harvesting elimination or restriction of harvest 

activities in riparian zones, ranging from increased 

water quality and better fisheries to more assured 

supplies of water and better recreation opportunities. 
From the standpoint of the timber owner or operator, 

riparian management regulations may seem to be 

disincentives to conduct timber operations in general 

but careful adherence to such regulations results in 

more favorable environmental and therefore social 

impact and eases the pressure for potentially unwise 

restrictive regulations elsewhere. 

[ECONOMICS; LOGGING IMPACTS; POLICY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

527. Evans,JM (1991): Propagation of riparian 

species in southern California. p.87-90. In: 

Proceedings, Intermountain Forest Nursery 

Association. 12-16 August 1991. Park City, Utah. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-211. 

Riparian corridors in southern California are 

typically vegetated with a tree cover, an understory 

shrub layer of woody plants, and a sub-shrub cover 

of herbaceous plants. As mitigation for Least Bell's 

Vireo, an endangered species, habitat is being 

restored using nursery produced container and bare 

root plants. Propagation and production techniques 

are described. 

[AVIFAUNA; PLANT MATERIALS; PLANT 

PROPAGATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

528. Everest,FH (1978): Anadromous fish habitat 

and forest management --economic 

considerations. p.153-171. In: Proceedings of the 

Western Association of Fish and Wildlife 

AgenciesIWestern Division. American Fisheries 

Society. 

[FISHERIES; LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

529. Everest,FH; Meehan,WR (1981): Forest 

management and anadromous fish habitat 

productivity. p.521-530. In: Transactions of the 

46th North American wildlife and natural 

resources conference. Wildlife Management 

Institute. Washington, DC. 

[ANADROMOUS FISH; FISHERIES; LOGGING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

530. Everett,RL; Meeuwig,RO; Robertson,JH 

(1978): Propagation of Nevada shrubs by stem 

cuttings. Journal of Range Management 31(6), 

426-429. 

Stem cuttings of 54 Nevada shrub species varied 

in rooting capacity. Semi-hardwood cuttings were 

superior to either softwood or hardwood cuttings in 

rooting success. Differences in rooting potential 

among cuttings of the same species taken from 

different sites were also apparent. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RIPARIAN 

SHRUBS] 

531. Fannin,TE; Parker,M; Maret,TJ (1985): 

Multiple regression analysis for evaluating 

non-point source contributions to water quality in 

the Green River, Wyoming. p.201-205. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell, CD; Patton,DR; 

Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

The Green River Basin of western 

Wyominginorthern Utah incorporates a diverse 

spectrum of geology, topography, soils, and climate. 

Land use is predominantly range and forest but an 

increasing number of industries are locating in the 

southern half of the drainage. The application of a 

multiple regression model was used to associate 

various riparian and nonriparian attributes with 

previous measurements of P, N, and dissolved solids 

in the Green River system. Possible reasons for 

significant water qualitylbasin attribute associations 

are proposed. Some of the advantages and 

disadvantages of using such a technique to explore 

those associations are explained. 

[HYDROLOGY; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY] 

532. Fatooh,J; Halford,A; Pollini,J (1994): Fish 

slough: From ancient wetland to community 

stewardship. p.83-88. In: Summit showcase 

displays and ecosystem case studies. USDI Bureau 

of Land Management Summit. Incline Village, 

NV. April, 1994. 

At Fish Slough Area of Critical Environmental 

Concern, north of Bishop, California, interagency 

collaboration, along with public involvement, has 

produced a managed landscape that exemplifies 

broad-based stewardship of public land. 

[COLLABORATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

STEWARDSHIP; WETLANDS] 

533. Fenner,P; Brady,WW; Patton,DR (1985): 

Effects of regulated water flows on regeneration 

of Fremont cottonwood. Journal of Range 

Management 38(2), 135-138. 

The reduction in extent of riparian forests in the 

southwestern United States has been a topic of recent 

concern. The effect of dams on downstream river 
flow and the consequent modification of the riparian 

habitat was studied along the lower Salt River in 

central Arizona. Dams were found to change the 

magnitude of river flows and change the timing of 

flows in such a way that the habitat appeared less 

adapted for regeneration of Fremont cottonwood. 

Modification of river flow patterns, therefore, 

appears likely to have been a significant factor 

causing change in vegetation along the Salt River. 

[COTTONWOOD; DAMS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

STREAM FLOW] 

534. Ferguson,BK (1987): Environmental 

patterns of water management. Journal of 

Environmental Systems 16(3), 161-178. 

This article attempts to provide a framework for 

understanding what a range of water management 

steps are trying to do and the approaches available 

for doing it. The framework is built upon previously 

suggested concepts of "landscape ecology, which 

sees the hydrologic landscape as a combination of 

surface, soil, groundwater, atmospheric and cultural 

"mantles" in which different types of hydrologic 

processes occur. Major aspects of the framework are 

the types of functions that management steps perform 

and the types of environments in which they are 

practiced. Uses of water demand that water have 

specific characteristics of quality, time, quantity, and 

place. 

[HYDROLOGY; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

535. Ferren,Jr.,WR; Fiedler,PL; Leidy,RA 

(1996): Wetlands of California, Part 1: History of 

wetland habitat classification. Madrono 43(1), 

105-124. 

This review of the history of vegetation 

classification in California reveals a serious 

underestimation of the diversity, extent, and 

functions of the state's wetlands and a 

misrepresentation of the perceived paucity of 

wetlands in the arid West. The classification systems 

of California's wetlands is reviewed beginning with 

early efforts in vegetation typing by the USDA Forest 

Service. A comprehensive methodology for 

classifying and describing wetlands is required before 

they can be adequately protected and managed. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

536. Ferren,Jr.,WR; Fiedler,PL; Leidy,RA; 

Lafferty,KD; Mertes,LAK (1996): Wetlands of 

California, Part 11: Classification and description 

of wetlands of the central and southern California 

coast and costal watersheds. Madrono 43(1), 

125-182. 

The modified Cowardin et al. (1979) 

classification is described which provides a 

methodology to identify all wetlands along the 

central and southern California coast and in the 

adjacent coastal watersheds. Use of classification 

tables in association with concepts of ecosystem 

context. site scale, and classification goals was 

intended to result in the development of a code 

(wetlands type number) that include information on 

the: I) system, subsystem, class, and subclass; 2) 

water regime and water chemistry; 3) 

hydrogeomorphic unit; and substrate, dominance, or 

characteristic type of the wetland in question. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WATERSHED; WETLANDS] 

537. Field,DR; Lee,ME; Martinson,K (1985): 

Human behavior and recreation habitats: 

Conceptual issues. p.227-231. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.1. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Individual recreation behavior and recreation 

experience are more often than not determined by 

three sets of factors: the social group within which an 

individual participates, including the mix of social 

groups occupying a specific recreation place; the 

biological or physical characteristics of that place; 

and the management prescriptions applied there. 

Human ecological principles, along with concepts 

used to classify recreation habitats according to the 

recreation opportunities they provide, form the 

conceptual framework for this paper. 

[HUMAN IMPACTS; RECREATION IMPACTS; 

RIPARlAN HABITAT] 

538. Filip,GM; Bryant,LD; Parks,CA (1989): 

Mass movement of river ice causes severe tree 

wounds along the Grande Ronde River in 

northeastern Oregon. Northwest Science 63(5), 

211-213. 

Lateral movement of river ice across the 

floodplain caused large wounds on tree stems 

(mountain alder) and direct mortality of shrubs or 

indirect mortality through wounding and subsequent 

infection by canker fungi. The ages of wounds 

indicated a 20 to 30 year period between river-ice 

events. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARlAN FOREST; RIVER 

ECOLOGY; STREAMBANK STABILITY] 
539. Finch,D; Marshall,RM (1993): Bird use of 

riparian habitats in north-central Arizona during 

fall migration - results and recommendations. 

p.212-218. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The two most important factors governing 

capture rate of birds were seasonal timing and net 

placement within the study site. Migration periods for 

neotropical birds varies annually as a result of the 

length and timing of the breeding season and weather 

patterns during the fall. The authors recommend that 

fall migration studies be started in early August and 

run through the end of September. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; NEOTROPICAL BIRDS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

540. Finch,DM (1985): A weighted-means 

ordination of riparian birds in southeastern 

Wyoming. p.495-498. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.1. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Variation among habitat associations of 3 1 

riparian bird species in southeastern Wyoming was 

analyzed using a weighted-means ordination. Three 

principal components explained 86.7 percent of the 

variation among habitat associations of bird species. 

Components showed high positive loadings for 

variables associated with canopy, shrub size, and 

vegetation height. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

541. Finch,DM (1986): Similarities in riparian 

bird communities among elevational zones in 

southeastern Wyoming. p.105-109. In: 

Proceedings of the 1986 Wyoming water and 

streamside zone conference. 28-30 April 1986. 

Casper, WY. 

At elevations of 6740 - 9800 ft in southeast 

Wyoming, bird species diversity ranged from a low 

of 3 bird species and 29 pairs in subalpine shrub 

willow habitat to a maximum of 2 1 species and 10 1 

pairs in lowland cottonwood habitat. Higher 

elevations had less diverse bird communities 

probably because of increased environmental severity 

and reduced vegetational complexity. Despite loss of 

tree overstory, bird species composition on 

mid-elevation shrub sites was more similar to 

lowland cottonwood habitats than to subalpine shrub 

areas. Similarity in bird species composition was 

greatest within elevational zones. Management 

recommendations are offered. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARlAN HABITAT] 

542. Finch,DM (1988): Bird-habitat relationships 

in subalpine riparian shrublands of the central 

Rocky Mountains. p.167-172. In: Management of 

subalpine forests: Building on 50 years of 

research. Troendle,CA. Kaufmann,MR, 

Hamre,RH [tech. coords.]. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-149. 

The author examined associations between bird 

abundance, habitat structure measured at random 

sites, and habitat measured at bird locations in 

subalpine riparian shrublands. The subalpine riparian 

avifauna were depauperate with only four abundant 

species-- song sparrow, white-crowned sparrow, 

Lincoln's sparrow and Wilson's warbler. Habitat 

requirements overlapped among these species but 

differed significantly from randomly-sampled habitat 

in the same areas. Results indicated that species 

preferred densely-foliated ground and shrub layers, 

and higher effective vegetation height. 

[AVIFAUNA; BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

543. Finch,DM (1989): Habitat use and habitat 

overlap of riparian birds in three elevational 

zones. Ecology 70(4), 866-880. 

The low elevation riparian habitat provides a 

broader more complex resource base than higher 

elevation riparian habitats. Over all sites, 

zone-independent bird species were generalists and 

zone-dependent species were more often habitat 

specialists. On a site-by-site basis, however, some 

high elevation specialists were generalists for their 

sites, and some zone generalists were in fact 

specialists within a particular site. Avifauna diversity 

in western and Rocky Mountains riparian sites is not 

saturated, indicating that the Great Plains region still 

offers a barrier to western dispersal. 

[AVIFAUNA; BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

544. Finch,DM (1996): Research and 

management of soil, plant, animal, and human 

resources in the Middle Rio Grande Basin. 

p.69-76. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.). 

Desired future condition for Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

The Rocky Mountain Forest and Range 
Experiment Station initiated a research program in 

1994 that is funded by an Ecosystem Management 

grant from USDA Forest Service Research. Its 

mission focuses on the development and application 

of new knowledge to sustain ecological systems and 

human populations in the Middle Rio Grande Basin. 

Research studies emphasize upland ecology and 

management, linkages between watersheds and 

riparian zones, sensitive fish and wildlife populations 

and species of concern, and past and present cultural 

resources. 

[RESEARCH; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

SUSTAINABILITY] 

545. Findley,J (1984): Riparian monitoring using 

large scale infra-red aerial photography in 

southeastern Oregon. p.13-17. In: Bedell,TE [ed.]. 

Proceedings of 1984 Pacific Northwest range 

management short course; Range watersheds, 

riparian zones and economics: Interrelationships 

in management and use. 25-27 January 1984. 

Pendleton, OR. Oregon State University. 

Large scale color infra-red aerial photography is 

being used by the BLM in Vale, Oregon to monitor 

effects of management on selected riparian habitat. 

Approximately 130 miles of stream have been 

photographed at a scale of 1 :2000, with repeat 

photography to be acquired on a five or ten year 

cycle. Measurements were made to determine 

existing cover of perennial woody and herbaceous 

cover in the riparian zone. Changes in cover over 

time will determine subsequent management actions. 

Other measurements including bank and stream 

channel stability/instability may also be made. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

546. Fisher,HM; Thomas,AE (1990): Riparian 

communities: An annotated bibliography of 

ecosystem and management topics with emphasis 

on the Intermountain Region. ldaho BLM 

Technical Bulletin 90-7. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management. Boise, ID. 

This bulletin updates two previous 

bibliographies (1986 and 1988) published by Idaho 

BLM. It contains 234 publications appearing in the 

years 1990 and earlier. Each cited 

article/paper/technical note is accompanied by a brief 

abstract of the citation, the authors, the publication 

source, and key words or phrases. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; RIPARlAN HABITAT] 

(1998): Hierarchy, spatial configuration, and 

nutrient cycling in a desert stream. Australian 

Journal of Ecology 23,41-52. 

Recent studies of nutrient cycling in Arizona 

suggest that a thorough understanding requires a 

spatially explicit, hierarchical approach. Physical 

configurations determine the path that water follows 

as it moves downstream. Water follows flow paths 

through surface stream components, the hyporheic 

zone beneath the surface stream and the parafluvial 

(sand bar) zone. Characteristic biogeochemical 

processes in these subsystems alter N species in 

transport, in part as a function of available 

concentration of N species. At several hierarchical 

levels, substrate materials are an important 

determinant of nitrogen dynamics in desert streams. 

[HYDROLOGY; NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

548. Flanagan,LB; Ehleringer,JR; Dawson,TE 

(1992): Water sources of plants growing in 

woodland, desert, and riparian communities: 

Evidence from stable isotope analysis. p.43-47. In: 

Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 

Wambolt,CL 1comp.l. Proceedings - Symposium 

on ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

Analysis of the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in 

stcm xylem water can be used to determine the water 

sources used by individual plants. Because the 

potential water sources for plants often have different 

isotopic compositions, the composition of stem water 

reflects the composition of water taken up by the 

roots. In riparian communities, small trees used either 

stream water or summer precipitation, depending on 

location. Large trees used subsurface groundwater 

exclusively, regardless of location relative to stream. 

[CLASSIFICATION; ISOTOPE ANALYSIS; 

RIPARIAN I IABITAT; WATER SOURCES] 

549. Fleming,CM; Kunkle,SH; Flora,MD (1996): 

Riparian wetlands and visitor use management in 

Big Bend National Park, Texas. p.212-215. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired 

future conditions for Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-GTR-272. 

Wetlands and riparian habitats constitute a small 

but nonetheless vital component in the Chihuahuan 

Desert. Big Bend National Park encompasses 

80 1,000 acres, of which 27,000 acres is wetland. The 

Park has riparian or wetland habitat distributed 
around 3 15 water sources, some perennial streams, 

and along 1 18 miles of the Rio Grande Corridor. 

These areas contain unique vegetation components, 

which provide habitats for wildlife, including 

resident and migratory birds. The same habitats have 

become increasingly popular as overnight campsites 

for rafters and boaters on the Rio Grande, or serve as 

water stops and destination points for back country 

hikerslcampers. The paper summarizes these impacts 

and appropriate park management responses/actions. 

[PARK MANAGEMENT; RECREATION 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

550. Fleming,G; Kadhimi,AA (1982): Sediment 

modeling and data sources a compromise in 

assessment. p.251-259. In: Proceedings of the 

Exeter symposium, July 1982. Recent 

developments in the explanation and prediction of 

erosion and sediment yield. IAHS Publication No. 

137. 

The major problem in modeling sediment 

erosion, transport and deposition for the assessment 

of sediment yield is the shortage of reliable data with 

which to develop and test the desired model. This 

limitation of data source restricts the modeler in 

selecting the appropriate theory to describe a model 

structure that accounts for the correct interaction 

between processes contributing to the sediment yield 

of drainage basins. It also restricts the application of 

developed models in their practical design 

application. Compromises must always be made 

before models can be usefully employed in sediment 

yield assessment for water resource system design. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; MODELING; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT; SOILS] 

551. Flessner,TR; Davis,DC; Lambert,SM 

(1992): Seed source evaluation of four native 

riparian shrubs for streambank rehabilitation in 

the Pacific Northwest. p.155-162. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL (comp.1. 

Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Forty-six to 72 populations of the four deciduous 

shrubs: Sitka alder, Pacific serviceberry, oceanspray, 

and vine maple are being evaluated at the Corvallis, 

Oregon plant materials center. Morphological traits 

of each population, such as growth rate, fruitiflower 

abundance, vigor, foliage appearance, phenology, 

and form are being tested. Successful clones or seed 

sources will be released as cultivars. 

[PLANT MATERIALS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

552. Fletcher,HC; Rich,LR (1955): Classifying 

southwestern watersheds by their water yields. 

Journal of Forestry 53(3), 196-202. 

Annual water yield from southwestern 

watersheds are more affected by elevation, soil, 

temperature, and prevailing precipitation than from 

other areas. Topography and vegetation are other 

factors affecting water yield which may be primary 

in classification of these watersheds. 

Evapotranspiration by vegetative cover may also be 

effective in classifying those areas. 

[CLASSIFICATION; HYDROLOGY; WATER 

YIELD; WATERSHED] 

553. Fletcher,SW (1986): Planning and 

evaluation techniques for replacement of complex 

stream and wetland drainage systems. p. 195-200. 

In: Proceedings of the 1986 national meeting of 

the American Society for Surface Mining and 

Reclamation. 17-20 March 1986. Jackson, MS. 

Restoration of some lands to pre-mining 

conditions is becoming a required action. A 

methodology for determining environmental and 

ecological parameters is described. Existing systems 

are characterized and hydrological/soil/vegetational 

profiles are developed for each community type and 

stream reach. Post-mining requirements and 

attributes are matched to pre-mining conditions to 

develop the conceptual plan. The reclaimed complex 

is then designed in a series of iterative steps to allow 

reestablishment of each profile until optimal 

configuration is reached. Unit boundary and stable 

channel dimensions are defined. Flow barriers, 

contouring, etc., are designed. Backwater analysis 

and other standard methods may be used to evaluate 

hyperperiod conditions for various flow regimes, to 

provide balanced systems without further subsidies or 

manipulation. 

[HYDROLOGY; MINING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

554. Floyd,D; Ogden,P; Roundy,B; Ruyle,G; 

Stewart,D (1988): Improving riparian habitats. 

Rangelands 10(3), 132-134. 

The article briefly describes two Arizona grazing 

allotments where the authors claim that rotational 

grazing and sensitivity to the riparian habitat values 

have resulted in greatly enhanced riparian habitats. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

ENHANCEMENT; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SOUTHWESTERN DESERT STREAMS] 
555. Fogel,MN; Ffolliott,PF (1985): Evaluating 

effects of management on riparian ecosystems. 

p.384-388. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Computer simulation of the hydrologic processes 

and biomass production was used to assess the effects 

of management to determine whether such actions 

were a deterrent to desertification of riparian 

ecosystems. This approach allowed the evaluation to 

be made prior to implementation of these actions. 

[MODELING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

556. Fonseca,J (1993): A county government 

perspective. p.22-24. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The Federal Government would have difficulty 

imposing riparian habitat protection measures on an 

unwilling local community. Moreover, many federal 

laws are at cross-purposes. In Pima County, Arizona, 

a "wonderful" riparian habitat has been created by the 

discharge of municipal effluent into the Santa Cruz 

River. Besides sustaining bird habitat and vegetation, 

the effluent has also helped to clog the channel, 

causing protests from downstream floodplain 

farmers. Local communities can accomplish riparian 

objectives even without consensus or federal 

program support. 

[EFFLUENTS; FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT; 

REGULATIONS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

557. Foote,AL (1988): Effects of wave energy on 

plant establishment in shallow lacustrine 

wetlands. p.115-119. In: Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; 

Scott,ML; Miller,LK 1eds.l. Restoration, creation, 

and management of wetland and riparian 

ecosystems in the American West. Symposium. 

14-16 November 1988. Denver, CO. Rocky 

Mountain Chapter of the Society of Wetland 

Scientists. 293 p. 

Studies address effects of wave action on 

sediment resuspension, seed bank redistribution and 

survival of tubers in shallow wave-washed wetlands. 

[EMERGENT VEGETATION; LACUSTRINE 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SEED BANK] 

558. Forchhammer,NC (1999): Production 

potential of aquatic plants in systems mixing 

floating and submerged macrophytes. Freshwater 

Biology 41 : 183-1 91. 

Floating and submerged plants were grown 

together to investigate whether the areal production 

of aquatic plant systems can be increased. Maximum 

production was not enhanced by this strategy. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; AQUATIC PLANTS] 

559. Forster,DL; Bardos, CP; Southgate, DD 

(1987): Soil erosion and water treatment costs. 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 42(5), 

349-352. 

The relationship between communities' water 

treatment costs and soil erosion is estimated. 

Independent variables, other than soil erosion, used 

in the analysis included treatment plant size, storage 

time of untreated water, and turbidity improvement 

due to water treatment. Results indicate that a 10 

percent reduction in annual gross soil erosion results 

in a 4 percent reduction in annual water treatment 

costs. For the test communities, reduced annual water 

treatment costs would total $2.7 million, with a 25 

percent reduction in soil erosion. 

[EROSION; WATER QUALITY; WATER 

TREATMENT; WATERSHED] 

560. Fort,DD (1993): The protection of riparian 

areas: New approaches for new times? p.70-75. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

This paper contains an appraisal of the 

opportunities for and barriers to riparian protection 

and restoration, especially relating to current and 

future public policy. State, federal, and tribal entities 

require assistance for the improvement of 

management of riparian areas. New partnerships and 

management models have enormous potential for 

intensified riparian protection. 

[POLICY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

561. Fouty,S (1998): Stream channel 

morphological response to reductions in grazing 

pressures. p.97. In: Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

Reductions in elk and livestock grazing 
pressures were studied in the White Mountains in 

Arizona to determine short-term rates, magnitudes, 

locations, and directions of change in stream channel 

morphology. Results indicate that there is an 

adjustment period during which a channel may 

continue to widen even after all grazing pressure is 

eliminated. Thus, livestock grazing strategies which 

rest riparian pastures for less than three years do not 

provide adequate time for channel narrowing and 

pool development to occur. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; ELK GRAZING; 

EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

562. Fowler,R (1990): Grazing management 

heads Colorado range in right direction. 

Rangelands 12(6), 308-312. 

The Cathedral Bluffs Allotment in western 

Colorado has shown excellent improvement since 

1978. Constant monitoring of use and moving of 

livestock has been critical to proper use of riparian 

and upland ranges on the unit. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

MONITORING] 

563. Fox,JD (1989): Simulating vegetation-water 

yield relations in interior Alaska. p.179-189. In: 

Alexander, EB led.]. Proceedings of Watershed 

'89: A conference on the stewardship of soil, air, 

water resources. USDA Forest Service. Juneau, 

AK. 

The paper introduces a model for predicting 

spring runoff in cold climates. The model 

incorporates interactions among snowmelt and soil 

infiltration capacity. The former is affected by all 

factors influencing the snow pack energy balance and 

the latter is affected by soil texture, autumn soil 

moisture, snow pack depth and air temperature, all of 

which determine soil freezing and thawing. The 

study hypothesized that runoff will increase after 

timber harvest, not only due to increased snowmelt 

rates and decreased transpiration, but also due to fall 

soil moisture and subsequent formation of concrete 

frost. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; WATERSHED] 

564. Fox,K (1977): Importance of riparian 

ecosystems: economic considerations. p.19-22. In: 

Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.]. Importance, 

preservation, and management of riparian 

habitat: A symposium. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-43. 

The initiative to preserve riparian habitat must 

consider man's growing demands to put this area to 

other uses. Economic pressures which are at conflict 

with the environmental concerns, pose an inevitable 

problem to vegetation and wildlife. Compromises in 

the balance of preservation and development must be 

maintained. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

565. Fraas,WW; Wambolt,CL; Frisina,MR 

(1992): Prescribed fire effects on a bitterbrush - 

mountain big sagebrush - bluebunch wheatgrass 

community. p.212-216. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL Icomp.]. 

Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Eight years after burning, effects on bitterbrush, 

mountain big sagebrush, and bluebunch wheatgrass 

were measured. Bitterbrush density did not differ 

between burned and unburned sites, while bitterbrush 

canopy cover, flower production, and seed 

production were less on the burned sites. Big 

sagebrush canopy cover and density were less on the 

burned sites. Total herbaceous cover did not differ 

between sites. 

[BITTERBRUSH; FIRE IMPACTS; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SAGEBRUSH] 

566. France,RL (1997): Potential for soil erosion 

from decreased litter fall due to riparian clearcutting: Implications for boreal forestry and 

warm- and cool-water fishes. Journal of Soil and 

Water Conservation 52(6), 452-455. 

Riparian stands around 10 Ontario lakes, clearcut 4 to 10 years previously, were found to produce 

only 60 percent of the litter fall of nearby uncut 

riparian forests. As a result of this decrease in 

protective ground cover, the retention of organic duff 

within deployed mesh-bags was significantly reduced 

in clear-cut riparian zones. A rainfall simulation 

experiment further suggested that the erosion of 

sandy loam can be twice as great under litter fall 

conditions representative of clear-cut, compared to 

forested shorelines. A return to a policy that prevents 

timber harvesting around lakes that contain percid 

and esosid sport fish is recommended. 

[FISHERIES; LOGGING IMPACTS; RlPARlAN 

HABITAT; SOILS] 

567. France,RL; Peters,RH (1995): Predictive 

model of the effects of lake metabolism of 

decreased airborne litter fall through riparian 
deforestation. Conservation Biology 9(6), 

1578-1586. 

The importance of airborne allochthonous litter 

to the carbon and nutrient budgets of lakes has been 

seldom studied. These studies suggest that terrestrial 

litter can contribute up to 15 percent of the total 

carbon supply to oligotrophic lakes and up to 10 

percent of the total phosphorous supply to lakes with 

a large surface area relative to that of their drainage 

basin. Results were incorporated into a simple model 

that predicts that removal of shoreline trees could 

increase the ratio of plankton production to 

respiration in oligotrophic lakes situated within small 

drainage basins. Such lakes may therefore shift from 

allotrophy to autotrophy following riparian 

deforestation. 

[MODELING; NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

568. Franz,C; Rodgers,JD; Dodd,JL; Smith,MA; 

Siekert,RE; Skinner,DQ (1987): Influence of 

grazing on root biomass and soil texture 

associated with an ephemeral stream in Wyoming. 

Abstracts. 40th annual meeting, Society for Range 

Management. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SOILS] 

569. Frasier,G; Kidwell,MR, Weltz,MA; 

Yakowitz,DS; Fox,HD (1998): Assessing 

rangeland health with a multi-attribute decision 

support system. p.99. In: Potts,DF (ed.1. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

A structure is presented for determining 

rangeland health. The methodology was applied to 

six small watersheds within the Santa Rita 

Experimental Range in southern Arizona. Rangeland 

health is the product of summing the results from 

three functional categories: watershed function and 

soil stability, distribution of nutrient cycling and 

energy flow, and recovery dynamics. There were 

seventeen individual attributes, allocated to one or 

more of these categories. A simple algorithm based 

on linear and dynamic programming principles 

implemented in a computer spreadsheet allows one to 

quickly compute the possible range of overall site 

ratings from high to low. There is a hierarchical 

arrangement of the individual attributes. This 

decision tool is useful for examining land areas from 

numerous, often conflicting, decision making 

viewpoints or by multiple decision makers. 

[ASSESSMENTS; DECISION SUPPORT 

SYSTEMS; EVALUATION; RANGE 

MANAGEMENT; RANGELAND HEALTH] 

570. Frasier,GW; Trlica,MJ; Leininger,WC; 

Pearce,RA; Fernald,A (1998): Runoff from 

simulated rainfall in two montane riparian 

communities. Journal of Range Management 

51 (3), 31 5-322. 

Riparian ecosystems are the final terrestrial zone 

before runoff enters a stream. They provide the last 

opportunity to decrease non-point pollution delivery 

to streams by removing sediments from overland 

water flow from uplands and roads. In simulated 

rainfall trials, several runoff parameters had 

characteristics of runoff from water repellent soils. 

The organic layer on the soil surface exhibited signs 

of water repellency that reduced the water infiltration 

rate during the initial stages of a rainfall simulation. 

These results suggest that runoff and infiltration 

processes in the surface organic horizon of riparian 

zones may not respond in the classical manner. This 

characteristic has important implications if criteria 

developed in areas with less organic matter on the 

soil surface are used to manage overland flow. No 

differences in time to runoff initiation could be 

attributed to vegetation height. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RUNOFF; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

571. Frasier,GW; Weltz,M; Weltz,L (1998): 

Rainfall simulator runoff hydrograph analysis. 

Journal of Range Management 51(5), 531-535. 

For more than 50 years, rainfall simulators have 

been used to evaluate hydrologic parameters. 

Complexity and interaction of site factors on runoff 

and infiltration processes have made it difficult to 

isolate and identify single components of the 

hydrograph that accurately characterize the entire 

runoff event. This technical note describes a 

technique that was developed to separate the runoff 

hydrograph into segments representative of different 

portions of the flow event. Segment groupings are 

analyzed for treatment andlor site factor differences 

or influences on the runoff. This has allowed a more 

detailed interpretation of the runoff and infiltration 

processes and makes it possible to quantitatively 

assess differences in rainfall simulator runoff results 

and provide insight into hydrograph inconsistencies. 

[HYDROLOGY; INFILTRATION; MODELING: 

RUNOFF] 

572. Friedman,J; Osterkamp,WR; Scott,ML; 

Auble,GT (1997): Regional pattern in response of 

riparian forest to water management in the Great 
Plains. In: Proceedings of the Society of Wetland 

Scientists. 18th annual meeting. Restoration and 

Management Notes 16(1):92. 

Artificial water management has caused 

proliferation of cottonwood, salt-cedar, and willow 

populations in the southern and western plains, while 

reproduction in the northern and eastern plains has 

been reduced. Differences in the channels found in 

these areas react oppositely to controlled water 

regimes. Shallow channels of the southern and 

western plains consist of coarse-grained sediment. 

Reduced flows result in greater buildups of silt, 

which allows these species to establish. In the 

northern and eastern plains, streams are slower and 

more meandering and are not as prone to 

establishment by woody plants because of reduced 

flow rates and subsequent erosion. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN SHRUBS; STREAM FLOW; 

WATER REGIMES] 

573. Friedman,JM; Auble,GT; Scott,ML (1994): 

Geomorphic requirements for establishment and 

maintenance of cottonwood forest. p.80-88. In: 

Proceedings of the 46th annual meeting of the 

Forestry Committee, Great Plains Agricultural 

Council. 20-23 June 1994. Manhattan, KS. 

The relation between streamflow and 

establishment of bottomland trees is conditioned by 

the dominant fluvial process(es) acting along a 

stream. Plains cottonwood requires bare, moist 

surfaces protected from disturbance for successful 

establishment. Channel narrowing, channel 

meandering, and flood deposition promote different 

spatial and temporal patterns of establishment. 

Floods, sediment deposition, and channel change are 

essential for establishment of disturbance-dependent 

species like plains cottonwood. Managers need to be 

aware that they cannot have both a channelized, 

regulated stream and a naturally reproducing stand of 

plains cottonwood. 

[COTTONWOOD; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN FOREST; STREAM FLOW] 

574. Frissell,CA; Liss,WJ; Warren,CE; 

Hurley,MD (1986): A hierarchical framework for 

stream habitat classification: Viewing streams in a 

watershed context. Environmental Management 

10(2), 199-21 4. 

This article presents a framework for a 

hierarchical classification system, entailing an 

organized view of spatial and temporal variation 

among and within stream systems. Stream habitat 

systems, defined and classified on several 

spatiotemporal scales, are associated with watershed 

geomorphic features and events. Variables selected 

for classification define relative long-term capacities 

of systems, not simply short-term states. Streams and 

their watershed environments are classified within 

the context of a regional biogeoclimatic landscape 

classification. The framework is a perspective that 

should allow more systematic interpretation and 

description of watershed-stream relationships. 

[CLASSIFICATION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SPATIAL SCALE; 

WATERSHED] 

575. Frissel1,CA; Nawa,RK (1992): Incidence and 

causes of physical failure of artificial habitat 

structures in streams of western Oregon and 

Washington. Journal of Fisheries Management 12, 

182-197. 

Increasing shares of fishery management 

resources have been committed in recent years to 

alteration of fish habitat with artificial stream 

structures. The authors evaluated rates and causes of 

physical impairment or failure for 16 1 fish habitat 

structures following a flood of a magnitude that 

recurs every 2-1 0 years. The median failure rate was 

18 percent and the median impairment rate was 60 

percent. Results suggest that commonly prescribed 

structural modifications are often inappropriate and 

counterproductive in streams with high or elevated 

high peak flows, or highly erodible bank materials. 

Large-scale restoration will require reestablishment 

of natural watershed and riparian processes. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WATERSHED] 

576. Fukushima,L; Lesh,EW (1998): Adult and 

juvenile anadromous salmonid migration timing 

in California streams. California Fish and Game 

84(3), 133-1 45. 

The peak spawning migration for most species of 

salmonids is in fall and winter. Most chinook salmon 

smolts outmigrate in spring and summer. Coho 

salmon smolts outmigrate from March to July and 

usually peak between mid-April and mid-May. 

Probably the most important environmental factor 

affecting the timing for both returning adult salmon 

migration and smolt outmigration is the condition of 

the river mouth and the amount of runoff fi-om 

rainfall. Many small coastal streams are entirely 

closed by sandbars that build across the mouths 

during periods of low rainfall and mild summer 

ocean conditions. In studies, first major upstream 

migrations coincide with large increases in stream 

flow. Heavy rainfall and subsequent runoff removes 
the bar and provides an opening for migrating fish. 

Runoff may also provide olfactory clues to attract 

adult salmon into the stream. Heavy runoff also 

serves to flush smolts through an estuary into the 

ocean. 

[MIGRATION; RUNOFF; SALMONIDS; 

SPAWNING HABITAT] 

577. Funk,R (1993): Rio Grande Valley State 

Park. p.159-161. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre, H ltech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared values. USDA Forest Sewice. General 

Technical Report RM-226. 

The Rio Grande Valley State Park in New 

Mexico was created in 1983 to preserve and improve 

the natural character of the river and bosque, while 

allowing low impact recreation. The Open Space 

program of the City of Albuquerque was designated 

as the operating party. As a first step, clean up and 

motor vehicle closure resulted in an immediate 

reduction in dumping and other illegal activities. At 

the same time, recreational activities increased. Fire 

and exotic species invasion continue to be problems 

in combination with lack of cottonwood 

reproduction. Many opportunities exist for improving 

the Park, as it continues to be a refuge for people and 

wildlife. 

[BOSQUE; RECREATION IMPACTS; RIO 

GRANDE; RIPARIAN HABITAT; STATE PARKS] 

578. Galbraith,WA; Anderson,EW (1971): 

Grazing history of the northwest. Journal of 

Range Management 24(1), 6-12. 

This is a historical account of grazing history in 

the Pacific Northwest from grazing by Indian horses 

beginning around 1,700 to the introduction of 

Spanish cattle in 1789 to modern times. In this 

region, it continues to be one of the major uses of the 

resource. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HISTORIC RECORDS] 

579. Ganskopp,DC (1978): Plant communities 

and habitat types of the Meadow Creek 

Experimental Watershed. MS Thesis, Oregon 

State University, Cowallis, OR. 162 p. 

Objectives of this study were: 1) identify and 

map an experimental area of Meadow Creek 

watershed by existing vegetation; and 2) to identify 

and map the experimental area of Meadow Creek 

watershed by habitat types. Forty-four riparian 

communities were delineated by reconnaissance 

methods. Seventeen plant communities were detected 

and mapped on upland sites. 

[CLASSIFICATION; MICROHABITATS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATERSHED] 

580. Garbrecht,J; Starks,PJ (1998): 

Characterization and implications of inter-annual 

precipitation variability for central Oklahoma 

grazing lands. p.385-394. In: Potts,DF led.] 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

The authors suggest that the trends and 

anomalies of general precipitation can be forecasted 

with some accuracy up to one year in advance. The 

benefits to grazing lands management of these 

general forecasts can be increased by complementary 

precipitation characteristics at monthly and daily time 

scales. The existence and possible quantification of 

systematic trends and distinguishing characteristics in 

precipitation at smaller time scales is demonstrated in 

this study for central Oklahoma. 

[CLIMATE; PRECIPITATION; RANGE 

MANAGEMENT] 

581. Garcia,B; Williams,RL (1992): The 

Strawberry Valley Project: A history and initial 

experiences. p.68-70. In: Proceedings, 

Intermountain Forest Nursery Association. 12-16 

August 1991. Park City, UT. 

At this location in central Utah, rehabilitation 

projects are ongoing since the lands were transferred 

to the USDA Forest Service and subsequent changes 

in grazing management were made. The 

rehabilitation projects included streambank 

stabilization, installation of gully plugs, and willow 

plantings. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

582. Garcia,JC (1985): A method for assessing 

the value of stream corridors to fish and wildlife 

resources. p.335-338. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech, coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Stream Corridor Inventory and Evaluation 

System (SCIES) provides a method for managers to 

measure the habitat value of stream corridors and to 

quantify in explicit terms many complex values and 

factors. The procedure was developed to have broad 

applications, to be flexible, to be capable of 
incorporating existing methods and knowledge, and 

to be comprehensive, easy to use, and verifiable. 

[FISHERIES; MODELING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

583. Gay,LW (1985): Evapotranspiration from 

salt-cedar along the lower Colorado River. 

p.171-174. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH Itech. coord.1. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

During two growing seasons, Bowen ratio 

evapotranspiration (ET) was measured periodically in 

a stand of salt-cedar on the lower Colorado River. 

Annual total ET at this site was estimated to be 1727 

mm. 

[EVAPOTRANSPIRATION; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SALT-CEDAR; WATER LOSS] 

584. Gebhardt,K; Vinson,M; Platts,WS; 

Jackson,W (1989): Using expert systems in 

riparian management. p. 187. In: Gresswell,RE; 

Barton,BA; Kershner,JL [eds.]. Practical 

approaches to riparian resource management: An 

educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 1989. USDI 

Bureau of Land Management. Billings, MT. 

BLM in Idaho has begun a project to develop 

knowledge based expert systems for riparian 

management. Project objectives are to provide a 

means for the riparian expert to store knowledge of 

management outcomes, to help others to apply the 

knowledge to other areas, and to help in selecting 

appropriate monitoring techniques. One expert 

system is designed to capture knowledge on the 

causes and effects from management actions. The 

second is to link the management options to riparian 

types defined by classification. The third is designed 

to help users select monitoring techniques. 

[CLASSIFICATION; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

585. Gebhardt,KA (1982): Development of a 

monitoring program for natural resource 

management. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Idaho BLM Manual Supplement (4421-Planning 

the Monitoring Studies). 

Monitoring concepts are basic and 

well-established. Monitoring is a necessary tool for 

making sound management decisions. The process 

requires time, thought, and discussion to develop a 

good monitoring program but dollars saved in the 

long run are worth the effort. Once the work has been 

planned, the plan must be implemented. 

[HYDROLOGY; MONITORING; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

586. Gebhardt,KA (1986): Determining 

hydrologic properties of soils. USDI Bureau of 

Land Management Tech. Note 371. Idaho State 

Office, Boise, ID. 34 p. 

[HYDROLOGY; SOILS; TECHNIQUES] 

587. Gebhardt,KA; Bohn,C; Jensen,S; Platts,WS 

(1989): Use of hydrology in riparian classification. 

p.53-59. In: Gresswell,RE; Barton,BA; 

Kershner,JL [eds.]. Riparian resource 

management: An educational workshop. 8-11 May 

1989. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Billings, MT. 

A general classification scheme for riparian 

zones is presented based on hydrologic and 

geomorphic features. Recognizing the dynamic 

nature of the riparian, a concept of 'state' is 

introduced as a unit of classification to indicate the 

responses of a site type to physical impacts. Physical 

processes that affect soil water regime and erosion 

resistance can effect 'state' changes. The relative 

vulnerability and resilience of riparian vegetation 

may be described in terms of the 'state' of the riparian 

and the physical processes occurring within. 

[CLASSIFICATION; HYDROLOGY] 

588. Gebhardt,KA; Gebhardt,J; Koonce,G; 

O'Brien,B; Sweet,S; Tiedmann,RB (1988): 

Creating wildlife and wetland amenities in an 

urban environment. p.157-161. In: Mutz,KM; 

Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK [eds.]. 

Restoration, creation, and management of wetland 

and riparian ecosystems in the American West. 

Proceedings of the symposium. 14-1 6 November 

1988. Denver, CO. Rocky Mountain Chapter of 

the Society of Wetland Scientists. 

Spring Meadow is a major housing development 

adjacent to the Boise River on the eastern edge of the 

city of Boise, Idaho. Spring Meadow was the first 

subdivision to implement the 1985 river plan 

guidance. Inventories and Environmental 

Assessments (EAs) were conducted on the site prior 

to development. Mitigation and enhancement plans 

included projects for wetland and stream creation and 

wildlife habitat creation and enhancement. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; MITIGATION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; URBAN IMPACTS] 

589. Geist,DR; Dauble,DD (1998): Redd site 

selection and spawning habitat use by fall chinook 

salmon: The importance of geomorphic features 
in large rivers. Environmental Management 22(5), 

655-669. 

A conceptual spawning habitat model for fall 

chinook salmon is presented that describes how 

geomorphic features of river channels create 

hydraulic processes, including hyporheic flows, that 

influence where salmon spawn in unconstrained 

reaches of large mainstream alluvial rivers. This 

conceptual model can be combined with traditional 

models to predict the limits of suitable fall chinook 

spawning habitat. 

[FISHERIES; FISH HABITAT; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; MODELING] 

590. Genter,DL (1990): The role of riparian 

habitat in maintaining rare and endangered 

species. In: Management of riparian and wetland 

forested ecosystems in Montana. Fourth annual 

Montana Riparian Association workshop. 5-7 

September 1990. Whitefish, MT. 

The State of Montana, reflective of a varied 

topography, climate, geology, and glacial history, has 

a considerable diversity of habitats. Within the state, 

there are over 350 major terrestrial plant 

communities and 105 identified riparianlaquatic 

communities. Among these vegetative types can be 

found over 600 species of vertebrate animals. 

[BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

591. George,H; DeLasaux,M; Mainwaring,P 

(1998): Monitoring riparian areas with a camera. 

p.131. Potts,DF led.]. In: Rangeland management 

and water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

A manual and accompanying videos have been 

developed to enable ranchers to establish their own 

photo monitoring systems. Riparian photographs are 

intended to provide a representative view of the 

actual stream channel, bank, and back vegetation. 

Photos are taken in several directions to document 

conditions. This provides a simple methodology that 

can be readily implemented by ranchers and others. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; MONITORING; 

RIPARIAN CONDITION; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

592. George,M; Harper,J; Larson,S; 

Weitkamp,B; George,H; Jolley,L (1998): 

Implementing California's rangeland water 

quality management plan. p. 299-303. In: Potts,DF 

[ed.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRS specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 2729 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

The University of California Extension Service 

and the USDA Natural Resources Service are jointly 

conducting the Ranch Water Quality Management 

Planning Short Courses where landowners learn 

about non-point source pollution, self assessments, 

develop a water quality plan, and complete a letter of 

interest. 

[EDUCATION; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; RANGE MANAGEMENT; WATER 

QUALITY] 

593. Gholz,HL; Hawk,GM; Campbell,A; 

Brown,AT (1985): Early vegetation recovery and 

element cycles on a clear-cut watershed in western 

Oregon USA. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Resources 15(2), 400-409. 

Aboveground biomass and leaf area, net primary 

productivity and nutrient cycling through vegetation 

were studied for 3 years after clear-cutting of a 0.24 

ha watershed in the Oregon Cascade Mountains. No 

correlation was found between plant uptake and 

nutrient loss in streamflow. Uptake of all elements 

exceeded return through leaching and litter fall by 16 

percent, except that of Mg, which exceeded return by 

44 percent. Because of early dominance by annual 

species, the proportion of elements redistributed 

internally by vegetation was generally low. The 

amount of nutrients of flux through vegetation, 

atmosphere and stream was small in comparison to 

the amount lost in the removal of tree stems. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; NUTRIENT CYCLES; 

PRIMARY PRODUCTION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WATERSHED] 

594. Gibbons,DR (1985): The fish habitat 

management unit concept for streams on national 

forests in Alaska. p.320-323. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre.RH 

[tech. coord.). Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

The occurrence of alternatives invariably exists 

between the management of timber and fisheries 

resources. The concept of Fish Habitat Management 

Units has been developed on National Forest lands to 

describe the specific streamside requirements for 

maintenance and improvement of aquatic resources. 

Development and management applications are 

discussed. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

595. Gibbons,DR; Salo,EO (1973): An annotated 
bibliography of the effects of logging on fish of the 

western United States and Canada. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report PNW-10. 145 

P . This bibliography compiles scientific and topical 

literature published in the western US. and Canada 

on the effects of logging on fish and aquatic habitat. 

Included are 278 annotations and 3 17 total 

references. Subjects include: erosion and 

sedimentation, water quality, related influences upon 

salmonids, multiple logging effects, alteration of 

stream flow, stream protection, multiple-use 

management, streamside vegetation, stream 

improvement, and descriptions of studies on effects 

of logging. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; FISHERIES; LOGGING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

596. Gillen,RL; Krueger,WC; Miller,RF (1985): 

Cattle use of riparian meadows in the Blue 

Mountains of northeastern Oregon. Journal of 

Range Management 38(3), 205-209. 

Intensity and pattern of cattle use of small 

riparian meadows were studied by periodically 

sampling vegetative standing crop and by 

continuously monitoring meadows with time-lapse 

photography. Temperature and relative humidity 

were also measured in riparian and upland plant 

communities. Herbage standing crop at the end of the 

grazing season was similar under continuous grazing 

and the early and late grazing periods of a two 

pasture deferred-rotation grazing system. Early 

grazing tended to decrease the cattle occupation and 

the frequency of cattle occupation of riparian 

meadows when compared to continuous grazing. 

Late grazing tended to increase the frequency of 

cattle occupation but did not change the total cattle 

occupation of riparian meadows when compared to 

continuous grazing. Cattle were present on a given 

meadow site on about 60 percent of all days but for 

only 3-1 0 percent of the total daylight period. Cattle 

occupation of riparian meadows was greater during 

the afternoon hours. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

MEADOWS] 

597. Gillilan,DM; Brown,TC (1997): Instream 

flow protection. Island Press. Covelo, CA. 427 p. 

A comprehensive overview of western water use 

and the issues that surround it, this book explains 

instream flow and its historical, political, and legal 

context. It also describes instream flow laws and 

policies and present methods of protecting instream 

flow. 

[HYDROLOGY; STREAM FLOW; WATER LAW; 

WATER RIGHTS] 

598. Gilliland,MW; Baxter-Potter,W (1987): A 

geographic information system to predict 

non-point source pollution potential. Water 

Resources Bulletin 23(2), 281-291. 

A Geographic Information System (GIs), which 

utilizes a roster of grid-cell format, was developed to 

include algorithms associated with non-point 

pollution. The system accepts digitally mapped 

information on soil type, topography, and land use. It 

calculates characteristics such as slope and slope 

length, and relates these characteristics to soils and 

land use parameters in order to produce three 

dimensional maps of runoff potential, and bacterial 

pollution potential. It has the advantages of retaining 

the geographic character of pollution potential 

information and of conveying in graphical terms the 

effects of topography, soil type, land use, and land 

management practices. 

[GIs; NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; 

WATER QUALITY] 

599. Girard,MM (1985): Native woodland 

ecology and habitat type classification of 

southwestern North Dakota. Ph.D. Thesis, North 

Dakota State University. 331 p. 

Native woodlands are a component of the 

vegetation mosaic of the mixed grass prairie of 

southwestern North Dakota. Due to a semi-arid 

climate, these woodlands are restricted to areas of 

increased moisture: drainage ways, streams, springs, 

floodplains, north-facing slopes, and "scoria" buttes. 

A habitat type classification system for these 

woodlands was developed to provide a framework 

for future management. The Daubenmire habitat type 

method was used. A key was developed to identify 

each type in the field. The characteristics of each 

habitat and community type are described. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

600. Glascow,C (1993): Six Rivers National 

Forest watershed management and road 

restoration. p.195-197. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared values. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-226. 

Forest roads can dramatically alter natural 

drainage networks and related physical processes. 

The primary goal of road restoration is to minimize 
future erosion and mass wasting through removing 

culverts and outsloping unstable portions of the road 

Excavating fill from stream crossings and removing 

culverts is one of the cost-effective treatments 

available for reducing sediment input into streams. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; ROAD IMPACTS; 

WATERSHED] 

601. Glass,S; Thullen,J; Sartoris,J; Roline,R 

(1996): Albuquerque constructed wetlands pilot 

project: Summary and status of City of 

Albuquerque project, September 1995. p.243-252. 

In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired 

future conditions for Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-GTR-272. 

After imposition of stricter water quality 

standards, it became necessary to pursue methods to 

enhance the purity of treated municipal wastewater 

effluent produced at the Southside Water 

Reclamation Plant (SWRP). Design has begun for 

additional facilities to support biochemical processes 

that effectively reduce nitrogen during wastewater 

treatment. The present permit contains potential 

limitations for substances including arsenic, silver, 

aluminum, and cyanide. The permit also requires that 

water quality evaluations be completed within three 

years to provide a foundation for future decisions 

about the river. 

[BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES; EFFLUENTS; R10 

GRANDE; WASTEWATER; WATER QUALITY] 

602. Gleick,PH (1998): Water in crisis: Paths to 

sustainable water use. Ecological Applications 

8(3), 571-579. 

Crises relating to use and management of 

freshwater resources are increasing. Some of these 

are: destruction of aquatic ecosystems and extinction 

of species, deaths from water-related illnesses and 

growing conflicts over scarce, shared water supplies. 

Seven "sustainability criteria" are discussed here as 

part of an effort to reshape long-term water planning 

and management. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; POLICY; 

SUSTAINABILITY; WATER QUALITY] 

603. Glimp,HA; Swanson,SR (1994): Sheep 

grazing and riparian and watershed management. 

Sheep Research Journal, Special Edition:1994, 

65-7 1. 

A critical measure of grazing management 

success is the functional capacity of rangeland 

watersheds and riparian ecosystems. It is clear that 

overgrazing and poorly timed grazing by any 

livestock species can be detrimental to riparian and 

watershed resources. However, the literature 

generally suggests that low to moderate sheep 

grazing levels at optimum times for the vegetation 

community are not detrimental. Based on reviews of 

research and anecdotal experiences, recommended 

management practices for various sheep grazing 

systems are suggested. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING 

TREATMENTS] 

604. Glinski,RL (1977): Regeneration and 

distribution of sycamore and cottonwood trees 

along Sonoita Creek, Santa Cruz County, 

Arizona. p.116-123. In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA 

[tech. coord.]. Symposium on the importance, 

preservation and management of the riparian 

habitat. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-43. 

The effects of livestock grazing and streambed 

erosion on the regeneration and distribution of 

sycamores and cottonwoods were studied. Sycamores 

reproduced from root and trunk sprouts but 

cottonwood reproduction was nearly absent in areas 

grazed by cattle. Cottonwoods were confined entirely 

to the narrow erosion channel. If this regeneration 

pattern continues, the future maximum width of the 

cottonwood forest will decrease by nearly 60 percent. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; TREE DISTRIBUTION] 

605. Gold,AJ; Jacinthe,PA; Groffman,PM; 

Wright,WR; Puffer,RH (1998): Patchiness in 

groundwater nitrate removal in a riparian forest. 

Journal of Environmental Quality 27,146-155. 

The ability to identify and manage riparian sites 

for groundwater nitrate removal is limited by 

uncertainty surrounding the relative importance of 

plant uptake vs. microbially mediated removal 

processes. Microcosm studies often demonstrate 

negligible transformation rates in the subsoil of 

riparian forests, even in situations where groundwater 

well networks showed substantial groundwater 

removal and nitrate removal during the winter and a 

decline in dissolved oxygen in ambient groundwater 

moving through the site. The authors hypothesize 

that microcosm studies may miss groundwater 

transformations that occur within micro-sites, that is 

"hotspots" of riparian subsoils. 

[GROUNDWATER; HYDROLOGY; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES; RIPARIAN FOREST] 

606. Goldman-Carter,JL (1988): Implementing 
Swampbuster: Plowing new ground at USDA. 

p.106-112. In: Stuber,PJ [tech. coord.]. 

Proceedings of the national symposium on the 

protection of wetlands from agricultural impacts. 

25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, CO. USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service. Biological Report 88(16). 

During the two years since Swampbuster was 

passed, the law has not been implemented and has 

contributed little to wetland conservation. Future 

implementation will depend upon how strictly 

Swampbuster is implemented at the local level 

beyond the 1988 growing season. Congressional 

oversight, expeditious wetland delineation, 

strengthening amendments, and adequate agency 

resources will improve Swampbuster 

implementation. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

607. Goldner,BH (1981): Riparian restoration 

efforts associated with structurally modified flood 

control channels. p.445-451. In: Warner,E; 

Hendrix,KM [eds.]. Proceedings of the California 

riparian systems conference: Ecology, 

conservation and productive management. 

University of California. 17-19 September 1981. 

Berkeley, CA. 

The Santa Clara Valley Water District has 

revegetated flood control channels to benefit wildlife 

and provide aesthetic improvement. Drought-tolerant 

ornamental and native riparian species have been 

planted along channel banks and levees with mixed 

results. Successful establishment depends mostly on a 

fixed irrigation system and a well-managed weed 

abatement program. Densely planted, linear-size 

rooted cuttings irrigated by overhead sprinklers can 

reduce both installation and maintenance costs. 

[INSTREAM STRUCTURES; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; VEGETATION 

MANAGEMENT] 

608. Goldsmith,E; Hildyard, N (1984): The social 

and environmental impacts of large dams. Sierra 

Club Books. San Francisco, CA. 404 p. 

The authors argue that large scale dams should 

not be built. They provide a checklist of social and 

environmental considerations, particularly in regard 

to major irrigation projects. 

[DAMS; IRRIGATION IMPACTS; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT; WATER 

QUALITY] 

609. Goldstein,JH (1991): The road to no-net-loss 

of wetlands. p.73-77. In: Proceedings of the Forum 

for applied research and public policy. Spring, 

1991. 

Wetlands have multiple environmental functions, 

and they have them in varying proportions. If acreage 

is used as the sole unit of measurement, a loss would 

be recorded when wetland is degraded. Although 

conducting the accounting in functional terms has an 

intellectual basis, implementing the concept has 

difficulties. Wetland science is not precise and there 

is no universally accepted method of quantifying 

wetland functions. The definition of no-net-loss has 

implications for the manner in which the goal is 

achieved, the nature of mitigation, and the character 

of the environment. 

[MITIGATION; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

WETLANDS] 

610. Gomez,DM; Anthony,RG (1996): 

Amphibian and reptile abundance in riparian and 

upslope areas of five forest types in western 

Oregon. Northwest Science 70(2), 109-1 19. 

This paper compares species composition and 

relative abundance of herpetofauna between riparian 

and upslope habitats among 5 forest types (shrub, 

open sapling-pole, large saw timber and old-growth 

conifer forests, and deciduous forests) in western 

Oregon. Riparian and upslope associated species 

were identified based on capture frequencies from 

pitfall trapping. Species richness was similar among 

forest types but slightly greater in the shrub stands. 

The abundances of 3 species differed among forest 

types. Total captures was highest in deciduous 

forests, intermediate in mature conifer forests, and 

lowest in the 2 young coniferous forests. Species 

richness was between stream and upslope habitats; 

however, captures were higher in riparian than 

upslope habitat. The authors suggest that riparian 

management zones should be at least 75 - I00 m on 

each side of the stream and that management for 

upslope andlor old forest associates may be equally 

as important as for riparian species. 

[AMPHIBIANS; HERPETOFAUNA; REPTILES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

611. Gomez,DM; Anthony, RG (1998): Small 

mammal abundance in riparian and upland areas 

of five seral stages in western Oregon. Northwest 

Science 72(4), 293-302. 

Species composition and relative abundance of 

small mammals between riparian and upland habitats 

among five seral stages in the Coast Range of Oregon 

were compared to determine the significance of these 

areas to different species. Riparian and upland 

associated species were identified based on capture 
frequencies from pitfall trapping. Species richness 

was similar between stream and upland habitats and 

among the five seral stages. However, there were 

significant changes in the abundances of nine small 

mammal species among seral stages. Total captures 

were highest in deciduous stands and progressively 

lower from shrub to old growth coniferous forests. 

Results indicate that small (second, third, and fourth 

order) riparian systems and adjacent upland areas 

provide important habitat for small mammals on the 

Oregon Coast Ranges. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS; 

UPLAND VEGETATION] 

612. Gonzales,P; Gonzales,J (1998): Local 

communities and partnerships develop common 

ground in range management and water quality. 

p.341. In: Potts,DF led.]. Range management and 

water resources: Proceedings of the AWRS 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Several partnerships in Wyoming to demonstrate 

that common goals can be achieved in range 

management and water quality led to the 

development of the Interpretive Sign Project. These 

signs were placed along scenic byways to inform 

visitors and others of the importance of partnerships 

to the landscape. 

[PARTNERSHIPS; RANGE MANAGEMENT; 

WATER QUALITY] 

613. Gonzalez,MA; Sanford,Jr.,RD (1997). 

Geomorphic perspectives on cottonwood (Populus 

deltoides) recruitment, regeneration, and decline 

in the Little Missouri Badlands of North Dakota. 

p. 95. In: Abstracts. 1997 annual meeting of the 

Ecological Society of America jointly with The 

Nature Conservancy. 10-14 August 1997. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

Recent work in seven small, unregulated, 

intermittent basins in southwest North Dakota 

suggests that short-term geomorphological processes 

provide important controls on cottonwood 

regeneration. Natural fluvial cycles of channel 

incision, lateral channel migration, and stream 

aggradation dictate when and where cottonwoods can 

regenerate. 

[COTTONWOOD; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

614. Goodell,BC (1965): Watershed treatment 

effects on evapotranspiration. p.477-482. In: 

International symposium on forest hydrology. 

National Science Foundation. Advanced science 

seminar proceedings. 29 Aug - 10 Sept 1965. 

Pergamon Press. NY, NY. 

Spatial and temporal confluence of water and 

thermal energy at watershed surfaces controls 

evapotranspiration. Radiant energy provides the heat 

source for evapotranspiration (ET). In any vegetation 

mass on any land area, ET is maximized when plant 

substance is most uniformly distributed. Canopy 

interception of precipitation and radiation and 

transport of soil water to transpiring surfaces are 

maximized in those circumstances. Any kind of 

forest manipulation can cause heterogeneity in 

canopy and root distribution, resulting in a tendency 

to minimize ET. Persistent discontinuities in the 

canopy must be produced in order to reduce ET. 

[HYDROLOGY; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT; WATERSHED] 

615. Goodloe,S (1994): Watershed restoration 

through integrated resource management on 

public and private rangelands. p.136-140. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired 

future conditions for Pinyon-juniper ecosystems: 

Proceedings of the symposium. 8-12 August 1994. 

Flagstaff, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-258. 

Until recently, much of the rangeland in the 

western United States was in a serious downward 

trend. Water quantity and quality were declining as 

the result of the continuous livestock grazing 

practices employed at the turn of the century 

followed by 80 years of fire suppression. Thirty-five 

years of integratedlholistic resource management at 

the Carrizo Valley ranch site has reversed this trend. 

In addition to restoration of rangeland productivity, 

the riparian area of the ranch has been restored, 

wildlife populations enhanced, and perennial 

streamflow restored. The practical experience gained 

at the ranch should be useful to private landowners, 

public land managers, and water quality agencies 

throughout the brittle ecosystems of the southwestern 

United States. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; Rl PARlAN HABITAT; 

STREAM FLOW; WATER QUALITY; 

WATERSHED] 

616. Goodman,T; Donart,GB; Kiesling,HE; 

Holochek,JL; Neel,JP; Manzanares,D; 

Severson,KE (1989): Cattle behavior with 

emphasis on time and activity allocations between 

upland and riparian habitats. p.95-102. In: 

Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL [eds.]. 

Practical approaches to riparian resource 

management. An educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 
1989. Billings, MT. 

Cattle distribution and behavior were studied in 

riparian and upland habitats at Fort Bayard in 

southwest New Mexico. A three-pasture seasonal 

rotation grazing scheme with a moderate stocking 

rate was employed after 47 years of no grazing. 

Habitat use shifted from heavy use on riparian areas 

during the growing season to virtually no grazing use 

during the dormant season. Riparian use was also 

influenced by pasture changes. Riparian observations 

increased significantly (P<0.05) during the first data 

collections in a new pasture. During the dormant 

season, open-upland and browse-upland were 

selected. Time spent grazing and distance traveled 

were greatest during the summer months and least 

during the winter months. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING 

TREATMENTS] 

617. Goodrich,S (1991): Field key to Salk of 

Utah based on vegetative features. p.71-73. In: 

Proceedings, Intermountain Forest Nursery 

Association. 12-16 August 1991. Park City, Utah. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-211. 

A field key to Salix (willows) of Utah based on 

vegetative features is presented. Thirty species are 

described. 

[FIELD KEY; PLANT IDENTIFICATION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WILLOW] 

618. Goodrich,S (1992): Summary flora of 

riparian shrub communities of the Intermountain 

Region with emphasis on willows. p.62-67. In: 

Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 

Wambolt,CL (comp.]. Proceedings - Symposium 

on ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

Management of riparian communities depends 

on an understanding of the dominant species in 

different riparian communities. Common plants of 

riparian communities are discussed briefly. Habitat, 

distribution, and other descriptors are presented for 

24 species of willow. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; WILLOW] 

619. Goodwin,CN; Hawkins,CP; Kershner,JL 

(1997): Riparian restoration in the western United 

States: Overview and perspective. Restoration 

Ecology 5(4), 4-1 4. 

This paper is a historical and conceptual 

overview of riparian ecosystem restoration. It 

discusses how riparian ecosystems have been 

defined, describes the hydrologic, geomorphic, and 

biotic processes that create and maintain riparian 

ecosystems of the western U.S., identifies the main 

types of anthropogenic disturbances occurring in 

these ecosystems, and provides an overview of 

restoration methods for each disturbance type. The 

authors suggest that riparian ecosystems consist of 

two zones: Zone 1 occupies the active floodplain and 

is frequently inundated and Zone I1 extends from the 

active floodplain to the valley wall. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

620. Gore,JA; Johnson,LS (1979): Biotic 

recovery of a reclaimed river channel after coal 

strip mining. p.239-244. In: Swanson,GA led.]. 

The mitigation symposium: A National workshop 

on mitigating losses of fish and wildlife habitats. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-65. 

A newly constructed channel of the Tongue 

River, Wyoming, reclaimed with layers of gravel and 

medium cobble, pine snags, bouldered rip-rap, and 

rubble piles, was rapidly recolonized with stream 

invertebrates (70 days). Fish were found only in 

"snag" areas. Colonization curves predict attainment 

of a resident fish population in one to two years after 

channel opening. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; FISH HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

621. Gore,JA; Shields,Jr.,FD (1995): Can large 

rivers be restored? BioScience 45(3), 142-151. 

Large rivers have a remarkable resiliency in their 

ability to recover from physical and chemical 

disturbances. When the disturbance occurs as a pulse 

(instantaneous alteration), recovery to the original 

condition of the ecosystem frequently occurs. When 

the disturbance is sustained (press disturbance) and 

causes a complete loss of critical habitat elements, 

ecological integrity cannot be maintained. The 

stability and sustained function of large river 

ecosystems is dependant upon maintenance of 

watershed and floodplain integrity. The process of 

restoration is an attempt to direct biological, 

geological, and hydrological processes toward an end 

point at or near predisturbance conditions. Although 

this is not practical in most cases, rehabilitation or 

partial restoration of riverine habitats and ecosystems 

- has considerable potential. Systems that have not 

achieved true restoration will continue to require 

constant management. 

[BIOLOGICAL INTEGRITY; FLOODPLAIN 
MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

RIVER ECOLOGY] 

622. Gorman,OT; Karr; JR (1978): Habitat 

structure and stream fish communities. Ecology 

59(3), 507-51 5. 

Stream habitat complexity was correlated with 

fish species diversity in selected streams. Habitat 

diversity was measured along three dimensions 

important to a wide range of fish groups: stream 

depth, bottom type, and current. Increasing 

community and habitat diversity followed stream 

order gradients. Natural streams supported fish 

communities of high species diversity which were 

seasonally more stable than lower diversity 

communities of modified streams. Seasonal changes 

in stream quality were high. Therefore, the stability 

of the fish community was lower in modified than in 

natural streams. The general correlation between 

habitat characteristics and presence and absence of 

fish species suggested that most fishes of small 

streams are habitat specialists. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; BIODIVERSITY; 

FISHERIES; FISH HABITAT] 

623. Goss,DW (1973): Relation of physical and 

mineralogical properties to streambank stability. 

Water Resources Bulletin 9(1), 140-144. 

Alluvial streambank properties from nine 

unstable and six stable reaches showed little variation 

in physical and mineralogical properties. The bulk 

density of the samples was so similar that they could 

be considered from the same population. Particle size 

distributions showed that the many fractions were 

slightly, but significantly, higher for the stable 

reaches. The sand-sized grains of the stable areas 

were less rounded than those of unstable areas. This 

somewhat angular shape of the grains may have 

produced an interlocking between grains that added 

stability to the bank material. Clay coatings on the 

sand-sized grains may also have strengthened the 

material by causing cementation. 

[EROSION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

SEDIMENTATION; STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

624. Gosselink,JG; Shaffer,GP; Lee,LC; 

Burdick,DM; Childers,DL; Leibowitz,NC; 

Hamilton,SC; Boumans,R; Cushman,D; Fields& 

Koch,M; Visser,JM (1990): Landscape 

conservation in a forested wetland watershed. 

BioScience 40(8), 588-600. 

General issues in environmental planning are 

addressed in this article, relating to the cumulative 

impacts of human activities on these ecosystems. 

Specific focus is directed on wetlands. The legal and 

administrative framework for wetland regulation is 

introduced, as well as the use of ecological principles 

in environmental planning. The cumulative impacts 

of human impacts in a case study are assessed and the 

assessment is used to show how they can be used for 

planning purposes. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; HUMAN IMPACTS; 

PLANNING; RIPARIAN FOREST; WETLANDS] 

625. Gottfried,GJ; Ffolliott,PF (1992): Effects of 

moderate timber harvesting in an old-growth 

Arizona mixed conifer watershed. p.184-194. In: 

Old growth forests in the Southwest and Rocky 

Mountain Regions. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-213. 

There is growing interest in the development of 

silvicultural prescriptions that will maintain 

old-growth characteristics while allowing some 

degree of commercial utilization. A silvicultural 

prescription based on small patch-clearcut and 

group-selection openings and single-tree selection in 

most remaining areas was evaluated in a watershed 

supporting an old-growth mixed conifer stand. The 

treatment resulted in increased residual tree growth 

and relatively constant stand growth. The stand 

retained its uneven-aged structure and relative 

species composition. The watershed has retained 

many of the desired old-growth attributes although 

many of the largest trees were harvested. The 

increased growth rates indicate that the basal area in 

larger trees should recover relatively rapidly. Tree 

regeneration also has been satisfactory. In addition, 

the treatment resulted in significant increases in water 

yields and in herbaceous plants for livestock and 

wildlife use. Nongame birds were generally 

unaffected by the treatment. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; OLD-GROWTH FOREST; 

WATER QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

626. Gottfried,GJ; Ffolliot,PF (1995): Stand 

dynamics on upper elevation pinyon-juniper 

watersheds at Beaver Creek, AZ. p.38-45. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.1. Desired 

future conditions for pinyon-juniper ecosystems: 

Proceedings of the symposium; 8-12 August 1994; 

Flagstaff, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report 258. 

There is a lack of information about stand 

dynamics, especially volume growth, in the 

pinyon-juniper woodlands of the southwestern 

United States. Such information is vital for managing 

woodlands on a sustainable basis for tree products. 

Harvesting in excess of growth will diminish the 
resource. Growth information is also needed to 

understand ecosystem dynamics and to ascertain 

stand changes that affect other resources, such as 

wildlife habitat. Two overstory inventories, spanning 

a 24-year period, were conducted on permanent 

points on two untreated watersheds in central 

Arizona. Alligator juniper is the dominant species on 

the watersheds, which are representative of 

woodlands at the upper elevations of the Mogollon 

Rim. Although inventory techniques have changed 

since the first inventory in 1964, repeated 

measurements using the original techniques can 

produce valuable information about stand changes in 

the interim. Mean annual growth for trees present in 

1964 and 1988 was 18.5 cubic feet per acre and net 

periodic annual growth was 20.3 cubic feet per acre. 

[EVALUATION; PINYON-JUNIPER; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; TREE 

PRODUCTS; WATERSHED] 

627. Gough,G; George,MR; McDougald,N; 

Jolley,L (1998): Developing California's 

rangeland water quality management plan: Range 

livestock industry responds to clean water issues. 

p.187-190. In: Potts,DF led.). Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

The California livestock industry, in 1989, 

embarked on a pro-active program of information 

and education that resulted in the development of the 

California Rangeland Water Quality Management 

Plan (CRRWQMP). The plan is being implemented 

by voluntary development or through workshops and 

conservation planning. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; NON-POINT 

SOURCE POLLUTION] 

628. Gough,S (1994): Riparian trees and stream 

channel management. p.66-72. In: Proceedings of 

the 46th annual meeting of the forestry committee, 

Great Plains Agricultural Council. 20-23 June 

1994. Manhattan, KS. 

Management of streamside trees is poorly 

understood, even though trees greatly influence the 

form and process in many river systems. In order to 

manage riparian areas, we must first understand 

fluvial process and be able to separate systemic 

forces, such as large-scale watershed change, from 

local influences, such as vegetation clearing. We 

must also better understand the history of river 

systems and acknowledge past fluvial change. In 

Missouri, photographic analysis revealed that cattle 

exclusion was more effective than rip-rap in 

stabilizing streambanks. Vegetation is the only 

manageable component in most wildland stream 

reaches. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

629. Gourley,C (1997): Instream flows and the 

restoration of river and riparian ecosystems. In: 

Proceedings of the Society of Wetland Scientists. 

18th annual meeting. Restoration and 

Management Notes 16(1);92. 

Altered streamflow patterns and stunted 

cottonwood replenishment from damming and 

irrigation along the Truckee River in Nevada lasted 

for most of the 20th century. Placement of the cui-ui 

sucker on the Endangered Species list caused 

biologists to increase late spring flow to enhance the 

suckers' spawning survival. Increased flow also 

created ideal conditions for cottonwood seed 

dispersal. This circumstance had a double benefit and 

illustrates that river and riparian habitats frequently 

have common needs. 

[COTTON WOOD; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; SPAWNING 

HABITAT; STREAM FLOW] 

630. Gourley,C; Lillquist,N (1993): A 

demonstration of biogeomorphic techniques to 

restore a segment of the East Fork of the Sevier 

River, Garland County, Utah. p.180-185. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.) Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

The purpose of this project was to demonstrate 

the use of biogeomorphic techniques to restore a 

privately owned 2 km stream segment. Management 

of livestock adjacent to the stream channel has had a 

positive effect on the demonstration area. Willow and 

aquatic grasses are encroaching into the channel 

causing it to become narrower and deeper. Vertical 

stream banks are now sloped and naturally 

revegetated. Biogeomorphic techniques were 

successfdly employed to restore a single meandering 

channel. 

[BIOGEOMORPHIC TECHNIQUES; CHANNEL 

DYNAMICS; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

631. Graf,WL (1979): The development of 

montane arroyos and gullies. Earth Surface 
Processes 4, 1-1 4. 

Field investigations in Colorado confirm that the 

spatial distribution of vegetation in watersheds exerts 

strong control on the entrenchment of streams in the 

montane zone. When tractive forces in channels 

exceeds threshold values of resistance on the valley 

floors, cutting of arroyos begins, producing forms 

that change allometrically. Thresholds exist in the 

montane erosion system for gradient, mean biomass 

in the basin, biomass on the valley floor, channel 

roughness, and channel width. Each threshold value, 

however, depends on the interrelationships among 

other variables in the system. Manipulation of the 

vegetative cover is the primary human impact on the 

montane channels, and management of the 

distribution of vegetation offers the most efficient 

method of maintaining the stability of channels. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

GULLY CONTROL; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

632. Graf,WL(1979): Mining and channel 

response. Annals of the Association of the 

American Geographer 69(2), 262-275. 

Goldlsilver mining in central Colorado has 

caused severe disruption of the landscape. Arroyos 

and gullies developed on many valley floors as 

responses to increases in channel tractive force from 

I dyne before settlement to 8 dynes during the 

mining period. The spatial distribution of energy and 

force has been substantially altered by human 

activities. Threshold values of erosive force were 

surpassed in response to changes in general basin 

vegetation cover, channel slope, width, and 

roughness. Landscape stability, which depends on the 

relationship of the distribution of energy to the 

material landscape, has been reestablished in some 

locations but others may require several decades for 

recovery. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; EROSION; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; MINING IMPACTS; 

PHOTO PLOTS] 

633. Graf,WL (1980): Riparian management: A 

flood control perspective. Journal of Soil and 

Water Conservation 35(4), 158-161. 

Review of riparian change in the Southwest, 

examination of the relationship between channel 

vegetation and water resources, and a preliminary 

evaluation of alternative methods of phreatophyte 

control suggest the following conclusions: First, 

some sort of channel clearing and maintenance is 

unavoidable. Second, mechanical removal and 

control of phreatophytes is possible, with regrowth 

controlled by chemicals or by mowing and grazing. 

Third, for the long-term restoration of riparian 

habitats without dense phreatophyte growth by 

groundwater control should be investigated further. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; PHREATOPHYTES; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

634. Graf,WL (1985): Geomorphic 

measurements from ground-based photographs. 

p.211-235. In: Geomorphology: Themes and 

trends. [Ed: Pitte,A.]. Barnes and Noble Books; 

Totowa, NJ. 

Characterization and explanation of earth surface 

properties as they vary over time and space are the 

major objectives of geomorphologic inquiries. The 

analysis of changing dimensions of land forms is a 

useful approach. Methods of measuring heights and 

horizontal lengths from photos are described. In 

remote field locations accessible only by foot, the 

photogrammetric approach is a cost-effective 

substitute for more expensive techniques. Moreover, 

ground-based photographs may have a significant 

historical dimension. Exact relocation of the original 

camera position and duplication of historic photos 

can provide striking evidence of the progress of 

geomorphological processes. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; MONITORING; PHOTO 

PLOTS] 

635. Graham,WG (1993): The Idaho protected 

rivers program. p.352-355. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ, Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

At the time of this paper, 960 miles of Idaho 

rivers were protected under the state program, in 

addition to the 550 miles protected under the federal 

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act. Comprehensive state 

water plans had been completed for four river basins 

and one river reach. Three other plans were in 

preparatory stages of the planning process. The first 

coordinated planning effort was underway in the 

South Fork of the Snake River, involving the Bureau 

of Land Management. Forest Service, and Idaho 

Water Resource Board. Recommended actions could 

include a mix of state and federal protection 

mechanisms. 

[PLANNING; PROTECTED RIVERS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS] 

636. Grant,G (1986): Assessing effects of peak 

flow increases on stream channels: A rational 

approach. p.142-149. In: Proceedings of the 
California watershed management conference. 

18-20 November 1986. West Sacramento, CA. 

This paper criticizes employment of arbitrary 

limits to the basin drainage area affected by forestry 

activities. It recommends a procedure using the 

magnitude of flow increases that can be 

accommodated by downstream channels before 

channel instability occurs to determine the upper 

limit for basin area compaction. It also discusses the 

physical factors which affect channel stability and 

ways to determine this component of the cumulative 

watershed effects of forest practices. Streams with 

different channel geometries and bed materials have 

different intrinsic sensitivities to peak flow 

increases. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; 

STREAM FLOW; WATERSHED] 

637. Grant,G (1988): The RAPID technique: a 

new method for evaluating downstream effects of 

forest practices on riparian zones. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report 

PNW-GTR-220. Portland, OR. 36 p. 

The RAPID technique (riparian aerial 

photographic inventory of disturbance), uses aerial 

photographs to evaluate changes in channel 

conditions through time and links such changes with 

their possible stream causes. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

INVENTORY; LOGGING IMPACTS] 

638. Grant,JWA; Englert,J; Bietz,BF (1986): 

Application of a method for assessing the impact 

of watershed practices: Effects of logging on 

salmonid standing crops. North American Journal 

of Fisheries Management 6(1), 24-31. 

Preliminary studies on 3 control streams 

(unaffected by logging) indicated that there were no 

significant intrastream differences in the total 

biomass of Atlantic salmon, brown trout, and brook 

trout between discrete areas or similar habitat. 

Therefore, total salmonid biomass should be a good 

indicator of stream habitat quality for salmonids and 

useful in assessing the impacts of watershed 

practices. Salmonid biomass decreased significantly 

downstream of two stream crossings, probably 

because of increased siltation, while seven clear-cuts 

and one bank modification along the other eight 

streams had no significant effect on salmonid 

biomass. Removal of the canopy cover was 

associated with increases in the fork length or weight 

at age, or both, of Atlantic salmon but had no 

consistent effect on the size at age of brook trout. 

[FISHERIES; LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATERSHED] 

639. Grasse,JE; Putnam,EF (1950): Beaver 

management and ecology in Wyoming. Federal 

Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project Bulletin No. 6, 

Wyoming Game and Fish Commission, Cheyenne, 

WY. 75 p. 

This comprehensive study was an early effort to 

confront the conflict between the damage by beavers 

to man-made installations and the value of indirect 

benefits by beavers to public land. The document 

consolidates all that was known about beaver ecology 

at the time of publication. Management practices are 

described including techniques for live-trapping and 

transplanting. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

640. Great Plains Riparian Forest Management 

Task Force. (1993): Riparian forest management 

in the Great Plains. p.32-45. In: Riparian area 

management: Proceedings of the 46th annual 

meeting, Forestry Committee, Great Plains 

Agricultural Council. 20-23 June 1994. 

Manhattan, KS. 

On the Great Plains, specialized woodlands 

known as riparian forests, grow along streams and 

rivers. These important but sensitive ecosystems are 

extremely productive and play a crucial role in the 

plains environment. Two of their more vital functions 

include protecting water quality and increasing 

biodiversity. At this time, however, the current 

amount or condition of riparian forests in any state 

cannot be substantiated. The decline of this vital 

ecosystem has attracted the attention of the Great 

Plains Agricultural Council (GPAC), which considers 

the management of riparian forests as extremely 

important. The Great Plains Riparian Forest 

Management Task Force was assembled to find 

solutions to reverse this trend of destruction. The key 

objective of the task force was to identify the issues 

and problems confronting riparian forests, and to 

develop recommendations to address the situation. 

This white paper captures the recommendations of 

the task force for suggested actions. 

[BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARlAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

641. Green,DM (1998): Recreational impacts on 

erosion and runoff in a central Arizona riparian 

area. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 

53(1), 38-42. 

The areas bordering lakes and streams are often 

focal points for recreation which can be negatively 
impacted by many forms of recreation. In this study, 

the impact of soil compaction, runoff, erosion, rates, 

and vegetation along an Arizona stream was 

assessed. The dominant recreational use of the study 

area was camping and access by automobile. Total 

runoff (under simulated conditions), was 

significantly higher when compared to light- and 

moderate-use areas. Amounts of plant materials were 

higher in light and moderate use than in the high-use 

area. Higher degrees of soil compaction and larger 

area of exposed soil surface probably contributed to 

runoff. 

[HUMAN IMPACTS; RECREATION IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS] 

642. Green,DM; Kauffman,JB (1989): Nutrient 

cycling at the land-water interface: The 

importance of the riparian zone. p.61-68. In: 

Cresswell,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL 1eds.l. 

Riparian resource management; An educational 

workshop. USDl Bureau of Land Management. 

Billings, MT. 

Riparian ecosystems are sites of important 

biogeochemical processes that affect the composition 

and structure of the streamside biota as well as 

aquatic systems. Microbial activity, coupled with the 

slow diffusion of oxygen in waterlogged soils, causes 

anaerobic conditions and reduction in 

reduction-oxidation (redox) potential. Redox 

potentials provide a useful measurement as to the 

intensity of anaerobic conditions and the degree of 

chemical transformation. Grazing and other 

anthropogenic disturbances can alter biogeochemical 

cycles resulting in drastic alterations in riparian 

vegetation. The effect of land use activities on 

biogeochemical cycles of riparian-stream ecosystems 

should receive full consideration. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; NUTRIENT CYCLES; 

REDOX POTENTIAL; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

643. Green,DM; Kauffman,JB (1995): Succession 

and livestock grazing in a northwestern Oregon 

riparian ecosystem. Journal of Range 

Management 48(4), 307-313. 

Comparisons of vegetation dynamics of riparian 

communities under livestock use and exclusions over 

a 10-year period were quantified in a northwestern 

Oregon riparian zone. Species frequency, richness, 

diversity, evenness, and livestock utilization were 

measured. Livestock grazed the study area from late 

August until mid-September at a rate of 1.3 to 1.8 

ha/AUM. Utilization varied from >70 percent in dry 

meadows to <3 percent in cheatgrass dominated 

stands. Ungrazed dry and moist meadow 

communities had significantly lower (P<O. I) species 

richness and diversity when compared to grazed 

counterparts. In the most heavily grazed 

communities, competitive species were favored by 

grazing disturbance. In exclosures of the same 

communities, competitive or competitive stress 

tolerant species were favored. Both height and 

density of woody riparian species were significantly 

greater in ungrazed gravel bar communities. Results 

indicated that influences of herbivory on species 

diversity and richness varies from one community to 

another. Management recommendations based on 

only one component ignores the complexity of 

riparian ecosystems. 

[BIODIVERSITY; GRAZlNG IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

SUCCESSION] 

644. Greenway,SH (1990): Aspen regeneration: 

A range management problem. Rangelands 12(1), 

21-23. 

Management of browsing pressures upon aspen 

regeneration is necessary. In live standing aspen, 

regeneration will be limited due to apical dominance. 

Around disturbances, from fire, clear-cutting, or 

around beaver ponds, aspen shoots should be 

abundant. If they are not, over-browsing should be 

suspected. Reduced or removed livestock from local 

areas for 5 - 10 years after disturbance, plus wildlife 

control should result in successful aspen 

regeneration. 

[ASPEN; GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK 

EFFECTS] 

645. Gregg,R (1979): A method for analyzing 

livestock impacts on stream and riparian habitats. 

p.92-94. In: Cope,OB led.]. Forum -- Grazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 November 1978. 

Denver, CO.. Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

This paper presents a method for quantifying the 

effects of livestock use on stream and riparian 

habitats, using a combination of techniques taken 

from range management, wildlife biology and fishery 

biology. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; MONITORING; 

TECHNIQUES] 

646. Gregory,KJ; Gurnell,AM; Hill,CT (1985): 

The permanence of debris dams related to river 

channel processes. Journal of Hydrological 

Science 30(3), 371-381. 

Vegetation debris dams occur on the average of 

every 27 m of channel in a drainage basin in 

England. Within less than 12 months, 36 percent had 
changed position or were destroyed and 36 percent 

had changed character. These dams significantly 

affect the timing of flood peaks as they are routed 

through the channel network. This significance has 

been demonstrated by a preliminary analysis of 

hydrograph travel times by measurements before and 

after dam clearance. The difference in travel times 

was 100 minutes (with and without dams) for a 

discharge of 0.1 cub. ml.01 sec and 10 minutes for a 

discharge of 1.0 cub. ml.0 1 sec. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

HYDROLOGY; ORGANIC DEBRIS] 

647. Gregory,KJ; Madew,JR (1982): Land use 

change, flood frequency, and channel adjustments. 

p. 757 - 781. In: Gravel bed rivers. (Eds:] Hey,RD; 

Bathurst,JC; Thorne,CR. John Wiley and Sons, 

Ltd. 

Land use changes on areas adjacent to the river 

channel and over large parts of the river channel can 

induce changes in water and sediment discharge 

which may instigate a whole range of river channel 

adjustments. Based on previous studies, flood 

frequency analysis was often dependent upon the 

annual maximum series. In areas with a flashy 

hydrological regime, estimates from the annual 

maximum series may be as low as 50 percent of the 

values derived from an annual exceedance series. 

Type of series used should always be specified. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; FLOOD IMPACTS; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; LAND USE] 

648. Gregory,SV; Swanson,FJ; McKee,WA; 

Cummins,KW (1991): An ecosystem perspective 

of riparian zones. BioScience 41(8), 540-551. 

Riparian zones contain valuable water resources, 

plant communities, fisheries, and wildlife. 

Perspectives of riparian zones based on isolated 

components of the terrestrial-aquatic interface are 

ecologically incomplete and have limited application 

to understanding of ecosystems. The structure and 

processes of lotic ecosystems are determined by their 

interface with adjacent ecosystems and are extremely 

dynamic, having frequent disturbance events. They 

are important routes for the dispersal of plants and 

animals, as well as avenues for the transfer of water, 

nutrients, sediments, and organic matter. The 

ecosystem perspective provides a rigorous ecological 

basis for identifying riparian management objectives, 

evaluating current land-use practices, and developing 

future resource alternatives. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

649. Gresswell,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL 

(1989): Practical approaches to riparian resource 

management. An educational workshop. (USDI 

Bureau of Land Management. Billings, MT. 193 p. 

This workshop was sponsored by a coalition of 

professional societies and federal agencies and 

addressed major topics relating to riparian 

management. There were 24 presented papers and 29 

extended abstracts collected in the proceedings. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

650. Grette,T (1990): Successful range 

management in the McCoy Gulch Riparian 

Demonstration Area. Rangelands 12(6), 305-307. 

Woody riparian vegetation can improve with 

livestock grazing, even heavy use on grass species 

(62 to 80 percent), as long as the use on willows is 

regulated. The objective in this demonstration was to 

have willow leaders browsed just once to remove 

four to five inches of foliage. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

WILLOW] 

651. Greytak,D (1991): A technique for 

producing riparian plants for Nevada. p. 91-93. 

In: Proceedings, lntermountain Forest Nursery 

Association. 12-16 August 1991. Park City, UT. 

A brief overview of riparian planting as it occurs 

in Nevada. Paper then describes a method the nursery 

is using to produce plants for use in constructed 

wetland creation. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN PLANTS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

652. Griftiths,D (1902): Forage conditions on the 

northern border of the Great Basin, being a 

report on investigations made during July and 

August, 1901, in the region between Winnemucca, 

NV and Ontario, OR. USDA Bureau of Plant 

Industry Bulletin No. 15. 

One of the earliest reports on range conditions in 

the West to report the degradation of open ranges in 

the Great Basin, and, by implication, all of the West. 

In part, it states that " as the better land has been 

taken up by settlers - the cattle and sheep ranges have 

become more restricted, and stock are now forced 

back from the fertile river bottoms and other lands so 

situated as to make irrigation possible, and the 

inevitable result has been overstocking of those 

poorer and restricted ranges, with all the attendant 

evils". 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HISTORIC RECORDS; 

RANGELAND HEALTH] 
653. Griggs,J (1990): Trout in small woodland 

areas. Woodland Fish and Wildlife Project, 

August 1990. World Forestry Center. Portland, 

OR. 

Growth of trout depends on the geographic area, 

water temperature, water fertility, and a variety of 

lesser factors. All species are opportunistic feeders - 

taking everything from aquatic insects to other fish, 

and much of their diet depends on what happens to 

be available at the particular time of year. This leaflet 

was intended to provide basic information on trout 

production to private woodland owners and 

managers. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SALMONIDS; TROUT] 

654. Crissinger,EH (1982): Bank erosion of 

cohesive material. p. 273-287. In: Gravel bed 

rivers. [Eds:] Hey,RD; Bathurst,JC; Thorne,CR. 

John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. 

Resistance of cohesive materials to erosion by 

discrete particle scour is very complex. Soil 

properties and their interactions determine the 

magnitude of the inter-particle forces of cohesion that 

resist detachment. Soil properties also influence the 

physical confi guration of particles at the bank 

material surface. The bank surface, in turn, interacts 

with the hydraulics of flow near the surface. Bank 

failure results not only from hydraulic forces but also 

from gravity forces, depending on the properties of 

the bank system. Drainage systems with high, steep 

banks are susceptible to mass failure because gravity 

forces are more significant than hydraulic forces. The 

mechanism of bank failure is uniquely related to the 

properties of the individual valley-fill stratigraphic 

units that make up a bank. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION ; 

STREAMBANK PROTECTION] 

655. Grissinger,EH; Little,WC; Murphey,JB 

(1981): Erodibility of streambank materials of low 

cohesion. p.624-630. In: Transactions of the 

American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 

A portable flume was used to determine erosion 

rates of channel bank materials. Two primary erosive 

forces were identified. Samples that were relatively 

dry before testing eroded excessively, probably the 

result of the detaching effect of sample wetting. 

Samples wet before testing did not display this 

excessive erosion and were entirely dependent upon 

bed shear stresses. Clay content of the samples 

correlated significantly with shear stress-dependent 

erosion rates. Significance of sample morphology 

was sample dependent, varying in size of the test 

sample in relation to the size of the morphological 

components. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; SOILS; 

S'I'REAMBANK PROTECTION] 

656. Grizzel,JD; Wolff,N (1 998): Occurrence of 

windthrow in forest buffer strips and its effect on 

small streams in northwest Washington. 

Northwest Science 72(3),214-223. 

During timber harvest operations, retaining 

streamside buffer strips has become a common way 

of protecting streams. Trees in these buffers, 

however, are frequently subjected to increased levels 

of windthrow. In an assessment of 40 forest buffers 

bordering small streams, windthrow affected 33 

percent of the buffer trees and ranged from 2 to 92 

percent across the sites. Windthrow increased total 

instream large woody debris by 52 percent. At most 

sites, the volume of sediment input to streams was 

small relative to the amount stored behind 

obstructions. 

[BUFFER STRIPS; LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; 

SEDIMENTATION; WINDTHROW] 

657. Groeneveld,DP; Griepentrog,TE (1985): 

lnterdependence of groundwater, riparian 

vegetation, and streambank stability: A case 

study. p.44-48. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Groundwater is closely coupled with streamflow 

to maintain water supply to riparian vegetation, 

especially where precipitation is seasonal. In this case 

study, Mediterranean climate and groundwater 

extraction are linked with the decline of riparian 

vegetation and subsequent severe erosion on the 

Camel River in California. 

[GROUNDWATER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; STREAMBANK 

STABILITY] 

658. Grossman,GD; Ratajczak,Jr.,RE; 

Crawford,M; Freeman,MC (1998): Assemblage 

organization in stream fishes: Effects of 

environmental variation and interspecific 

interactions. Ecological Monographs 68(3), 

395-420. 

The study assessed the relative importance of 

environmental variation, interspecific competition for 

space, and predator abundance on assemblage 
structure and microhabitat use in a stream fish 

assemblage. Results demonstrated that variability in 

both mean and peak flows had a much stronger effect 

on the structure and use of spatial resources within 

this assemblage than either interspecific competition 

for space or predation. These suggested that the 

patterns in both assemblage structure and resource 

use arose from the interaction between environmental 

variation and species-specific evolutionary 

constraints on behavior, morphology, and 

physiology. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; PREDATION; STREAM 

FLOW] 

659. Groves,JR (1989): A practical soil moisture 

profile model. Water Resources Bulletin 25(4), 

875-880. 

A computationally simple, physically based 

model capable of generating reliable estimates of 

volumetric soil moisture content is described. The 

model requires only rainfall, pan evaporation, and 

soil column description by texture groups as inputs, 

and predicts soil moisture values within as many as 

three user-defined soil horizons. The micrometer 

based model is intended for practical engineering and 

agricultural applications. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; SOILS] 

660. Grue,CE; Tome,MW; Swanson,GA; 

Borthwick,SM; DeWeese,LR (1988): Agricultural 

chemicals and the quality of prairie-pothole 

wetlands for adult and juvenile waterfowl - what 

are the concerns? p.55-64. In: Stuber,PJ [tech. 

coord.1. Proceedings of the national symposium on 

the protection of wetlands from agricultural 

impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, CO. USDl 

Fish and Wildlife Sewice. Biological Report 

88(16). 

A review of the literature and results of ongoing 

studies indicates that the potential for agricultural 

chemicals, particularly aerially-applied insecticides, 

to enter prairie potholes and reduce the quality of 

these wetlands for waterfowl is great, and that a 

coordinated effort by farmers, wildlife managers, and 

regulatory agencies is needed to minimize and 

mitigate these impacts. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; POLLUTION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATERFOWL 

MANAGEMENT; WETLANDS] 

661. Gruell,GE (1 980): Fire's influence on 

wildlife habitat on the Bridger-Teton National 

Forest, Wyoming. Volume 1 -- Photographic 

record and analysis. USDA Forest Service 

Research Paper INT-235.207 p. 

The body of this report is comprised by 85 

matched photos arranged in three geographic sections 

with elevational ranges of 5,800 to 12,165 feet - cold 

desert to alpine. Captions describe vegetational 

changes and their significance, with emphasis on 

wildlife habitat. The role of fire receives special 

emphasis. Vegetational changes are summarized at 

the end of each section. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

662. Guertin,DP; Mokhothn,MN; WeltqMA; 

Stone,J (1998): Evaluating the effect of vegetation 

variability on modeling runoff and erosion 

processes on a grassland watershed in 

southeastern Arizona. p. 395. In: Potts,DF led.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

It is well-known that vegetation is very 

important for regulating the runoff and erosion 

processes on rangeland watersheds. The degree to 

which vegetation must be characterized for 

understanding and predicting its influence on runoff 

and erosion, however, is still unclear. The Water 

Erosion Prediction Model (WEPP) was used to 

simulate runoff, peak discharge, and sediment yield 

for an experimental watershed near Tombsone, 

Arizona. The model performed poorly when the 

watershed was represented by a single hillside 

element. Model performance improved with 

increasing hillside elements up to an eight hillside 

element configuration. No significant improvement 

was realized with the ten hillside element 

configuration. 

[EROSION; MODELING; RUNOFF; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

663. Guertin,DP; Womack,JD; MacArthur,R; 

Ruyle,GB (1998): Geographic information system 

based tool for integrated allotment and watershed 

management. p.35-44. In: Potts,DF [ed.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

The spatial relationship between grazing patterns 

and watershed characteristics must be understood to 

evaluate the impact of livestock grazing on watershed 

values. Forage is utilized across an allotment at 

different rates and intensities as a function of 

topography, fencing, water locations, and vegetation 

characteristics. Soil types and erosion rates also 
contribute to the complex surface. Estimating an 

optimal grazing capacity requires the integration of 

these and other factors. A GIs-based tool has been 

developed from grazing-allotment decision making to 

address both resource production and conservation, 

using the Environmental Systems Research Institute's 

ARCVIEW GIs 3.0. This tool can estimate forage 

production using range site guides, utilization rates, 

pasture stocking rates, and erosion potential. It can 

also be used to determine the effects of various 

management strategies. 

[ARCVIEW; GIs; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; MONITORING; 

UTILIZATION] 

664. Gunderson,DR (1968): Floodplain use 

related to stream morphology and fish 

populations. Journal of Wildlife Management 

32(3), 507-5 14. 

In two contiguous sections of a Montana stream, 

the agricultural use of the floodplain was related to 

cover, stream morphology, and fish populations. In 

one section, the vegetation of the floodplain had been 

reduced by clearing and intensive livestock grazing; 

in the other, which had received light use by 

livestock, vegetation was relatively unchanged. The 

ungrazed section had 76 percent more cover 

(undercut banks, debris, overhanging brush, etc.) per 

acre of stream than the grazed section. Brown trout ( 

+ 6 inches) were estimated to be 27 percent more 

numerous and to weigh 44 percent more per acre in 

the ungrazed section of the stream, although rate of 

growth was similar in both of the sections. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; FISHERIES; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

665. Gurnel1,AM; Gregory,KJ (1981): The 

influence of vegetation on stream channel 

processes. p.515-535. In: Catchment experiments 

in fluvial geomorphology. [Eds: Burt,TP; 

Walling,DEl. Geo Books, Norwich, UK. 

Results from small catchment experiments have 

often led to inferences about the significance of 

vegetation, it is only by use of a hierarchical 

investigation encompassing several complimentary 

scales that the significance of vegetation may be 

identified. It is clear that just as vegetation can be an 

indicator of runoff production at the subcatchment 

and hillslope scale, it can provide an influence upon 

the flow and sediment routing and storage at the 

catchment scale and an influence upon channel 

morphology, particularly where stream channel 

adjustment is taking place. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY] 

666. Gutzwiller,KJ (1985): Riparian habitat use 

by breeding cavity-nesting birds in southeastern 

Wyoming. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wyoming, 

Laramie, WY. 125 p. 

The differences and similarities among species' 

nest sites and random sites and among species nest 

substrates and random substrates can be used by 

wildlife managers to specify habitat conditions 

acceptable to the various birds at their nests. The 

models relating bird parameters to habitat-island 

characteristics can be used to help manage habitats 

on a broader scale. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

667. Gutzwiller,KJ; Anderson,SH (1987): 

Multiscale associations between cavity-nesting 

birds and features of Wyoming streamside 

woodlands. The Condor 89,534-548. 

Riparian habitat use by cavity-nesting birds was 

studied at 3 scales: I) nest trees; 2) nest sites 

(vegetation surrounding nest trees); and 3) disjunct 

fragments (0.1 to 32.3 ha) of floodplain forest. 

Features of Wyoming streamside woodlands on all 

three spatial scales influence habitat use and are 

important in structuring communities of 

cavity-nesting birds. Some patterns of habitat use on 

the scales of nest trees and habitat fragments were 

not predictable from habitat associations observed 

elsewhere for the same species. Bird-habitat relations 

on one scale were (or were not) predictable from 

relations on other scales, depending on the species. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SPATIAL 

SCALE] 

668. Hachmoeller,B; Matthews,RA; Brakke,DF 

(1991): Effects of riparian community structure, 

sediment size, and water quality on the 

macroinvertebrate communities in a small, 

suburban stream. Northwest Science 65(3), 

125-132. 

The paper examined the relationships between 

benthic macroinvertebrates, water quality, sediment 

characteristics, and riparian community structures in 

Washington to look for patterns in the 

macroinvertebrate community structure between 

upstream and downstream sites. The effects of 

channelization, deforestation, and pollution resulted 

in major changes in the structure of 

macroinvertebrate communities at downstream sites, 

suggesting that such riparian alterations imitate 

similar urbanization effects of higher-order rivers. 
[MACROINVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATER QUALITY] 

669. Haeber,RA; Michener,WK; Swanson,FJ 

(1997): Managed and natural floods: Implications 

for management, policy, and research. p.14. 1997 

annual meeting of the Ecological Society of 

America jointly with The Nature Conservancy. 

10-14 August 1997. Albuquerque, NM. 

Natural flood responses by ecosystems are 

affected by disturbance magnitude, geomorphology, 

stage of succession, and human resource 

modification. Flood "pulses" can initiate a process of 

riparian reorganization via physical mechanisms 

(erosion, landslides, ice scour, etc.). Comparing and 

contrasting natural and managed flood events yields 

valuable insights. Managed flooding may be usehl 

for restoring ecosystem structure and function. 

Understanding ecosystem responses to natural floods 

may be useful for defining restoration targets and 

placing floods within broader ecological and 

socioeconomic contexts. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

670. Hagan,JM; Grove,SL (1999): Coarse woody 

debris. Journal of Forestry 97(1), 6-1 1. 

Coarse woody debris in a forest can take the 

form of standing snags, fallen logs, or broken 

branches and tops. Most often, these accumulate, 

decompose, and slowly dissolve back into the forest 

floor. In the meantime, direct and indirect use by an 

infinite number of species is critically important. 

Woody debris also plays roles in nutrient cycling, 

slopelsoil stability, and stream morphology. This 

article recommends that: 1) snags be left standing; 2) 

tops and branches be left in the woods; 3) boles with 

rotten centers be left in the woods; 4) create short 

snags by cutting 2 to 5 m above the ground; 5) 

delimbed branches from the landing should be hauled 

back into the woods; 6) downed material in streams 

and riparian areas should not be moved; 7) leave 

trees of little commercial value standing on site; 8) 

create snags through poison, girdling, or topping; 9) 

do not run over large downed logs; 10) distribute 

woody debris over harvest site instead of piling; 11) 

leave clumps of snags; 12) if used, herbicides can be 

targeted to kill mature trees and create snags; 13) 

leave big snags and big logs; 14) leave an array of 

size classes and species; and 15) experiment with 

your own ideas. 

[BIODIVERSITY; LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; 

LOGGING IMPACTS] 

671. Haines,FD [Ed.] (1971): The Snake Country 

expedition. University of Oklahoma Press, 

Norman, OK. 172 p. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

672. Hair,JD; Hepp,GT; Luckett,LM; Reese,KP; 

Woodward,DK (1978): Beaver pond ecosystems 

and their relationships to multi-use natural 

resource management. p.80-92. In: Proceedings of 

the symposium, Strategies for protection and 

management of floodplain wetlands and other 

riparian ecosystems. 11 -13 December, 1978. 

Callaway Gardens, GA. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report WO-12. 

Impoundments by beavers have resulted in 

significant economic losses to agribusiness and forest 

production. However, beaver impoundments are 

valuable components of many regional riparian 

ecosystems and provide numerous opportunities for 

multi-use management programs. Beaver populations 

can be regulated through an annual sustained harvest. 

Beaver impoundments are important wetland habitats 

and have higher avian diversity values than adjacent 

upland areas. They can be effectively managed for 

waterfowl hunting and with the increased importance 

of non-consumptive utilization of wildlife resources, 

provide many opportunities for development of 

natural resource education programs. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

673. Hall,DA; Amy,PS (1990): Microbiology and 

water chemistry of two natural springs impacted 

in south central Nevada. Great Basin Naturalist 

50(3), 289-294. 

Bacterial levels were influenced by water 

temperatures, with higher counts correlating with 

warmer water. Bacterial levels also reflected 

precipitation and cattle presence because of the influx 

of nutrients necessary for growth of microorganisms. 

Influence of cattle could be seen months after their 

physical presence when precipitation allowed an 

influx of nitrogen and phosphorous. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

NUTRIENT CYCLES] 

674. Hal1,FC (1985): Management practices and 

options. In: Thomas,JW; Maser,C [eds.]. Wildlife 

habitats in managed rangelands-- the Great Basin 

of southeastern Oregon. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report PNW-189. 

This section deals primarily with livestock 

management in relationship to wildlife and wildlife 

habitat. Included are discussions of ecological status 

(range condition), livestock management, 

multiple-use options for each species (trout, sage 
grouse, pronghorn, mule deer, and bighorn sheep), 

and diversity. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

675. Hal1,FC; Bryant,L (1995):Herbaceous 

stubble height as a warning of impending cattle 

grazing damage to riparian areas. USDA Forest 

Sewice. General Technical Report PNW-GTR362. 9 p. 

Cattle grazing of riparian areas must be 

monitored closely to prevent damage. A technique is 

proposed in which various stubble heights of the 

most palatable species are used as predictive 

observations of when heavy use or trampling is about 

to occur. Three guidelines are presented to determine 

the appropriate time to move cattle: I) stubble height 

approaches 3 inches; 2) stubble height changes from 

3 inches to 314 inch; and 3) the most palatable 

vegetation starts drying out, regardless of stubble 

height. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; STUBBLE HEIGHT; 

UTILIZATION] 

676. Halwasser,H; Cantu,R (1993): Eventually 

all things merge into one and a river runs through 

it. p.3-7. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech, 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

A topical article that examines rivers as 

allegories of life, the land ethic, and the shared uses 

and politics of rivers. In summary, they state that 

"rivers run through our lands and our lives. They 

reflect our values, our sense of self, and our concern 

for fellow beings. They tell us and others what we 

stand for and what we think about our 

grandchildren." 

[LAND ETHICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOCIAL 

VALUES; STEWARDSHIP] 

677. Hamilton,JB (1989): Response of juvenile 

steelhead to instream deflectors in a high gradient 

stream. p.149-158. In: Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; 

Kershner,JL [eds.]. Practical approaches to 

riparian resource management. An educational 

workshop. 8-11 May 1989. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management. Billings, MT. 

Stream channel characteristics and juvenile 

steelhead populations were estimated before and after 

placement of boulderlrock triangular wing deflectors 

in 10 sections of a northern California stream in an 

effort to improve rearing habitat. After winter flows, 

only 14 percent of the structures were functionally 

intact. Reviews of similar projects indicated that 

habitat improvements that actually increase steelhead 

populations have usually been sited on lower gradient 

(mean = 1 percent) stream reaches. 

[FISH HABITAT; HABITAT MANAGEMENT; 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

678. Hancock,JL (1989): Selling a successful 

riparian management program: A public land 

manager's point of view. p.1-3. In: Gresswel1,RE; 

Barton,BA; Kershner,JL [eds.]. Practical 

approaches to riparian resource management. An 

educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 1989. USDI 

Bureau of Land Management. Billings, MT. 

The major challenge for public land managers is 

selling an effective riparian management program to 

public land users, interest groups, and private 

landowners whose holdings are intermingled with 

public lands throughout the west. A successful 

program developed in central Oregon in the 

preceding 10 years was based upon six major steps: 

1) identifying benefits derived from proper riparian 

management; 2) having access to a recovered riparian 

area accomplished through grazing management; 3) 

bringing key players together to agree on goals, 

alternatives, and a plan of action; 4) closely 

monitoring progress in reaching goals, 5) keeping all 

parties involved and communicating; and 6) 

remaining flexible to changes needed to make the 

program work. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

679. Hansen,PL (1990): Alternative approaches 

for inventory and mapping of riparian and 

wetland areas. In: Management of riparian and 

wetland forested ecosystems in Montana. Fourth 

annual Montana Riparian Association workshop. 

5-7 September 1990. Whitefish, MT. 

Vegetation mapping projects require careful 

planning and administration to ensure success. Map 

unit design, accuracy testing, extrapolation methods, 

and final report are examples of mapping project 

components that should not be ignored. A list of 

mapping project components to be examined before 

mapping begins is included. 

[INVENTORY; MAPPING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

680. Hansen,PL (1990): The development of a 

site classification with management information 

for riparian and wetland areas - its applicability 

and use. In: Management of riparian and wetland 

forested ecosystems in Montana. Fourth annual 
Montana Riparian Association workshop. 5-7 

September 1990. Whitefish, MT. 

This paper summarizes the classification scheme 

developed for riparian and wetland areas in Montana 

by the Montana Riparian Association. It also suggests 

ways in which the habitat-type classification can be 

applied (as described by Boggs et al. (1990) and 

Hansen et al. (1989) who developed complete 

riparian and wetland classification schemes with 

habitat types defined for Montana. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

681. Hansen,PL (1992): Classification and 

management of riparian-wetland shrub sites in 

Montana. p.68-78. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. General Technical 

Report INT-289. 

The author has developed a classification system 

for riparian-wetland sites in Montana that is 

consistent with terms and concepts proposed by 

Daubenmire and in wide usage in numerous 

vegetation studies. Thirty-two riparian-wetland shrub 

communities are described, of which 16 each 

represent habitat types or community types, 

respectively. Management information and 

implications are also discussed. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

682. Hansen,PL (1993): Developing a successful 

riparian-wetland grazing management plan for 

the upper Ruby River cattle and horse allotment 

in southwestern Montana. p.328-335. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

Livestock grazing is a compatible use in 

riparian-wetland areas when the functions of the 

riparian system (sediment filtering, streambank 

building, water storage, aquifer recharge, energy 

dissipation during storm events, etc.) are stable and 

not degrading. The potential of the site and the needs 

of the riparian vegetation should guide the 

development of the grazing management strategy. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

WETLANDS] 

683. Hansen,PL; Chadde,SW; Pfister,RD (1987): 

Riverine wetlands of southwestern Montana. 

Montana Riparian Association. University of 

Montana. Missoula, MT. 39 p. 

This study describes dominant plant species and 

major riparian dominance types occurring along 

major rivers of southwestern and west central 

Montana. The primary objective of the study was to 

describe the major riparian types occurring along the 

rivers. 

[INVENTORY; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

684. Hansen,PL; Chadde,SW; Pfister,RD (1987): 

Riparian dominance types of Montana. Review 

Draft. Montana Riparian Assoc., School of 

Forestry, University of Montana. Missoula, MT. 

358 p. 

This handbook was developed to provide 

dominance type classifications, habitat type 

classifications, and management information. This 

information was based on data collected from 

riparian communities throughout the state of 

Montana by the authors, cooperators, and other 

sources. All plant species included in the handbook 

either dominate or are codominant in one or more 

riparian communities. The text offers both 

illustrations with prominent plant characteristics and 

ecological descriptions and management implications 

for each dominance type. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN PLANTS; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

685. Hansen,PL; Miles,SL; Hinckley,D (1998): 

Developing an inventory and mapping 

methodology for riparian and wetland sites in 

Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. 

Unreferenced 58,47-59. 

An inventory and mapping procedure was 

developed for riparian and wetland areas throughout 

Montana and western North Dakota and western 

South Dakota. The ecosystems occurring within this 

3-state region include the Northern Rocky Mountain 

Ecosystem of northwest Montana, the Middle Rocky 

Mountain Ecosystem of southern Montana and the 

Black Hills of South Dakota, the Pacific Northwest 

Temperate Rainforest Ecosystem of northern 

Montana, the Aspen Groveland Ecosystem of the 

eastern Rocky Mountain Front in north-central 

Montana, thc Great Basin Ecosystem of south-central 

Montana, and the Northern Great Plains Ecosystem 

of eastern Montana and western North and South 

Dakota. The inventory and mapping methodologies 

have been evolving since 1988. Currently, over 2,250 

miles of rivers and lakes throughout the region have 

been inventoried and mapped using the procedure. 

[INVENTORY; MAPPING; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN IIABITAT] 
686. Hansen,PL; Pfister,RD; Boggs,K; Cook,BJ; 

Joy,JW; Hinckley,DK (1995): Classification and 

management of Montana's riparian and wetland 

sites. Montana Forest and Conservation 

Experiment Station, School of Forestry, the 

University of Montana. Missoula, Montana. 

Miscellaneous Publication No. 54. 

In the West, riparian and wetland areas are 

important in the overall landscape mosaic, even 

though they represent a very small fraction of the 

total area. Having greater than normal soil moisture, 

they are more productive than the surrounding 

upland areas, add to the overall diversity of the 

landscape, and attract livestock and wildlife for the 

forage, thermal and other cover, nesting habitat, 

water, and browse species they afford. Because of 

this, riparian and wetland areas are focal points for 

livestock, timber, and wildlife management. 

Management strategies that recognize all resource 

values must be designed to maintain or restore the 

integrity of riparian and wetland communities. Proper 

stewardship of riparian and wetlands areas presents 

multiple opportunities for the land manager. Proper 

management of riparian and wetland areas means 

decreased streambank erosion and floodplain losses, 

increased forage production for livestock, increases 

in wildlife and fisheries resources, and an increase in 

water quality and quantity, and recreational 

opportunities. 

[CLASSIFICATION; INVENTORY; 

MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; WETLANDS] 

687. Hansen,P; Pfister,R; Joy,J; Svoboda,D; 

Boggs,K; Myers,L; Chadde,S; Pierce,J (1989): 

Classification and management of riparian sites in 

southwestern Montana, Draft version 2. Montana 

Riparian Association. University of Montana. 

Missoula, MT. 

This draft document provides a key for 

identifying riparian site types, i.e., areas occupied or 

potentially occupied by a specific riparian association 

(plant community type representing the latest 

successional stage attainable on a specific hydrologic 

site). Community types which represent disclimax or 

seral communities that are stable for time frames 

relevant to land management decisions are described. 

Habitat types are described for specific communities. 

The classification system was developed from 107 1 

riparian sample plots. Soils, adjacent communities 

and management information are provided for each 

habitat type. 

[CLASSIFICATION; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; SOILS] 

688. Hansen,WF (1996): Watershed 

rehabilitation and monitoring. p.187-200. In: 

National hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 

April - 1 May 1992; Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

An overview of watershed rehabilitation is 

discussed. Examples of project successes and 

failures are included. Primary emphasis is placed on 

USDA Forest Service opportunities and programs to 

rehabilitate severe natural or man-induced conditions 

that can dominate water quality and beneficial uses. 

The information provided may prove useful to 

increase management or specialist awareness of 

rehabilitation opportunities and benefits as well as 

encourage the use of public participation and 

involvement to provide support to agency land and 

resource stewardship efforts. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

STEWARDSHIP; WATERSHED] 

689. Hanson,JS; Malanson,GP; Armstrong,MP 

(1990): Landscape fragmentation and dispersal in 

a model of riparian forest dynamics. Ecological 

Modeling 49,277-296. 

A computer simulation model, SEEDFLO, is 

described, which models tree species dispersal based 

on empirical evidence. The analyses test the 

hypothesis that a model with seed dispersal differs in 

its projections from a model that assumes ubiquitous 

dispersal. The effects of considering landscape 

fragmentation and dispersal are amplified when 

environmental stress, in this case flooding, is 

increased. The results conform to theoretical 

expectations and indicate that seed dispersal should 

be incorporated in landscape simulation models. 

[MODELING; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SEED PRODUCTION] 

690. Hanson,ML (1989): The Oregon Watershed 

Improvement Coalition's approach to riparian 

management. p.5-6. In: Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; 

Kershner,JL [eds.]. Practical approaches to 

riparian resource management. An educational 

workshop. 8-1 1 May 1989. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management. Billings, MT. 

A unique coalition of ranchers, 

environmentalists, and range specialists, the Oregon 

Watershed Improvement Coalition is dedicated to 

improving communications between its member 

groups and improving riparian ecological conditions 

in Oregon's rangeland environment. Formed in 1986, 

the OWIC has developed, through the consensus 
process, specific objectives to meet it's goal of 

insuring the long term benefits of riparian areas and 

their associated uplands. 

[COLLABORATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

691. Hardin,TS (1986): Use of hydraulic 

simulation to evaluate habitat improvement 

structures. p.111-119. In: Proceedings of the 

Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 

and the Western Division of the American 

Fisheries Society. Portland, OR. 

[HABITAT MANAGEMENT; MODELING; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

692. Hare,SR; Mantua,NJ; Francis,RC (1999): 

Inverse production regimes: Alaska and west 

coast Pacific salmon. Fisheries 24(1), 6 p. 

Pacific salmon catches in Alaska have varied 

inversely with catches from the west coast during the 

last 70 years, according to a principal component 

analysis. If variations in catch reflect variations in 

salmon production, the analysis suggests that the 

spatial and temporal characteristics of this 

catch/production pattern are related to climate 

forcing associated with the Pacific Decadal 

Oscillation, a recurring pattern of atmosphere-ocean 

variability. During the period 1977 to the early 

1990's, ocean conditions have favored Alaska stocks 

and disfavored West Coast stocks. Recovery of 

at-risk (threatened and endangered) stocks may need 

to await the next reversal of the Pacific Decadal 

Oscillation. 

[CLIMATE; SALMON RECOVERY] 

693. Harenberg,WA (1980): Using channel 

geometry to estimate flood flows at ungaged sites 

in Idaho. USDI Geological Survey. Water 

Resources Investigations 80-32. 

During this study, measurements at bankfill 

stage were made at 136 sites to determine whether 

predictions of flood discharges using 

channel-geometry characteristics were as good as or 

better than predictions using basin characteristics. 

Variables measured at those sites were bankfill 

width, area, depth, and velocity. Variables were 

combined with basin characteristics for each site, and 

multiple-regression techniques were used to select 

the best variables to estimate flooding. In general, 

discharge estimates obtained from equations using 

channel characteristics have smaller standard errors 

than those using basin characteristics. Equations 

using both basin and channel characteristics had the 

lowest standard errors. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; FLOOD IMPACTS; 

HYDROLOGY] 

694. Harig,AL; Bain,MB (1998): Defining and 

restoring biological integrity in wilderness lakes. 

Ecological Applications 8(1), 71-87. 

Restoring ecosystems to some previous "natural" 

state is often impeded by the lack of information on 

what goal is to be attained. A target for restorations 

of lake ecosystems can be established by developing 

a multimetric tool for the assessment of biological 

integrity. This study identified a set of recurring 

responses to disturbance that indicate impaired 

biological integrity in lakes. These responses were 

then tested. Six indicators of biological integrity were 

sensitive to disturbance in wilderness lakes including: 

dominance of native fish, relative abundance of 

Daphnia, dominant phytoplankton taxa, number of 

zooplankton species, dominance of large-bodied 

zooplankton, and zooplankton biomass. 

[ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

695. Harmon,KW (1979): Mitigating losses of 

private wetlands: The North Dakota situation. p. 

157-163. In: Swanson,GA led.]. The mitigation 

symposium: A national workshop on mitigating 

losses of fish and wildlife habitat. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-65. 

No legal means presently exist for mitigation of 

private drainage of wetlands. In order to reduce 

losses, the USDI Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 

purchases fee or easement interests in North Dakota 

wetlands. Concern for reaching its 1,000,000-acre 

goal caused the USFWS to make concessions in a 

watershed project that left 30,000 acres of wetlands 

subject to drainage. As opposition to the wetlands 

program increased, the USFWS abolished key 

positions that provided the only public relations 

effort for countering the opposition. After six years, 

this situation remained unchanged. 

[DRAINAGES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

WATERSHED; WETLANDS] 

696. Harper,KT; Sanderson,SC; McArthur,ED 

(1992): Riparian ecology in Zion National Park. 

p.32-42. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [camp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

Approximately 40 km (24.9 mi) of perennial 

streams occur in Zion National Park in Utah. This 

report resulted from a large-scale survey of all 
vegetational types within the Park. Dominant trees 

and shrubs are identified. Woody species of 

early-sera1 and late-seral riparian successions are 

listed. 

[CLASSIFICATION; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

697. Harr,RD; McCorison,FM (1979): Initial 

effects of clear-cut logging on size and timing of 

peak flows in a small watershed in western 

Oregon. Water Resources Research 15(1), 90-94. 

Annual peak flow size in a small watershed in 

Oregon was reduced 32 percent, and average delay of 

all peak flows was nearly 9 hours following clear-cut 

logging. Size of annual peak flows caused by rain 

with snowmelt was reduced 36 percent, and peak 

flows resulting from rain with snowmelt were 

delayed an average of nearly 12 hours following 

logging. Changes are attributed mainly to differences 

in short-term accumulation and melting of snow. No 

significant changes were detected in size or timing of 

peak flows that resulted from rainfall alone. 

[HYDROLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; STREAM 

FLOW; WATERSHED] 

698. Harr,RD; Nichols,RA (1993): Stabilizing 

forest roads to help restore fish habitats: A 

northwest Washington example. Fisheries 18(4), 

18-22. 

As part of a total watershed rehabilitation to 

improve fish habitats and reduce flood hazards, 30- 

to 40-year old, unused, largely impassable roads and 

landings within the Nooksack River watershed were 

decommissioned by stabilizing fills, removing stream 

crossings, recontouring slopes, and reestablishing 

drainage patterns to reduce the landslide hazards. The 

average cost for decommissioning a road was $3500 

per kilometer (earthmoving) where considerable 

amounts of alder brush were cleared and side-cast 

material was pulled back upslope. Lower costs were 

associated with lesser earthmoving jobs; the highest 

costs resulted when fills at stream crossings or 

landings had to be removed. In contrast to unused 

roads not treated, decommissioned roads and 

landings were largely undamaged by rain-on-snow 

runoff that produced a 50-year flood in 1989 and 

sustained little damage during rain-on-snow runoff in 

1990 that severely damaged main haul roads in the 

region. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; ROAD IMPACTS; 

WATERSHED] 

(1994): Stream channel reference sites: An 

illustrated guide to field techniques. USDA Forest 

Sewice. General Technical Report RM-245.61 p. 

This document is a guide to establishing 

permanent reference sites for gathering data about the 

physical characteristics of streams and rivers. The 

minimum procedure consists of the following: 1) 

select a site; 2) map the site and location; 3) measure 

the channel cross-section; 4) survey a longitudinal 

profile of the channel; 5) measure stream flow; 6) 

measure bed material; and 7) permanently file the 

information with the Vigil network. The document 

includes basic surveying techniques, provides 

guidelines for identifying bankfull indicators and 

measuring other important stream characteristics. The 

object is to establish the baseline of existing physical 

conditions for the stream channel. With this 

information, changes in the character of streams can 

be quantified for monitoring purposes or to support 

other management decisions. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; MONITORING; REFERENCE 

SITES] 

700. Harris,DD; Hubbard,LE (1983): Magnitude 

and frequency of floods in eastern Oregon. USDI 

Geological Survey. Water Resource Investigation 

Rep. 82-4078. 39 p. 

A method for estimating the magnitude and 

frequency of floods at ungaged sites is presented for 

unregulated streams in eastern Oregon. Equations 

relating flood magnitude to basin characteristics were 

developed for exceedance probabilities of 0.5 to 0.01. 

Also presented are values of maximum discharges, of 

flood discharges for selected exceedance 

probabilities, and of basin characteristics for all 

gaging stations used in the analysis. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; STREAM 

FLOW] 

701. Harris,LD (1988). The nature of cumulative 

impacts on biotic diversity of wetland vertebrates. 

Environmental Management 12(5), 675-693. 

There is no doubt that cumulative impacts have 

important effects on wetland vertebrates. Interactions 

of species diversity and community structure produce 

complex patterns in which environmental impacts 

can play a highly significant role. Habitat 

fragmentation can have severe effects at all levels, 

reducing the usable range of the larger habitat 

generalists while threatening the genetic integrity of 

small, isolated populations. The complexity of 

trophic interactions - of which we have incomplete 

knowledge - makes using food chain support for 
predicting environmental impacts very questionable. 

At present, it is nearly impossible to predict the result 

of three or more different kinds of perturbations, 

although long range effects can be observed. 

Multiplicative effects of similar actions, effects with 

long time lags, diffuse processes in the landscape that 

may have concentrated effects on a component 

subsystem, and a variety of other interactions have an 

accumulation of impacts on vertebrates. More 

information is needed at all levels and impacts must 

be assessed on a regional or landscape scale to 

produce informed management decisions. 

[BIODIVERSITY; CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; 

ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; WETLANDS] 

702. Harris,NR; Borman,MM; George,MR; 

Johnson,DE (1998): Monitoring changes in 

channel morphology with multi-scale aerial 

photography. p. 132. In: Potts,DF led.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

High resolution aerial photography is being used 

to quantify changes in streamlriparian systems. 

Changes are monitored by geopositioning equipment 

serial photography taken annually or every few years. 

Photographs are scanned into electronic format and 

corrected for lens or topographic distortions. Streams 

with little canopy coverage and little topographic 

relief are the easiest to correct. Photographs with 

scales of 1 : 1,000 to 1 :3,000 can document lateral 

movement of streams greater than 25 cm. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; MONITORTNG; RIPARIAN 

ZONES] 

703. Harris,NR; George,MR; Johnson,DE; 

McDougald,NK (1 998): Supplement induced 

changes of cattle distribution on California 

foothill rangeland. p.217. In: Potts,DF led.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Landscape use patterns of cattle reflect the 

configuration and quality of forage and water 

resources available. Riparian zones often receive 

heavy use because they provide water, shade, thermal 

cover, and high quality forage. Off-site water and 

supplement have been used to reduce time spent in or 

near streams. This study employed global positioning 

systems, geographic information systems, and 

geostatics to analyze how spatial and temporal 

livestock use patterns change. Preliminary results 

reconfirm that distribution of livestock can be 

controlled with supplemental feed. Patterns of 

livestock use shifted dramatically toward supplement 

sites. Small riparian patches along the edge of the 

pasture used before and after supplement was made 

available were not used during supplementation. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

704. Harris,RR (1984): Relationships between 

vegetation and fluvial geomorphology at 

Cottonwood Creek. CA. Ph.D. Thesis, University 

of California, Berkeley,CA. 337 p. 

Floodplain topography and surface soil texture 

were correlated with each other and with simulated 

flood frequency and magnitude when elevation above 

the stream was used as a measure of flooding. 

Elevation alone, however, did not adequately explain 

environmental conditions. Flooding affects land 

surface formation and environmental conditions in 

the active floodplain and plants are responsive to that 

interactive process. Changes in flooding behavior 

caused by water resource development will cause 

changes in vegetation. Locations where vegetation 

development is arrested by flooding effects may 

experience increased plant growth. Areas which are 

benefitted by occasional flooding may experience 

long-term losses in vegetation or changes in species 

composition. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

705. Harris,RR; Fox,CA; Risser,R (1987): 

Impacts of hydroelectric development on riparian 

vegetation in the Sierra Nevada Region, 

California, USA. Environmental Management 

1 1 (4), 519-527. 

Fourteen streams in the Sierra Nevada were 

sampled to determine whether diversions of 

streamflow for hydroelectric development had caused 

significant changes in riparian vegetation. Several 

streams showed significant differences in vegetation 

cover, community composition, or community 

structure between pairs of diverted and undiverted 

areas. On some streams, environmental conditions 

rather than streamflow diversions may have been 

responsible for vegetation differences. Streams in the 

Sierra Nevada respond individually to diversions. 

Prediction of vegetation responses must take into 

consideration environmental characteristics of 

specific stream reaches. 

[HYDROELECTRIC IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 
706. Harris,KK; Olson,C (1997): Two-stage 

system for prioritizing riparian restoration at the 

stream reach and community scales. Restoration 

Ecology 45(5), 34-42. 

A two-stage system for prioritizing stream 

reaches and riparian communities along a given river 

for protection or restoration is proposed. The system 

uses associations between geomorphology and 

riparian vegetation at stream reach and community 

scales as a basis for defining reference conditions. 

First-stage reach classification involves collecting 

and analyzing data from topographic maps and aerial 

photographs. Second-stage field sampling is 

conducted on the reaches needing further analysis to 

determine the riparian communities present, the 

associations between communities and floodplain 

landforms, and reference community conditions. 

Cluster analysis or a comparable technique is used to 

classify plant communities associated with floodplain 

landforms and identify reference conditions for each 

landform. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; 

MONITORING; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

SPATIAL SCALE] 

707. Harris,RR; Risser,RJ; Fox,CA (1985): A 

method for evaluating streamflow discharge -- 

plant species occurrence patterns on headwater 

streams. p.87-90. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Hydrologic simulation modeling (Instream Flow 

Incremental Method) can be used in conjunction with 

vegetation sampling to assist in the evaluation of 

instream flow requirements for riparian plant species. 

These have proven applications on headwater streams 

proposed or developed for hydroelectric projects. 

Field studies have been undertaken to test the 

methodology. 

[HYDROELECTRIC IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; 

MODELING] 

708. Harrison,AE (1974): Re-occupying 

unmarked camera stations for geological 

observations. Geology 2,469-471. 

This paper describes a method for finding the 

site of unmarked camera stations. The method is 

based on repeated trials until a transparent plastic 

overlay of landmarks in the original picture is fitted 

to the scene to be repeated. Distances between five 

landmarks, as measured on the old and new 

photographs with respect to an arbitrary axis, are 

needed to determine ratios of distances independent 

of scale. Correctness of the trial location can be 

derived from the ratios. Distances can usually be 

measured within 1 percent accuracy. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; MONITORING; PHOTO 

PLOTS] 

709. Harrison,B; Kellogg,G (1987): Mapping 

riparianlwetland habitats on the Nez Perce 

National Forest - a cooperative approach. USDA 

Forest Service and USDI Fish and Wildlife 

Service. 9 p. 

This report describes the efforts of the Nez Perce 

National Forest to implement an inventory of all 

riparian areas on the Forest in order to facilitate 

management of forest activities potentially impacting 

riparian and wetland resources. The classification 

system used was hierarchical and based primarily on 

hydrologic conditions, soils, and vegetation. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; INVENTORY; MONITORING; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

710. Harvey,BC (1986). Effects of suction gold 

dredging on fish and invertebrates in two 

California streams. North American Journal of 

Fisheries Management. 5:401-409. 

The effects of dredges in two California streams 

were monitored to compare macroinvertebrate 

abundances before, after, and during dredging. 

Dredging significantly affected some insect taxa 

when substrate was altered. A recolonization 

experiment indicated that rapid recovery of insects at 

dredged sites occurred. Censuses/observations of 

tagged fish suggested that major changes in available 

habitat caused local decreases in fish density. 

Dredging affected riffle sculpins more severely than 

rainbow trout, probably because of differences in 

microhabitat requirements. Increase in turbidity 

below dredging did not appear to affect fish or 

invertebrates. 

[DREDGING; FISH HABITAT; 

MACROINVERTEBRATES; MINING IMPACTS] 

71 1. Harvey,BC; Lisle,TE (1998): Effects of 

suction dredging on streams: A review and an 

evaluation strategy. Fisheries 23(8), 8-. 

Suction dredging for gold in the western US is 

common in many streams. It is a small-scale mining 

practice whereby streambed material is sucked up a 

pipe or hose, passed over a sluice box to sort out the 

gold, the discarded as tailings over another area of 

bed. Frequently, these streams contain populations of 

sensitive species. The activity is subject to both state 
and federal regulations and has sometimes been the 

basis for litigation. Effects can vary widely from 

stream to stream and between reaches. Managers 

should be especially concerned when dredging 

coincides with the incubation of embryos in stream 

gravels or precedes spawning runs followed by high 

flows. Analyses by managers should include a 

strategy to: I) evaluate interactions between suction 

dredging and other activities; 2) use information thus 

obtained to regulate dredging and mining; 3) monitor 

implementation of regulations; and 4) adapt 

management strategies to new information. 

[DREDGING; MINING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

712. Harvey,MD; Watson,CC (1986): Fluvial 

processes and morphological thresholds in incised 

channel restoration. Water Resources Bulletin 

22(3), 359-368. 

Incised channels are those in which an imbalance 

between sediment transport capacity and sediment 

supply has led to degradation of their beds. This is a 

frequent response to stream channelization, changes 

in land use, or lowering of base level. If the 

degradation causes a critical bank height threshold to 

be exceeded, which is dependent on the geotechnical 

properties of the bank materials, then bank failure 

and channel widening follow. Interdependent 

adjustments of channel slope and cross-sectional area 

occur until a new state of dynamic equilibrium with 

the imposed discharge and sediment loss is attained. 

These geomorphic adjustments can be described and 

quantified by using location-for-time substitution and 

a model of channel evolution can be formulated. 

Three approaches to rehabilitation of the degraded 

channels are possible; geomorphic, engineering, and 

rational. The rational approach is based on the 

channel evolution model and generally involves 

control of discharge or control of grade, or both. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY] 

713. Harvey,MD; Watson,CC; Schumm,SA 

(1985): Gully erosion. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management. Tech. Note 366. Denver Federal 

Center, Denver, CO. (1985-578-193125153). 181 p. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

GULLY CONTROL] 

714. Hashisaki,S (1996): Functional wetland 

restoration: An ecosystem approach. Northwest 

Science 70(4), 348-351. 

The hydrogeomorphic wetland classification 

system (HGM) evaluates a broad suite of wetland 

hnctions such that specific goals can be established. 

In planning fbnctional restoration projects, it is 

important to consider the interactions between upland 

and wetland areas, and to work within the bounds of 

functional units such as floodplains or riparian zones, 

rather than restrict actions only to jurisdictionally 

recognized areas. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

715. Hatfield,D; Hatfield,C (1991): The Trout 

Creek Working Group. Rangelands 13(3), 

112-115. 

This article tells a story of building trust and 

understanding among people who view the same area 

from vastly different perspectives. A widely 

publicized example of what can occur when that trust 

and understanding is cultivated is described. 

[COLLABORATION; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

GRAZING TREATMENTS; PARTNERSHIPS; 

RIPARIAN ZONES] 

716. Hatfield,D; Hatfield,C (1993): Solutions for 

the land and the people. p.147-153. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

This paper describes the personal efforts of the 

authors to build bridges between urban 

environmentalists and long-term ranchers who live 

and depend on the land - i.e. people who view the 

same area from a vastly different perspective. The 

Trout Creek Mountain Working Group was 

composed of a wide variety of representatives from 

different land-use advocacy groups. The process of 

developing trust, respect, and understanding took 

time and commitment by all parties but resulted in a 

positive coalition. People-to-people alliances where 

landowners, environmentalists, and federal agency 

personnel can have dramatically constructive results. 

[CONSENSUS; PARTNERSHIPS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; TROUT] 

717. Haugen,G [Chairman]; Duff,D [Chairman] 

(1982): The best management practices for the 

management and protection of western riparian 

stream ecosystems. American Fisheries Society. 45 

P . Best Management Practices (BMPs) means a 

practice or combination of practices that is 

determined by a state or agency after program 

assessment, examination of alternative practices, and 

appropriate public participation to be the most 

effective, practicable sources to a level means of 
preventing or reducing the amount of pollution 

generated by non-point sources to a level compatible 

with water quality and related aquatic-riparian goals. 

BMPs also refer to a broader process of identifying 

practices and techniques that may be used to reduce 

impacts on resources. The latter concept is used in 

summarizing state-of-the-art impacts on resources. 

The major emphasis in identifying BMPs was on 

technical adequacy of practices to reduce impacts on 

aquatic-riparian habitat. Limited emphasis is placed 

on economic and institutional acceptability. This 

paper addresses the primary impacts on riparian 

resources: grazing, mining, water development, 

roads, agriculture and urbanization, and timber 

harvest. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; KIPARlAN RESTORATION] 

718. Haugen,GN (1983): Riparian best 

management practices. Fisheries 8(1), 2-9. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

719. Haugen,GN (1985): American Fisheries 

Society position statement: Strategies for riparian 

area management. p.21-22. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

A draft of the American Fisheries Society's 

position statement is presented. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

720. Haugen,GN (1985): Strategies for riparian 

area management. Fisheries 1 O(4), 20-2 1. 

In 1982 the Western Division of the American 

Fisheries Society published a Guide (Best 

Management Practices for the Management and 

Protection of Western Riparian Ecosystems) to aid 

managers of riparian areas in making decisions in 

making decisions and developing management 

strategies to benefit riparian-dependent resources. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; 

FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

721. Haukos,DA; Smith,LM (1997). Common 

flora of playa lakes. Texas Tech University Press. 

Lubbock, TX. 196 p. 

This book is a research-based examination of 

plants common to playa lakes. The authors provide: 

I) a photographic guide to the plant species 

commonly found in playa wetlands; 2) a 

comprehensive list of plant species found in playas; 

and 3) a baseline dataset that researchers can use to 

evaluate future changes in playa plant communities. 

[PLANT COMMUNITIES; PLAYAS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

722. Hawkins,CP; Bartz,KL; Neale,CMU (1997): 

Vulnerability of riparian vegetation to 

catastrophic flooding: implications for riparian 

restoration. Restoration Ecology 45(5), 75-84. 

This study examined the site-specific effects of a 

large episodic flood on the riparian vegetation within 

the floodplain of the San Luis Rey River floodplain 

in southern California. Cover of riparian vegetation 

was quantified using multispectral airborne 

videography. The amount of vegetation destroyed by 

the flood from each section varied from nearly zero 

to almost 40 percent of pre-flood coverage. The 

magnitude of loss in riparian vegetation was most 

strongly related to the amount of riparian vegetation 

initially present in the floodplain and the amount of 

urban surfaces in the nearby watershed. It was 

inferred by the results that sites near existing large 

areas of intact riparian vegetation and away from 

urban development would have the highest potential 

for successful long-term restoration. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARlAN RESTORATION; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; VIDEOGRAPHY] 

723. Hawkins,CP; Kershner,JL; Bisson,PA; 

Bryant,MD; Decker,LM; Gregory,SV; 

McCullough,DA; Overton,CK; Reeves,GH; 

Steedman,RJ; Young,MK (1993): A hierarchical 

approach to classifying stream habitat features. 

Fisheries 18(6), 3-1 1. 

The paper proposes a hierarchical system of 

classifying stream habitats based on three 

increasingly fine descriptions of the morphological 

and hydraulic properties of channel geomorphic 

units. Channel geomorphic units are defined as areas 

of relatively homogeneous depth and flow that are 

bounded by sharp gradients in both depth and flow. 

Differences among these units provide a natural basis 

for habitat classification that is independent of spatial 

scale. At the most general level of resolution, they 

divide channel units into fast- and slow-water 

categories that approximately correspond to the 

commonly used terms "riffle" and "pool". Within the 

fast-water category, they identify two subcategories 

of habitat, those that are highly turbulent (falls, 

cascades, chutes, rapids, and riffles) and those with 

low turbulence (sheets and runs). Slow-water habitats 
include pools formed by channel scour (eddy pools, 

trench pools, channel pools, convergence pools, 

lateral scour pools, and plunge pools) and those 

formed behind dams. Dammed pools include those 

obstructed by debris dams, beaver dams, landslides, 

and abandoned channels. Backwaters are a kind of 

dammed pool. Fishes and other stream organisms 

distinguish among these habitats at one or more 

levels of the hierarchy. Habitats defined in this way 

represent an important habitat template on which 

patterns of biological diversity and production form. 

[CLASSIFICATION; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

724. Hawkins,RH; Ward,TJ (1998): Site and 

cover effects on event runoff, Jornada 

Experimental Range, New Mexico. p.361-370. In: 

Potts,DF [ed.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRS specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

At various locations on the Jornada Long-Term 

Ecological Research Site in southern New Mexico, 

measurements were made including: event rainfall 

depth, runoff depth, and periodic cover density. 

Results showed differences within groups, between 

groups, and with cover. Findings affirm customary 

but seldom confirmed expectations - that the most 

hydrologic improvement per unit of cover would be 

on the better sites and that vegetation management 

for hydrologic benefits on the harsher sites is futile. 

[HYDROLOGY; RUNOFF; VEGETATION 

MANAGEMENT] 

725. Heatwole,CD; Bottcher,AB; Baldwin,LB 

(1986): Basin scale model for evaluating best 

management practice implementation programs. 

Transactions of the American Society of 

Agricultural Engineers 29(2), 439-444. 

The Basin model provides field scale simulation 

of over 50,000 five-acre grid cells and contains a 

methodology for combining these cell results to 

predict basin-wide reduction in N and P loading. This 

enables basin-wide analysis of various 

implementation scenarios in which management 

alternatives are applied are applied selectively to 

each cell. Analysis of 15 different scenarios shows 

fencing of beef and dairy cattle from streams and 

wetlands to be the single most effective management 

practice in Florida. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; 

DRAINAGES; GRAZING IMPACTS; MODELING; 

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

726. Heede,B (1976): Gully development and 

control: The status of our knowledge. USDA 

Forest Service, Research Paper RM-169. 42 p. 

Gully formation is discussed in terms of 

mechanics, processes, morphology, and growth 

models. Design of gully controls should draw on our 

understanding of these aspects. Establishment of an 

effective vegetation cover is the long-term objective. 

Structures are often required. The least expensive, 

simply built structures are loose rock check dams, 

usually constructed with single- or double-wire 

fences. Prefabricated concrete dams are also 

effective. Functional relationships between dams, 

sediment catch, and costs, as well as a critical review 

of construction procedures, are also discussed. 

[CHECK DAMS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; GULLY 

CONTROL; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

727. Heede,B (1977): Case study of a watershed 

rehabilitation project: Alkali Creek, CO. USDA 

Forest Service, Research Paper RM-189. 18 p. 

The Alkali Creek project described herein may 

have been unique because of the availability of 

intensive background data. All gullies had been 

thoroughly surveyed and eight precipitation gages 

had been installed. Objectives were to: I) rehabilitate 

the depleted watershed by vegetative and engineering 

measures; 2) test their combined effectiveness on 

restoration; and 3) develop new treatment approaches 

where required. 

[CHECK DAMS; EROSION CONTROL; 

VEGETATION MANAGEMENT; WATERSHED] 

728. Heede,B (1985): Interactions between 

streamside vegetation and stream dynamics. 

p.54-58. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; 

Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Sewice. General Technical Report 

RM-I 20. 

Before managers attempt to alter natural riparian 

systems, they need to consider the interrelationships 

between vegetation and natural processes. Logs that 

fall across channels from streamside forests dissipate 

flow energy, maintain channel stability, decrease 

bedload movement, and enhance water quality. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; STREAM ECOLOGY; WOODY 

DEBRIS] 

729. Heede,BH (1966): Design, construction and 

cost of rock check dams. USDA Forest Service 

Research Paper RM-20.20 p. 
During construction of the check dams in 1965, 

detailed records were kept on time and materials 

expended for each work phase and structure. Costs 

were based on 1965 values and should be converted 

into present day values/prices. Indices of these values 

give an insight into the intricate relationships 

between costs of different types of check dams and 

between costs of dams and channel characteristics. 

These indices will hold true for other watersheds. 

[CHECK DAMS; EROSION CONTROL; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

730. Heede,BH (1971): Characteristics and 

processes of soil piping in gullies. USDA Forest 

Service Research Paper RM-68.15 p. 

Soil piping was observed on a study area for 

more than 4 consecutive years. During this time a 

complete topographic survey of a soil pipe, pictures 

of its interior, and analyses of soil and sediment 

samples from the interior and from flows through the 

pipe were made. Observations indicated that piping 

may not only lead to a karst-like topography along 

gullies, but may indeed help induce reclamation of 

the soils. A second study was initiated to investigate 

the latter premise. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; GULLY CONTROL; 

SOILS] 

731. Heede,BH (1976): Equilibrium condition 

and sediment transport in an ephemeral mountain 

stream. p.97-102. In: Volume 6 of Hydrology and 

water resources in Arizona and the Southwest. 

Proceedings of the 1976 meeting of the Arizona 

Section of the American Water Resources 

Association and Hydrology Section. Arizona 

Academy of Science. Tucson, AZ. 

Flow frequency curves supported the hypothesis 

that channel-forming flows are exceptional events in 

ephemeral mountain streams. This was substantiated 

by the lack of a relationship between sediment 

production and sediment yield. Numerous bed nickpoints indicated channel instability, despite gravel 

bars and log steps that are a part of the slope 

adjustment processes. Due to differences in structural 

density between bars and steps, size distribution of 

the sediment deposits above them differs. Although 

only qualitative guidelines are presented the 

watershed or wildlife manager should be in a position 

to utilize the formation of gravel bars and log steps 

for his management goals. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

HYDRAULICS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

732. Heede,BH (1977): Rehabilitation of 

disturbed watersheds through vegetation 

treatment and physical structures. Research Note. 

USDA Forest Sewice. Rocky Mountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 7 p. 

Watersheds can be successfully rehabilitated by 

combining physical structures with vegetation 

management. This combination of treatments in the 

southern Rocky Mountains reduced suspended 

sediment by 95 percent in 1 I years, reduced erosion 

rate in waterways by 80 percent after 12 years, and 

produced perennial streamtlow in a formerly 

ephemeral gully system 7 years after treatment. 

Results indicate that stabilization could be achieved 

by placing physical structures only in the mainstream 

gully, the larger tributary gullies and the head-cuts of 

discontinuous gullies. Placing physical structures 

only at strategic locations could have reduced 

treatment costs 30 percent. This study demonstrated 

the need for basing watershed rehabilitation 

treatments on basic geomorphic processes. 

[EROSION CONTROL; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WATERSHED] 

733. Heede,BH (1978): Designing gully control 

systems for eroding watersheds. Environmental 

Management 2(6), 509-522. 

Effective design of gully control systems must 

consider the gully network as a whole and be based 

on geomorphological indicators such as type of 

network, stream order, and stage of development. 

Consideration of geomorphological characteristics 

allows a ranking of gully treatment priorities that, in 

turn, promises the highest return for expenditures. 

Relationships between sediment catch, channel 

gradient, treatment cost, and height of check dams in 

a treatment system are presented. Return is 

considered within a physical rather than economic 

framework. Future soil savings are the main focus. 

[CHECK DAMS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; GULLY 

CONTROL; VEGETATION MANAGEMENT] 

734. Heede,BH (1979): Deteriorated watersheds 

can be restored: A case study. Environmental 

Management 3(3), 271-281. 

In this study, check dam systems, aided by 

improved vegetative cover through reduced cattle 

grazing and plantings, stabilized not only the 

structurally treated gullies, but also gullies within the 

network that were not structurally treated. Check 

dams decreased gully depth by accumulating 

sediment deposits. In turn, gully bank stabilization 

was hastened and alluvial aquifer volumes increased. 

Perennial streamflow was renewed after seven 

treatment years. Within 11 years, check dam systems 
and improved vegetation reduced sediment loads in 

the flows by more than 90 percent. Only part of a 

gully network requires structural treatment. The 

mainstream gully, and those tributaries controlling 

the local base levels of others, are the critical 

segments that should be structurally treated. 

[GULLY CONTROL; SOILS; WATERSHED] 

735. Heede,BH (1980): Stream dynamics: An 

overview for land managers. USDA Forest 

Sewice. General Technical Report RM-72.26 p. 

Concepts of stream dynamics were demonstrated 

through discussion of processes and process 

indicators; theory is included only where helpful to 

explain concepts. Present knowledge allows only 

qualitative prediction of stream behavior. However, 

such predictions show how management actions will 

affect the stream and the environment. 

[CLASSIFICATION; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

736. Heede,BH (1981): Dynamics of selected 

mountain streams in the western USA. Zeit. fur 

Geomorph. N.F. 25(1), 17-32. 

In high mountain regions, channel slope 

adjustments are required to offset steep potential 

gradients that otherwise would cause excessive 

erosion, resulting in deeply incised channels and over 

steepened valley slope sides. The process study 

demonstrates adjustment within six streams, located 

in Arizona and Colorado, not only progressed by the 

formation of gravel bars transverse to the flow, but 

also by the incorporation of downed timber into the 

streambed. Thus, streamside forests became an 

important part of the hydraulic geometry. The 

concept of dynamic equilibrium was applied to 

evaluate stream stability conditions. There was a 

significant negative correlation between gravel bars, 

log steps, and channel gradient in the equilibrium 

streams, but not in the non-equilibrium streams. The 

evaluation was based on morphologic and hydraulic 

indicators. This indicated that knowledge of the 

longitudinal profile and the yearly runoff 

characteristics only are required to determine the 

dynamic equilibrium condition. Dynamic equilibrium 

existed if the profile was concave and streamflow 

perennial, and it did not exist if the profile was 

convex and streamflow ephemeral. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; GEOMORPHOLOGY] 

737. Heede,BH (1982): Gully control: 

Determining treatment priorities for gullies in a 

network. Environmental Management 6(5), 

441-451. 

This report addresses a newly developed 

procedure for setting priorities in gully control. It 

explains basic gully systems and developments as 

influenced by geomorphologic processes on which 

the proposed procedure is based. These processes 

consist of two types: one, representing interactions 

between the individual gullies of a network; the 

other, mechanisms initiated within a given gully by 

localized instability conditions. Classifying gullies 

into continuous and discontinuous types not only 

allows determination of network types but also points 

to critical locations that must be considered by the 

designer. 

[CHECK DAMS; EROSION CONTROL; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; GULLY CONTROL] 

738. Heede,BH (1986): Balance and adjustment 

processes in stream and riparian systems. p.3-7. In 

Proceedings of the 1986 Wyoming water and 

streamside zone conference. 28-30 April 1986. 

Casper, WY. 

All natural systems are dynamic and are 

changing regardless of man's or other influences. 

Natural processes within and between systems will 

eventually restore dynamic equilibrium after 

disturbances, but control measures may be desirable 

to speed the processes after serious disruptions. 

Control measures must work with, rather than 

against, ongoing natural adjustment processes. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

739. Heede,BH (1986): Designing for dynamic 

equilibrium in streams. Water Resources Bulletin 

22(3), 351-357. 

Streams are dynamic systems, so steady state 

does not exist for any appreciable period of time. 

Streams in dynamic equilibrium respond quickly to 

change, regaining a new equilibrium. From the 

response system it follows that there is a causative 

reason why a stream meanders, degrades, or 

aggrades. The actions represent adjustment 

processes. Local base level change represents one of 

the most influential channel changes, especially the 

lowering of this level. Loss of base level may cause 

degradation throughout a stream network, because 

the main stem is the base level for all its tributaries. 

Often, degradation causes bank instability and 

lowering of streamside water tables that, in turn, 

endanger the riparian ecosystem. Preventing local 

base level changes of a stream network, therefore, is 

a cost-effective measure. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHECK DAMS; 
GEOMORPHOLOGY] 

740. Heede,BH (1987): Opportunities and limits 

of erosion control in stream and gully systems. In: 

Proceedings of the 18th International Erosion 

Control Association conference: You're gambling 

without it. Reno, NV. 

The selection of erosion control projects should 

be based on expected returns from the project. 

Returns are influenced by the ongoing physical 

processes and the advance of the system toward a 

new dynamic equilibrium. If the ongoing adjustment 

processes can attain equilibrium within an acceptable 

time period, human interference will not be required. 

Interactions between gullying and soil piping 

processes in sodic soil are an example. Other 

examples demonstrate the intricate processes in 

streams and gullies, and stress the interactions 

between different natural systems. Thus, gully 

erosion may be caused by a degrading river system a 

great distance from the gully. Or a river may aggrade 

its bed because a riparian community upstream was 

destroyed. Cause and effect must be determined for 

effective control, which often is difficult due to 

separation in time and space. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GULLY CONTROL; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; SOILS] 

741. Heede,BH; DeBano,LF (1984): Gully 

rehabilitation - a three-stage process in a sodic 

soil. Soil Science of America Society Journal 48, 

1416-1422. 

The geomorphic, edaphic, and vegetation 

changes occurring in sodic soils were studied during 

a gully rehabilitation project in western Colorado. 

Data analysis showed that gully rehabilitation 

occurred in three stages: nonvegetated sodium banks 

disintegrated; the colluvial material from these 

eroded banks was weathered and leached; and, 

finally, when enough sodium had been leached from 

the eroded material, it was stabilized and vegetated as 

older colluvial material at the base of high sodium 

gully banks or as channel alluvium deposited behind 

gully structures. These changes led to an overall 

stabilization of the gullies and reduced suspended 

sediment and peak flows. 

[EROSION CONTROL; GULLY CONTROL; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

742. Heede,BH; Harvey,MD; Laird,JR (1988): 

Sediment delivery linkages in a chaparral 

watershed following a wildfire. Environmental 

Management 12(3), 349-358. 

A study of sediment delivery and redistribution 

following chaparral wildfire, Arizona, US. Channel 

processes were interpreted from sequential aerial 

photographs, field measurements of sediment 

delivery, and overland flow from ten microwatersheds (erosion pavement-no vegetation, erosion 

pavement with vegetation buffer strips, open 

chaparral cover). Before the fire, the bulk of the 

sediment was stored in colluvial deposits. 

Immediately following the fire, sediment eroded 

from hillslopes into the channels. Sediment was still 

not exported from the basin 33 years later. Relatively 

rapid vegetation recovery led to the reestablishment 

of chaparral buffer strips on most channel banks. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; EROSION; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; WATERSHED; 

WILDFIRE] 

743. Heede,BH; Rinne,JN (1990): Hydrodynamic 

and fluvial morphologic processes: Implications 

for fisheries management and research. North 

American Journal of Fisheries Management 10(3), 

249-268. 

Streamflow, sediment transport, and channel 

morphology have been used in the past to describe 

the interactions between physical and biological 

processes. Interaction of the hydraulic and 

morphological factors creates either equilibrium or 

disequilibrium. Indicators are given for the type of 

equilibrium condition. Characteristics of fish habitat 

must be modified with great care, only if: I) the 

causes for undesirable condition are known; and 2) 

the measures will be compatible with future stream 

development. 

[FISH HABITAT; FISH MANAGEMENT; 

HYDROLOGY] 

744. Heifetz,J; Murphy,ML; Koski,KV (1986): 

Effects of logging on winter habitat of juvenile 

salmonids in Alaskan streams. North American 

Journal of Fisheries Management 6(1), 52-58. 

Effects of logging on preferred winter habitat of 

juvenile salmonids were assessed by comparing the 

area of preferred habitat in 54 reaches. Most 

wintering coho salmon, Dolly Varden, and steelhead 

occupied deep pools with cover (i.e. upturned tree 

roots, accumulations of logs, and cobble substrate). 

Seventy-three percent of all pools had significantly 

less area of pool habitat than old-growth reaches. 

Buffer strips protected winter habitat of juvenile 

salmonids by maintaining pool area and cover within 

pools. In some cases, blow-down from buffer strips 

added large organic debris to the stream and 

increased the cover within pools. 

[BUFFER STRIPS; FISHERIES; LOGGING 
seepage from the wetlands. Difference in seepage 

rate was attributed to two factors: I) hydraulic 

conductivity of sand and gravel versus till; and 2) 

wetlands over till were flow-through ponds and 

wetlands over sand and gravel were primarily 

groundwater recharge areas. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; GROUNDWATER; 

HYDROLOGY] 

752. Henszey,RJ; Skinner,QD; Wesche,TA 

(1998): Estimating root depths from diurnal water 

table fluctuations along the Platte River in 

Nebraska. p.119. Potts,DF led.]. In: Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

An accurate and potentially inexpensive method 

for describing root zones could use the diurnal water 

table fluctuations caused by evapotranspiration to 

estimate root depth. The technique was tested in wet 

meadows along the Platte River in central Nebraska. 

Relationships at five sites were developed by 

converting the diurnal water table fluctuations to 

daily evapotranspiration amounts, with adjustments 

for seasonal variations. A best-fit curve was used to 

identify the depth where evapotranspiration no longer 

affected the water table. Estimated maximum root 

depths for sedge (Carex spp.) meadows was 85-90 

cm. Estimated root depth for meadows with big 

bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and Indian grass 

(Sorgastrum nutans) was 165-170 cm. Preliminary 

observations suggest that roots occur to at least 75 

percent of the estimated maximum root depth. 

[BELOW-GROUND BIOMASS; PLATTE RIVER; 

ROOT DEPTH; WATER TABLE EFFECTS] 

753. Henszey,RJ; Wolff,SW; Wesche,TA; 

Skinner,QD; Hubert,WA (1988): Assessment of a 

flow enhancement project as a riparian and 

fishery habitat mitigation effort. p.88-93. In: 

Mutz,RE; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK [eds.] 

Restoration, creation, and management of wetland 

and riparian ecosystems in the American West. 

As part of mitigation procedures for impacts 

caused by a water development project in the Little 

Snake River Drainage, Wyoming, the flow in a 

previously ephemeral watercourse on the east slope 

of the Laramie Range is being enhanced to create a 

perennial stream. Water used to enhance this flow is 

obtained by transbasin diversion. The mitigation is 

being done in hopes of enhancing the riparian and 

fishery habitat. This paper describes the study to 

assess the results of this action and the feasibility of 

applying this strategy to other watersheds. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 

ECOLOGY; STREAM FLOW] 

754. Hewitt,lII,MJ (1990): Synoptic inventory of 

riparian ecosystems: The utility of Landsat 

Thematic Mapper data. Forest Ecology and 

Management 33134,605-620. 

It is estimated that 66 percent of the naturally 

occurring vegetation of the US. has been eradicated 

since 1776. Even though riparian zones are critical to 

the maintenance of wildlife populations, no adequate 

methods exist for the synoptic inventory and 

assessment of this resource. Results of a feasibility 

study in central Washington are presented. The map 

accuracy assessment in this study was only 80 

percent but recommendations for improving accuracy 

are discussed. High resolution satellite systems 

potentially provide the means to synoptically 

inventory riparian habitat. 

[INVENTORY; REMOTE SENSING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

755. Hey,RD (1982): Gravel-bed rivers: Form 

and processes. p. 5-13. In: Gravel bed rivers. [Eds: 

Hey,RD; Bathurst,JC; Thorne,CR]. John Wiley 

and Sons, Ltd. New York, NY. 

The methods available for predicting the threedimensional morphology of gravel-bed rivers is 

presented. Empirical models can only be used to 

predict the dimensions of stable channels under 

certain conditions. Process-response models, in 

contrast, are universally applicable provided they are 

based on general equations defining the operation of 

channel processes. These models are demonstrated to 

explain how rivers modify their overall shape and 

dimensions, predict regime conditions and simulate 

the dynamic adjustments of a river system to 

erosional and depositional activity. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; MODELING] 

756. Hey,RD (1986): River mechanics. Journal of 

the Institute of Water Engineers and Scientists 

40(2), 139-1 58. 

This paper reviews recent research on river 

mechanics and considers the application of those 

principles for river engineering. Design methods, 

flood alleviation, and land drainage schemes could 

benefit from research findings. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

757. Hibbs,D; Giordano,P (1994): Structure, 

composition, and dynamics of riparian buffer 
IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

745. Heimlich,RE (1988): The swampbuster 

provision: Implementation and impact. p.87-94. 

In: Stuber,PJ Itech. coord.]. Proceedings of the 

national symposium on protecting wetlands from 

agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, 

CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological 

Report 88(16). 

The location and conversion probability of 

wetlands were analyzed in relation to direct 

government payments for U.S. counties. 

Swampbuster provisions will likely retard conversion 

on only about one-third of convertible wetlands. The 

author suggests that preservation of our wetland 

heritage, because federal programs fall short, may 

now be up to state and local efforts. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

746. Heinze,DH (1991): Willows of Montana. 

Riparian Technical Bulletin No. 2. USDI Bureau 

of Land Management. Billings, MT. 69 p. 

This bulletin is a technical guide to assist field 

people in the identification of 34 species of Salix. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN SHRUBS; 

WILLOW] 

747. Helm,WT (1985): Glossary of stream 

habitat terms. American Fisheries Society, 

Western Division. 34 p. 

Realizing the need for standardization of 

nomenclature, the American Fisheries Society 

undertook the effort to generate the compilation of 

this glossary. It was developed to encourage 

consistent use of those terms by multi-disciplinary 

workers involved in the inventory and analysis of 

stream habitat. 

[CLASSIFICATION; DEFINITIONS; GLOSSARY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

748. Hemond, HF; Benoit, J (1988): Cumulative 

impacts on water quality functions of wetlands. 

Environmental Management 12(5), 639-653. 

The total effect of cumulative impacts on the 

water quality functions of wetlands cannot be 

predicted from the sum of the effects each individual 

impact might have. Wetland water quality functions 

result from the operation of many individual, distinct, 

and quite dissimilar mechanisms. It is, therefore, 

necessary to consider the nature of each individual 

process. Consideration of these processes suggests 

that many common wetland alterations probably do 

entail cumulative impacts. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; WATER QUALITY; 

WETLANDS] 

749. Hemstrom,MA (1989): Integration of 

riparian data in a Geographic Information 

System. p.17-22. In: Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; 

Kershner,JL leds.]. Riparian resource 

management: An educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 

1989. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Billings, MT. 

A geographic information system (GIs) offers 

the opportunity to integrate stream resource 

information at the watershed scale. A case study is 

presented that uses several layers of information and 

their uses in developing a stream enhancement 

model. The GIs map and information bases for 

Cummins Creek, Oregon Coast Range, included 

geomorphic stream reaches, stand conditions, plant 

associations, large woody debris survey, and the 

stream network. Integration of these data bases 

allows analysis of the distribution of large woody 

debris, potential input of woody debris from riparian 

stands, and the location of areas most suitable for 

silvicultural treatment to increase the representation 

of decay-resistant wood in riparian stands. 

[GIs; RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 

ECOLOGY] 

750. Henke,RJ (1994): Using geographic 

information systems to manage wetlands and 

riparian areas. p.101-103. In: Issues and 

technology in the management of impacted 

wildlife: Proceedings of the 6th symposium. 6-8 

April 1994. Boulder, CO. 

GIs is a common computer tool for projects 

involving natural resources and is designed to 

manage, analyze, and display spatial data. The 

ARCIINFO GIs software package can be used to 

facilitate the identification, delineation, monitoring, 

and impact assessment of wetlands and riparian 

areas. This tool enables planners and scientists to 

analyze large remote sites quickly and economically. 

[GIs; MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

751. Hensel,BR; Miller,MV (1991): Effects of 

wetlands creation on groundwater flow. Journal 

of Hydrology 126,293-314. 

Changes in groundwater flow near Experimental 

Wetland Areas were observed during monthly 

monitoring of groundwater elevation in nested 

piezometers and shallow observation wells before 

and after the wetlands were filled with water. 

Increase in groundwater levels was a result of 
strips. p.14-16. In: The ecology and management 

of Oregon Coast Range forests: A mid-term 

COPE symposium. 29-31 March 1994. Gleneden 

Beach, OR. Coastal Oregon Productivity 

Enhancement Program; Oregon State University 

Geomorphology was important to riparian 

vegetation structure. Vegetation on terraces adjacent 

to streams differed from vegetation on slopes. 

Overstory cover and basal area were higher on 

terraces than slopes. Comparing slopes within buffer 

strips with slopes within intact riparian forest showed 

increased shrub cover and lowered overstory basal 

area cover in buffers. Alder-dominated buffer strips 

were found to be quite biologically stable leading to 

concerns about the long-term supply of conifers. 

[BUFFER STRIPS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

758. Hibbs,DE; Giordano,PA (1996): Vegetation 

characteristics of alder-dominated riparian buffer 

strips in the Oregon Coast Range. Northwest 

Science 70(3), 2 13-222. 

The authors examined the effects of harvesting 

adjacent trees on tree regeneration, understory 

development, and overstory dynamics in riparian 

buffer strips and compared them with undisturbed 

riparian communities. Through a chronosequence of 

buffers aged 0 to 32 years, little change in overstory 

composition or cover was observed. Tree 

regeneration was scarce. The alder-dominated 

community appeared largely resistant to 

environmental changes associated with becoming 

buffer strips. Future tree regeneration may be limited 

after alder senescence. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

759. Hickin,EJ (1983): River channel changes: 

Retrospect and prospect. International 

Association of Sedimentologists 6 (Spec. Publ), 

61-83. 

This paper reviews some of the major 

developments in the study of channel changes during 

this century and offers comments on the direction of 

future research. Topics addressed include the relation 

of channel equilibrium to time-scale, the process 

relations of the formal theory of equilibrium 

channel-morphology, regime theory and hydraulic 

geometry, complex channel response, 

human-induced channel adjustments, and channel 

changes of the Holocene and Pleistocene. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

HYDRAULICS] 

760. Hickin,EJ (1984): Vegetation and river 

channel dynamics. Canadian Geographer 28(2), 

11 1-126. 

The physical science of fluvial geomorphology 

is flawed because it ignores processes that are not 

easily quantifiable and statistically or physically 

manipulable. Vegetation may exert significant 

control over fluvial processes and morphology 

through five mechanisms: flow resistance, bank 

strength, bar sedimentation, formation of log-jams, 

and concave-bank bench deposition. Examples of 

these are presented and the research implications of 

each are discussed. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

761. Hicks,L; Warren,A (1996): Loco Creek 

watershed project. p.139-140. In: Evans,KE 

[comp.]. Sharing common ground on western 

rangelands: Proceedings of a IivestocWbig game 

symposium. 26-28 Feb 1996. Sparks, NV. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-GTR-343.164 p. 

Concerns about high stocking rates within 

riparian areas on the Morgan-Boyer grazing 

allotment in south-central Wyoming preceded a 

collaborative alliance of ranchers and agency 

representatives. The project employed drift fencing, 

upland water development, prescribed burning, 

vegetative plantings, and installation of instream 

structures. Stocking rates and season of use were not 

changed. After 4 years, better function of the 

watershed and riparian areas were noted; stream 

channel morphology and hydrology improved; and, 

riparian vegetative communities expanded in both 

cover and height - facilitating the introduction of 

trout into Loco Creek. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; INSTREAM 

STRUCTURES; RIPARIAN; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

762. Hicks,L; Warren,A; Hicks,C (1996): Upper 

Muddy Creek coordinated resource management. 

p.125-128. In: Evans,KE [comp.]. Sharing 

common ground on western rangelands: 

Proceedings of a IivestocWbig game symposium. 

26-28 Feb 1996. Sparks, NV. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-GTR-343. 

164 p. 

On the Muddy Creek CRM, numerous people of 

diverse backgrounds came together to develop a 

common goal and conservation ethic on land 

management. The ecosystem management concept 

assured that all users and impacts of the area were 
addressed. 

[COLLABORATION; ECOSYSTEM 

MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE; WATERSHED] 

763. Higgins,DA; Maloney,SB; Tiedemann,AR; 

Quigley,TM (1989): Storm runoff characteristics 

of grazed watersheds in eastern Oregon. Water 

Resources Bulletin 25,87-100. 

Rainfall and runoff data from 485 storms during 

the summers of 1979-84 were evaluated to 

characterize storm runoff and peak flows for 13 small 

watersheds in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon 

and to determine differences between grazing 

intensities and vegetation types. Four levels of 

grazing intensity had no effect on storm runoff. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; RUNOFF; 

WATERSHED] 

764. Higgins,DA; Tiedemann,AR; Quigley,TM; 

Marx,DB (1989): Streamflow characteristics of 

small watersheds in the Blue Mountains of 

Oregon. Water Resources Bulletin 25(6), 

1131-1 149. 

Many studies on storm runoff and grazing have 

two basic limitations. Most have determined 

infiltrations and runoff from small plots; relatively 

few have evaluated responses of entire watersheds. In 

this study, 7 years of streamflow data were evaluated 

for 13 small watersheds, with different grazing 

intensities and vegetation types. Four levels of 

grazing intensity had no effect on storm runoff. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; RUNOFF; 

WATERSHED] 

765. Hilderbrand,RH; Lemly,AD; Dolloff,AC; 

Harpster,KL (1997): Effects of large woody debris 

placement on stream channels and benthic 

macroinvertebrates. Canadian Journal of Fish 

Aquatic Science 54,931-939. 

As an experimental stream restoration technique, 

large woody debris (LWD) was added to two streams 

in Virginia. Random and systematic log placements 

were compared in low-and high-gradient streams. 

Pool area increased 146 percent in the systematic 

placement and 32 percent in the random placement 

sections of the low-gradient stream. The 

high-gradient stream, however, changed very little 

after LWD placements. Logs oriented as dams were 

responsible for all pools created by additions 

regardless of method or placement. Greater numbers 

of pools were created by single log placement. Total 

benthic macroinvertebrate abundance did not change 

as a result of LWD additions in either stream. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; LARGE WOODY 

DEBRIS; MACROINVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

766. HiI1,AR (1996): Nitrate removal in stream 

riparian zones. Journal of Environmental Quality 

25(4), 743-755. 

The current consensus is that most riparian zones 

effectively remove NO3 from subsurface water. 

However, research has not focused on the 

relationship between hydrology and chemistry 

within the context of the riparian zone hydrogeologic 

setting. Most riparian zones that remove NO3 occur 

in landscapes with impermeable layers near the 

ground surface. Limited research suggests that 

riparian zones have less effect on NO3 transport in 

hydrogeologic settings where groundwater has little 

interaction with vegetation and sediments because 

flow occurs mainly across the surface, or at depth 

beneath the riparian zone before discharging to the 

stream. An interdisciplinary approach is needed to 

provide a better understanding of NO3 regulation in 

riparian zones. 

[GROUNDWATER; HYDROLOGY; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES; POLLUTION] 

767. HiI1,DP (1985): The site signature method of 

land suitability planning in river corridors. 

p.398-402. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-1 8 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

A performance-based methodology was 

developed for location and construction of a variety 

of land use applications in fragile environments. 

Landscape synthesis and land uses were represented 

by graphic "signatures". Through synthesis, a land 

suitability plan was created. Site specific 

performance criteria assure environmental protection 

while allowing developers locational flexibility. 

[HUMAN IMPACTS; PLANNING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

768. Hill,MT; Platts,WS (1998): Ecosystem 

restoration: A case study in the Owens River 

Gorge, CA. Fisheries 23(1 I), 18-27. 

The Owens River Gorge Project aims at 

returning the river channel, dewatered for more than 

50 years, to a functional riverine-riparian ecosystem. 

The passive, or natural, restoration approach focused 

on the development of riparian habitat and channel 

complexity using incremental increases in pulse and 
base flows. Increasing pulse and base flows resulted 

in establishment and rapid growth of riparian 

vegetation on all land forms, and the formation of 

good quality micohabitat features (pools, runs, depth, 

and wetted width). An extremely complex and 

productive habitat now occupies these bottomlands. 

A healthy fishery in good condition has quickly 

developed in response to habitat improvement. 

[FISHERIES; PASSIVE RESTORATION; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

769. Hil1,WR; Knight, AW (1987): Experimental 

analysis of the grazing interaction between a 

mayfly and stream algae. Ecology 68(6), 1955- 

1965. 

Interaction between the grazing mayfly and 

periphyton in a small, northern California stream was 

examined by manipulating the density of the mayfly . The mayfly significantly depressed the periphyton 

standing crop. It also influenced two structural 

attributes of periphyton, increasing the amount of 

Chlorophyll A per unit biomass and decreasing the 

relative contribution of the loose, upper layer to total 

periphyton biomass. 

[ALGAE; INVERTEBRATES; STREAM 

ECOLOGY] 

770. Hinchman,VH; Birkeland,KW (1995): Age 

prediction based on stem size for riparian 

cottonwood stands. The Southwestern Naturalist 

40(4), 406-409. 

Accurate estimations of tree age based on size 

are useful for hydrologic and geomorphic studies of 

riparian environments. The use of stem size to predict 

age for Fremont cottonwood is assessed based on 

increment bores and stem diameter measurements 

along two rivers of the southwestern United States. 

Predictive models for tree age were established for 

creeks in Utah and Arizona and were compared to 

previously published regression equations. Results 

indicated that good age-size relationships exist within 

short reaches with uniform geomorphic site 

conditions. However, these correlations may not hold 

for entire drainage basins, or larger geographic areas. 

[COTTONWOOD; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; TREE SIZE] 

771. Hindley,E (1996): Observing physical and 

biological change through historical photographs. 

USDl Bureau of Land Management. Technical 

Report 1737-13. 

This publication provides an approach for using 

historical photos to analyze vegetation and stream 

channel conditions and trends for riparian-wetland 

areas. Historic photographs can portray the character 

of landscapes as they were many years ago. Retaking 

photos from the same location can provide 

comparisons From which vegetation and stream 

channel changes can be objectively described. Visual 

comparisons can also be useful in depicting the 

dynamic nature and resiliency of ecosystems, and 

dispelling some of the myths that exist regarding 

historic conditions and their causes. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; CHANNEL DYNAMICS; 

HISTORIC RECORDS; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

772. Hines,C; Bradshaw,GA (1997): Landscape 

analysis of black cottonwood community 

dynamics, Grande Ronde River, Oregon, USA: 

Assessing restoration potential and long-term 

viability. p.109. In: Abstracts. 1997 Annual 

meeting of the Ecological Society of America 

jointly with The Nature Conservancy. 10-14 

August 1997. Albuquerque, NM. 

Black cottonwood communities in the West have 

been severely degraded by intensive grazing, 

irrigation, and mining activities in the last century. In 

this study, historic and current populations were 

examined to evaluate restoration capacity given 

present day geomorphic conditions and land use 

patterns. There is discussion relative to the feasibility 

of restoration plans seeking reestablishment of viable 

riparian plant communities. 

[COTTONWOOD; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

773. Hixson,S; Herman,D (1998): A practical 

approach for documenting cattle effects on water 

and soils resources. p.209-216. In: Potts,DF (ed.1. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

USDA Forest Service field interdisciplinary 

teams evaluated both upland and riparian cattle use to 

determine compliance to Best Management Practices 

(BMPs) and forest plans. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; GRAZING 

IMPACTS] 

774. Hoag,JC (1992): Planting techniques from 

the Aberdeen, ID, plant materials center for 

vegetating shorelines and riparian areas. 

p.163-166. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest 
Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

The following woody riparian species were 

effective in shoreline protection and revegetation of 

eroded stream channels: coyote willow, dwarf blue 

Artic willow, laurel willow, prairie willow, 

"Siouxland" eastern cottonwood, "Imperial" Carolina 

poplar, and robust poplar. Hormones, fungicides, and 

fertilizer did not consistently enhance survival or 

establishment. 

[PLANT MATERIALS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

775. Hoar,AR; Erwin,MJ (1985): Relationships 

between the expansion of agriculture and the 

reduction of natural riparian habitat in the 

Missouri River floodplain of northeast Montana, 

1938 - 1982. p. 250-256. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.). Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report. RM-120. 

Over a 45-year period, the floodplain 

composition of the Missouri River at four points in 

time is described. Broad changes in the area, density, 

and percent of the floodplain represented by 

agriculture and other developed land and three 

general riparian cover types are documented. 

Evidence is provided of the patterns and rates at 

which riparian cover types were lost or gained, 

including the conversion of agricultural and other 

developed land. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; FLOODPLAIN 

MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

776. Hockberger,Jr.JJ. (1986): Indiscrete 

regulation of indiscrete sources: The ldaho water 

quality standards and control of sediment impacts 

on salmon and steelhead spawning and rearing 

habitat. ldaho Law Review 22,469 p. 

Crucial streams in ldaho capable of supporting 

anadromous salmonid populations flow through the 

Idaho batholith, a geologic area characterized by 

steep slopes and fragile granitic soils. Logging, 

grazing, mining, and other extractive resource uses, 

have historically been responsible for tremendous 

erosion in the batholith. Denuded land areas increase 

erosion leading to increased turbidity and sediment in 

streams, which are detrimental to salmonid 

populations. Anadromous populations are especially 

vulnerable to habitat degradation since if 4 or 5 

successive annual classes of spawners returning from 

the sea are unable to reproduce, the run will become 

extinct. Much of the ldaho batholith and other 

salmonid habitat is overlain by land administered by 

the USDA Forest Service. Such lands have come 

under increasing scrutiny from those interested in 

protecting sensitive habitat. This article gives an 

in-depth history of the Idaho water quality standards 

for non-point source pollution and an analysis of 

these standards along with some comparable 

regulations from other Pacific Northwest states. 

[CLEAN WATER ACT; FISHERIES; NON-POINT 

SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER LAW; WATER 

QUALITY] 

777. Hoffman,CR; Stanley,LD (1978): Effects of 

cattle grazing on shore vegetation of fluctuating 

water level reservoirs. Journal of Range 

Management 31(6), 412-416. 

Shore vegetation of reservoirs develops between 

periods of high water; thus annual fluctuations in 

water levels, along with cattle grazing as limiting 

factors, keep shore vegetation in an early seral stage. 

Minimizing both water fluctuation levels and cattle 

grazing for a reservoir in a given year, or years, 

permits considerably more shoreline vegetation 

development. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

SHORELINES] 

778. Hogan,DL (1989): Channel response to mass 

wasting in the Queen Charlotte Islands, British 

Columbia: Temporal and spatial changes in 

stream morphology. p.125-142. In: Alexander,EB 

led.]. Proceedings of Watershed '89: A Conference 

on the stewardship of soil, air, and water 

resources. USDA Forest Service. Juneau, AK. 

A paired watershed study was used to compare 

stream channels with various ages of mass wasting 

disturbance with similar channels in undisturbed 

basins. Morphological parameters of relevance to fish 

habitats were the focus of the field surveys. Debris 

torrent inputs to stream channels establishes sediment 

wedges associated with debris jams. 

Sedimentological, morphological, and hydraulic 

changes occur upstream and downstream of the jams. 

Sediment wedges are of two basic types, vertical and 

lateral. The location, size, and function of each type 

ofjam controls morphology and their distribution 

along the water course influences the spatial 

adjustment of the channel. Results indicate that 

severe morphological alterations persist during the 

first decade following debris torrenting, but the 

channel begins to develop more normal 

characteristics during the second and third decades. 

After 30 years, the morphological nature of stream 
channels begins to resemble undisturbed channels. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN FOREST] 

779. Hogg,lD; Williams,DD (1996): Response of 

stream invertebrates to a global warming thermal 

regime: An ecosystem level manipulation. Ecology 

77(2), 395-407. 

The thermal regime of a first-order permanent 

stream near Ontario, Canada was manipulated in 

accordance with global warming predictions. The 

effects of a 2.0 - 3.5 degree C water temperature 

increase on densities, biomass, species composition, 

and life histories of resident stream invertebrates 

were examined. The stream was divided 

longitudinally at the source into two channels, one 

control and one experimental. Following 

commencement of the manipulation, these changes 

were observed: 1) decreased total animal densities, 

particularly Chironomidae (Diptera); 2) earlier onset 

of adult insect emergence; 3) increased growth rates 

and precocious breeding in Amphipoda; 4) smaller 

size at maturity for Plecoptera; and 5) altered sex 

ratios for Lepidostoma vernale (Trichoptera). Results 

partially corroborated previous laboratory and field 

studies but variation of the responses of individual 

target species was unexpected and may have been 

influenced by the genetic structure of local 

populations. 

[GLOBAL WARMING; INVERTEBRATES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 

TEMPERATURE] 

780. Holechek,JL; Berry,TJ; Vavra,M (1987): 

Grazing system influences on cattle performance 

on mountain range. Journal of Range 

Management 40(1), 55-59. 

The influences of rest-rotation, deferred rotation, 

and season-long grazing systems on cattle diet 

botanical composition and quality and weight gains 

were studied over 5 years in northeastern Oregon. 

There were no significant differences in weight gains 

among the three systems. Crude protein, in vitro 

organic matter digestibility, and acid detergent fiber 

percentages did not differ among systems. Key 

forages were Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, 

and common snowberry. Cattle diet botanical 

composition under the 3 grazing systems did not 

differ. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

MEADOWS] 

Cattle diet and daily gains on a mountain riparian 

meadow in northeastern Oregon. Journal of 

Range Management 35(6), 745-747. 

The authors evaluated cattle weight gains, diet 

botanical composition, and diet quality on riparian 

meadow range in eastern Idaho. Pregnant yearling 

heifers were used to evaluate livestock performance. 

Esophohageally fistulated cows were used to evaluate 

diet quality and diet botanical composition. Cattle 

diets showed little difference in botanical 

composition between periods or years. Grasses 

comprised an average of 80 percent of the diet during 

the 3-year study period. Kentucky bluegrass was the 

most important grass in cattle diets and had the 

highest percent cover on the study pastures. Daily 

gains were erratic between and within years 

averaging .41 kglday for 3 years. Average daily gains 

on the meadow were better than or equal to those 

reported in other studies. Separate fencing and 

deferred grazing of mountain meadows could 

improve cattle performance and aid ranchers in 

gathering cattle at the end of the grazing season. 

Deferred grazing should result in pasture 

improvement and provide better habitat for nesting 

birds but cost of fencing would be a primary 

disadvantage. 

[ECONOMICS; GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING 

TREATMENTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

782. Holl,RG (1982): Grazing non-point source 

control strategy. Prepared under an interagency 

agreement between the US Environmental 

Protection Agency, Region 8, Denver CO, and the 

USDl Bureau of Land Management. 24 p. 

The Clean Water Act (PL95-217, 1977), Section 

208(b)(2)(F), requires that various non-point sources 

of pollution, including runoff from land managed for 

livestock production, be identified, and to the extent 

possible, controlled. The strategy contained in this 

document provides guidance for the prevention and 

control of non-point source water quality degradation 

resulting from livestock use of public land. It 

describes procedures for identifying problem areas 

and those remedial measures to maintain water 

quality or reduce water pollution. 

[CLEAN WATER ACT; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY] 

783. Hollands,GG (1990): Regional analysis of 

the creation and restoration of kettle and pothole 

wetlands. p.281-296. In: Wetland creation and 

restoration. The status of the science. Island Press. 

Washington, DC. 
Kettles are topographic basins created by a 

variety of glacial processes and occur randomly 

throughout glaciated regions. They are associated 

with both permeable and impermeable deposits. They 

may have complex hydrology but are divided into 

two general hydrologic types: those associated with 

surface streams and those without inlets or outlets. 

Water hydrology depends on whether kettles are 

associated with permeable or low permeable 

deposits. A primary concern with creating kettle 

wetlands is establishment of the proper hydrology. 

There is little research available specific to kettle and 

pothole creation and restoration. 

[HYDROLOGY; POTHOLES; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

784. Honey,WD; Seidler,RJ; Klingeman,PC 

(1984): Riparian zone systems, uses and 

management. USDI Geological Survey, Water 

Resources Division. Reston, VA. Report No. 

USGSIG-864-22.78 p. 

This paper is a comprehensive review of the 

status of knowledge regarding riparian zone systems, 

uses, and management. Part 1 describes natural 

features and processes found in riparian zones. Part I1 

describes major types of human uses and the 

management methods that have evolved to sustain 

those uses. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

785. Hooke,JM (1979): An analysis of the 

processes of river bank erosion. Journal of 

Hydrology 42,39-62. 

Field observations were shown to aid 

considerably in understanding the processes of 

removal during river bank erosion. Two main 

methods of river bank removal were identified, 

corrosion and slumping, and these appear to be 

associated with the influence of river flow levels and 

antecedent precipitation conditions, respectively. 

Antecedent precipitation index emerged as the 

variable that provided the highest explanation of the 

erosion characteristics, but the diversity of results 

from different sites illustrates the complex 

combinations of conditions related to erosion events. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; 

STREAMBANK PROTECTION] 

786. Hoover,SL; King,DA; Matter,WJ (1985): A 

wilderness riparian environment: Visitor 

satisfaction, perceptions, reality, and 

management. p.223-226. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

Itech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Visitors to the Mt. Baldy Wilderness Area in 

northeast Arizona, though generally satisfied with 

their recreation experience, cited distraction from 

cattle, fishermen, and other people. Perceptions 

closely matched real-world values. Attributes given 

the highest desirability ratings were mostly features 

that prevail in healthy riparian systems. Management 

that maintains or enhances the ecological integrity of 

an area may also contribute to its potential recreation 

value. 

[ECONOMIC VALUES; RECREATION IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOCIAL VALUES] 

787. Horak,GC (1979): The status and success of 

fish and wildlife mitigation in western water 

resource projects, 1949-1979. p. 391-395. In: 

Swanson,GA led.]. The mitigation symposium: A 

national workshop on mitigating losses of fish and 

wildlife habitat. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-65. 

This paper summarizes six research projects 

analyzing the formulation, acceptance, and 

implementation of 600 fish and wildlife 

recommendations as well as the effectiveness of these 

measures to preserve of improve populations and 

habitats in twenty states west of the Mississippi 

River. Recommendations are offered to improve the 

effectiveness of fish and wildlife measures. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

788. Horak,GC (1989): Integrated riparian 

planning in the urban setting. p.41-44. In: 

Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL 1eds.l. 

Practical approaches to riparian resource 

management. An educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 

1989. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Billings,MT. 

The city of Ft. Collins, Colorado has 

implemented an innovative approach to riparian area 

creation and preservation. The solid foundation 

provided by previous planning products (open space, 

basin master, urban fishery, wildlife, and national 

recreation plans) are contributing to sensible 

decisions concerning riparian areas. Environmental 

advantages are complemented by functional values 

such as flood control and recreational benefits. 

[PLANNING; RIPARlAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 
789. Horton,JE (1973): Evapotranspiration and 

water research as related to riparian and 

phreatophyte management - An abstract 

bibliography. USDA Forest Service. Miscellaneous 

Publication No. 1234. 192 p. 

This bibliography, containing 7 13 entries, 

emphasizes moist-site vegetation, both phreatophyte 

and riparian, but watershed and plot studies were 

included where they were helpful in determining the 

effect of vegetation management on water yield. 

Methods of estimating or measuring water losses 

were given full coverage. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; VEGETATION 

MANAGEMENT; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

790. Horton,JS (1966): Problems of land 

management in the various phreatophyte zones. 

p.1-6. In: Vegetation management on flood plains 

and riparian lands. Phreatophyte symposium. 30 

August 1966. Albuquerque, NM. 

Water shortages in the Southwest began to 

become apparent about the same time that tamarisk 

(an introduced ornamental) began to aggressively 

spread along major flood plains. In mountainous 

areas streams and rivers have a wide variety of 

vegetation types which depend on amounts of 

flowing water, elevation, and amount and character 

of alluvial deposits. Removing shade along these 

streams will increase water temperature, which will 

create greater evaporation losses. 

[PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

791. Horton,JS (1977): The development and 

perpetuation of the permanent tamarisk type in 

the phreatophyte zone of the Southwest. 

p.124-127. In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. 

coord.]. Importance, preservation, and 

management of the permanent tamarisk type in 

the phreatophyte zone of the Southwest: A 

symposium. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report RM-43. 

Several species of tamarisk (salt-cedar) 

introduced to this country as ornamentals have 

become naturalized and have become a dominant 

shrub along Southwestern rivers. Its aggressive 

characteristics suit it to be a permanent dominant in 

much of the phreatophyte vegetation of this region. 

Successful management of this vegetation must 

carefully consider its ecological characteristics. 

[PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SALT-CEDAR] 

792. Horton,JS; Campbel1,CJ (1974): 

Management of phreatophyte and riparian 

vegetation for maximum multiple use values. 

USDA Forest Service. Research Paper RM-117.23 

P . This paper reviews the status of our knowledge 

about environmental relations of vegetation along 

water courses in the southwestern U.S. and the 

impacts of vegetation management to reduce 

evapotranspiration on other resource values. 

Measurement and evaluation of water losses from 

moist-site vegetation, ecological relationships, other 

resource uses of phreatophyte and riparian areas, and 

control methods are described. Management 

approaches of moist-site areas by zones are described 

based primarily on water table depth, elevation, and 

tree species. 

[MULTIPLE USE; PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

793. Horton,JS; Robinson,TW; McDonald,HR 

(1964): Guide for surveying phreatophyte 

vegetation. USDA Agricultural Handbook 266.37 

P - 

The extent and nature of vegetation cover is 

essential information for planning treatments of the 

vegetation and estimating potential water savings or 

other events. Vegetative surveys require an 

economical sampling scheme that can be repeated 

and will yield data that are precise enough to be 

reliable. 

[PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

794. Hostetler,SW (1991): Analysis and modeling 

of long-term stream temperatures on the 

Steamboat Creek Basin, OR; Implications for 

land use and management. Water Resources 

Bulletin 27(4), 637-647. 

Steamboat Creek Basin is an important source of 

timber but also is crucial habitat for steelhead trout. 

Stream temperatures have gradually decreased since 

major logging operations ceased in 1969, but most 

tributaries are still at the upper limit of tolerance for 

survival ofjuvenile steelhead. Changes in forest 

management practices have somewhat lessened the 

logging effects on stream temperatures, but there is 

little margin for increases in temperature stemming 

from land-use in the watershed or natural causes. 

[FISHERIES; LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; STREAM TEMPERATURE] 

795. House,RA; Boehne,PL (1985): Evaluation of 

instream enhancement structures for salmonid 
spawning and rearing in a coastal Oregon stlteam. 

North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management 5(2B), 283-295. 

The authors present the example of a stream in 

Oregon that lost much of its productivity as an 

andromonous salmonid stream following logging 

activities, intensive stream cleaning, and flooding. 

The stream was almost totally devoid of instream 

structures, resulting in a nearly total lack of spawning 

gravel and rearing habitat. Stream enhancement 

structures were successful and functional after two 

winters. Structures greatly increased the diversity of 

the stream bed, trapped gravel, and created shallow 

gravel bars and deep, covered pools. Number, size, 

and quality of pools increased in areas with 

structures. Coho salmon and steelhead spawning and 

numbers increased substantially. The study shows 

that similar degraded streams can be rehabilitated by 

properly designed enhancement programs. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

796. House,RA; Crispin,V (1990): Economic 

analyses of the value of large debris as salmonid 

habitat in coastal Oregon streams. USDI Bureau 

of Land Management. Oregon State Office. 

Technical Note OR-7-6512. Portland OR. 11 p. 

Management scenarios which involved stream 

rehabilitation with large woody debris additions and 

rehabilitation combined with conifer harvest from the 

riparian zone showed greater short-term fishery 

benefits than leaving a stream under a low debris 

loading level. However, the best long-term economic 

alternative to maintain salmonid productivity in 

coastal streams is through maintenance of mature 

coniferous riparian zones under continuous high 

debris loading. 

[INSTREAM STRUCTURES; LARGE WOODY 

DEBRIS; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARlAN 

RESTORATION; SALMONIDS] 

797. Howard,RJ; Larson,JE (1985): A stream 

habitat classification for beaver. Journal of 

Wildlife Management 49(1), 19-25. 

Beaver habitat use over a 28-year period 

permitted development and testing of two models for 

predicting density of active beaver colonies on 

streams. Principal components regression, a 

technique that reduced the confounding effects of 

closely correlated ecological variables found in 

earlier studies of this type, and discriminant analysis 

were used for model development. In mixed 

coniferous-deciduous forest habitat, the percentage of 

hardwood vegetation, watershed size, and stream 

width had significant positive effects on active 

colony density. Increasing stream gradient and 

progressively well-drained soils had negative effects. 

[BEAVER, HABITAT MANAGEMENT; 

MODELING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

798. Howard-Williams,C; Pickmere,S; Davies,J 

(1986): Nutrient retention and processing in New 

Zealand streams: The influence of riparian 

vegetation. New Zealand Agricultural Science 

20(2), 11-1 14. 

[NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

799. Howe,WH; Knopf,FL (1991): On the 

imminent decline of Rio Grande cottonwoods in 

central New Mexico. The Southwestern Naturalist 

36(2), 2 18-224. 

Increment cores from 144 Fremont cottonwoods 

were taken at three riparian woodland sites along the 

Rio Grande in New Mexico. Trees at two study sites 

averaged 38.8 and 43.2 years old. All trees fewer 

than 26 years old at those sites were root suckers 

from older trees whose primary trunks had decayed. 

The third site, one of a few known locations where 

young trees were present, had 75 percent of the trees 

between 5 and 25 years old. Cottonwood recruitment 

generally, but not always, could be associated with 

years of overbank flooding. The combination of a 

paucity of cottonwood regeneration over the last 30 

years, the rapid colonization during this century of 

Russian-olive and salt-cedar into the valley, and 

current river channel management practices suggest 

that the Rio Grande riparian woodland will become 

dominated by the exotic shrubs over the next 50 to 

100 years. To assure the continued survival of the 

cottonwood riparian community along the Rio 

Grande, resource managers need to implement 

strategies to enhance cottonwood regeneration and 

survival and to control the spread of exotics. 

[COTTONWOOD; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

800. Hruby,T (1999): Assessments of wetland 

functions: What they are and what they are not. 

Environmental Management 23(1), 75-85. 

In this assessment, methods for generating 

information about wetlands were analyzed to 

understand their similarities, differences, and the type 

of information they provide. Rapid assessment 

methods based on mechanistic models do not assess 

the rates or dynamics of ecological processes in 

wetlands. This is a limitation that is frequently 

misunderstood. Advantages and limitations of these 
approaches are discussed. 

[ASSESSMENTS; MODELING; WETLANDS 

801. Hubbard,JP (1977): Importance of rip rian 

ecosystems: Biotic considerations. p.14-18. I 

Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.]. Proce ings 

of the Symposium on the importance, 

habitat. 9 July 1977. Tucson AZ. 

i 

preservation, and management of the ripariab 

The southwest states of New Mexico and 

Arizona are among the richest of any in the US^ as 

far as biotic diversity and richness. They also dilplay 

significant and important area-to-area differencqs in 

the composition of biota occupying similar situ tions. 

Riparian ecosystems are described in terms oft eir 

[BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

4 

importance in perpetuating these varied resourc&s. 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

802. Hubbs,C; Miller,RR; Edwards,RJ; 

Thompson,KW; Marsh,E; Garrett,GP; 

Powell,CL; Morris,DJ; Zerr,RW; ~ohnson,Rk; 

Jones,DA (1977): Fishes inhabiting the Rio 

Grande, Texas and Mexico, between El Paso nd 

the Pecos confluence. p.91-99. In: Johnson,R ; 

Jones,DA [tech. coord.]. Importance, 

preservation, and management of riparian 

i 

habitats: A symposium. 9 July 1977. Tucson, Z. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Re rt 

RM-43. 

It 

The fishes of the middle part of the Rio Grapde 

can be divided into three faunal assemblages: th$ 

saline Rio Grande fauna (made up of widely 

distributed and salt tolerant species) upstream fr$m 

the Conchos confluence, the Rio Conchos-Rio 

Grande fauna (mostly south Texas and Mexican 

species) in the Rio Grande between the Conchosl and 

Pecos, and the tributary creek fauna (~hihuahuab 

species plus some derivatives) that depend on 

tributary creeks for all or part of their life history 

stages. 

[FISHERIES; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

803. Hubert,WA; Lanka,RP; Wesche,TA; 

Stabler,F (1985): Grazing management influqces 

on two brook trout streams in Wyoming. 

p.290-294. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. co@d.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985) 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

The abundance of brook trout and instream 

habitat characteristics were evaluated in two 

rangeland streams. Heavily grazed and lightly grazed 

reaches of two streams with different grazing 

measurements were compared. Relationships 

between stream morphology, riparian zone 

characteristics, and trout abundance were observed. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; STREAM 

ECOLOGY; TROUT] 

804. Hudak,HG; Ketcheson,GL (1992): Willow 

community types as influenced by valley bottom 

and stream types. p.16-17. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,B; Wambolt,CL 

(comp.]. Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

An interdisciplinary team conducted inventories 

of willow community types in the Sawtooth National 

Forest of south central Idaho. Stands dominated by 

one or several willow species were related to 

elevation, parent material, substrate, stream gradient, 

and configuration of the valley floor. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WILLOW] 

805. Huerta,YC; Medina,AL; Sanchez,XM; 

Reyes,TS (1995): A preliminary classification of 

the riparian vegetation of El Carrizal in Tapalpa, 

Jalisco, Mexico. p.128-133. In Partnerships for 

sustainable forest ecosystem management: Fifth 

Mexico1U.S. biennial symposium. 17-20 October 

1994; Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-266. 

The primary objective of this study was to 

identify a classification for the riparian vegetation of 

"El Carrizal" watershed in Tapalpa, Jalisco, Mexico. 

The classification was proposed for application to: 1) 

better understand the structure and composition of 

the riparian vegetation; 2) provide a point of 

reference for other riparian studies where 

comparisons of types, species, etc. could be made; 3) 

provide basic, essential information for the 

development of watershed management plans; 4) 

provide a basis for defining critical wildlife habitat; 

and 5) provide a model for assessing the condition of 

other watersheds in the region. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

806. Hughes,D (1996): Restoring native riparian 

vegetation. p.262-264. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM 

[tech. coord.]. Desired future conditions for 

Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 
807. Hughes,RM (1985): Use of watershed 

characteristics to select control streams for 

estimating effects of metal mining wastes on 

extensively disturbed streams. Environmental 

Management 9(3), 253-262. 

Impacts of sediments and heavy metals on t e 

biota of streams in copper-mined areas of south ! e: 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

In the lower Pecos Basin, an unusual coalitic 

conservationists, agriculture producers, business 

owners, and state agencies have joined together 

save what is left of the once naturally diverse Pecos 

River ecosystem. This organization is going to st 

a state-of-the-art, economical, effective, efficient, 

environmentally safe method to control salt-ceda* 

and reestablish native riparian vegetation. The 

objectives of the project were to realize native 

wetlands and wildlife habitat improvement throu;h 

salt-cedar management and to monitor possible 

hydrologic effects. 

[PARTNERSHIPS; PECOS RIVER; RIPARIAh 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

Montana were examined by comparing aquatic 

communities of impacted streams with those of 

control streams. Control streams were chosen 

through the use of a technique that identifies sim 

streams based on commonalities in their watershe 

characteristics. Significant differences between 

impacted and control sites existed for surface 

substrate, riparian vegetation? and the number of 

macroinvertebrate taxa. Results led to the 

conclusions that: 1) chemical and physical habita 

the impacted sites were disrupted; 2) the presencl 

trout was an inadequate measure of ecological 

integrity; and 3) watershed classification based o 

combination of mapped terrestrial characteristics 

provided a reasonable method to select control si 

[MACROINVERTEBRATES; MINING IMPAC 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SEDIMENTATION; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

n of 

t:, 

ow 

and 

808. Huisman,J; Weissing,FJ (1994): Lightlimited growth and competition for light in wc 

mixed aquatic environments: An elementary 

model. Ecology 75(2), 507-520. 

A model is investigated for light-limited gra 

and competition among phytoplankton species ir 

mixed water column. Some of the conclusions w 

1) outcome of competition for light may depend 

the light supply; 2) the compensation point is no 

good predictor for the outcome of competition; : 

resource ratio hypothesis does not apply when 

st 

ir 

I 

; at 

of 

a 

:s. 

rs; 

I 

iith 

a 

re: 

~n 

a 

the 

species compete for both nutrients and light. The 

outcome of competition for nutrients and light may 

depend on the nutrient and light supply, the mixing 

depths, and the background turbidity due to 

inanimate substances. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; LIGHT 

ABSORPTION; NUTRIENT CYCLES] 

809. Hunt,PG; Stone,KC; Humenik,FJ; 

Matheny,TA; Johnson,MH (1999): In-stream 

wetland mitigation of nitrogen contamination in a 

USA coastal plain stream. Journal of 

Environmental Quality 28,249-256. 

Non-point source N from riverine origin is a 

major water quality problem. In this study, nitrogen 

removal from a contaminated stream was evaluated 

using an in-stream wetland (ISW). Total annual N 

removal for the ISW was approximately 37 percent 

of the inflow N. ISW's appear to be a very good 

landscape feature for mitigating excess non-point 

source N in coastal plains. They are also a 

complement to other best management practices to 

improve water quality. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; 

CONTAMINATION; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY] 

810. Hunter,BA; Johnson,MS; Thompson,DJ 

(1989): Ecotoxicology of copper and cadmium in a 

contaminated grassland ecosystem. IV. Tissue 

distribution and age accumulation in small 

mammals. Journal of Applied Ecology 26,89-99. 

In order to assess the potential toxicological 

significance of accumulated metals in wild small 

mammals, both the tissue distribution and dynamics 

of age accumulation of metals in populations of 

animals from contaminated environments were 

established. This paper examines both these issues in 

small mammals inhabiting grasslands contaminated 

by metal refinery emissions. Species examined: 

common shrew (Sorex araneus L.), field vole 

(Microtus agrestis L.), wood mouse (Apodemus 

sysvaticus L.). 

[CONTAMINATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SMALL MAMMALS; TOXICOLOGY] 

81 1. Hunter,WC; Anderson,BW; Ohmart,RD 

(1985): Summer avian community composition of 

tamarix habitats in three southwestern desert 

riparian systems. p.128-134. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 
General Technical Report RM-120. 

Avian response to salt-cedar was assessed 1 

data from three southwestern river systems. Spe 

were grouped by breeding biology and groups 

responded differently in their occurrence in salt. 

among the valleys. Differences may be explaine 

biogeographical and climatic factors. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SALT-CEDAR] 

812. Huntoon,VG (1979): Public input in 

decision-making. p.65-67. In: Cope,OB led.]. 

Forum: Grazing and riparianlstream ecosysl 

3-4 November 1978. Denver, CO. Trout 

Unlimited, Inc. 

This paper describes ways to involve the pl 

in agency decision-making and emphasizes the 

importance of public participation. Appropriate 

timely public involvement reduces criticism an( 

facilitates the execution of goals and policies. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; PUBLIC COMMENT: 

RIPARlAN ISSUES] 

813. Hurd,EG; Goodrich,S; Shaw,NL (1994 

Field guide to Intermountain rushes. USDA 

Service. General Technical Report INT-306. 

This guide provides technical descriptions 

Intermountain rushes (Juncus spp.), including t 

common and several less abundant species. Lin 

drawings and color or black and white photos 

illustrate diagnostic characteristics of each spec 

An illustrated morphology and a glossary acqu; 

the lay person with terminology used to classif: 

rushes. The guide is intended as a tool to aid in 

classification; it is not inclusive. 

[CLASSIFICATION; GRAMINOIDS; RIPAR 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RU 

WETLANDS] 

814. Hurd,EG; Shaw,NL (1991): Seed tech] 

of Carex and Juncus species of the lntermou 

Region. p.74-83. In: Proceedings, Intermour 

Forest Nursery Association. 12-16 August l! 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Re 

RM-211. 

Seed technology is being developed for cc 

sedges and common rushes of the lntermounta 

Region to evaluate the feasibility of propagatir 

container stock from seed as well as from vege 

material. Germination requirements vary amor 

species. Pre-treatments are being developed to 

enhance germination. 

[PLANT MATERIALS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; SEED PRODUCTION] 

3 

ar 

1' 

2. 

est 

P. 

3 

J 

3; 

'gY 

in 

R 

't 

I on 

ve 

815. Hurd,EG; Shaw,NL (1993): Influence of dry 

storage on seed viability and germination of eight 

intermountain rushes. p.220. In: Tellman,& 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech.coord.J. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

Results to date indicate that seeds of these rush 

species can be maintained in dry storage for at least 

two years. Successful propagation of rushes from 

seed will require further study of germination 

requirements for individual species and populations. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RUSHES; SEED 

PRODUCTION] 

816. Hurd,EG; Shaw,NL; Mastrogiuseppe,J; 

Linda,LC; Goodrich,S (1998): Field guide to 

intermountain sedges. USDA Forest Service. 

Rocky Mountain Research Station General 

Technical Report RMRS-GTR-10. 

The field guide provides descriptions of 

morphological characteristics, habitat, and 

geographic distributions for 114 sedges (Carex spp.). 

The text includes a dichotomous key, color 

photographs, line drawings, discussions highlighting 

differences, an illustrated morphology, glossary, and 

an index of common names. 

[GRAMINOIDS; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SEDGES] 

817. Huryn,AD; Wallace,JB (1987): Local 

geomorphology as a determinant of macrofaunal 

production in a mountain stream. Ecology 68(6), 

1932-1 942. 

The authors compared the distributions of 

functional group production among different habitats 

in an Appalachian mountain stream. Local 

geomorphology determined the diversity and spatial 

distribution of bedrock-outcrops, riffles, and pools in 

the study stream. The functional structure of the 

macrofauna, however, when viewed holistically, was 

the result of the integration of the relative 

contributions of each habitat type of total stream 

area. The distribution of habitat-weighted production 

among functional groups was: collector-gatherers (39 

percent), followed by shredders (22 percent), 

scrapers (1 3 percent), and collecter-filterers (8 

percent). The fimctional structure agreed favorably 

with other conceptual models of headwater streams 

draining forested catchments. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; MACROFAUNA; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 
818. Huser,VC (1985): The use of third-party 

interveners in negotiated settlements: Lessons 

from the past ten years. p.439-42. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

A decade of experience in the use of third-party 

interveners to settle riparian ecosystem management 

conflicts allowed the author to suggest a number of 

lessons for addressing conflict, for designing forums 

to enable disputing parties to negotiate, and for 

reaching meaningful, realistic implementable 

decisions. 

[COLLABORATION; CONFLICT RESOLUTION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

819. Hussey,MR; Skinner,QD; Adams,JC; 

Harvey,AJ (1985): Denitrification and bacterial 

numbers in riparian soils of a Wyoming mountain 

watershed. Journal of Range Management 38(6), 

492-496. 

Presence and activity of denitrifying bacteria and 

bacteria capable of reducing sulfate were studied on 

both upland and riparian soils in Wyoming. Bacteria 

were enumerated from soil samples collected during 

summer along transects placed perpendicular to 

stream flow. Higher counts of total heterotrophic 

aerobic bacteria, sulfate-reducing bacteria, 

denitrifying bacteria, and denitrification potential 

existed in the upper 5 to 15 cm of soil than at 30 cm. 

Soils located next to the stream edge tended to have 

more bacterial activity than those hrther from the 

stream, indicating that these soils may be important 

areas for nitrate and sulfate reduction. Soil organic 

matter and water content decreased with depth in all 

plant communities, and those closer to the stream 

contained more organic matter and water than those 

farther from the stream. 

[MICROBIOLOGY; NUTRIENT CYCLES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

820. Hyatt,JM; Cole,EC; Newton,M (1991): The 

effects of animal damage upon the growth of 

western hemlock seedlings in riparian zones of the 

Oregon Coast Range. In: Abstracts of the 

sixty-fourth annual meeting of the Northwest 

Scientific Association. 20-22 March 1991. Boise 

State University. Boise, ID. 

Effects of deer and lagomorph damage on 

western hemlock and its subsequent growth were 

examined for four years after planting. Growth of 

seedlings exhibiting similar levels of damage was 

compared when growing under different levels of 

competition. As vegetative competition increased, 

seedling growth decreased. The occurrence of deer 

damage decreased as cover increased, whereas 

lagomorph damage increased as cover increased. 

[DEER BROWSING; LAGOMORPHS] 

821. Ice,GG (1996): Approaches to solving nonpoint source issues. p.74-79. In: National 

hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 April - 1 

May 1992. Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

Numerous difficult non-point source issues are 

currently being addressed by western state agencies 

using innovative approaches. Issues include 

managing for cumulative effects, how to 

cooperatively manage in mixed-ownership 

watersheds, development and monitoring of load 

allocations for non-point sources, revisions to nonpoint source control programs, assessing BMP 

effectiveness, and application of antidegradation 

water quality standards. Many of these issues present 

almost intractable technical or social difficulties. A 

number of special approaches are being followed by 

states to address these concerns. These include: 

panels of experts, detailed decision strategies, 

adaptive management, interdisciplinary team 

assessments, cooperative watershed planning, and 

focused forest practice regulations. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

822. Idaho Cattle Association (1985): Epidemic 

strikes --ripariopsychorrhea. The Line Rider. 2(8), 

1,8. 

RIPARIOPSYCHORRHEA refers to a person 

that talks about stream banks in an endless flow of 

words that do not reflect a natural evolution that is a 

constant factor in all streams. People afflicted will 

present a normal appearance until they approach a 

stream bank, at which time moaning, trembling, and 

teeth gnashing occur. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN ISSUES] 

823. Idaho Department of Health and Welfare 

(1987): Riparian areas: What are they and what 

do they do. In: Clean Water, the newsletter of the 

Idaho Water Quality Bureau, 450 W. State St., 

Boise, ID. 83720. 

Riparian areas are those adjacent green zones 

along the banks of rivers and streams. The term is 

used in a broader sense to refer to similar areas 

around springs, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. Riparian 
areas are sometimes classified as "wetlands', a 

broader term referring to areas subjected to 

saturation with water and having soil and 

characteristics that separate it from 

Unlike riparian areas, wetlands can 

areas of land such as bogs and swamps. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER QUALITY] 

824. Idaho Department of Health and ~elfalte. 

(1988): Idaho water quality status report and 1 

point source assessment 1988. Division of 

Environmental Quality. Water Quality Bureal 

State of Idaho. 138 p. 

The purpose of this report was to provide an 

assessment of the water quality of rivers, lakes, a 

groundwater in the state of Idaho, that were bein) 

impacted by non-point, point, and toxic pollutant 

The report was also intended to satisfy the 

requirements of Sections 3 19,305b, 304, and 3 11 

the federal Water Quality Act. It also serves as a 

management tool for targeting priority waters an1 

implementing pollution control strategies. 

[NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATEI 

QUALITY] 

825. Idaho Partners in Flight (1998): Riparia 

riches: Habitat management for birds in Idah 

P . No habitat type is more important to more b 

species than riparian habitat. The ldaho Partners 

Flight is a coalition of federal and state agencies 

private citizens, non-governmental groups, and t 

forest products industry, formed as part of a 

hemispheric effort to save bird populations. The 

recommendations contained in this pamphlet ha1 

single purpose - to maintain or restore structural 

diverse, healthy native plant communities for tht 

benefit of birds and other wildlife. 

[AVIFAUNA; CONSENSUS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

826. Ingebo,PA (1971): Suppression of 

channel-side chaparral cover increases 

streamflow. Journal of Soil and Water 

Conservation 26(2), 79-81. 

Shrubs and trees in an experimental waters1 

central Arizona were chemically suppressed. Bc 

duration and volume of streamflow increased in 

two years following treatment. Intermittent 

streamflow became continuous. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN MANAGEMEN7 

ZONE; STREAM FLOW] 

827. Interagency Wetlands Coordinating Bc 

(1989): Wise use and protection of federally 

managed wetlands: The federal land management 

agency role. Proceedings of the workshop, 18-20 

October 1989. Harpers Ferry, WV. 

At the invitation of US EPA, staff from nine 

federal agencies participated as speakers and 

audience in a 3-day workshop on policy, 

coordination, and cooperation on wetland land 

management issues. The workshop focused on 

further enhancing wise use and protection of 

wetlands on federal lands by: 1) understanding what 

a wetland is; 2) understanding key points of agencies' 

missions and programs; 3) understanding constraints 

and opportunities; and 4) developing a list of 

common issues and concerns. 

[POLICY; RIPARlAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

828. Irizarry,RA (1969): The effects of stream 

alteration in Idaho. ldaho Fish and Game Dept., 

Federal Aid in Fish and Wildlife Restoration Job 

Completion Report F55-R-2, Boise, ID. 26 p. 

Approximately 300 miles of streams were 

studied in Idaho, of which 29.8 percent had 

undergone alteration. About one alteration per stream 

mile was found, with the average length of a channel 

alteration being 1,6 17 feet. Of the channel changes, 

encroachment was responsible for 59 percent of the 

alterations, 22 percent was due to channel relocation, 

15 percent to mining, 8 percent railroad construction, 

5 percent flood control, and 4 percent agricultural 

practices. Almost seven times more catchable trout 

and over 60 X as many whitefish were censused in 

unaltered (natural) sections. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

829. IrvineJR; West,NE (1979): Riparian tree 

species distribution and succession along the lower 

Escalante River, Utah. The Southwestern 

Naturalist 24(2), 331-346. 

The Escalante River is one of the few 

Southwestern rivers that have escaped impoundment. 

Livestock grazing and wood cutting have also been 

minimal because of the rugged canyon topography. 

Therefore, it was possible to relate distribution of 

trees and successional status of the geologic strata, 

river bank morphology, and river flow. Populus 

fremontii was found only on the broad flood terraces 

in wide sections of the upper part of the study area. 

Major populations of Tamarix pentandra was found 

in the section of the canyon where large boulders 

provided protection from the full force of flooding 

water. Salix exigua occurred throughout the study 

area, but was least dense in the narrower, steeper 
stretches of the canyon where tamarisk occurre, 

Recolonization of lower terraces occurs from h 

terraces after each major flooding event. Tamar 

seems to increase in density if river flow is 

diminished by impoundments. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS; STREAM ECOLOGY] 

830. Isabelle,PS; Fooks,LJ; Keddy,PA (198 

Effects of roadside snowmelt on wetland 

vegetation: An experimental study. Journal 

Environmental Management 25,57-60. 

Mixtures of wetland plant seeds were sow1 

supplied with roadside snowmelt, diluted snow 

and tap water to test the hypothesis that water 

produced by melting roadside snow can affect 

wetland plant community structure. After one r 

of growth, community biomass, species diversi 

evenness, and richness all decreased significan. 

with increasing snowmelt concentration. Road: 

snowmelt may have profound effects on wetlar 

plant community structure. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SNOW MELT; WA7 

QUALITY; WETLANDS] 

831. Ischinger,LS; Schneller-McDonald,K 

(1988): Wetland restoration and creation in 

west: what do we really know? p.29-42. In: 

Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Mil1er;LE 

[eds.]. Restoration, creation, and manageme 

wetland and riparian ecosystems in the Amc 

West. Proceedings of the symposium. 14-16 

November 1988. Denver, CO. Rocky Mount 

Chapter of the Society of Wetland Scientist5 

This is an analysis of articles collected an( 

documented in the USDI Fish and Wildlife Sel 

wetland creationlrestoration data base. Of 1,00 

records in the data base, 79 deal with non-coa: 

freshwater wetlands in the West. Of the 79 rec 

30 are concerned with the restoration of riparii 

areas, and 34 cite the creation or restoration of 

wildlife habitat as a major objective. The avail 

of quality data from baseline studies, qualitati~ 

quantitative measurements of wetland functior 

monitoring efforts are discussed. Research nee 

addressed. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; CREATED WETLANDS 

LACUSTRINE ECOLOGY; RESEARCH; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

832. Ives,RL (1942): The beaver-meadow 

complex. Journal of Geomorphology 5,191, 

Beaver work, in conjunction with sedime~ 

and plant growth, is an important factor in the 

creation and continued existence of large, wet 

meadows in the mountainous parts of Colorado. 

Interrelations of beaver work, sedimentation, and 

plant growth are described, and the apparent relations 

of this beaver-meadow complex to other valley 

features are briefly discussed. 

[BEAVER; GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

833. Jackson,AJ; Grimm,NB; Marti,E; 

Fisher,SG (1997): Denitrification within algal 

mats along a nitrate gradient in a Sonoran Desert 

stream. p.116. Abstracts. 1997 Annual meeting of 

the Ecological Society of America jointly with The 

Nature Conservancy. 10-14 August 1997. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

This study examined factors controlling 

denitrification within algal mats and measured the 

contribution of the process to nitrate loss. 

Denitrification rates decreased downstream 

concomitantly with nitrate concentration, suggesting 

nitrate limitation of denitrification. Ammonium, 

dissolved organic nitrogen, and dissolved organic 

carbon concentrations did not exhibit any 

longitudinal pattern. Denitrification rates were higher 

during the day than at night. Denitrification in the 

algal mat could account for up to 35 percent of the 

decrease in nitrate concentration along the stream 

reach. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

834. Jackson,SG; Kadlec,JA (1988): Recent 

flooding of wetlands around Great Salt Lake, 

Utah. p. 120-125. In: Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; 

Scott,MI; Miller,LK; [eds.]. Restoration, creation, 

and management of wetland and riparian 

ecosystems in the American West. Proceedings of 

the symposium. 14-16 November 1988. Denver, 

CO. Rocky Mountain Chapter of the Society of 

Wetland Scientists. 

Within the past 25 years, the Great Salt Lake 

level has ranged from 4 191.6 ft in 1963 to 42 1 1.85 in 

1987. This represents a change in the surface area of 

almost threefold. Since that high level the lake level 

has been dropping steadily. Thousands of acres of 

former emergent marsh has been exposed and is 

already regenerating. Researchers are optimistic that 

the marshes will recover fully as the lake level drops. 

[LACUSTRINE ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; SALT MARSHES; WATER 

LEVELS] 

835. Jackson,TJ (1986): Soil water modeling and 

remote sensing. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience 
and Remote Sensing 24(1), 37-46. 

Soil modeling research was reviewed alon 

other relevant studies. Research was categorize 

follows: review of models, development of 

simulation models, integrating remotely sensec 

and models, surface versus profile soil moistur 

estimating soil water properties. This review at 

evaluation found that some of the major object 

the program were satisfied and that several oft 

results represent significant contributions to thc 

science. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; REMOTE 

SENSING; SOILS] 

836. Jackson,W; Martinez,T; Cuplin,P; 

Minckley,WL; Shelby,B; Summers,P; 

McClothlin,D; VanHaveren,B (1988): Asses 

of water conditions and management 

opportunities in support of riparian values: 

San Pedro River Properties, Arizona. Projel 

Completion Report 88/004+7200. USDI Bur 

Land Management. Denver, CO. 180 p. 

This report presents information on the co 

of water resources and the riparian vegetation 

San Pedro River Management Area. It also jus 

the quantification of instream-dependent uses 

identified in the area and examines and recoml 

strategies for protecting or enhancing the 

water-related values. 

[BLM; GEOMORPHOLOGY; GROUNDWA 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER RIGHTS] 

837. Jackson,WL; Beschta,RL (1984): Infl 

of increased sand delivery on the morpholo 

sand and gravel channels. Water Resources 

Bulletin 20(4), 527-533. 

Increased sand concentrations in transpor 

enable lower stream discharges to transport ril 

gravel materials. The net response of a channc 

increased sand delivery will be to fill pools, ir 

width, and decrease depth. If increases in sanc 

delivery are great enough, gravel features will 

increasingly smothered by deposited sands ev 

though sediment transport rates will have incr 

The increased hydraulic efficiency of the char 

could encourage channel straightening and, th 

steepening of slope. This could also affect ad( 

adjustments in channel cross-sections. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENT TRANSPOR' 

838. Jackson,WL; Hudson$; Gebhardt,K 

(1985): Considerations in rangeland water! 

monitoring. USDI Bureau of Land Managr 

Technical Note. BLMNAIDTl85-006-4341. BLM 

Service Center. Denver, CO. 25 p. 

This paper describes the components of a 

rangeland watershed monitoring plan, distinguishes 

between direct monitoring strategies (sampling) and 

indirect monitoring strategies (modeling), describes 

common watershed monitoring techniques, and 

discusses statistical considerations in sampling 

designs and data analysis. It also describes some 

monitoring principles and concepts but does not 

prescribe applications since these will always need to 

be tailored to meet particular issues, objectives, and 

conditions. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; MONITORING; 

SAMPLING; WATERSHED] 

839. Jackson,WL; VanHaveren,BP (1984): 

Design for a stable channel in coarse alluvium for 

riparian zone restoration. Water Resources 

Bulletin 20(5), 695-703. 

In designing a stable stream channel for a 

degraded segment of Badger Creek, Colorado, and its 

associated riparian and meadow complexes, 

geomorphic, hydraulic, and hydrological principles 

were applied. An objective was to shorten the period 

of time required for a channel in coarse alluvium to 

recover from an impacted morphological state to a 

regime condition representative of current watershed 

conditions. Channel geometry measurements 

describe the stream channel and the normal bankfull 

stage in relatively stable reaches. Critical shear stress 

equations were used to design a stable channel in 

noncohesive materials with dimensions which 

approximate those of less disturbed reaches. Gabion 

controls, spaced at approximately 300 m intervals 

were recommended to help reduce the chance of 

lateral migration of the newly constructed channel. 

The floodplain was designed to dissipate flood flow 

energy and discourage multiple flood channels. 

Above considerations gave the channel 

approximately a 90 percent chance of remaining 

stable the first two years following construction, 

which is the time estimated for increased stability to 

occur. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; STREAM ECOLOGY] 

840. Jackson,WL [ed.] (1986): Engineering 

considerations in small stream management. 

American Water Resources Association 

Monograph Series #5, reprinted from the Water 

Resources Bulletin 22(3):351-415. 

The seven papers in this collection were invited 

for a special session of the American Water 
Resources Association. The purpose was to present 

important concepts, issues and constraints pertaining 

to the design of engineered solutions to small stream 

and riparian problems from a multidisciplinary 

perspective. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STREAM 

ECOLOGY] 

841. Jacobs,DF (1993): The public trust doctrine 

and river conservation. p.85-91. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

Under the public trust doctrine, which governs 

the management and use of tidal and navigable 

waterways, the people have inalienable rights to use 

and enjoy public waterways. The doctrine can be an 

important legal mechanism for river conservation. If 

the states, as trustees, fail to meet their obligations, 

the public can enforce doctrine principles. 

Cooperative planning between entities can eliminate 

much conflict. 

[PUBLIC TRUST DOCTRINE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

842. Jacohs,TC; Gilliam,JW (1985): Riparian 

losses of nitrate from agricultural drainage 

waters. Journal of Environmental Quality 14(4), 

472-478. 

Increased nutrient levels in surface streams and 

eutrophication of Coastal waters has led to inquiries 

about both amount and control of nitrate losses from 

agricultural fields. Where fields were bordered by 

forested buffers, evidence of this study strongly 

indicated that a substantial part of the nitrate in the 

drainage water was denitrified in the buffer strip and 

that assimilation by vegetation was insignificant. The 

extensive floodplain of the natural stream had a high 

capacity to reduce large quantities of N but the low 

total loss from the watershed is largely a result of low 

input to the drainage water from non-point sources. 

[BUFFER ZONES; EUTROPHICATION; NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES] 

843. Jahn,LR (1978): Value of riparian habitats 

to natural ecosystems. p.157-160. In: Proceedings 

of the National Symposium on Strategies for 

protection and management of floodplain 

wetlands and other riparian ecosystems. 11-13 

December 1978. Callaway Gardens, GA. USDA 

Forest Sewicc. General Technical Report 

Riparian vegetation stabilizes soils and supplies 

organic matter that sustains aquatic communities. 

Nutrient-rich silt deposited periodically in these 

habitats by floodwaters enriches soils that support 

bottomland hardwood forests, forage for wildlife and 

livestock, and outdoor recreation. Broader 

applications of management guidelines are required 

to adjust human-related activities in riparian zones. 

[POLICY; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

844. Jahn,LR (1988): Strengthening procedures 

for maintaining wetlands. p.1-8. In: Stuber,PJ 

[tech. coord.]. Proceedings of the national 

symposium on the protection of wetlands from 

agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, 

CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological 

Report 88(16). 

Legal authorities, implementation procedures, 

and management techniques to maintain and enhance 

our wetlands must be strengthened to perpetuate their 

wide array of public values and services. The 

pressing need is for federal, state, and local 

governments to recognize all values associated with 

wetlands and to work actively and cooperatively to 

advance comprehensive wetland maintenance 

programs through the public trust doctrine of law. 

[PUBLIC TRUST DOCTRINE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

845. Jakle,MD; Gatz,TA (1985): Herpetofaunal 

use of four habitats of the Middle Gila River 

Drainage, Arizona. p.355-358. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.l.Riparian ecosystems and their 

management; Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Pit-fall traps and observations were used along 

the Gila River, Arizona, to gather data on reptiles and 

amphibians. Four habitat types were sampled: saltcedar, mesquite bosque, desert wash, and desert 

upland. Twelve species and 104 individuals were 

trapped and another 7 species were observed. Species 

diversity was greatest in the desert wash and lowest 

in the salt-cedar thicket. Reptileslamphibians showed 

little use of the salt-cedar community which may 

reflect the lack of structural diversity in the 

herbaceous layers and reduced light penetration 

because of the dense canopy. 

[HERPETOFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SALTCEDAR] 
846. Jalbert,LM; Heim,M (1993): Rehabilitation 

of sites along the Colorado River through Grand 

Canyon National Park p.192. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH (tech. coord.1. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

An integrated monitoring program assesses 

impacts resulting from recreational use. When the 

Limits of Acceptable Change prescribed in the 

management plan are exceeded, remediation pro-jects 

are planned. Such work includes multiple trail 

eradication, trail delineation/relocation and 

maintenance, recreation site stabilization and 

revegetation. The latter function emphasizes the use 

of native seed. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

847. Jankiewicz,CJ (1984): Cottonwood sprout 

protection. Southwest Habitater 5(6). 

Mature cottonwoods are the most important 

component of riparian area foliar diversity from the 

wildlife point of view on southwestern habitat. There 

have been many proposed solutions to protecting and 

regenerating woody riparian species, In this article, 

livestock exclusion and use of simple exclosures to 

prevent browsing are recommended. 

[COTTONWOOD; EXCLOSURES; LIVESTOCK 

EFFECTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

848. Jankovsky-Jones,M; Rust,SK; Moseley,RK 

(1999): Riparian reference areas in Idaho: A 

catalog of plant associations and conservation 

sites. USDA Forest Service. Rocky Mountain 

Research Station. General Technical Report 

RMRS-GTR-20.141 p. 

Ecological reference areas are remnants of the 

natural landscape preserved as ecological baselines. 

Such sites are fundamental to land management 

where monitoring and the effects of management 

strategies are to be compared or measured. Since 

1984, the Idaho Conservation Data Center, Boise, 

Idaho, has compiled information in a series of 

interrelated databases on the distribution and 

condition of plant associations in high quality 

reference sites. This report summarizes 

association-specific and reference area-specific 

information from databases and presents a 

standardized classification of Idaho riparian and 

wetland plant associations. Summary information 

includes location, management responsibility, site 

description, and a list of all riparian and wetland 

associations that occur in the area. 

[CLASSIFICATION; REFERENCE SITES; 

RIPARIAN; WETLANDS] 

849. Jatnieks-Straumanis,SA; Foote,LE (1988): 

Wetland mitigation banking: How it works in 

Minnesota. Rangelands 10,120-123. 

The banking mitigation process insures that 

decisions made within banking guidelines follow a 

consistent, standardized approach to impact 

assessment/mitigation between various agencies. 

Mutual agreement among all agencies is needed for a 

project to successfully go through the bank. 

[WETLAND MITIGATION BANKING; 

WETLANDS] 

850. Java,BJ; Everett,RL (1992): Rooting 

hardwood cuttings of Sitka and thinleaf alder. 

p.138-141. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

Rooting abilities of woody cuttings were 

evaluated after cold storage and growth regulator 

treatments. No cuttings of Sitka alder rooted in 

response to either treatment. When thin-leaf alder 

cuttings were treated with a solution of 2000 ppm 

indolebutryic acid (NAA) and placed in cold storage 

at 1-3 degrees C for one month, 76 percent rooted, 

compared to 1 1 percent rooting success for untreated 

thin-leaf cuttings. 

[ALDER; CUTTINGS; RlPARlAN 

RESTORATION] 

851. Jayne,JAB (1985): Effects of dryland 

farming on Navajo riparian lands. p.479-481. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH (tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Dryland farming has been recognized by the 

Navajo people as a major cause of accelerated 

erosion, depletion of vegetation, and water shortages 

in their riparian zones. Water and land conservation 

development policies are currently being 

implemented to protect agricultural lands. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; EROSION 

CONTROL; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

852. Jemmison,RL (1993): Associations between 

riparian ecosystem parameters in Happy Valley, 

Arizona. p.233-239. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 
coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The study reported in this paper addressed the 

relationships and associations between hydrologic 

inputs, vegetation, and soils in a low mountain (1,000 

to 2,000 m) riparian ecosystem. Specific observed 

parameters included precipitation, streamflow, water 

table level, vegetation, soils, location relative to 

stream channel, and date of observation. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; WATER 

TABLE EFFECTS] 

853. Jemmison,R (1996): Riparian areas, 

watersheds, and water quality: A panel discussion. 

In: Tellman,B; Finch,DM; Edminster,C; and 

Hamre,R leds.]. 1998. The future of arid 

grasslands: Identifying issues, seeking solutions, 

Proceedings. RMRS-P-3. Tucson, AZ. USDA 

Forest Service. 392 p. 

Location and extent of riparian ecosystems 

depends upon excess water in surrounding 

ecosystems. We also need to know the quantity, 

quality, and source of that water. Reference, or 

exemplary, ecosystems should always be noted 

during investigations to serve as barometers against 

which other sites can be compared. Monitoring of 

environmental parameters such as water quality and 

quantity or the health and abundance of dependent 

species can serve as indications of unbalanced 

ecosystems. 

[HYDROLOGY; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY; WATER QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

854. Jenkins,KJ; Wright,RG (1987): Simulating 

succession of riparian spruce forests and 

white-tailed deer carrying capacity in northwestern Montana. Western Journal of Applied 

Forestry 2(3),80-83. 

Successional modeling demonstrated the effects 

of two timber harvesting strategies on white-tailed 

deer populations. Simulated populations declined 

following two timber harvesting schedules, but 

recovered after cessation of harvest. Gradual but 

continuing deer population decline was predicted for 

activities that increase runoff and erosion. 

[MODELING; POPULATION DYNAMICS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

WHITE-TAILED DEER] 

855. Jensen,SE; Platts,WS (1990): Restoration of 

degraded riverinelriparian habitat in the Great 

Basin and Snake River Regions. p.367-403. In: 

Wetland creation and restoration. The status of 

the science. Island Press. Washington, DC. 

Riverinelriparian habitat (RRH) includes 

interdependent aquatic (riverine) and streamside 

(riparian) resources that are valuable for fish and 

wildlife habitat, flood storage, and 

desynchronization, nutrient cycling and water 

quality, recreation, and heritage values. RRH 

includes resources both wetter and drier than 

stipulated for wetlands. Whereas, the "natural or 

achievable state" of a riparian habitat may be 

wetland, the "existing state" may be non-wetland 

because of natural or anthropogenically induced 

changes in the hydrologic character of RRH. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

856. Johannesson,KH; Lyons,WB; Graham,EY; 

Welch,KA; Bonzongo,JC; Jones,T; Doyle,GA 

(1998): The biogeochemical controls of oxyanionic 

metals in arid vs. humid rivers. p.441. In: 

Potts,DF [ed.]. Range management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

This study analyzed the following oxyanionic 

metals: AS, SE, Sb, Mo, Va, and in some cases, W 

and U from rivers draining the eastern slope of the 

Sierra Nevada and the Mobile, Alabama River 

system. In general, the arid rivers were more alkaline 

and had higher concentrations of the metals. In part, 

this was due to evapoconcentration of the river along 

its flow path. Differences in watershed lithology also 

played an important role. Metal distribution in rivers 

depends on pH, watershed lithology, and biologically 

induced redox changes. 

[HEAVY METALS; REDOX POTENTIAL; 

WATER QUALITY] 

857. Johnejack,KR; Megahan,WF (1991): 

Sediment transport in headwater channels in 

Idaho. p.4-155 to 4-161. In: Proceedings of the 

fifth federal interagency sedimentation 

conference. [Eds. Tan,SS; Kuo,YH]. 

Subcommittee on Sedimentation of the 

Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data. 

Prediction of sediment transport in steep, 

headwater channels is complicated by step-pool 

profiles and large-scale roughness from boulders, 

logs, and brush. This study evaluated four common 

sediment transport equations. Although agreement 

between predicted and measured transport rates was 

encouraging, appropriate modeling of the physical 

processes was not necessarily indicated. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; 
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

858. Johnson,BL; Richardson,WB; Naimo,TJ 

(1995): Past, present, and future concepts in large 

river ecology. BioScience 45(3), 134-141. 

Neither the river-continuum concept nor the 

flood-pulse concept explains system function in all 

large rivers. Within a single river, both concepts may 

apply, depending upon the geomorphology of the 

system and the temporal and spatial scale of analysis. 

Multidisciplinary studies, involving hydrologists, 

geomorphologists, and aquatic and terrestrial 

biologists, are needed to elucidate the relations 

between and among physical and biological 

components. There is a current challenge to develop 

partnerships among researchers, managers, 

governmental agencies, and the private sector 

necessary to plan and conduct these large-scale 

studies. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; MULTIDISCIPLINARY 

STUDIES; PARTNERSHIPS; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

859. Johnson,CW; Engleman,RL; Smith,JP; 

Hanson,CL (1977): Helley-Smith bed load 

samplers. Journal of Hydrology 103(10), 

1217-1221. 

Users of Helley-Smith bed load samplers, under 

conditions of high organic and sediment transport, 

should recognize the possible sampling error caused 

by clogging of sampler bags and instead use either 

larger bags or bags with a mesh larger than 0.2 mm. 

Helley-Smith samplers are inexpensive and easily 

used at some bridge sites but additional calibration is 

needed to improve the accuracy of sediment transport 

computations from bed load sample data. 

[HYDROLOGY; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; 

STREAM FLOW; TECHNIQUES] 

860. Johnson,CW; Gordon,ND (1984): 

Streamflow measurement and analysis for 

northwest rangelands. p.469-473. In: Proceedings 

of the water for resource development conference, 

Soil and Water Division, American Society of 

Civil Engineers. 14-17 August 1984. Coeur 

d'Alene, ID. 

This paper reports precipitation, runoff, and 

streamflow data from three source watersheds 

administered by the Northwest Watershed Research 

Center near Boise, Idaho. Grazing intensity and 

duration were shown to have a profound influence on 

the quality and quantity of streamflow measured 

from those watersheds on sagebrush rangelands. 

Accounts of field-testing of the drop-box weir and 

other devices for streamflow measurement are 

described. 

[HYDROLOGY; TECHNIQUES; WATERSHED] 

861. Johnson,CW; Smith,JP (1978): Sediment 

characteristics and transport from Northwest 

rangeland watersheds. p.1157-1163. In: 

Transactions of the American Society of' 

Agriculture Engineers, Soil and Water Division. 

Paper 77-2509. 

Rangeland hydrology and sedimentation studies 

on a main stem and three source watersheds within 

the Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed, show a 

wide range in precipitation, runoff, sediment 

transport and particle-size characteristics fi-om year to 

year and from station to station. Results are useful in 

rangeland erosion and sediment models. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; MODELING; 

SEDIMENTATION; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

862. Johnson,JE (1976): A proposed change in 

livestock grazing on national resource la~nds and 

its effects on aquatic and riparian communities. 

In: Proceedings of the Colorado-Wyoming 

chapter of the American Fisheries Society. 3-4 

March 1976. 

The fundamental problem between slream 

bottoms and grazing is the attraction they hold for 

livestock. Some examples are: 1) after watering at the 

stream it is natural for the cattle to begin feeding 

there; 2) riparian vegetation turns greener earlier in 

the spring and later in the fall than the more xeric 

upland plants, cattle seek the cooler, shady riparian 

areas for relief from summer heat and insects, and it 

is generally uphill out of stream valleys and cattle 

prefer to avoid exertion whenever possible. 

Implementation of rest-rotation grazing systems, 

together with general reduction in livestoclk numbers, 

would provide longer rest periods and potmtially 

result in better riparian conditions. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

UTILIZATION] 

863. Johnson,KL; Mosley,C; Mosley,JC; 

OILaughlin,J (1990): BLM riparian policy in 

Idaho: Analysis of public comment on a proposed 

policy statement. Idaho Forest, Wildlife, and 

Range Policy Analysis Group. Report No. 2. 

Moscow, ID. 28 p. 

The Policy Analysis Group gathered and 

analyzed two separate sets of information: 1) public 

concerns about riparian use and managem~snt were 

identified during eight workshops using a standard 

nominal group process technique; and 2) c:omments 

on the proposed BLM riparian policy statement were 
obtained by mailing a request for comments to 225 

organizations believed to be interested in riparian 

policy. 

[POLICY; PUBLIC COMMENT; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

864. Johnson,RR (1982): Riparian habitats and 

recreation: Interrelationships and impacts in the 

Southwest and Rocky Mountain region. 

Eisenhower Consortium Bulletin No. 12. 

Eisenhower Consortium for Western 

Environmental Forestry Research. 31 p. 

[RECREATION IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

865. Johnson,RR; Carothers,SW; Simpson,JM 

(1981): A riparian classification system. p.374-382. 

In: Warner,RE; Hendrix,KM 1eds.l. Proceedings 

of the California riparian conference. 17-19 

September 1981. Davis CA. 

Riparian ecology, as one of the newest scientific 

disciplines, is developing a conceptual framework 

which includes new supportive terminology and 

classification schemes. This branch of ecology has 

developed largely in the arid western U.S. as an 

offshoot of wetlands ecology. This paper discusses 

concepts, classifications, and interrelationships 

between riparian ecology and other disciplines. 

Applications are important to floodplain zoning and 

management, natural resource management, and 

recreation management. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

866. Johnson,RR; Haight,LT (1985): Avian use 

of xcroriparian ecosystems in the North American 

warm deserts. p.156-160. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

managemcnt: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Xeroriparian avian censuses were compared with 

paired desert upland censuses for various 

subdivisions of the Sonoran Desert. With few 

exceptions, xeroriparian habitat supports 5 to 10 

times the population densities and species diversities 

of surrounding desert uplands. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

867. Johnson,RR; Haight,LT; Simpson,JM 

(1977): Endangered species vs. endangered 

habitats. p.68-79. In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA 

1tech.coord.l. Importance, preservation, and 

management of riparian habitats. 9 July 1977. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-43. 

Riparian habitats are important for both their 

diversity and their productivity. The highest densities 

of nesting birds for North America have been 

reported for southwestern cottonwood riparian 

forests. Complete loss of riverine habitat in the 

Southwest lowlands could result in the extirpation of 

47 percent of the 166 species of birds known to nest 

in this region. 

[AVIFAUNA; COTTONWOOD; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

868. Johnson,RR; Jones,DA Itech.coo~-d.] (1977): 

Importance, preservation and management of 

riparian habitat: A symposium. 9 July 1977. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-43.217 p. 

Twelve presented and 15 contributed papers 

highlight what is known about riparian habitat: 

characteristics, classification systems, associated 

fauna, use conflicts, management alternatives, and 

research needs. Presenters stressed the continuity and 

interrelationships of riparian ecosystems, their 

wildlife and vegetation, historic and current uses. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

869. Johnson,RR; Lowe,CW (1985): Oln the 

development of riparian ecology. p. 112-116. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH Itech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

The historical development of riparian ecology is 

discussed. Gradients in riparian systems are described 

with regard to transriparian and intrariparian 

continua, including xeroriparian communities, 

consistent with the fact that riparian lands are 

technically wetlands. Aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial 

systems harbor peculiarly obligate species structured 

into distinctive biotic communities throughout North 

America. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

XERORIPARIAN] 

870. Johnson,RR; McCormick,JF (1 978): 

Strategies for protection and management of 

floodplain Wetlands and other riparian 

ecosystems. In: Proceedings. 11-13 December 

1978. Callaway Gardens, GA. USDA Forest 
Service. General Technical Report GTR-WO-12. 

410 p. 

[MANAGEMENT PLANS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

871. Johnson,SR (1990): Protecting riparian 

values during timber harvest and related 

activities: Kootenai National Forest experience. 

In: Management of riparian and wetland forested 

ecosystems in Montana. Fourth annual Montana 

Riparian Association workshop. 5-7 September 

1990. Whitefish, MT. 

In the Kootenai National Forest, northwestern 

Montana, large woody debris is a particularly 

important factor in determining the physical and 

biological characteristics of small and intermediate 

sized streams. A task force effort to address 

inadequacies in the national forest plan regarding 

timber harvests in forested riparian zones is 

discussed. The paper includes stream classification 

and management recommendations for streamside 

management zones (SMZ). 

[LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMZ] 

872. Johnson,SR; Gary,HL; Ponce,SL (1978): 

Range cattle impacts on stream water quality in 

the Colorado Front Range. USDA Forest Service, 

Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station. Research Note RM-359.8 p. 

Studies on two adjacent pastures along Trout 

Creek in central Colorado indicated only minor effect 

of cattle grazing on water quality. Bacterial 

contamination of the water, however, significantly 

increased. Following removal of livestock, bacterial 

counts dropped to levels similar to those in the 

ungrazed pasture. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY] 

873. Johnston,CA; Naiman,RJ (1990): The use of 

a geographic information system to analyze 

long-term landscape alteration by beaver. 

Landscape Ecology 4(1), 5-19. 

A Geographic Information System (CIS) was 

used to analyze how beaver had altered hydrology 

and vegetation in Minnesota over a 46-year period. 

Total area impounded increased from 1 percent to 13 

percent of the landscape between 1940 and 1986 as 

the beaver population increased from near extirpation 

to a density of 1 colonykm2. Most of the 

impoundment area increase occurred during the first 

two decades, when 77 percent of cumulative 

impoundment area was flooded. Once impounded, 

>60 percent of the area maintained the same water 

depth or vegetation during any decade. GIs 

procedures were combined with field data to show 

that available nitrogen stocks nearly tripled between 

1940 and 1986 as a result of beaver impoundment. 

[BEAVER; FISHERIES; GIs; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

874. Johnston,CA; Naiman,RJ (1990): Aquatic 

patch creation in relation to beaver population 

trends. Ecology 71(4), 1617-1621. 

The creation of aquatic patches by beaver in the 

boreal forest of northern Minnesota was studied to 

determine how the population dynamics of a 

disturbance-causing animal are linked to the rates of 

patch formation and growth over a period of 

population and expansion. Earlier ponds tended to be 

larger. Even though rate of pond creation paralleled 

the increase in number of beaver colonies between 

196 1 and 1986, the rate of new pond creation prior to 

1961 greatly exceeded the increase in number of 

beaver colonies. The authors conclude that the rate of 

patch formation after the first two decades of beaver 

colonization was constrained by geomorphology, 

which limited the availability of sites at which a 

beaver dam could impound a large area of water. 

[BEAVER; GIs; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

875. Johnston,CA; Naiman,RJ (1990): Browse 

selection by beaver: Effects on riparian forest 

composition. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research 20,1036-1043. 

Beaver herbivory has both immediate and 

long-term effects on biomass, structure, and 

composition of riparian forests. Intense beaver 

foraging of aspen decreased tree density and basal 

area by as much as 43 percent within 1 -ha forage 

zones surrounding two beaver ponds in Minnesota. 

Maximum diameter of trees cut was 43.5 cm; average 

aspen stem diameter cut was 13.9 cm and 10.2 cm, 

respectively. Woody biomass harvested per beaver 

averaged 1.4 mghdyear over a 6-year foraging 

period. Most wood was left on site or used in dam 

construction. Selective foraging by beaver decreased 

the relative importance of preferred species (e.g. 

aspen) and increased the relative importance of 

avoided species (e.g. alder), with long-term 

implications to forest succession and dynamics. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

876. Jolly,JP (1982): A proposed method for 

accurately calculating sediment yields from 

reservoir deposition. p.153-161. In: Proceedings of 
the Exeter symposium: Recent developments in 

the explanation and prediction of erosion and 

sediment yield. July 1982. IAHS Publ. No. 137. 

This paper proposes a means of developing a 

relation between sediment yield and the hydrological, 

geological, and climatic characteristics of the 

upstream drainage basin. The relation can be used to 

estimate sediment loads at potential reservoir sites. 

The method is applied using the data from many 

rivers and is suggested to be both economical and 

accurate. 

[EROSION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; MODELING; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

877. Jones,AR; Sharpe,FP; Strauss,P; 

Deason,WO (1978): Interaction of water 

management and riparian ecosystems: Altitudes, 

practices, and effects. p.284-288. In: Proceedings 

of the symposium on strategies for protection and 

management of floodplain wetlands and other 

riparian ecosystems. 11-13 December 1978. 

Callaway Gardens, GA. 

Under the broad mission of planning, 

developing, and managing water and related land 

resource projects which supply water for agriculture, 

domestic, and industrial use in the 17 western states, 

the USDI Bureau of Reclamation also fulfills the 

mission of preserving or mitigating riparian habitat. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

878. Jones,JA; Grant,GE (1996): Peak flow 

discharges to clear-cutting and roads in small and 

large basins, western Cascades, Oregon. Water 

Resources Research 32(4), 959-974. 

This study examined long-term changes in 

streamflows associated with clear-cutting and road 

construction and explored alternative hydrologic 

mechanisms to explain stream hydrochanges in the 

Cascades Range, western Oregon. They determined 

differences in paired peak discharges for 150 to 375 

storm events for five basin pairs, using 34-year 

records from two pairs of 60- to 10 1 -ha experimental 

basins in the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, and 

50- to 55-year records from three pairs of adjacent 

basins ranging from 60 to 600 km2. Forest harvesting 

has increased peak discharges by as much as 50 

percent in small basins and 100 percent in large 

basins over the last 50 years. These increases are 

attributable to changes both in flow routing due to 

roads and in water balance due to treatment effects 

and vegetation succession. 

[HYDROLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; STREAM 

FLOW; WATER BALANCE] 

879. Jones,KB (1 988): Comparison of 

herpetofaunas of a natural and altered riparian 

ecosystem. p.222-227. In: Management of 

amphibians, reptiles, and small mammals in North 

America. Proceedings of the symposium. 19-21 

July 1988. Flagstaff, AZ. 

Reptile abundance and diversity were greater on 

an unaltered riparian ecosystem than on an altered 

site. Two streams; one having no major water 

impoundments and the sampling site located in a 

mature gallery-type stand of cottonwood and willow 

(unaltered), the other river having major 

impoundments, regulated flow, reduced flooding and 

the sample site located in a poorly developed tree 

gallery with no evidence of tree reproduction 

(altered). The distribution and abundance of certain 

microhabitats appear to account for differences in 

reptile abundance and diversity on the two sites. In 

conserving riparian ecosystems, attention needs to be 

given to protecting more habitat components, 

including microhabitats such as surface litter found 

important to herpetofauna. 

[AMPHIBIANS; BIODIVERSITY; 

HERPETOFAUNA; REPTILES; RIPARlAN 

HABITAT] 

880. Jones,KB; Glinski,PC (1985): Microhabitats 

of lizards in a southwestern riparian community. 

p.342-346. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.). 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

In a southwestern riparian community, 

relationships between lizard abundance and 

distribution, and certain selected microhabitats were 

studied. The distribution of lizards appears to reflect 

availability of preferred habitat; certain lizards and 

microhabitats were widespread while others were 

limited to small portions of the study area. Patterns of 

lizard distribution are discussed. 

[HERPETOFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

881. Jones,LA (1988): Swampbuster in North 

Dakota. p.103-105. In: Stuber, PJ [tech. coord.]. 

Proceedings of the national symposium on the 

protection of wetlands from agricultural impacts. 

25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, CO. USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service. Biological Report 88(16). 

The Swampbuster provision has had a very 

controversial beginning in North Dakota. Landowner 

opposition due to the lack of information, severe 

penalties, loss of managerial rights, and a desire to be 
compensated for preserving wetlands have all led to a 

thrust for changes. As a consequence, the state's 

Congressional delegation has been active in pursuing 

changes to Swampbuster. The effectiveness of 

Swampbuster to protect prairie wetlands will be 

determined by the outcome of legislative efforts to 

weaken or modify the current regulations. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

882. Jorgenson,SE (1989): Changes of redox 

potential in aquatic ecosystems. p. 341-355. In: 

Ecological engineering: An introduction to 

ecotechnology. [Eds: Mitsch,WJ; Jorgenson,SEj. 

John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. 

Some model exercises have shown that the 

minor phosphorus input during a period of heavy rain 

due to discharge of overflow water from the 

watershed is not insignificant for eutrophication. This 

point is often overlooked, but the modeling concept 

always takes the total nutrient balance into 

consideration. Case studies on shallow lakes confirm 

these observations. Destratification has certain 

disadvantages caused by the elevation of the 

hypolimnetic temperature, but positive effects on 

hydrogen sulfide, phosphorus, and oxygen were 

observed, though the effect on primary production 

seemed minimal. 

[EUTROPHICATION; HYDROLOGY; PRIMARY 

PRODUCTION; REDOX POTENTIAL] 

883. Julien,PY; Frenette,M (1987): Macroscale 

analysis of upland erosion. Journal of Hydrologic 

Sciences 32(3), 347-357. 

Scale effects in computing sheet and rill erosion 

losses from large basins have been studied for grid 

sizes ranging from 0.03 to 4 km2 over drainage areas 

up to 3000 km2. After analysis of a basin in Quebec, 

Canada, the mean characteristics of the basin could 

be used to estimate the mean annual upland erosion 

losses after a correction factor for the influence of 

grid size was introduced into the calculation. The use 

of fine-meshed grids can be justified when 

information on the areal distribution of soil erosion is 

desired. 

[DRAINAGES; HYDROLOGY; SOILS; 

WATERSHED] 

884. Jurmu,MC; Andrle,R (1997): Morphology 

of a wetland stream. Environmental Management 

21(6), 921-941. 

In the recently expanding field of wetland 

reconstruction, stream design has been primarily 

based on stream morphologies typical of non-wetland 

alluvial environments. In this investigation, several 

significant differences between the morphology of 

the stream and the typical morphology of nonwetland alluvial streams were revealed. Six 

morphological features of the study reach were 

examined: bankfull flow, meanders, pools and riffles, 

thalweg location, straight reaches, and cross-sectional 

shape. It was found that bankfull flow definitions 

originating from streams in non-wetland 

environments did not apply. Unusual features 

observed in the wetland reach include tight bends and 

a large axial wavelength to width ratio. A lengthy 

straight reach exists that exceeds what is typically 

found in non-wetland alluvial streams. The lack of 

convex bank point bars, a greater channel width at 

riffle locations, and small form ratios deep and 

narrow channel, were also differences identified. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; STREAM ECOLOGY; 

WETLANDS] 

885. Kaczynski,VW; Moos,DW (1979): Strategies 

for Mid-Columbia fish production. p.289-295. In: 

Swanson,GA led.]. The mitigation symposium: A 

national workshop on mitigating losses of fish and 

wildlife habitats. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-65. 

Putting the area-wide fisheries mitigation 

requirements into one package dramatically increases 

ways to meet the requirements. Treating salmonid 

fisheries mitigation for several individual projects in 

the mid-Columbia on a combined basis has many 

apparent advantages. 

[COLUMBIA RIVER; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

886. Kaniuka,R (1987): Underground channels 

mapped by radar. Agricultural Research 35(1), 

14-15. 

Radar is being used by USDA scientists to: 1) 

identify the locationsldepths of perched and main 

aquifers; 2) determine lateral flows of water; 3) select 

the best locations for observation wells and sampling 

sites; and 4) measure the volume of lakes and ponds. 

[HYDROLOGY; MONITORING; SURFACE 

WATER-GROUNDWATER INTERACTION; 

TECHNIQUES] 

887. Kantrud,HA (1986): Effect of vegetative 

manipulation on breeding waterfowl in prairie 

wetlands - A literature review. USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service. Washington, DC. Report No .3. 

A compilation of technical and scientific articles 

and publications dealing with artificial manipulation 

of vegetation for the purpose of improving, restoring, 
or enhancing prairie wetland habitat for breeding 

waterfowl. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

VEGETATION MANAGEMENT; WATERFOWL 

MANAGEMENT] 

888. Kantrud,HA; Krapu,GL; Swanson,GA 

(1989): Prairie basin wetlands of the Dakotas: A 

community profile. USDI Fish and Wildlife 

Service. Biological Report SS(7.28). Washington, 

DC. 89 p. 

The shallow basin wetlands of the Dakotas form 

the bulk of the portion of the Prairie Pothole Region 

lying within the United States. This region produces 

a large proportion of North American waterfowl and 

other prairie dwelling marsh and aquatic birds. 

Wetlands in the region are frequently drained for 

crop production. These wetlands vary greatly in their 

ability to maintain surface water and their water 

chemistry, which varies from fresh to polysaline. In 

addition, these wetlands are affected by a variety of 

agricultural land uses and practices, including 

pasture, cultivation, mechanical forage removal, idle 

conditions, and burning. It is important to understand 

how these factors operate in prairie basin wetlands, 

since they profoundly affect flora and fauna. 

[MARSHES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

889. Karr,JR; Chu,EW (1998): Restoring life in 

running waters: Better biological monitoring. 1st 

ed. Island Press. Covelo, CA. 200 p. 

The book addresses freshwater ecosystems in the 

US and biology's role in understanding them. A 

methodology for using multimetric indices to 

integrate measurements of many attributes is 

presented, for assessing and communicating 

environmental health. It provides practical tools for 

understanding the impact of human activities on 

natural systems and the appropriate actions to remedy 

those impacts. 

[ASSESSMENTS; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

890. Karr,SR; Yant,PR; Fausch,KD (1987): 

Spatial and temporal variability of the index of 

biotic integrity in three midwestern streams. 

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 

116(1), 1-11. 

The index of biotic integrity (IBI) has been used 

to assess the biological quality of flowing water 

systems in all areas of the US. Biotic integrity, 

however, has rarely been related to independent 

measures of water or habitat quality. In two 

watersheds where conditions were relatively stable, 

IBI ranked sites similarly. Rankings among sites 

conformed to prior assessments of site quality based 

on habitat and water quality. Sampling should be 

conducted during summer to reduce variation due to 

seasonal fish migration and fall recruitment of 

young-of-the-year fish. Generally, the IBI reflects 

known habitat and water quality of both natural and 

anthropogenic origin. Little or no improvement in 

biotic quality was detected following implementation 

of numerous soil and water conservation practices. 

[FISH POPULATIONS; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATER QUALITY] 

891. KauffmanJB (1987): The status of riparian 

habitats in Pacific Northwest forests. In: 

Streamside management: Riparian, wildlife, and 

forestry interactions. 11-13 February 1987. 

University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 

The typical characterization of undisturbed 

riparian ecosystems is that of a high spatial 

heterogeneity of plant communities of varying age 

classes and seral stages. Each seral stage is utilized 

by different species of wildlife; however, the greatest 

use has been described for those late successional 

arboreal riparian communities dominated by a mix of 

coniferous and deciduous species. In intensively 

managed forests with short rotation schedules, these 

communities may never develop, and the biotic 

potential for the riparian ecosystem is never attained. 

If these productive riparian communities are the 

desired status of a given ecosystem, then alterations 

in land use, such as establishment of buffer zones and 

extended rotation schedules, may be necessary. 

[BIOTIC POTENTIAL; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

892. KauffmanJB; Beschta,RL; Otting,N; 

Lytjen,D (1997): An ecological perspective of 

riparian and stream restoration in the western 

United States. Fisheries 22(5), 12-24. 

There is an unprecedented need to preserve and 

restore aquatic and riparian biological diversity 

before extinction eliminates the opportunity. 

"Ecological restoration" is the re-establishment of 

processes, functions, and related biological, 

chemical, and physical linkages between the aquatic 

and associated riparian ecosystems; it is the 

reparation of damages caused by human activities. 

The first and most critical step in ecological 

restoration is "passive restoration", the cessation of 

anthropogenic activities that are causing degradation 

or preventing recovery. Given the capacity of 

riparian ecosystems to naturally recover, this is often 

all that is needed to achieve successful restoration. A 
period of time sufficient for natural recovery is 

recommended prior to the beginning of active and 

physical restoration approaches. Restoration should 

be undertaken at the watershed or landscape scale. 

Riparian/ stream ecosystems cannot be restored by 

manipulations within the channel only. 

[BIODIVERSITY; PASSIVE RESTORATION; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STREAM 

IMPROVEMENTS] 

893. Kauffman,JB; Krueger,WC (1984): 

Livestock impacts on riparian ecosystems and 

streamside management implications -- a review. 

Journal of Range Management 37(5), 430-437. 

This review summarizes the available literature 

to date regarding livestock impacts and management 

implications on riparian ecosystems. Public grazing 

lands should be evaluated on a true multiple use basis 

that recognizes and evaluates the biological potential 

of each ecological zone in relation to the present and 

fiture needs of our society. Management strategies 

that recognize all resource values must be designed to 

maintain or restore the integrity of riparian 

communities. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

894. Kauffman,JB; Krueger,WC; Vavra,M 

(1983): Effects of late season cattle grazing on 

riparian plant communities. Journal of Range 

Management 36(6), 685-690. 

The impacts of livestock on riparian community 

composition, structure, and productivity were 

evaluated over 3 years. Between fall grazed and 

enclosed areas, 4 out of 10 plant communities 

displayed significant species composition and 

productivity changes. Two meadow types and the 

Douglas hawthorne type had significant changes in 

standing phytomass. These types were also utilized 

more heavily than the other communities. Shrub use 

was generally light except on willow-dominated 

gravel bars. Succession appeared to be retarded by 

livestock grazing on gravel bars. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

895. Kauffman,JB; Krueger,WC; Vavra,M 

(1983): Impacts of cattle on streambanks in 

northeastern Oregon. Journal of Range 

Management 36(6), 683-685. 

Impacts of a late season livestock grazing 

strategy on streambank erosion, morphology, and 

undercutting were studied for 2 years. Streambank 

loss, disturbance, and undercutting were compared 

between grazing treatments, vegetation type, and 

stream-meander position. No significant differences 

were found among vegetation types or stream 

meander location. Significantly greater streambank 

erosion and disturbance occurred in grazed areas than 

in enclosed areas during grazing periods. Over-winter 

erosion was not significantly different among 

treatments. Annual streambank losses were greater in 

grazed than in ungrazed areas. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

STREAMBANK PROTECTION] 

896. Kauffman,JB; Krueger,WC; Vavra,M 

(1985): Ecology and plant communities of the 

riparian area associated with Catherine Creek in 

northeastern Oregon. Technical Bull. No. 147. 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State 

University, Cowallis, OR. 33 p. 

A multitude of bioticlabiotic factors interacted to 

form an extremely complex ecosystem along 

Catherine Creek in the Wallowa mountains. A total 

of 258 stands of vegetation representing 60 plant 

communities were identified. At least 20 species of 

mammals and 8 1 species of birds utilize the area 

May-October. The diversity of riparian communities 

was attributed to factors such as: soil characteristics, 

streamflow dynamics, climate, plant community 

interactions, animal effects, and man's effects. 

Analysis of the nine most common community types 

indicated their composition and structure were 

significantly affected by those factors. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

897. Kaufman,H (1997): Riparian management: 

The future is in our hands. Rangelands 19(6), 

18-19. 

This paper was a winner in the High School 

Youth Forum of the Society for Range Management 

Annual Meeting. The author advocates a greater 

awareness of riparian issues and better cooperation to 

deal with riparian zones on active ranches. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

898. Kay,CE (1995): Browsing by native 

ungulates: Effects on shrub and seed production 

in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. p.310-320. 

In: Proceedings: Wildland shrub and arid land 

restoration symposium; 19-21 October 1993; Las 

Vegas, NV. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-GTR-315. 

Long-term grazing exclosures were used to 

compare browsed vs unbrowsed shrubs in the Greater 
Yellowstone Ecosystem. Deciduous shrubs protected 

by wild ungulates exhibited greater canopy cover, 

height, size, and volume than unprotected plants. 

Browsed shrub populations were dominated by 

significantly smaller plants than were unbrowsed 

populations. Protected shrubs increased in canopy 

coverage and size while browsed plants remained 

static or declined. Ungulate browsing in recent times 

has virtually eliminated shrub seed production in 

areas frequented by wintering elk. This elimination 

of shrub seed production over much of the ecosystem 

suggests that ungulates are not in equilibrium with 

their food resources, as required under the "natural 

regulation" paradigm. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

899. Kay,CE; Chadde,S (1992): Reduction of 

willow seed production by ungulate browsing in 

Yellowstone National Park. p. 92-99. In: 

Clary,WP; McArthur,ED, Bedunah,D; 

Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - Symposium 

on ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

Long-term grazing exclosures were used to 

compare seed production in unbrowsed vs. browsed 

communities. Inside exclosures, the number of seeds 

per sq m of female canopy coverage ranged from 

109,000 to 583,000. Outside exclosures, no male or 

female aments (catkins) or willow seeds were 

produced. Willow stems above the browse height 

(2.5 m) produced an abundance of male or female 

aments. 

[BROWSING EFFECTS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

SEED PRODUCTION; WILLOW] 

900. Keddy,PA (1989): Effects from competition 

from shrubs on herbaceous wetland plants: a 

4-year field experiment. Canadian Journal of 

Botany 67,708-716. 

While competition is known to occur among 

some species in some plant communities, it is still not 

possible to predict in which environments, or among 

which species, competitive interactions will be most 

intense. On this study site between shrubs and 

herbaceous lakeshore plants, shrubs were removed 

from treatment plots paired with controls. On shores 

with frequent disturbance and low fertility there was 

no evidence for competitive release. There were 

highly significant increases in cover, richness, and 

diversity in the removal plots, but less than 

one-quarter of the individual species responded 

significantly. 

[LACUSTRINE ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN SHRUBS; WETLANDS] 

901. Keeley,JE (1999): Photosynthetic pathway 

diversity in a seasonal pool community. 

Functional Ecology 13, 106-1 18. 

Diversity of photosynthetic pathway was 

evaluated for dominant species in a seasonally 

aquatic community in the southwestern United 

States. Pulse-chase techniques were used in this 

evaluation. Under submerged conditions, only about 

half the species were clearly C3, three of the 15 

dominants were CAM, one species was C4, and three 

of the species potentially assimilated carbon with 

both C3 and C4 fixation. During the brief terrestrial 

stage in the life history of these amphibious plants, 

both the CAM and the C3 + C4 species switched to 

C3, whereas the C4 species did not switch. Species 

with C4 or CAM C04 concentrating mechanisms 

lacked the capacity for bicarbonate uptake, an 

alternative C02 concentrating mechanism found in 

certain C3 plants in this community. 

[BIODIVERSITY; NUTRIENT CYCLES; 

PHOTOSYNTHESIS; SEASONAL POOLS] 

902. Keigley,RB (1988): Developing methods of 

restoring vegetation communities while preserving 

genetic integrity. In: Proceedings of the high 

altitude revegetation workshop No. 8. Colorado 

State University. Ft. Collins, CO. Information 

Series No. 59. 

There is a good chance that restoration can meet 

established standards but this process at high 

elevations may require a longer period of time. This 

is because: 1) restoration methods are in a state of 

development; and 2) successional processes will take 

much longer than reseeding to achieve a stabilizing 

ground cover. Sufficient quantities of plant materials 

will require a developed propagation program. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

903. Keith,RM; Bjornn,TC; Meehan,WR; 

Hetrick,NJ; Brusven,MA (1998): Response of 

juvenile salmonids to riparian and instream cover 

modifications in small streams flowing through 

second-growth forests of southeast Alaska. 

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 

127:889-907. 

Canopy of second-growth red alder and instream 

cover was manipulated to assess the effects on 

abundance of juvenile salmonids in small streams. 

Sections of red alder canopy were removed to 

compare responses of salmonids to open and closed 

canopy sections. Alder brush bundles were then 
placed in 112 of the pools to test the response of 

juvenile salmonids to additions in instream cover. 

Abundance of age-0 coho salmon decreased in both 

open and closed canopy sections, but abundance 

decreased at a higher rate in closed canopy sections. 

More age-0 Dolly Varden trout were in open canopy 

sections than in closed canopy sections. Numbers of 

age-1 coho salmon and Dolly Varden were relatively 

constant. Abundance of age-0 coho salmon decreased 

in pools with and without additional instream cover. 

Abundance of age-1 and older coho salmon and age0 Dolly Varden did not differ significantly in pools 

with added instream cover than in pools without 

cover. Abundance of age-1 and older Dolly Varden 

was higher in pools with added cover than in pools 

without cover. Age-0 coho salmon decreased in 

abundance throughout the summer. Emigration 

accounted for most of the decreases in abundance. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; CANOPY; FISH 

HABITAT; SALMONIDS] 

904. Keller,CR; Anderson,L; Tappel,P (1979): 

Fish habitat changes in Summit Creek, Idaho, 

after fencing the riparian area. p.46-52. In: 

Cope,OB [ed.]. Forum: Crazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 November 1978. 

Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

At Summit Creek, Idaho, the fish habitat 

protection provided by streambank fencing has 

negated the need for artificial structures intended to 

enhance trout production in this stream. The authors 

recommend that previously installed trash catchers 

and digger logs should be removed. Removal of 

instream structures will allow the affected portions of 

the creek to re-establish a stable, more productive 

stream environment. It also appeared that annual 

supplemental stocking would be unnecessary, 

judging from the abundance of wild trout. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

905. Keller,CR; Burnham,KP (1982): Riparian 

fencing, grazing, and trout habitat preference on 

Summit Creek, Idaho. North American Journal of 

Fisheries Management 2(1), 53-59. 

Livestock were excluded from 3.2 km of riparian 

area by fencing on public lands. Four years later, 6 

stream sections were electrofished to determine 

differences in trout abundance, size, and growth 

between grazed and ungrazed segments. Sampling 

stations were paired by habitat type. More trout were 

found in ungrazed sections in all three habitat types. 

Generally, there were more catchable rainbow and 

brook trout in ungrazed sections. There was evidence 

that fish size was reduced in grazed sections. The 

study supported the conclusion that trout prefer 

stream areas in ungrazed habitat over grazed habitat. 

[EXCLOSURES; FISHERIES; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; TROUT] 

906. Keller,EA; Tally,T (1979): Effects of large 

organic material on channel form and fluvial 

processes. Earth Surface Processes and 

Landforms 4,361 -380. 

Large organic debris in streams flowing through 

old-growth redwood forests in California 

significantly influence channel form and fluvial 

processes in small to intermediate size streams. 

Approximately 60 percent of the total drop in 

elevation over a several hundred meter reach was 

associated with large organic debris. Debris also 

provides numerous sites for sediment storage. The 

influence of large organic debris on channel forms 

and process in low gradient stream reaches is less 

than in steeper channels. However, the debris still 

may affect development of pools and may help 

stabilize channel banks. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; ORGANIC DEBRIS] 

907. Keller,EA; Tally,T (1979): Effects of large 

organic debris on channel form and fluvial 

processes in a coastal redwood environment. 

p.169-197. In: Adjustments of the fluvial system. 

Proceedings of the 10th annual geomorphic 

symposium series. Binghampton, NY. IRhodes,D; 

Williams,CP : eds.). 

The role of large organic debris is especially 

important in controlling the development of the long 

profile and in producing a diversity of channel 

morphologies and sediment storage sites. Large 

organic debris in steep mountain streams may 

produce a stepped-bench profile where a large 

portion of the stream's potential energy loss is 

expended over short falls or cascades produced by 

the debris. The influence of large organic debris on 

channel form and process in low gradient streams is 

less than in steeper channels. However, the debris 

may still affect development of pools and may help 

stabilize the channel banks. Root mats may armor 

banks and provide important fish habitats in the form 

of undercut banks. The stream channel of some low 

gradient streams may be stable. Managers should use 

natural stream processes to regulate channel 

conditions rather than attempt absolute control by 

artificial means. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; ORGANIC DEBRIS] 
908. Kelly,T (1985): Strategic riparian resource 

management in a metropolitan setting. p.403-407. 

In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; 

FfolliottPF; Hamre,RH [tech.coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

Riparian systems within metropolitan areas can 

come under extreme pressure to accommodate 

conflicting uses. Strategic management planning 

provides a method for mediating conflicts and 

developing realistic objectives. A discussion of the 

strategic management effort for the Minnesota Valley 

National Wildlife Refuge follows. 

[HUMAN IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

URBAN IMPACTS] 

909. Kelsay,LE (1964): List of cartographic 

records of the General Land Office. U.S. National 

Archive and Record Service, General Services 

Administration. Washington, DC. 

Maps and survey documents preceding 1964 are 

available in the Map Rooms of BLM and other 

government agencies and in the National Archives. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; HYDROLOGY; 

MAPPING] 

910. Kenna,J; Devaurs,W; Troutman,D; King,G; 

Street,W; Cannon,B; Simontacchi,D; Modrell,D 

(1990): Warner Wetlands Area of Critical 

Environmental Concern (ACEC) management 

plan. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Lakeview, OR. BLM-OR-PT-90-28-1792. 

A BLM management plan for Warner Wetlands 

ACEC, in eastern Oregon is presented. 

[BLM; GRAZING IMPACTS; LACUSTRINE 

ECOLOGY] 

91 1. Kennedy,CE (1977): Wildlife conflicts in 

riparian management: water. p.52-58. In: 

Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.]. Symposium 

on the importance, preservation and management 

of the riparian habitat. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. 

This paper summarizes observations on the need 

for better understanding of the interactions of stream, 

riparian, vegetation, energy, nutrients, water 

production, aquatic life, and terrestrial life. These 

interactions have previously had little attention in 

Arizona and New Mexico. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; WATERSHED] 

912. Kentula,M (1997): A step toward a 

landscape approach in riparian restoration. 

Restoration Ecology 45(5), 2-3. 

One potential solution to the problem of siting 

restoration projects was to provide resource managers 

and practitioners with a mechanism to place the 

individual restoration decisions in a larger context. 

This tool would also provide a way to identify the 

areas most important ecologically and could be used 

proactively in a watershed management strategy to 

balance land use and ecological values. 

[LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

913. Kentula,ME (1989): Wetland creation and 

restoration: EPA's research program and 

investigation of an extensive sampling approach to 

comparing created and natural wetlands. In: 

Proceedings of the first annual meeting of the 

Society for Ecological Restoration. Oakland, CA. 

Research by EPA is underway to: 1) synthesize 

knowledge on wetland creation and restoration; 2) 

describe trends and patterns in Section 404 

permitting,; and 3) compare created and naturally 

occurring wetlands. 

[RESEARCH; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

WETLANDS] 

914. Kentula,ME (1997): A comparison of 

approaches to prioritizing sites for riparian 

restoration. Restoration Ecology 45(5), 69-74. 

This paper compares previously cited studies by 

Olson and Harris (1 997) and Russell et al. (1 997) in 

their work to prioritize sites for riparian restoration in 

the San Luis Rey River watershed in southern 

California. For seven of the twelve management units 

delineated along the mainstream, the two studies 

agreed on a strategy of restoration or protection. 

They differed on two. No comparison could be made 

of the three units for which Olson and Harris used 

project review, a unique category. Agreement of the 

results is due to the similarity of criteria used to 

identify and rank sites for protection and restoration; 

disagreement is due primarily to the level of 

resolution of the data. Both approaches have 

potential for use in watershed-level planning. The 

predictive power of the two approaches may be 

maximized when they are used in a complementary 

fashion. 

[HYDROLOGY; PLANNING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

91 5. Kershner,JL (1997): Setting 

riparianlaquatic restoration objectives within a 

watershed context. Restoration Ecology 5(5), 
15-24. 

Declining native plant and animal communities 

have prompted new interest in restoration of aquatic 

and riparian ecosystems. Past activities have been 

typically site-specific, with little thought to processes 

operating at larger scales. A watershed analysis 

process developed in the Pacific Northwest identifies 

four operating scales useful in developing priorities: 

region, basin, watershed, and specific site. Watershed 

analysis provides a template for restoration biologists 

to use in prioritizing restoration activities. This 

template provides seven key steps necessary to 

understand and develop restoration priorities: 1) 

characterization; 2) identification of key issues and 

questions; 3) documentation of current conditions; 4) 

description of reference conditions; 5) identification 

of objectives; 6) summary of conditions and 

determination of causes; and 7) recommendations. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; SPATIAL SCALE; 

WATERSHED] 

916. Kershner,JL; Snider,WM; Turner,DM; 

Moyle,PB (1992): Distribution and sequencing of 

mesohabitats: Are there differences at the reach 

scale? Rivers 3(3), 179-190. 

Stream classification techniques may provide 

useful information about the function of stream 

habitat. Relationships between habitat characteristics 

at the mesohabitat scale and how these characteristics 

are influenced by other scales, such as watershed and 

reach, is poorly understood. Results of studies in the 

Sierra Nevada Mountains indicated that even though 

differences in mesohabitat do occur between distinct 

stream reaches, the mesohabitat composition is 

highly variable. Use of representative reaches to 

describe stream habitats should be viewed with 

caution, given the dynamic nature of stream habitats 

and the biotic and abiotic factors that influence them. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CLASSIFICATION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SPATIAL SCALE; 

STREAM FLOW] 

917. Ketcheson,GL (1986): Sediment rating 

equations: An evaluation for streams in the Idaho 

batholith. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-213.12 p. 

Sediment data from streams in the Idaho 

batholith were used to develop suspended, bedload, 

and total sediment rating equations. These equations 

were discussed in terms of statistical significance and 

their usefulness for documenting management 

impacts. Sediment yields were estimated using the 

rating equations and streamflow data. These yields 

were compared with those estimated from a 

time-integration method. For streams in the Silver 

Creek research area, sediment yields from rating 

equations and time-integration techniques were 

compared with estimates from sediment dams. Rating 

equation and time-integration estimates were 

statistically different. Time-integration estimates 

more closely matched those from the sediment dams. 

[BEDLOAD; HYDROLOGY; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT; STREAM FLOW] 

918. Ketcheson,GL; Megahan,WF (1991): 

Sediment tracing in step-pool granitic streams in 

Idaho. p.4-147 to 4-153. In: Proceedings of the 

fifth federal interagency sedimentation 

conference. [eds. Tan,SS;Kuo,YHj. Subcommittee 

on Sedimentation of the Interagency Advisory 

Commission on Water Data. 

Sediment tracer studies were conducted on four 

channels in the Silver Creek Study Area in 

south-central Idaho. A single dose of tracer particles 

was placed at the head of each reach just prior to 

snowmelt. After runoff, samples of bed material were 

collected from all discrete deposits within the test 

reaches. About two-thirds of the tracer material 

remaining in the reaches was deposited behind 

natural organic debris in the channel, while one-third 

was evenly divided among deposition in point bars, 

pools, and random bed and bank locations. Transport 

of tracer through the reaches was directly 

proportional to channel gradient and flow rate. 

[HYDROLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; STREAM 

FLOW] 

919. Keys,J (1993): The Bureau of Reclamation's 

policies. p.130-133. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH 

[tech.coord.]. Riparian management: Common 

threads and shared interests. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-226. 

This paper focuses on USDI Bureau of 

Reclamation efforts for salmon recovery. Current 

activities include cooperation in over 20 salmon 

measures such as: coordination of Columbia River 

water and power operations, water supply 

forecasting, water quality issues, flood control 

strategies, water acquisition, and lower Snake River 

dam operations. 

[ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SALMON RECOVERY] 

920. Kimbal,J; Savage,F (1977): Diamond Fork 

aquatic and range habitat improvement. USDA 

Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Uinta 

National Forest. 19 p. 
This paper concluded that aquatic systems are 

dependent upon the condition of the adjacent 

terrestrial environment. Unrestricted livestock 

grazing was found to be detrimental to the riparian 

zone of grazed streams through trampling and 

overuse of the plant community. Riparian zones 

require the same grazing management as other areas 

to maintain, reproduce, and remain stable. Intensive 

livestock management can restore or maintain aquatic 

ecosystems at a lower cost than the installation of 

artificial stream improvement structures. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HABITAT 

MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

921. Kinch,G (1989): Riparian area 

management: Grazing management in riparian 

areas. USDl Bureau of Land Management. 

Technical Reference 1737-4.44 p. 

In general, riparian areas are among the most 

resilient ecosystems on public lands and usually 

respond more quickly to changes in management. 

This paper assembles information from various 

authors, land managers, and researchers that can be 

used to guide grazing management in riparian areas 

using their unique responsiveness to accomplish 

management objectives. The paper addresses the 

implications of grazing in riparian areas, establishing 

management, and grazing principles and concepts. 

Grazing management practices that have worked 

elsewhere are described. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN] 

922. Kindschy,RR (1984): A line-intercept 

method for monitoring riparian vegetation trend. 

p.25-30. In: Bedell,TE led.]. Proceedings of 1984 

Pacific Northwest range management short 

course: Range watersheds, riparian zones and 

economics: Interrelationships in management and 

use. 25-27 January 1984. Pendleton, OR. Oregon 

State University 

A procedure is described that utilizes a modified 

line intercept transect can provide quantitative and 

qualitative data for documenting vegetative changes 

in riparian communities. Data analysis will be useful 

to managers for determining achievement of 

ecological trend objectives. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

TECHNIQUES] 

923. Kindschy,RR (1985): Response of red willow 

to beaver use in southeastern Oregon. Journal of 

Wildlife Management 49(1), 26-28. 

Natural and prolonged heavy utilization of red 

willow by beaver did not appear to be responsible for 

the deterioration, reduction, and loss of this riparian 

species. Additional factors, including the continual 

cropping of willow regrowth by cattle during the 

growing season were involved in limiting red willow 

stands in many of the riparian communities of 

southeast Oregon. 

[BEAVER; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

924. Kindschy,RR (1987): Riparian 

reminiscences. Rangelands 9(2), 71-74. 

The demonstrated resiliency of wetland 

habitatslriparian areas is such that recovery can be 

rapid. Successional progression likely follows a 

predictable sequence, dependent upon site potential 

and the control of dominant factors limiting such 

progression. Rangeland managers may be able to 

design management systems to optimize multiple use 

returns from this important natural resource. 

[RIPARIAN; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

SUCCESSION] 

925. Kindschy,RR (1989): Regrowth of willow 

following simulated beaver cutting. Wildlife 

Society Bulletin 17,290-294. 

The author measured the responses of willows to 

cutting treatments that simulated beaver herbivory 

during different seasons. Red willow (Salix 

lasiandra) is the most susceptible to cutting during 

hot summer conditions. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

SHRUBS; WILLOW] 

926. King,JG (1989): Streamflow responses to 

road building and harvesting: A comparison with 

the equivalent clear-cut area procedure. USDA 

Forest Service Research Paper INT-401. 13 p. 

Increases in annual streamflow and peak 

streamflows were determined on four small 

watersheds following timber harvesting and road 

building. The measured hydrologic changes are 

compared to those predicted by a methodology 

commonly used in the USDA Forest Service's 

Northern Region, the equivalent clear-cut area 

procedure. Increases in peak streamflows are 

discussed with respect to their potential to modify the 

channel system. 

[HYDROLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; STREAM 

FLOW] 

927. King,W; Thompson,F (1994): Fish Creek 

Restoration Project. p.81-82. In: Summit 

showcase displays and ecosystem case studies. 
USDI Bureau of Land Management Summit. 

Incline Village, NV. April, 1994. 

The fire that burned 70 acres in Fish Creek Basin 

south of Battle Mountain, Nevada in 199 1 provided a 

collaborative opportunity for the local BLM office 

and community organizations. Participants in the 

restoration project included a local Boy Scout troop, 

the Lander County Rod and Gun Club, a grazing 

permittee, community volunteers, the Nevada 

Division of Forestry, and various BLM employees. 

This effort provided a restored watershed, improved 

wildlife habitat, and a re-established forage base. 

[COLLABORATION; RESEEDING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

928. Kingery,H (1991): Riparian value to birds. 

p.715. In: Roth,D; Bridges,C; Zimmerman,C 

[eds.]. What does riparian mean to me? 

Proceedings of the third annual convention. 

Colorado Riparian Association. 6-8 November 

1991. Pueblo, CO. 

The riparian systems in Colorado have an 

influence on bird life far beyond their dimensions. 

They have greater diversity and greater density of 

avifauna than any other forest or grassland habitat. If 

each layer of the riparian system is undisturbed, the 

system will support a higher population of birds. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

929. Kingsley,K (1985): The pecan orchard as a 

riparian ecosystem. p.245-249. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

ltech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-1 8 

April 1985. Tucson,AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

The world's largest irrigated pecan orchard near 

Tucson, Arizona, is, at maturity, a dense woodland of 

deciduous trees, with abundant weeds as understory 

and surface water generally available. Native 

animals, including invertebrates, amphibians, 

reptiles, birds, and mammals, have invaded the 

orchard and adapted to it. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

930. Kinney,JW; Clary,WP (1994): A 

photographic utilization guide for key riparian 

graminoids. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-GTR-308. 13 p. 

Photographic guides are presented to help 

estimate grazing utilization of important riparian 

grasses and grasslike plants. Graphs showing the 

percent of a plant's weight that has been consumed 

based on the percent of it's height left after grazing 

allow utilization estimates to be refined further. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

UTILIZATION] 

931. Kirby,RE; Lewis,SJ; Sexson,TN (1988): Fire 

in North American wetland ecosystems and 

fire-wildlife relations: An annotated bibliography. 

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological Report 

88(1), 146. 

This report compiles an annotated bibliography 

dealing with the relationship between fire and 

wetlands. A total of 3 19 papers and articles are 

abstracted and presented. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; FIRE IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

932. Klebenow,DA; Oakleaf,RJ (1984): 

Historical avifaunal changes in the riparian zone 

of the Truckee River, Nevada. p.203-209. In: 

Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK 

[tech. coord.1. Proceedings of the California 

riparian systems conference. 17-19 September 

1981. Davis, CA. University of California Press. 

Berkeley, CA. 

A comparison of populations in the present 

avifauna with observations made during 1868 along 

the lower Truckee River showed species changes in 

abundance. The most noticeable changes in the 

avifauna involved species that require the dense 

understory of woody riparian vegetation, wet 

meadow, and marsh. Numerous species have 

declined in abundance. The apparent population 

declines can be related to the compounding of effects 

of farmland development, river channeling 

operations, and overgrazing. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; AVIFAUNA; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; RlPARIAN HABITAT] 

933. Klock,GO (1985): Modeling the cumulative 

effects of forest practices on downstream aquatic 

ecosystems. Journal of Soil and Water 

Conservation, March-April 1985,237-241. 

A Watershed Cumulative Effects Analysis 

(WCEA) was developed to determine a watershed's 

hydrologic condition. It uses key watershed 

parameters affecting stream water quality and 

quantity. The model may be used to evaluate the 

potential downstream impact of all forest practice 

options within a watershed and to 

schedule/coordinate forest practices within it. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; CUMULATIVE 

IMPACTS; FOREST MANAGEMENT; 

MODELING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 
934. KlopatelqJM (1988): Some thoughts on 

using a landscape framework to address 

cumulative impacts on wetland food chain 

support. Environmental Management 12(5), 703- 

711. 

Primary production may not be the metric that 

best evaluates food chain support. Habitat variables 

appear to yield more information on life support 

functions. A landscape oriented approach was 

derived to hierarchically separate wetlands into 

ecological regions and landscape elements. This 

classification allows for predetermination of 

environmental constraints and possible natural limits 

of food chain support. Models derived from the 

spatial location theory can be used to determine the 

movement of animals from wetland patches 

experiencing impacts on food chain support. These 

models incorporate patch size, distance between 

patches, habitat quality, and environmental 

constraints. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; FOOD CHAINS; 

MODELING; SPATIAL SCALE; WETLANDS] 

935. Knapp,RA; Matthews,KR (1996): Livestock 

grazing, golden trout, and streams in the Golden 

Trout Wilderness, California: Impacts and 

management implications. North American 

Journal of Fisheries Management 16,805-820. 

Impacts of livestock grazing on golden trout 

(Oncorhynchus rnykiss aguabonita) and their habitat 

were studied inside and outside of livestock 

exclosures in the Golden Trout Wilderness, 

California. In two consecutive years, the majority of 

stream physical characteristics showed large 

differences between grazed and ungrazed areas, and 

the directions of these differences were consistent 

with the recovery of exclosed streams and riparian 

areas from impacts caused by livestock grazing. 

Results suggest that current levels of livestock 

grazing are degrading the stream and riparian 

components of the area to the detriment of golden 

trout populations. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK 

EFFECTS] 

936. Knapp,RA; Vredenburg,VT; MatthewsKR 

(1998): Effects of stream channel morphology on 

golden trout spawning habitat and recruitment. 

Ecological Applications 8(4), 1104-1 11 7. 

This study was designed to determine whether 

stream channel morphology affects the availability of 

spawning habitat for California golden trout and 

whether spawning habitat availability influences the 

production of age-0 trout and recruitment into the 

adult population. Wide stream reaches contained 

significantly more spawning habitat and higher 

density of nests and age-0 trout than narrow reaches. 

Mortality of age-0 trout was largely density 

dependent. In this study, the golden trout population 

was limited by spawning habitat. Grazing by 

livestock has widened the study streams which 

explained why these stream sections had more 

spawning habitat and higher golden trout densities 

than ungrazed sections. Individual growth rates of 

golden trout are apparently negatively density 

dependent. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; FISH HABITAT; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; RECRUITMENT; 

SALMONIDS] 

937. Knight,AW; Bottorff,RL (1981): The 

importance of riparian vegetation to stream 

ecosystems. p.160-167. In: Warner,RE; 

Hendrix,KM [eds.l.California riparian systems 

conference.17-19 September 1981. Davis, CA. 

Riparian vegetation is important in determining 

the structure and function of stream ecosystems. 

Most aquatic organisms, both invertebrates and fish, 

are directly or indirectly dependent on inputs of 

terrestrial detritus to the stream for their food. 

Natural changes in riparian vegetation and the biotic 

processing of detritus, as well as other factors, 

determine the kinds and abundance of aquatic 

invertebrates living in streams, from headwaters to 

large rivers. Removal of riparian vegetation will 

significantly affect stream organisms by: 1) 

decreasing detritus inputs; 2) increasing the potential 

for primary production in aquatic plants, 3) 

increasing the summer water temperatures; 4) 

changing water quality and quantity; and 5) 

decreasing terrestrial habitat for adult insects. 

[FISHERIES; NVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

938. Knight,RW (1977): Streamside erosional 

response to animal grazing practices on Meadow 

Creek in northeastern Oregon. MS Thesis, 

Oregon State University. Corvallis, OR. 59 p. 

A study to determine possible impacts of cattle 

and big game grazing on streamside erosional 

responses was initiated in 1975. Objectives were to: 

1) establish the study and collect baseline 

measurements; 2) determine the impact of animal 

grazing on soil bulk density and erosional potential; 

3) determine characteristics of streambanks as 

influenced by animal trampling; and 4) determine 

infiltration rates and sediment production as they 

relate to soil structure. Very few differences were 
detectable in the short term of this study. Seasonal 

and natural variability were sufficiently large to mask 

a single year of grazing management at the seasons 

and intensities of stocking. 

[EROSION; GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING 

TREATMENTS] 

939. Knopf,FL (1985): Significance of riparian 

vegetation to breeding birds across an altitudinal 

cline. p.105-111. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech, 

coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

This study documented the relative significance 

of riparian zones to breeding birds at six elevations 

between 1,200 and 2,750 m in the Platte River 

drainage of the Colorado Front Range. Bird 

communities were inventoried during 1,440 surveys 

at points in riparian and upland vegetation. Totals of 

124 and I1 1 species were observed in each of two 

years; 82 percent of all species were observed in 

riparian sites. Species richness was higher in riparian 

sites than in uplands. Riparian bird communities were 

simplistically structured at high elevations and more 

complex at lower elevations. Upland communities 

were more complex at higher elevations. Riparian 

sites at the lowest and highest elevations were found 

via diversity analyses to be most significant to 

regional avifauna. Management actions to enhance 

avian communities in western states should place 

primary emphasis on riparian zones at low elevations, 

secondary emphasis on highest elevations, and 

de-emphasize efforts at intermediate elevations. 

[AVIFAUNA; PLATTE RIVER; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

940. Knopf,FL (1986): Changing landscapes and 

the cosmopolitanism of the eastern Colorado 

avifauna. Wildlife Society Bulletin 14,132-142. 

The development of a riparian forest on the 

Great Plains has provided a corridor for the 

movement of forest birds across those grasslands that 

have historically served as an ecological barrier to 

dispersal. The corridor has resulted in secondary 

contact of many congeneric species which currently 

hybridize on the Great Plains; the hybridization may 

be interpreted either as reversing 10,000 years of 

speciation, or alternatively as promoting hybrid vigor 

within populations. Natural resource management 

agencies need to develop formal positions on the 

issues of cosmopolitanism and hybridization of 

wildlife species which occur with broad changes in 

native landscapes. 

[AVIFAUNA; BIODIVERSITY; FLOODPLAIN 

MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

941. Knopf,FL (1987): Ecological patterning of 

riparian avifaunas. In: Streamside management: 

Riparian wildlife and forestry interactions. An 

interdisciplinary symposium. 11-13 February 

1987. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 

Riparian vegetation provides habitats for more 

species of birds than other vegetative communities in 

western states. Whereas less than 1 percent of the 

western landscape contains riparian habitai., these 

ecosystems provide habitat for up to 82 percent of the 

bird species of a region. The significance of a 

specific tract of riparian vegetation as avian habitats, 

however, varies with the scale from which a tract is 

evaluated. Avian communities within riparian 

ecosystems can be viewed as ecologically patterned 

along four distinct dimensions. These dimensions 

correspond to the hierarchical levels of calculating 

species diversity. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

942. Knopf,FL (1988): Riparian wildlife habitats: 

more, worth less, and under invasion. p.20-22. In: 

Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller, LK [eds.]. 

Restoration, creation, and management of wetland 

and riparian ecosystems in the American West. A 

symposium of the Rocky Mountain Chapter of the 

Society of Wetland Scientists. 14-16 November 

1988. Denver, CO. 

Displacement of native woody species will 

produce dramatic physiognomic transformation of 

native communities from multi-layered, multi-species 

assemblages to simpler, uniform "scrub" landscapes. 

This displacement will be accompanied by a 30 

percent loss in the number of migratory bird species 

breeding in lowland areas. The author projects that 

Rocky Mountain and western Great Plains vegetation 

below 1,500 m elevation will include 50 percent 

canopy coverage of Russian olive within the next 50 

years and 90 percent canopy coverage of Russian 

olive in 90 years. 

[AVIFAUNA; EXOTICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS; RIPARIAN VEGE.TATION] 

943. Knopf,FL; Johnson,RR; Rich,T; 

Samson,FB; Szaro,RC (1988): Conservation of 

riparian ecosystems in the United State!$. Wilson 

Bulletin 100(2), 272-284. 

Avian diversity is jeopardized on the continental 

scale by the decline of riparian ecosystems. The 
authors recommend coordinated management of 

geographic regions and habitat corridors for dispersal 

of avian species. 

[AVIFAUNA; BIODIVERSITY; POLICY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

944. Knopf,FL; Scott,ML (1990): Altered flows 

and created landscapes in the Platte River 

Headwaters, 1840-1990. p.47-69. In: Management 

of dynamic ecosystems. [Ed: Sweeney,JMI The 

Wildlife Society, West LaFayette, IN. 

The North and South Platte Rivers played a 

major role in development of the West. Historical 

flow dynamics have been altered dramatically with 

annual runoff peaks and total discharge severely 

reduced in the North Platte drainage. In contrast, the 

South Platte continues to exhibit natural peak and 

annual flows. Impoundments in the North Platte and 

drought during the 1930's in both drainages have 

contributed to extensive vegetation development in 

the respective floodplains of the Great Plains. The 

deciduous vegetation provides local habitats for more 

wildlife species than currently occur elsewhere in the 

headwaters. Secondary successional vegetation is 

colonizing rapidly up the North Platte floodplain, but 

more slowly in the South Platte floodplain. Exotic 

plant species are spreading rapidly in both drainages. 

Extensive colonization by riparian vegetation has led 

to the development of rich vertebrate assemblages 

along both floodplains. The authors conclude that: 1) 

the South Platte is a unique river in the arid West 

because of historical peak flows and mean annual 

channel flows; 2) enhanced low flows have had the 

highest single ecological impact upon the Platte 

River headwaters, and 3) floodplain vegetation 

dynamics, historically regulated by pulsed flows, are 

now primarily driven by ecological processes. 

Conservation of biotic associations along the North 

and South Platte Rivers is clouded by the complexity 

of autonomous government authorities with 

jurisdiction in the headwaters. 

[EXOTICS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

945. Knopf,FL; Sedgwick,JA; Cannon,RW 

(1988): Guild structure of a riparian avifauna 

relative to seasonal cattle grazing. Journal of 

Wildlife Management 52(2), 280-290. 

The study evaluates the response of summer 

birds to grazing of a shrub-willow vegetation, 

Arapaho National Wildlife Refuge. Three response 

guilds were delineated: habitat generalists, habitat 

specialists, and intermediate habitat specialists. 

Authors hypothesized that the response-guild 

structure primarily reflects the impact of cattle upon 

the horizontal patterning of the vegetative 

community. 

[AVIFAUNA; BIODIVERSITY; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; RlPARlAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

SHRUBS] 

946. Kochman,E (1979): Channelization in 

Colorado - past, present, and future. p.586-589. 

In: Swanson,GA led.]. The mitigation symposium: 

A national workshop for mitigating losses of fish 

and wildlife habitat. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-65. 

Recognizing the need for control of stream 

channelization, the Colorado legislature passed the 

Stream Protection Act, 33-5-101, C.R.S., 1973. The 

law gave control over state agencies who proposed 

channelization or other projects that would modify 

aquatic habitat within streams or rivers. The Division 

of Wildlife has developed specific organizational 

guidelines1 procedures to carry out the intent of the 

law including mitigation measures. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

947. Kondolf,GM (1995): Five elements for 

effective evaluation of stream restoration. 

Restoration Ecology 3(2), 133-142. 

River and stream restoration projects are 

increasingly numerous but rarely subjected to 

systematic post-project evaluation. The few such 

evaluation studies conducted have indicated a high 

percentage of failures. Thus, post-project evaluation 

(and dissemination of results) is essential if the field 

of river restoration is to advance. Effective 

evaluation of project success should include: 1) clear 

objectives, to provide a framework for evaluation; 2) 

baseline data, for an objective basis for evaluating 

change; 3) good study design, to demonstrate 

restoration effects; 4) commitment to long-term 

monitoring; and 5) willingness to acknowledge 

failure, so that failures can contribute to the learning 

process. 

[EVALUATION; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

948. Kondolf,GM (1996): A cross section of 

stream channel restoration. Journal of Soil and 

Water Conservation 51(2), 119-125. 

Professional1public interest in the restoration of 

traditional values to degraded stream channels has 

grown enormously in reccnt years. lntcrcst in 

developing flood control strategies that retain 

ecological values has grown concurrently. "Stream 
restoration" has been frequently used to encompass 

all efforts at ecologically sound river management, 

even though some of these involve attempts to 

minimize negative environmental effects of flood 

management or channel relocation works. This paper 

presents case studies illustrating various goals and 

techniques in stream restoration projects and 

discusses the need for systematic studies to evaluate 

success of restoration projects. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; FLOOD IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

949. Kondolf,GM; Micheli,ER (1 995): 

Evaluating stream restoration projects. 

Environmental Management 19(1), 1-15. 

River and stream restoration projects are 

increasingly numerous but rarely subjected to 

systematic post-project evaluation. Post-project 

evaluation must be incorporated into the initial 

design of each project, with the choice of evaluation 

technique based directly upon the specific project 

goals against which performance will be evaluated. 

The authors emphasize measurement of geomorphic 

characteristics, as these constitute the physical 

framework supporting riparian and aquatic 

ecosystem. Techniques for evaluating other 

components are discussed, particularly where they 

relate to geomorphic variables. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

950. Kondlof,GM; Webb,JW; Sale,MJ; 

Felando,T (1987): Basic hydrologic studies for 

assessing impacts of flow diversions on riparian 

diversions on riparian vegetation: Examples from 

streams of the eastern Sierra Nevada, California, 

USA. Environmental Management 11(6), 757-769. 

There is increased interest in predicting the 

impacts of flow diversions on riparian vegetation as a 

consequence of proposals to use diversions of 

streamflow for power generation. Site-specific 

geomorphic and hydrologic information is needed. 

This article describes the available methods for 

collecting relevant hydrologic data, including: 1) 

preparing geomorphic maps from aerial photographs; 

2) using well level records to evaluate the influence 

of streamflow on the riparian water table; 3) taking 

synoptic flow measurements to identify gaining and 

losing reaches; 4) analyzing flow records from an 

upstream-downstream pair of gages to document 

seasonal variations in downstream flow losses. 

[HYDROELECTRIC IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; STREAM FLOW] 

951. Konynenbelt,RD (1993): A stream 

restoration project along the north Raven River. 

p.294-304. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The long range management goal for this river is 

to maintain a high quality, naturally reproducing 

trout fishery for public benefit. Fence maintenance, 

beaver management, and active liaison with 

participating landowners are important features of the 

program. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; TROUT] 

952. Korte,N; Kearl,P; Koehler,D (1993): 

Strategies to define and implement large-scale 

watershed restoration project policy on the 

Navajo Nation. p.198-202. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The condition of riparian areas on the Navajo 

Reservation has seriously deteriorated over the last 

century as a consequence of overgrazing, a 

circumstance that continues unabated. Large-scale 

riparian restoration of degraded areas has significant 

implications for the reservation because of the 

consequence of such actions on water balance, water 

quality, livestock production, and reservoir operation. 

Such actions, however, require a political and 

socioeconomic commitment that does not presently 

exist. 

[LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

953. Koski,KV; Heifetz,J; Johnson,S; 

Murphy,M; Thedinga,J (1984): Evaluation of 

buffer strips for protection of salmonid rearing 

habitat and implications for enhancement. 

p.138-155. In: Hassler, TJ [ed.]. Pacific Northwest 

stream habitat management workshop. Humboldt 

State University 10-12 October 1984. Arcata, CA. 

The effectiveness of buffer strips in protecting 

rearing habitat of juvenile salmonids from the effects 

of logging was evaluated by comparing habitat and 

fish population density in old-growth, buffered, and 

clear-cut reaches of streams. In summer, buffered and 

clear-cut reaches had more algae, benthos, and more 

salmonid fry than old-growth reaches. Densities of 

parr (age > or =1) in summer were higher in the 
buffered reaches than in either the clear-cut or 

old-growth reaches. In winter, old-growth and 

buffered reaches contained the most critical habitat 

and had the highest densities of parr. Clear-cut 

reaches had the least amount of debris, pool habitat, 

and fewer parr than either buffered or old-growth 

reaches. Buffer strips in logging operations appear to 

enhance fish production by increasing fry recruitment 

in summer while sustaining survival of parr in winter. 

[BUFFER STRIPS; FISHERIES; LOGGING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

954. Kovalchik,BL (1987): Riparian zone 

associations: Descutes, Ochoco, Fremont, and 

Winema Forests. USDA Forest Service. Pacific 

Norhtwest Region. R6 ECOL Technical 

Paper-279-87. 171 p. 

This technical paper addresses the classification, 

inventory, and delineation of riparian ecosystems for 

purposes of land management planning. The area 

covered by this classification extends along the 

Cascade Crest from Mount Jefferson in the north to 

the California border in the south, and eastward 

through the Deschutes, Winema, Ochoco, and 

Fremont National Forests. The paper describes the 

structural, compositional, and functional components 

of specific riparian zones. 

[CLASSIFICATION; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

955. KovalchilqBL (1992): Growth and yield of 

willows in central Oregon compared to reports in 

world literature. p. 83-88. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL Icomp.]. 

Proceedings -Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Species of willows come in various shapes and 

sizes. Rates of growth and biomass accumulation are 

responsive to factors such as senescence, 

temperature, fi-ost, flooding, soil nutrients, mineral 

toxicity, and fertilization. Height growth of willows 

at this location averages less than 1.5 feet per year 

and decreases with age. Accumulated biomass may 

range from 4,000 to 60,000 pounds per acre dry 

weight on bogs and well-drained sites. 

[BIOMASS; GROWTH RATES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WILLOW] 

956. KovalchikBL; Chitwood,LA (1990): Use of 

geomorphology in the classification of riparian 

plant associations in mountainous landscapes of 

central Oregon, USA. Forest Ecology and 

Management 33134,405-418. 

Resource managers are increasingly interested in 

the importance, unique values, classification, and 

management of riparian zones. Understanding the 

ecology of the riparian zone is complicated by the 

extreme variation in geology, climate, terrain, 

hydrology, and disturbances by humans. 

Consequently, it is often difficult to determine the 

vegetation potential of riparian sites and develop 

management options. This study used 

geomorphology in addition to floristic classification 

to identify vegetation potential in riparian zones. A 

4-level geomorphic/floristic classification is 

proposed. Geomorphology is especially usefd on 

riparian sites where the natural vegetation 

composition, soils, and/or water regimes have been 

altered by past disturbance, either natural or 

human-induced. 

[CLASSIFICATION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN PLANTS; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

957. Koze1,SJ; Hubert,WA; Parsons,MG (1989): 

Habitat features and trout abundance relative to 

gradient in some Wyoming streams. Northwest 

Science 63(4), 175-182. 

Low-gradient reaches (0.1 - 1.4 percent) have 

deeper near-shore water depths, more undercut 

banks, and more trench pools than moderate-gradient 

reaches (1.5-4.0 percent), while moderate-gradient 

reaches have more cobble substrate, dammed pools 

formed by woody debris, and plunge pools. Habitat 

features that correlated with trout standing stock 

differed between gradient classes. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

958. Kramer,NE; Steinman,AD (1993): 

Responses of riparian vegetation and groundwater 

to activities along the Tijuana Corridor. p.241. In: 

Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 

Wambolt,CL [camp.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The potential effects of groundwater extraction 

and river diversion on riparian vegetation in southern 

San Diego County, California were monitored. Water 

potential data were collected on five riparian shrub 

species for two irrigated sites, two non-irrigated sites, 

and one reference site. Declines in water potential 

occurred in all monitored species at the non-irrigated 

sites during the sampling period. 

[GROUNDWATER; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 
VEGETATION; WATER POTENTIAL] 

959. Kramer,PJ (1952): Plant and soil water 

relations on the watershed. Journal of Forestry 

50(2), 92-95. 

Forest and other vegetation affect soil moisture 

directly by transpiration, and indirectly by 

interception, evaporation, and infiltration. 

Transpiration can remove water from field capacity 

to permanent wilting point. Leaf structure is not a 

reliable indicator of transpiration rates. There are 

large seasonal variations in the rates and volumes of 

transpiration. Shallow-rooted trees and plants 

generally remove less water than deep-rooted species 

and are therefore preferable on watersheds where 

scarcities may occur. 

[HYDROLOGY; SOIL-WATER CONDITIONS; 

WATER RELATIONS] 

960. Krasny,ME; Vogt,KA; Zasada,JC (1988): 

Establishment of four Salicaceae species on river 

bars in interior Alaska. Holarctic Ecology 11, 

210-219. 

In general, seed germination was not useful in 

explaining the patterns of plant distribution on river 

bar sites. Vegetative reproduction can be important in 

both initial establishment and survival on river bar 

sites. Seed reproduction was important on mesic sites 

and vegetative reproduction was important on sites 

favorable to seed germination. Once established on 

mesic sites, however, expansion does not take place 

by root sprouting. 

[PLANT COMMUNITIES; RECRUITMENT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WILLOW] 

961. Krausman,PR; Rautenstrauch,KR; 

Leopold,BD (1985): Xeroriparian systems used by 

desert mule deer in Texas and Arizona. p.144-149. 

In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH Itech. coord.1. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

This study examined desert mule deer 

occurrence in xeroriparian systems in Arizona and 

Texas. Most deer in Arizona were found in washes. 

Most deer in Texas were found between washes. 

Xeroriparian areas are important habitat components 

for desert mule deer when they provide forage, 

thermal cover, and travel lanes. 

[MULE DEER; RIPARlAN HABITAT; 

XERORIPARIAN] 

962. Krueger,HO (1985): Avian response to 

mountainous shrub-willow riparian systems in 

southeastern Wyoming. Ph.D. Dissertation, 

University of Wyoming. Laramie, WY. 101 p. 

Census data within shrub-willow and upland 

habitats indicated that obligate avian species in each 

of the study sites. In study sites with high variation in 

shrub density, numerous bird species selected density 

values significantly different from random samples 

(P<0.05). Higher bird densities were found on the 

site associated with high beaver activity. Beaver 

impact bird communities by building dams which 

impound water and trap nutrients and sediment, both 

of which are factors which increase the productivity 

of the aquatic system and food availability. Cattle 

were found to alter shrub density and structure, both 

factors that affect bird communities. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; BEAVER; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

963. Krueger,HO; Anderson,SH (1985): The use 

of cattle as a management tool for wildlife in 

shrub-willow riparian systems. p.300-304. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH Itech, coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report. RM-120. 

Cattle can have a beneficial effect on wildlife in 

high altitude shrub-willow riparian systems by 

creating tunnels through the habitat. Mean tunnel 

heights for two study areas were 0.75 and 0.95 m 

with 4 1 percent of the shrubs sampled forming 

tunnels in each study area. The tunnels benefit birds 

and mammals by opening up willows which in turn 

increases the grassland habitat and structural 

diversity of vegetation. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

964. Krueger,WC (1993): Managing areas in 

mixed ownership. p.307-310. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH Itech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

Coordinated resource management, which 

originated in Oregon in 1949, has proven to be an 

effective process to incorporate various interests into 

operational plans. As time has passed, CRM has been 

used to widen the scope of involved interests and 

include a greater variety of interests. This process 

encourages discussion, debate, and suggestions for 
solutions. Though most frequently used to solve 

resource problems, it has also been effective in 

preventing problems from developing. 

[CRMP; PLANNING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

965. Krueger,WC (1994): Managing ungulates to 

allow recovery of riparian vegetation. p.160-164. 

In: Proceedings of a symposium on: Sustaining 

rangeland ecosystems. 29-31 August 1994. La 

Grande, OR. 

Most of the literature on grazing evaluations of 

large ungulates and sustainability of riparian systems 

is based on observation and case history. The site 

specificity of management influences on riparian 

vegetation and the utility of using cattle to sustain 

riparian systems are clarified by this literature. 

Grazing strategies for livestockhig game can be most 

effective when they integrate knowledge of animal 

behavior, forage palatability, plant responses, plant 

community responses, hydrology, and practicality. 

Grazing strategies based on the above principles can 

be integrated into social and ecological needs to 

accomplish ecosystem management. The author 

describes a protocol to meet all legal obligations for 

public and private land in a coordinated resource 

management framework. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RlPARlAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

966. Krueper,DJ (1992): Effects of land use 

practices on western riparian ecosystems, p. 

321-330. In: Finch,DM; Stangell,PW [eds.]. Status 

and management of neotropical migratory birds. 

21-25 September 1992. Estes Park, CO. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-229. 

Riparian ecosystems are among the rarest and 

most sensitive habitat types in the western United 

States. Riparian habitat is critical for up to 80 

percent of terrestrial vertebrate species, and is 

especially important in the arid West. Estimates have 

placed riparian habitat loss at greater than 95 percent 

in most western states. Impacts of riparian areas are 

reviewed along with mitigation and conservation 

recommendations for resource managers. 

[LAND USE; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

967. Krueper,DJ (1996): Effects of livestock 

management on Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems. p.281-301. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM 

Itech. coord.1. Desired future conditions for 

Southwestern riparian ecosystems. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Riparian habitats historically constituted 1 

percent of the land mass in western North America. 

Within the past I00 years, an estimated 95 percent of 

this habitat has been altered, degraded or destroyed 

due to a wide variety of land use practices such as 

river channelization, clearing for agriculture, 

livestock grazing, water impoundments, and 

urbanization. Many authors now concur that the 

single most important land management practice 

impacting western riparian ecosystems has been 

unmanaged domestic livestock grazing. Over 70 

percent of the western United States is currently 

being grazed by livestock in habitats ranging fiom 

sea level to alpine meadows. Unwise grazing 

practices have been shown to negatively affect 

Southwestern riparian vegetation composition, 

ecosystem function, and ecosystem structure. This 

has resulted in negative impacts on native wildlife 

populations including insects, fish, reptiles, 

amphibians, birds, and mammals. Negative impacts 

due largely fiom over a century of heavy domestic 

livestock utilization in riparian areas has resulted in 

the decline of many wildlife populations. Studies 

have shown that up to 70 percent of avian species in 

the desert Southwest depend upon riparian habitat for 

survival at some stage of their life. Over forty percent 

of Arizona's state-listed bird species are considered to 

be riparian obligate species. Ninety percent of 

Arizona's native fish species are now extinct, 

extirpated, or Federally or state listed. Many other 

vertebrate species have declined in recent years due 

to alteration of riparian habitats, and may soon be 

considered for Federal listing. To prevent hture 

listings and to reverse population declines of 

sensitive wildlife species, land management agencies 

need to implement appropriate practices within 

riparian ecosystems. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; GRAZING IMPACTS; LAND 

USE; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

968. Kruse,CG; Hubert,WA; Rahel,FJ (1997): 

Geomorphic influences on the distribution of 

Yellowstone cutthroat trout in the Absaroka 

Mountains, Wyoming. Transactions of the 

American Fisheries Society 126,418-427. 

Influences of large-scale geomorphic 

characteristics on distributions of cutthroat trout 

(Onchovhychus clarki bouveri) are poorly 

understood. In this study, channel slope, elevation, 

stream size, and barriers to upstream movement 

significantly influenced the presence and absence of 

Yellowstone cutthroat trout. Wild populations of 
cutthroat trout were not found upstream of barriers to 

fish migration, at sites with channel slopes of 10 

percent or greater, or at elevations above 3,182 m. 

Logistic regression models correctly classified 

presence or absence of fish. Large-scale geomorphic 

variables influence Yellowstone cutthroat trout 

populations, and logistic functions can predict these 

distributions with a high degree of accuracy. 

[FISHERIES; GEOMORPHOLOGY; MODELING; 

TROUT] 

969. Kruse,WH; Baker,Jr.,MB (1998): Twenty 

years of watershed response to strip-cutting 

Ponderosa Pine in central Arizona. p.179-185. In: 

Potts,DF [ed.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Water yield and understory biomass production 

were determined on a Ponderosa Pine watershed 

following a strip-cut treatment of the forest 

overstory. Water yield increased approximately 15 

percent during the first six years after timber harvest. 

Understory biomass increased from an initial 

measurement of 132 kglha to about 400kglha after 

seven years, then decreased after twenty years to less 

than 200kglha. 

[FORAGE PRODUCTION; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

WATER YIELD; WATERSHED] 

970. Kulla,A (1990): Transitional forest grazing 

and compatible grazing systems for forested 

riparian and wetland sites in western Montana. 

In: Management of riparian and wetland forested 

ecosystems in Montana. Fourth annual Montana 

Riparian Association workshop. 5-7 September 

1990. University of Montana. Whitefish, MT. 

All riparian compatible systems proposed to date 

have in common the prescription of less total grazing 

in the riparian area 'either through rest, season 

adjustment, number adjustment, livestock 

management, or structural improvement'. Whether 

the allotment can handle the same or increased 

stocking will depend on the availability and condition 

of the non-riparian upland areas. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN FOREST] 

971. Kus,BE (1998): Use of restored riparian 

habitat by the endangered Least Bell's Vireo 

(Vireo belliipusillus). Restoration Ecology 6(1), 

75-82. 

A primary objective of riparian restoration in 

California is the creation of habitat for endangered 

species. Four restoration sites in southern California 

were monitored and evaluated. Vireos visited 

restoration sites to forage as early as the first growing 

season, but did not establish territories or nest there 

until at least part of the site supported suitable 

habitat. Placement of territories and nests coincided 

with patches of dense vegetation characteristic of 

natural nesting areas. Occupation of restored sites 

was accelerated by the presence of adjacent mature 

riparian habitat, which afforded birds nests sites 

andlor foraging habitat. Vireos nesting in restored 

habitat achieved success comparable to that of vireos 

nesting in surrounding natural habitat. Findings 

suggest that the critical components of vireo nesting 

habitat have been captured in both the design and 

quantitative assessment of restoration sites. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

972. Kusler,J (1992): Wetlands delineation: An 

issue of science or politics? Environment 34(2), 

7-37. 

A 1991 USDI study indicates that only an 

estimated 103.3 million acres of wetland remain 

intact in the lower 48 states out of an original 22 1 

million acres. Losses are continuing at an estimated 

rate of 200,000 to 300,000 acres each year. The 

author believes that the debate over appropriate 

federal regulatory definition of wetlands has become 

so politicized that delineation criteria could be 

adopted that will be scientifically unsound. This 

factor could not only reduce protection for wetlands 

but would be costly to developers and landowners as 

well. Setting national wetland policy should involve 

both politics and science. National debate is 

necessary to produce effective wetland management 

policies and guidelines. 

[POLICY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

973. Kusler,JA (1985): A call for action: 

protection of riparian habitat in the arid and 

semi-arid West. p.6-8. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliot,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Sewice. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

The scientific base documenting the wildlife, 

flood control, water pollution, erosion control, 

fisheries, and recreational values of riparian habitats 

has been strengthened in the past several years, yet 

there are no systematic protection policies or 

procedures at any level of government: federal, state, 

or local. The time is ripe for a coordinated riparian 

habitat protection program. 
[POLICY; RIPARlAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

974. Kusler,JA (1993): Floodplain management 

and the protection of riparian habitat: Status of 

efforts and possible future decisions. p. 112-1 15. 

In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH Itech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

Floodplain management regulations and other 

wetland and riparian habitat regulations and 

nonregulatory initiatives provide only limited 

protection for riparian areas in the West. These areas 

continue to be threatened by vegetative defoliation, 

grazing, water projects, urban development, and 

other activities. These circumstances, however, offer 

new opportunities for riparian protection because of 

the strong public support for such protection, 

growing interest in federal, state, and local agencies, 

and a rapidly growing science base with regard to 

stream management, riparian habitat restoration, and 

watershed management. 

[FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

WATERSHED] 

975. Kyle,HM; Schmidt,MG; Lertzman,KP 

(1996): A spatially dynamic riparian buffer 

model: Conservation on the edge. p.341-346. 

Proceedings of the ninth annual symposium on 

geographic information systems. Ft. Collins, CO. 

The procedural simplicity of constant width 

buffering in geographic information systems has 

compelled many resource managers to apply an 

unecologically sound conservation tool. This paper 

describes a spatially dynamic riparian buffer model 

with an edge mitigation component. This model more 

efficiently targets the zone of interest than traditional 

static width buffers, reduces the opportunity cost of 

losing land to "no-touch" areas, while maintaining a 

strong conservation agenda. 

[EDGE EFFECT; GIS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN ZONES] 

976. LaBaugh,JW (1986): Wetland ecosystem 

studies from a hydrologic perspective. Water 

Resources Bulletin 22(1), 1-9. 

Selected studies from the literature were 

reviewed to determine the extent of knowledge about 

the relationship between hydrology and wetland 

ecosystem studies. Very few studies have attempted 

to measure all the components of a wetlands water 

balance. Generally, measure components were 

calculated as the difference between measured inputs 

and outputs. Ground water was frequently 

overlooked. Few studies included direct measurement 

of biogeochemical processes within wetlands. The 

importance of uncertainties in chemical budgets to 

hydrologic budgets has been addressed in very few 

wetland investigations. Many studies have 

emphasized the importance of hydrology to wetland 

ecosystem research but few have documented this. 

[CHEMICAL BUDGETS; HYDROLOGY; WATER 

BALANCE; WETLANDS] 

977. Lachowski,H; Fisk,H; Brohman,R (1998): 

Riparian area management - the role of remote 

sensing and geographic information systems. p. 

45-54. In: Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management 

and water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

In the arid western states, riparian areas are the 

most sensitive components of our landscape. "Proper 

functioning condition", as defined by the agencies, 

includes all the elements of riparian areas, 

particularly vegetation, land forms, stream 

characteristics, and the presence of large woody 

debris. Proper management requires a 2-level 

approach: 1) a landscape view that shows riparian 

areas in relation to a watershed or management unit, 

e.g. a grazing allotment; and 2) a more detailed, 

close-up view. Remote sensing is vital to this 

approach. An application from Montana used 

imagery from the Landsat satellite at the landscape 

level, and a combination of imagery from a digital 

camera and other layers from a geospatial database at 

the detailed view. 

[GIs; PROPER FUNCTIONING CONDITION; 

REMOTE SENSING; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE] 

978. Laenen,A; Dunnette,DA (1997): River 

quality: Dynamics and restoration. Lewis 

Publishers. 480 p. 

River restoration is addressed through a series of 

case studies and articles written by various 

contributors. Part 1 covers physical, chemical, and 

biological features of a riverine system. Part 2 

describes monitoring programs and remedial and 

restoration measures. 

[HYDROLOGY; MONITORING; RIPARlAN 

RESTORATION] 

979. LaFayette,RA; DeBano,LF (1990): 

Watershed condition and riparian health: 
Linkages. p.473-484. In: Watershed planning and 

analysis in action. The symposium proceedings of 

IR conference on watershed management. 9-1 1 

July 1990. Durango, CO. 

The present focus on riparian areas could ignore 

the relationship of the riparian area to its contributing 

watershed. Failure to recognize the influence of the 

surrounding watershed may lead to unnecessary 

failures of many riparian projects. This paper 

presents 3 concepts to assist in the understanding the 

relationship between watershed condition and 

watershed health. The first addresses the 

commonality of possible combinations of the two 

factors. The second presents the acceptability of these 

combinations to managers and their publics. The 

third concept integrates the previous two in a way to: 

1) aid understanding in assessment of existing 

conditions; 2) help in setting improvement goals; and 

3) assist in formulating ways to achieve these goals. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN HEALTH; 

WATERSHED] 

980. LaFayette,RA; Paweleck,DW (1990): New 

revetment design controls streambank erosion. 

USDA Forest Service, Engineering Field Notes. 

22(July-August):23-31. 

Watershed condition analysis of the Bluewater 

Creek watershed near Grants, New Mexico, showed 

that although most of the uplands were in at least 

satisfactory condition, stream channel meander 

cutting continued to provide excessive sediments to 

the fluvial system. An innovative revetment system 

solved the problem. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STREAMBANK 

PROTECTION] 

981. LaFayette,RA; Pruitt,JR; Zeedyk,WD 

(1996): Riparian area enhancement through road 

design and maintenance. p.85-95. In: National 

hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 April - 1 

May 1992; Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

Traditional road location, design, construction, 

and maintenance have generally had adverse effects 

on riparian areas. Road locations, drainage methods, 

and maintenance practices have resulted in a net loss 

of both acreage and related values in riparian areas, 

particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions of the 

West. Results of these activities include drainage of 

riparian ecosystems, reduced site productivity, loss of 

fish and wildlife habitat, reduced base flows with 

increased peak flows, gully development, and 

accelerated downstream sedimentation. Recent 

changes in management philosophy and activities are 

reversing this trend by using road design and 

maintenance to rehabilitate riparian areas and restore 

their productivity. Methods being used to accomplish 

these goals include road obliteration, modified 

culvert designs, raised culvert inlets, modified bridge 

and ford design, flow dispersal, stilling basins, and 

more frequent and effective ditch management. 

Results have been dramatic, with more than 405 ha 

of degraded riparian areas improved or improving in 

the southwest Region of the USFS. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; ROAD IMPACTS] 

982. LaFayette,RA; Rinne,JN (1991): Riparian 

structures and watershed treatments in the 

Southwest: History, status, and management 

implications - a preliminary report. p.133-138. In: 

Proceedings 36th annual New Mexico water 

conference. New Mexico Water Resources 

Research Institute. 

A summary of conclusions and 

recommendations based on site visits and data 

gathering efforts at riparian projects in southwest 

Region, USDA Forest Service. Information contained 

in the final report will be used to begin implementing 

changes aimed at increasing the success of riparian 

improvement projects. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RIPARIAN 

STRUCTURES; WATERSHED] 

983. LaGrange,TG; Dinsmore,JJ (1989): Plant 

and animal community responses to restored Iowa 

wetlands. Prairie Naturalist 21(1), 39-48. 

The plant and animal communities of four 

formerly-drained wetland basins were inventoried 

several years after the basins had reflooded. The 

inventory recorded 45 plants, 18 invertebrates, and 

1 1 birds. The study indicates that a high-quality 

wetland very similar to unaltered wetlands can be 

restored by removing or blocking the lines. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

984. Lammert,M; Allan,JD (1999): Assessing 

biotic integrity of streams: Effects of scale in 

measuring the influence of land uselcover and 

habitat structure on fish and macroinvertebrates. 

Environmental Management 23(2), 257-270. 

The study assessed fish and macroinvertebrate 

composition, instream habitat features and 

surrounding land use in agriculturally developed 

watershed. There was considerable variability in fish 

assemblages measured with an index of biotic 

integrity, macroinvertebrate assemblages 

characterized with several diversity indexes, and both 
quantitative and qualitative measurements of 

instream habitat structure. Land use immediate to the 

tributaries predicted biotic condition better than 

regional land use, but was less important than local 

habitat variables in explaining the variability 

observed in fish and macroinvertebrate assemblages. 

Differences in outcomes suggests that the scale of 

investigation influences the strength of predictive 

variables. 

[BIOLOGICAL INTEGRITY; FISHERIES; 

MACROINVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SPATIAL SCALE] 

985. Lancaster,DL; Vance,L; Tate,KW; Lile,D 

(1998): The Cedar Creek Restoration Project and 

the limits of cross-section monitoring as an 

indicator of change. p.136. In: Potts,DF led.]. 

Range management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

The restoration plan for this site in northeastern 

California called for sagebrush and juniper burning, 

willow planting, and exclusion of livestock grazing. 

After 10 years, however, the cross-sections showed 

very little change, though visual assessment of the 

riparian area showed a marked improving trend. The 

authors concluded that cross-section monitoring does 

not always reflect accurately the degree of change. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; EXCLOSURES; 

MONITORING; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

986. Landers,DH (1997): Riparian restoration: 

Current status and the reach to the future. 

Restoration Ecology 45(5), 113-121. 

The nine technical articles in the December 1997 

volume of Restoration Ecology were critically 

reviewed. The most common indicators in these 

papers is riparian vegetation. Several additional 

elements could provide vital information and 

advance our understanding of riparian restoration: 

developing interdisciplinary approaches more fully; 

defining endpoints and reference conditions; 

implementing multiple scale approaches; viewing 

restorations as experimental ecosystem 

manipulations; developing a philosophy regarding 

exotic species; incorporating GIs more often; and 

integrating science, society, and politics. 

[POLICY; RESEARCH; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

987. Lane,EW (1953): Design of stable channels. 

Transactions of the American Society of Civil 

Engineers, 1234-1260. (Paper No. 2776). 

A method of designing stable channels is 

presented based on securing a distribution of the 

tractive force along the sides and bottoms of channels 

such that the magnitude of this force at all points will 

be sufficiently large to prevent sediment deposits in 

questionable quantities, and at the same time will be 

small enough to prevent objectionable scour. 

Limiting values for the tractive force are offered for 

the various conditions under which a canal may be 

constructed. The effects of bends, side slope, and 

transported material on the design are reviewed. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; HYDROLOGY; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

988. Lane,LJ (1982): Development of a 

procedure to estimate runoff and sediment 

transport in ephemeral streams. p.272-282. In: 

Proceedings of the Exeter symposium: 

Developments in the explanation and prediction of 

erosion and sediment yield. July 1982. IAHS Publ. 

No. 137. 

This paper describes a hydrological model for 

application with semi-arid watersheds. The model 

incorporates simplified routing schemes to include 

the influence of transmission losses on runoff. The 

procedure is used to estimate runoff rates and 

amounts together with sediment yields from semiarid 

watersheds. This procedure requires a minimum of 

observed data for calibration and is designed for 

practical applications. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; MODELING; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT] 

989. Lane,LJ; Diskin,MH; Wallace,DE; 

Dixon,RM (1978): Partial area response on small 

semi-arid watersheds. Water Resources Bulletin 

14(5), 1 143-1 158. 

If a watershed is assumed to contribute runoff 

uniformly over the entire area, significant errors in 

estimating surface runoff and erosion rates are 

possible if only a portion of the entire area may be 

contributing. Overland flow generation was 

measured by: I) an average loss rate procedure; 2) a 

lumped-linear model; and 3) a distributed-nonlinear 

model. Those methods suggested that, on the 

average, 45, 60, and 50 percents were contributing 

runoff at the watershed outlet. Low infiltration zones 

are the runoff source areas. 

[INFILTRATION; RUNOFF; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT; WATERSHED] 

990. Lane,LJ; Nicks,AD; Laflen,JM; Weltz,MA; 

Rawls,WJ; Page,DI (1989): The water erosion 

prediction project: Model overview. p.487-494. In: 
Proceedings of national water conference, IR and 

WR Divisions of the American Society of Civil 

Engineers. 17-20 July 1989. Newark, DE. 

A new generation of water erosion prediction 

technology is being developed by the USDA Water 

Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP). The models are 

based on fundamentals of stochastic weather 

generation, infiltration theory, hydrology, soil 

physics, plant science, hydraulics, and erosion 

mechanics. This new technology is expected to 

replace the Soil Loss Equation as the primary erosion 

prediction tool used by action agencies. 

[EROSION; HYDROLOGY; MODELING; SOILS] 

991. Lanka,RP; Hubert,WA; Wesche,TA (1987): 

Relations of geomorphology to stream habitat and 

trout standing stock in small Rocky Mountain 

streams. Transactions of the American Fisheries 

Society 116,21-28. 

This paper presents evidence that drainage basin 

morphology and trout standing stock are related 

through a functional link between geomorphic 

features and stream habitat quality. Numerous 

significant univariate correlations were found 

between geomorphic variables, stream habitat 

variables, and trout standing stock in both 

high-elevation forest and low-elevation rangeland 

streams. When geomorphic variables alone were 

incorporated into regression models they predicted 

trout standing stock as accurately as did stream 

habitat variables. 

[FISHERIES; GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

992. Larsen,RE; George,MR; McDougald,NK; 

Tate,KW; Fulgham,KO (1998): Evaluation of 

different seasons and intensities of grazing on 

erosion along intermittent stream channels at the 

San Joaquin Experimental Range. p.203. In: 

Potts, DF(ed.1. Rangeland management and water 

resources. Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

This study was designed to evaluate the effect of 

intensity and season of grazing along intermittent 

streams in the central California foothills. There were 

no significant changes in cross-section areas for 5 

grazing treatments. Erosion and deposition resulting 

from heavy rainfall and stream flow may have 

masked treatment. 

[EROSION; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

Barrington,MR; Buckhouse,JC; Johnson,DE 

(1998): Viewpoint: Livestock influences on 

riparian zones and fish habitat: Literature 

classification. Journal of Range Management 

51(6), 661-664. 

Articles about livestock influences on riparian 

zones and fish habitat were classified by a key into 

three classes: I) papers that contained original data; 

2) those that were commentary; and 3) reports about 

methodology such as classification systems, policies, 

and monitoring criteria. Some 428 of the total articles 

were directly related to grazing impacts on riparian 

zones and fish habitat. Of these, only 89 were 

classified as experimental, where treatments were 

replicated and results were statistically valid. Several 

limitations of riparian grazing studies were revealed: 

a) inadequate description of grazing management 

practices or treatments; b) weak study designs; and c) 

lack of pre-treatment data. More long-term, 

replicated treatment studies are needed in the future. 

[EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN; FISH HABITAT; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN] 

994. Larson,JS (1988): Wetland creation and 

restoration: An outline of the scientific 

perspective. p.73-79. In: Zelazny,J; Feierbend,JS 

(eds.1. Increasing our wetland resources. 

Proceedings of the National Wildlife Federation. 

October 1987. Washington DC. 

Data requirements for wetland creation and 

restoration projects with respect to hydrology, soils, 

and vegetation have been recommended by scientists. 

The appropriate scientific standard for assessing the 

success of artificial or restored wetlands should be 

functional performance. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; HYDROLOGY; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

995. Larson,LL; Larson,SL (1996): Riparian 

shade and stream temperature: A perspective. 

Rangelands 18(4), 149-152. 

Woody vegetation is only one component in a 

riparian ecosystem. Its relative importance depends 

upon site conditions. Watershed attributes such as air 

mass characteristics, elevation gradient, adiabatic 

rate, channel width and depth, water velocity, 

surrounding landscape, and interflow inputs all 

influence water temperature and can be of greater 

importance to stream temperature than shade. Many 

stream management strategies were intended to meet 

a recognized land management need. A current 

emphasis involves controlling stream temperature 

with vegetation shade. Management strategies that do 
not account for the dynamics of riparian systems can 

lead to failure as well as success. Management 

decisions need to be site specific. Shade alone does 

not control stream temperature. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SHADING; STREAM 

TEMPERATURE; WATERSHED] 

996. Larson,LL; Larson,SL (1997): The natural 

heating and cooling of water. Rangelands 19(6), 

6-8. 

After investigation into factors that must be 

considered to determine the natural temperature 

fluctuations for water bodies, the following 

observations were made: I) climates produce weather 

systems that determine the patterns of heating and 

cooling within a watershed environment; 2) water 

temperatures are influenced by the thermal reservoir 

that surrounds the water body; 3) a portion of stream 

temperature change can be associated with the 

thermal environment and rates of adiabatic 

temperature change; 4) the difference between the air 

temperature and the water temperature influences the 

rate at which water will warm or cool; 5) the rate of 

flow of a stream must be determined to understand 

the entire process of how a stream heats and cools; 

and 6) two measurements are required at a minimum 

to estimate the thermal evolution of a stream: a) the 

flow rate; and b) the gradient between the air and 

water temperatures. 

[HYDROLOGY; STANDARDS AND 

GUIDELINES; WATER TEMPERATURES] 

997. Laycock,WA (1969): Exclosures and natural 

areas on rangelands in Utah. USDA Forest Service 

Research Paper INT-62.44 p. 

This paper presents a listing of 529 areas in Utah 

that have received little or no use by domestic 

livestock. Areas are indexed by county, elevation, 

date established, vegetation type, and type of animal 

excluded. Locations are further described by section, 

township, range, and vegetational information. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

NATURAL AREAS] 

998. Laymon,SA (1981): Photo-documentation of 

vegetation and landform change on a riparian site, 

1880-1980: Dog Island, Red Bluff, CA. p.150-158. 

In: Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK 

leds.]. Proceedings of the California riparian 

systems conference. 17-19 September 1981. Davis, 

CO. 

The author used ground and aerial photos taken 

over a 100-year period to track the development of 

present riparian vegetation. These photos show 

changes in the Sacramento River channel which have 

led to the present configuration of the area. The 

photos show: 1) the dynamic nature of the riparian 

system showing rapid and dramatic changes at this 

site; 2) the rapidity with which riparian vegetation 

develops; and 3) the use of historic and present day 

photography to document changes in ripairian 

environment. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RlPARlAN VEGETATION] 

999. Lea,GD (1979): BLM management and 

policy for riparianlstream ecosystems. 11.13-15. In: 

Cope,OB led.]. Forum: Grazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 November 1978. 

Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

Riparian-aquatic habitat protection and 

enhancement on the public lands is required in good 

multiple-use management and in legislative and 

administrative intent. The agency concern for these 

important values will be reflected in positive 

programs. This represents the only applicable 

approach to riparian-aquatic habitats on public lands. 

But, it may take years to accomplish all ofthe 

necessary changes and adjustments. The recent 

passage of the Public Rangelands Improvement Act 

of 1978 will facilitate management efforts. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RlPARlAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1000. Leal,DA; Meyer,RA; Thompson,BC 

(1996): Avian community composition and habitat 

importance in the Rio Grande Corridor of New 

Mexico. p.62-68. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech, 

coord.]. Desired future conditions for 

Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Avian species abundance and richnest- .> were 

investigated within vegetation communities of the 

Rio Grande Corridor during 1992- 1993. A. subset of 

64 transects, for which all bird and vegetation 

variables were available, representing 16 composite 

community types, were subjected to canonical 

correlation analysis to investigate relative habitat 

importance. Generally, the higher ranking 

community types had cottonwood and other native 

woody species as dominants and the lower ranking 

communities were those types that are highly 

manipulated and/or monotypic, such as mowed river 

edge, pecan orchards, and relatively pure stands of 

salt-cedar. Bird occurrence and distribution in the 

Rio Grande Corridor is not so neatly related to 

composition of native vegetation as is sometimes 
characterized. Exotic plant species such as salt-cedar 

and Russian olive are utilized to varying degrees by 

the existing avian community. Ranking of avian use 

by habitat types may help direct restoration efforts 

towards situations where more significant gains in 

avian use can be made. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; EXOTICS; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SPECIES RICHNESS] 

1001. Leathery,S (1 998): Restoring watersheds 

for fisheries. Fisheries 4(1), 27-30. 

There is widespread institutional and 

organizational support for enhancing water quality 

through holistic approaches to watershed 

management. In recent years, virtually all federal 

resource management agencies have incorporated 

some level of watershed restoration goals into 

management activities. The long-term efforts of state 

and federal agencies, combined with broad public 

support, have been instrumental in successful 

watershed case studies such as continued water 

quality and fisheries improvement at some locations. 

[FISHERIES; WATER QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

1002. Legates,DR, Nixon,KR; Stockdale,TD; 

Quelch,GE (1998): Use of the WSR-88D weather 

radars in rangeland management. p.55-64. In: 

Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Precipitation variability usually occurs on spatial 

and temporal scales that cannot be resolved 

adequately by traditional rain gage networks, thereby 

presenting a problem for range management. The 

National Weather Service's network of WSR-88D 

weather radar, however, provide a much finer spatial 

(4 km X 4 km) and temporal (about 6 minutes) 

resolutions. Any tool that provided real-time 

estimates of precipitation in a decision support 

package would greatly enhance the management of 

water resources in range management and other 

applications. The Radar Precipitation Interface for 

Hydrological Models (RPI) coupled with the Water 

Resource Decision Support System is such a 

real-time hydrological tool. 

[GIs; HYDROLOGY; PRECIPITATION; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

1003. Legge,TA; Herman,DJ; Zamora,B (1981): 

Effects of cattle grazing on mountain meadows in 

Idaho. Journal of Range Management 34(4), 

324-328. 

Vegetation changes were documented during 12 

years of grazing exclusion. Plant composition 

changed for all treatments. Herbage production was 

significantly less on the grazed than ungrazed areas at 

two sites. On average, the percentages of bare ground 

and moss-covered areas were greater on grazed than 

ungrazed sites. Litter accumulation was greater, on 

average, on the ungrazed sites. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LITTER FALL; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; PLANT PRODUCTION] 

1004. Lehman,S (1997): The national watershed 

assessment program. Fisheries 22(5), 25. 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

working with tribes, states, federal agencies, and 

other partners, initiated the National Watershed 

Assessment Program (NWAP) in 1996. N WAP is 

designed to collect, organize, and evaluate multiple 

sources of environmental information at the 

watershed level. Objectives of this program are to: 1) 

characterize the condition and vulnerability to 

pollution of 2,150 watersheds of the U.S., 2) 

empower citizens to learn more about their 

watersheds and work to protect them, 3) provide the 

basis of dialogue among water quality managers, and 

4) measure progress toward the goal that all 

watersheds will be healthy places. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WATERSHED] 

1005. Leidholt-Bruner,K; Hibbs,DE; 

McComb,WC (1992): Beaver dam locations and 

their effects on distribution and abundance of 

Coho salmon fry in two coastal Oregon streams. 

Northwest Science 66(4), 218-223. 

Beaver dams and coho salmon fry were 

examined for their relationships in two coastal 

Oregon streams in 1987. The initial spring survey of 

19 km of stream found only one beaver dam intact 

after winter. By autumn, the number of dams had 

increased to 1.1 and 1.2 per km on the two streams. 

Beaver dams increased summer pool habitat 7 to 14 

percent over unmodified conditions. Although 

density of coho was similar among pool types, beaver 

ponds were larger and contained more coho fry than 

non-beaver pools; thus, beaver increased rearing 

habitat for coho during the summer low flow. Beaver 

present a low-cost tool deserving more consideration 

for stream rehabilitation projects. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 

IMPROVEMENTS] 

1006. Leinard,RE; Wyman,SK; Noggles,RS; 

Volk,WP (1998): A holistic approach to 
classification of riparian ecosystems. p.13-21. In: 

Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Most classification systems for riparian 

ecosystems focus primarily on the vegetative 

community. The authors argue that soils, climate, 

landform, and fluvial geomorphology need to be 

included for classification reliability. When the 

physical aspects of the riparian ecosystem, including 

stream geomorphology, are known, potential 

vegetation can be predicted with reasonable 

accuracy. Riparian ecological site classifications 

were tested for one season along the Arkansas River 

in Colorado. Undisturbed reference reaches were 

selected for comparison. This approach suggested a 

broader, more practical utility for riparian utility for 

riparian classification based on soils, climate, 

landform, hydrology, and fluvial geomorphology. 

[CLASSIFICATION; ECOLOGICAL SITE; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1007. Leininger,WC (1 988): Non-chemical 

alternatives for managing selected plant species in 

the western United States. USDI Fish and Wildlife 

Service and University Cooperative Extension, 

Colorado State University. Ft. Collins, CO. 48 p. 

A summary of technical literature on 

non-chemical plant control for 14 plant species, 

arranged by species specifically for land managers. 

The species include wild oats (Avena fatua), diffuse 

knapweed (Centaurea dzffusa), spotted knapweed 

(Centaurea maculosa), Russian knapweed 

(Centaurea repens), musk thistle (Carduus nutans), 

Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), field bindweed 

(Convolvulus amensis), leafy spurge (Euphorbia 

esula), St. Johnswort (Hypericum perforatum), tall 

whitetop (Lepidium latifolium), giant foxtail (Setaria 

faberi), yellow foxtail (Setaria glauca), green foxtail 

(Setaria viridis), common cattail (Typha latifolia). 

[EXOTICS; GRAZING IMPACTS; RANGE 

MANAGEMENT] 

1008. Leininger,WC; Stednick,JD (1 982): 

Rangeland Management. p.384-403. In: 

Introduction to forest science. Chapter 18. John 

Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY. 

Rangelands are areas of the world that, by 

reasons of physical limitations - low and erratic 

precipitation, rough topography, poor drainage, and 

cold temperatures - are unsuitable for cultivation. 

They remain a source of forage for free-ranging 

native and domestic animals, as well as a source of 

wood products, water, and wildlife. Approximately 

47 percent of the earth's land surface is classified as 

rangeland, and of the estimated 385 million hectares 

of rangeland in the United States, a little over 

one-third is forested range. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RANGELAND 

ECOSYSTEMS; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

1009. Leininger,WC; Trlica,MJ (1 986): 

Successional and hydrological changes following 

protection from long-term heavy grazing in a 

northern Colorado riparian zone. p.2141. Abstracts 

of the IV International Congress of Ecology. 

Syracuse, NY. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

1010. Leitch,JA; Grosz,KL (1988): Wetlands and 

agriculture in transition: A look at wetllands 

protection in North Dakota. p.95-98. In: Stuber,PJ 

[tech. coord.]. Proceedings of the national 

symposium on protection of wetlands from 

agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, 

CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. Biiological 

Report 88(16). 

North Dakota has been the center of controversy 

regarding drainage of of prairie potholes since the 

1960's. Landowners have typically treated wetlands 

as private property and as obstacles to fanming. With 

federal "Swampbuster" sanctions and the state's "no 

net loss" law, landowners will need to more seriously 

evaluate plans to drain wetlands, even though some 

drainage may be economically feasible. The effect of 

Swampbuster may be negated by rises in land market 

prices. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATERFOWL 

MANAGEMENT; WETLANDS] 

101 1. Leonard$; Kinch,G; Elsberndy; 

Borman,M; Swanson,S (1997): Riparian area 

management: Grazing management for 

riparian-wetland areas. USDI Bureau a~f Land 

Management. Technical Reference 173'7-14. 

Denver, CO. 80 p. 

The document presents information firom various 

land managers and researchers to guide livestock 

management in riparian areas using their unique 

responsiveness to accomplish management 

objectives. An ecosystem approach is used, in which 

riparian areas are considered a part of a larger 

landscape. Development of site-specific grazing 

prescriptions based on the function, capab~ility, and 
potential of the site is discussed, and examples of 

grazing treatments are provided. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1012. Leonard& Staidl,G; Fogg,J; Gebhardt,K; 

Hagenbuck,W; Prichard,D (1992): Riparian area 

management: Procedures for ecological site 

inventory - with special reference to 

riparian-wetland sites. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management. Technical Reference 1737-7. 135 p. 

This report details field procedures for 

describing and documenting ecological site 

information as it applies to the interaction between 

soils, climate, hydrology, and vegetation for 

riparian-wetland resources as well as for uplands. 

Possible uses of this information in BLM's planning 

process, resource evaluations, and other applications 

are discussed. Maintenance and permanence of 

baseline data are also incorporated. This document is 

intended for use with related manuals, and 

handbooks documented in the work. 

[CLIMATE; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN; SOILS; 

WETLANDS] 

1013. Leonard,SG; Staidl,GJ; Gebhardt,KA; 

Prichard,DE (1992): Viewpoint: Range 

sitelecological site information requirements for 

classification of riverine riparian ecosystems. 

Journal of Range Management 45(5), 431-435. 

Few ecological sites have been described 

sufficiently to interpret the specific functions and 

processes unique to riverine riparian areas. The utility 

of using ecological site concepts for riparian 

classification has also been debated due to the 

dynamic nature of the systems and the paucity of 

unaltered vegetation. Riparian sites associated with 

streams or rivers in 9 western states were evaluated to 

determine the feasibility of using ecological site 

concepts in describing and assessing riverine riparian 

ecosystems. Associated water features must be 

described in riparian site characterizations to 

establish relationships and understand "process 

pathways." A concept of "site progression" is 

proposed to differentiate between secondary 

succession associated with vegetation changes within 

a given physical environment and physical "state" 

changes that lead to a "new" or different potential 

plant community (i.e., a change in ecological site and 

secondary succession sequences). The authors 

conclude that ecological site classification and 

inventory utilized on uplands can be used on riparian 

areas with some enhancements to maintain 

consistency in evaluations at a "management unit" 

level. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WATER 

FEATURES] 

1014. Leopold,L (1990): Ethos, equity and the 

water resource. The Abel Wolman Distinguished 

Lecture, presented to the National Research 

Council. 15 February, 1990. National Academy of 

Sciences Auditorium. 14 p. 

This paper discusses an ethos, or an unwritten 

guiding belief, in the maintenance of the hydrologic 

continuum (i.e., the effective operation of forces in 

the drainage basin that maintain a balance among 

processes of weathering, soil formation, water and 

sediment delivery to stream channels and the exit of 

water and sediment from the basin) in the 

administration of water resources. Evidence of how 

management fails to follow such an ethos and the 

effects of catastrophic change to the hydrologic 

continuum were explored. The author also addresses 

equity in administration -- a dedication to fairness, to 

consideration of various interests and treatment of all 

with some measure of equality. 

[HYDROLOGY; POLICY; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

1015. Leopold,LB; Langbein,WB (1966): River 

meanders. Scientific American 214:60-70. 

The continuous changes that occur in rivers are 

primarily wrought by the erosion and deposition of 

sedimentary material. Rivers tend to avoid 

concentrating these processes in any one place. Any 

irregularity in the slope of a river is temporary on a 

geological time scale; the hydraulic forces at work in 

the river tend to eliminate such concentrations of 

change. The meandering curves of a river are the 

most probable result of the processes that tend to 

eliminate concentrations of energy loss but also tend 

to reduce the total energy loss to a minimum rate. 

The sine-generated curvature assumed by the 

meanders achieves these ends more satisfactorily 

than any other shape. The longitudinal concavity of 

the river's profile also minimizes work in the system 

as a whole. The typical meander shape is assumed 

because, in the absence of any other constraints, the 

sine-generated curve is the most probable path of a 

fixed length between two points. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

RIVER MEANDERS] 

1016. Leopold,LB; Maddock,T (1953): The 

hydraulic geometry of stream channels and some 

physiographic implications. USDI Geological 
Survey. Professional Paper 252. 

Some hydraulic characteristics of stream 

channels - depth, width, velocity, and suspended load 

- are measured quantitatively and vary with discharge 

as simple power functions at a given river cross 

section. Similar variations in relation to discharge 

exist among the cross sections along the length of the 

river under the condition that discharge at all points 

is equal in frequency of occurrence. In the data 

studied, it appeared that when discharges are of equal 

frequency at different points along the river, the 

velocity as well as the width and depth of flow, 

increases with discharge downstream. This increase 

of velocity downstream results from the fact that the 

increase in depth overcompensates for the decrease in 

slope. An empiric quantitative relation among the 

average measurements of width, depth, velocity, 

discharge, and suspended sediment load is derived 

from data on natural rivers and shows that depth and 

width, as well as velocity, are functions of the load 

transported in the channel. The empiric relation 

between hydraulic characteristics of the channel and 

suspended load provides a logical explanation of the 

observed channel shape. The average river 

channel-system tends to develop in a way to produce 

an approximate equilibrium between the channel and 

the waterlsediment it must transport. This state 

appears to exist even in headward ungraded 

tributaries and in given cross sections for all 

discharges. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; HYDRAULICS] 

1017. Leopold,LB; Wolman,MG; Miller,JP 

(1964): Fluvial processes in geomorphology. 

W.H.Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA. 522 p. 

This book deals primarily with landform 

development under processes associated with running 

water and a comprehensive review of geomorphic 

processes. It provides a logical framework within 

which students and other readers can integrate 

material. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDRAULICS] 

1018. Leopold,LH; Rosgen,DC (1991): 

Movement of bed material clasts in mountain 

streams. p.4-183 - 4-188. In: Proceedings of the 

fifth federal interagency sedimentation 

conference. [Eds. Tan,SS;Kuo,YHj. Subcommittee 

on Sedimentation of the Interagency Advisory 

Commission on Water Data. 

The growth in observational data shows that it 

generally is true in gravel streams that the material on 

the immediate surface is coarser than that which lies 

below. Unfortunately, this has led to the use of the 

words armored or paved. The use of those words has 

given the impression to those who do not work 

directly with gravel bed streams that the bed material 

of the stream does not move with ordinary 

discharges. In this study, about 65 percent of the total 

rocks placed in stream channels moved during the 

season, even though discharges in none of the 

streams reached the bankfull stage. The distance the 

rocks moved was relatively small during one 

movement, generally less than a few meters. Some 

individual rocks moved more than once, and a few 

moved as many as four times during the season. 

These observations represent one type of evidence 

that material of the bed surface moves at discharges 

equal to or less than bankfull, even though the 

movement is for a short distance and the resultant 

transport rate is small. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; STREAM 

ECOLOGY; STREAM FLOW] 

1019. Lew,L (1993): Floodplain management - 

opportunities and constraints in reconciling an 

environmental mission with flood control. 

p.116-123. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH (tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

In the five years preceding this paper, the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers had been developing an 

environmental mission. This resulted in the Corps 

considering restoration of the environment as a 

mission equal to flood control and navigation. The 

major constraints impeding this initiative are: 

environmental costs, mitigation efforts, and the need 

for good public relations; all of which contribute to 

economic feasibility. The Corps is committed to a 

balanced approach to integrating the three missions - 

flood control, navigation, and environment - to 

preserve and enhance riparian sites. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; FLOODPLAIN 

MANAGEMENT; RlPARlAN RESTORATION] 

1020. Lewis,GL; Bockelman,RJ (1988): 

Wetlands impacts of large scale center-pivot 

irrigation in Nebraska's Sandhills: Hydrologic 

and habitat issues. p.30-37. In: Stuber,PJ [tech. 

coord.]. Proceedings of the national symposium on 

protection of wetlands from agricultural impacts. 

25-27 April 1988. Ft. Collins, CO. USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service. Biological Report 88(16). 

Wetlands impacts from irrigation were 
investigated at an intensive center-pivot irrigation 

operation in Nebraska's Sandhills region. Ground 

water levels have recently risen, creating record wet 

conditions and necessitating drainage of farmland. At 

issue in mitigation and restoration planning were 

whether climate or farming promoted high water 

tables and what effects ditching and wetland 

modification had on available breeding habitat for 

waterfowl. Hydrologic investigations indicated that 

area geology substantiated the existence of an 

aquitard below the property. Examination of well 

data and precipitation records did not support the 

hypotheses that excessive irrigation or perching due 

to the aquitard were causing the rises. Instead, there 

was strong temporal correlation between water level 

changes and corresponding precipitation amounts, 

since area precipitation was averaging 120 percent of 

normal for the previous six years. Blue-winged teal 

habitat units at two major ditches declined by 57-72 

percent in these same years. These declines occurred 

because the ditched areas had become so wet that the 

upland nesting habitat rather than wetland habitat 

was limiting production. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1021. Lewis,III,RR (1990): Wetlands 

restoration/creation/enhancement terminology: 

Suggestions for standardization. In: Wetland 

creation and restoration: The status of the science. 

[Eds: Kusler,JA; Kentula,MEl. Island Press, 

Washington, DC. p.417-422. 

This chapter contains a glossary that was 

prepared after review by all authors contributing to 

this book. The specific definitions in the glossary 

represent an attempt to bring some order to the 

terminology applied to the topic of wetland creation 

and restoration. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

1022. Lichatowich,J; Mobrand,L; Lestelle,L; 

Vogel,T (1995): An approach to the diagnosis and 

treatment of depleted Pacific salmon populations 

in Pacific Northwest watersheds. Fisheries 20(1), 

10-18. 

The authors propose an approach to the 

development of restoration programs for Pacific 

anadromous salmon that recognizes the importance 

of an ecosystem perspective. lmportant concepts such 

as habitat complexity and self-organizing capacity of 

the stock are reviewed. A planning process 

comprised of six steps is described. The approach 

includes a comparison of historic and current habitat 

complexity and connectivity and intrapopulation life 

history diversity. Uncertainties are incorporated into 

the planning process through assumptions that are 

clearly identified. Risk of project failure is 

determined through a quantitative or qualitative 

weighing of the critical uncertainties. They 

emphasize the concept that restoration planning is an 

iterative process that must be continued after 

implementation. 

[ANADROMOUS FISH; FISHERIES; PLANNING; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

1023. Lienkaemper,GW; Swanson,FJ (1987): 

Dynamics of large woody debris in streams in 

old-growth Douglas-fir forests. Canadian Journal 

of Forest Research 17, 150-156. 

This study reports the dynamics of woody debris 

in streams, based on 7 to 9 years of observations in 

five stream reaches in old-growth Douglas-fir forests. 

Addition of woody debris is widely scattered in time 

and space and comes mainly from single trees rooted 

away from the streambank. Wind appears to be the 

major agent of wood entry into streams. Downstream 

movement is strongly related to length of individual 

pieces; most pieces that moved were shorter than 

bankfull width. 

[LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1024. Ligon,FK; Dietrich,WE; Trush,WJ (1995): 

Downstream ecological effects of dams. BioScience 

45(3), 183-1 91. 

Most resources committed to identifying the 

downstream effects of dams on riverine ecosystems 

are expended on biological studies. The authors 

suggest that geomorphic studies directed at 

ecologically significant features of river morphology 

and hydraulics may sometimes be more valuable in 

short-term evaluations associated with environmental 

assessments or relicensing procedures. 

Geomorphological changes are usually the key to 

understanding the long-term consequences of dams 

and other disturbances. While geomorphological 

changes to rivers may be more subtle below dams, 

they are equally important and may have profound 

impacts on the ecosystem. 

[DAMS; ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

1025. Likens,GE; Bormann, FH (1974): Linkages 

between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. 

BioScience 24(8), 447-456. 

This paper considers some of the interactions 

and linkages that occur between aquatic and 
terrestrial ecosystems within the broader context of 

the watershed (drainage basin) or landscape. Mature 

ecosystems are resilient and have a variety of 

pathways for maintaining basic hnctions in spite of 

external pressures. The "assimilation capacity" of the 

environment reflects the ability of the system to hide 

or avoid short term effects. Long-term changes are 

more difficult to assess because of the long time lags 

inherent in food webs of ecosysten~s. Once overt 

changes appear, a very long time may be required for 

the ecosystem to recover after remediation. 

Knowledge of land-water interactions is needed for 

intelligent management of these resources. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; FOOD WEBS; 

NUTRlENT CYCLES; TERRESTRIAL 

ECOSYSTEMS] 

1026. Liming,B; Mohr,R (1985): Bear Valley 

Creek fisheries habitat enhancement project - 

Surface water hydrology analysis. Technical 

Memorandum No. 6. James M. Montgomery, 

Consulting Engineers, Inc. 30 p. 

This technical memo provides an analysis of the 

surface water hydrology for the Bear Valley Creek 

study area based upon computer simulation 

modeling. Physical watershed characteristics directly 

measured or estimated were presented along with 

technical assumptions. Results indicate that the 

maximum snowmelt runoff event can be expected to 

generate an estimated peak flow of approximately 

6 16 cfs, based on the record 1974 snow pack water 

content. This snowmelt runoff flow was compared 

with estimated peak flows resulting from the 

100-year, 24-hour general storm event, and 48 cfs 

from the 1 00-year, 1 -hour thunderstorm event for the 

study area drainage basin. 

[FISHERIES; HYDROLOGY; MODELING] 

1027. Lindquist,D (1993): Rivers from a utility's 

perspective. p. 39-42. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Sewice. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The public's demand for hydroelectric power is 

in response to urban growth and other factors. 

Concurrently, public concerns regarding 

environmental issues is also accelerating. Water is a 

valuable commodity that requires cooperative 

management to minimize pressures of competition. 

Fragmented approaches commonly fail. All 

stakeholders must be involved in the planning and 

implementation process to be successful. 

[CRMP; HYDROELECTRIC IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1028. Linnerooth,AR; Chambers,JC; Mebine,PS 

(1998): Assessing the restoration potential of dry 

meadows using threshold and alternative states 

concepts. p.111-118. In: Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

Riparian ecosystems in central Nevada have 

been degraded by livestock grazing, fire suppression, 

and stream incision, resulting in basin big sagebrush 

(Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata) encroachment 

and dominance. In this area, dry meadows dominated 

by graminoids and basin big sagebrushhasin wildrye 

(Leymus cinereus) are two environmentally similar 

riparian ecosystem types that appear to represent 

alternative stable states. In this study, differences in 

understory vegetation and sagebrush abundance were 

examined on sagebrush dominated sites with low, 

intermediate, and high water tables to how water 

table and vegetation affect dry meadow restoration 

potential. High and intermediate water table sites had 

higher understory percent cover and were more 

similar to the high meadow ecosystem type. These 

sites were dominated by perennial graminoids and 

forbs. Lower understory cover values and the 

abundance of sagebrush may indicate that sites with 

lower water tables have crossed a threshold and 

cannot be restored to dry meadow types. 

[MEADOWS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; SAGEBRUSH; WATER TABLE 

EFFECTS] 

1029. Lipton,DW; Strand,IV (1997): Economic 

effects of pollution in fish habitats. Transactions 

of the American Fisheries Society 126,514-518. 

Pollution in fish habitats can have economic 

effects on three groups: I) commercial users and 

consumers; 2) recreationists; and 3) nonusers. In 

commercial fisheries, the economic costs of pollution 

in the fishery habitats derive from lower production, 

or consumer perception of reduced fish quality, or 

both. Recreational losses due to pollution are 

manifest in the catch rates of recreational fishers. 

Some individuals may be willing to pay something to 

avoid pollution even though they do not intend to 

fish or consume fish. "Non-use" values are best 

measured through direct questioning rather than by 

observing market behavior. 

[ECONOMICS; FISHERIES; POLLUTION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 
1030. Lisle,TE (1982): Effects of aggradation and 

degradation on riftle-pool morphology in natural 

gravel channels, northwestern California. Water 

Resources Research 18(6), 1643-1651. 

After a large flood in 1964, gaging stations in 

northern California widened as much as 100 percent 

and aggraded as much as 4 m; then degraded to 

stable levels during a period of five years or more. As 

channels aggraded, bed material became finer, and 

low to moderate flow became shallower, faster, and 

steeper. Comparisons of longitudinal profiles also 

showed the diminishment of pools as well as a 

decrease in bar relief accompanying the excessive 

sediment load. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

1031. Lisle,TE (1986): Stabilization of a gravel 

channel by large stream obstructions and bedrock 

bends, Jacoby Creek, northwestern California. 

Geological Society of America Bulletin 97, 

999-101 1. 

A general model is proposed that large 

obstructions and non-alluvial bends stabilize the form 

and location of gravel bars. Bars are stabilized by 

two related mechanisms: 1) large obstructions and 

bends cause intense, quasi-steady, secondary 

circulation in scour holes that terminate upstream 

bars at fixed locations; 2) bars are deposited upstream 

of large obstructions and sharp bends because of 

backwater reductions in stream power. The 

formation of bars and pools inherent in many gravel 

channels can, thus, be enhanced and fixed in position 

by flow structures set up around large obstructions 

and bends formed of resistant materials. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; STREAMBANK 

PROTECTION] 

1032. Lisle,TE (1989): Sediment transport and 

resulting deposition in spawning gravels, north 

central California. Water Resources Research 

25(6), 1303-1319. 

Ten storm flow events were measured in three 

streams of northern California to relate sedimentation 

of spawning beds to sediment transport, infiltration 

of fine sediment into clean gravel beds, bed material 

size distributions, scourfill depths. Sand trapped in 

the interstices of the top several centimeters formed a 

seal that impeded deeper deposition of very fine sand 

and finer material. This seal was responsible in part 

for a decrease in the rate of fine sediment 

accumulation with increasing cumulative bed load 

transport. Areas of the streambed commonly scoured 

or filled 0.1 m or more during storm flows. Scour and 

fill commonly created a sandy layer at least as thick 

as the seal formed by sediment infiltration. Such 

scour could erode eggs laid in the bed and expose 

deeper layers of the bed to infiltration by fine 

sediment. At the same time, however, it could be 

winnowed away. Individual storms could pose a 

threat to eggs in many but not all areas selected by 

fish for spawning. 

[FISH HABITAT; SEDIMENTATION; 

SPAWNING HABITAT] 

1033. Lisle,TE; Lehre,AK; Martinson,HA; 

Meyer,DF; Nolan,KM; Smith,RD (1983): Stream 

channel adjustments after the 1980 Mt. St. Helens 

eruptions. p.31-72. In: Erosion control in volcanic 

areas: Proceedings of the symposium. 6-9 July 

1982. Seattle and Vancouver, WA. Public Works 

Research Institute 1908. 

Stream channels that received only air fall 

deposits from the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption 

have shown no significant sedimentation following 

that event. In drainage channels that received both 

blast and air fall deposits, localized channel 

modifications have been observed. However, since 

the blastlair fall deposits are predominantly 

sand-sized, they have been quickly removed from the 

steep low-order channels surrounding the mountain. 

Some subsequent channel modification has resulted 

in lowered gradient reaches downstream as sediment 

eroded from upstream hillslopes has been redeposited 

in these reaches. Long-term effects in blastlair fall 

affected streams appears to be limited to channels 

subjected to debris torrents resulting from shallow 

seated landsliding and breakup of inchannel debris 

jams. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

1034. Livingston,MF; Schemnitz,SD (1996): 

Summer birdhegetation associations in tamarisk 

and native habitat along the Pecos River, 

southeastern New Mexico. p.171-180. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired 

future conditions for southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-GTR-272. 

The Pecos River lies in the short-grass prairie 

ecotype and lacked a substantial woodland 

community prior to tamarisk invasion. Floodplain 

grassland areas on the middle Pecos River were low 

in bird abundance and species richness when 
compared to tamarisk habitat. Those areas, however, 

were important to grassland birds including Cassin's 

and lark sparrows, and eastern and western 

meadowlarks. Removing tamarisk from the Pecos 

River will provide those species with additional 

habitat. In contrast, they believe that the vegetational 

structure provided by tamarisk benefits certain 

species. Yellow-billed cuckoo, yellow-breasted chat, 

and rufous-sided towhee will lose essential habitat 

when tamarisk is removed. In order to prevent 

populations declines for these species on the middle 

Pecos River, the structure provided by tamarisk must 

be replaced. Establishment of native 

cottonwood1willow groves should be encouraged 

where conditions are favorable. Preferably, tamarisk 

removal will proceed at a rate that will leave 

sufficient structure for populations to persist. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; AVIFAUNA; PECOS RIVER; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SALT-CEDAR] 

1035. Lloyd,J (1985): Cowfish: Habitat 

capability model. USDA Forest Service. Northern 

Region. Missoula, MT. 32 p. 

The model described is the first in a series of 

aquatic models quantifying fisheries habitat 

capability. The model and its relationships were 

developed to reflect the characteristics and 

productivity levels of drainages found in the eastern 

half of Montana. The model is a hypothesis of fish 

habitat relationships and is not intended to be a 

definitive statement of cause and effect relationships. 

[COWFISH; FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

MODELING] 

1036. Lloyd,JR (1988): A guide for estimating 

the effects current livestock management has on 

stream fish production. Unreferenced, 2-1 1. 

[FISH HABITAT; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

1037. Lock,PA; Naiman,RJ (1991): Old growth 

riparian birds of the Olympic Peninsula: Effects 

of stream size on community structure. 

Proceedings of the sixty-fourth annual meeting of 

the Northwest Science Association. 20-22 March 

1991. Boise, ID. 

Spring breeding bird communities of large and 

small rivers on the Olympic Plateau were censused 

and compared. The objectives of this study were to: 

1) provide a baseline description of old growth 

riparian bird communities; 2) determine whether 

there is a difference between bird communities along 

large and small rivers; and 3) define what aspects of 

the fluvial corridor are most important in determining 

bird abundance and community structure. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1038. Loeks,CD (1985): Thinking laterally: 

Strategies for strengthening institutional capacity 

for integrated management of riparian resources. 

p.13-20. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; 

Ffolliott;PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

A primary goal of environmental management is 

to maintain the capacity of the environment to meet 

human needs. This is best achieved when 

management is both integrated and differentiated. 

Differentiated resources such as riparian ecosystems 

are most manageable when integrated with the 

management of larger environments which subsume 

the relevant factors that affect the differential 

resource. Strategies to achieve integrated 

management are discussed. 

[ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1039. Logan,RS (1 994): Riparian forest 

stewardship. Montana State University. Extension 

Service. EB0118. 

Damage to the riparian forest can destroy the 

sponge effect that controls water flow, ruin the filter 

that traps sediment, erode banks, and result in the 

deterioration of water quality. Other consequences 

are increased filtering costs for drinking water, 

damaged irrigation systems, increased flood 

potentials, reduced wildlife habitat, and property loss. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; STEWARDSHIP] 

1040. Logan,RS (1997): Riparian forest wildlife: 

Guidelines for landowners and loggers. Montana 

State University. Extension Service. EB146. 

The riparian forest, located along streams, rivers, 

and lakes, is an attraction for countless wildlife 

species. Many species like trout, beaver, dipper and 

tailed frog must have riparian forests to survive. 

Others, like white-tailed deer, grizzly bear, yellow 

warbler and garter snake use this place seasonally. 

Species like fox, chickadee, flying squirrel, and 

brown creeper use the riparian forest but also thrive 

in upland forests. Deer, elk, and bear are as 

dependent on the riparian forest as aquatic insects 

and fish. The attraction for all these animals is the 

diversity of plants found in the riparian forest, how 
these plants are arranged and the many food sources 

they provide. The working riparian forest requires 

large growing trees, logs falling into streams and a 

never ending supply of decomposing plants. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1041. Lohrey,MH (1981): Planning gully control 

and restoration. Unpublished Report. Prepared 

for: USDA Forest Service; Fremont National 

Forest. 21 p. 

This manuscript describes a step-by-step 

procedure leading to gully restoration that has been 

used successfully on the Fremont National Forest. 

The process represents a consolidation of concepts 

and techniques applied elsewhere but collectively 

implemented at the above location. 

[CHECK DAMS; GULLY CONTROL; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1042. Lopez,CF; Cradek,P; Saslaw,L (1 993): 

Improvement of a Sierra Nevada riparian zone 

during the recent drought period. p.211. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian 

Management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

A demonstration project on sections of Long 

Valley Creek showed increases in the percent canopy 

cover and improvement of the riparian plant 

community. Change from a "hot" summer to 

falllwinter grazing system and the installation of 

check dams resulted in a positive channel response 

during the recent prolonged California drought. 

[CHECK DAMS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1043. Lotspeich,FB; Platts,WS (1981): An 

integrated land-aquatic classification. p.103-109. 

In: Proceedings of the symposium on acquisition 

and utilization of aquatic habitat inventory. 28-30 

October 1981. Portland, OR. 

This paper develops a simple classification 

system based on causes of differences between 

classes of lands and integrates the riverine system 

into the land classification. The classification system 

integrates various resource components, with climate 

and geology as controlling, independent variables. 

Because of their homogeneity and simplicity, first 

order watersheds are used as the basic unit cell in the 

classification. Soils and vegetation are used to 

delineate individual classification units, which are 

then integrated into higher levels of classification. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIVER ECOLOGY; WATERSHED] 

1044. Lotspeich,FB; Platts,WS (1982): An 

integrated land-aquatic classification system. 

North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management 2(2), 138-149. 

A simple classification system is proposed that is 

based on the causes of differences between classes of 

lands and integrates the riverine system into the land 

classification. Although the system integrates various 

resource components, climate and geology are the 

controlling variables. Because of their homogeneity 

and simplicity, first order watersheds are the basic 

cell unit. 

[CLASSIFICATION; MODELING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

1045. Loucks,OL (1990): Restoration of the pulse 

control function of wetlands and its relationship to 

water quality objectives. p.467-477. In: Wetland 

creation and restoration: The status of the science. 

IEds: Kusler,JA; Kentula,ME]. Island Press, 

Washington, DC. 

Many wetlands and wetland restoration 

opportunities occur in the poorly drained headwaters 

of streams, along the stream floodplains, and at 

discharge points to larger water bodies. All of these 

were greatly changed by upland development that 

accelerates flows and increases the runoff pulse from 

headwater areas. In turn, the runoff increases 

scouring and transport of sediments, and subsequent 

deposition in or erosion of downstream wetland 

types. Successful restoration must consider how the 

hydrologic pulse may have been changed and 

whether pulse control measures can bring stream 

flows within a range consistent with historical 

development of downstream wetlands. 

[HYDROLOGY; STREAM FLOW; WETLANDS] 

1046. Lowdermilk,WC (1 953,1975): Conquest of 

the land through 7000 years. USDA Soil 

Conservation Service. Agricultural Information 

Bulletin No. 99.30 p. 

Soil erosion, deforestation, overgrazing, neglect, 

and conflicts between cultivators and herdsmen have 

served to topple empires and destroy entire 

civilizations. Careful stewardship of the land and the 

earth's resources, through terracing, crop rotation, 

and other soil conservation measures, has enabled 

other societies to flourish for centuries. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; LAND USE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 
1047. Lowe,CH (1985): Amphibians and reptiles 

in southwest riparian ecosystems. p.339-341. In: 

Johnson,RR;Ziebell,CD;Patton,DC;Ffolliott;PF;H 

amre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and 

their management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 

16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Obligate riparian amphibians and reptiles in 

Arizona and Sonora, Mexico, are discussed. Some 

local populations have reached extinction. Special 

status and designation for riparian species is 

proposed. 

[HERPETOFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1048. Lowe,CH; Johnson,RR; Bennett,PS (1986): 

Riparian lands are wetlands: The problem of 

applying eastern American concepts and criteria 

to environments in the North American southwest. 

p.119-122. In: Hydrology and water resources in 

Arizona and the Southwest. Proceedings of the 

American Water Resources Association (Arizona 

Section), Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science, the 

Arizona Hydrological Society, the American 

Water Resources Association (Arizona Section), 

the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science, and the 

Arizona Hydrological Society. 19 April 1986. 

Glendale, AZ. 

The paper argues that riparian lands are wetlands 

relative to the surrounding uplands. By this 

definition, the driest wetlands are ephemerally 

watered riparian scrub systems supported by 

infrequent water and sometimes by flow of surface 

water only once or less during a year's time. Periodic 

wetlands support riparian systems that are also 

watered by subsurface flow or sheet flow from higher 

areas. 

[CLASSIFICATION; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SOUTHWESTERN DESERT 

STREAMS] 

1049. Lowrance,R (1992): Groundwater nitrate 

and denitrification in a coastal plain riparian 

forest. Journal of Environmental Quality 21:401- 

405. 

Mechanisms of nitrate (N03) removal from 

groundwater in riparian forests are poorly 

understood. In this study, both NO3 and N03ICI 

ratios in the groundwater was decreased by a factor 

of 7 to 9 in the first 10 m of forest. Denitrification 

potential was more than two orders of magnitude 

higher in the top 10 cm of soil than in the top 10 cm 

of soil of the shallow aquifer. Denitrification 

potential was consistently highest in surface soil 

nearest the stream and was limited by NO3 

availability in all surface soil samples. Denitrification 

potential was highest in August and October. High 

denitrification potential in surface soils, especially 

near the fieldlforest interface, may contribute to NO3 

disappearance from shallow groundwater. Some of 

the processes associated with intact riparian 

vegetation appeared to have a role in N removal. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIPARIAN FOREST] 

1050. Lowrance,R; Leonard,R; Sheridan,J 

(1985): Managing riparian ecosystems to, control 

non-point pollution. Journal of Soil and 'Water 

Conservation 40(1), 87-91. 

Many areas of riparian habitat, especially in the 

West, have been lost to impoundments or 

overwhelmed by the invasion of exotic species. 

Future management policies for riparian ecosystems 

should recognize inherent and man-made regional 

differences. In the West, restoration of riparian 

ecosystems may be a cost-effective means of 

controlling non-point pollution. Projects that link 

riparian ecosystem management with upland 

conservation practices should be considered in 

watershed management programs. 

[NON-POINT SOURCE POLLIJTTON; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1051. Lowrance,R; Sharpe,JK; Sheridan,JM 

(1984): Long term sediment deposition in the 

riparian zone of an agricultural watershed. 

Georgia Institute of Technology. Atlanta, GA. 

Environ-Resources Center. ERC-03-84, in 

cooperation with Georgia University, Athens 

lnstitute of Ecology, and Agricultural Research 

Service. Southeast Watershed Research Center. 

Tifton, GA. 92 p. 

Sediment deposition over the last 100 years was 

measured on a coastal plain agricultural wiatershed. 

Three approaches were used to estimate long term 

sediment deposition: 1) determine the changes in 

depth to argillic horizon along transects from fields 

to streams; 2) estimate 10 year upland erosion with 

the Universal Soil Loss Equation and use ii sediment 

delivery ratio to calculate mass of deposition; and 3) 

use radiometric dating techniques to estimate the age 

of deposited materials. Data suggest that riparian 

ecosystems are important sinks for agricultural 

chemicals (nutrients and pesticides). 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; CHEMICAL 

SINKS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT; WATER QUALITY] 
REM: A model for riparian ecosystem 

management in agricultural watersheds. 

p.237-240. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Sewice. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

REM, a model for Riparian Ecosystem 

Management, is driven by daily hydrologic input and 

is designed to predict water quality changes in 

riparian ecosystems of agricultural watersheds. The 

model predicts water and nutrient inputs from 

uplands to the riparian ecosystem. Predictions of 

changes in nutrient levels due to interactions of water 

with soil, leaf litter, and vegetation were presented in 

four submodels. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; 

MODELING] 

1053. Lowry,MM (1993): Groundwater 

elevations and temperature adjacent to a beaver 

pond in central Oregon. p.219. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wal1ace;MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

Studies were conducted within the Painted Hills 

National Monument to observe spatial and temporal 

dynamics of groundwater levels and temperatures 

adjacent to a beaver pond. Results indicate that 

stream temperatures can influence groundwater 

temperature, and that groundwater recharge is highest 

near the pond. 

[BEAVER; GROUNDWATER; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATER TEMPERATURES] 

1054. MacDonald,LH (1991): Monitoring 

guidelines to evaluate effects of forestry activities 

on streams in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. 

US Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 

91 019-91-001). 

The purpose of these guidelines is to expedite 

the development of water quality monitoring plans. 

The underlying rationale of the document is that nonpoint sources of pollution more commonly limit the 

designated uses of water in forested areas than point 

sources. Effective monitoring projects are essential to 

determine trends, evaluate control efforts, and assess 

the impact of management activities on the 

designated use of water. 

[HYDROLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

MONITORING; RIPARIAN FOREST; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1055. MacDonnel,LJ (1988): Wetlands 

protection and water rights. p.8-9. In: Mutz,K; 

Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK [eds.]. 

Restoration, creation, and management of wetland 

and riparian ecosystems in the American West. A 

symposium of the Rocky Mountain Chapter of the 

Society of Wetland Scientists. 14-16 November 

1988. Denver, CO. 

Establishing a water right for wetlands likely 

will involve four legal issues: I) the physical 

diversions requirement; 2) the exclusive enjoyment 

requirement; 3) the beneficial purpose requirement; 

and 4) the efficient and beneficial use requirement. 

Meeting all four requirements will pose significant 

difficulties in most states. However, there are options 

in most states by which water for wetlands can be 

given a legally protected status. 

[WATER QUALITY; WATER RIGHTS] 

1056. Magney,DL (1993): Faults with growing 

season determinations using the federal wetlands 

delineation manual. p.222-227. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace;MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Sewice. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The federal wetlands delineation manual should 

be modified to allow for more flexibility in 

determining the growing season as determined by 

climate, not the frost-free period designed for 

agricultural crops. Modifying the manual would 

allow more accurate wetland delineations to be 

performed in the arid Southwest. 

[CLIMATE; GROWING SEASONS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1057. Magoulick,DD; Wilzbach,MA (1998): 

Effect of temperatures and macrohabitat on 

interspecific aggression, foraging success, and 

growth of brook trout and rainbow pairs in 

laboratory streams. Transactions of the American 

Fisheries Society 127,708-717. 

Abiotic conditions may influence interactions 

among salmonids in general and brook trout and 

rainbow trout in particular. Brook trout may have an 

advantage at lower temperatures and slower, deeper 

habitats. These assumptions were tested in artificial 

stream channels. Brook trout were significantly more 

aggressive, captured significantly more prey, and had 

significantly greater growth rates at both 13 degrees 

C and 18 degrees C. The differential effects of 
temperature on aggressive interactions between the 

species was significant and a greater difference was 

found at the lower temperature, but brook trout 

dominated rainbow trout at both temperatures. 

Macrohabitat did not significantly affect aggressive 

interactions or foraging success, but growth rate was 

greater in riffles than in pools for both species. The 

differential effects of temperature and macrohabitat, 

however, did not sufficiently explain observed brook 

and rainbow trout distributions in streams. 

[FISH HABITAT; MACROHABITAT; STREAM 

TEMPERATURE; TROUT] 

1058. Mahoney,DL; Erman,DC (1981): The role 

of streamside buffer strips in the ecology of 

aquatic biota. p.168-176. In: Warner,RE; 

Hendrix,KM 1eds.j. Proceedings of the California 

riparian systems conference. 17-19 September 

1981. Davis, CA. 

Riparian vegetation is important as a source of 

food to stream organisms, as shade over small-order 

streams, and as a bank-stabilizing force to prevent 

excessive sedimentation and intercept pollutants. 

Logging may significantly affect each of these 

factors unless proper protective measures are 

employed. Light intensity and chlorophyll 

concentrations are also major factors related to 

logging activity and affect instream primary 

production. Transportable sediment was found to be 

significantly higher in logged and narrow buffered 

streams than in controls 7 to 10 years after logging. 

[BUFFER STRIPS; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

POLLUTION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; SEDIMENTATION] 

1059. Mahoney,JM; Rood,SB (1993): A model 

for assessing the effects of altered stream flows on 

the recruitment of riparian cottonwoods. 

p.228-232. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH Itech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The paper presents a model that provides a 

framework for assessing the effects of existing or 

proposed flow regimes on seeding recruitment of 

riparian cottonwoods. Recorded or projected flow 

patterns for a particular river reach can be evaluated 

for the critical period of seed release to determine 

whether river stages and rate of decline fall within 

the range necessary for seedling establishment. 

[COTTONWOOD; RECRUITMENT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; SEED PRODUCTION; STREAM 

FLOW] 

1060. Majors,AK (1998): Assessing climate's 

influence on vegetation. p.371-374. In: Potts,DF 

led.]. Range management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Vegetation regions with arid and semi-arid 

ecosystems have low precipitation averages and tend 

to have extreme variations in climate. These 

variations in temperature and moisture result in 

vegetation production and trend changes that are 

often unrecognized and not attributed to climate by 

many of the public. Seasonal precipitation has varied 

over 300 percent from year to year frequently 

resulting in drastic vegetation aspect changes. 

Calendar year moisture records are often not 

indicative of vegetation growth characteristics in a 

given year. Photographic records substantiate that 

historical plant composition and production trends 

resulted from timing and amount of available 

moisture during the growing season. 

[CLIMATE; PHOTO PLOTS; PRECIPITATION; 

RANGE MANAGEMENT] 

1061. Majors,JE (1989): Opportunities to protect 

instream flows and wetland uses of water in 

California. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Biological Report 89(10), 76. 

This publication is one of a series of similar 

documents that provides a survey of State 

prerogatives and programs that may be used to 

protect the instream uses of water. Most of the 

opportunities for protecting instream flows are 

related to fi sh and wildlife habitat, although other 

uses are considered, including hydroelectric power, 

navigation, recreation, downstream delivery, and 

waste load assimilation. Articles and papers are 

included that illustrate methods to protect instream 

uses. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM FLOW; WATER 

RIGHTS; WETLANDS] 

1062. Malanson,GP (1996): Riparian landscapes. 

1st ed. Cambridge University Press, New York, 

NY. 306 p. 

This book examines the ecological systems of 

streamside and floodplain areas from the perspective 

of landscape ecology. The author describes the 

specific spatial pattern of riparian vegetation as a 

result of, and a control on, the ecological, 

geomorphological, and hydrological processes that 

operate along rivers. He also discusses the role of the 

riparian zone in controlling species distribution and 

abundance and highlights the intelligent management 
of these valuable ecological resources. Finally, he 

explores the potential for linking hydrological, 

geomorphological, ecological simulation models. 

[LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1063. Malanson,GP; Butler,DR (1990): Woody 

debris, sediment, and riparian vegetation of a 

subalpine river, Montana, USA. Artic and Alpine 

Research 22(2), 183-1 94. 

The relationships among woody debris, 

composition of vegetation, topography, and sediment 

on ten gravel bars along a Montana river are 

examined in order to test a hypothesis of positive 

feedback leading to reduced rates of sediment 

transport. Plant species diversity is related to the area, 

sediment, and woody debris of bars. Several 

variables were significantly correlated and significant 

regressions of vegetative composition on sediment, 

topography, and debris resulted. The amount of wood 

debris, however, is not a statistically significant 

function of topography, sediment, or vegetation. 

Analyses of systems of linear equations representing 

hypothetical pathways of causality regarding 

vegetation, woody debris, topography, and sediment 

were not statistically significant. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN PLANTS; 

SEDIMENTATION; WOODY DEBRIS] 

1064. Malde,HE (1973): Geological bench marks 

by terrestrial photography. Journal of Research 

of the USDI Geological Survey 1(2), 193-206. 

A photograph made with a level camera, if taken 

at a known height above a permanent mark on the 

ground, can later be repeated with exactness for 

measurement of changes in terrain. Such a 

photograph is one of several means for establishing a 

geologic bench mark and is useful for monitoring the 

changes of landscape that are otherwise difficult to 

map or describe. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; MONITORING; PHOTO 

PLOTS; TECHNIQUES] 

1065. Manci,KM (1 989): Riparian ecosystem 

creation and restoration: A literature summary. 

U.S. Fish Wildlife Service Biological Report 

89(20), 59. 

Compared to other wetland types (e.g. coastal 

wetlands), projects and techniques involving creation 

or restoration of riparian ecosystems are not well 

documented. To provide a source of currently 

available literature, 92 sources were collected to 

provide a literature summary. The summary provides 

an overview of the status of riparian ecosystems in 

the U.S., a discussion of riparian functions, and a 

review of some techniques used for planning, 

implementing, monitoring, and measuring project 

success of creationlrestoration efforts. Case studies 

are used to demonstrate these techniques and report 

their results. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; CREATED WETLANDS; 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1066. Manning,ME; Padgett,WG (1 992): 

Distribution of willows on forest lands of Nevada 

and eastern California. p.11-15. In: Clary,WP; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

(tech.coord.1. Proceedings - Symposium on 

ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

Distributions and habitat characteristics of 14 

common willows are described for the Toiyabe and 

Humboldt National Forests of Nevada and eastern 

California. Some species have restricted geographic 

distribution while others occur throughout the study 

area. Locally, species segregate by elevation and site 

characteristics. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SPECIES 

DISTRIBUTION; WILLOW] 

1067. Manning,ME; Padgett,WG (1995): 

Riparian community type classification for 

Humboldt and Toiyabe National Forests, Nevada 

and eastern California. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report INT-GTR-322.142 pp. 

A community type classification is presented for 

riparian plant communities on USDA Forest Service 

lands of Nevada and eastern California. The 

taxonomic classification is hierarchical and based on 

the reconnaissance of over 800 sample stands on the 

Humboldt and Toiyabe National Forests. A total of 7 

overstory dominance groups and 93 community types 

are defined and described in detail. A diagnostic key 

to cover community types is provided for field 

identification. 

[CLASSIFICATION; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1068. Manning,RE (1979): Impacts of recreation 

on riparian soils and vegetation. Water Resources 

Bulletin 15(1), 30-43. 

[RECKEA'I'ION IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1069. Mantell,M; Metzger,P; Reid,C (1 985): 

Improving riparian protection by linking state 
programs. p.421-425. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.1. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-1 8 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Sewice. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

All elements of the riparian setting, including: 

river flow, flora, and fauna, are essential to 

maintaining healthy riparian ecosystems. But, the few 

state legal and institutional regimes to protect 

riparian habitats and streamflows are fragmented. 

Protection programs must be made more effective, 

better coordinated, and informed by more complete 

data. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER LAW] 

1070. Marcuson,PE (1977): The effect of cattle 

grazing on brown trout in Rock Creek, Montana. 

Montana Department of Fish and Game Special 

Report No. F-20-R-21,II-a. 

Studies of a natural, free flowing stream section 

with densely vegetated banks showed better fish 

population structure than a contiguous section 

flowing through a heavily grazed area. The natural 

area supported 4,645 brown troutha at 238.8 kgiha 

compared to 1,732 browns at 71.0 kgiha in the 

overgrazed area. The biomass of brown trout was 3.4 

X greater in the natural area. Species other than 

brown trout were 20 percent more numerous in the 

grazed area. Large numbers of juvenile mountain 

whitefish accounted for the difference. The natural 

area possessed fewer numbers of other fish, but they 

exceeded the biomass of the grazed area by 87 

percent. The ungrazed section had 82 percent more 

cover per ha than the grazed section. Marked 

differences in floristic composition and density of 

herbaceous vegetation was evident between the two 

areas. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

MONITORING; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1071. Maret,TR; Robinson,CT; Minshall,GW 

(1 997): Fish assemblages and environmental 

correlates in least-disturbed streams of the Upper 

Snake River Basin. Transactions of the American 

Fisheries Society 126,200-216. 

Fish assemblages and environmental variables 

were evaluated from 37 least-disturbed, first through 

sixth order streams and springs in the Upper Snake 

River Basin. Geographically, the basin comprises 

four ecoregions. Environmental variables constituting 

various spatial scales, from watershed characteristics 

to instream habitat measures, were used to examine 

distribution patterns in fish assemblages. Major 

environmental factors determining species 

distributions in the basin were stream gradient, 

watershed size, conductivity, and percentage of 

watershed covered by forest. The data suggest that 

the evolutionary consequences of geographic features 

and fish species introductions transcend the 

importance of ecoregion boundaries on fish 

distributions in the Upper Snake River Basin. 

[ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; 

FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SNAKE 

RIVER] 

1072. Marks,JS; Saab-Marks,V (1988): Winter 

habitat use by Columbian sharp tailed grouse in 

western Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management 

52(4), 743-746. 

Habitat use by Columbian sharp-tailed grouse 

(Tyrnpanuchus phasianellus colurnbianus) was 

studied during three winters. Grouse were closely 

associated with mountain shrub and riparian cover 

types which provided food and escape cover 

regardless of snow depth. Fruits of Douglas hawthorn 

(Crataegus douglassi) and buds of Saskatoon 

servicebeny (Amelanchier alnifolia) and common 

chokecherry (Prunus virginiana) were important 

food sources. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SHARP-TAILED 

GROUSE] 

1073. Marlow,CB (1988): Mitigating livestock 

impacts to streambanks within northern Rocky 

Mountain foothills riparian zones. p.147-150. In: 

Issues and technology in the management of 

impacted wildlife, Proceedings 111.2-4 November 

1987. Colorado Springs, CO. Thorne Ecological 

Institute. Boulder, CO. 

The most common mitigation action for 

livestock impacts is to reduce the number of animals 

using a particular riparian site. Recent research 

suggests that stocking rate reductions only delay the 

eventual deterioration of the riparian areas. Three 

management alternatives: deferred riparian, time 

control, and livestock exclusion, were chosen 

because of their potential for controlling cattle use of 

streambanks. After two years, there was no 

significant difference between the alternatives in 

regard to stream channel deformation. This suggests 

that grazing plans which prescribe specific grazing 

periods and limit the length of the grazing period 

may be successful in reducing stream damage. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

STREAMBANK PROTECTION] 
(1989): Response of a southwest Montana riparian 

system to four grazing management alternatives. 

p.111-116. In: Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; 

Kershner,JL [eds.]. Practical approaches to 

riparian resource management. An educational 

workshop. 8-11 May 1989. USDl Bureau of Land 

Management. Billings, MT. 

The effects of deferred rotation, Savory Grazing 

Method (SGM), season-long, and livestock exclusion 

has been monitored for 3 years. A decline in trout 

habitat condition appeared to be more a function of 

stream discharge and channel aggradation than 

grazing management. Studies also suggest that it is 

the interaction between grazing and stream discharge 

events that dictate the magnitude of streambank 

alteration. Downward shifts in cattle numbers will 

probably not limit streambank degradation and loss 

of trout habitat. Decreasing the length of access time 

that cattle have to riparian zones and adjusting the 

grazing period to coincide with low streambank 

moisture levels are two devices that show promise for 

improving riparian zone protection. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1075. Marlow,CB; Pogacnik,TM (1985): Time of 

grazing and cattle-induced damage to 

streambanks. p.279-284. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Grazing and trampling are the processes by 

which cattle impact riparian areas. Implementation of 

rest-rotation grazing and limiting cattle use of 

riparian vegetation to 20 percent of the standing crop 

will reduce impact. Rest rotation and light grazing 

may also improve plant vigor. A 3-year grazing study 

in southwestern Montana indicates that the level of 

cattle use has little bearing on streambank damage. 

Soil moisture content directly affects the streambank 

susceptibility to trampling. Postponing or deferring 

grazing until streambanks have dried protects the 

riparian zone from damage. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1076. Marlow,CB; Pogacnik,TM (1986): Cattle 

feeding and resting patterns in a foothills riparian 

zone. Journal of Range Management 39(3), 

212-217. 

The impacts of cattle on riparian areas depends 

on both their behavior and utilization of streamside 

vegetation. Results of a 2-year study indicated that 

seasonal trends in cattle use of uplands and riparian 

areas exist. Cattle spent significant amounts of their 

feeding time in upland areas in late June and early 

July. Significant levels of feeding activity occurred in 

the riparian zone from late August through 

September. Resting patterns differed only during the 

early part of the grazing season when cattle spent 

significantly more time resting in upland areas. 

Significant differences in resting time the rest of the 

season occurred only when adverse weather 

conditions caused cattle to seek shelter in the riparian 

zone. Cattle spend a disproportionate amount of their 

feeding time in the riparian zone during late summer 

and fall. Therefore, impacts could be limited by 

basing stocking rates for this period only on forage 

available in the riparian zone. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1077. Marlow,CB; Pogacnik,TM; Murphy,DH 

(1983): Cattle behavior in a foothills riparian 

zone. In: Proceedings of the annual meeting of the 

Society for Range Management. 14-16 February 

1983. Albuquerque, NM. 

Cattle seek cooler, moister riparian zones during 

the summer grazing season. 

[LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

1078. Marlow,CB; Pogacnik,TM; Quinsey,SD 

(1987): Streambank stability and cattle grazing in 

southwestern Montana. Journal of Soil and Water 

Conservation. July-August 1987,291-296. 

Cattle impact riparian communities by grazing 

and trampling. Re-evaluation of management 

practices indicated that implementing rest-rotation 

grazing management and limiting cattle use of 

riparian vegetation will reduce cattle impacts. In 

southwest Montana, both streamflow and cattle use 

were highly correlated with the degree of change in 

stream channel profile. Streambank alteration may 

result from a combination of high soil moisture 

levels, high streamflow, and cattle use. Cattle use 

alone did not explain the degree of change in channel 

profile. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1079. Marron,DC (1989): Physical and chemical 

characteristics of a metal contaminated overbank 

deposit, west-central South Dakota, U.S.A. Earth 

Surface Processes and Landforms 14,419-432. 

Overbank deposition of arsenic and other 
mine-tailing metals is discussed in relation to 

sediment transport. Carbonate materials in the 

deposit limit the desorption of arsenic by preventing 

acid formation. Arsenic concentrations provide a 

measure of the dilution of mine tailings by 

uncontaminated sediment. 

[HEAVY METALS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; WATER QUALITY] 

1080. Marston,RA (1982): The geomorphic 

significance of log steps in forest streams. Annals 

of the Association of the American Geographer. 

72,99-108. 

A functional account of log steps in forest 

streams is provided by field surveys of 163 km of 

streams in the Oregon Coast Range. Natural tree fall, 

rather than silvicultural activities, accounts for the 

majority of log steps. During low flow conditions, 

dissipation of potential stream energy by log steps 

amounts to 6 percent, approximately equal to that by 

falls. Depriving some streams of log steps by 

clean-out or repeated harvest of stream adjacent trees 

may initiate an episode of progressive erosion by not 

dissipating stream energy in excess of that needed to 

transport imposed sediment supplies. Addition of log 

steps to streams with energy already insufficient to 

balance sediment inputs and outputs may only serve 

to accentuate progressive deposition. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; ORGANIC DEBRIS] 

1081. Martens,E; Young,JA (1992): Seed 

germination data for yellow willow at a Nevada 

riparian site. p.142-144. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [comp,]. 

Proceedings -Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Seeds of yellow willow (Salix lutea [Bebb] 

Jeps.) were collected from the riparian areas along 

the east side of the Sierra Nevada. Freshly collected 

seeds were germinable at a range of incubation 

temperatures from 5 through 30 degrees C. Seeds 

remained viable at room temperatures for 7 weeks. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SEED PRODUCTION; 

WILLOW] 

1082. Marti,E; Schade,JD; Fisher,SG; 

Grimm,NB (1997): Episodic hydrologic and 

nutrient linkages in a desert stream-riparian 

ecosystem. p.139. Abstracts. 1997 annual meeting 

of the Ecological Society of America jointly with 

The Nature Conservancy. 10-14 August 1997. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

Hydrologic linkages between the riparian zone 

and the surface stream and the effect of those 

linkages were examined. Temporal variation of water 

chemistry in the riparian zone was compared to 

surface and subsurface water in the active channel. 

The most significant differences were found for 

inorganic nitrogen. Between floods, reduced N 

species predominated in the riparian zone, whereas 

subsurface water of the active channel was 

characterized by oxidized forms of N. After flooding, 

concentrations of major ions and nutrients in the 

riparian zone increased significantly. Nitrate, 

particularly, was elevated in riparian surface water to 

concentrations similar to flood waters. Results 

suggest that surface-subsurface hydrologic linkages 

are episodic in desert-riparian ecosystems. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES; RIPARIAN ZONES] 

1083. Martin,DJ (1985): Production of cutthroat 

trout (Salmo clarki) in relation to riparian 

vegetation in Bear Creek, Washington. Ph.D. 

Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, WA. 

166 p. 

Removal of vegetation can alter salmonid 

production in streams. More than 70 percent of the 

food biomass consumed by all age groups of 

cutthroat trout was composed of aquatic insects, 

despite the greater abundance of insect fallout. Only 

during the summer low flow period when aquatic 

production was low, did insect fallout become more 

important than aquatic insects in the trout diet. 

Changes in prey utilization were associated with 

temporal differences in prey availability. Following 

canopy removal, mean weights of each age group of 

trout increased only in the lower treatment zone, but 

not always. Densities of age 1 and I1 trout increased 

only in the upper treatment zone. Differences were 

attributed to differences in temperature and food 

supply between the upper and lower treatment zones. 

[FISH POPULATIONS; FISHERIES; LOGGING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1084. Martin,DJ; Wasserman,LJ; Dale,VH 

(1986): Influence of riparian vegetation on posteruption survival of coho salmon fingerlings on 

the west-side streams of Mount St. Helens, 

Washington. North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management 6(1), 1-8. 

The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens impacted 

salmon streams on the west side of the mountain 

primarily by debris and mud deposits; depositions of 
ash and large wood were relatively minor 

occurrences. Correlations exist between the survival 

of anadromous fish, instream vegetative debris cover, 

and water temperature. Recovery of riparian 

vegetation would reduce stream temperatures and 

cause debris to be retained. However, it will be 50-75 

years before the trees are large enough to create 

organic debris. Management activities that promote 

large organic debris will enhance fish survival. 

[FISHERIES; ORGANIC DEBRIS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1085. Martin,DW; Chambers,JC (1998): Rooting 

and soil moisture responses to potential 

restoration treatments in central Nevada riparian 

meadows. p.435. In: Potts,DF led.!. Range 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

This study was designed to increase 

understanding of how riparian meadows function and 

to evaluate specific restoration treatments. The 

effects of aeration, nitrogen addition, revegetation, 

and herbage removal on below ground processes and 

soil moisture were examined at several sites in 

central Nevada. Results indicated that there were 

significant differences between sites that could be 

related to differences in soil moisture. No discernible 

trends were evident in rooting depth. Rooting activity 

also appeared to be lower in plots receiving the 

nitrogen addition treatment. Soil moisture differed 

between sites, but not treatment plots. Results 

indicate that water table, N availability, and site 

differences may play significant roles in meadow 

below ground processes. 

[BELOW-GROUND BIOMASS; MEADOWS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1086. Martin,SC (1978): Grazing systems - What 

can they accomplish? Rangeman's Journal 5(1), 

14-16. 

Dramatic improvement in range condition 

usually results from a combination of good range 

management and favorable growing conditions. 

Marked improvement in range condition may not be 

evident until a grazing system has been in effect for 

6-12 years and has gone through several cycles. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING 

TREATMENTS] 

1087. Martin,SC (1979): Evaluating the impacts 

of cattle grazing on riparian habitats in the 

national forests of Arizona and New Mexico. 

p.35-38. In: Cope,OB [ed.]. Forum -- Grazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 November 1979. 

Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

Cattle spend very little time in the creek bottom 

of the study area because forage production is 

negligible. The study suggested that tree sprouts 

became more attractive to cattle after they leafed out. 

Browsing damage can therefore be reduced by 

removing animals before or soon after palatable 

species put on leaves. Of the five species of trees 

observed, willows and velvet ash were the most 

palatable, followed by Arizona alder and net-leaf 

hackbeny, with Arizona sycamore less preferred. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1088. Martinez,D (1993): River restoration: 

financing opportunities and constraints. p.92-97. 

In: Te1lman.B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech, coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

values. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

It is imperative to integrate landowners, 

agribusiness, developers, and other non-traditional 

partners in conservation projects. Communications 

between sectors that have long-standing adversarial 

relationships will not only resolve specific problems 

but will discourage the creation of new ones. 

[PARTNERSHIPS; RlPARlAN RESTORATION] 

1089. Martinsen,GD; Driebe,EM; Whitham,TG 

(1998): Indirect interactions mediated by 

changing plant chemistry: Beaver browsing 

benefits beetles. Ecology 79(1), 192-200. 

An indirect interaction between beavers and leaf 

beetles was documented. Resprout growth arising 

from the stumps and roots of beaver-cut trees 

contained twice the level of defensive chemicals as 

normal juvenile growth. However, rather than be 

repelled by these defenses, leaf beetles were attracted 

to resprout growth, resulting in a strong positive 

association between beavers and beetles. Why? 

Cottonwoods contain phenolic glycosides, chemicals 

that are defensive against mammalian herbivores, but 

are sequestered and used by the beetles for their own 

defense. 

[BEAVER; COTTONWOOD; INVERTEBRATES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1090. Martinsen,GD; Floate,KD; Whitham,TG; 

Keim,P (1997): The biogeographic consequences 

of hybridization and introgression in Populus. 

p.140. Abstracts. 1997 annual meeting of the 
Ecological Society of America jointly with The 

Nature Conservancy. 10-14 August 1997. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

Wherever two or more species of cottonwood 

are sympatric, hybridization occurs. Hybrid zones are 

often centers of abundance for diverse organisms. 

Using 50 RFLP markers, the researchers 

demonstrated that in older hybrid zones, 

introgression extends into the "pure" species zone. 

Younger hybrid zones, by contrast, may contain only 

F1 hybrids and no introgression. Introgression can 

extend over 100 km into native stands, a fact that has 

important implications for conservation. 

[BIODIVERSITY; COTTONWOOD; RIPARIAN 

FOREST] 

1091. Marzolf,GR (1978): The potential effects of 

clearing and snagging on stream ecosystems. 

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological 

Services Program: FWSIOBS-78114.32 p. 

The removal of obstructions from streams 

(clearing and snagging) to increase the channel water 

conveying capacity, is conducted to drain floodplains 

for agriculture, to reduce flooding, and to maintain 

navigable waterways. The process is also purported 

to decrease fish populations and be detrimental to 

stream ecosystems in other ways. Depression of fish 

populations potentially occurs in two ways: I) 

alteration of the nature and abundance of the 

organisms utilized as food; and 2) by direct effects on 

fish behavior and reproduction. This paper also 

describes the parameters that could be measured for 

quantitatively evaluating the ecological effects of 

specific projects. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WOODY DEBRIS] 

1092. Maser,C (1990): On the "naturalness" of 

natural areas: A perspective for the future. 

Natural Areas Journal 10(3), 129-133. 

The key to and value of both restoration ecology 

and ecological restoration is the thought process the 

terms imply. Part of this process is setting aside an 

ecologically adequate system of natural areas - an 

unconditional gift of potential knowledge for the 

future. In doing so, present and future generations 

have a repository not only of species, which more 

often then not are region-specific, but also of 

processes, which more often than not are worldwide 

in principle and application. 

[BIODIVERSITY; ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

(1996): Riparian grazing management that 

worked: I. Introduction and winter grazing. 

Rangelands 18(5), 192-195. 

Various sites in Nevada represented a spectrum 

of elevations, vegetation communities, precipitation 

patterns, and historical uses. These factors all 

contributed to recent differences in watershed 

condition. On one allotment, long term winter use 

maintained healthy conditions along most of two 

streams. On another, winter grazing proved 

successful for restoring streamside vegetation and 

building new stream channels. These treatments 

followed season-long and year-round grazing, which 

in combination with other use impacts, had created 

more unstable conditions. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1094. Masters,L; Swanson,S; Burkhardt,W 

(1996): Riparian grazing that worked: 11. 

Rotation with and without rest and riparian 

pastures. Rangelands 18(5), 196-200. 

Rest-rotation grazing strategies can be 

specifically designed for the unique conditions of an 

allotment or watershed. The three-pasture 

rest-rotation systems can succeed with seasons of use 

matched to climate, moderate stocking rates, and 

maintenance (rather than improvement) of 

herbaceous and woody vegetation. More complex 

systems may be appropriate when streambanks 

require more protection and the additional pastures 

allow for shorter grazing seasons and greater 

flexibility. Season of grazing use should be 

determined by site elevation, mean annual 

precipitation and seasonal occurrence, and aspect. 

Higher elevation, cool, mesic sites may respond well 

to summer grazing. Low elevation, hot, dry sites, 

however, may respond better to early or late 

applications within the rotation schedule. Grazing use 

on critical riparian areas should be kept moderate to 

low. Utilization standards can guarantee conservative 

use if they focus on the right plants in the right places 

at the right levels. All such efforts require the full 

cooperation of both the managing agency and the 

permittees. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

REST ROTATION; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE; UTILIZATION] 

1095. Masters,LS; Burkhardt,JW; Tausch,R 

(1991): The geomorphic process: Effects of base 

level lowering on riparian management. 

Rangelands 13(6), 280-284. 

Drying of Pleistocene Lakes has resulted in 
widespread down-cutting and headward erosion that 

is continuing in Great Basin watersheds. Channel 

erosion and deposition in response to base level 

changes is a natural geomorphic process. Land 

managers should consider this when confronted by 

stream entrenchment and head cuts. Land use is not 

always the driving force behind stream dynamics. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; EROSION; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1096. Mathias,ME; Moyle,P (1992): Wetlands 

and aquatic habitats. Agriculture, Ecosystems, 

and Environment 42,165-176. 

Riparian wetland areas often represent critical 

corridors for animal and plant dispersion in wildland 

watersheds and downstream river systems. It is 

essential that integrated management of riparian 

wetland areas be developed to reverse the loss of 

biological integrity. Agricultural and urban uses, and 

related water developments, have led to a marked 

decline of streamside wetland habitats. Six major 

ways are discussed in which conventional agriculture 

alters wetlands and aquatic habitats: wetland 

drainage, water diversions. stream channelizations, 

bank stabilization, grazing, and the release of 

agricultural pollutants. This paper also discusses 

ways that biological diversity can be protected or 

enhanced. 

[BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

1097. Maxwell,JR; Soloman,RM (1983): 

Threshold limits of hydrologic function in arid 

and semiarid landscapes. Unpublished report. 

USDA Forest Service. Albuquerque, NM. 25 p. 

A method is presented for determining threshold 

limits between satisfactory and unsatisfactory 

hydrologic function. The threshold limits reflect 

unacceptable risks of accelerated gully erosion 

caused by decreased ground cover. They define the 

minimum percent ground cover needed to maintain 

the hydrologic stability of watersheds and their land 

units. The method is especially usefd for arid and 

semiarid landscapes where ground cover is strongly 

influenced by land management and fluvial processes 

are dominated by intense rainstorms, surface runoff, 

and gully erosion. 

[GULLY CONTROL; HYDROLOGY; 

TECHNIQUES] 

1098. May,BE; Davis,B (1 982): Practices for 

livestock grazing and aquatic habitat protection 

on western rangelands. In: Proceedings of the 

symposium on wildlife-livestock relationships. 

20-22 April 1981. Coeur d'Alene,ID. University of 

Idaho, Moscow, ID. 

Recommendations for livestock management in 

riparian zones which contain important fisheries are 

presented. All recommendations are based on review 

of the literature, experience, and consultation with 

others. Management practices were considered in 

relation to stream size, gradient, and riparian 

vegetation. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1099. May,BE; Guest,JE (1984): The riparian 

pasture: Opportunity for coordinated 

management. Proceedings of the Bonneville 

Chapter of the American Fisheries Society. 8-9 

February 1984. Utah State University; Logan, UT. 

11 p. 

The riparian pasture concept may afford the 

rangeland manager a positive approach in resolving 

conflicts between wildlife, fish and livestock in many 

western allotments. Results of the approach have 

proven beneficial in restoring aquaticlriparian 

habitats for fish and wildlife while minimizing 

detrimental influences upon livestock operations. 

Riparian pastures afford the needed administrative 

control in utilizing forage resources, while effectively 

providing for fi sh and wildlife habitat. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1100. Mazzoni,J ;Barber,M; Critchlow,R; 

Miller,W; Studenski,C; Menke,JW (1977): 

Livestock and Waterfowl. p.87-94. In: 

Proceedings of the workshop on livestock and 

wildlife; Fisheries relationships in the Great 

Basin. 3 May 1977. Sparks, NV. University of 

California. Berkeley, CA. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATERFOWL 

MANAGEMENT] 

1101. McAdoo,JK; Back,GN; Barrington,MR; 

Klebenow,DA (1986): Wildlife use of lowlands 

meadows in the Great Basin. p.310-319. In: 

Transactions of the North American wildlife and 

natural resources conference. Wildlife 

Management Institute. Washington, DC. 

Lowland meadows in the Great Basin comprise 

only a small portion of the total land area, but they 

provide critical wildlife habitat for many species. 

Lowland meadows maintain high species diversities 

of both plants and animals. Numerous other species 
use these areas for short periods when lush vegetation 

and water are not available in other habitats. 

Meadows also produce high populations of prey 

species important to a variety of avian and 

mammalian predators. 

[AVIFAUNA; MEADOWS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SMALL MAMMALS] 

1102. McArthur,ED; Sandcrson,SC (1992): A 

comparison between xeroriparian and upland 

vegetation of Beaver Dam Slope, Utah, as desert 

tortoise habitat. p.25-31. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [comp.]. 

Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

The Beaver Dam Slope of extreme southwestern 

Utah is historic desert tortoise habitat, grazed by 

livestock for over 100 years. It is composed of a large 

bajada dissected by intervening arroyos. Of 30 

common species - 14 were preferentially associated 

with xeroriparian habitats, 3 with upland habitats, 

and 13 were non-preferential. Arroyos with more 

shrubs and rougher topography serve well as den 

sites and provide succulent forage during dry periods. 

The much larger uplands, under favorable moisture 

conditions, provide an abundance of accessible 

forage. 

[DESERT TORTOISE; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

UPLAND VEGETATION; XERORIPARIAN] 

1103. McBride,JR; Strahan,J (1984): 

Establishment and survival of woody riparian 

species on gravel bars of an intermittent stream. 

The American Midland Naturalist 112(2), 

235-245. 

Seedling establishment and survival were studied 

on gravel bars of Dry Creek, California. Gravel bar 

species become established from May to July. 

Establishment was correlated with sediment texture. 

Salk spp. established preferentially on areas where 

surface sediment size was less than 0.2 cm. Populus 

fremontii established more densely on areas of 

intermediate and large-sized sediments (0.2 - 1.0 

cm). Baccharis viminea dominated on the larger 

sediment sizes. Mortality resulting from drought was 

highest on bars where the stream had dried up prior 

to Sept 1. Seedlings which established in areas 

protected from the swiftest current were able to 

withstand the winter flows. At some locations, 

changes of gravel bar landforms resulted in 

significant losses of established trees as well as 

saplings and seedlings. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RIPARIAN 

SHRUBS; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; STREAM 

FLOW] 

1104. McCall,JD; Knox,RF (1978): Riparian 

habitats in channelization projects. p.12,5-128. 

In: Proceedings of the national symposium on 

strategies for protection and management of 

floodplains, wctlands and other riparian 

ecosystems. 11-13 December 1978. Galloway 

Gardens, GA. 

A joint Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) 

between state and federal agencies has fostered 

development and implementation of project features 

designed to protect or mitigate losses of fish, wildlife, 

and riparian habitats on constructed channels in 

Indiana. Successhl implementation of such features 

has expanded their use to channel modification 

caused by highway bridge construction and legal 

county drain maintenance. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1105. McClusky,DC; Brown,J; Bornholdt,D; 

Duff,DA; Winward,AH (1983): Willow planting 

for riparian habitat improvement. USDI Bureau 

of Land Management Technical Note 363. Denver, 

CO. 21 p. 

This report is intended for field personnel who 

are interested in employing willow (Salk spp.) 

planting as a technique for riparian habitat 

improvement. The technique discussed here deals 

only with vegetative cuttings of willows because they 

are the easiest to obtain, lowest in cost, usually 

locally acclimated, and provide a good project 

benefitlcost ratio. 

[CUTTINGS; PLANTINGS; RIPARIAN 

RES'I'ORATION; WILLOW] 

11 06. McComb,WC; McGarigal,K; Anthony,RG 

(1993): Small mammal and amphibian abundance 

in streamside and upslope habitats of mature 

Douglas-fir stands, western Oregon. Nolrthwest 

Science 67(1), 7-15. 

Capture rates of small mammals and (amphibians 

were compared between streamside and upslope 

habitats along 700-m transects in each of :six mature 

Douglas-fir stands, 1988. Equitability anti diversity 

of small mammal communities were higher along 

streamside than upslope transects. There was no 

difference in small mammal or amphibian species 

richness per transect between streamside and upslope 

transects. Capture rates of marsh shrews, Pacific 

jumping mice, long-tailed voles, white-footed voles, 

and Dunn's salamanders were higher along 
streamside than upslope transects. Capture rates of 

western red-backed voles, Townsend's chipmunks, 

creeping voles, Trowbridge's shrews, and Ensatina 

salamanders were higher along upslope than 

streamside transects. Capture rates of marsh shrews, 

Pacific jumping mice, deer mice, shrew-moles, and 

Pacific shrews, decreased with distance from the 

stream along transriparian transects. Capture rates of 

western red-backed voles increased with distance 

from the stream. 

[AMPHIBIANS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL 

MAMMALS] 

1107. McComb,WC; Sedell,JR, Buchholz,TD 

(1990): Dam-site selection by beavers in an eastern 

Oregon Basin. Great Basin Naturalist 50(3), 

273-281. 

The authors compared physical and vegetative 

characteristics at 14 dam sites occupied by beaver 

with those at 41 unoccupied reaches to identify 

features important to dam-site selection in eastern 

Oregon. Stream reaches with dams were shallower 

and had a lower gradient than unoccupied reaches. 

Beaver did not build dams at sites with a rock 

substrate. Bank slopes at occupied reaches were not 

as steep as unoccupied reaches; and occupied stream 

reaches had greater tree canopy cover, especially of 

thin-leaf alder, than did unused reaches. Four habitat 

suitability models for beaver were also tested with 

positive results. 

[BEAVER; CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1108. McConnell,CA (1979): Stream channel 

renovation methods to mitigate natural resource 

losses. p.611-614. Swanson, GA [ed.]. In: The 

mitigation symposium: A national workshop for 

mitigating losses of fish and wildlife habitat. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-65. 

Stream channel renovation methods, using a 

blend of hand labor crews with light equipment 

where possible and heavy equipment where 

necessary, were used to minimize damages to natural 

resources on the Wolf River in Tennessee. Methods, 

work guidelines, and results are discussed. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; HABITAT 

MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1109. McCurdy,MK (1989): Public trust 

protection for wetlands. Environmental Law 19, 

683-72 1. 

The speed and scale at which man can harm the 

environment today calls for legal tools that are 

flexible and comprehensive in their application. The 

public trust doctrine offers courts a common-law 

method for protecting changing public expectations 

in natural resources. Traditionally, courts applied the 

doctrine to protect certain public uses of navigable 

waterways. The evolution of the doctrine within the 

water area reflects judicial willingness to apply it to 

new situations. The next logical extension of the trust 

is to wetlands. 

[PUBLIC TRUST DOCTRINE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

11 10. McDermid,R (1993): A view of t8he lower 

Deschutes River planning process. p.311-315. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. ]Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Sewice. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

These certain factors encountered in the process 

were critical to success: 1) embark on a well-defined 

mission; 2) all participants must bring honesty and 

credibility into the process and maintain it 

throughout; 3) continuity of personnel must be 

maintained; 4) in a public process, the public matters; 

5) do not rush important decisions; and 6) a plan 

serves no purpose unless it is successfdly 

implemented. 

[PLANNING; RlPARlAN HABITAT; RIVER 

ECOLOGY] 

11 11. McDevitt,H (1979): Public users' 

perspective of the grazing issue. p.71-74.. In: 

Cope,OB led.\. Forum -- Grazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 November 1979. 

Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

Many publics do not understand the use of the 

public domain, but others understand it very well. 

They are beginning to ask questions like, "Why 

should a man inherit and then deed to his children 

semi-exclusive use of public land at less than the 

market price?" Most western groups are more 

interested in keeping everybody on the public lands 

than in foreclosing someone's future or trying to go 

back to the old dominant-use theory. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; PUBLIC COMMENT; 

RIPARIAN ISSUES] 

11 12. McGariga1,K; McComb,WC (19192): 

Streamside versus upslope breeding bird 

communities in the central Oregon Coast Range. 

Journal of Wildlife Management 56(1), 10-23. 

Despite perceived ecological and management 

significance of streamside areas in the coniferous and 
mixed deciduous-coniferous forests of the Pacific 

Northwest, there is little empirical data on the relative 

importance of streamside habitat to area avifauna. 

This paper examines breeding bird species diversity, 

richness, evenness, and individual species' abundance 

between streamside and upslope areas in mature, 

unmanaged forest stands. Bird community 

composition and structure differed between 

streamside and upslope areas. Streamsides 

exclusively contributed only 9 percent of the species 

versus 33 percent in the uplands. Vegetation structure 

and composition may have been responsible for 

observed bird distributions. Management of riparian 

areas alone may not meet the needs of several bird 

species. The authors suggest that a landscape-level 

approach addressing both upslope and riparian 

habitat may be more effective in meeting the needs 

of breeding bird communities. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

11 13. McGinnies,WG; McComb,AL; Fletcher,JE 

(1963): Role of watersheds and forests in the arid 

west. American Association for the Advancement 

of Science Pub. 74,277-307. 

The problems of increasing streamflow from 

watersheds are discussed. Snow as a streamflow 

source, interception of rain, evapotranspiration and 

transpiration losses, phreatophyte problems, 

vegetation and floods, management to increase 

yields, flood control, wind erosion and shelter belts, 

water erosion and sedimentation, and research in 

forest management problems are all considered. 

[EROSION CONTROL; HYDROLOGY; 

SEDIMENTATION; STREAM FLOW; 

WATERSHED] 

11 14. McIntosh,BA; Sedell,JR; Smith,JE; 

Wissmar,RC; Clarke,SE; Reeves,GH; Brown,LA 

(1994): Historical changes in fish habitat for select 

river basins of Eastern Oregon and Washington. 

Northwest Science 68,3643. 

From 1934 to 1942 the Bureau of Fisheries 

surveyed more than 8,000 km of streams in the 

Columbia River Basin to determine the condition of 

fish habitat. Changes in fish habitat over time were 

evaluated by resurveying a subset of the historically 

surveyed streams from 1990 to 1992. Many streams 

were as degraded from past use practices ( e.g. timber 

harvest, splash dams, stream channelization, 

livestock grazing, and mining) as before the 1930's. 

Differences in land-use histories partially explain 

current fish habitat conditions and declines in 

anadromous fish runs. Strategies to protect, restore, 

and maintain anadromous and resident fish habitat 

need ecosystem approaches that protect as well as 

restore the remaining habitats. 

[ANADROMOUS FISH; LAND USE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

11 15. McKee,A; Means,JE; Moir,WH; 

Franklin,JF (1987): First-year recovery of upland 

and riparian vegetation in the devastated area 

around Mount St. Helens. p. 168-187. In: Mount 

St Helens 1980: Botanical consequences of the 

explosive eruption. [Ed: Bilderback,DE] 

University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 

In the first growing season following the 1980 

eruption of Mount Saint Helens, no vascular plants 

were found in the regions subjected to pyuroclastic 

flows. Clear-cut sites showed the highest plant cover. 

Riparian areas had the greatest species richness, 

probably because of more favorable microsites found 

along streams. Favorable microsites were also critical 

for plant survival and regrowth in upland habitats. 

Virtually all the live plants were perennials that had 

sprouted from the pre-eruption soil and had 

penetrated the ash or been protected by a snow pack. 

[PLANT COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RlPARl AN RESTORATION] 

1116. McKinstry,MC; Anderson,SH (1 999): 

Attitudes of private- and public-land managers in 

Wyoming, USA, toward beaver. Environmental 

Management 23(1), 95-1 01. 

A mail survey concerning beaver was 

disseminated during 1993. Primary concerns about 

beaver damage centered on: blocked irrigation 

ditches, girdled timber, blocked culverts, and flooded 

roads, pastures and crops (decreasing order of 

importance). Primary benefits perceived were: 

elevated water tables, increased riparian vegetation, 

and increased stock watering opportunities 

(increasing order of importance). 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

11 17. McLemore,CE; Meehan,WR (1988): 

Invertebrates of Meadow Creek, Union County, 

Oregon, and their use as food by trout. USDA 

Forest Service Research Paper PNW-RP-394. 

Portland, OR. 13 p. 

From 1976 to 1980, invertebrates were collected 

from several reaches of Meadow Creek in eastern 

Oregon. Five sampling methods were used: benthos, 

drift, sticky traps, water traps and fish stomachs. A 

total of 372 taxa were identified, of which 239 were 

used as food by rainbow trout and steelhead (Salmo 

gairdneri Richardson). Of the taxa found in trout 

stomachs, 71 (29.5 percent) were terrestrial. 
[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; INVERTEBRATES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SALMONIDS; TROUT] 

11 18. McNatt,RM; Hallock,RJ; Anderson,AW 

(1980): Riparian habitat and instream flow 

studies; Lower Verde River: Fort McDowell 

Reservation, Arizona. Riparian Habitat Analysis 

Group. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

Riparian habitats are the most biologically 

productive areas in the Southwest. Only about 15 

percent of the original riparian habitat remains in 

Arizona. This proportion is even smaller when only 

Sonoran Desert riparian areas are considered. The 

Lower Verde River is unique for its assemblage of 

mixed habitats and its outstanding productivity. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 

FLOW] 

11 19. Meador,MR; Layher,AO (1998): lnstream 

sand and gravel mining: Environmental issues and 

regulatory process in the United States. Fisheries 

23(1 l), 6 p. 

The extraction of sand and gravel can 

significantly affect the physical, chemical, and 

biological characteristics of mined streams. This 

paper presents an overview of a symposium held by 

the American Fisheries Society in San Antonio,. 

Texas. Conclusions fiom that symposium suggest 

that complex physiochemical and biotic responses to 

disturbances such as channel incision and alteration 

of riparian vegetation determine the effects of 

instream mining. Understanding geomorphic 

processes can provide insight into the effects of 

mining on stream function. Multidisciplinary 

empirical studies are needed to determine the relative 

effects of mining vs. other natural human-induced 

stream alterations. Mining regulations are frequently 

complicated, conflictive, or unclear. Dialogue 

between experts is a necessary first step to protective 

policies. 

[MINING IMPACTS; POLICY; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1120. Medin,DE; Clary,WP (1980): Bird and 

small mammal populations in a grazed and 

ungrazed riparian habitat in Idaho. USDA Forest 

Service Research Paper INT-425. Ogden, UT. 8 p. 

A survey of bird and small mammal populations 

(spring and later summer, respectively, in 1988 and 

1989) in two 9 ha plots, one placed at the upstream 

end of a 122 ha grazing exclosure (grazing excluded 

fiom 1975), the other placed in the adjacent upstream 

grazed riparian zone. The Summit Creek study area is 

located in Custer County, Idaho, in the Little Lost 

River drainage. In 1989, there was little difference 

between grazed and ungrazed habitats in total 

breeding bird density, but presence of shorebirds in 

the grazed area caused the tendency for greater 

species richness, bird biomass and bird species 

diversity in the grazed habitat as compared with the 

ungrazed habitat. Small mammal populations were 

higher on the grazed than the ungrazed plots but 

species richness and diversity of the small mammal 

communities were higher in the ungrazed habitat. 

[AVIFAUNA; BIODIVERSITY; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL 

MAMMALS] 

1121. Medin,DE; Clary,WP (1989): Small 

mammal populations in a grazed and ungrazed 

riparian habitat in Nevada. Res.Pap. INT-413. 

Ogden, UT. USDA Forest Service. Research paper 

INT-413.6~. 

Community composition and relative abundance 

of small mammal populations in gra7ed and exclosed 

riparian zones at 6200 ft, northeastern Nevada, were 

monitored in late summer. The numbers of species 

trapped and the total numbers of individuals trapped 

were greater inside the protected areas than in the 

grazed areas. Species observed: deer mouse 

(Peromyscus maniculatus), western jumping mouse 

(Zapus princeps), least chipmunk (Tamias minimus), 

Great Basin pocket mouse (Perognathus parvus), 

golden-mantled ground squirrel (Spermophilus 

lateralis), vagrant shrew (Sorex vagrans), long-tailed 

vole (Microtus longiclaudus), montane vole 

(Microtus montanus), Townsend's ground squirrel 

(Spermophilus townsendii), northern pocket gopher 

(Thomomys talpoides), and bushy-tailed woodrat 

(Neotoma cinerea). 

[BIODIVERSITY; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 

1122. Medin,DE; Clary,WP (1990): Bird 

populations in and adjacent to a beaver pond 

ecosystem in Idaho. USDA Forest Service. 

Research Paper INT-432.6 p. 

Breeding bird populations and community 

organizations were compared betwcen a beaver pond 

habitat dominated by willows and an adjacent 

riparian habitat. Total bird density in the ponded 

habitat was three times that of the nonponded habitat. 

Bird biomass, bird species richness, and bird species 

diversity were 3.49, 3.25, and 1.67 times higher, 

respectively, in the beaver pond habitat. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; BEAVER; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 
1123. Medin,DE; Clary,WP (1991): Small 

mammals of a beaver pond ecosystem and 

adjacent riparian habitat in Idaho. USDA Forest 

Service. Research Paper INT-445.4 p. 

Small mammal populations and community 

organization were compared between a beaver pond 

habitat dominated by willows and an adjacent 

non-willow riparian habitat. Small mammal relative 

density was 3.06 times higher and standing crop 

biomass was 2.71 times higher in the beaver pond 

habitat than in the adjacent non-ponded habitat. 

There were no pronounced differences between the 

two habitats in small mammal species richness or 

species diversity. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMALL 

MAMMALS; WILLOW] 

1124. Medin,DE; Clary,WP (1991): Breeding 

bird populations in a grazed and ungrazed 

riparian habitat in Nevada. USDA Forest Service. 

Research Paper INT-441.7 p. 

Breeding bird populations and bird community 

organization were compared between a grazed and 

ungrazed aspen-willow riparian habitat. There were 

no differences between the two sites in bird density, 

species richness, species composition, or other 

attributes. There were also no pronounced differences 

between the sites in total density or total standing 

crop biomass of a nine-species guild of riparian birds. 

There were no obvious relationships between the 

responses of individual bird species and any 

physiognomic differences in the vegetation of the 

two habitats. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

11 25. Medin,DE; Torquemada,KE (1988): 

Beaver in western North America: An annotated 

bibliography, 1966 to 1986. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report INT-242.18 p. 

This annotated bibliography of 206 references is 

provided as a working tool for natural resource 

specialists, land-use planners and others charged with 

managing beavers and their habitats. 

[BEAVER; BIBLIOGRAPHY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1126. Medina,AL (1990): Possible effects of 

residential development on streamflow, riparian 

plant communities, and fisheries on small 

mountain streams in central Arizona. Forest 

Ecology and Management 33134,351-361. 

Increased residential development along small 

mountain streams within pine forests in central 

Arizona has surged in the last 20 years and presents a 

potential threat to riparian plant communities because 

it can alter the nature of streamflow from perennial to 

ephemeral. The change in streamflow increases water 

stress on riparian plants along those streams. Cultural 

activities associated with residential development that 

alter streamflows are water diversions, groundwater 

pumping, and changes in land use. Measurements of 

tree densities and stand composition of Arizona alder 

and box elder showed that perennial streams had 

greater tree densities in all diameter classes, 

compared with ephemeral streams where 

small-diameter trees were absent. Xylem water 

potential measurements decreased more rapidly on 

trees occupying ephemeral reaches than on trees of 

comparable reaches of perennial streams during the 

summer. The increase in water stress in trees growing 

along ephemeral stream reaches may be responsible 

for the lower plant densities and lack of seedling 

establishment measured. Trout populations also 

declined when streamflow changed from perennial to 

ephemeral. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN PLANTS; STREAM 

FLOW; TROUT] 

1127. Medina,AL (1996): Native aquatic plants 

and ecological conditions of southwestern 

wetlands and riparian areas. p.329-335. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.1. Desired 

future conditions for Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-GTR-272. 

The determination of the ecological condition of 

wetland and riparian habitats has been the focus of 

research by many scientists, because of the 

importance to understand the processes and related 

functions of these systems. Research on montane 

woodland and riparian systems has shown the 

relative importance of native aquatic plants in 

maintaining these systems in a functional condition. 

The presence or absence of key species is used as an 

indicator of the ecological condition, and desired 

ecological condition of wetlands and riparian habitat 

can be expressed in terms of the species composition 

and abundance of native aquatic plants. This type of 

information is needed by resource managers in 

defining the endpoint of their management actions. 

Information is presented on the functional role of 

these species in sustaining the biological and physical 

integrity of these habitats. 

[AQUATIC PLANTS; ECOLOGICAL 

CONDITION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 
1128. Medina,AL; Baker,Jr,MB; Neary,DG 

(1996): Desirable functional processes: A 

conceptual approach for evaluating ecological 

condition. p.302-311. In: Shaw, DW; Finch, DM 

[tech. coord.]. Desired future conditions for 

Southwestern riparian ecosystems. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Determining what "desired future condition" 

actually means has been viewed as a moving target 

approach for developing ecosystem management 

plans. The difficulty arises from trying to define what 

the desired conditions are for any given site. In 

addition, definitions may be plagued with 

inconsistencies, contention and argument, 

indeterminate time frames, and less than the best 

knowledge available. Herein, we propose a 

conceptual approach called "Desirable Functional 

Processes", or DFP, for evaluating the ecological 

condition of an ecosystem or parts thereof. It is 

founded on the premise that ecosystems and their 

components display varied degrees of functionality. 

It is based on the degree to which one can observe 

the interaction of ongoing processes involving the 

vegetation, soils, and hydrological components that 

determine the functionality of a system. Hence, an 

ecosystem or its components are considered 

functional if the processes observed are those that 

move the system to a higher state of dynamic 

equilibrium, as opposed to a state that is 

dyshnctional and demonstrates a trend toward 

system degradation. The identification of processes 

and their functional status requires a 

multidisciplinary approach, wherein most elements of 

the environment are examined to determine 

functioning condition. Examples using a watershed 

approach are used to illustrate the concept and its 

framework. As a concept, it recognizes the public's 

needs in the decision-making process, and as such 

provides a mechanism by which the resource 

managers can communicate environmental concerns 

in a non-argumentative manner. 

[DESIRED FUTURE CONDITIONS; 

ECOLOGICAL CONDITION; PLANNING; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1129. Medina,AL; Clark,SC (1988): Stream 

channel and vegetation changes in sections of 

McKnight Creek, New Mexico. Great Basin 

Naturalist 48(3), 373-381. 

The effects of grazing on stream channel 

morphology and riparian vegetation were 

insignificant compared with channel adjustments 

caused by wildfire in the headwaters, high amounts 

of sedimentation in the upper channel and storm 

events. This result exemplifies the importance of 

overall watershed condition to channel stability and 

plant communities in the riparian zone. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1130. Meehan,WE; Swanson,FJ; Sedell,JR 

(1977): Influence of riparian vegetation on aquatic 

ecosystems with particular reference to :salmonid 

fishes and their food supply. p.137-145. In: 

Johnson,RR; Jones,DA Itech.coord.1. Importance, 

preservation, and management of riparian 

habitats: A symposium. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-43. 

The total stream ecosystem including the habitat 

of salmonids is profoundly influenced by the riparian 

zone. Shade and organic debris from the riparian 

zone control the food base of the stream arid the large 

woody debris influences channel morphology. 

Temporal and spatial changes in the riparian zone, 

the indirect influences of riparian vegetation on 

salmonids, and the effects of man's activities are 

addressed. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SALMONIDS; WOODY DEBRIS] 

1131. Meehan,WR (1 996): Influence of' riparian 

canopy on macroinvertebrate composition and 

food habits of juvenile salmonids in several 

Oregon streams. USDA Forest Service. IResearch 

Paper PNW-RP-496.14 p. 

The community composition of 

macroinvertebrates and the feeding habits of juvenile 

salmonids were studied in eight Oregon streams. 

Benthic, drift, sticky trap, and water trap samples 

were taken over a period of three years, along with 

stomach samples of the fish. Samples were taken in 

stream reaches with and without canopy. The main 

effects, fish diet vs. macroinvertebrate conlposition 

and canopied vs. noncanopied stream conditions, 

were highly significant. 

[CANOPY; MACROINVERTEBRATES;, 

RIPARlAN HABITAT; SALMONIDS] 

1132. Meehan,WR; Platts,WS (1978): Livestock 

grazing and the aquatic environment. Journal of 

Soil and Water Conservation 33(6), 274,-278. 

Contemporary grazing systems seek to improve 

livestock production while protecting resources. 

Resource managers need to know how these grazing 

systems influence other resources, including 

anadromous and resident cold water fish populations. 

Researchers also need to know what the pristine or 
natural conditions of streams were prior to these uses. 

Such areas could be preserved as study areas to 

furnish baseline data. The result of such studies may 

be guidelines for predicting the effects of various 

grazing strategies on the condition and productivity 

of streamlriparian systems. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1133. Meehan,WR; Swanson,FJ; Sedel1,JR 

(1977): Influences of riparian vegetation on 

aquatic ecosystems with particular reference to 

salmonid fishes and their food supply. p.137-145. 

In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.]. 

Symposium on the importance, preservation and 

management of the riparian habitat. 9 July 1977. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-43. 

Riparian zones have important influences on the 

total stream ecosystem including salmonid habitat. 

Shade and organic detritus from the riparian zone 

control the food base of the stream and large, woody 

debris influences channel morphology. Temporal and 

spatial changes in the riparian zone, the indirect 

influences of riparian vegetation on salmonids, and 

the effects of man's activities are discussed. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; STREAM ECOLOGY] 

1134. Meents,JK; Anderson,BW; Ohmart,RD 

(1981): Sensitivity of riparian birds to habitat loss. 

p.619-625. In: Warner,RE; Hendrix,KM 1eds.l. 

Proceedings of the California riparian systems 

conference. 17- 19 September 1981. Davis, CA. 

The extent and composition of riparian plant 

communities in the Lower Colorado River valley 

have historically been altered, primarily by man. 

Some of these communities are disappearing 

(cottonwood and mesquite) and others are expanding 

(salt-cedar and arrow-weed). In this study, the avian 

community associated with riparian vegetation was 

examined and avian habitat specialists were 

identified. Nearly all specialists were concentrated in 

cottonwood/willow or honey mesquite communities. 

Salt-cedar generally supported no avian species with 

narrow habitat breadth. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; CLASSIFICATION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1 135. Megahan,WF (1982): Channel sediment 

storage behind obstructions in forested drainage 

basins draining the granitic bedrock of the Idaho 

batholith. p.114-121. In: Proceedings of the 

workshop on sediment budgets and routing in 

forested drainage basins. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report PNW-141. 

The total volume of sediment stored behind 

obstructions varied between drainage basins and 

years in response to changes in bankfull channel 

width and annual peak-flow rates, respectively. Logs 

were the most important type of obstruction because 

they had the greatest longevity and stored the greatest 

amount of sediment. An average of 15 times more 

sediment was stored behind obstructions than was 

delivered to the mouths of the drainages as annual 

average sediment yield. Logging reduced total 

channel-sediment storage behind obstructions 

because many natural obstructions were destroyed by 

felling and subsequent clearing operations to remove 

logging dcbris from channels. Storage behind 

obstructions is an important component of the overall 

sediment routing through forested drainage basins. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

1136. Megahan,WF (1 985): Evaluating effects of 

land use on sedimentation - a case for sediment 

budgeting. Hydrological Science and Technology 

l(l), 13-16. 

Understanding the linkages between erosion and 

sedimentation could help meet present needs for 

water quality monitoring and evaluation of 

environmental impacts. Development of sediment 

budgets to account for watershed erosion processes 

and zones of sediment storage is an approach to 

provide this understanding. A sediment budget for 

forested watersheds in the mountainous zone of the 

interior US is presented along with data to quantify 

selected budget components. The sediment budget, 

with certain modifications, is applicable to 

watersheds anywhere. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

1137. Megahan,WF (1987): Increased 

sedimentation following helicopter logging and 

prescribed burning on granitic soil. p.259-260. In: 

Erosion and sedimentation in the Pacific Rim: 

Proceedings of the International Association of 

Hydrological Sciences. 3-7 August 1987. Oregon 

State University; Corvallis, OR. IAHS publication 

No.165. 

This paper describes a study of the effects of 

clear-cut logging by helicopter, and associated 

prescribed burning on sediment yields. Annual 

sediment yields averaged a 100 percent increase 

resulting from the timber harvest. Accelerated 

sedimentation continued to persist nine years afier 
logging. Accelerated sedimentation was apparently 

caused by active erosion within the cutting units. 

[HYDROLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

SEDIMENTATION; SOILS] 

1138. Megahan,WF; Kidd,WF (1972): Effects of 

logging and logging roads on erosion and sediment 

deposition from steep terrain. Journal of Forestry 

70(3):136-141. 

Five years of data collection indicated that there 

were no differences in the erosion resulting from 

jammer and skyline logging, respectively. However, 

sediment dam data obtained concurrently showed 

that logging operations alone, not including roads, 

increased sediment production by a factor of 

approximately 0.6 over the natural sedimentation 

rate. Roads associated with the jammer logging 

system increased sediment production an average of 

about 750 times the natural rate for six years 

following production. 

[EROSION; LOGGING IMPACTS; ROAD 

IMPACTS; SEDIMENTATION] 

1139. Megahan,WF; King,JG; Scyedbagheri,KA 

(1995): Hydrologic and erosional responses of a 

granitic watershed to helicopter logging and 

broadcast burning. Forest Science 41(4), 777-795. 

Effects of helicopter logging and prescribed 

burning on streamflow and sediment yields from 

headwater drainages in the Idaho Batholith were 

evaluated, using paired watersheds monitored from 

1966 to 1986. In the fall of 1976,23 percent of a 162 

ha watershed was clear-cut. All the cutting units were 

on south-facing slopes. Helicopter logging was 

followed by broadcast burning on cutting units. 

Streamflow parameters showed little change in 

response to logging and burning. However, total 

annual sediment yields increased an average of 97 

percent in the 10 years following logging, with the 

largest increases occurring in the years of highest 

sediment yields. About 94 percent of the increased 

sediment yields was attributed to accelerated surface 

erosion on the cutting units. Accelerated erosion 

persisted on the cutting units throughout the study 

period. The accelerated surface erosion occurred 

primarily as a result of the prescribed burning rather 

than the helicopter logging; surface erosion rates on 

the burned areas were about 66 times greater than 

those on undisturbed slopes. 

[EROSION; HYDROLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

PRESCRIBED BURNING; SEDIMENTATION; 

S'I'KEAM FLOW] 

ldentification of critical areas on forest lands for 

control of non-point sources of pollution. 

Environmental Management 9(1), 7-17. 

Pollution associated with forest lands is of a nonpoint character and is of two general types. One type 

involves changes in naturally occurring water 

constituents caused by the disruption of the 

ecosystem by various practices. This includes 

changes in sediment, dissolved chemical transport, 

and water temperature. The second type of pollutant 

consists of exotic substances introduced by 

management practices and includes bacteriological 

pollutants and chemicals such as pesticides, 

fertilizers, and fire retardants. Most non-point 

pollution problems on forest lands can be controlled 

by careful planning and management of specific 

control areas. Critical areas include sites with high 

mass and surface erosion hazards, overland flow 

areas, and the riparian zone. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; SOILS; WATER QUALITY] 

1141. Megahan,WF; Nowlin,RA (1976): 

Sediment storage in channels draining small 

forested watersheds in the mountains of central 

Idaho. p .4-115 to 4-126. In: Proceedings of the 

3rd federal interagency sediment conference. 

Denver, CO. 

The role of sediment storage was studied in 

channels draining seven small forested watersheds in 

central Idaho. Data collection included an inventory 

of sediment deposited behind channel obstructions, 

detailed surveys of channel cross sections, and 

measurements of annual sediment yields in sediment 

detention reservoirs. The channel cross sections were 

used in evaluating annual changes in the total volume 

of sediment stored on channel bottoms. Annual 

watershed erosion was determined by entering the 

annual sediment yields and the annual change in 

stored sediment into a continuity equation. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

1142. Megahan,WF; Potyondy,JP; 

Seyedbagheri,KA (1992): Best management 

practices and cumulative effects from 

sedimentation in the South Fork Salmon River: 

An Idaho case study. p. 401-414. In: Watershed 

management: Balancing sustainability and 

environmental change. [Ed: Naiman,RJI. 

Springer-Verlag. 

Poor land use, including intensive unregulated 

logging from 1940 through the mid- 1960s, 

contributed to massive cumulative effects from 
sedimentation in Idaho's South Fork Salmon River 

(SFSR) by 1965. Severe damage to valuable salmon 

and steelhead habitat resulted. Present-day 

management practices, properly implemented, have 

the potential of reducing sediment yields by about 45 

to 95 percent compared with yields caused by 

historical land use. Cumulative effects analysis is a 

useful tool for evaluating management alternatives. 

Some increases in sedimentation are unavoidable 

even using the most cautious logging and roading 

methods. However, much of the sedimentation in the 

SFSR and other drainages could have been avoided if 

logging and road construction had followed best 

management practices. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; LOGGING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; ROAD 

IMPACTS; SEDIMENTATION] 

1143. Melton,BL; Hoover,RL; Moore,RL; 

Pfankuch,DJ (1984): Aquatic and riparian 

wildlife. Chapter 6. p.261-301.111: Managing 

forested lands for wildlife. [Eds: Hoover,RL; 

Wills,DL] Colorado Division of Wildlife in 

cooperation with USDA Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Region. Denver, CO. 

Riparianlaquatic ecosystems are important areas 

for both man and wildlife. The unique characteristics 

of riparian zones result in a greater use by a larger 

variety of users than occurs in any other ecosystem. 

The ecological roles between riparian, aquatic, and 

upland ecosystems are so complex that these 

interrelationships have not been completely 

determined or defined. The high degree of 

connectedness and intertwining links between these 

ecosystems makes them highly sensitive to 

disturbance. It takes knowledge and appreciation of 

the structure and functions of aquaticlriparian 

ecosystems in order to exercise the deliberate 

management needed to protect and enhance these 

very limited and unique landscapes. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1144. Mentor,Jr.,J. (1 998): Trading water. 

p.325-333. In: Potts,DF led.]. Range management 

and water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Water transfers reflect greater efficiencies in 

agricultural water use, conversion of farm land to 

other uses, and demographic trends toward increased 

urbanization. Moreover, many significant 

environmental impacts caused by developing new 

water sources can be avoided by transfers. This paper 

describes history, legal bases, methods of 

reallocation, and case studies. 

[WATER LAW; WATER RIGHTS] 

1145. Merendino,MT; Smith,LM; Murkin,HR; 

Pederson,RL (1990): The response of prairie 

wetland vegetation to seasonality of drawdown. 

Wildlife Society Bulletin 18,245-251. 

Diversity and productivity of prairie wetland 

flora are maintained by cyclic wet and dry periods 

that can be either natural or man-induced. This study 

evaluated the effects of four drawdown dates on 

recruitment of species from the seed bank. Season of 

drawdown affected the abundance, species richness, 

and flowering of wetland vegetation. Overall shoot 

densities were highest for a May 15 drawdown, with 

alkali bulrush the dominant species. The number of 

flowering shoots was highest in the June 15 

drawdown. Cattail dominated the June 15 drawdown 

and purple loosestrife reached maximum densities. 

Mid-summer drawdowns (July 15) and late summer 

drawdowns (August 15) were characterized by low 

species abundance and absence of seed production. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER CYCLES; 

WETLANDS] 

1146. Merigliano,M (1997): Flood-plain and 

vegetation dynamics along the Upper Snake River, 

Idaho. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Idaho, 

Moscow, ID. 

Flood control has been the main factor limiting 

cottonwood regeneration on the South Fork of the 

Snake River. Hydrologic, geomorphic, and botanical 

evidence indicates that most cottonwood regeneration 

occurred soon after flood events having a 10-year 

flood interval. Sediment deposits that originated after 

the Palisades dam closure are less extensive and have 

less topographic relief than those deposited under 

natural conditions. This change has resulted in 

smaller cottonwood patches and a slow but definite 

decline in forest extent. Successional processes have 

a strong influence during the first few decades after 

initial colonization, but edaphic factors, which vary 

greatly over space, result in large shifts in understory 

species composition independent of deposit age and 

succession. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; COTTONWOOD; 

HYDROLOGY; SUCCESSION] 

1147. Merigliano,MF (1996): Ecology and 

management of the South Fork Snake River 

cottonwood forest. Technical Bulletin 96-9. Idaho 

BLM Technical Bulletin. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management. Boise, ID. 79 p. 
This report summarizes an investigation of the 

cottonwood ecosystem along the South Fork Snake 

River from Palisades Dam to Heise, Idaho. 

Vegetation dynamics, with emphasis on the 

cottonwood component, were the primary foci of this 

project, in which the relationship between riparian 

vegetation and the physical processes of the river 

were examined. Water flow at this location is 

dominated by snowmelt and sediment load is 

strongly influenced by glacial deposits. Usually 

stable, the primary channel can migrate considerable 

distances during very high discharges. Floods were 

the dominant disturbance factor before the dam 

closure and most of the cottonwood forest established 

on sediment deposited during large floods. Smaller 

floods since dam closure have been less conducive to 

cottonwoodlwillow regeneration so that the forest 

area is shrinking and becoming relatively older. 

[COTTONWOOD; FLOOD IMPACTS; GALLERY 

FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 

FLOW] 

1 148. Merritt,RW; Lawson,DL (1978): Leaf 

litter processing in floodplain stream 

communities. p. 93-105. In: Proceedings of the 

Symposium on national riparian ecosystems: 

Strategies for the protection and management of 

floodplain wetlands and other riparian 

ecosystems. 11-13 December 1978. Callaway 

Gardens, GA. 

This research was based on the hypothesis that 

the floodplain serves as a preprocessing area for 

stream allocthonous flow. The major season for leaf 

litter processing in the floodplain was in the spring 

which was related to abiotic and biotic factors. 

Tethered leaves and coarse mesh bags containing 

confined litter degraded at a significantly faster rate 

than leaf litter in medium or fine mesh bags. The 

major time for stream litter processing occurred in 

the fall. Overall ecological processes occurring in the 

floodplain were similar to those occurring in the 

stream, although the timing of leaf litter processing 

activity differed. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; 

MACROINVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1149. Meyer,JL (1990): A blackwater perspective 

of riverine ecosystems. BioScience 40(9), 643-651. 

Streams and rivers are vital natural resources. 

They provide fresh water to support a growing 

human population as well as transport and treatment 

of waste water. They are valuable for recreation and 

fisheries, providing an essential source of protein in 

many countries. Streams and their riparian wetlands 

are the habitat for diverse assemblages of species. 

When Europeans first colonized this North America, 

streams and rivers were used for transportation and 

were the arteries of the continent. Today they are 

used instead as kidneys - processing and purifying 

the wastes of an industrialized society. More 

complete understanding of these systems in the future 

would be facilitated by the following studies: 1) 

quantification of rates of exchange of nutrients and 

organic matter between different components of 

stream ecosystems plus an assessment of factors 

controlling those rates; 2) assessments of the 

significance of the microbial food web as a pathway 

of organic carbon transfer and nutrient spiraling in 

flowing waters; and 3) whole system experimental 

manipulations to develop an understanding of factors 

controlling lotic ecosystem function and structure. 

[FOOD WEBS; LOTIC ECOSYSTEMS; 

NUTRIENT CYCLES; RESEARCH; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIVER ECOLOGY; 

WETLANDS] 

1150. Meyer,K (1993): The Mt. Shasta Meadows 

Restoration Project. p.189-190. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace, G; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.1. Riparian management: Common 

threads and shared interests. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-226. 

The project was initiated to halt human induced 

degradation and reclaim the ecological and cultural 

integrity of fragile sub-alpine meadow systems on 

Mt. Shasta. This paper describes the creative 

solutions and managerial implications of restoring 

sub-alpine meadows while understanding and 

educating a varied and diverse user public. 

[ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY; MEADOWS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1151. Meyer,PA (1 985): Public values for 

riparian ecosystems: Experimental results in the 

West and implications for the Grand Canyon. 

p.417-20. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Economic, psychological, and legal arguments 

are presented for use of compensatory procedures in 

valuing riparian resource protection and restoration 

activities. Values from studies in California and 

Washington are reported and implications of those 

for the Grand Canyon are considered. 
[HUMAN IMPACTS; RlPARlAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VALUES] 

11 52. Meyer,PA (1986): Valuing riparian 

habitat. A presentation to the USDA Forest 

Service. Philip A. Meyer, Consultant. P.O. Box 

1152, Davis, CA, 95617. 10 p. 

Economic importance of riparian habitat for 

Indian peoples can be established by again 

identifying impacting linkages, with ceremonial use, 

subsistence and commerce, and then placing those 

impacts in the dual contexts of cultural significance 

and tribal resource capability. 

[ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1153. Meyer,PA (draft): Valuing habitat 

supportive of fish and wildlife. Meyer Resources, 

Inc; Davis, CA; 24 p. 

[ECONOMICS; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1154. Meyers,LH (draft - 1984): Woody riparian 

survey. USDI Bureau of Land Management, 

Dillon Resource Area; Dillon, MT. 16 p. 

[INVENTORY; MONITORING; RIPARlAN 

HABITAT] 

1155. Meyers,LH (draft): Impacts of livestock 

grazing systems on riparian habitats in 

southwestern Montana. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management, Dillon Resource Area; Dillon, MT. 

19 p. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RlPARlAN HABITAT] 

1156. Michael,ED (1987): Creating wetlands 

along highways. p.50-55. In: Proceedings of the 

Fourth symposium on environmental concerns in 

rights-of-way management. 25-28 October 1987. 

Indianapolis, IN. 

This paper describes guidelines for creating 

wetlands along highways. Studies were conducted in 

WV but findings apply to any areas having hilly 

terrain. Sites conducive to wetland creation are: 1) 

waste areas; 2) old streambeds; 3) existing streams 

perpendicular to the highway; 4) drainage channels 

parallel to the highway; 5) interchanges; and 6) rest 

areas. For site selection, the following guidelines 

should be used: 1) size of at least one acre; 2) site 

should be visible to passing motorists; 3) other 

wetlands should be nearby; 4) site should be 

bordered by shrubs or trees; and 5) site should have a 

dependable water source. Wetlands associated with 

highways reduce pollution and make travel more 

enjoyable due to the diversity of scenery and wildlife 

provided. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

1157. Michael,Jr.,JH, (1 998): Pacific salmon 

spawner escapement goals for the Skagit River 

watershed as determined by nutrient cycling 

considerations. Northwest Science 72(4), 239-248. 

Habitat loss, introduction of non-native stocks 

and species, and over fishing have all contributed to 

the decline of Pacific Salmon. Historically, huge 

numbers of salmon carcasses provided entire 

watersheds with nutrients derived from the ocean. 

Diminished populations and transport of these 

nutrients out of the watersheds has caused a nutrient 

deficiency compared to times when populations were 

large. This nutrient deficiency may be hampering 

recovery of salmon and other animal populations. 

The author estimated the biomass of salmon 

carcasses necessary to support nesting song birds, 

wintering bald eagles, and salmonid smolt production 

in the Skagit River watershed in Washington. The 

proposed spawner escapement goals thus estimated 

were 150 percent to 680 percent higher than the 

current spawner escapement goals for salmon in the 

watershed. 

[FISH HABITAT; NUTRIENT CYCLES; SKAGIT 

RIVER] 

1158. Michael,JL; Neary,DG; Wells,MJM 

(1989): Picloram movement in soil solution and 

streamflow from a coastal plain forest. Journal of 

Environmental Quality 18,89-95. 

A study of the movement, on- and off-site, of the 

herbicide picloram and its residues, following aerial 

application of picloram to four forested watersheds. 

Movement was monitored in the mineral soil, soil 

solution, groundwater and streams. Most of the initial 

off-site movement came from a perennial stream that 

had been inadvertently treated, but subsequent storm 

runoff was the largest contributor to stream 

contamination. 

[HERBICIDES; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATER QUALITY] 

1159. Mih,WC; Bailey,GC (1979): A machine for 

mitigation of salmonid spawning habitat from 

silting. p.645-648. In: Swanson,GA led.]. The 

mitigation symposium: A national workshop on 

mitigating losses of fish and wildlife habitat. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-65. 

A machine developed to remove silt and 
sediments from spawning gravels utilizes 

high-velocity hydraulic jets, a suction system, and 

separation system. The unit travels in the streams 

during the cleaning operation, and sprays the 

removed silt on the stream banks above the high 

water level. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; SALMONIDS; SILT 

REMOVAL; SPAWNING HABITAT] 

1160. Miller,LK; Schneller-McDonald,K (1988): 

Wetland bibliographic data bases. p.43-48. In: 

Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK 

[eds.]. Restoration, creation, and management of 

wetland and riparian ecosystems in the American 

West. Proceedings of the symposium. 14-16 

November 1988. Denver, CO. Rocky Mountain 

Chapter of the Society of Wetland Scientists. 

The paper is an overview of the structure of the 

Wetland Values Citation Data Base (WVCDB) and 

the Wetland CreationIRestoration Data Base 

(CREATE). 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; CREATED WETLANDS; 

WETLANDS] 

1161. Miller,RK; Enote,JE; Martinez,CL (1996): 

Tribal experiences and lessons learned in riparian 

ecosystem restoration. p.198-202. In: Shaw,DW; 

Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired future condition 

of Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Riparian ecosystems have been part of the 

culture of land use of native peoples in the Southwest 

United States for thousands of years. The experiences 

of tribal riparian initiatives to incorporate modem 

elements of environment and development with 

cultural needs are relatively few. This paper describes 

tribal case histories and examples in riparian 

management which may advance discussions of 

cultural values in resource management for rural and 

developing communities such as those on tribal lands 

in the United States. 

[CULTURAL VALUES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; TRIBAL 

LANDS] 

1162. Miller,TB; Johnson,FD (1986): Sampling 

and data analyses of narrow, variable-width 

gallery forests over environmental gradients. 

Tropical Ecology 27, 132-142. 

A system for sampling and data analyses for 

narrow, variable-width gallery forests is described. 

Gallery forests studies were along steep tributary 

streams of a deep river canyon in the western US. A 

series of transects, perpendicular to the stream, was 

designed to sample riparian vegetation plus that of 

adjacent vegetation types. Data analysis consisted of 

two-dimensional ordination, discriminant analysis, 

and polythetic-agglomerative classification. Results 

showed that species can be related to environmental 

parameters and to each other and that community 

types can be designated and similarly related. 

Authors suggest that this samplingldata analysis 

system can be successfully applied to gallery forests 

or other riparian vegetation in narrow stream courses. 

[CLASSIFICATION; GALLERY FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1 163. Miller,WW; Blank,RR; Marcus,JA (1998): 

Inorganic N and P from post-snowmelt Sierran 

riparian and upland soil cores. p.447-455. In: 

Potts, DF [ed.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Watershed disturbance has been suggested as a 

possible mechanism for accelerated nutrient input 

into Lake Tahoe, Nevada and California. This study 

investigated the interaction of site (riparian, upland 

non-forested, and upland forested) and soil depth on 

magnitude of N and P discharge. Leachate from the 

riparian soil cores had higher (P<0.05) concentrations 

and total discharge of N either of the other two site 

types. Soil core leachate from non-forested sites 

contained greater P than the forested or riparian sites. 

Differences among parameter discharge 

characteristics are indicative of the complexities of 

inorganic nutrient transport in watersheds of the 

Sierra Nevada. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; WATER QUALITY; 

WATERSHED] 

1164. Mills,BM (1995): Cows and creeks. Range 

Magazine 3(1), 52-54. 

Meadow Creek, in eastern Oregon's Blue 

Mountains, has made a remarkable comeback since 

1953 when it was overused, overgrazed, and over 

logged. Various trials tested the results of timing and 

intensity of grazing. Grass production was increased 

1 to 4 times in response to grazing treatments. 

Riparian areas are resilient and can recover with 

good management. Grazing, if done properly, can be 

a compatible use of riparian areas. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN] 

1165. Milon,JW (1987): Optimizing non-point 

source controls in water quality regulation. Water 
Resources Bulletin 23(3), 387-396. 

A stochastic programming framework was 

developed to evaluate the economic implications of 

reliability criteria and multiple effluent controls on 

non-point source pollution. An integrated watershed 

simulation model was used to generate probability 

distributions for agricultural practices. Results from 

the planning model indicate that reliability and 

multiple effluent constraints significantly increase the 

cost of non-point controls but the effects vary by 

control alternative. An evaluation of water quality 

objectives can be an important planning tool for 

designing non-point source controls for water quality 

regulation. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1166. Minckley,WL; Rinne,JN (1985): Large 

woody debris in hot-desert streams: A historical 

review. Desert Plants 7(3), 142-153. 

Large-particulate organic debris is denied to 

present-day desert streams because of interception by 

impoundments and as a result of decimation of 

formerly extensive riparian vegetation. Historical 

records indicate a substantial, but sporadic, input of 

coarse debris (fi-om high-elevation forests), which 

was reduced to finer particles through molar action in 

canyon-bound reaches of desert rivers. Historical 

changes, functions of large debris in the systems, and 

probable future conditions are reviewed. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SOUTHWESTERN DESERT STREAMS; WOODY 

DEBRIS] 

1167. Mink,LL (1993): Water banking in Idaho. 

p.248-252. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord. 1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The water banking process has undergone many 

changes in the last 60+ years in Idaho. More 

modifications are necessary to make these water 

banks more responsive to the needs of each basin. 

[WATER BANKS; WATER QUALITY; WATER 

RIGHTS] 

1168. Mink,LL; Belt,GH (1993): Idaho riparian 

cooperative - is Idaho ready? History of starting a 

riparian cooperative. p.247. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner, HJ; Wallace,MG; BeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

The Idaho Water Resources Research Institute, 

University of Idaho, coordinated meetings with state 

and federal agencies and user groups, which led to 

the establishment of the Idaho Riparian Cooperative. 

The mission of the IRC is to provide information to 

improve the management of riparian-wetland systems 

in Idaho. 

[PARTNERSHIPS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1169. Minkley,WL; Clark,TO (1984): Formation 

and destruction of a Gila River mesquite bosque 

community. Desert Plants 6(1), 23-30. 

Evidence is presented for repeated formation and 

destruction of a Mesquite bosque community on a 

Gila River terrace in eastern Arizona. Terrace 

formation was induced by coarse alluvial cone 

produced by flooding in an ephemeral tributary, 

followed by vegetative colonization culminating in 

mesquite. Destruction was accomplished by sustained 

flooding in the mainstream Gila River. 

[BOSQUE; FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

11 70. Minshall,GW; Brock,JT; Varley,JD 

(1989): Wildfires and Yellowstone's stream 

ecosystems. BioScience 39(10), 707-715. 

Fires of the magnitude such as those that burned 

during 1988 in the Greater Yellowstone Area can 

have profound effects on the ecology of streams. The 

extent of the near-term effects of fire on stream 

ecosystems and the rates of return to pre-fire 

conditions are largely dependent on the degree of 

disruption of the watershed and stream channel in the 

first few years after fire. The difference appears to be 

due primarily to the size of the watershed and the 

intensity of the fire. The chance occurrence of intense 

summer thunder storms is also a factor. Three 

scenarios or alternative trajectories are presented for 

potential responses to the different degrees of 

disturbance resulting from the fire. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1171. Minshall,GW; Jensen,SE; Platts,WS 

(1989): The ecology of stream and riparian 

habitats of the Great Basin region: A community 

profile. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological 

Report 85. 7-24, 142. 

Proposes a hierarchical framework for 

classification of riparian ecosystems of the Great 

Basin hydrographic region: hydrologic unit (e.g. 

region, subregion, basin, subbasin, and tributary 
basin); geomorphic valley form (e.g. glacial valleys, 

fluvial valleys, alluvial valleys, and lacustrine 

basins); water regime (e.g. permanently flooded, 

semi-permanently flooded, saturated, seasonally 

flooded, and sub-irrigated); physiognomy of the 

community (e.g. forest, shrub, herb, and moss/lichen, 

and non-vegetated physionomic classes such as 

cobble, gravel, and silt bars); community type, based 

on floristic similarities in both the understory and 

overstory; and descriptors, based on the functional 

attributes of the riparian ecosystems. 

[CLASSIFICATION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS; 

SPATIAL SCALE] 

1172. Minshall,GW; Peterson,RC; 

Cummins,KW; Bott,TL; Sedell,JR; Cushing,CE; 

Vannote,RL (1983): Interbiome comparison of 

stream ecosystem dynamics. Ecological 

Monographs 53(2), 1-25. 

Studies were conducted in four distinct 

geographical areas in northern United States to 

examine changes in key ecosystem parameters: 

benthic organic matter (BOM), transported organic 

matter (TOM), community production and 

respiration, leaf pack decomposition, and functional 

feeding-group composition along gradients of 

increasing stream size. The results for each parameter 

are presented and compared between sites. The 

postulated gradual change in a stream's ecosystem 

structure and function is supported by this study. 

Regional and local deviations are explained by: 1) 

watershed climate and geology; 2) riparian 

conditions; 3) tributaries; and 4) location specific 

lithology and geomorphology. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; BENTHIC BIOMASS; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; NUTRIENT CYCLES; 

ORGANIC DEBRIS; STREAM ECOLOGY] 

1173. Moerlins,JE; Herndon,RC; Lambou,VW; 

Gebhard,RL (1990): Proximity of Washington 

landfills to wetlands and deep water habitats: 

Data on individual landfills. US Environmental 

Protection Agency. EPAl600107. Las Vegas, NV. 

Sanitary landfills can cause considerable harm to 

sensitive ecosystems if they are not properly located, 

designed, and managed. This study in Washington 

documents the proximity of sanitary landfills to 

wetlands and deep water habitats. The nearness or 

proximity of landfills was determined by drawing 

three concentric regions around each landfill at 114 

mi, 112 mi, and 1 mile. Sensitive ecosystems can be 

affected directly by habitat alteration or, indirectly, 

through the migration of contaminants from landfills. 

[CONTAMINATION; POLLUTION; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SANITARY LANDFILLS; 

WETLANDS] 

11 74. Mollard,JD (1973): Air photo 

interpretation of fluvial features. p.341. In: 

Fluvial processes and sedimentation. Proceedings 

of hydrology symposium. 8-9 May 1973. 

Edmonton, Alberta. National Research Council. 

Canada. 

This paper discusses the approach and 

techniques used by the photo interpreter studying 

river patterns and features - what might be termed 

"riverscape morphology". Emphasis is placed on the 

air photo distinguishing features of different river 

channel and floodplain patterns and on the variables 

influencing them. The paper contains examples of a 

wide variety of stream types where air photo 

interpretation studies have been carried out. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

HYDROLOGY] 

1175. Molles,Jr.,MC; Crawford,CS; Ellis,LM; 

Valett,HM; Dahm,CN (1987): Managed floods: 

Restoration of riparian forest ecosystem structure 

and function along the Rio Grande. p.24. In: 

Abstracts. 1997 annual meeting of the Ecological 

Society of America jointly with the Nature 

Conservancy. Changing ecosystems: Natural and 

human influences. 10-14 August 1997. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

Managed floods may be used to partially restore 

the structure and function of riparian forest 

ecosystems that have been isolated from historical 

flooding. Experimental floods were timed to coincide 

with historic spring "flood pu1se"on the upper Rio 

Grande. Flooding reduced soil and air temperatures 

and altered soil-moisture dynamics during nonflooding periods. Flooding also increased the activity 

of decomposer and mycorrhizal fungi, increased rates 

of mass loss by leaves and wood, and increased forest 

floor respiration by three orders of magnitude. Floods 

reduced populations of exotic arthropods, while 

increasing numbers of native arthropods. The authors 

concluded that resuming the historic flood pulse 

initiated a process of riparian ecosystem 

reorganization. 

[ARTHROPODS; DECOMPOSER FOOD CHAIN; 

FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

1176. Molloy,DP; Struble,RH (1988): A simple 

and inexpensive method for determining stream 

discharge from a streambank. Journal of 

Freshwater Ecology 4(4), 477-481. 
A detailed protocol for the determination of 

stream discharge is presented which requires neither 

a current meter nor actual entry into stream water. 

The proposed flotation method (a 10-20 minute 

procedure) could be used with reasonable accuracy to 

determine discharge in small to moderate-sized 

streams. 

[HYDROLOGY; STREAM ECOLOGY; STREAM 

FLOW] 

1177. Monks,V (1996): The beauty of wetlands. 

National Wildlife JuneIJuly, 20-27. 

Science is steadily advancing our understanding 

of the functions of wetlands and their benefits to 

society. If changes in laws such as the Clean Water 

Act, however, already approved by the House of 

Representatives, are endorsed by the 104th Congress, 

as much as 95 percent of the remaining U.S. wetlands 

could be opened for development. Proposed 

legislation could also hinder efforts to preserve 

habitat for wide-ranging species. 

[BIODIVERSITY; CLEAN WATER ACT; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1178. Monsen,SB; McArthur,ED (1995): 

Implications of early Intermountain range and 

watershed restoration practices. p.16-25. In: 

Proceedings: Wildland shrub and arid land 

symposium. 19-21 October, 1993. Las Vegas, NV. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-GTR-315. 

Ecological restoration of disturbed wildlands 

continues to gain acceptance as the most desirable 

approach to site improvement. However, some 

disturbed sites have been so seriously altered that 

native communities cannot recover. In addition, 

weeds are dominant over large areas, and appear 

more persistent and resilient than many native 

species. In these and related situations, introduced 

species and altered plant communities will have to be 

maintained to protect all resources. Previous site 

rehabilitation practices provide information to better 

restore disturbed watersheds, rangelands, and 

weed-infested sites. Previous research and project 

plantings have provided information to better identify 

sites that are suitable for restoration, and to define 

more appropriate planting practices. Native species 

and ecotypes have been identified and tested to 

define their range of adaptation and use in 

reconstructing native communities. Equipment has 

been developed to culture plants, prepare seedbeds, 

control weeds, and seed a variety of species. 

Considerable information can be gained by 

examining previous rehabilitation practices, 

including documentation of secondary succession of 

seeded as well as protected natural sites. This 

information is essential in developing sound 

restoration measures. 

[DISTURBED WILDLANDS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WATERSHED] 

1179. Montana Department of Environmental 

Quality (1998): Montana stream management 

guide: 1998 revised edition. 34 p. 

This guide provides information for landowners 

and managers, resource professionals, state and local 

decision-makers, and others interested in streams. 

Section 1 addresses the characteristics and behavior 

of healthy streams. Section 2 discusses management 

and restoration decisions, permits, and the involved 

agencies. Section 3 focuses on specific stream 

problems that are commonly encountered. 

[PERMITTING; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STREAM 

ECOLOGY] 

1180. Montana Riparian Association. (1 987): 

Montana Riparian Association bibliography. 

University of Montana. Missoula, MT. 66 p. 

This bibliography contains over 500 references 

on riparian management arranged alphabetically, 

without annotations. It was designed to be an open 

data base to accommodate future additions. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1181. Montana Riparian Association. (1990): 

Management of riparian and wetland forested 

ecosystems in Montana. Fourth annual Montana 

Riparian Association workshop. 5-7 September 

1990. Whitefish, MT. 

The Montana Riparian Association published the 

proceedings of its 1990 workshop which consisted of 

twelve technical papers. Topics included: fisheries, 

forestry, streamside management zones, biodiversity, 

global warming effects, riparian classification and 

inventory. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1182. Montgomery,DR; Grant,GE; Sullivan,K 

(1995): Watershed analysis as a framework for 

implementing ecosystem management. Water 

Resources Bulletin 31(3), 3. 

Implementing ecosystem approaches to land use 

decision making and land management requires new 

methods for linking science and planning. Greater 

integration is critical because under ecosystem 
management sustainable levels of resource use are 

determined by coupling management objectives to 

landscape capabilities and capacities. Recent 

proposals for implementing ecosystem management 

employ analyses organized at a hierarchy of scales 

for analysis and planning. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; SPATIAL SCALE; 

SUSTAINABILITY; WATERSHED] 

1183. Montgomery,JM (1985): Bear Valley 

Creek, Idaho fish habitat enhancement project 

feasibility study. Prepared for the 

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes, Funded by BPA 

Contract No. 83-359. (Prepared by James M. 

Montogomery, Consulting Engineers, Inc. 1301 

Vista Ave., Boise, ID 83705). 

[HABITAT MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1184. Moore,DRJ; Keddy,PA; Gaudet,CL; 

WisheuJC (1988): Conservation of wetlands: do 

infertile wetlands deserve a higher priority? 

Biological conservation 47,203-217. 

Infertile wetlands had higher species richness 

and many more rare species than fertile wetlands. 

Further, infertile wetlands had a greater range of 

vegetation types than did fertile wetlands. It is also 

probable that infertile wetlands are more sensitive to 

human disturbances. Therefore, infertile wetlands are 

more desirable for conservation than previously 

believed. 

[BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

1185. Moore,R (1993): River protection and 

rural communities. p.98-101. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.). Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

This paper discusses creative financing. Before 

beginning a search for finds, project sponsors should 

have the total duration and scope of the project in 

order to determine who will benefit. Those 

individuals or groups can be pulled together for both 

the processes of decision-making and fund-raising. 

[RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1186. Moreau,JK (1996): Placing large wood 

debris to restore salmonid habitat. p.58-64. In: 

National hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 

April-1 May 1992. Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-CTR-279. 

Fishery managers are placing large wood debris 

to restore habitats in salmonid streams in the Pacific 

Northwest. Desirable skills for habitat restoration 

practitioners are described. A process is presented to 

plan, implement, and monitor fish habitat restoration 

projects to maximize the potential for success. 

Innovative technologies adapted for large woody 

debris projects are described and sources for tools 

and materials are presented. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

SALMONIDS; STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

1187. Morganweck,R (1989): Status and trends 

of wetlands in the conterminous U.S. Renewable 

Resources Journal 7(3), 6-7. 

A summary of wetland area, ownership, 

conservation and losses is presented that 

demonstrates the demographic trends in U.S. 

wetlands. 

[WETLAND LOSSES; WETLANDS] 

1188. Morgenson,G (1992): Vegetative 

propagation of poplar and willow. p.84-86. In: 

Proceedings, Intermountain Forest Nursery 

Association. 12-16 August 1991. Park City, Utah. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-211. 

This paper discusses the processes involved in 

the propagation of poplar and willow from hardwood 

cuttings including stooling block establishment, 

cutting planting, growth, use of equipment, and 

chemical inputs. 

[PLANT MATERIALS; PLANT PROPAGATION; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RIPARIAN 

SHRUBS] 

1189. Morris,J (1987): Evaluating the wetland 

resource. Journal of Environmental Management 

24, 147-156. 

This article provides an economic framework for 

examining the competition between agriculture and 

the environment. With particular reference to 

wetlands, it reviews possible methods for identifying 

and measuring costs, benefits, and impacts, and 

considers their contribution to resource decisions. 

[DRAINAGES; ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1190. Morris,S; Moses,T (1999): Urban stream 

rehabilitation: A design and construction case 

study. Environmental Management 23(2), 

165-177. 
In this case study, a meandering channel pattern 

was reestablished for about 280 m of straightened, 

dredged channel, a new floodplain was excavated, 

and a new riparian zone was replanted. The project 

was coordinated by a local nonprofit environmental 

organization, utilizing donated materials and a 

largely volunteer work force. The most important 

lesson learned from the project was that sponsoring 

agencies and clients need to be informed of the many 

steps and sequencing of properly constructed, 

complex stream rehabilitation projects and the time 

and cost requirements. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; VOLUNTEERS] 

1191. Moseley,RK (1998): Riparian and wetland 

communities of 14 reference areas in southwestern 

Idaho. USDI Bureau of Land Management. Boise, 

ID. Technical Bulletin No. 98-5. 

The purpose of this project was to assess the 

diversity of wetland and riparian communities of 

southwestern Idaho through field inventory and 

sampling, using high quality reference area, such as 

BLM Areas of Critical Environmental Concern and 

Research Natural Areas, and private conservation 

lands. The inventory was used to prepare a 

preliminary guide to riparian types of this region, 

including a key to their identification and supporting 

descriptive material. This guide can be expanded as 

additional material becomes available. 

[CLASSIFICATION; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1192. Mosko,TL; Jeffers,BL; King,JG; 

Megahan,WF (1990):Streamflow data for 

undisturbed forested watersheds in central Idaho. 

USDA Forest Sewice. Intermountain Research 

Station. General Technical Report INT-272.334 

P - 

This report contains a summary of daily 

streamflows from 29 undisturbed, forested 

watersheds at Silver Creek, Tailholt Creek, and 

Horse Creek in the headwaters of the Idaho batholith 

region. Data sets span up to 20 years. Watersheds are 

described. These data provide baselines for 

quantifying the effects of subsequent timber harvest. 

[HYDROLOGY; RUNOFF; WATER YIELD; 

WATERSHED] 

1 193. Mosley,JC; CoolqPS; Griffis,AJ; 

O'Laughlin,JO (1997): Guideline for managing 

cattle grazing in riparian areas to protect water 

quality: Review of research and best management 

practices policy. Idaho Forest, Wildlife, and 

Range Policy Analysis Group Report No. 15. 

University of Idaho. 

Protecting water quality and providing forage for 

cattle are only two of the many functions of land area 

adjacent to water. This report addresses the water 

quality functions of riparian zones. It's purpose is to 

provide the management guidelines that will help 

livestock producers meet the goals of the Clean 

Water Act while grazing cattle in riparian areas. 

Depending upon the current condition of the 

particular riparian area, this could mean that the 

producer may have to change the timing, frequency, 

and intensity of grazing to maintain conditions that 

will protect water quality. These guidelines are based 

on a review of research results published in the 

scientific literature. The report addresses three 

hndamental questions about riparian grazing: 1) 

What management strategies are indicated by 

research? 2) How are Best Management Practices 

administered? 3) How does the state policy protect 

water quality? 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; CLEAN 

WATER ACT; GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK 

EFFECTS; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1194. Mount,J; Krausman,W; Finch,DM (1996): 

Riparian habitat change along the Isleta-Belen 

reach of the Rio Grande. p.58-61. In: Shaw,DW; 

Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired future conditions 

for Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Sewice. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

The paper provides a summary of vegetation 

changes over an 1 1-year period (1984-1995) in the 

middle reach of the Rio Grande. Hink and Ohmart 

(1984) surveyed and mapped riparian vegetation 

along the middle Rio Grande as part of an extensive 

biological inventory conducted for the Army Corps 

of Engineers. The Isleta-Belen reach was 

field-assessed and remapped in 1995 to determine 

whether vegetation classes had changed substantially 

since the original survey. Over the past 1 1 years, the 

Rio Grande bosque vegetation has changed, and an 

assessment of structural types documents this aging 

process. In addition, the exotic woody species saltcedar and Russian olive have increased in cover, 

appearing as understories in Rio Grande cottonwood 

galleries and as independent vegetational 

communities. In some cases, these introduced species 

have replaced other vegetation such as the coyote 

willow. There was evidence of 3 1 fire events that 

altered vegetation. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; INVENTORY; RIO 

GRANDE; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 
VEGETATION] [FISH HABITAT; STREAM FLOW; WATER 

LAW] 

11%. Moyer,DL; Dahm,CN; Valett,HM; 

Thibault,JR; Marshall,MC (1998): Effects of 

livestock grazing on morphology, hydrology, and 

nutrient retention in four southwestern stream 

ecosystems. p.397-408. In: Potts,DF led.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Four streams in New Mexico were selected to 

determine how livestock grazing influences solute 

transport and nutrient retention. Comparisons were 

made of paired stream reaches where one reach was 

exposed to livestock grazing and complementary 

reach was protected. For each stream, morphology, 

hydrology, and nutrient retention were compared 

between grazed and non-grazed reaches. Grazed 

reaches exhibited increased dispersion and transient 

storage, and decreased surface water velocity. 

Nutrient retention associated with each reach type 

was determined by co-injecting a biologically active 

tracer (NaN03) along with the conservative tracer. 

Nitrate uptake lengths were shorter in the grazed 

reaches. Decreased surface water velocities and 

increased width:depth ratios in the grazed reaches 

increased nitrate utilization in grazed reaches of these 

streams. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; NUTRIENT CYCLES; 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

1196. Moyle,PB; Marchetti,MP; Baldridge,J; 

Taylor,TL (1998): Fish health and diversity: 

Justifying flows for a California stream. Fisheries 

23(7), 6 P. 

An advocacy group called the Putah Creek 

Council contributed to a successful court trial 

supporting fish conservation. California Fish and 

Wildlife Codes require that fish must be maintained 

in good condition below a dam. Good condition was 

defined to mean that there had to be healthy 

individual fish in healthy populations that were part 

of a healthy biotic community. This led to a 

conceptual model for instream flows for the creek 

that favored native resident and anadromous fishes. 

Recommendations from this model had four 

components: living space flows for the entire creek, 

resident native fish spawning and rearing flows, 

anadrornous fish flows, and habitat maintenance 

flows. The trial judge, attempting to balance 

competing demands, ordered the implementation of 

the first two recommendations. 

1197. Munther,GL (1982): Beaver management 

in grazed riparian ecosystems. p.234-241. In: 

Proceedings of the Symposium on wildife-livestock 

relationships. 20-22 April 1981. Coeur d'Alene, 

1 D. 

Beaver activity has substantially influenced the 

structure of many low gradient streams and valley 

bottoms in western Montana. These areas, with their 

flat valley bottoms and low gradient streams, have 

high wildlife, fisheries, and livestock values. Because 

riparian zones are in delicate equilibrium with their 

surroundings, the removal of beaver through the 

elimination of habitat or over harvest often leads to 

dramatic changes in the valley bottom and its stream 

channel. Reductions in wildlife and fisheries habitat 

can result. Continued livestock grazing in the 

absence of beaver in some valley types eliminates 

shrubs, causes stream channel changes, and lowers 

water tables. Once the channel has eroded and the 

water table has lowered, livestock forage production 

is usually reduced, and vegetative type changes result 

in a less diverse wildlife community. The lower 

vegetative productivity in combination with a more 

active stream channel inhibit riparian recovery and 

necessitates substantial livestock management 

changes for recovery. Riparian management practices 

that increase the quality of this zone include: grazing 

systems that favor shrub production, regulation of 

beaver harvest, transplants, and reduction of 

livestock grazing. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1198. Murphy,HW; Albertson,J (1987): Fish 

Lake wildlife habitat: Study for silviculture 

treatment. In: Streamside management: Riparian 

wildlife and forestry interactions. An 

interdisciplinary symposium. 11-13 February 

1987. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 

This poster paper compared managed and 

unmanaged riparian forest comnlunities and 

emphasized the interrelationships of various wildlife 

species. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1199. Murphy,ML; Koski,KV (1989): Input and 

depletion of woody debris in Alaska streams and 

implications for streamside management. North 

American Journal Fisheries Management 9, 

427-436. 

Natural rates of input and depletion of large 
woody debris (LWD) in southeast Alaska streams 

studied to provide a basis for managing streamside 

zones to maintain LWD for fish habitat after timber 

harvest. Because nearly all LWD is derived from 

within 30 m of the stream, the use of a 30-m wide, 

unlogged buffer strip along both sides of the stream 

during timber harvest was recommended to maintain 

LWD. 

[BUFFER STRIPS; LARGE WOODY DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARlAN HABITAT; 

SALMONIDS] 

1200. Murphy,PJ; Agiurre,EJ (1985): Bed load 

or suspended loss. Hydraulic Engineer 111(1), 

93-552. 

The difference between the sediment transport 

and suspended load is explained and quantified. The 

mean and fluctuating components of the particle 

motion are studied by examining both components of 

the particle's dynamics in open channel flows. For 

sand particles, the time required for particles leaving 

the bed to attain the free fall velocity is shown to be 

the critical parameter for their saltation-suspension 

distinction. Examples are given. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT] 

1201. Mustard,EW; Rector,CD (1979): 

Wetlands, irrigation, and salinity control: Lower 

Gunnison River Basin, Colorado. p.310-317. In: 

Swanson,GA led.]. The mitigation symposium: A 

national workshop on mitigating losses of fish and 

wildlife habitats. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-65. 

A total of 8,773 ha of wetlands was inventoried 

on a 72,800 ha area as part of an environmental 

assessment for a salinity control project in the Lower 

Gunnison River Basin, Colorado. Wetlands were 

evaluated for wildlife habitat value and use. 

Implementing measures to reduce salt loading to the 

Colorado River will cause wetland losses. Mitigation 

recommendations are provided. 

[MITIGATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SALINITY; WETLANDS] 

1202. Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; 

Miller,LK (1988): Restoration, creation, and 

management of wetland and riparian ecosystems 

in the American West. Proceedings of the 

Symposium. 14-1 6 November 1988. Denver, CO. 

Rocky Mountain Chapter of the Society of 

Wetland Scientists. 

Plenary addresses were: public policy and 

Colorado wetlands; wetlands protection and water 

rights; a stream classification system; the influence of 

ripariadwetland systems on surface water quality; 

riparian wildlife habitats: more, worth less, and under 

invasion; and, mountain wetland vegetation 

dynamics. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; POLICY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WATER 

QUALITY; WATER RIGHTS; WETLAND 

MITIGATION; WETLANDS] 

1203. Myers,LH (1981): Grazing on stream 

riparian habitats in southwestern Montana. In: 

Proceedings of the 34th annual meeting of the 

Society for Range Management. 9-13 February 

1981. Tulsa, OK. 

Livestock grazing and riparian habitat 

management can be compatible on some streams if 

grazing systems are properly designed. No single 

type of grazing system has an apparent advantage but 

the frequency of heavy use and rest treatments seems 

to be the key factors. Grazing systems with hot 

season use (July 10 - September 1 in Montana) in 

more than one year out of three or four met riparian 

habitat goals in only 24 percent of sampled streams. 

Grazing systems lacking hot season use, or with no 

more than one hot season treatment in three or four 

years met riparian habitat management goals on 90 

percent of evaluated streams. Livestock use may be 

incompatible with riparian management on some 

streams because of exceptional or unique biological 

values, frail channels, or rangeland phenology. The 

extended summer green season may be a key factor 

to success of grazing systems in southwest Montana. 

In areas with hot and dry summers, where green 

forage is largely limited to the riparian zone, grazing 

may have to be more restricted. In wetter areas of the 

West, riparian grazing management is more 

successful with less intensive management. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

1204. Myers,LH (1991): Managing livestock to 

minimize impacts on riparian areas. p.24-30. In: 

Roth,D; Bridges,C; Zimmerman,C [eds.]. What 

does riparian mean to me? Proceedings of the 

third annual convention. Colorado Riparian 

Association. 6-8 November 1991. Pueblo, CO. 

Many factors must be considered in managing 

grazing on stream riparian sites. Some stream 

systems may be too frail or unstable to warrant 

grazing use either temporarily or permanently. 

Special riparian management pastures give the 

manager much more control in meeting recovery 

needs, while still allowing livestock use and 
simplifying upland site management. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1205. Myers,LH (1987): Riparian inventory and 

monitoring. Montana BLM Riparian Technical 

Bulletin No.1. 38 p. 

This bulletin describes the techniques used for 

inventorying and monitoring riparian sites in the 

Dillon Resource Area in southwestern Montana. The 

condition and vigor or deciduous, woody, wetland 

species were found to be valid indicators of general 

riparian site conditions and trend and provided 

adequate data for most management situations. 

[INVENTORY; MONITORING] 

1206. Myers,LH (1989): Grazing and riparian 

management in southwestern Montana. p.117-120. 

In: Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL (eds.]. 

Riparian resource management. An educational 

workshop. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Billings, MT. 

Standardized approaches to riparian grazing 

management are not practical. The results of 34 

grazing systems in riparian zones are analyzed in 

terms of riparian recovery and important factors that 

apply to management in Montana are discussed. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING 

TREATMENTS] 

1207. Myers,LH (1989): Riparian area 

management: Inventory and monitoring riparian 

areas. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Technical Reference 1737-3. 79 p. 

The reference contains suggested techniques and 

procedures for riparian inventory and monitoring. It 

is intended to assist managers in determining needs. 

Extensive inventories utilize remote sensing, maps, 

existing data, and limited field analyses. Based on 

that information, the manager can decide to pursue 

intensive inventories based on resource values and 

site characters. Intensive inventories require detailed 

field examinations and data collection. 

[INVENTORY; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1208. Myers,LH; Thomas,A; Hines,B; Stalder,R; 

Wagner,R; Eshelman,K; Cooperrider,A; Boyd,R 

(1987): Riparian area management - inventory 

and monitoring. Review Draft. BLM Technical 

Reference TR-1737-2.92 p. 

This document describes the techniques used for 

inventory and monitoring riparian sites in southwest 

Montana. The condition and vigor of deciduous, 

woody, wetland species were found to be valid 

indicators of general riparian site conditions and 

provided adequate data for most management 

situations. The techniques described here were 

specifically designed for application in southwest 

Montana. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

TECHNIQUES] 

1209. Myers,M (1993): Nichols Meadow 

Restoration Project, Mariposa Ranger District, 

Sierra National Forest. p.191. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-226. 

Using contributed labor from the California 

Native Plant Society and European volunteers, the 

project stabilized head and sidewalls of a large gully, 

re-established ground cover, and replanted riparian 

vegetation along the stream channel. Structural work 

utilized a cellular soil confinement material called 

Geoweb to form retaining walls. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; VOLUNTEERS] 

1210. Myers,TJ; Swanson,S (1991): Aquatic 

habitat condition index, stream type, and livestock 

bank damage in northern Nevada. Water 

Resources Bulletin 27(4), 667-677. 

The quality of stream habitat varies for a variety 

of natural and anthropogenic reasons not identified 

by a condition index. However, many people use 

condition indices to indicate management needs or 

even direction. Stream types and levels of ungulate 

bank damage were related to estimates of aquatic 

habitat condition index and stream width parameters 

in a large data base. Soil and vegetation stability were 

highly correlated. Riparian area width did not vary 

significantly with either stream type or ungulate bank 

damage. Variation among stream types indicates that 

riparian management and monitoring should be 

stream type and reach specific. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN CONDITION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

121 1. Nabhan,GP (1985): Riparian vegetation 

and indigenous Southwestern agriculture: Control 

of erosion, pests, and microclimate. p.232- 235. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott, 

PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 
conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

Indigenous farmers in the American Southwest 

managed riparian vegetation adjacent to their 

agricultural fields for centuries. They planted, 

pruned, and encouraged phreatophytic tree species 

for flood and erosion control; soil fertility renewal; 

buffered field microclimates; and produced 

fuelwood. Those practices benefitted wildlife and 

plant genetic diversity. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1212. Nachlinger,JL (1988): Soil-vegetation 

correlations in riparian and emergent wetlands, 

Lyon County, Nevada. USDI Fish and Wildlife 

Service Biological Report 88(17), 39. 

The study tests a system for delineating wetlands 

by correlation of vegetation indices with soil types. 

Each plant was assigned a wetland indicator number, 

based on prepared plant lists or a provisional number 

for species not previously listed for the area. 

Vegetation indices included the wetland indicator and 

either the plant density or percent cover. See Eicher 

(1988) and Baad (1988) for similar studies in 

California and explanation of methods. 

[CLASSIFICATION; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS] 

1213. Nader,G; Tate,KW; Atwill,ER; Bushnell,J 

(1998): Water quality effect of rangeland beef 

cattle excrement. Rangelands 20(5), 19-25. 

The evaluation of rangeland cattle excrement 

impacts on water quality require consideration of 

natural variability in the hydrologic cycle, the 

nutrient cycle, and the pathogen cycle, as well as how 

grazing modifies each of these processes. In order to 

understand and quantify the fate of nitrogen, as an 

example, on a grazed rangeland watershed several 

things must be considered: I) quality and quantity of 

the forage; 2) retention by the animal; 3) losses 

through volatilization; 4) soil incorporation; 5) plant 

incorporation; and 6) spatial distribution of the feces 

and urine. All such factors make it difficult to 

quantify the amount of nutrient and pathogen loading 

that is attributable to rangeland beef cattle on a 

watershed. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

NON-POIN'I' SOURCE POLLUTION; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES; PATHOGENS; WATER QUALITY] 

1214. Nader,GA; Tate,KW; Connor,MJ; AllenDiaz,B; Atwill,ER (1998): Evaluation of buffer 

zones to attenuate nutrient and sediment 

transport from hillslope pasture. p. 133. In: 

Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Nutrient and total suspended solid (TSS) levels 

in runoff from hillslope pastures were analyzed to 

evaluate the effectiveness of 10 m buffer strips for 

attenuating these contaminants. Buffers were 

established by fencing the lower 10 m of the field, 

adjacent to the stream channel. There appeared to be 

limited reduction in NO3 and total P as a result of the 

buffer. There did appear to be a reduction of TSS, 

due more to the exclusion of livestock than to 

filtering action from the buffer. 

[BUFFER STRIPS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY] 

1215. Naiman,RJ; Johnston,CA; Kelley,JC 

(1988): Alteration of North American streams by 

beaver. BioScience 38(1 I), 753-762. 

A review of changes that occur in the structure 

and dynamics of streams and related wetlands as 

beaver recolonize their historic habitat. These and 

other studies have produced two conceptual 

advances. These address the organizational patterns 

of drainage networks with beaver populations and the 

role of the beaver in the complex, dynamic pattern of 

vegetative patches on the landscape. 

[BEAVER; CREATED WETLANDS; 

HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1216. Naiman,RJ; Melillo,JM (1984): Nitrogen 

budget of a sub-arctic stream altered by beaver 

(Castor canadensis). Oecologia 62, 150-1 55. 

Beaver influence stream ecosystems through 

their wood cutting and dam building activities. The 

authors measured rates of nitrogen dynamics to 

construct a nitrogen budget for a section of a second 

order stream and a beaver dam in that stream. The 

budget demonstrated the importance of sediment 

accumulations and an expanded wetted area to the 

annual nitrogen economy and to pathways of 

nitrogen cycling. After impoundment, changes 

included a reduction in allochthonous and an increase 

in nitrogen fixation by sediment microbes. Overall, 

the beaver-modified section accumulated 10 to the 

3rd power more N than before modification. 

[BEAVER; NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

12 17. Nanson,GC; Beach,HF (1 977): Forest 
succession and sedimentation on a meandering 

river floodplain, northeast British Columbia, 

Canada. Journal of Biogeography 4,229-251. 

Examination of primary forest succession within 

two migrating bends of a river in northeast British 

Columbia provides information on the 

interrelationships between the geomorphic and biotic 

components of a meandering floodplain. Rapid 

sedimentation on the youngest ridges favors the 

establishment of a dense, nonreproducing balsam 

poplar stand of uniform age, and prevents the 

establishment of white spruce seedlings. Following 

an abrupt decline in overbank sedimentation on 

surfaces approximately 50 years old, white spruce 

rapidly colonize the bare mineral soil beneath the 

poplar canopy and form a dense, relatively even-aged 

stand. With the death of mature poplars on surfaces 

100-1 50 years old, the spruce seedlings are released 

and develop into a mature, nonreproducing stand. 

This stand persists until its senescence on ridges 350- 

400 years old. Here, a second similar but less evenaged spruce stand establishes, maturing in a like 

manner to the first, to eventually decline on ridges 

500-550 years of age. Tree densities and overbank 

sedimentation achieve minimum values on floodplain 

surfaces greater than approximately 200 years in age. 

Negligible sediment deposition on these older 

surfaces is explained by the more open trunk density 

which permits relatively rapid overland flow which 

prevents the deposition of suspended sediment load. 

Sedimentation and vegetation appear to be strongly 

interrelated components within the total floodplain 

system. 

[FOREST SUCCESSION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1218. Natural Resources Defense Council (1987): 

Citizen's handbook on water quality standards. 

NRDC. 1350 New York Ave. NW #300, 

Washington, DC. 20005.35 p. 

[CLEAN WATER ACT; WATER LAW; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1219. Neale,CMU (1997): Classification and 

mapping of riparian systems using airborne 

multispectral videography. Restoration Ecology 

45(5), 103-1 12. 

Multispectral airborne videography has become 

a useful tool for classifying and mapping riparian 

vegetation because its spectral and digital format has 

high spatial resolution. A description of the Utah 

State University airborne system is provided, along 

with the image processing steps used for developing 

finalized products. Examples of riparian applications 

using high resolution imagery are included. 

[MODELING; REMOTE SENSING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1220. Neary,D; Ross,KC; Coleman,SS (1996): 

National hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 

April -1 May 1992. Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-279. 

This publication contains 30 papers from the 

USDA Forest Service's National Hydrology 

Conference. Topics include: cumulative effects, 

external responsibilities, aquatic ecology, monitoring, 

large woody debris, non-point source pollution, 

riparian areas, water rights, fluvial geomorphology, 

land management planning, coastal zone 

management,channel maintenance, sediment 

modeling, wetlands, watershed rehabilitation, data 

management, and marketing hydrology programs. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

WATERSHED] 

122 1 Neary,DG; Medina,AL (1 996): Geomorphic 

response of a montane riparian habitat to 

interactions of ungulates, vegetation, and 

hydrology. p.143-147. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM 

[tech. coord.]. Desired future conditions for 

Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Wildcat Creek, a tributary of the Black River on 

the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest is being 

studied to determine the impacts of cattle and elk 

grazing on riparian wet meadows. An intensive 

survey of a selected stream reach revealed a unique 

channel development involving an 

aggradationldegradation process in a pool-riffle 

sequence of an E-6 stream channel. Grazing and 

trampling impacts of elk and cattle were found to 

affect the process in two ways: I) overgrazing of 

stream banks resulted in exposure of the soil fabric 

and loss during high flows, sloughing of banks, 

channel widening, and a reduction in the ability of 

plants to trap sediments; and 2) trampling at animal 

crossings initiated initiated a degradation of riffles by 

breaking down the armoring gravels which are held 

in place by native aquatic plants of the genera 

(Carex, Cyperus, Juncus, Glyceria, Scirpus, etc.) The 

importance of the aggradationldegradation process is 

in the long-term maintenance of montane cienegas in 

a quasi-stable condition with fully functional 

processes. 

[ELK GRAZING; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 
1222. Neary,DG; Michael,JL (1989): Effect of 

sulfometuron methyl on ground water and stream 

quality in coastal plain forest watersheds. Water 

Resources Bulletin 25,617-623. 

Sampling of a shallow ground water aquifer, 

<1.5 m below ground surface, did not detect any 

sulfometuron methyl residues for 203 days after 

herbicide application. Lack of herbicide residue was 

attributed to low application rates, rapid hydrolysis in 

acidic soils and water, and dilution in streamflow. 

[GROUNDWATER; HERBICIDES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATER QUALITY] 

1223. Nedeff,N (1989): Cooperative resource 

management on the Muleshoe Ranch Preserve. 

p.7-9. In: Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL 

[eds.]. Practical approaches to riparian resource 

management. An educational workshop. 8-11 May 

1989. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Billings,MT. 

The Muleshoe Ranch (22,182 ha) is a historic 

cattle ranch owned jointly by the Arizona Nature 

Conservancy, the Bureau of Land Management, and 

the Forest Service. One of the best watered areas in 

southern Arizona, the ranch supports seven perennial 

streams and five species of rare native species. 

Riparian forests and mesic shrublands also provide 

habitat to uncommon bird and mammal species. 

Riparian and watershed protection and enhancement 

are among the most important biological 

management objectives and serve to focus 

cooperative management activities between the three 

operating agencies. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1224. Neely,BE (1991): Riparian communities of 

Colorado. p.42-45. In: Roth,D; Bridges,C; 

Zimmerman,C [eds.]. What does riparian mean to 

me? Proceedings of the third annual convention. 

Colorado Riparian Association. 6-8 November 

1991. Pueblo, CO. 

This presentation described the formation, by the 

Nature Conservancy, of the Rivers of the Rockies 

fund raising campaign. The initiative is responsive to 

the Conservancy's sense of urgency regarding loss of 

riparian and wetland areas and has identified 

approximately 30 sites along Colorado rivers for 

inventory and classification. 

[INVENTORY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1225. Neff,DJ (1957): Ecological effects of beaver 

habitat abandonment in the Colorado Rockies. 

Journal of Wildlife Management 21(1), 80-84. 

The results of this study indicate that even on the 

most stable and physically suitable locations, the 

abandonment of a colony by beavers means the loss 

of aquatic habitat that is necessary for the survival of 

the trout fishery and the successful breeding of 

waterfowl. On streams where beaver ponds make 

possible a valuable trout fishing area, all due 

consideration should be given to maintaining the 

beaver population. Since food depletion is a primary 

cause of abandonment, effective methods of 

perpetuating the aspen type adjacent to such streams 

should be developed. Beaver populations should be 

kept well within the limits of available food supply 

and competition with big game and livestock should 

be minimized. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1226. Negri,S (1989): The San Pedro riparian 

area. In: Arizona Highways. April 1989,18-33. 

This is a topical article describing the geography, 

geology, hydrology, and ecology of the San Pedro 

Riparian Area. In 1986, the BLM acquired 36 miles 

of streamside habitat, which has since been 

designated as a natural preserve. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOUTHWESTERN 

DESERT STREAMS] 

1227. Nehlsen,Willa (1997): Prioritizing 

watersheds in Oregon for salmon restoration. 

Restoration Ecology 5(4), 25-33. 

The paper describes an ecosystem approach (the 

Bradbury framework) to prioritizing watersheds for 

restoration, and salmon recovery, and illustrates the 

approach with an example. The framework was 

applied at 3 spatial scales: I) river basins within the 

north coast geographic area of Oregon; 2) watersheds 

within Tillamook Bay Basin; and 3) restoration 

activities at the watershed level. The sample 

application demonstrates that an ecosystem approach 

is particularly advantageous when data are limited. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; SALMONIDS; 

SPATIAL SCALE; WATERSHED] 

1228. Neill,CR; Mollard,JD (1982): Erosional 

processes and sediment yield in the upper Oldman 

River basin, Alberta, Canada. p.183-191. In: 

Recent developments in the explanation and 

prediction of erosion and sediment yield 

(Proceedings of the Exeter Symposium, July 

1982). IAHS Publication No. 137. 

This paper discusses the sediment yield and 

associated erosional processes in the upper Oldman 

basin, located in southwest Alberta. Suspended 
sediment yield averages 70 t/ kml year, but varies 

greatly from year to year. Principal erosional features 

identified include stream channel instability, ravine 

erosion, grassland gullying, wind erosion, and 

gravity-induced mass movements. In general, they 

interpreted that erosional features are generally local 

in extent and erosion is associated with streams and 

rivers. The main source of man-made erosion 

appeared to arise from public roads and associated 

interference with the natural drainage. A potential for 

accelerated erosion appears to exist on grazing lands 

on substantial slopes. Erosion is minor in forested 

areas compared with agricultural areas. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; LAND USE; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT; SOILS] 

1229. Nelson,RW; Weller,EC (1984): A better 

rationale for wetland management. 

Environmental Management 8(4), 295-308. 

Present federal wetland management strategy 

(Section 404 of the Clean Water Act) does not 

account for the differences in the natural values of 

wetlands and their different vulnerability to 

development pressure. The strategy, aimed at 

reducing the regulatory burden, provides for different 

levels of wetland protection, primarily by designating 

certain activities in or affecting wetlands as 

essentially harmless, having only minor impacts even 

when considered for their cumulative effects. Such 

activities are authorized under general permits 

precluding any evaluation of project impacts. A 

sounder, yet practical, rationale for wetland 

management and regulatory relief should be linked to 

the scarcity of certain wetland habitats, the habitat 

diversity or carrying capacity, and the incremental 

losses already incurred from past development, and 

the incremental losses already incurred within the 

same wetland ecosystem. The regulatory effort 

should be concentrated where these characteristics 

indicate high value wetlands. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1230. Nelson,RL; Platts,WS; Casey,O (1987): 

Evidence for variability in spawning behavior of 

interior cutthroat trout in response to 

environmental uncertainty. Great Basin 

Naturalist 47(3), 480-487. 

The fluctuating characteristics (numbers, 

biomass, condition, and young-adult ratios) of the 

Lahontan cutthroat trout population in Chimney 

Creek, Nevada, are discussed in relationship to the 

unpredictable and unstable habitat in which the 

population occurs. One possible means of adapting to 

environmental capriciousness, staggered spawning, 

occurred during 1982, and clues to the cause of this 

unusual event are sought by examining the runoff 

hydrographs of a nearby watershed for 198 1 through 

1984. The management values of the environmental 

tolerance of these trout with respect to sectoring 

viable trout fisheries in degraded Great Basin streams 

are also considered. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SPAWNING 

HABITAT] 

1231. Nelson,SM; Anderson,DC (1 994): An 

assessment of riparian environmental quality by 

using butterflies and disturbance susceptibility 

scores. The Southwestern Naturalist 39(2), 137- 

142. 

The butterfly community at a revegetated 

riparian site on the lower Colorado River near Parker, 

Arizona, was compared to that found in a reference 

riparian site. Data indicated that the herbaceous plant 

community, which was lacking at the revegetated 

site, was important to several butterfly taxa. An index 

using butterfly sensitivity to habitat change (species 

classified into risk groups) and number of taxa was 

developed to monitor revegetation projects and to 

determine restoration effectiveness. 

[BUTTERFLIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1232. Nelson,W; Horak,G; Soloman,J (1978): 

lnstream flow strategies for Idaho. USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service OBS-78/38. 95 p. 

[FISHERIES; HYDROLOGY; STREAM FLOW; 

WATER LAW; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

1233. Nepf, HM (1999): Drag, turbulence, and 

diffusion in flow through emergent vegetation. 

Water Resources Research 35(2), 479-489. 

At the scale of the plant stems and branches, 

aquatic plants convert mean kinetic energy into 

turbulent kinetic energy. The transfer of energy 

affects drag and turbulence intensity. A model was 

developed to describe the drag, turbulence, and 

diffusion for flow through emergent vegetation. This 

model was supported by laboratory and field 

observations. 

[EMERGENT VEGETATION; MODELING; 

STREAM FLOW; WETLANDS] 

1234. Newson,M (1994): Hydrology and the river 

environment. 1st ed. Oxford University Press, 

Cary, NC. 240 p. 

This book presents a current account of 

environmental hydrology, a contemporary means of 

describing basic patterns of runoff, and a discussion 
of how hydrology is altered by development and 

industry. 

[HYDROLOGY; RUNOFF; WATERSHED] 

1235. Newton,J (1984): Fifteen mile Creek 

riparian recovery, Wasco County, Oregon. p.80- 

83. In: Bedell,TE led.]. Proceedings of 1984 

Pacific Northwest range management short 

course; Range watersheds, riparian zones and 

economics: Interrelationships in management and 

use. 25-27 January 1984. Pendleton, OR. Oregon 

State University 

Riparian recovery occurred after fencing and 

extended protection from livestock access and 

grazing. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1236. Newton,M; Willis; WJ; Cole,E; Chan,S 

(1996): Enhancing riparian habitat for fish, 

wildlife, and timber in managed forests. Weed 

Technology 10,429-438. 

Riparian site production in managed forests can 

be focused to provide fish and wildlife habitat while 

yielding most of its productive capacity for other 

than amenity values. Establishment of habitat 

protection goals and objectives permits flexible 

means of implementing them. Once protection 

standards are set, intensive management of the 

woody cover depends on minimum disturbance 

methods for vegetation management and harvest. 

Several currently registered chemical products and 

nonchemical methods are helpful and safe for 

achieving yield and protective goals. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; STREAM FLOW; WOODY 

DEBRIS] 

1237. Niering,WA (1990): Vegetation dynamics 

in relation to wetland creation. p.479-486. In: 

Kusler,JA; Kentula,ME [eds.]. Wetland creation 

and restoration. Island Press, Washington, DC., 

The understanding of ecological processes 

involved in wetland vegetation development is 

essential to wetland managers concerned with 

wetland creation. Ascertaining a sound hydologic 

system is basic in any attempt to recreate a wetland 

system since the vegetation and associated fauna are 

dependent upon a consistent but usually fluctuating 

hydrologic regime. Any hydrologic manipulations 

can also greatly modify what species will become 

established in a given site or those that may decline 

in abundance. Traditional succession-climax dogma 

has limited usefulness in interpreting vegetative 

change. Thus, an understanding of the complex of 

factors involved in the process, including chance and 

coincidence, makes management more challenging. 

Since vegetation change is not necessarily predictable 

and orderly, as is sometimes thought, it is often 

difficult to predict the ultimate vegetation of a given 

site. Some wetland communities once created may be 

relatively stable; others may undergo directional or 

cyclic change. One of the major goals of wetland 

creation should be the persistence of the wetland as a 

self-perpetuating oscillating system, which is assured 

by assuring a sound hydrologic regime. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

WETLANDS] 

1238. Nilsson,C (1987): Distribution of stream 

edge vegetation along a gradient of current 

velocity. Ecology 75(2), 513-522. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; STREAM VELOCITY] 

1239. Nilsson,C; Grelsson,G; Johansson,M; 

Sperens,U (1989): Patterns of plant species 

richness along riverbanks. Ecology 70(1), 77-84. 

Total species richness along two rivers increased 

with substrate heterogeneity and was at a maximum 

at intermediate levels of substrate fineness. 

Observation coincides with the hypothesis that 

species diversity and environmental heterogeneity 

should be closely related along rivers. On the rivers 

studied, ice scour was most likely a cause of substrate 

heterogeneity, causing patchiness by erosion, 

transport and deposition of soil material, by affecting 

bank height (flood height) and channel width. 

[BIODIVERSITY; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RlPARIAN HABITAT] 

1240. Noh,L (1979): Grazing riparianlstream 

ecosystems on Federal lands --the livestock 

producers' viewpoint. p.3-4. In: Cope,OB led.]. 

Forum -- Grazing and riparianlstream 

ecosystems. 3-4 November 1978. Denver, CO. 

Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

Most ranchers have realized that there can be 

problems with livestock grazing and riparian habitat. 

Often, he just doesn't know what to do. We should 

emphasize education programs for stockmen. There 

is no reason why livestock conventions and meetings 

on grazing management to enhance wildlife habitat 

could not be jointly sponsored by conservation 

organizations. 

[ECONOMICS; GRAZING IMPACTS] 

1241. Noon,KF (1989): Major implementation 
issues in protection of nation's wetlands. 

Renewable Resources Journal 7(3), 14-15. 

Major wetlands protection implementation issues 

are described that were derived from practical 

experience in Michigan. The six major issues are as 

follows: 1) lack of appreciation for wetlands benefits; 

2) conflict between the goals of a wetlands protection 

policy and the economic goals of the landowner; 3) 

wetlands mapping inventories cannot substitute for 

onsite boundary determinations; 4) problems can 

arise during the implementation process; 5) define 

and standardize the methods used in determining the 

types and quantity of benefits derived from wetlands; 

and 6) lack of understanding of the actual success of 

mitigation efforts. 

[POLICY; WETLANDS] 

1242. Norcross,E; Calvo,G (1993): Private lands 

river protection: balancing private and public 

concerns. p.53-69. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG, DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report RM226. 

Rivers on private land have traditionally been 

protected by an assortment of state and federal 

legislation/programs. The authors present a summary 

and description of river protection and related 

environmental laws. They have also included a 

review of alternative river protection strategies and 

programs. 

[POLICY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIVER 

ECOLOGY] 

1243. Novak,MA; White,RG (1989): Impact of 

fire and flood on the trout population of Beaver 

Creek, Upper Missouri Basin, Montana. p.120- 

126. In: Richardson,F; Hamre,RH [eds.]. Wild 

trout IV. Proceedings of the symposium. 18-19 

September 1989. Mammoth, WY. 

A 100-year flood in the Beaver Creek drainage 

was caused by a forest fire followed by an intense 

convectional rainstorm. The study documented 

changes in resident trout populations and use of the 

stream by spawning fish. Two months after the event, 

trout populations in the impacted portion of the 

stream were nearly eliminated. Within two years, 

numbers and biomass of rainbow trout had increased 

to 55 percent and 5 1 percent greater, respectively, 

than before the event. Rapid recovery of the rainbow 

trout population resulted from large spawning runs 

from the Missouri River. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; FISHERIES; FLOOD IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; TROUT] 

1244. Nunnally,NR (1978): Improving channel 

efficiency without sacrificing fish and wildlife 

habitat: The case for stream restoration. p. 394- 

399. In: Proceedings of the national riparian 

ecosystems symposium. 11-13 December 1978. 

Calloway Gardens, GA. 

Stream restoration is a much more efficient 

means for improving hydraulic efficiency of streams 

than conventional channelization and is less 

expensive and less environmentally damaging. 

Restoration creates a more stable channel by 

removing debris, providing fairly uniform cross 

sections, and stabilizing stream banks with minimal 

disturbance of the streambed and riparian vegetation. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1245. Oakley,A (1987): Riparian management 

practices of the Bureau of Land Management. In: 

p. 191-1 96. Streamside management: Riparian 

wildlife and forestry interactions. An 

interdisciplinary symposium. 11-13 February 

1987. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 

Current management practices for forest lands 

managed by Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in 

Oregon and Washington were developed through the 

land use planning process, including full public 

involvement under the National Environmental 

Policy Act. Environmental impact statements were 

prepared in which effects of planned forest 

management activities were analyzed and final 

decisions for managing riparian areas were 

subsequently made for each plan. The policies for 

preparing plans and managing BLM lands and 

resources are based on applicable federal laws, 

Executive Orders, regulations, manuals, policy 

statements and other guidance. 

[POLICY; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1246. Oakley,AL; Collins,JA; Everson,LB; 

Heller,DA; Howerton,JC; Vincent,RE (1985): 

Riparian zones and freshwater wetlands. p.57-80. 

In: Management of wildlife and fish habitats in 

forests of western Oregon and Washington. USDA 

Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Region. 

When riparian zones and wetlands are in 

satisfactory condition for wildlife, the best 

management generally is to allow the natural 

ecosystems to function with minimal disruption. 

Rehabilitation of altered habitats can be hastened by 

various techniques which promote natural recovery 

to desired conditions and prevent further 
deterioration. Enhancement of habitat can often be 

accomplished by creating more diversity, but a 

thorough field examination should precede any plans 

to enhance or restore riparian and wetland habitats. 

Managers, with the advice of resource specialists, 

should seek creative ways to manage or improve 

these habitats. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; WETLANDS] 

1247. Odgaard,AJ; Moscone,CE (1 987): 

Streambank protection by submerged vanes. 

Hydraulic Engineer 113(4), 520-536. 

A summary is given of the design, installation 

and performance of a system of submerged vanes 

("Iowa Vanes") for erosion protection in a bend of 

East Nishnabotna River, Iowa. The vanes are small 

aspect ratio foils emplaced along the outer bank, at 

angles of 10- 15 degrees with the mean flow, to direct 

the near bed current outward toward the bank. The 

system functions by eliminating, or reducing, the 

centrifugally induced helical motion of the flow (the 

root cause of bank undermining). The system was 

installed during the summer of 1985. Its performance 

was evaluated with data obtained in surveys in the 

spring of 1986. The system was found to effectively 

reduce velocity and scour along the bank without 

changing the energy slope of the channel. Areas of 

design improvements were identified. The summary 

includes a brief description of the theoretical and 

experimental background for the design. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; SOILS; 

STREAMBANK PROTECTION; TECHNIQUES] 

1248. Odum, EP (1985): Trends expected in 

stressed ecosystems. BioScience 35:419-422. 

Ecosystems not suffering from unusual external 

perturbations nevertheless demonstrate certain well 

defined developmental trends. Disturbance tends to 

arrest or reverse these autogenic developments. 

Therefore, we can anticipate some ecosystem 

responses to stress - a syndrome comprising both 

input and output, stimulus and response. Trends 

expected in stresses ecosystems include changes in 

energetics, nutrient cycling, and community structure 

and function. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES; STRESS] 

1249. Odum,WE (1988): Predicting ecosystem 

development following creation and restoration of 

wetlands. p.67-70. In: Zelazny,J; Feierbend,JS 

[eds.]. Increasing our wetland resources. National 

Wildlife Federation Proceedings. October 1987. 

Washington DC. 

created wetlands offer an opportunity via 

monitoring and study to understand the processes of 

wetland development. Few projects have been 

followed for more than several years. Implementation 

of long-term monitoring may enable us to predict 

artificial wetland development and change with better 

precision. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; ECOSYSTEM 

MANAGEMENT; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1250. Ogle,D (1990): Willow poles help restore 

streambanks. Idaho Range News, April, 1990. 

USDA Soil conservation Service (Boise). 

Willow cuttings and willow poles were planted 

to stabilize streambanks in the Henry's Lake area. 

Vertical banks on straight stream sections and 

meanders were planted. Snowmelt causing bank 

failure appeared to maintain the steep angles of 

unvegetated banks. Willow establishment reduced 

failures and resulted in shallower bank angles. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; SOILS; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1251. Ohlenbusch,PD; Jones,RD; Fuchs,EH 

(1 998): A grazing land water quality education 

program for producers. p. 335-339. In: Potts,DF 

led.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Education programs are needed to assist 

producers and landowners in understanding and 

implementing strategies that have the potential to 

improve water quality while maintaining the 

livestock operation as a viable, profitable business. A 

physical inventory, management profile, and 

economic analysis of producer volunteered 

operations is being developed as a database. Potential 

water quality impacts will be prioritized and 

alternative management strategies will be prepared 

for consideration by the cooperator. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; PLANNING; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1252. Ohmart,RD (1996): Ecological condition of 

the East Fork of the Gila River and selected 

tributaries: Gila National Forest, New Mexico. 

p.312-317. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.1 

Desired future conditions for Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 
Ecological condition of riparian habitats along 

the East Fork of the Gila River, Main Diamond 

Creek, lower South Diamond Creek, and Black 

Canyon Creek are all in very heavily degraded 

condition. Channel cross sections show extensive 

entrenchment, high width-to-depth ratios, and 

numerous reaches where banks are sloughing into the 

stream, especially on the East Fork of the Gila River. 

Species of floodplain vegetation typifies degraded 

channel conditions. Absence of woody species 

disallows bank stabilization except where entrenched 

to large cobble. Data from channel cross-sections and 

vegetation sampling validate these conditions. 

Numerous anthropogenic factors have been involved 

in the degradation of these riparian streams to their 

current condition, but the major degrading force has 

been unmanaged domestic livestock grazing either 

seasonlong or yearlong. Potential to recover these 

fluvial systems to proper functioning condition is 

high with management intervention. Stream gradients 

are moderate to low and sediment loads sufficient for 

bank formation. All stream reaches are in wilderness 

areas. Wildlife values of these habitats are presently 

very low because of the heavily degraded stream 

channel, poor herbaceous ground cover, and the 

virtual absence of understory and canopy foliage 

layers. Historically, these were habitats for the 

endangered Gila trout and southwestern willow 

flycatcher. 

[ECOLOGICAL CONDITION; FLUVIAL 

PROCESSES; GRAZING IMPACTS; PROPER 

FUNCTIONING CONDITION; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WILDERNESS] 

1253. Ohmart,RD; Anderson,BW; Hunter,WC 

(1985): Influence of agriculture on waterbird, 

wader, and shorebird use along the lower 

Colorado River. p.117-122. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Waterbird, wader, and shorebird use was 

restricted to habitats in or immediately adjacent to the 

Colorado River prior to agricultural development. 

Agricultural habitats were systematically studied for 

3 years in order to identify those settings that were 

most important for species and groups. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; AVIFAUNA; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1254. Ohmart,RD; Deason,WO; Burke,C (1977): 

A riparian case history: the Colorado River. p.35- 

47. In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.]. 

Importance, preservation, and management of 

riparian habitat: A symposium. 9 July 1977. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-43. 

Cottonwood communities have historically 

declined in abundance along the lower Colorado 

River to a condition that makes the hture of this 

species precarious. Avian species showing strong 

specialization to cottonwood communities may be 

extirpated should the cottonwood community be lost. 

Concern and action will assure the persistence of this 

resource. 

[AVIFAUNA; COTTONWOOD; GALLERY 

FOREST; RIPARl AN HABITAT] 

1255. Okagbue,CO; Abam,TKS (1 986): An 

analysis of stratigraphic control on river bank 

failure. Engineering Geology 22,231-245. 

Erosion and recession of the Niger River banks 

have constituted a threat to many villages in the area. 

Analyses of the recessional mechanisms indicate that 

bank failure is initiated by a fluvial erosion of the 

lower cohesionless bank layer at a much faster rate 

than the upper cohesive bank layer. This leads to 

development of overhangs of the upper cohesive 

materials. The failure mechanism of the river bank is 

complex, ranging from slip failures in high banks to 

shearing and toppling failures in low banks. The use 

of the common slip circle model for stability 

evaluation appears to be adequate only for high 

banks. This model tended to yield misleading results 

for stability analyses of low banks. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; STREAMBANK 

PROTECTION] 

1256. Oliphant,JO (1947): The cattle herds and 

ranches of the Oregon country, 1860-1890. 

Agricultural History 2 1,2 17-238. 

Cattle breeding on open ranges in Oregon in the 

nineteenth century was highly speculative. Ranges 

could and did become crowded; herds of sheep could 

and did come upon the ranges and ruin them for 

cattle. Farmers could and did appropriate the 

grasslands for their own purposes; markets could and 

did fail cattlemen. Many made handsome profits and 

many suffered severe losses. During the depression 

of the 1870s, few, if any, made money on cattle. 

Boom years followed this period, however, and many 

took good advantage of this rising market. The cattle 

industry was both widespread and important to the 

regional economy during this period. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HISTORIC RECORDS] 
1257. Olsen,DS; Wenger,DC (1998): Riparianwetland assessment: Applying hydrogeomorphic 

(HGM) concepts to riparian rangeland 

management. p.25-34. In: Potts,DF [ed.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

The US Army Corps of Engineers has been 

developing the hydrogeomorphic (HGM) approach 

for riparian-wetlands assessments since 1993. This 

technique quantifies hydrologic, geomorphic, and 

ecologic hnctions by measuring variables and 

applying them in algorithms. Each algorithm product 

is termed the functional capacity index (FCI), which 

is the estimated ability of the riparian-wetland to 

perform a given function. The purpose of this 

approach has been to standardize methods to quantify 

functions of wetlands within the jurisdiction of the 

agency. Based on various applications, the HGM 

approach was evaluated to be a relatively accurate 

and rapid method of assessing the functions of 

riparian-wetland areas in rangelands. 

[ASSESSMENTS; EVALUATION; 

HYDROGEOMORPHIC; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1258. Olson,C; Harris,R (1997): Applying a twostage system to prioritize riparian restoration at 

the San Luis Rey River, San Diego County, 

California. Restoration Ecology 45(5), 43-55. 

This system was applied to an area of southern 

California in order to prioritize riparian restoration 

projects. In the first stage, data from topographic 

quadrangles and aerial photographs were analyzed to 

define and classify reaches. These analyses 

concluded that: 1) 28 km of the river and adjacent 

floodplain were suitable for second-stage evaluation 

of restoration needs; and 2) 32 km met criteria for 

reference conditions at the stream reach scale and 

should be protected from further impacts. The 

approach was developed for streams in the semi-arid 

western United States but could be adapted for use 

elsewhere. 

[EVALUATION; PLANNING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1259. Olson,JE; Horak,GC (1979): Successful 

and potentially successful measures to protect and 

improve fish and wildlife habitats. p.429-433. In: 

Swanson,GA led.]. The mitigation symposium: A 

national workshop on mitigating losses of fish and 

wildlife habitats. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-65. 

This paper presents information from the new 

Western Reservoir and Stream Habitat Improvements 

Handbook on habitat improvement measures. 

Measures discussed involve improvement 

possibilities for reservoir water level management, 

fish propagation and control, wildlife protection at 

canals, and others. Specifics concerning design, 

implementation, cost, and effectiveness will be 

presented. 

[RESERVOIRS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1260. Olson,RW; Armour,CL (1978): Economic 

considerations for improved livestock 

management approaches for fish and wildlife in 

riparianlstream areas. p.67-71. In: Cope,OB led.]. 

Proceedings of the Forum - Grazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 November 1978. 

Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

This paper conceptualizes complex 

interrelationships between various range uses. 

Monetary values of rangeland use for ranchers, 

consumers, and hunters are presented. Economic 

ramifications of the implementation and improved 

riparian management techniques on fish and wildlife 

are addressed. 

[ECONOMICS; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1261. Olson,TE; Knopf,FL (1988): Patterns of 

relative diversity within riparian small mammal 

communities, Platte River watershed, Colorado. 

p.379-386. In: Szaro,RC; Severson,KE; Patton,DR 

[tech. coord.] Management of amphibians, 

reptiles, and small mammals in North America: 

Proceedings of the symposium. 19-21 July 1988. 

Flagstaff, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-166. 

Focus of the study was to analyze patterns of 

small mammal similarity within and between riparian 

and adjacent upland sites in the same watershed and 

across the elevational gradient. In accordance with 

avifaunal studies in the same watershed (Knopf, 

1985), riparian sites at the higher elevations 

contributed substantially to the regional diversity of 

small mammal populations. In order to conserve 

regional integrity in native small mammal faunas, the 

authors recommend that land uses allowed in and 

adjacent to high elevation riparian zones should be 

considered as carefully as those in lowland 

floodplains. 

[BIODIVERSITY; PLATTE RIVER; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 
1262. O'Malley,R (1989): Wetlands protection: 

Perspective of the states in long-term policy 

direction. Renewable Resources Journal 7(3), 8- 

11. 

The major issues discussed in this presentation 

were: 1) the perspective of states toward wetlands 

protection; and 2) long-term policy with respect to 

wetlands. The author urges congressional jurisdiction 

initiatives on an order of complexity to match that of 

wetland issues. 

[POLICY; WETLANDS] 

1263. Omernik,JM; Abernathy,AR; Male, LM 

(1981): Stream nutrient levels and proximity of 

agricultural and forest land to streams: Some 

relationships. Journal of Soil and Range 

conservation 36: 227-231. 

Forested buffer strips have been used to control 

nutrient loss from agricultural land to streams but the 

effect is not well documented. In this application, the 

authors attempted to determine whether the 

proximity of two land use types (agricultural and 

forest) to streams improved the ability to predict 

nutrient levels over simply using the proportion of 

watersheds occupied by each land use. Results 

indicated that proximity did not improve the 

predictive ability. One reason may be that the longterm effects of near-stream vegetation in reducing 

nutrient levels is negligible. 

[BUFFER ZONES; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIPARIAN 

FOREST] 

1264. O'Neill,MP; Schmidt,JC; Dobrowolski,JP; 

Hawkins,CP; Neale,CMU (1997): Identifying sites 

for riparian wetland restoration: Application of a 

model to the Upper Arkansas River Basin. 

Restoration Ecology 45(5), 85-102. 

A conceptual model for identifying restoration 

sites for riparian wetlands is presented with a specific 

application in Colorado. The model utilizes a 

Geographic Information System (GIs) to analyze a 

variety of spatial data useful in characterizing 

geomorphology, hydrology, and vegetation of 

riparian wetland sites. The model focuses on three 

basic properties of riparian wetland sites: relative soil 

moisture, disturbance regime, and vegetative 

characteristics. Restoration potential is evaluated as a 

combination of nominal scores from wetness, land 

cover, and disturbance indices. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1265. Onuf,CP; Zedler,JB (1988): Pattern and 

process in arid region salt marshes - southern 

California. p. 570-581. In: The ecology and 

management of wetlands. Volume I: Ecology of 

wetlands. [Eds: Hook,DD.] Croom Helm, London 

and Sydney. 

Salt marshes of the moist eastern United States 

have been long and often the subject of studies of 

ecosystem function. In comparison, ecological 

investigations of arid region salt marshes are recent 

and limited. This review relies primarily on research 

from the last decade in southern California. The 

results contradict several paradigms of ecosystem 

function that have emerged from research in the 

eastern United States. Key differences in the salt 

marshes between the regions provide insights about 

the governing process. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SALT MARSHES; 

WETLANDS] 

1266. Oregon State University (1991): Watershed 

management guide for the interior Northwest. 

Oregon State University Extension Service. 

EM8436. September, 1991.45 p. 

Riparian zones are important focal points for 

most of the products and uses associated with natural 

ecosystems. Abusive land use practices can degrade 

these areas but their inherent capacity for recovery is 

remarkable. This may be because Kentucky bluegrass 

is exceptionally tolerant of heavy use and provides 

stability or it may be a function of the rich nutrient 

and soil resource or the relatively higher moisture. 

By exercising the appropriate tools of the range 

manager, livestock can be compatible with other uses 

and values of these areas. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1267. Oregon State University Extension Service 

(1991): Watershed management guide for the 

interior Northwest. Oregon State University 

Extension Service. EM 8436.38 p. 

This report summarizes numerous case studies 

and concludes: 1) riparian zones are important focal 

points for most of the products and uses associated 

with many natural ecosystems; 2) abusive land 

practices can easily degrade these areas; 3) the 

inherent capacity for recovery of degraded riparian 

zones is remarkable, perhaps because of grazing 

tolerant species, the rich nutrient and soil resource, or 

the relatively higher available moisture in these 

areas; and 4) managers can exercise the appropriate 

tools and allow levels of livestock grazing that are 

compatible with other uses and values. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 
WATERSHED] 

1268. OregonIWashington Riparian Habitat 

Subcommittee. Interagency Wildlife Committee. 

(1979): Managing riparian ecosystems (zones) for 

fish and wildlife in eastern Oregon and eastern 

Washington. 44 p. 

Riparian ecosystems are defined as streams, 

lakes, and wet areas, and adjacent vegetative 

communities which are predominantly influenced by 

their association with water. Optimum fish and 

wildlife habitat conditions are described for this 

ecosystem in eastern Oregon and Washington. A 

process is outlined to evaluate the present conditions 

of riparian ecosystems, to project potentials for 

enhancement, and to establish recommended habitat 

conditions for managing fish and wildlife within 

riparian ecosystems. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1269. Orsborn,JF; Anderson,JW (1986): Stream 

improvements and fish response: A bioengineering 

assessment. Water Resources Bulletin 22(3), 381- 

388. 

Human modifications of natural streams in the 

name of habitat improvement take various forms, and 

the impacts of those improvements, both positive and 

negative, vary by orders of magnitude from stream to 

stream. The positive impacts are achieved by careful 

and timely planning, design, installation, and 

monitoring of projects. Negative impacts are the 

result of rush jobs dictated by available money, a 

lack of consideration for limiting factors, untrained 

and inexperienced personnel, force-fitting structures 

instead of bending the flow, lack of a watershed plan, 

poor communication and cooperation among 

disciplines, not using the team approach, and single 

habitat solutions which neglect diversity and artificial 

constraints. A general systems approach is presented 

which uses a common language for interdisciplinary 

communication. Various conceptual models are 

discussed to describe system complexities and 

factors. 

[BIOENGINEERING; CHANNEL DYNAMICS; 

FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1270. Osborn,HB; Simanton,JR (1986): Gully 

migration on a southwest rangeland watershed. 

Journal of Range Management 39(6), 558-561. 

On southwestern rangelands, most rainfall and 

almost all runoff are products of intense summer 

thunderstorms. Head-cutting and gully growth 

characterize the region. Runoff at a head-cut in 

southern Arizona was estimated using a kinematic 

cascade rainfall-runoff model. The head-cut sediment 

contribution was about 25 percent of the total 

sediment load measured downstream from the headcut. The sediment contribution from the swale 

drainage above the head-cut was about the same. 

More data was needed but the total contribution from 

gully banks and headcuts in this study had to be an 

important portion of the total sediment load. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; GULLY CONTROL; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

1271. Osborn,HB; Simanton,JR (1989): Gullies 

and sediment yield. Rangelands 11(2), 51-56. 

Estimates of total sediment yield, over a nineyear period, for a small gullied watershed, were 

partitioned to account for main gully contribution, 

tributary gully contribution, and upland erosion. The 

main gully contributed about 50 percent of the total 

sediment yield. Estimates of upland erosion ranged 

from about 20 percent of the total based on the USLE 

to 40 percent based on comparison with an adjacent 

ungullied watershed. The remainder (10 to 30 

percent) was attributed to contribution from tributary 

gullies. 

[EROSION CONTROL; GULLY CONTROL; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; SEDIMENTATION] 

1272. Osterkamp,WR; Hedman,ER (1977): 

Variation of width and discharge for natural highgradient stream channels. Water Resources 

Bulletin 13(2), 256-258. 

This study defines a width-discharge relationship 

for natural perennial alluvial stream channels with 

gradients exceeding .0080 mlm (.0080 ftlft). A 

standard exponent of 2.0 is suggested for studies 

relating mean discharge to active channel width. The 

results are in close agreement with studies by 

Leopold and Maddock (1 953) and confirm their "b" 

exponent. Workers currently using active channel 

width measurements as a means of estimating 

average discharge from ungaged basins should 

consider 2.0 as a standard exponent of the regression 

relation. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; HYDRAULICS; 

HYDROLOGY] 

1273. O'Toole,R (1987): Social and economic 

benefits of riparian forests other than for timber. 

In: Streamside management: Riparian wildlife 

and forestry interactions. An interdisciplinary 

symposium. 11-13 February 1987. University of 
Washington. Seattle, WA. 

Major changes in public forest management and 

water laws are needed to protect riparian resources. 

Public land managers should charge fair market value 

for all forms of recreation. Collection of as little as 

ten percent of the values the USDA Forest Service 

claims for recreation would cover all costs plus 

enforcement. Riparian management would also be 

improved if water rights were freely transferable, 

giving landowners an incentive to protect water 

quality by making it more valuable. 

[ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1274. O'Toole,R (1 988): Economic protection for 

riparian forests. p.259-269. In: Streamside 

management: Riparian wildlife and forestry 

interactions. An interdisciplinary symposium. 

University of Washington, Institute of Forest 

Resources, Seattle, WA. 

Riparian systems are economically valuable 

primarily because the majority of forest recreation 

takes place there. They are also important for 

protecting high quality watersheds and may be the 

most cost effective method for filtering water, 

maintaining cool temperatures for fish, and 

dissipating runoff. They are also the most productive 

timber areas. Traditionally, timber has been regarded 

as a market resource, while watershed, wildlife, and 

recreation have been categorized as nonmarket 

resources. The solutions to riparian management 

require the acceptance of the fact that restrictive or 

prescriptive legislation will not work as long as 

incentives remain unchanged. Incentives to crosssubsidize timber or sell it below cost should be 

eliminated. Finally, managers should charge fair 

market value for recreation and other "nonmarket" 

resources. In short, most nonmarket resources can be 

market resources. 

[ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1275. Ottenbreit,KA; Staniforth,RJ (1992): Life 

cycle and age structure of ramets in an expanding 

population of Salix exigua (sandbar willow). 

Canadian Journal of Botany 70,1141-1 146. 

The sandbar willow is a dominant woody 

pioneer and stabilizer of riverbanks and sand dunes 

over much of North America. A population growing 

on a point bar in Manitoba was assessed. Average 

annual height increments were 29.7 cm, and the 

average annual girth increments were 2.6 mmlyear. 

There were no significant differences between sexes. 

Significant linear correlations existed between basal 

stem diameter and age and between stem height and 

age. Flowering occurred in a few 2- and 3-year-old 

stems, regardless of sex. Flowering frequency 

increased to 93 percent at the age of 9 years. Stem 

mortality was highest in 3-, 4-, and 6-year-old 

ramets, and senescence was first observed at about 12 

years. Few stems were over 12 years old but the 

oldest stem encountered was 3 1 years old. The sex 

ratio of 1.7: 1.0 significantly favored males. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN PLANTS; 

WILLOW] 

1276. Overton,KC; Chandler,GL; Pisano,JA 

(1994): Northernllntermountain Region's fish 

habitat inventory: Grazed, rested, and ungrazed 

reference stream reaches, Silver King Creek, CA. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-GTR-311.27 p. 

Stream reaches that have been rested from 

livestock grazing appear to have stable banks and 

more bank undercuts than grazed stream sections. 

Ungrazed reference streams that are similar in parent 

geology, precipitation, channel type, habitat types, 

drainage area, and stream width had greater bank 

stability values and lower width-to-depth ratios than 

those of grazed and rested management sections of 

Silver King Creek. Power curve analysis was used to 

suggest the sample sizes required to monitor progress 

toward the desired condition. 

[DESIRED FUTURE CONDITIONS; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; INVENTORY; MONITORING; 

SAMPLING] 

1277. Overton,KC; Mclntyre,JD; Armstrong,R; 

Whitwel1,SL; Duncan,KA (1995): User's guide to 

fish habitat: Descriptions that represent natural 

conditions in the Salmon River Basin, ID. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report INTGTR-322.142 p. 

This user's guide and reference document 

describes the physical features of the Salmon River 

Basin, Idaho, stream channels that represent "natural 

conditions" for fish habitat; that is, streams that have 

not been influenced by major human disturbances. 

The data base was created to assist biologists and 

resource managers. It describes resource conditions 

that can be achieved through management objectives. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; DESIRED FUTURE 

CONDITIONS; FISH HABITAT; MULTISCALE 

ANALYSIS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1278. Overton,KC; Radko,MA; Nelson,RL 

(1993): Fish habitat conditions: Using the 

NorthernIIntermountain Regions' inventory 
procedures for detecting differences on two 

differently managed watersheds. USDA Forest 

Service. Intermountain Research Station. General 

Technical Report INT-300.14 p. 

Differences in land management may produce 

differences in habitat variables between two studied 

watersheds. In using the RlIR4 Watershed Scale Fish 

Habitat Inventory Process, for most habitat variables, 

evaluations of at least 30 habitat units were adequate. 

Such variables as channel morphology, substrate, 

large woody debris, and bank conditions can be 

detected using the guidelines provided for 

determining sample sizes required to determine 

differences. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; FISH HABITAT; 

INVENTORY; SMZ] 

1279. Overton,KC; Wollrab,SP; Roberts,BC; 

Radko,MA (1997): RllR4 

(Northernllntermountain Regions) fish and fish 

habitat standard inventory procedures. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report INTGTR-346.73 p. 

Standard inventory procedures for collecting fish 

habitat and salmonid fish species data for streams in 

USDA Forest Service R1 and R4 are described. 

Procedures are designed to define and quantify the 

structure, pattern, and dimensions of fish habitat; 

describe salmonid species composition distribution, 

and relative abundance; and facilitate the calculation 

of summary statistics for habitat descriptors. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; FISH HABITAT; 

INVENTORY] 

1280. Padgett,WG; Youngblood,AP; 

Winward,AH (1989): Riparian community type 

classification of Utah and southeastern Idaho. R4- 

Ecol-89-01. USDA Forest Service. 191 p. 

A community type classification system, based 

on approximately 600 sample stands. Distribution, 

vegetation composition, soils and successional status 

are described. 

[CLASSIFICATION; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; SOILS] 

1281. Pall,R; Dickinson,WT; Green,D; McGirr,R 

(1982): Impacts of soil characteristics on soil 

erodibility. In: Recent developments in the 

explanation and prediction of erosion and 

sediment yield. Proceedings of the Exeter 

symposium. July 1982. IAHS Publication No. 137, 

39-47. 

Field observations from two small drainage 

basins in the temperate climate of southern Ontario 

have been laboratory tested to identify key soil 

characteristics affecting soil erodibility. High soil 

erosion and transport rates during and immediately 

following spring thaw temperature and soil water 

conditions appeared to be linked to the presence of 

low soil density, high soil water content, and 

resulting low shear strength values in the surface 

soils. Lab tests on agricultural soil samples from the 

area verified the vulnerability of the soils to such 

density and water content conditions. The existing 

data base is acknowledged to be sparse. However, it 

is hypothesized that further examinations of surface 

soil shear characteristics may be useful in clarifying 

erosion processes. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; SOIL-WATER 

CONDITIONS; SOILS] 

1282. Palmquist,DE; Blank;RR; Young,JA 

(1992): To krige or not to krige: a spatial 

variability study of a Great Basin saline playa. 

p.186-189. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

Coarse-textured soil mounds dotting the edges of 

playas are characteristic features of the Great Basin. 

These mounds sustain a sparse, salt tolerant plant 

community that consists of allenrolfea, greasewood, 

and Torrey saltbush. Spatial variability techniques 

from two different disciplines were adapted to 

explore patterns of distributions and relationships 

between these soil mounds and the vegetation 

occurring on them. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; PLAYAS; SALTTOLERANCE; SPATIAL SCALE] 

1283. Park,CC (1977): Man-induced changes in 

stream channel capacity. p. 121-144. In: River 

channel changes. [Ed: Gregory,KJ]. John Wiley 

and Sons. New York. NY. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; TECHNIQUES] 

1284. Parker,M (1986): Beaver, water quality, 

and riparian systems. In: Proceedings of the 

streamside zones conference. Wyoming Water 

Research Center. 28-30 April 1986. Laramie, WY. 

A complex of beaver dams can improve the 

quality of water flowing through them. Compared to 

stream sections above or below the dams, export 

from the complexes was estimated to be less than by 

50-75 percent for suspended solids, less than 20-65 
percent for total P and total Kjeldahl N, and less by 

20-25 percent for nitrate-nitrogen. Work is also 

summarized that suggests that the presence of beaver 

dams can protect riparian areas from erosive 

perturbations, if they are not too great. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1285. Parker,M; Wood,FJ,Jr; Smith,BH; 

Elder,RG (1985): Erosional down-cutting in lower 

order riparian ecosystems: Have historical 

changes been caused by the removal of beaver? p. 

35-38. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR 

;Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH. [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

The authors hypothesize that, in lower order 

streams, beaver may be able to resist perturbations to 

a state of dynamic equilibrium if the perturbations 

are not too great. They suggest the thermodynamic 

and mechanistic bases and propose a simple model 

by which potential beaver perturbation resistance can 

be quantified. The model may be applicable to a 

number of management problems. 

[BEAVER; EROSION CONTROL; MODELING; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1286. Parsons,SC; Hudson,S (1985): Channel 

cross section surveys data analysis. USDl Bureau 

of Land Management. Denver Service Center. 

Technical Reference TR-4341.48 p. 

This report describes two computer programs 

which reduce and analyze stream channel crosssection survey data collected by either a rod and level 

survey or a sag tape survey. Data may be entered 

from the keyboard or a file. Cross sections are plotted 

on x-y coordinates and discharge rating curves are 

developed using Manning's equation given a usersupplied value for Manning's "nu. Output tables 

include values for average flow velocity (for each 

discharge increment), cross-section area, wetted 

perimeter, and hydraulic radius. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; TECHNIQUES] 

1287. Pase,CP; Layser,EF (1977): Classification 

of riparian habitat in the Southwest. p.5-9. In: 

Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.] Symposium 

on the importance, preservation and management 

of the riparian habitat. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-43. 

Riparian areas in Arizona and New Mexico are 

uniquely productive for wildlife. A tentative 

classification for riparian vegetation based on the 

Brown and Pase model is proposed. Six biomes, nine 

series, and 23 associations are tentatively recognized. 

Classification of riparian vegetation can provide a 

strong management tool. 

[CLASSIFICATION; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1288. Passey,HB; Hugie,VK; Williams,EW; 

Ball,DE (1982): Relationships between soil, plant 

community, and climate on rangelands of the 

Intermountain West. USDA Technical Bulletin. 

No. 1669. 123 p. 

Studies were done to determine the range of soil, 

climate, and vegetation characteristics consistently 

associated under natural conditions. Eighty five study 

sites were selected within 32 relict areas in northern 

Utah, southern Idaho, northeastern Nevada, and westcentral Wyoming. Studies were confined to climax 

plant communities characterized by associations of 

sagebrush, bluebunch wheatgrass, Sandberg 

bluegrass, and Idaho fescue and Entisol, Aridisol, 

and Mollisol soil orders. Soil subgroups provided the 

most meaningful level of soil classification for 

correlation with broad plant associations. The 

presence of different species or subspecies of 

sagebrush provided the most meaninghl grouping of 

plant communities. Vegetation production and 

composition data were recorded and analyzed for 10 

consecutive years on 17 key study sites. Annual and 

periodic fluctuations in total production and yield of 

individual species in response to climatic variations 

were analyzed. Soil properties modified the effects of 

climate on plant communities. Effects of soil, plant, 

and climate relationships on relict areas may be used 

to approximate productive potential of other areas of 

the same or similar soils. 

[CLIMATE; GRAZING IMPACTS; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; SAGEBRUSH; SOILS] 

1289. Patrick,DM; Smith,LM; Whitten,CB 

(1982): Methods for studying accelerated fluvial 

change. p.783-815. In: Gravel bed rivers. [Eds: 

Hey,RD; Bathurst,JC; Thorne,CRj. John Wiley 

and Sons Ltd. New York, NY. 

Human activities, both site-specific and regional, 

may adversely affect streambank stability, 

navigation, flood frequency, and wildlife habitats. To 

develop and manage a river basin and fluvial system 

effectively it is necessary to identify and minimize 

the adverse effects of existing structures and 

activities and to predict and take into account the 
potential adverse effects of proposed schemes. This 

requires data on the factors that control the 

mechanics of the fluvial system. The data should 

cover the basin characteristics, relations between 

geomorphology and river mechanics, erodibility of 

the drainage basin and temporal effects. In this paper, 

some of the techniques and methods for studying 

accelerated fluvial change are described. Particular 

emphasis is placed on the importance of information 

of basin characteristics and on geomorphological 

processes, to project studies. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; FLUVIAL 

PROCESSES; GEOMORPHOLOGY; REMOTE 

SENSING; SOILS; STREAMBANK 

PROTECTION; TECHNIQUES] 

1290. Patton,BD; Nyren,PE (1998): The effect of 

grazing intensity on soil water and rangeland 

productivity in south-central South Dakota. p.219- 

228. In: Potts,DF led.] .Rangeland management 

and water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Responses to no grazing, light, moderate, heavy, 

and extreme grazing were monitored in south-central 

South Dakota to measure changes in available soil 

water and biomass production. Significant 

differences have occurred during both periods of soil 

water recharge and discharge indicating increased 

runoff and evapotranspiration from the soil surface 

on the heavily grazed treatments. Plants on the 

ungrazed treatment on silty sites had more leaf area 

than plants on the moderate treatment and appear to 

remove more water through transpiration. Biomass 

production has been reduced on both the extreme and 

ungrazed treatments compared to the moderate 

treatment on all sites. 

[BIOMASS; EVAPOTRANSPIRATION; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RUNOFF; 

SOIL-WATER CONDITIONS] 

1291. Patton,DR (1977): Riparian research 

needs. p.80-82. In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. 

coord.1. Proceedings of the symposium on 

importance, preservation, and management of 

riparian habitats. 9 July 1977. Tucson, AZ. 

In 1977, approximately 22 studies on riparian 

habitat were in progress in the western United States. 

Six categories of studies were identified as needed to 

provide managers with data for making decisions 

about the riparian ecosystem. The concept of 

"validation sites" was suggested for use in a team 

approach to solve plant and animal problems in the 

riparian zone. 

[RESEARCH; RIPARIAN STUDIES] 

1292. Patton,DR (1993): Integrating science and 

decision making. p.167-172. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report RM226. 

The author points to a conclusion that it is not 

the quantity of scientific information that leads to 

integration of science into decision making, but how 

useful decision makers perceive that information to 

be. Credible scientists need to develop documents or 

presentations to make technical information 

available. Scientific input requires time, a willing 

audience, and an adaptive management style that 

allows science to refine it's information. The 

alternative is to allow emotionalism, lobbying, and 

non-factual public perceptions to be the data base 

used by managers who make decisions regarding our 

natural resources. 

[ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT; DECISION 

MAKING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SCIENCE] 

1293. Patton,PC; Schumm,SA (1981): Ephemeral 

stream processes: Implications for studies of 

Quaternary Valley fills. Quaternary Research 15, 

24-43. 

Three unstable ephemeral stream channels were 

resurveyed to provide data on the mechanics of 

erosion and sedimentation processes during 14-22 

year periods. Channel morphology changed 

significantly. Erosion occurred through nick-point 

recession and bank collapse, but erosional reaches are 

separated by aggrading or stable channel reaches. In 

general, sediment that is eroded, as the nick-point 

recedes upstream, is trapped in the widened channel 

downstream. In this manner sediment is transported 

episodically out of these basins during a series of cutand-fill cycles. The manner by which the channels 

aggrade and the morphology of the aggraded stable 

channels are controlled by the sediment type. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GULLY CONTROL; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

1294. Payne,NF; Copes,F (eds.) (1986): Wildlife 

and fisheries habitat improvement handbook 

(USDA Forest Service, Wildlife and Fisheries 

Administrative Report. December 1986. 403 p. 

[HABITAT MANAGEMENT; Rl PARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

TECHNIQUES] 
1295. Payne,NF; Munger,GP; Matthews,JW; 

Taber,RD (1975): Inventory of vegetation and 

wildlife in riparian and other habitats along the 

upper Columbia River. U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, North Pacific Division (1976). 

An extensive descriptive inventory of riparian 

habitats occurring along the upper Columbia River. 

Manuscript contains 36 maps and 560 pages of 

narrative. 

[COLUMBIA RIVER; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1296. Pearce,RA; Frasier,GW; Lieninger,WC; 

Trlica,MJ (1998): Sediment movement and 

filtration in riparian vegetation. p.167-177. In: 

Potts,DF (ed.1. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

This paper addresses a combined field and 

laboratory rainfall simulation study conducted to 

determine the influence of vegetation characteristics 

on sediment transport and filtration through 

vegetated fi her strips. Sediment yield was not 

affected by vegetation height or community. Coarse 

sediment (>200 um) movement was affected by 

vegetation height. The coarse material traveled 

farther down slope in the clipped to the soil surface 

treatment than in either the 10 cm or natural height 

vegetation treatments. The study results indicated 

that vegetation height was not an important variable 

affecting sediment yield, but that vegetation height 

may be important on a small scale for coarse particle 

movement. 

[EROSION; NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; 

RUNOFF; SEDIMENTATION; STUBBLE 

HEIGHT] 

1297. Pearce,RA; Frasier,GW; Trlica,MJ; 

Leininger,WC; Stednick,JD; Smith,JL (1998): 

Sediment filtration in a montane riparian zone 

under simulated rainfall. Journal of Range 

Management 51(3), 309-314. 

The effectiveness of riparian vegetation to filter 

sediment from overland water flow was tested over 

two years. Sediment yields at the downslope end of 

the plots were greater when finer silica sediment was 

introduced into overland flow as compared with 

sediment derived from sandy loam soil. Sediment 

yields, measured at the outlets of plots, did not 

increase or decrease as vegetation heights increased. 

Accurate prediction of sediment filtration from 

shallow flow in riparian zones required consideration 

of a combination of vegetation and soil surface 

factors. 

[EROSION; GRAZING IMPACTS; NON-POINT 

SOURCE POLLUTION; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; SEDIMENTATION; STUBBLE 

HEIGHT] 

1298. Pearse,RA; Trlica,MJ; Leininger,WC; 

Mergen,DE; Frasier,G (1998): Sediment 

movement through riparian vegetation under 

simulated rainfall and overland flow. Journal of 

Range Management 51(3), 301-308. 

A 2-year simulation study was conducted to 

evaluate the effectiveness of riparian vegetation at 

three vegetation heights to reduce sediment 

movement. Results of the first experiment showed a 

significant increase in the sand movement downslope 

when vegetation was clipped to the soil surface 

compared with undisturbed vegetation. In the second 

experiment, most significant differences in 

movement for finer particles occurred in the 2 - 10 

micron particle ranges. The study showed that 

additional variables (percent surface vegetation 

cover, aboveground biomass, percent shrubs, surface 

roughness coefficient, soil texture of introduced 

sediment, percent bare ground, distance downslope, 

vegetative density, grass species and sedge species), 

besides vegetation height, influenced sediment 

movement. 

[EROSION; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; SEDIMENTATION] 

1299. Peart,MR; Walling,DE (1982): Particle size 

characteristics of fluvial suspended sediment. 

p.397-407. In: Proceedings of the Exeter 

Symposium. Recent developments in the 

explanation and prediction of erosion and 

sediment yield. IAHS Publ. No. 137. 

The relationship between the particle size 

characteristics of source and sediment is investigated 

by considering data from a small number of small 

drainage basins in the USA and from two small 

basins in Devon, England. These demonstrate the 

importance of soil type and catchment characteristics 

in controlling this relationship. Temporal variations 

in the particle size distribution of suspended sediment 

are considered by highlighting the varied evidence 

presented in existing studies and by considering in 

detail, data from the two small drainage basins in 

Devon which exhibit markedly different responses. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

SEDIMENTATION; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

1300. Pence,L (1991): Riparian restoration using 

beaver. p.32-34. In: Roth,D; Bridges$; 
Zimmerman,C [eds.].What does riparian mean to 

me? Proceedings of the convention. Colorado 

Riparian Association. 6-8 November 1991. Pueblo, 

CO. 

Using beavers is one of the many tools and 

techniques available to us for improving riparian 

areas. A case study in Blaine County, Idaho, is 

described. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1301. Periman,RD (1996): The influence of 

prehistoric Anasazi cobble mulch agricultural 

features on northern Rio Grande landscapes. 

p.181-188. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM Itech. coord.] 

Desired future conditions for Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM- GTR- 272. 

Research concerning ancient Pueblo Indian 

farming, specifically the innovation of cobble mulch 

gardens, suggests a manipulation of the local 

environment on a landscape level that helped create 

existing ecosystems. This agricultural technology, 

which consisted of a protective layer of gravel 

covering the productive soil, trapped seasonal runoff 

moisture in field areas, retained it, and guarded 

against evaporation. These water trapping features 

are usually found on terraces and slopes above 

riparian areas. The effect of this lithic mulch 

technology on available water, drainage patterns, and 

general system dynamics is explored. 

[COBBLE MULCH AGRICULTURE; 

DRAINAGES; PUEBLO INDIANS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RUNOFF; WATER TRAPPING] 

1302. Pess,GR; Pollock,MM (1997): A processbased watershed restoration strategy derived from 

historic conditions. p.161. Abstracts. 1997 Annual 

meeting of the Ecological Society of America 

jointly with The Nature Conservancy. 10-14 

August 1997. Albuquerque, NM. 

Historic condition of physical and ecological 

processes can be assessed to provide critical 

information to protect and restore freshwater 

(salmonid) habitat. For this study, the riparian habitat 

(past and present) in the Stillaguamish river in 

Washington was assessed. In the past century, most 

riparian zones adjacent to anadromous salmonid 

habitat have been degraded. Logging has converted 

late seral coniferous forests to deciduous forests. The 

latter have little conifer regeneration, indicating that 

these forests are relatively stable. Beaver populations 

have been reduced to less than 10 percent of original 

numbers. Increasing beaver populations and actively 

managing riparian forests for conifer production are 

important steps toward restoring freshwater habitat 

and declining salmon runs. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; ASSESSMENTS; 

FISH HABITAT; HISTORIC RECORDS; 

LOGGING IMPACTS; SALMONIDS] 

1303. Peterjohn,WT; Correll,DL (1984): 

Nutrient dynamics in an agricultural watershed: 

Observations on the role of a riparian forest. 

Ecology 65,1466-1475. 

Nutrient concentration changes were measured 

in surface runoff and shallow groundwater as they 

moved through a small agricultural watershed. 

Cropland appeared to retain fewer nutrients than 

riparian forest and was thought to incur the majority 

of its nutrient losses in harvested crop. The dominant 

pathway of total-N loss from the riparian forest 

seemed to be subsurface flux. P loss from the riparian 

forest appeared almost evenly divided between 

surface and subsurface losses. Nutrient removals in 

the riparian forest are thought to be of ecological 

significance to receiving waters and indicate that 

coupling natural systems and managed habitats 

within a watershed may reduce diffuse-source 

pollution, 

[DIFFUSE-SOURCE POLLUTION; NUTRIENT 

CYCLES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; WATER QUALITY] 

1304. Petersen,RC; Cummins,KW (1974): Leaf 

processing in a woodland stream. Freshwater 

Biology 4,343-368. 

Detritus processing by a small woodland stream 

is analyzed by following the loss of weight of a 

measured unit of single species accumulation of 

riparian leaves. The response of the invertebrate 

community to differences in leaf species is also 

investigated using controlled, artificial streams where 

significant differences in the effect of the 

invertebrates are related to the ability of the leaf to be 

processed. Evidence suggests that differential 

invertebrate colonization of leaf packs is a function 

of microbial colonization and conditioning. The data 

are used to develop a general scheme of leaf pack 

processing. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; 

MACROINVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1305. Peterson,MM; Somerville,DJ; Sennet,RF 

(1992): Preliminary riparian classification system 

for private and state owned lands in Utah. p.79- 

82. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 
Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - Symposium 

on ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

A classification system for riparian areas in Utah 

was developed by the USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service in cooperation with the Utah 

State Department of Agriculture and the Utah 

Riparian Management Coalition. This is a 

hierarchical system beginning at broad levels of 

physiographic classifications and proceeding to more 

specific levels. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1306. Peterson,WT; Correll,DL (1984): Nutrient 

dynamics in an agricultural watershed: 

Observations on the role of a riparian forest. 

Ecology 65(5), 1466-1 475. 

Nutrient (C, N, and P) concentration changes 

were measured in surface runoff and shallow 

groundwater as they moved through a small 

agricultural watershed. The crop land appeared to 

retain fewer nutrients than the riparian forests and is 

thought to incur the majority of its nutrient losses in 

harvested crop. The dominant pathway of total-N 

loss from the riparian forests seemed to be subsurface 

flux. P loss from the riparian forest appeared almost 

evenly divided between surface and subsurface 

losses. Nutrient removals in the riparian forest were 

thought to be of ecological significance to receiving 

waters and indicate that coupling natural systems and 

managed habitats within a watershed may reduce 

diffuse-source pollution. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATERSHED] 

1307. Pettit,PL (1996): Discussion of future 

cooperative actions and closing remarks. p.351- 

353. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. 

Desired future conditions for Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

A discussion of brainstorming sessions and 

written feedback forms received at the conclusion of 

the symposium. Sponsors of the symposium will 

work as a coalition to implement the the most 

promising and effective ideas and comments. 

[COLLABORATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1308. Pfankuch,DJ (1978): Stream reach 

inventory and channel stability evaluation. USDA 

Forest Service, Northern Region, Missoula, MT. 

26 p. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; INVENTORY; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1309. Pfister,RD (1990): Streamside management 

zones (SMZ)-- Delineation criteria and 

management guidelines. In: Management of 

riparian and wetland forested ecosystems in 

Montana. Fourth annual Montana Riparian 

Association workshop. University of Montana. 

Missoula, MT. 5-7 September 1990. Whitefish, 

MT. 

The Montana Riparian Association Management 

Guidelines Working Group has been working on a 

matrix of soil erosion hazards relative to management 

practices; SMZ width guidelines for substrates of 

high, medium and low erodibility classes; and for 

various slope classes presented. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

sml 

131 0. Pfister,RD; Boggs,KW (1990): 

Methodology for riparian inventory and 

streamside management zone delineation on the 

Kootenai National Forest. In: Management of 

riparian and wetland forested ecosystems in 

Montana. University of Montana. Missoula, MT. 

Fourth annual Montana Riparian Association 

workshop. 5-7 September 1990. Whitefish, MT. 

A brief overview was provided of a contract 

study with the Kootenai National Forest. The 

objective was to develop and demonstrate techniques 

for mapping wetlands and streamside management 

zones in heavily forested areas. 

[INVENTORY; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

131 1. Phinn,SR; Stow,DA; Zedler,JB (1 996): 

Monitoring wetland habitat restoration in 

southern California using airborne multispectral 

video data. Restoration Ecology 4(4), 412-422. 

Remote sensing provides a complementary 

approach to field sampling to assess whether restored 

wetland areas provide suitable habitat. This paper 

describes the application of image classification 

techniques to high-spatial-resolution digital video 

imagery to delimit patches of different marsh 

vegetation. Preliminary field checking results 

indicate that this approach is an accurate, noninvasive, and cost efficient means of providing 

ecological information for restoration monitoring. 

[MONITORING; REMOTE SENSING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 
1312. Phinney,DE; Deusen,MS; Keller,SM; 

Knudsen,PA (1989): A new approach to riparian 

management in Washington State. p.11-15. In: 

Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL [eds.]. 

Practical approaches to riparian resource 

management. An educational workshop. 8-1 1 May 

1989. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Billings,MT. 

The 1974 State Forest Practices Act regulates 

forest practices on state and private forest lands in 

Washington in order to protect public resources and 

maintain a viable forest industry. New conflicts 

between industries, tribes, environmentalists, and 

state agencies have evolved as revisions to the Act 

have been adopted. In 1986, when riparian 

management regulations were proposed, rampant 

controversy erupted. With the assistance of a 

nonprofit organization, the State brought all 

representatives of interests into a negotiating process. 

The Timber, Fish, and Wildlife Agreement has 

successfully resolved previous conflicts by providing 

positive benefits to all parties while sustaining 

regulatory integrity. 

[CONFLICT RESOLUTION; RlPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1313. Piest,RF; Bradford,JM; Wyatt,GM (1975): 

Soil erosion and sediment transport from gullies. 

Journal of the Hydraulics Division, Procedures of 

the American Society of Civil Engineers. lOl(No. 

HYl January 1975), 65-80. 

The processes that cause gullying are analyzed 

by reviewing data from watersheds around Iowa. 

Tractive forces acting on the gully boundary, mass 

wasting of gully banks and scarps and gully clean out 

of wasted soil debris are some of the processes 

considered. Processes of mass wasting of gully banks 

and scarps were mainly responsible for their growth. 

The loose soil debris represented the prime sediment 

source in the gullies. Causes of gullying vary 

according to the boundary restraints (base level, 

channel slope, and resistant soils) that are typical of 

given region. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; GULLY CONTROL; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; SOILS] 

1314. Pionke,HB; Hoover,JR; Schnabel,RR; 

Gburek,JB; Urban,JB; Rogowski,AS (1988): 

Chemical-hydrologic interactions in the nearstream zone. Water Resources Research 24(7), 

1101-1110. 

The chemical and hydrologic responses of a hilly 

watershed to a typical summer storm event were 

determined and compared. Patterns and the relative 

magnitudes of NO3, NH4, phosphorus, and PO4 

concentrations observed in seepage, surface runoff, 

storm flow, base flow, and rainfall, fit those 

hypothesized in the storm hydrograph and associated 

water table responses observed in the near-stream 

zone. Nitrate concentrations in seepage and base flow 

were similar and, typically, exceeded those in surface 

runoff, rainfall, and peak storm flow by 5-20 times. 

Conversely, NH4, P, and PO4 concentrations in 

surface runoff from the seep zone and in peak storm 

flows exceeded those in seepage and base flow by 2- 

20 times. 

[CHEMICAL RESPONSES; HYDROLOGY; 

WATERSHED] 

1315. Plantico,RC (1981): The value of riparian 

ecosystems: Institutional and methodological 

considerations. p.233-240. In: Warner,RE; 

Hendrix,KM [eds.]. California riparian systems 

conference. 17-19 September 1981. University of 

California. Davis, CA. 

[ECONOMICS; RESEARCH; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1316. Platts,WS (1976): Validity of 

methodologies to document stream environments 

for evaluating fishery conditions. p.267-284. In: 

Proceedings of the Symposium and specific 

conference on instream flow needs. Western 

Division of the American Fisheries Society. 3-6 

May 1976. Boise, ID. 

Studies conducted from 1970- 1972 addressed: 1) 

the relationship of the physical structural components 

of aquatic environments to each other; 2) the 

relationship of stream structure and fish populations; 

3) the importance of multiple variables in controlling 

fish populations; and 4) the validity of using present 

methodologies to evaluate fishery productivity. A 

large area in the upper South Fork Salmon River was 

evaluated for environment-fishery relationships. 

Certain valid interpretations were made concerning 

aquatic variable control of fish populations, but the 

overall observed variation was low. Instream 

conditions controlled the density of the fish 

populations and the composition offish species. 

Control was not isolated to any one variable. Stream 

width, depth, and the elevation of the stream channel 

were the most important evaluated variables 

controlling the fish populations. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 

ECOLOGY] 

1317. Platts,WS (1978): Livestock interactions 

with fish and aquatic environments: problems in 
evaluation. p.498-504. In: Transactions of the 

43rd North American wildlife and natural 

resources conference. 18-22 March 1978. Phoenix, 

AZ. Wildlife Management Institute; Washington, 

DC. 

In the past, our methodology for measuring the 

condition of the stream environment has rarely been 

tested. Biologists must be able to measure small 

environmental changes and to differentiate between 

natural variation in environmental conditions and 

treatment effects (grazing and nongrazing). This must 

be done without observer error. Only then, biologists 

will be able to evaluate existing grazing systems and 

to develop better grazing strategies. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1318. Platts,WS (1978): Livestock interactions 

with fish and their environments. p.92-96. In: 

Proceedings of the Cal-Neva Wildlife 

Transactions, 1978. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1319. Platts,WS (1979): Livestock grazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems -- an overview. p.39- 

45. In: Cope,OB led.]. Forum -- grazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 November 1979. 

Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

The problem is that past management practices 

have allowed streamside environments to deteriorate 

and that land managers do not have the information 

to correct the problems. Fishery biologists and range 

managers must concentrate on finding solutions to 

problems and providing these to land managers. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

1320. Platts,WS (1979): Relationships among 

stream order, fish populations, and aquatic 

geomorphology in an Idaho river drainage. 

Fisheries 4(2), 5-9. 

[CLASSIFICATION; FISHERIES; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY] 

1321. Platts,WS (1981): Effects of livestock 

grazing. In: Influence of forest and rangeland 

management on anadromous fish habitat in 

western North America. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report PNW-124. 25 p. 

This paper documents current knowledge on 

interactions of livestock and fish habitat. Included are 

discussions of incompatibility and compatibility 

between livestock grazing and fisheries, present 

management guidelines, information needed for 

problem solving, and future research needs. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1322. Platts,WS (1981): Effects of sheep grazing 

on a riparian-stream environment. USDA Forest 

Service. Research Note INT-307. 6 p. 

A stream section in a meadow receiving high 

intensity grazing from sheep was almost five times as 

wide and only 115 as deep as an adjoining stream 

section where the meadow received light or no 

grazing. In the heavily grazed area, undercut banks 

were eliminated, streambanks were outsloped, and 

water depth at the stream surface-stream channel 

interface was only 1/13 as deep as in the lightly or 

nongrazed areas. Prolonged holding of sheep on 

meadows for long periods of time is apparently 

detrimental to the riparian-stream ecosystem. 

[EROSION; GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK 

EFFECTS] 

1323. Platts,WS (1981): Impairment, protection 

and rehabilitation of Pacific salmonoid habitats on 

sheep and cattle ranges. p.82-92. In: Hassler, TJ 

led.]. Proceedings: Propagation, enhancement, 

and rehabilitation of anadromous salmonid 

populations and habitat in the Pacific Northwest. 

15-17 Octoberl981. Arcata, CA. Humboldt State 

University. 

With proper grazing intensity, timing, and 

distribution of animals, forage can be utilized without 

undue stress on the stream and riparian environment. 

Rest rotation and 25 percent or less riparian herbage 

utilization will effectively protect a stream. Although 

rehabilitation of riparian vegetation may occur within 

5 years, benefit to aquatic systems are slower. Rest 

rotation may not improve a badly degraded meadow 

with cattle, but may with sheep since they are not as 

hard on the landscape. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1324. Platts,WS (1981): Protection and 

enhancement of Pacific salmonids on ranges 

grazed by livestock: an overview. p.62-64. In: 

Hassler, TJ [ed.].Proceedings of the propagation, 

enhancement, and rehabilitation of anadromous 

salmonid populations and habitat in the Pacific 

Northwest. 15-17 October 1981. Arcata, CA. 

Humboldt State University. 

Since the mid-1 800s, there has been a dramatic 

decline in the quality of salmonid habitat in the 

Pacific Northwest. One land use responsible for part 

of this decline has been improper grazing by cattle 
and sheep. The solutions to reverse this decline reside 

with range and fishery specialists, who need to work 

together and coordinate their studies. These 

specialists must determine the suitability of each 

habitat type for grazing and the correct grazing 

strategy for proper animal distribution. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1325. Platts,WS (1981): Sheep and cattle grazing 

strategies on riparian-stream environments. p. 

251-270. In: Proceedings of wildlife-livestock 

relationships. 20-22 April 1981. Coeur d'Alene, 

ID. University of Idaho. Moscow, ID. 

This paper addresses the effects of cattle and 

sheep grazing on stream riparian habitat. Initial 

results indicate that herded sheep grazing may have 

little effect on streamlriparian environment. The 

effects of cattle grazing first appear on streambanks 

and riparian vegetation. At utilization rates of 65 

percent or more, habitat alteration occurs. Alteration 

is insignificant at utilization rates of 25 percent or 

less. Research to identify grazing strategies 

compatible with riparian values is needed. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1326. Platts,WS (1981): Sheep and streams. 

Rangelands 3(4), 158-160. 

Whenever sheep were forced to concentrate in 

the past on a riparian-stream area, they adversely 

affected the stream environment. Since sheep, 

however, are classified as animals that prefer slopes 

and upland sites for grazing, they would not be 

expected to have major on-site effects on riparianstream environments. Under grazing strategies such 

as deferred use plus active herding, there should be 

no detrimental effects on the fishery. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

1327. Platts,WS (1981): Stream inventory 

garbage in -- reliable analysis out: Only in fairy 

tales. p.75-84. In: Armantrout,NB [ed.]. 

Acquisition and utilization of aquatic habitat 

inventory information: Proceedings of a 

symposium. 28-30 October 1981. Portland, OR. 

The success or failure of stream inventories 

depends on the suitability, accuracy, and combination 

of the selected habitat measurements. Accuracy is 

difficult to evaluate and seldom do we know what the 

true mean of the measured variable is in stream 

habitat assessment. This report defines the precision 

and repeatability that can be expected when 

measuring selected aquatic habitat conditions in 

lntermountain West streams. 

[INVENTORY; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1328. Platts,WS (1981): Riparian 

system/livestock grazing interaction research in 

the lntermountain West. p.424-428. In: 

Proceedings of the California riparian systems 

conference. 17-19 September 1981. Davis, CA. 

Actual research that identifies the influences of 

livestock grazing has on riparian and aquatic 

ecosystems is limited. A research study initiated by 

the USDA Forest Service in 1975 studied these 

influences and was seeking to find solutions so that 

managers would have better information to evaluate 

range management alternatives. Continuous and rest 

rotation grazing systems on riparian ecosystems were 

compared and described. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

1329. Platts,WS (1982): Livestock and riparian 

fishery interactions: What are the facts? p.507- 

515. In: Transactions of the 47th North American 

wildlife and natural resources conference. 26-31 

March 1982. Portland, OR. Wildlife Management 

Institute. Washington, DC. 

In most livestock-fishery interaction studies, 

there is a bias because of poor study design, poor 

data collection. or erroneous interpretations and 

seldom have the authors known the exact location of 

the study area prior to the grazed conditions. Those 

studies confounded by stream improvement 

structures, other land uses, or fish stocking programs 

may have just as much bias. Regardless of biases in 

these studies, there is evidence that past grazing 

practices have degraded riparian habitats and 

decreased fish populations. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARlAN 

HABITAT] 

1330. Platts,WS (1983): How many stream 

habitat evaluation systems do we need? -- Less 

than a million. p.212-220. In: Proceedings, 63rd 

annual conference of the Western Association of 

Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 10-14 July 1983. 

Teton Village, WY. 

There are about as many stream habitat 

evaluation systems as there are fisheries biologists. 

There is currently no concentrated effort to bring the 

systems together or to standardize the way that 

variables are being used. It is impossible at this time 

to construct one comprehensive system, but it is 

possible to build and standardize several specific 
evaluation systems that will accurately and fully 

evaluate specific parts of the environmental spectrum 

selected for analysis. A habitat evaluation system is 

proposed that has 10 different process steps 

beginning with the acquisition of the data base and 

ending with the interpretation and decision making 

stages. 

[EVALUATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

TECHNIQUES] 

1331. Platts,WS (1983): Those vital streambanks. 

Western Wildlands 3(9), 7-10. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1332. Platts,WS (1983): Vegetation requirements 

for fisheries habitats. p.184-188. In: Proceedings 

of the Symposia on managing intermountain 

rangelands - improvement of range and wildlife 

habitats. 15-17 September 1981; Twin Falls, ID. 

22-24 June 1982; Elko, NV. USDA Forest Service 

General Technical Report INT-57. 

The paper discusses the importance of 

streamside vegetation to each of the four habitat 

components that make up the aquatic environment. 

The effects of changes in riparian vegetation on 

stream temperatures, streambank stability, stream 

nutrients, fish cover, and fish food are discussed. 

Questions are presented to help land managers make 

intelligent decisions concerning management of 

riparian vegetation. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; FISHERIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1333. Platts,WS (1984): Compatibility of 

livestock grazing strategies with riparian-stream 

systems. p.67-74. In: Bedell,TE [ed.l. Proceedings 

of 1984 Pacific Northwest range management 

short course; Range watersheds, riparian zones 

and economics: Interrelationships in management 

and use. 25-27 January 1984. Pendleton, OR. 

Oregon State University Corvallis, OR. 

Livestock grazing strategiesltechniques have 

been developed to increase plant and litter cover, 

encourage growth of favorable plant species, improve 

species composition, increase plant vigor. and 

prevent soil erosion on upland ranges. The same 

objectives must be met when riparian areas are used 

for grazing. This paper evaluates grazing strategies 

for their compatibility with streamlriparian zones and 

productive fisheries. Fishery specialists should 

understand these procedures in order to work more 

effectively with range conservationists. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1334. Platts,WS (1984): Determining and 

evaluating riparian-stream enhancement needs 

and fish response. p.181-190. In: Hassler,TJ fed.]. 

Pacific Northwest stream habitat management 

workshop. 10-12 October 1984. Arcata, CA. 

Humboldt State University 

Many presently degraded riparian environments 

reached this condition over a 100-year period, so that 

immediate enhancement will not likely occur. 

Riparian enhancement will probably be necessary for 

improvement andlor a extended period of time. The 

paper discusses riparian structure and integrity and 

enhancement procedures for rehabilitating riparian 

habitats. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; FISHERIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1335. Platts,WS (1984): Progress in range 

riparian-stream research at the Intermountain 

Forest and Range Experiment Station. p.78-84. 

In: Proceedings of the Bonneville Chapter of the 

American Fisheries Society. 8-9 February 1984. 

Logan, UT. 

Eight options were presented for land managers 

to use in managing riparian-stream habitats, These 

options vary from the elimination of grazing to 

complicated grazing strategies. Options with the best 

opportunity for maintaining and improving these 

habitats are the inclusion of a riparian pasture, 

fencing streamside corridors, changing the kind of 

livestock, and adding more rest to the grazing cycle. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RESEARCH] 

1336. Platts,WS (1 986)): Livestock grazing 

strategies and fisheries compatibility. North 

American Journal of Fisheries Management 34 p. 

Livestock grazing strategies have been 

developed for upland ranges to increase plant and 

litter cover, encourage growth of favorable plant 

species, improve plant species composition, increase 

plant vigor, and protect soil from erosion. These 

same objectives must be met in the stream riparian 

zone. Grazing strategies are discussed and 

preliminarily evaluated with respect to how they 

satisfy the requirements of the stream riparian zone 

and related fisheries. Better understanding of 

rangeland management strategies may help fishery 

specialists work closer and more effectively with 

range conservationists in rangeland management. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZlNG IMPACTS] 
1337. Platts,WS (1986): Managing fish and 

livestock on Idaho rangelands. Rangelands 8(5), 

213-221. 

Improper livestock grazing can degrade all four 

components that make up the fisheries habitat: 

streamside vegetation, stream channel condition, 

shape and quality of the water column, and the 

structure of the soil portion of the streambank. 

Improving the riparian portion of the rangeland 

allows these stream components a to begin to 

rehabilitate. Where streamside vegetation is abundant 

and vigorous, flood impacts are minimized. 

Rehabilitating riparian environments through grazing 

offers a productive and efficient way to increase wild 

trout populations in Ldaho. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS] 

1338. Platts,WS (1986): Managing riparian 

stream habitats. p.59-62. In: Proceedings of the 

Wyoming water and streamside zone 

conference.28-30 April 1986. Casper, WY. 

University of Wyoming. Laramie, WY. 

Improved grazing management strategies are 

recommended. Riparian pasture and stream corridor 

fencing methods for managing the riparian zones are 

described. The effects of grazing time and species on 

riparian vegetation and stream health are discussed. 

Resilience to rare hydrologic events is an attribute of 

'healthy' riparian zones. Riparian management should 

anticipate the rare event, particularly given the rapid 

climate changes predicted for the next century. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1339. Platts,WS (1986): Using a hydrogeologic, 

historic and futuristic approach to stream 

riparian management. Fisheries, 27 p. 

National assessments and planning to provide for 

the future management of stream riparian habitats are 

required by law. Analytical prognostic models are 

now being developed to guide future decisions. There 

is a need for these models to come from the 

hydrologic-historic past in order to better predict the 

hture. 

[FISHERIES; GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1340. Platts,WS (1989): Compatibility of 

livestock grazing strategies with fisheries. p.103- 

110. In: Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL 

[eds.] Riparian resource management. An 

educational workshop. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management. Billings, MT. 

This paper reviews the effects of grazing on the 

stream condition and the practice of various grazing 

strategies on the riparian ecosystem. Fisheries can be 

damaged by physical destruction of habitat including 

loss of streambank overhang. Increases in sediment 

loads can create changes in channel morphology and 

substrate composition causing detrimental conditions 

for fish. Grazing systems can change the intensity 

and duration of impacts to fish habitat. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING 

TREATMENTS] 

1341. Platts,WS (1990): Managing fisheries and 

wildlife on rangelands grazed by livestock: A 

guidance and reference document for biologists. 

Nevada Department of Wildlife. 114 p. 

If progress is to be made in rehabilitating 

western streams, rangeland management has to be 

improved greatly over that being practiced today. 

This document is dedicated to seeing that the field 

biologist has the tools, background, methods, and 

input necessary to turn this system around. lf the 

present body of knowledge were only put on the 

ground, western streams would rehabilitate quite 

rapidly. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARlAN HABITAT] 

1342. Platts,WS (1991): Livestock grazing. p.389- 

423. In: Influences of forest and rangeland 

management on salmonid fishes and their 

habitats. American Fisheries Society Special 

Publication 19. 

The range environment includes 485.6 million 

hectares in the USA. Sixty nine percent of this 

rangeland was grazed by livestock in 1970, 

furnishing 2 13 million animal unit months of forage. 

Much of this rangeland has become depleted of 

natural and desirable vegetation, adversely affecting 

runoff and altering sediment recruitment and 

transport to and within streams. Even though 

livestock use on western ranges has passed the 100- 

year mark, the importance of grazing effects on 

aquatic resources is just beginning to be understood. 

Research has not hlly identified these problems, 

described their magnitude, or provided methods for 

their solution. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK 

EFFECTS; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1343. Platts,WS; Armour,C; Booth,G; 

Bryant,M; Bufford,JL; Cuplin,P; Jensen,S; 

Lienkaemper,G; Minshal1,GW; Monsen,S; 

Nelson,RL; Sedell,JR; Tuhy,JS (1987): Methods 

for evaluating riparian habitats with applications 
to management. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-221. 177 p. 

This report proposes a standard way of 

measuring and evaluating riparian conditions. The 

methods will be helpful to persons documenting, 

monitoring, predicting, or evaluating riparian, stream 

or range conditions, and how this relates to their 

biotic resources, especially those conditions needed 

to relate to impacts from land uses. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; ORGANIC DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1344. Platts,WS; Behake,RJ; Buckhouse,JC; 

Casey,OE; Claire,EW; Cooper,J; Duff,DA; 

Evans,WA; Haugen,G; Marcuson,PE; 

Meehan,WR; Phillipes,RW; Raleigh,RF; 

Skovlin,JM (1977): Livestock interactions with 

fish and their environments. p.36-41. In: 

Proceedings of the workshop on livestock and 

wildlife-fisheries relationships in the Great Basin. 

Sparks, NV. University of California; Berkeley, 

CA. Spec. Publ. 3301. 

This report assesses the influences livestock have 

on aquatic and riparian environments, provides 

recommendations for more compatibility between 

livestock grazing and fisheries, lists management 

objectives for protecting, restoring or enhancing fish 

and riparian habitats, and describes beneficial 

management practices. The importance of 

recognizing the riparian ecosystem as a separate 

management unit within the range system, as defined 

by the USDA Forest Service, is emphasized. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1345. Platts,WS; Gebhardt,KA; Jackson,WL 

(1985): The effects of large storm events on basinrange riparian stream habitats. p. 30-34. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management; Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

When stream riparian reaches received heavy 

livestock grazing, large storm events had major 

impacts. One ungrazed rehabilitated stream reach 

improved in habitat condition while two adjacently 

grazed stream reaches decreased. Each stream 

reacted differently to channel erosion, with two 

streams showing mainly lateral channel movement 

and the third vertical channel movement. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; STORM EVENTS] 

1346. Platts,WS; Johnson,SJ (1982): Impacts of 

domestic livestock grazing on small mammals of 

forest grazing allotments in southeastern Idaho. 

p.242-250. In: Proceedings of the symposium on 

wildlife-livestock relationships. 20-21 April 1981. 

University of Idaho. Coeur dlAlene, ID. 

Small mammals were sampled in a wide variety 

of habitats on the Targhee National Forest in 1974, 

1977. Significant differences were found in small 

mammal communities between grazed and ungrazed 

sites in both riparian and nonriparian areas. Grazing 

may have been producing an increase in species 

which require low levels of cover while reducing 

species which need higher levels of cover. 

Specialized species limited to high cover within 

riparian areas may be eliminated from localized 

areas. In order to maintain a diversity of small 

mammal species, coordination is needed to maintain 

varied utilization levels. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; SMALL MAMMALS; 

UTILIZATION] 

1347. Platts,WS; Martin,SB (1978): 

Hydrochemical influences on the fishery within 

the phosphate mining area of eastern Idaho. 

USDA Forest Service. Research Note INT-246. 

Hydrochemical analysis of selected streams in 

the upper Blackfoot River drainage showed waters in 

these streams were in a near natural state, with 

possible modification from surrounding land uses. 

Stream hydrochemistry and physical condition of fish 

indicated the fishery was in good condition. No 

influences from present phosphate mining were 

found that threatened fish health or survival. 

Hydrochemically, the Blackfoot system is capable of 

producing a good cutthroat trout fishery, but high 

levels of nutrients probably restrict optimum 

cutthroat trout populations. 

[FISHERIES; HYDROCHEMICAL INFLUENCES; 

HYDROLOGY; MINING IMPACTS] 

1348. Platts,WS; Martin,SB (1980): Livestock 

grazing and logging effects on trout. p. 34-46. In: 

Proceedings of wild trout 11.24-25 September 

1980. Yellowstone National Park, WY. Trout 

Unlimited, Inc. and the Federation of Fly 

Fishermen. 

This paper discusses the influence of livestock 

grazing and timber harvesting activities on trout and 

their environments. Specific pollution effects on 

stream habitat and water quality resulting from such 

development are discussed. Present and future 
management of the resource is summarized, and 

suggestions for future management of both livestock 

and logging are suggested. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; LOGGING 

IMPACTS] 

1349. Platts,WS; Martin,SB; Primbs,ERJ (1979): 

Water quality in an Idaho stream degraded by 

acid mine waters. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-67.19 p. 

Studies from 1967 through 1977 are discussed 

that show seepage from the no longer operating 

Blackbird Mine in east Idaho has resulted in acidic 

waters high in sediment and heavy metals. High 

concentrations of cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, 

lead, and zinc in the Panther Creek drainage are the 

probable cause of diminished insect and fish 

populations in the area. Pollution from the mined 

area will remain a problem in the drainage until 

rehabilitative measures are taken. 

[MINING IMPACTS; POLLUTION; WA'TER 

QUALITY] 

1350. Platts,WS; Meehan,WR (1983): Livestock 

grazing and fish environments: situation and 

needs. p.30-34. In: Menke, JW led.]. Proceedings 

of the workshop on wildlife-fisheries relationships 

in the Great Basin. 3-5 May 1977. Sparks, NV. 

University of California. Berkeley, CA. Spec. 

Publ. No. 3301. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS] 

1351. Platts,WS; Megahan,WF; Minshall,GW 

(1983): Methods for evaluating stream, riparian, 

and biotic conditions. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report INT-138.70 p. 

This publication prescribes standard ways of 

measuring stream, riparian, and biotic conditions and 

evaluates the validity of the recommended 

measurements. Accuracy and precision of most 

measurements are defined. This report will be of 

value to those persons documenting, monitoring, or 

predicting stream conditions and their biotic 

resources, especially those related to impacts from 

land uses. 

[EVALUATION; MONITORING; RESEARCH; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1352. Platts,WS; Nelson,RL (1983): The 

electronic capacitance meter: A tool for evaluating 

riparian fishery habitat. North American Journal 

of Fisheries Management 3(3), 219-227. 

The use of an electronic capacitance probe to 

measure riparian biomass is described. 

[RESEARCH; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1353. Platts,WS; Nelson,RL (1985): Impacts of 

rest rotation grazing on streambanks in forested 

watersheds in Idaho. North American Journal of 

Fisheries Management 5,547-556. 

In Idaho, rest rotation grazing allowed forage in 

the streamside zone to be used at a higher rate than 

on either immediately adjacent range or the overall 

grazing allotment. Complete rest was difficult to 

achieve because of unauthorized use. Cattle appeared 

to graze streamside at high elevations with less 

intensity during the early grazing period when 

vegetation was lush than during the late grazing 

season. Streambank alteration occurred soon after 

cattle were turned into ungrazed meadows. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY; WATERSHED] 

1354. Platts,WS; Nelson,RL (1985): Stream 

habitat and fisheries response to livestock grazing 

and instream improvement structures. Big Creek, 

Utah. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 

40(4), 374-379. 

Fisheries habitat and response were compared on 

an area protected from grazing for 1 1 years and on 

adjacent, heavily grazed areas of similar structural 

and riparian character. Prohibiting grazing 

dramatically improved riparian vegetation, 

streambanks, and stream channel conditions. But this 

improvement was countered by off-site, upstream 

influences and on-site, instream improvement 

structures that functioned as fine sediment traps. Fish 

populations did not respond to improving habitat 

conditions because the relatively small size of the 

livestock exclosure did not reduce the incoming, 

limiting influences created by upstream conditions 

and the artificial nature of the fishery. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; FISHERIES; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

1355. Platts,WS; Nelson,RL (1985): Streamside 

and upland vegetation use by cattle. Rangelands 

7(1), 5-7. 

Proper grazing of streamside vegetation requires 

controlled animal distribution. It is usually not 

feasible to fence every streamside corridor to create 

separate riparian pastures for specialized 

management. Therefore, grazing strategies that 

regulate animal distribution and forage use must be 

developed. Some strategies that appear promising 

include: winter grazing, separate riparian pastures, 

total closure of vulnerable areas, longer rest periods, 
and deferred grazing that allows protective 

vegetation to be maintained during critical runoff 

periods. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1356. Platts,WS; Nelson,RL (1985): Will the 

riparian pasture build good streams? Rangelands 

7(1), 7-1 0. 

Studies show that, on conventionally managed 

allotments using rotation, rest rotation, deferred, and 

season long continuous cattle grazing strategies, 

cattle graze riparian range types more heavily than 

the uplands. Fencing streamside corridors to exclude 

grazing is expensive and a large amount of forage is 

lost. Special management pastures will also be 

expensive, but the forage can be efficiently utilized. 

Eliminating grazing from certain allotments is not 

sociologically, economically, or politically 

acceptable. The special riparian pasture is a 

promising alternative. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

ENHANCEMENT; RIPARIAN PASTURES] 

1357. Platts,WS; Nelson,RL (1989): 

Characteristics of riparian plant communities 

and streambanks with respect to grazing in 

northeastern Utah. p.73-81. In: Gresswel1,RE; 

Barton,BA; Kershner, JL [eds.]. Riparian 

resource management: An educational workshop. 

USDI Bureau of Land Management. Billings, MT. 

Streambanks and associated riparian vegetation 

were studied in grazed and ungrazed pastures along 

Big Creek in Utah to determine whether differences 

in streamside community type, composition, and 

condition were related to differences in streambank 

morphology. Streambank stability was related to the 

community type and grazed condition. Root systems, 

sod formation, horizontal rooting and depth extent 

affect the stability of vegetated streambanks. Where 

sedges become dominant they clearly create the most 

optimal streambank structure. Managers must ensure 

moderate grazing on these so that Cavex spp. 

communities do not revert to less favorable 

communities like bluegrass. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1358. Platts,WS; Nelson,RL (1989): Stream 

canopy and its relationship to salmonid biomass in 

the Intermountain West. North American Journal 

of Fisheries Management 9,446-457. 

Salmonid biomass and stream canopy 

characteristics that affect thermal input were 

measured for streams in the Rocky Mountains and 

Great Basin. Relationships between salmonid 

biomass and overstory attributes differed between 

streams of the two regions. Salmonid biomass was 

strongly correlated with canopy density (+ve), light 

intensity (-ve) and sun arc (-ve) in the more 

productive Great Basin streams, but the same 

correlations were weak for the Rocky Mountain 

streams. Insolation is likely to be a limiting factor in 

the Great Basin streams studied, whereas other 

factors moderate its effect in the Rocky Mountain 

study streams. 

[CANOPY; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1359. Platts,WS; Nelson,RL; Casey,O; Crispin,V 

(1983): Riparian-stream habitat conditions on 

Taber Creek, Nevada, under grazed and ungrazed 

conditions. In: Proceedings of the 63rd annual 

conference of the western fish and wildlife 

agencies. 10-14 July 1983. Teton Village, WY. 

On a previously grazed riparian stream in 

northeastern Nevada, habitat improved when 

completely rested for about 14 years. Improvements 

were observed in water columns (stream 

widthidepthlpools), stream bank, and riparian 

vegetation. In comparison, continuous grazing 

proved to be detrimental to riparian stream habitat. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; EXCLOSURES; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1360. Platts,WS; Nelson,RL; Minshal1,GW 

(1985): Development of aquatic methodology to 

evaluate impacts from livestock grazing; 

methodology testing. USDA Forest Service. 

Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station. Progress Report #4.42 p. BLM, Idaho 

Falls District, Idaho Falls, ID. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RESEARCH] 

1361. Platts,WS; Raleigh,RF (1984): Impacts of 

grazing on wetlands and riparian habitat. p. 1105- 

11 17. In: Developing strategies for rangeland 

management. National Research CounciYNational 

Academy of Sciences, Boulder, CO. Westview 

Press. 

This chapter discusses a paper presented by Jon 

Skovlin at the workshop on "The Impacts of Grazing 

Intensity and Specialized Grazing Systems" held in 

El Paso, Texas, in March, 198 1. Further, it expands 

on the function and value of riparian systems, on 

grazing systems, and on management alternatives 

available. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 
RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1362. Platts,WS; Rinne,JN (1985): Riparian a 

stream enhancement management and researc 

the Rocky Mountains. North American Journa 

Fisheries Management 5(2A), 115-125. 

Past stream enhancement research in the Roc 

Mountains is reviewed. Research is lacking on str 

improvement in a watershed context on a long-ter 

basis. Not all streams can be enhanced. Enhancen 

should be attempted only after techniques describ 

in the literature have been carefully considered as 

appropriate for the site. 

[RESEARCH; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 20 

RIPARlAN RESTORATION] 

1363. Platts,WS; Torquemada,RJ; 

McHenry,ML; Graham,CK (1989): Changes i 

salmon spawning and rearing habitat from 

increased delivery of fine sediment to the Sout 

Fork Salmon River, Idaho. Transactions of thc 

American Fisheries Society 118,274-283. 

Levels of surface and subsurface fine sedime 

(<4.75 mm in diameter) were measured annually 

from 1965 to 1985 in spawning and rearing areas 

chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschuwytscha) ar 

steelhead (0. mykiss) (formerly Sulmo gairdneri) 

the South Fork Salmon River, Idaho. A logging 

moratorium initiated in 1965, coupled with natur 

recovery and watershed rehabilitation, led to 

significant decreases in the amounts of fine 

sediments delivered to and stored in the South Fc 

Salmon River; this reduction led to a limited 

resumption to logging operations within the 

watershed in 1978. By 1985, surface and subsurf 

sediment levels in chinook salmon spawning are, 

averaged 19.2 percent of the surface area and 25 

percent of the volume, respectively. However, 

additional recovery to pre-logging fine sediment 

levels is probably contingent on both further 

watershed recovery and the occurrence of flood 

capable of transporting material downstream. Ar 

equilibrium between incoming sediment from th 

watershed and outgoing sediment from the river 

appears to have been reached under flow regime 

have occurred since 1975. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SALMONIDS; 

SEDIMENTATION; STREAM FLOW] 

1364. Platts,WS; Wagstaff,FJ (1984): Fencia 

control livestock grazing on riparian habitats 

along streams: Is it a viable alternative? Nort 

American Journal of Fisheries Management r 

266-272. 

d 

in 

of 

I 

Lm 

nt 

1 

t 

3r 

n 

< 

:e 

)WS 

that 

to 

3), 

Fencing riparian areas along streams to exclude 

livestock grazing is a management alternative in 

many areas of the West, but cost frequently exceeds 

the gains in fishery values. However, there are few 

alternatives to fencing that are economically and 

sociologically acceptable, i.e. no grazing. Fencing 

costs about $6,000 per stream mile. Maintenance 

costs $60-200 per stream mile, and about 12 AUMs 

per fenced stream mile are lost. If fisheries were the 

only economic factor considered, it would require an 

increase of 47 fisherman days per mile to justify the 

costs. 

[ECONOMICS; EXCLOSURES; GRAZING 

IMPACTS] 

1365. Platts,WS; Wagstaff,FJ; Chaney,E (1989): 

Cattle and fish on the Henry's Fork. Rangelands 

11,58-62. 

A synopsis of the historic uses of the Henry's 

Fork of the Snake River, Idaho, and of present uses, 

and a summary of a streambank rehabilitation project 

along approximately 6 miles of the Henry's Fork. The 

study employs a stuttered deferred grazing rotation 

with selected rest. Electric fencing technology was 

employed. Data describing streambanks and 

vegetation for 1985 (grazed) and 1986 (rested) 

indicates potential for vegetation improvement with 

rest from grazing but does not yet indicate changes in 

streambank characteristics. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1366. Poel,P,; Spooner,RG; Piest,RF (1986): 

Slope indicator measurements of subsurface 

movement in gully walls. Transactions of the 

American Society of Agricultural Engineers 29, 

982-987. 

Slope indicator access tubes were installed in 

gully banks along an actively eroding channel and 

upstream of an actively advancing gully head-cut in 

western Iowa. Deflection of these aluminum tubes 

due to soil movement was measured with a slope 

indicator probe capable of sensing small horizontal 

displacement. Surface soil movement adjacent to the 

channel was toward the channel; deflections of the 

tubes at greater depths were generally toward the 

channel and indicated slab or topping failure. Bank 

failure was related to high peak flows and passing 

channel scarps that decreased bank stability, 

especially during spring runoff. All recorded bank 

failures showed greatest displacement at the surface 

with most of the movement occurring above a depth 

of 3 to 4 m. 
[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOG' 

GULLY CONTROL; STREAMBANK STABILI 

1367. Pogacnik,TM; Marlow,CB (1983): The 

effects of time of grazing on stream channel 

stability and suspended sediment loading. 

Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Socie 

for Range Management. 14-16 February 1983. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

The effects of cattle grazing in riparian zone: 

during different periods of the growing season WI 

investigated on a small watershed in southwest 

Montana. The study was initiated to quantify cha 

in stream channel stability and suspended sedime 

loads due to grazing impacts. Stream channel 

stability by taking cross-sectional diagrams at 5 

stations within the grazed area. Suspended sedim 

and streamflow were measured concurrently. Re: 

of 2 years investigation indicated significant 

difference between early and late season grazing 

treatments. Alterations in the stream channel and 

increases in suspended sediments were most 

significant during the grazing season June 28-Jul 

12. Minimal alteration and sedimentation occurrc 

from September 22- October 6. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; SEDIMENTATION] 

1368. Pollock,MM; Naiman,RJ; Hanley,TA 

(1998): Plant species richness in riparian wet1 

- A test of biodiversity theory. Ecology 79(1), ' 

105. 

Flood frequency, productivity, and spatial 

heterogeneity were correlated with plant species 

richness among wetlands on a coastal island in 

Alaska. Sites with intermediate flood frequencie 

high spatial variation of flood frequencies (SVFI 

were species rich, while sites frequently, rarely, 

permanently flooded and with low SVFF were 

species-poor. The data suggest that small scale s 

variation can dramatically alter the impact of thc 

disturbance. Species rich sites had low to 

intermediate levels of productivity and intermed 

flood frequencies, and species-poor sites had ve 

low or high flood frequencies and low producti~ 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; SPECIES RICHN 

1369. Ponce,VC (1978): Generalized stabilit 

analysis of channel banks. Journal of lrrigati 

and Drainage Engineering. Procedures of thc 

American Society of Civil Engineers 104(4), : 

350. 

Stability of alluvial banks is important in re 

U'l 

es 

t 

ts 

ds 

md 

tial 

:e 

es. 

is] 

I 

3- 

Lion 

to the study of bank erosion and channel 

morphology. The problem of an initially stable 

channel bank subject to undermining at the toe is 

considered in this paper. Undermining at the toe is 

usually caused by the flow impingement originating 

in the curvature of the flow pattern. A generalized 

slope stability analysis is presented, the objective 

being to relate the lowering of the base level to the 

change in the factor of safety against failure of the 

bank, as a function of the slope geometry and soil 

characteristics. The effect of the water table on the 

soil characteristics is not explicitly taken into account 

in the analysis. Rather, slope stability calculations are 

carried out for homogeneous earth banks for which 

average soil properties can be assumed, underscoring 

the qualitative nature of this study. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; EROSION; STREAMBANK 

STABILITY] 

1370. Poplizio,CA; Goetz,H; Chapman,PL 

(1994): Short-term response of riparian vegetation 

to 4 grazing treatments. Journal of Range 

Management 47(1), 48-53. 

Three replications of each of the following 

treatments were applied on Sheep Creek in northcentral Colorado: long-term grazing, protection from 

livestock grazing since 1956, recent protection after 

long-term grazing, and recent livestock grazing 

following protection. When percent foliar cover 

means were paired using Sorensen's similarity index, 

long-term grazing and short-term grazing treatments 

were least similar in late summer, 1988. Long-term 

protection and short-term grazing were most similar 

in early summer, 1989. Average percent cover of 

bare ground, common dandelion, white Dutch clover, 

and legumes grouped as life forms were significantly 

different among treatments, with long-term grazing 

being significantly different from long-term 

protection. Average sedge and forb cover was least 

affected. Average percent grass cover increased 

under short-term protection after a history of longterm grazing. Short-term grazing stimulated foliar 

cover of forbs, grasses, and sedges after more than 30 

years of cattle exclusion. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; INVENTORY; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1371. Potter,DA; Finch,DM (1996): Rio Grande 

Basin Consortium: Mission, goals, and activities. 

p.203-207. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. 

Desired future condition of Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing shared interests and 
concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

The Rio Grande Basin Consortium (RGBC) 

serves as a networking group and clearinghouse for 

scientific information pertaining to the Rio Grande 

Basin. Its membership consists of natural and social 

scientists from New Mexico's three research 

universities, administrators, and resource managers 

from federal, state, and local government agencies, 

members of community and advocacy groups, and 

private citizens. Members share an interest in better 

understanding the physical, ecological, economic, 

social, and cultural dynamics of this drainage area. 

This report briefly describes the history, mission, 

goals and objectives, past and current projects and 

partnerships, and funding of the Consortium. 

[PARTNERSHIPS; R10 GRANDE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1372. Potter,DU; Gorman,SM (1996): Spatial 

relationships among lightning, precipitation, and 

vegetative cover in watersheds of the Rio Puerco 

Basin: An introduction. p.113-127. In: Shaw,DW; 

Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired future condition 

for Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

This paper explores the question "is there a 

relationship between seasonal precipitation amounts 

and vegetative cover at a specific site near Grants, 

New Mexico?" Several hypotheses are investigated. 

One is that the organizing factor for vegetative 

response to precipitation is the amount of summer 

precipitation from convective thunderstorms. The 

variable winter precipitation (high in El Nino years 

and low in La Nina years) does not provide a 

dependable amount of moisture, and plant cover or 

basal areas are not well correlated with it. 

Alternatively, winter or annual precipitation may be 

the organizing factor for vegetation response. 

Otherwise, factors such as land use activities, soil 

type, geological features, temperatures, etc., could be 

the primary organizers of vegetation pattern within 

the study site. A Geographic Information System 

(GIS/ARC/Info) vector data structure will be used to 

organize, analyze and display the data. Final products 

will include GIs thematic maps of the study area that 

display precipitation and vegetation data. The results 

of statistical and spatial operations such as linear 

regressions, interpolations, and kriging will be 

presented and discussed in subsequent publications. 

[COVER; GIs; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

PRECIPITATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SPATIAL SCALE; WATERSHED] 

1373. Potyondy,JP (1987): Some techniques for 

using frequency analysis and real time data to 

interpret flood potential data. Water Resources 

Bulletin 23(1), 139-145. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; STREAM 

FLOW; WATER SUPPLY] 

1374. Potyondy,JP (1996): Technical issues 

related to non-point source management. p.65-73. 

In: National hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 

April - 1 May 1992; Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

Non-point source pollution is a major water 

quality problem. Because of inherent differences 

between point sources and non-point sources, 

different control strategies are required. Non-point 

source control strategies rely primarily on the 

application of Best Management Practices (BMPs) as 

the means to achieve protection of designated 

beneficial uses. Increasingly, environmental groups 

and regulatory agencies are looking toward instream 

numeric water quality criteria as a regulatory 

mechanism for controlling non-point sources. 

Numerous technical problems exist with this 

approach. The most significant being the highly 

variable and poorly understood relationships between 

land use and the beneficial uses that have to be 

protected. The continued use of BMPs appears to 

offer important advantages over instream water 

quality standards and their continued use is 

suggested. In the long term, monitoring data 

accumulated to evaluate BMPs can be used to build a 

sound scientific basis for eventual evolution to water 

quality based approaches. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1375. Power,ME; Sun,A; Parker,G; 

Dietrich,WE; Wootton,JT (1995): Hydraulic food 

chain models. BioScience 45(3), 159-167. 

Modeling efforts can be particularly effective in 

guiding field studies in large, dynamic, riverine 

systems, where sampling and experimental 

manipulations are difficult. The authors see the 

interaction of modeling and field investigation as the 

best approach to understanding the complex 

environmental problems such as those that arise 

when levees eliminate the floodplain and the flood 

pulse, or regulation eliminates, alters or dampens 

seasonal changes in discharge - the master variable 

that limits and resets river populations throughout 

entire drainage networks. Future research is likely to 

support the basic ecological paradox of rivers: that 
large, frequent hydrologic perturbations are crucial 

for long-term maintenance of their biodiversity, their 

enormous productivity, and the higher trophic levels, 

which include the biological populations most prized 

by humans. 

[BIODIVERSITY; FLOOD IMPACTS; 

FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT; HYDROLOGY; 

MODELING; RESEARCH] 

1376. Prange,R (1993): Duck Creek riparian 

habitat restoration project, Henry's Lake, Idaho. 

p.395-396. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,DF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared values. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-226. 

This project demonstrated that the traditional 

barriers between ranchers and fishery interests could 

be overcome for common gain. A modest project was 

initially undertaken with one rancherlcooperator. The 

success of that first project proved contagious and 

caused other ranchers to become voluntarily 

involved. 

[COLLABORATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1377. Pratt,J; Garcia,J; Orloff,S (1987): 

Riparian habitat assessment techniques. In: 

Streamside management: Riparian wildlife and 

forestry interactions. An interdisciplinary 

symposium. 11-13 February 1987. University of 

Washington. Seattle, WA. 

A new method for comprehensive inventory and 

evaluation of stream corridors was developed for the 

purpose of identifying riparian and riverine areas of 

high value to fish and wildlife. The method, the 

Stream Corridor Inventory and Evaluation System 

(SCIES), is capable of integrating Instream Flow 

Incremental Method evaluations and Habitat 

Evaluation Procedures evaluations or may be used 

independently. 

[TNVENTORY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1378. Price,KP; Ridd,MK (1 983): Riparian 

habitat on the Humbolt River, Deeth to Elko, 

Nevada. Center for Remote Sensing and 

Cartography. CRCS Report 83-3. University of 

Utah Research Institute; Salt Lake City, UT. 48 p. 

This study was conducted to provide Nevada 

Department of Wildlife with a map inventory of the 

major habitat types existing along the Humboldt 

River riparian zone. It was also initiated to describe 

the ecological relationships that exist between habitat 

types and their surrounding environment, and to 

report impacts to the habitat due to management 

practices along the river. The principal source of data 

for this study was a variety aerial photographs with 

trips to the field for verification of vegetation types. 

Management practices such as willow eradication, 

river damming, bridges and bank stabilization, and 

channelization were mapped and their environmental 

impacts discussed. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; CHANNEL DYNAMICS; 

INVENTORY; REMOTE SENSING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIVER ECOLOGY; STREAMBANK 

PROTECTION; WILLOW] 

1379. Prichard,D (1998): Riparian area 

management: A user guide to assessing proper 

functioning condition and the supporting science 

for lotic areas. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management Technical Reference 1737-15. 136 p. 

A method that was developed by an interagency 

work group is presented for evaluating the condition 

of riparian wetland areas. The method determines if 

an area is in proper functioning condition. The 

process is both qualitative and science-based and 

considers biotic and abiotic factors relating to 

physical function. A standard checklist is used to 

ensure consistency in reporting condition. When 

quantification is necessary, numerous methods of 

quantification are provided. 

[HYDROLOGY; PROPER FUNCTIONING 

CONDITION; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

WETLANDS] 

1380. Prichard,D; Barrett,H; Cagney,J; Clark,R; 

Fogg,J; Gebhardt,K; Hansen,PL; Mitchell,B; 

Tippy,D (1993): Riparian area management: 

Process for assessing proper functioning 

condition. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Technical Reference 1737-9.60 p. 

This technical reference outlines the BLM's 

process for assessing the functioning condition of 

riparian areas on public lands. Emphasis is placed on 

the interaction of vegetation, landformlsoils, and 

hydrology in defining capability and potential of an 

area. The importance of using an interdisciplinary 

team is also stressed. The document describes four 

categories of functioning condition: proper 

functioning condition, functional at risk, 

nonfunctional and unknown, and discusses 

management strategies for each. 

[HYDROLOGY; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

PROPER FUNCTIONING CONDITION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS; WETLANDS] 
Leonard,S; Hagenbuck,W (1994): Riparian area 

management: Process for assessing proper 

functioning condition for lentic riparian-wetland 

areas. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Technical Reference 1737-11.46 p. 

This report outlines the BLM's process for 

assessing the functioning condition of lentic riparianwetland areas on public lands. Emphasis is placed on 

the interaction of vegetation, landform/soils, and 

hydrology in defining capability and potential of an 

area. The importance of using an interdisciplinary 

team is also stressed. 

[HYDROLOGY; PROPER FUNCTIONING 

CONDITION; RIPARIAN; SOILS; WETLANDS] 

1382. Prichard,DE; Upham,LL (1985): Texas 

Creek riparian enhancement study. USDI Bureau 

of Land Management. Colorado State Office. 

Technical Bulletin. 13 p. 

This study in southcentral Colorado concludes 

that enhancement of riparian habitat can occur by 

implementing any of the three manipulated factors: 

1) deferred livestock grazing; 2) protective fencing; 

and 3) habitat treatments. The most dramatic 

improvements occurred where livestock grazing was 

excluded in combination with intensive habitat 

treatment projects. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN ENHANCEMENT] 

1383. Prichard,D; Upham,LL (1986): 

Enhancement of riparian areas in Texas Creek, 

Colorado. In: Proceedings of the 51st North 

American wildlife and natural resources 

conference. 21-26 March 1986. Reno, NV. The 

Wildlife Management Institute. 

This study demonstrated that enhancement of 

riparian habitat can occur with: 1) deferred livestock 

grazing; 2) protective fencing; and 3) extensive 

habitat treatment, but the level of improvement 

varied. The most noticeable improvement occurred in 

a segment where livestock grazing was excluded in 

combination with extensive habitat treatment 

projects. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1384. Protasel,G (1987): How institutional laws, 

rules, policies, and objectives influence on-theground riparian forest management. In: 

Streamside management: Riparian wildlife and 

forestry interactions. An interdisciplinary 

symposium. 11-13 February 1987. University of 

Washington. Seattle, WA. 

Riparian forest management is most directly 

influenced by statutes which articulate substantive 

policy and by objectives which are defined by 

mandatory rules. The burden is presently on the 

forester to get the technical assistance needed from 

wildlife biologists in order to wisely manage the 

riparian habitat. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1385. Prouty,M (1987): A new program for 

riparian research. p.7-10. In: USDA Forest 

Service, Intermountain Region. Forest Research 

West. 

A topical article describing the charter of the 

new "Riparian-Stream Ecology and Management" 

research work team based in Boise, Idaho. The team 

was formed to improve the understanding of riparian 

and stream habitats and improve methods of 

managing them for the conservation of resources and 

production of livestock, fish, and wildlife. 

[RESEARCH; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1386. Pruitt,TA; Nadeau,RL (1978): 

Recommended stream resource maintenance flows 

on seven southern Idaho streams. USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service. Instream Flow Information 

Paper No. 8. OBS-78168.60 p. 

[FISHERIES; HYDROLOGY; STREAM FLOW; 

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

1387. Purvis,A (1995): Ecosystem management: 

Where did the concept come from? Why and how 

is it influencing the public policy process? p.458-9. 

In: Proceedings of the fifth international 

rangeland congress. 23-28 July 1995. Salt Lake 

City, UT. 

Ecosystem management is profiled as an 

evolving policy concept. Alternative definitions of 

the term and schemes for implementation are 

discussed. A fundamental ethical conflict which 

poses dilemmas for an operational paradigm is 

discussed. The role of the concept in ameliorating 

endangered species is addressed and future options 

for development/implementation are suggested. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; POLICY] 

1388. Quigley,TM (1981): Estimating 

contribution of overstory vegetation to stream 

surface shade. Wildlife Society Bulletin 9(1), 22- 

27. 

A method for estimating the contribution of 
forest overstory to stream surface shade is presented. 

Characteristics measured are stream width, distance 

from vegetation to stream, orientation of stream, 

height of overstory, density of vegetation, crown 

measurement, location, date, and time. Examples are 

given. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SHADING] 

1389. Quinn,NWT; Clyde,JR (1998): Wetlands 

and aquatic processes: A bed sediment and 

detritus sampler for precise profiling of 

contaminant concentrations in aquatic 

environments. Journal of Environmental Quality 

27,64-67. 

A bed and detritus sampler has been developed 

for use in aquatic environments, such as canals, rivers 

or lakes, for determining precise depth profiles of 

contaminants. The sampler has been used recently to 

determine a profile of bed sediment Selenium 

concentrations with an earth-lined canal, alternatively 

used for conveyance of agricultural drainage and 

wetland water supply. 

[CONTAMINATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

1390. Rabe,F; Elzinga,C; Breckenridge,R (1994): 

Classification of meandering glide and spring 

stream natural areas in Idaho. Natural Areas 

Journal 14(3), 188-202. 

The authors present a classification of 

meandering glide and spring stream types in Idaho 

that effectively identifies potential sites as additional 

natural areas in a statewide network of those 

reserves. These two stream types are defined by 

water source, sinuosity, substrate, and other physical 

characteristics. The first level of the hierarchical 

classification separates streams based on 

geomorphologic landscape characteristics. Further 

subdivisions consider water chemistry and plant 

communities. Modifying terms provide detail but are 

not essential in the classification scheme. This 

classification approach is compared to others and 

describes 16 sites representing the two stream types. 

Photographs and captions describing the 

classification are shown for each stream site. 

[CLASSIFICATION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

NATURAL AREAS] 

1391. Rabe,FW; Biggam,RC; Breckenridge,RM; 

Naskali,RJ (1986): A limnological description of 

selected peatland lakes in Idaho. Journal of the 

Idaho Academy of Science 22(2), 63-85. 

Six peatland lakes in northern and central Idaho 

that occur in terrain glaciated during the Pleistocene 

Epoch were sampled. Three lakes were formed in 

glacial deposits and three lakes formed in ice-scoured 

depressions. The dominant plants comprising the peat 

mats were Carex spp. and Sphagnum spp. The mats 

were located either peripherally along shore, midway 

between a lagg zone open water, or in the center of 

the lake. Only a few flowering plant species were 

observed on sphagnum bogs. Two species of 

insectivorous plants (Drosera spp.) were common 

along with other species able to tolerate low nitrogen 

conditions. Seventy species of aquatic insects were 

identified. Low acidity in some bogs limited the 

number of insects that respire cutaneously or by gills. 

[NATURAL AREAS; PEATLANDS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1392. Rabe,FW; Chadde,SW (1994): 

Classification of aquatic and semi-aquatic wetland 

natural areas in Idaho and western Montana. 

Natural Areas Journal 14(3), 175-187. 

A hierarchical classification of aquatic and 

semiaquatic zones associated with lentic (standing 

water) systems in Idaho and western Montana is 

proposed. This classification is structured like 

Cowardin et al. (1 979), but is modified to apply to 

conditions in the Northern Rocky Mountains. 

Aquatic or open water sites are defined as having a 

depth greater than 0.5 m. Sites less than 0.5 m were 

considered semiaquatic. Wetland types found in 

Idaho and Montana such as peatlands, marshes, 

potholes, swamps, and vernal pools are described and 

classified. Photos of selected study sites illustrate the 

classification process. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; CLASSIFICATION; 

NATURAL AREAS; PEATLANDS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1393. Race,MS (1985): Critique of present 

wetlands policies in the United States based on an 

analysis of past restoration projects in San 

Francisco Bay. Environmental Management 9(1), 

71-82. 

On the basis of an evaluation of past wetland 

restoration projects in San Francisco Bay, California, 

the author concludes that it is debatable that any of 

those sites can be described as completed, active, or 

successfd restoration projects. Wetland 

creationlrestoration has been adopted in the permit 

process as mitigation to offset environmental damage 

or loss of habitat. Since the technology is still largely 

experimental, however, there is no assurance that 

manmade wetlands will persist as substitutes for 

sacrificed natural habitats. Policies that encourage the 
exchange of natural wetlands with manmade 

replacements should proceed with caution. Present 

technology and management are many steps ahead of 

the necessary supporting documentation. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; MITIGATION; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

1394. Radko,MA (1997): Spatially linking 

basinwide stream inventories to arcs representing 

streams in a Geographic Information System. 

USDA Forest Sewice. General Technical Report 

INT-345.22 p. 

Basinwide stream habitat inventories were linked 

to arcs representing streams in a Geographic 

Information System (GIs). The creation of a fish 

habitat GIs layer provides fisheries and land 

managers additional data that can be queried in 

relation to other landscape features and processes 

(i.e. vegetation, roads, erosion, etc.) in a GIs for 

analytical or planning purposes. GIs offers enormous 

organizational and information sharing capabilities in 

a corporate database environment. 

[FISHERIES; GIs; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1395. Raish,C (1996): Historic land use and 

grazing patterns in northern New Mexico. p. 189- 

197. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. tech.]. 

Desired future condition of Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-GTR-272. 

The entrance of the Spanish into what is now 

New Mexico in the 1500s permanently altered 

aboriginal land use and subsistence patterns by the 

introduction of domesticated animals such as cattle, 

horses, sheep, goats, and pigs. During the Spanish 

Colonial and Mexican periods, both the Puebloan 

groups and Hispanic settlers practiced mixed farming 

featuring small numbers of livestock pastured in 

communal grazing areas. After New Mexico became 

a United States Territory, large scale ranching 

ventures also developed in the area. The rapid rise in 

stock numbers associated with the commercial 

ranching ventures, combined with 250 years of 

grazing around the existing small communities, led to 

degradation of land and water resources both in the 

uplands and in riparian areas. Large scale efforts to 

reduce livestock and restore degraded lands have 

been undertaken by the federal government since the 

early 1900s. Yet grazing on public lands remains a 

topic of controversy and debate, as well as an 

important aspect of the lifeway of the small Hispanic 

communities of the region. If the traditional lifeways 

of these communities are to survive, means must be 

found to balance the goals of ecosystem restoration 

with the stock raising needs of the small villages. 

[CULTURAL IMPACTS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; PUBLIC LAND; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1396. Rait,K (1993): The Virgin River: An 

institutional nightmare of opportunity. p.336-340. 

In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

Consumptive use interests and environmental 

advocates are polarized regarding future applications 

of resources in the Virgin River watershed in Utah, 

Arizona, and Nevada. Relegation of water 

adjudication authority has been given to the states, 

however, US Department of Interior has wide 

management authority in the Basin. Presently, the 

decision making authority is fragmented by the 

disparate jurisdictions of Interior agencies. Integrated 

and coordinated watershed management by Interior 

agencies could make the Virgin Basin a pilot project 

for the Ecosystem Management initiative. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATERSHED] 

1397. Raleigh,RF (1979): Closing remarks. p.89- 

90. In: Cope,OB led.]. Forum on Grazing and 

riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 November 1978. 

Denver, CO. 

At this point in time, we simply do not know 

how to safely graze riparian habitats. Resolution will 

require well designed studies in which all interest 

groups have a part. We also need to look at the whole 

array of management options that will ensure the 

health of the riparian habitat. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN ISSUES] 

1398. Raleigh,RF; Duff,DA (1979): Trout stream 

habitat improvement: Ecology and hydrology. 

Paper presented at Wild trout I1 symposium. 

Mammoth, WY. 24-25 September. 

An objective procedure to evaluate stream 

structural needs is presented that is based on the 

habitat requirements of trout species by life stage. 

Effective stream improvement projects involve two 

essential steps: a diagnosis of stream structural 

deficiencies and the installation of stream structures 

designed to meet the biological and hydraulic 

features of the stream. Failure to address either step 

can result in the failure of the improvement project. 
[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; FISHERIES; 

RlPARlAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1399. Ramsey,EW, 111; Spell,RE; Day,RM 

(1994): GIS and remote sensing as wetland 

resource management tools: The fire monitoring 

example. p.133-145. In: Proceedings of an 

international workshop on requirements for 

integrated geographic information systems. 2-3 

February 1994. New Orleans, LA. 

In a preliminary analysis of bum monitoring, 

site-specific canopy reflectance spectra and light 

attenuation curves were acquired for a number of 

fresh marsh sites in coastal Louisiana. Near the time 

of reflectance acquisitions, thematic mapper scenes 

were obtained for winter, spring, and summer 

analysis. Three sites chosen for monitoring canopy 

reflectance depicted changes in unburned, winterburned, and spring-bumed marsh. Comparison 

among all images indicated that winter-early spring 

bums were identifiable on the spring image, but not 

all winter-early bums were identifiable in summer. 

Spring bums (post-spring image) were detectable on 

the summer image, as were some winter-early spring 

bums; however, the two bum ages were not 

separable. 

[CANOPY; GIs; REMOTE SENSING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1400. Randall,KE (1993): Protection and 

management of riparian areas through water 

quality programs in Arizona. p.107-111. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

This paper discusses four programs that have 

been implemented by Arizona Department of 

Environmental Quality: the Non-point Source, Point 

Source, Monitoring, and Water Quality Standards 

Programs. The relationship between these programs 

and the kinds of protection they provide to riparian 

areas is described. Future programs will require the 

evaluation of the effects of groundwater pumping, 

surface water diversions, and land use activities on 

riparian areas. 

[NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; POINT 

SOURCE POLLUTION; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; WATER QUALITY] 

1401. Randall,KE (1996): The Arizona Riparian 

Area Advisory Committee: An experience in 

defining desired conditions. p.216-226. In: Shaw, 

DW; Finch, DM [tech. coord.]. Desired future 

conditions in Southwestern riparian ecosystems: 

Bringing interests and concerns together. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report RMGTR-272. 

Created in 1992 by the state legislature, the 

Riparian Area Advisory Committee (RAAC) 

developed recommendations for protecting, 

maintaining, and restoring riparian areas in Arizona. 

These recommendations were submitted to the 

Legislature and to the Governor after concluding a 

two-year period of discussion and study. The RAAC, 

consisting of 34 members broadly representative of 

federal and state agencies, tribal government, 

counties, municipalities, major economic resource 

user groups as well as environmental and recreational 

organizations, agreed on a Conservation Goal and on 

the broad outline of a riparian protection strategy that 

took a watershed approach. The adopted Goal was to 

sustain and enhance Arizona's riparian areas by 

managing land, water, and resource uses to protect 

ecological integrity and functionality. 

[DESIRED FUTURE CONDITIONS; 

ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1402. Range Inventory Standardization 

Committee (RISC). Society for Range 

Management. (1983): Guidelines and terminology 

for range inventories and monitoring. Presented 

to Board of Directors of SRM. Albuquerque, NM. 

February 1983.13 p. 

[DEFINITIONS; INVENTORY; MONITORING] 

1403. Rango,A (1985): Assessment of remote 

sensing input to hydrologic models. Water 

Resources Bulletin 21(3), 423-432. 

Remotely sensed variables such as land cover 

type and snow cover extent can currently be used 

directly and effectively in a few specific hydrologic 

models. Regression models can also be developed 

using physiographic and snow cover data to permit 

estimation of discharge characteristics over extended 

periods such as a season or year. Most models, 

however, are not of an appropriate design to readily 

accept as input the various types of remote sensing 

parameters that can be obtained now or in the fbture. 

Efforts should be devoted now to either modifying 

existing models or developing new models that can 

use this data. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; REMOTE 

SENSING; WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 
1404. Ratliff, RD (1983): Nebraska sedge (Carex 

nebraskensis Dewey): Observations on shoot life 

history and management. Journal of Range 

Management 36(4), 429-430. 

Nebraska sedge, a valuable and distinct species, 

can withstand a high degree of defoliation by 

livestock without being seriously damaged. Shoot life 

history was studied on the Sierra National Forest, 

California. Initial results indicated that: 1) Nebraska 

sedge roots live longer than one year; 2) a high 

proportion of vegetative shoots overwinter; 3) 

overwintering shoots have cores of live leaf tissue 

which can develop rapidly in spring; and 4) about 

half of the shoots surviving winter become 

reproductive and die. As a culmless species, it is 

better able to withstand defoliation. Reproduction 

appears to be mainly vegetative, and a management 

goal of producing an abundance of healthy rhizomes 

is suggested. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN PLANTS; 

SEDGES] 

1405. Ratliff,RD; George,MR; McDougald,NK 

(1 987): Managing livestock grazing on meadows 

of California's Sierra Nevada: A manager - user 

guide. University of California. Berkeley, CA. 

Cooperative Extension Leaflet No. 21421.9 p. 

A management guide with recommendations for 

herbage productivity, timing, and length of grazing 

period for mountain meadows. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

MEADOWS; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1406. Reaser,JK (1996): Spotted frog: Catalyst 

for sharing common ground in the riparian 

ecosystems of Nevada's range landscape. p.32-39. 

In: Evans,KE Icomp.]. Sharing common ground 

on western rangelands: Proceedings of a 

IivestocWbig game symposium. 26-28 February 

1996. Sparks, NV. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-GTR-343.164 p. 

An action plan was developed to empower multisector partnerships for the purpose of identifying 

rangeland management strategies compatible with the 

needs of both regional biota and the human 

population. The spotted frog (Ranapretiosa), a 

candidate for protection under the Endangered 

Species Act, can serve as a valuable indicator of 

ecosystem health. The range of the action plan is 

such that it addresses grazing and other human 

impacts to the loss of diversity issue, using 

amphibians as indicators of ecosystem health. 

[AMPHIBIANS; BIODIVERSITY; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1407. Reece,PE; Nichols,JT; Brummer,JE; 

Enge1,RK; Eskridge,KM (1994): Harvest date and 

fertilizer effects on native and interseeded wetland 

meadows. Journal of Range Management 47(3), 

178-183. 

Forage quality, dry matter yield, and response to 

spring-applied N were similar for native wetland 

meadow vegetation and interseeded areas over a 

range of harvest dates. Native vegetation was 

dominated by sedges. Interseeded sites were 

dominated by Garrison creeping foxtail. Within 

levels of N, first cutting yield was about 60 percent 

of peak standing crop on June 15 and 90 percent on 

July 15 compared with August 15. Regrowth dry 

matter yield was not affected by spring-applied N. 

Sedge dominated, prairie meadows are productive 

and provide predictable forage and wildlife habitat 

management alternatives. 

[FERTILIZATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SEDGES; WETLANDS] 

1408. Reed,J (1979): Resources -- use, abuse, and 

management. p.64-65. In: Cope,OB led.]. Forum 

on Grazing and ripariantstream ecosystems. 3-4 

November 1978. Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

Public land need to be managed for the benefit 

of many elements. The three systems that make up 

the riparian ecosystem - the atmospheric, the surface, 

and the underground - need to be protected by strong, 

well financed multiple use management. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; MULTIPLE USE; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1409. Reed,Jr.,PB (1988): National list of plant 

species that occur in wetlands: National summary. 

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 

88(24), 244. 

Plant species that occur in wetlands, as used in 

the National List, are species that have demonstrated 

an ability to achieve maturity and reproduce in an 

environment where all or portions of soil within the 

root zone become, periodically or continuously, 

saturated or inundated during the growing season. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1410. Reed,Jr.,PB (1988): National list of plant 

species that occur in wetlands: Intermountain 

Region (Region 8). USDI Fish and Wildlife Service 

Bioligical Report 88(26.8), 76. 

This plant list for the Intermountain Region 

(Region 8) is a subset of the National List. Plant 

species that occur in wetlands, as used in the National 

List, are species that have demonstrated an ability to 
achieve maturity and reproduce in an environment 

where all or portions of the soil within the root zone 

become, periodically or continuously, saturated or 

inundated during the growing season. 

[INVENTORY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

141 1. Reeves,GH; Hal1,JD; Roelofs,TD; 

Hickman,TL; Baker,CO (1991): Rehabilitating 

and modifying stream habitats. In: Influences of 

forest and rangeland management of salmonid 

fishes and their habitats. American Fisheries 

Society Special Publication 19519-557. 

Techniques for rehabilitating and modifying 

habitats have been used for over 50 years in fishery 

management, but they have been applied to a 

relatively small degree in the management of western 

salmonids, particularly anadromous stocks. Increased 

rates of harvest and other threats to the survival of 

many wild populations of salmon and trout call for 

intensified fishery management. Intensified logging, 

grazing, irrigation, agriculture, and urbanization have 

diminished the quality and quantity of habitats 

available to wild salmonid stocks. In principle, 

rehabilitation and modification of habitats are 

attractive means to restore the abundance of these 

salmonids. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1412. Regional Interagency Executive 

Committee. (1995): Ecosystem analysis at the 

watershed scale. Federal guide for watershed 

analysis. Regional Ecosystem Office. Portland, OR 

97208 - 3623.26 p. 

Watershed analysis is essentially ecosystem 

analysis at the watershed scale. Watershed analysis is 

a procedure to characterize the human, aquatic, 

riparian and terrestrial conditions, processes, and 

interactions collectively referred to as "ecosystem" 

elements, within a watershed. 

[CLASSIFICATION; ECOSYSTEM 

MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SPATIAL SCALE] 

1413. Reichard,N (1984): Riparian habitat 

restoration: Some techniques for dealing with 

landowners, livestock, and eroding streambanks 

p.128-137. In: Hassler,TJ [ed.]. The Pacific 

Northwest habitat management workshop. 10-12 

October 1984. Humboldt State University. Arcata, 

CA. 

Landowners cooperation is necessary for 

successful habitat restoration on private land. 

Livestock exclusion can be accomplished using a 

variety of fencing materials and layouts. Stock water 

access, stream crossings, and impacts of flooding 

should be considered. Living material can be 

incorporated into streambank stabilization measures 

to enhance physical and biological utility. Several 

biotechnical stabilization methods are illustrated. 

Planting vegetation on protected streamside land may 

significantly accelerate riparian thicket recovery. 

Moisture stress and competition from pasture grasses 

may limit the rate of establishment of desired riparian 

plant species. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

141 4. Reichenbacher,Frank W (1984): Ecology 

and evolution of southwestern riparian plant 

communities. Desert Plants 6(1), 15-22. 

This article addresses the relationship between 

the distributions of plants in the floodplain and a set 

of physical site factors. The plant-floodplain 

relationship does have an important evolutionary 

basis and its understanding contributes to useful 

perspectives on the nature of riparian plant 

communities. Data from Trout Creek, Arizona, on 

grazed vs. ungrazed riparian communities lead to the 

general conclusion that "grazing impact is 

everywhere negative, and locally disastrous". The 

critical features of the floodplain environment to 

which riparian plants are adapted, are a relatively 

high plant available soil moisture in an unstable 

substratum. The gradients created by the movement 

of the stream across its floodplain result in a dynamic 

successional sequence in a riparian habitat 

continuum. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HISTORIC RECORDS; 

RIPARlAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1415. Reichmuth,DR (1990): Salmon River 

habitat structures evaluation of past work and 

proposals for future work (Report prepared by 

GEOMAX. Bozeman, MT.) 

This is a report to the USDA Forest Service from 

a private consultant regarding an evaluation of the 

management of the Salmon River near Stanley, 

Idaho. Past and proposed work focused on 

controlling sediment production and movement while 

promoting fish habitat development. Instream 

structures were examined and evaluated. 

[CHANNEL, DYNAMICS; INSTREAM 

STRUCTURES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

14 16. Rendal1,WB; Robertson,RJ (1990): 

Influence of forest edge on nest site selection by 
tree swallows. Wilson's Bulletin 102(4), 634-644. 

This study examined the influence of forest edge 

on nest site selection by tree swallows at nest box 

grids in uniform habitats. Tree swallows occupied 

nest sites 3- 100 m from the forest edge, while house 

wrens and most eastern bluebirds used boxes within 

30 m of the forest edge. Mean distance to forest edge 

for distribution of nest boxes used by tree swallows 

was greater than those means for house wrens and 

eastern bluebirds, but mean distances to forest edge 

for nest boxes occupied by the latter two species 

were not different. Tree swallows may select nest 

sites farther from the forest edge to avoid the costs of 

aggression or nest destruction that may be incurred 

during interactions with competitors. 

[AVIFAUNA; FOREST EDGE; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1417. Resource Systems, Inc. (1983): Boise River 

fish and wildlife habitat study/ wetland inventory 

and management guidelines. Final Report 

prepared for the City of Boise, ID. December 

1983. 1 58 p. Boise, ID. 

[INVENTORY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; WETLANDS] 

1418. Rex,KD; Malanson,GP (1990): The fractal 

shape of riparian forest patches. Landscape 

Ecology 4(4), 249-258. 

Remnant patches of a forest corridor were 

examined in Iowa. A fractal dimension was found for 

these patches which was incorporated with the 

perimeter:area ratio in an index of shape. The index 

was then regressed on five hydrogeomorphic 

variables hypothesized to represent processes which 

might control patch dimensions, plus a variable to 

represent human impact. Results indicate that in this 

landscape the hydrogeomorphic structures play a 

role, but that human impact is more significant in its 

effect on the shape of the forest patches. Other 

structures, such as regional topography, may account 

for the unexplained variance. The index of shape 

used in this paper may be useful as an independent 

variable in studies of ecological processes affected by 

patch shape and form and as a guide to conservation. 

[FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT; LANDSCAPE 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

141 9. Rhodes,BJ; Marlow,CB; Shenvood,HW 

(1995): Monitoring streambank stability: Grazing 

impacts or stream variability? Montana 

Agricultural Research 12(2), 3-8. 

Stream channel monitoring and management 

efforts should be directed toward specific areas of 

concern, rather than the grazing unit as a whole. 

Riparian grazing standards must be developed for the 

specific reach or stream conditions. Widespread use 

of the same set of grazing standards over large areas 

and entire allotments can not be considered a reliable 

basis for monitoring efforts because of the natural 

variation occurring within and between streams in the 

same watershed. The use of regional or national 

standards may not be beneficial to either the natural 

resource base or local economic uses. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; MONITORING; 

STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES] 

1420. Rhodes,J; Skau,CM; Greenlee,D; 

Brown,DL (1985): Quantifcation of nitrate uptake 

by riparian forests and wetlands in an 

undisturbed headwaters watershed. p.175-179. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-120. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

During three years of research on a headwaters 

watershed, the area was shown to be capable of 

removing over 99 percent of the incoming nitrate 

nitrogen. Riparian vegetation nitrate uptake and 

output, and microbial denitrification will be 

incorporated into hydrologically-based nutrient 

transport models. 

[MODELING; NUTRIENT CYCLES; WATER 

QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

1421. Ribaudo,MO; Young,CE (1989): 

Estimating the water quality benefits from soil 

erosion control. Water Resources Bulletin 25,71- 

78. 

A framework for estimating the water quality 

benefits from soil erosion was developed, based on 

the linkages between soil erosion and off-site 

damages. The linkages were: erosion on the field, 

movement of eroded materials to waterways, impact 

of discharged material on water quality parameters, 

impact of water quality changes on ability of water to 

provide economic services, and the economic value 

of the changes in water use. Linkages were modeled 

in order to estimate water quality benefits from 

reductions in soil erosion. A number of simplifying 

assumptions were made to represent links that could 

not be modeled. 

[HYDROLOGY; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; SOILS; WATER QUALITY] 

1422. Ricciardi,A (1998): The exotic species 
problem and freshwater conservation. Wild Earth 

8(1), 44-49. 

The author describes the origin and course of 

exotic plant and animal invasions. The problem has 

expanded to affect almost everyone and the only 

recourse is a dependence on personal responsibility. 

He advocates political support for preventative exotic 

species legislation; opposition to dubious aquaculture 

schemes; routine inspection of boating and fishing 

gear; and, making intelligent decisions about the use 

of live bait or disposal of aquarium pets. 

[AQUACULTURE; EXOTICS; FRESHWATER 

CONSERVATION] 

1423. Rice,J; Ohmart,RD; Anderson,BW (1983): 

Habitat selection attributes of an avian 

community: A discriminant analysis investigation. 

Ecological Monographs 53(3), 263-290. 

Habitat use characteristics of all bird species in 

the Lower Colorado River valley were studied. Mean 

habitat disciminability of all species varied from a 

low of 86 percent in summer to a high of 9 1 percent 

in late summer. Most species showed extensive 

variability among seasons in both the degree of 

habitat selectivity and criteria used in habitat 

selection. The variability reflected both changes in 

the population structure of the species and responses 

to changing resource and climatic pressures. The mix 

of habitat generalists and specialists and the habitat 

selectivity of individual species varied seasonally, 

implying that the organization of habitat use of the 

community is the dynamic product of many 

interacting factors. Species showed preferences for 

particular habitat attributes more frequently than they 

avoided habitat attributes. Foliage height diversity 

was the most frequently important variable in 

differentiating areas uses from areas not used. 

Proportions of honey mesquite, cottonwood, and 

willow in the vegetation were also frequently 

important variables in the selection of habitat by 

avian species. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1424. Rich,LR (1952): Forest and range 

vegetation. American Society of Civil Engineering 

Transactions 117,974-990. 

Few areas in the western United States have 

unlimited water available or for full potential 

consumptive use. Water use has varied from 77 

percent to 90 percent on forested watersheds, and is 

generally higher on rangelands. A method for 

describing consumptive use of forest and range 

vegetation is to divide the water year into four 

periods: 1) soil moisture recharge, 2) water surplus, 

3) soil moisture utilization, and 4) water deficit. 

Consumptive use is dependent on total precipitation 

less the amount of surface runoff. 

[HYDROLOGY; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT; WATERSHED] 

1425. Richards,K (1982): Rivers - Form and 

process in alluvial channels. Metheun, New York, 

NY. 358 p. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHIOLOGY; 

HYDRAULICS] 

1426. Richards,MT; Wood,DB (1985): The 

economic value of sport fishing at Lee's Ferry, 

Arizona. p.219-222. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH Itech. coord.1. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Sewice. Gen~eral 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Economic analysis of trophy and non-trophy 

sport fishing was conducted at Lee's Ferry, Arizona, 

to determine values. Based on those values, 

management recommendations were made that 

permitted discrimination between users of the 

riparian environment and among fishermen 

specifically. 

[ECONOMICS; RECREATION IMPACIS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1427. Rickard,WH; Cushing,CE (1982): 

Recovery of streamside woody vegetation after 

exclusion of livestock grazing. Journal of Range 

Management 35(3), 360-361. 

Removal of livestock grazing along a small, 

perennial desert stream in southern Washington 

allowed the reestablishment of woody vegetation 

(Salix amygdaloides) in the riparian zone within 10 

years. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1428. Rickard,WH; Price,KR (1989): lJptake of 

tritiated groundwater by black locust trees. 

Northwest Science 63(3), 87-89. 

Artificially planted trees have survived for four 

decades in the dry climate of south-central1 

Washington without irrigation. It was believed that 

tree survival depended on root contact with 

groundwater but this assumption had never been 

tested. Leaf water from trees growing at a location 

where groundwater was 7.7 m below the surface had 

elevated levels of tritium. Well water also had 

elevated levels of tritium indicating that some of the 
tritium measured in leaf water was obtained from 

root contact with tritiated groundwater. 

Concentrations in leaf water were greatest in August 

when sources of tritium other than groundwater were 

least abundant, suggesting that the trees relied most 

heavily on groundwater during the dry season. 

[GROUNDWATER; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 

PI.ANTS] 

1429. Rickard,WH; Rogers,LE; Vaughan,BE; 

Liebetrau,SF (Eds.) (1988): Shrub-steppe balance 

and change in a semi-arid terrestrial ecosystem. 

Developments in agricultural and managed forest 

ecology series. Vol. 20. Elsevier Science Publishing 

Company Inc. New York, NY. 272 p. 

The text includes eight bibliographic chapters 

which focus on research conducted at the Arid Land 

Ecological Reserve, at the Hanford Site of the Lower 

Columbia River: 1) introduction: shrub-steppe lands; 

2) climate of the Hanford Site; 3) soils: carbon and 

mineral cycling processes; 4) water balance; 5) 

springs and streams; 6) plant communities: 

characteristics and responses; 7) terrestrial animal 

habitats and population responses; 8) theoretical 

perspective on ecosystem disturbance and recovery. 

Topics covered which are relevant to the riparian 

ecosystem include bird populations, hydrology of 

springs and streams and associated vegetation, and 

effects of land uses on the sagebrush-bunchgrass 

uplands. 

[AVIFAUNA; BIBLIOGRAPHY; HYDROLOGY; 

PLANT COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SOILS] 

1430. Riegel,GM; Sjejcar,TJ; Trent,JD (1991): 

Seasonal physiologic and community response to a 

riparian montane meadow water table gradient. 

In: Abstracts of the sixty fourth annual meeting of 

the Northwest Scientific Association. 20-22 March 

1991. Boise State University. Boise, ID. 

Highly productive meadows may lose much of 

their productivity when stream channels become 

eroded or down cut. Mesic communities that once 

dominated the floodplain or meadow may now be 

restricted to the zone adjacent to the stream. In this 

study, the objective was to determine the influence 

on graminoid physiology of northern Sierra Nevada 

montane meadow species by a decrease in water table 

depth caused from down cutting. There were no 

differences in photosynthesis between wet and dry 

locations. Transpiration and conductance rates were 

not different by location but were different by species 

later in the growing season. Differences in pre-dawn 

xylem potentials by location occurred early to 

midseason while midday xylem potential differences 

occurred from early through middle of the growing 

season. 

[HYDROLOGY; MEADOWS; PLANT 

PHYSIOLOGY; RIPARIAN PLANTS; WATER 

TABLE EFFECTS] 

1431. Rieman,BE; McIntyre,JD (1993): 

Demographic and habitat requirements for 

conservation of bull trout. USDA Forest Service. 

lntermountain Research Station. General 

Technical Report INT-302.38 p. 

This report identified elements in bull trout 

biology, population dynamics, habitat, and biotic 

interactions important to conservation of the species. 

Even though bull trout appear to have more specific 

habitat requirements than other salmonids, no critical 

thresholds of acceptable habitat condition were 

found. Size, temporal variation, and spatial 

distribution are likely to influence the stability of 

local and regional populations. Isolated populations 

are not likely to persist indefinitely because 

disruption of key habitat characteristics threatens 

these numbers. Conservation of this species will 

require maintenance and restoration of high quality, 

connected habitats. 

[BULL TROUT; FISH HABITAT; POPULATION 

DYNAMICS; SALMONIDS] 

1432. Riley,AL (1998): Restoring streams in 

cities: A guide for planners, policymakers, and 

citizens. Island Press. Covelo, CA. 450 p. 

The book presents alternatives to traditional 

practices that respond to problems of flooding and 

erosion in natural environments. Suggested options 

are proposed to repair existing environmental 

damage and prevent that damage from happening. 

The concept here is to de-emphasize "control" and 

recognize stream as natural landscape features in the 

urban environment. Land use planning, site design, 

and watershed restoration measures are presented 

along with stream channel modifications and floodproofing strategies. More than 100 photos are 

included. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; URBAN IMPACTS] 

1433. Rink,LP; Wikndell,JR (1 988): Riparian 

wetland enhancement in the San Miguel River 

Valley, Telluride, CO. p.102-105. In: Mutz,K; 

Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK [eds.]. 

Restoration, creation, and management of wetland 

and riparian ecosystems in the American West. A 

symposium of the Rocky Mountain Chapter of the 
Society of Wetland Scientists. 

Historically, the San Miguel River corridor had 

been severely impacted by channelization, mine 

tailing deposition, and livestock grazing. The 

mitigation project involves replacement of riparian 

vegetation, streambank stabilization through willow 

plantings, creating riparian wetland buffer zones, and 

enhanced control of non-point source pollution 

control. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

1434. Rinne,J (1998): Grazing and fishes in the 

Southwest: Confounding factors for research. 

p.75-84. In: Potts,DF led.]. Range management 

and water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

There is little information available regarding the 

relationships and interactions of livestock and fishes 

in the southwestern US. Moreover, there are certain 

factors that render research difficult. These include: 

1) the species of fish under consideration; 2) 

temporal-spatial factors; 3) habitat influences; and 4) 

fishery management practices. Acquisition of valid, 

defensible data must address these factors. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; LlVESTOCK 

EFFECTS; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1435. Rinne,JN (1985): Livestock grazing effects 

on Southwestern streams: a complex research 

problem. p.295-299. In: Johnson,RR, Ziebel1,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

It is problematical to conduct research on the 

effects of domestic livestock grazing on stream 

environments and biota in southwestern national 

forests. The multiple use concept, spatial temporal 

factors, inadequate control and replication, and 

changes in land management objectives and direction 

render it difficult to effectively study grazing 

impacts. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RESEARCH] 

1436. Rinne,JN (1988): Effects of livestock 

grazing exclosure on aquatic macroinvertebrates 

in a montane stream, New Mexico. Great Basin 

Naturalist 48(2), 146-153. 

Based on a limited literature and this study, the 

author concludes that aquatic macroinvertebrates are 

useful biological indicators of grazing impacts on 

stream ecosystems. The author emphasizes the 

importance of collecting baseline data and of 

defining the variability of factors within study areas 

prior to implementing treatments. Linear changes in 

stream habitat may affect water quality and biota in 

the stream quite apart from the effects of grazing and 

exclosure. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; EXPERIMENTAL 

DESIGN; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

INVERTEBRATES] 

1437. Rinne,JN (1988): Grazing effects on stream 

habitat and fishes: research design considerations. 

North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management 8,240-247. 

A 4-year study of a montane stream from which 

cattle grazing had been excluded for 10 years 

indicated that stream bank vegetation and stability 

were markedly improved and that stream substrate 

fines were somewhat reduced, but it indicated that 

fi sh populations were unaffected. Shortcomings of 

this case history study are common to similarly 

designed studies of grazing effects on fishes and their 

habitats. Three major deficiencies in research design 

are (1) lack of pretreatment data, (2) improper 

consideration of fishery management principles, and, 

(3) linear positioning of treatments along a stream. 

Future research on riparian grazing effects must 

address these factors in addition to designs of longterm (lo+ years) ecosystem (watershed) studies. 

[EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN; FISHERIES; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RESEARCH] 

1438. Rinne,JN (1990): The utility of stream 

habitat and biota for identifying potential 

conflicting forest land uses: Montane riparian 

areas. Forest Ecology and Management 33134, 

363-383. 

Recent investigations on the effects of land 

management practices on riparian stream systems 

have often produced contradictory results. 

Inconsistencies have occurred, in part, because of 

efforts that have not been totally comprehensive and, 

in part, because of poor study design andlor 

procedure. This paper reviews the literature on the 

use of fine sediment, aquatic macroinvertebrates, and 

fishes as indicators for identifying and describing the 

effects of various land use practices on riparian 

stream systems. The results of research on the effects 

of land management practices on these three 

variables is also presented. The author suggests it is 

valid to use these variables to detect the effects of 

multiple use practices on riparian stream systems, 

although other variables such as solar radiation, water 
quality, water temperature, riparian vegetation, and 

others may also be useful. More reliable definition of 

effects will require the collection of baseline data, 

protracted ecosystem scale studies, and consideration 

of multiple physical and biotic features. 

[LAND USE; MACROINVERTEBRATES; 

MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1439. Rinne,JN (1993): A wildlife viewpoint - 

southwestern riparian areas: Habitats for fishes. 

p.46-53. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH Itech. coord.1. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

Riparian stream areas, that are critical aquatic 

habitats for fishes, have become markedly altered by 

off-site land management and on-site instream 

alteration of flows. In order to sustain fish 

populations, future management must be on a 

watershed or ecosystem basis. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; SPATIAL SCALE] 

1440. Rinne,JN (1996): Desired future condition: 

Fish habitat in southwestern riparian-stream 

habitats. p.336-345. In: Shaw, DW; Finch, DM 

[tech. coord.]. Desired future conditions for 

southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Riparian ecosystems in the southwestern United 

States provide valuable habitats for many living 

organisms including native fishes. An analysis of 

habitat components important to native fishes was 

made based on the literature, case histories, and 

unpublished and observational data. Results suggest a 

natural, surface water hydrograph and lack of 

introduced species of fishes being the two most 

critical habitat components delimiting sustainability 

of native fishes in the Southwest. Vegetation, channel 

characteristics and instream hydrological features 

(i.e. depth, velocity, and substrate) are important in 

distribution and sustainability of native fishes but 

secondary to the first two and are more important or 

relevant as management activities affect them. 

Desired future condition for native southwestern 

fishes ultimately depends on proper or desirable 

functioning of riparian ecosystems. 

[DESIRED FUTURE CONDITIONS; NATIVE 

FISHES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1441. Rinne,JN; LaFayette,RA (1991): 

Southwestern riparian stream ecosystems: 

Research design, complexity, and opportunity. 

USDA Forest Service. Research Paper RM-299. 8 

P. 

Two basic approaches to research design in 

riparian areas - intrastream and interstream - and their 

merits are evaluated based on physical, chemical, and 

biological data from streams in central Arizona and 

northern New Mexico. For effective generation of 

dependable, and applicable information for future 

management of forest lands, a partnership: 1) 

characterized by constant and intimate interaction of 

research and management personnel; 2) operating 

within the framework of daily forest land 

management activity; and 3) vigilant of research 

opportunity - is proposed. 

[FISHERIES; MONITORING; RESEARCH; 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1442. Rinne,JN; Tharlson,T (1986): Effects of 

domestic livestock grazing on montane streams: 

Aquatic macroinvertebrates. p.91-98. In: 

Proceedings of the Western Fish and Wildlife 

Agencies. Western Division American Fisheries 

Society. 20-23 July 1986. Portland, OR. 

Aquatic macroinvertebrate populations in 

reaches of a montane stream within areas removed 

from domestic grazing were lower than in reaches of 

the stream where cattle grazing was present. 

Differences were not consistently significant 

(P<0.05) and could be easily attributed to lack of 

pretreatment data and linear changes in stream 

habitat as to the presence or absence of cattle grazing. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

MACROINVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1443. Risenhoover,KL (1987): Intraspecific 

variation in moose preference for willows. p.58-63. 

In: Proceedings - Symposium on plant-herbivore 

interactions. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-222. 

Moose preference for Alaskan felt-leaf willow 

and gray-leaf willow were observed and compared 

among different habitats in and around Denali 

National Park, Alaska. Observations during the 

winter-spring searching phase of diet selection 

indicate that moose are selective browsers, and feed 

on only a fraction of the plant stems available. Moose 

preferences for individual willow species varied 

considerably among habitat types, and did not appear 

to be related to the availability of biomass. Observed 

variations in willow preference could not be 

attributed to plant nutritional quality, or to the 

amounts of phenols and condensed tannins they 
contained. 

[BROWSING EFFECTS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

MOOSE; WILLOW] 

1444. Ritchie,JC; Rango,A; Kustas,WP; 

Schmugge,TJ; Havstad,KM; Everitt,JH; 

Hipps,LE; Ramaingham,K (1998): Jornex: A 

remote sensing campaign to study plant 

community response to hydrologic fluxes in desert 

grasslands. p. 65-74. In: Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

Long-term investigations at Jornada 

Experimental Range in southern New Mexico have 

yielded a wealth of ground data about the basin 

characteristics, ecosystem dynamics, and vegetation 

response to changing hydrologic and atmospheric 

events. To complement these programs, a campaign 

called JORNEX was begun to collect remotely 

sensed data from aircraft and satellite platforms to 

provide spatial and temporal data. Different 

platforms allow the evaluation of the landscape at 

different scales. These measurements are being used 

to quantify the hydrologic budgets and plant response 

to change in components of the water and energy 

balance at the Jornada. 

[HYDROLOGY; RANGE MANAGEMENT; 

REMOTE SENSING] 

1445. Ritzi,RW; Bouwer,H; Sorooshian,S (1985): 

Water resource conservation by reducing 

phreatophyte transpiration. p. 191-196. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-1 8 April 1985. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Managing the magnitude of depth to the water 

table below floodplains may affect supporting 

phreatophytes and water conservation due to 

reductions in the evapotranspiration. Meanwhile, the 

integrity of the riparian ecosystem is maintained. The 

paper describes a phreatophyte - floodplain system 

model for analysis of economic feasibility. 

[MODELING; PHREATOPHYTES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; STREAM FLOW] 

1446. Roath,LR; Kreuger,WC (1 982): Cattle 

grazing and behavior on a forested range. Journal 

of Range Management 35(3), 332-338. 

Environmental and topographic parameters on a 

mountainous forested range were analyzed to 

establish causes of cattle behavioral response. 

Distinct home range groups of cattle were identified 

through examination of quality and patterns of range 

use, cattle distribution, herd social activities, and 

cattle activities. The home range of one group 

encompassed only upland areas. Water and 

vegetation type were important parameters in 

determining area and degree of use. Vertical distance 

above water was the most important factor in 

determining vegetation utilization on moderately 

steep slopes. Time after sunrise and relative humidity 

factors were key in determining the kind and timing 

of cattle activity. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

1447. Roath,LR; Kreuger,WC (1 982): Cattle 

grazing influence on a montane riparian zone. 

Journal of Range Management 35(1), 100-103. 

A combination of management and physical 

topographic features caused cattle to concentrate on 

the riparian zone early in the grazing season. A large 

percentage of the cattle days and vegetation 

utilization of the riparian zone occurred in the first 4 

weeks of the grazing period. Utilization on 

herbaceous vegetation was 72-76 percent. Impact on 

the most prevalent species, Kentucky bluegrass, was 

minimal. Shrub use increased with increased maturity 

of herbaceous vegetation. Utilization of major shrubs 

was not excessive and had no long-term effects on 

vigor or abundance of shrubs. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

1448. Roberts,BC; White,RC (1992): Effects of 

angler wading on survival of trout eggs and preemergent fry. North American Journal of 

Fisheries Management 12,450-459. 

Multiple wadings during egg development killed 

up to 96 percent of eggs and pre-emergent fry. Single 

wading killed up to 43 percent of eggs. Death 

occurred by crushing or physical disturbance to 

redds, spread of fungi, substrate compaction, 

intergravel flows, and oxygen reductions to trout 

eggs. It is reasonable to assume that wading by cattle 

would result in mortality of eggs and pre-emergent 

fry at least equal to that demonstrated for human 

wading. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; HUMAN 

IMPACTS] 

1449. Roberts,Jr.,TC (1992): Political and social 

aspects of riparian area management. p.120-122. 

In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 

Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings -Symposium 
on ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

Impediments to riparian area improvements are 

institutional and natural resistance to change, mixed 

land ownership, and lack of incentives. Management 

changes that are suggested include improved career 

tracks, adoption of holistic philosophies, use of 

volunteers, consensual problem solving techniques, 

and better incentives for improving management 

programs. 

[PUBLIC COMMENT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; SOCIAL VALUES; 

VOLUNTEERS] 

1450. Robertson,D; Garcia,R; Piwowar,K 

(1987): Comparison of wetland habitat in 

undisturbed and reclaimed phosphate surfacemined wetlands. p.180-193. In: Proceedings of the 

14th annual conference on wetlands restoration 

and creation. Institute of Florida Studies. 14-15 

May 1987. Plant City, FI. 

Macroinvertebrates inhabiting wetlands 

associated with two intermittent first order tributaries 

in Florida were qualitatively censused to assess the 

phosphate industry's ability to reclaim wetland 

habitat after surface mining. The two stream channels 

were reclaimed to marshy reaches that retain water 

year round. Species richness was nearly twice as high 

in the older reclaimed areas. Results suggest that the 

richness of the reclaimed lotic sections will match 

that of undisturbed streams. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; MINED LAND 

RECLAMATION; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1451. Robinson,CT; Minshall,GW (1 998): 

Regional assessment of wadable streams in Idaho, 

USA. Great Basin Naturalist 58(1), 54-65. 

There has been a resurgence of bio-assessment 

techniques for evaluating and monitoring biological 

integrity of stream ecosystems. Biological metrics 

have been refined to account for regional variation in 

aquatic habitats and fauna. This study evaluated 

environmental and macroinvertebrate properties for 

wadable streams in 3 major ecoregions in Idaho. 

Multiple discriminant analyses effectively 

determined habitat and macroinvertebrate differences 

between reference and test streams within 

ecoregions. Results support the contention of a multimetric approach for assessing differences among 

streams. 

[ASSESSMENTS; MACROINVERTEBRATES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1452. Robinson,TW (1952): Phreatophytes and 

their relation to water in the western United 

States. American Geophysical Union Transactions 

33(1), 57-61. 

About 15 million acres of phreatophytes occur in 

the 17 western states and this area is expanding. 

These plants may waste as much as 20 to 25 millionacre-feet of water by transpiration into the 

atmosphere. The potential applications of the water 

that could be reclaimed or salvaged annually are 

substantial. 

[HYDROLOGY; PHREATOPHYTES; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

1453. Rochester,H,Jr; Lloyd,T; Farr,M (1984): 

Physical impacts of small scale hydroelectric 

facilities and their effects on fish and wildlife. 

Western Energy and Land Use Team. USDI Fish 

and Wildlife Service FWSIOBSI-84/19. 

[FISHERIES; HYDROELECTRIC IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM FLOW] 

1454. Rogers,TJ (1996): Insects of the riparian. 

p.154-156. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. 

Desired future conditions of Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

This paper describes life histories, defoliation 

problems, and other activities of insects associated 

with forest tree species growing along high elevation 

streams and river banks. In addition, examples of 

insects and diseases associated with lower elevation 

riparian areas are given. 

[INVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1455. Roesser,Jr.,JC (1988): Blue River 

reclamation project, Breckenridge, CO. p.94-101. 

In: Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; MillerLK 

[eds.]. Restoration, creation, and management of 

wetland and riparian ecosystems in the American 

West. A symposium of the Rocky Mountain 

Chapter of the Society of Wetland Scientists. 14- 

16 November 1988. Denver, CO. 

An assemblage of partnerships has been 

instrumental in recreating a river and wetland 

environment that was lost years ago to gold mining 

operations. One-half-mile of river, including a new 

river channel, drop structures, and revegetation has 

been reconstructed at approximately 112 the cost of 

typical riparian reclamation. 

[MINED LAND RECLAMATION; MINING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 
1456. Rogers,WF; Singh,VP (1986): Some 

geomorphic relationships and hydrograph 

analysis. Water Resources Bulletin 22(5), 777-784. 

Each first order channel acts as a source area for 

surface runoff. The distribution of first order channel 

distances from the gage determines the timing of 

water to the gage. A comparison of the frequency 

histogram of the first order channel distances for 

drainage basins and their hydrographs of runoff from 

general storms showed similarity. This 

correspondence indicated the shape of the surface 

runoff hydrograph and was largely controlled by the 

distribution of first order channel distances. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; RUNOFF] 

1457. Rood,SB; Mahoney,JM (1 993): River 

damming and riparian cottonwoods: Management 

opportunities and problems. p.134-143. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

Cottonwoods (Populus spp.) are the principal 

trees in the riparian areas of the semi-arid regions of 

western North America. Loss of cottonwoods is not 

compensated by enrichment from other tree species. 

The entire gallery forest ecosystem collapses when 

cottonwoods are killed. In the southwestern United 

States, only small remnants of cottonwood forests 

survive. Among majors factors contributing to 

cottonwood forests decline are livestock grazing, 

clearing for crop production, and river damming and 

water diversions. Studies have demonstrated that 

asexual recruitment (vs. sexual recruitment) is an 

extensive and even dominant form of reproduction. 

Moreover, it is the riparian water table depth rather 

than river stage that determines moisture available 

for cottonwoods. 

[COTTONWOOD; DAMS; GALLERY FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

1458. Rood,SB; Mahoney,JM (1 995): River 

damming and riparian cottonwoods along the 

Marias River, Montana. Rivers 5(3), 195-207. 

There is severe deficiency of cottonwood 

seedlings downstream from the Tiber Dam that 

probably results from stabilized river flows. 

Descriptive analyses of riparian cottonwoods and 

quantitative analyses of streamflow patterns were 

conducted to investigate the factors that influence the 

regeneration of riparian cottonwoods. Findings 

suggest that: 1) without exclusion due to flooding, 

zones of dense grass, shrubs, and sedges have 

encroached to the river's edge, competing with 

cottonwood seedlings; 2) the hydrological pattern of 

spring flooding and subsequent gradual flow decline 

required for seedling establishment is lacking; 3) 

erosional and depositional processes are reduced, 

limiting the formation of point and lateral bars that 

are seedling recruitment sites; 4) suspended silt 

settles out in the reservoir and consequently the 

downstream discharge carries little sediment that 

would contribute to bar expansion; and 5) the 

combined lack of flooding and impoverishment of 

suspended material may have resulted in an 

entrenched channel, hrther degrading the 

cottonwood recruitment zone. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; COTTONWOOD; 

DAMS; FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

STREAM FLOW] 

1459. Rooseboom,A; Mulke,FJ (1982): Erosion 

initiation. p.59-66. In: the Proceedings of the 

Exeter Symposium. Recent developments in the 

explanation and prediction of erosion and 

sediment yield. IAHS Publ. No. 137. 

Critical conditions for both cohesionless and 

cohesive materials are analyzed in terms of applied 

power. Power applied by a stream along its bed in 

maintaining motion is compared to the power 

required to dislodge bed particles. In the case of 

cohesionless materials, unique mathematical 

relationships have been derived for both laminar and 

turbulent flow conditions. A theoretical relationship 

has also been established for cohesive materials. This 

relationship was calibrated with field data for cases 

of erosion on steep slopes. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; EROSION; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; SOILS] 

1460. Root,AL; Berry,KA; Markee,NL; 

Giewat,GR (1998): Representing ranching 

communities: Comparing the water policy making 

environment of county commissioners with and 

without ranching constituencies. p.317-324. In: 

Potts,DF led.]. Range management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Results from this survey indicate that county 

commissioners share certain characteristics such as a 

high participation in water related policy decisions, a 

preference for local sources of information, and 

limited training in technical courses related to water. 

[PLANNING; POLICY; WATER RIGHTS] 
Stream restoration: Is fisheries biology enough? 

Fisheries 22(5), 6-1 1. 

The fisheries profession plays a key role in 

planning and implementing stream restoration 

projects throughout the world. To date, however, few 

examples exist of effective stream restoration 

programs/projects. One of the primary reasons that 

stream restoration projects have not succeeded has 

been that projects have been implemented on a small 

scale, site-specific basis. The authors suggest that 

stream restoration would have a better chance of 

success if planned and implemented at a watershed 

scale. For this to happen, stream restoration projects 

must be expanded beyond instream work to include 

modification of upslope and riparian conditions that 

cause stream habitats to decline. Such efforts must 

incorporate other disciplines. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

1462. Roper,BB; Konnoff,D; Heller,D; 

Wieman,K (1998): Durability of Pacific Northwest 

instream structures following floods. North 

American Journal of Fisheries 

Management.18:686-693. 

The authors assessed the durability of 3,946 

instream structures in 94 streams after flood events. 

General durability was high and less than 20 percent 

of the structures had been removed from its original 

placement. Magnitude of flood events had a 

significant effect on structure durability. Stream 

order also affected durability, with structures in large 

streams 20 times more likely to be removed than 

structures in smaller streams. Other conditions that 

affected durability included location of the structure 

within the stream channel, whether the structure was 

anchored or not, structure material, and upslope 

landslide frequency. Such structures are most 

effective when used in degraded stream conditions 

while the activities that caused the habitat 

degradation are simultaneously ameliorated. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; INSTREAM STRUCTURES; 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

1463. Roseboom,D (1994): Case studies on 

biotechnical streambank protection. p.57-65. In: 

Riparian area management: Proceedings of the 

46th annual meeting, Forestry Committee, Great 

Plains Agricultural Council. 20-23 June 1994. 

Manhattan, KS. 

This paper showed biotechnical stabilization and 

instream habitat enhancement techniques that had 

been field tested and were already in use by federal 

and state agencies. Methods described were willow 

post bank stabilization, "lunker" instream habitat 

enhancement, and A-Jack structural and vegetative 

bank stabilization. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 

IMPROVEMENTS; STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1464. Roseboom,D; Russell,K (1985): Riparian 

vegetation reduces stream bank and row crop 

flood damage. p.241-244. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.1. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Channelization is frequently used by farmers to 

divert flood waters from eroding into floodplains 

fields. Erosion from these fields also occurs as scour 

in areas away from the stream bank. Channelization 

may frequently be the only method the landowner 

has to limit flood damages to fi elds. Studies suggest 

that this is only a short-term solution that results in 

long-term damages to streams and fields. Moreover, 

fish surveys documented the elimination of large 

game fish in old channelized stream segments. 

Sediment eliminated much of the instream habitat. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1465. Rosentreter,R (1991): High water indicator 

plants along Idaho waterways. p.18-24. In: 

Proceedings of the symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 29 - 

31 May 1991. Sun Valley, ID. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

Plants restricted to and common under 

seasonally flooded conditions along Idaho waterways 

can be useful for managing and monitoring riparian 

areas. They can function as indicator plants that 

relate topography and channel capacity to annually 

fluctuating water levels. Indicator plants can also be 

useful in evaluating present and past stream 

hydrology conditions. The presence of these indicator 

species can help determine mean flood levels relative 

to the current water level. Stream channel geometry 

is highly variable over the length of a stream, and 

estimating mean high water can help one determine 

the sites available for rehabilitation. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN PLANTS; WATER TABLE 

EFFECTS] 

1466. Rosentreter,R (1992): Camas Prairie and 

possible evolutionary links with Old World 
Artemisia species: A pre-symposium tour. p.223- 

227. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 

Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - Symposium 

on ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

The author conducted a field tour for symposium 

attendees from the Snake River Plains to the Camas 

Prairie, Idaho, and facilitated discussion on the 

geology, soils, and native vegetation en route. The 

field trip concluded with a discussion of the possible 

evolution of woody sagebrush species in North 

America. 

[EVOLUTION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SAGEBRUSH] 

1467. Rosgen,DL (1973): The use of color 

infrared photography for the determination of 

sediment production. p.381-. In : Fluvial 

processes and sedimentation. Proceedings of 

hydrology symposium. Edmonton, Alberta. 

National Research Council. Canada. 

The concepts and special techniques for applying 

color infrared photography in sediment studies were 

presented. The techniques were developed and 

evaluated through a low elevation color infrared 

photography flight conducted on 100 miles of 

streams over the West Fork of the Madison River in 

southeastern Montana. The photographic analysis 

indicated that the majority of the suspended sediment 

sources were primarily from channel erosion. Fluvial 

interpretations derived from photo analysis were also 

presented and discussed. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; EROSION; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION] 

1468. Rosgen,DL (1985): A stream classification 

system. p. 91-95. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.].Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-1 8 

April 1985. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

This paper describes a stream classification 

system that categorizes various stream types by 

morphological characteristics. Criteria include: 

stream gradient, sinuosity, widthldepth ratio, channel 

materials, entrenchment, confinement, and 

soilllandform features. Applications include: riparian 

management guidelines, fisheries habitat 

interpretations, hydraulic geometry, and sediment 

transport relationships. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; CLASSIFICATION; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

1469. Rosgen,DL (1988): A stream classification 

system. p.10-16. In: Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; 

Scott,ML; Miller,LK [eds.]. Restoration, creation, 

and management of wetland and riparian 

ecosystems in the American West. A symposium of 

the Rocky Mountain Chapter of the Society of 

Wetland Scientists. 14-16 November 1988. Denver, 

CO. 

A stream classification is presented which 

categorizes various stream types by morphological 

characteristics. Delineation criteria are stream 

gradient, sinuosity, widthldepth ration, channel 

materials, entrenchment, confinement, and 

soilllandform features. Applications include riparian 

management guidelines, fishery habitat 

interpretations, hydraulic geometry, and sediment 

transport relationships. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; CLASSIFICATION; 

FISH HABITAT] 

1470. Rosgen,DL (1993): Overview of the rivers 

in the west. p.8-15. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

Floodplains and riparian areas need to be 

restored to their proper function. Federal agencies are 

increasingly aware of the need for "environmental 

engineering" and are actively pursuing technical 

expertise to incorporate into river design works. 

Recent restoration work by the author in California, 

Colorado, and Nevada has demonstrated the 

effectiveness of restoring the dimension, patterns and 

profiles of the natural, stable river form. Once 

restored, on-going management to maintain their 

function is critical. Grazing practices, for example, 

have been demonstrated to actually improve stream 

and riparian condition. The collective efforts by 

persons of diverse background and experience are 

needed to maintain functional river systems and 

provide associated resource values. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; PROPER FUNCTIONING 

CONDITION; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

SEDIMENTATION; STREAM FLOW] 

1471. Rosgen,DL; Silvey,HL; Potyondy,JP 

(1986): The use of channel maintenance flow 

concepts in the Forest Service. American Institute 

of Hydrology 2(1, March), 19-26. 

A channel maintenance flow procedure 

developed by USDA Forest Service is described. 

Channel maintenance flows consist of a specified 

range and duration of flows designed to provide for 
the self-maintenance of stream channels. If such 

flows are not available, stream channels will in the 

long term accumulate sediment, accelerate bank 

erosion, and increase the potential for vegetation 

encroachment and other processes which reduce their 

capacity to pass flood flows. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; STREAM FLOW] 

1472. Rosner,U (1998): Effects of historical 

mining on surface water and groundwater - an 

example from northwest Arizona. Environmental 

Geology 33(4), 2240230. 

The surface water in the mining areas of 

northwest Arizona was found to be contaminated by 

various combinations and concentrations of heavy 

metals. Elevated arsenic, cadmium, and iron 

concentrations were detected in most surface water 

samples while lead, copper, and zinc contamination 

differed from region to region, depending on the ore 

mined. The groundwater was seriously polluted by 

arsenic, cadmium, lead, zinc, iron, and manganese in 

the immediate vicinity of mines that processed ore on 

the site. 

[GROUNDWATER; MINING IMPACTS; 

POLLUTION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SURFACE 

WATER-GROUNDWATER INTERACTION] 

1473. Roth,D; Bridges,C; Zimmerman,C (eds.) 

(1991): Riparian: What does it mean to me? 

Proceedings of the third annual convention of the 

Colorado Riparian Association. The Nature 

Conservancy, Boulder, CO. 48 p. 

A compilation of 16 topical and technical papers 

addressing riparian management in Colorado. Most 

of the latter are syntheses of presentations offered in 

more technical detail during the proceedings. Much 

of the information contained herein has been 

published in greater detail in more formal contexts. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1474. Roundy,BA; Young,JA; Cluff,GJ; 

Evans,RA (1983): Measurement of soil water on 

rangelands. USDA Agricultural Research Service. 

Agricultural research results. ARS-W-31. 

September 1983. 

Measurements of soil water content are useful in 

determining effects of precipitation or treatments on 

soil water storage. Gravimetric moisture 

determination by weighing and drying samples is 

inexpensive and simple. Soil water content is rapidly 

determined using gas pressure chambers. Neutron 

probes permit rapid and repeatable measurements of 

soil water content in the same location. Gypsum 

blocks work well for determining matric potentials of 

nonsaline soils down to - 15 bars. Psychrometers can 

be used to measure total soil water potential of saline 

soils and matric potentials of nonsaline soils down to 

about -70 bars. 

[HYDROLOGY; MONITORING; SOIL-WATER 

CONDITIONS] 

1475. Rovey,CEK (1975): Numerical model of 

flow in a stream aquifer system. Hydrology Paper 

No. 74, August 1975. Colorado State University; 

Ft. Collins, CO. 

A three-dimensional, finite difference model was 

developed for simulating steady and unsteady, 

saturated and unsaturated flow in a stream aquifer 

system. The basis of this model is the finite 

difference form of Richard's equation for unsaturated 

and saturated subsurface flow. Effects of streamflow 

on groundwater movement are treated by applying 

the appropriate boundary conditions to Richard's 

equation. Contributions of groundwater to river flow 

are quantified by including seepage rates in the 

computation of river discharge. The threedimensional model was developed for use in this 

study to interact with two-dimensional model 

segments, which were interfaced with the threedimensional model on its upstream and downstream 

ends. Computed estimates of river discharge at each 

end of the study area and water table elevations 

throughout the region agreed reasonably well with 

observed data. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; SURFACE 

WATER-GROUNDWATER INTERACTION] 

1476. Rowley,WD (1985): US Forest Service 

grazing and rangelands - A history. Texas A & M 

University Press, College Station, TX. 270 p. 

This book reviews the history of grazing on 

national forest system lands from the open lands of 

the 19th century to the current times. The evolution 

of USDA Forest Service land management policies 

and the science of range management are carefully 

explained. The history of the agency and the 

development of public attitudes are positively 

correlated. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HISTORIC RECORDS] 

1477. Rupp,CW (1979): Management and policy 

for grazing riparian ecosystems on national forest 

system lands. p.17-19. In: Cope,OB led.]. The 

forum on grazing and riparianlstream ecosystems. 

3-4 November 1978. Denver, CO. Trout 

Unlimited, Inc. 
We must manage our riparian areas with no 

impairment of their basic productivity. Managers do 

not have all the answers for riparian ecosystems but 

intend to be innovative. The immediate objective is 

to improve riparian habitat while retaining livestock 

use. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; POLICY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; EVALUATION] 

1478. Russell,GD; Hawkins,CP; O'Neill,MP 

(1997): The role of GIs in selecting sites for 

riparian restoration based on hydrology and land 

use. Restoration Ecology 45(5), 56-68. 

Successful long-term restoration efforts require 

consideration of hydrology and surrounding land use 

during the site selection process. This paper describes 

an approach to initial site selection in the San Luis 

Rey River watershed in southern California that uses 

watershed-level information on basin topography and 

land cover to rank the potential suitability of all sites 

within a watershed for either preservation or 

restoration. This approach requires the use of a 

geographic information system (GIs) to map relative 

wetness and land cover within a watershed. 

[GIs; HYDROLOGY; LAND USE; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1479. Russell,IC (1903): Preliminary report on 

artesian basins in southwestern Idaho and 

southeastern Oregon. USDI Geological Survey. 

Water and Irrigation Paper No.78. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; HYDROLOGY; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

1480. Russell,IC (1 905): Preliminary report on 

the geology and water resources of central 

Oregon. USDI Geological Survey Bulletin No. 252. 

[GEOLOGY; HISTORIC RECORDS; 

HYDROLOGY; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

1481. Ryder,RA (1980): Effects of grazing on 

bird habitats. p.51-65. In: Workshop proceedings, 

Management of western forests and grasslands for 

nongame birds. 11-14 February 1980. Salt Lake 

City, UT. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-86. 

Feeding on plants by various herbivores, 

especially livestock and big game but also by 

rodents, lagomorphs, insects and even some birds and 

reptiles, can alter vegetative communities as habitat 

for birds. Species composition of plants, density of 

stands, vigor, seed and insect production, and growth 

form of plants often change due to grazing. Removal 

of vegetative cover as well as trampling may expose 

soils to increased wind and water erosion. 

Differences in effects of grazing on vegetation and 

soils by various classes of livestock, species of big 

game, different levels of intensity and seasons of use 

are discussed with stress on examples from western 

forest and grassland types. 

[AVIFAUNA; GRAZING IMPACTS; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1482. Saab,V (1999): Importance of spatial scale 

to habitat use by breeding birds in riparian 

forests: A hierarchical analysis. Ecological 

Applications 9(1), 135-151. 

Patterns of habitat use by breeding birds were 

studied in cottonwood riparian forests of the South 

Fork of the Snake River in southeastern Idaho. A 

hierarchical approach was used to examine habitat 

use at three spatial scales: microhabitat, 

macrohabitat, and landscape. The most significant 

predictor of species occurrence was the landscape 

component: increases in upland natural vegetation 

with decreases in agriculture. Both interior and edge 

specialists were found in arid land, cottonwood 

riparian forests that were linear in nature, with large 

amounts of edge. Nest predators, brood parasites, and 

exotic species responded positively to human-altered 

landscapes. Landscape patterns were the primary 

influence on distribution and occurrence of most bird 

species, whereas macrohabitat and microhabitat were 

of secondary importance. Surrounding landscape 

features should be a primary consideration for 

selecting riparian reserve areas. 

[AVIFAUNA; COTTONWOOD; LANDSCAPE 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SPATIAL SCALE; SPECIES 

RICHNESS] 

1483. Sadeghipour,J; Dracup,JA (1985): 

Regional frequency analysis of hydrologic multiyear droughts. Water Resources Bulletin 21(3), 

481 -487. 

The authors propose a method to standardize 

drought severities to enable comparison among 

drought events. A multivariate simulation model is 

used to estimate exceedence probabilities associated 

with regional drought maxima. This method, named 

the regional extreme drought method, is capable of 

generating a series of drought events which, although 

they have not occurred historically, are more severe 

than historic events. 

[DROUGHT EFFECTS; HYDROLOGY] 

1484. Sagers,CL; Lyon,J (1997): Gradient 
analysis in a riparian landscape: Contrasts among 

forest layers. Forest Ecology and Management 96, 

13-26. 

Standard vegetation sampling techniques were 

used to characterize species associations in a riparian 

forest of the Buffalo River, Arkansas. Environmental 

gradients dominated by pH and elevation influenced 

species associations, but secondary gradients differed 

among forest layers. The number and composition of 

vegetation clusters did not correspond well among 

forest layers. Independence of forest layers may be 

promoted by response to different patterns of 

environmental factors operating at different levels of 

the forest. Species associations in the overstory were 

not good predictors of understory associations. 

Traditional use of canopy dominants as community 

indicators may be inaccurate and imprecise for the 

majority of the forest species. 

[CANOPY; FOREST LAYERS; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN FOREST] 

1485. Salmond,GR; Croft,AR (1955): The 

management of public watersheds. p.191-198. In: 

Water: The yearbook of agriculture. 84th 

Congress. House document No. 32. 

[EROSION; HISTORIC RECORDS; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT; WATERSHED] 

1486. Salwasser,H; Shimamoto,K (1981): 

Pronghorn, cattle, and feral horse use of wetland 

and upland habitats. p.210-213. In: Warner,RE; 

Hendrix,KM [eds.]. Proceedings of the California 

Riparian Systems Conference. 17-19 September 

1981. Davis, CA. 

Developed wetlands play a critical role in habitat 

quality for pronghorn, domestic livestock, and feral 

horses in Great Basin range types. Wetlands provide 

abundant summer forage for pronghorn when cattle 

and horse grazing has removed coarse, grasslike 

plants, making forbs available. Wetland creation 

should be balanced with needs for existing habitats 

on ranges. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

1487. Sammis,G (1993): A rancher's view of the 

river. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wa1lace;MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226.419 p. 

There could be no agriculture without rivers. On 

the Chase Ranch operated by the author, livestock 

co-exist with numerous species of wildlife, although 

there are occasions when conflicts occur. The river 

can also be destructive to physical improvements and 

infrastructure. Ranchers who are caretakers for rivers 

"must do our best to protect its watersheds and 

riparian areas and make it a better river as it goes on 

its way". 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIVER ECOLOGY; 

STEWARDSHIP] 

1488. Samson,FB (1980): Use of montane 

meadows by birds. p.113-129. In: Workshop 

proceedings, Management of western forests and 

grasslands for nongame birds. 11-14 February 

1980. Salt Lake City, UT. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report INT-86. 

Relatively few species of birds breed on montane 

meadows, but meadows serve as important foraging 

areas for avian communities associated with nearby 

riparian or forest habitats. Recommendations for 

management of montane meadows include: 1) care 

should be exercised in grazing or other land use 

prescriptions such as fire, considering their apparent 

accelerative effect on meadow succession; 2) 

information is needed on the effect of meadow size 

on the diversity of breeding and foraging birds to 

fdly predict the effect of land use changes; and 3) 

detailed studies involving marked individuals rather 

than singing male counts are needed to ensure 

accurate estimates of densities and essential habitat 

needs of breeding birds. 

[AVIFAUNA; MEADOWS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1489. Samson,FB (1987): Characteristics of 

natural riparian forest systems. In: Streamside 

management: Riparian, wildlife, and forestry 

interactions. An interdisciplinary symposium. 11- 

13 February 1987. University of Washington. 

Seattle, WA. 

Riverine systems are characterized by two major 

attributes: differences between high and low flows 

and storm handling properties, which may be 

characterized by 25 - 50 - 100 year floods. This 

dynamic, extremely variable, high energy water 

system is a unique, integral part of the riverine 

riparian environmental system. It directly changes 

stream beds, adjacent vegetation, bordering land, and 

is the major component of the aquatic system. 

[CLASSIFICATION; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1490. Samson,FB; Knopf,FB; Hass,LB (1 988): 

Small mammal response to the introduction of 

cattle into a cottonwood floodplain. p.432-438. In: 
Proceedings of the symposium: Management of 

amphibians, reptiles, and small mammals in North 

America. USDA Forest Service, General Technical 

Report RM-166. 

Few differences between pastures in small 

mammal communities were evident prior to grazing, 

1 month following grazing, and no differences in 

numbers or distribution of small mammals were 

observed 5 months following grazing. Each small 

mammal species exhibited different habitat use 

compared to availability and few habitat variables 

differed on grazed versus ungrazed pastures. Grazing 

at USDA Soil Conservation Service recommended 

levels in winter did not appear to have an initial 

effect on small mammal populations or their habitats 

in a Colorado floodplain. 

[COTTONWOOD; FLOODPLAIN 

MANAGEMENT; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1491. Sands,A; Howe,G (1977): An overview of 

riparian forests in California: Their ecology and 

conservation. p.98-115. In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA 

[tech. coord.]. Importance, preservation, and 

management of riparian habitats: A symposium. 9 

July 1977. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-43. 

This paper brings together abstracts of 

presentations made at the Symposium on riparian 

forests: Their ecology and conservation, which was 

held in Davis, California on May 14, 1977. Sponsors 

of that symposium intended to encourage a strong 

alliance of individuals and agencies that could work 

together to establish protection for the endangered 

riparian ecosystems of California. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1492. Sanville,WD; Eilers,HP; Boss,TR; 

Pfleeger,TG (1986): Environmental gradients in 

northwest freshwater wetlands. Environmental 

Management 10(1), 125-134. 

Representative physical, hydrological, and 

edaphic properties were periodically measured in 

micro-plots along uplandiwetland transects. A 

multivariate approach was utilized in the data 

analysis applying correlation, cluster analysis, and 

principal components analysis. Results indicated that 

the environmental characteristics change in a 

quantifiable manner both spatially and temporally. 

The controlling mechanism is moisture spatially in 

terms of the uplandlwetland transect and temporally 

with respect to seasonal response. These changes do 

not correlate with vegetation. 

[ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1493. Sather,JH; Smith,RD (1984): An overview 

of major wetland functions and values. Western 

Energy and Land Use Team. USDl Fish and 

Wildlife Service FWSIOBS-84118.68 p. 

This report was prepared to provide background 

information for participants at the National Wetland 

Values Assessment Workshop held at Alexandria, 

Virginia, in May, 1983. The Wetlands Values 

Bibliographic Database was used to access citations 

in the literature search. Annotations of each 

referenced document can be found in the Database. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

1494. Savabi,MR; Gifford,GF (1987): 

Application of selected soil loss equations to 

trampled soil conditions. Water Resources 

Bulletin 23(4), 709-715. 

Soil loss prediction equations (Universal Soil 

Loss Equation, Modified USLE, and Onstad-Foster 

Method) were modified to reflect the impact of 

trampling on soil erosion. The erosion control factor, 

P, was replaced by a trampling ratio, Tr, which is a 

function of the change in soil erosion due to animal 

trampling. Trampling impact on soil erosion varied 

with soil type. The data are a preliminary attempt to 

account for the impact of trampling on soil erosion. 

[COMPACTION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; SOILS] 

1495. Schade,JD; Fisher,SG; Grimm,NB (1 997): 

The impact of riparian shrubs on subsurface 

nitrogen patterns in a Sonoran Desert stream. 

p.178. Abstracts. 1997 annual meeting of the 

Ecological Society of America jointly with The 

Nature Conservancy. 10-14 August 1997. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

The effect of colonization by a riparian shrub 

(Baccharis salicifolia) on nitrogen patterns of 

subsurface water in a desert stream was investigated. 

Organic matter and respiration were higher under B. 

salicifolia, but denitrification was not. Higher organic 

matter and low nitrite under shrubs suggest nitrite 

limitation. Sandbars colonized with B. salicifolia 

may represent nitrogen sinks in this ecosystem and 

potentially influence primary production of algae in 

the N-limited surface stream. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; ORGANIC DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

1496. Schlesinger,WH; Abrahams,AD (1997): 

Runoff losses of nitrogen and phophorous from 
grassland and shrubland plots in the Chihuahuan 

Desert of New Mexico. p.179. In: Abstracts. 1997 

annual meeting of the Ecological Society of 

America jointly with The Nature Conservancy. 

10-14 August 1997. Albuquerque, NM. 

Rainfall simulation experiments at the Jornada 

LTER, Las Cruces, New Mexico, measured runoff 

losses of water, sediment, and forms of dissolved N 

and P. Dissolved organic forms dominated the loss of 

N from all areas. The total yield of N was positively 

correlated to discharge among all plots. N discharge 

was negatively correlated to surface litter. Dissolved 

organic P dominated P losses in the grassland. Total 

yield of P was positively correlated to discharge and 

to the P concentration in runoff. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; RUNOFF] 

1497. Schlosser, IJ (1987): The role of predation 

in age and size related habitat use by stream 

fishes. Ecology 68:651-659. 

In a natural second order, warm water stream, 

predators were restricted to pool habitats so that 

riffles and raceways were effective refugia. In the 

absence of bass, juveniles of all taxa preferred 

structurally complex or structurally simple pools, 

even though benthic insect densities were higher in 

riffles than pools. In the presence of bass, juveniles 

of all taxa were largely restricted to shallow riffle or 

raceway refugia. Results suggest that the high density 

and extensive overlap in habitat overlap in habitat 

use of small fishes in shallow habitats of small warm 

water streams is related to the increased risk of 

predation by centrarchids in pools. 

[FISH HABITAT; PREDATION; WARM WATER 

STREAMS] 

1498. Schlosser,lJ (1991): Stream fish ecology: a 

landscape perspective. BioScience 41(10), 704-711. 

Various life stages and species of stream fish 

require different kinds of physical habitats. Spatial 

heterogeneity and the maintenance of connectivity 

between habitat patches is critical for reproduction 

and survival of fish in lotic ecosystems. The 

terrestrial-aquatic interface in upstream areas is the 

most critical area of the landscape, where most fish 

reproduction occurs. This interface also experiences 

extreme fluctuations and variability and is most 

vulnerable to land use activities which are 

concentrated there. Alterations at this location may 

cause severe reductions in fish diversity, trophic 

structure, and fish abundance. The predictive 

capability of stream fish ecologists would be greatly 

enhanced by the use of evolving quantitative 

techniques to establish relationships between 

environmental heterogeneity and critical biological 

processes. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; LANDSCAPE 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1499. Schlosser,IJ (1995): Dispersal, boundary 

processes, and trophic-level interactions in 

streams adjacent to beaver ponds. Ecology 76(3), 

908-925. 

In Minnesota, experiments conducted in an 

artificial stream located below a beaver pond 

indicated discharge and fish predation have 

potentially strong and interactive effects on 

invertebrate colonization in stream ecosystems. 

Differences in colonization of riffles and pools under 

low vs. elevated discharge and fish vs. no-fish 

treatments suggested, however, that the interactive 

effects of these factors on invertebrate was variable 

over even small spatial scales. Elevated discharge 

increased invertebrate colonization in riffles but 

decreased invertebrate colonization in pools. 

Contrary to expectations, fish predation reduced 

invertebrate colonization more under elevated than 

low discharge conditions, particularly in pool 

habitats. Results suggest that: 1) beaver ponds act as 

reproductive sources for fish on the landscape, while 

adjacent stream environments act as potential 

reproductive "sinks"; 2) large scale spatial 

relationships between beaver ponds and streams, 

along with the influence of discharge on the 

permeability of the boundaries between these 

habitats, are critical in controlling fish dispersal 

between ponds and streams and the subsequent 

abundance and composition of fish in lotic 

ecosystems; and 3) fish predation and discharge have 

potentially cascading effects on invertebrate 

colonization in lotic ecosystems. 

[BEAVER; FISH DISPERSAL; INVERTEBRATES; 

PREDATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; STREAM 

ECOLOGY] 

1500. Schlosser,IJ; Karr,JR (1981): Riparian 

vegetation and channel morphology impact on 

spatial patterns of water quality in agricultural 

watersheds. Environmental Management 5(3): 

233-243. 

The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) may 

not adequately predict relative water quality 

conditions within a watershed when variation in 

channel morphology and riparian vegetation exists. 

The authors offer the following recommendations: 1) 

models to predict water quality effects of 

management programs should combine a terrestrial 

phase (hydrologic and erosion processes associated 
with surface runoff) with an aquatic phase 

(hydrological processes of scour and sediment 

transport); 2) sampling schemes should be designed 

to account for the impact of water quality of both 

watershed land surface and in- and near-channel 

processes; and 3) best management practices or 

systems for improving the broadest range of water 

resources in agricultural watersheds need to be based 

on an expanded "critical area" approach, which 

includes identification of critical erosive and 

depositional areas in both terrestrial and aquatic 

environments. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1501. Schmeitzer,SH; Finch,DM; Leslie,DM,Jr 

(1998): The brown-headed cowbird and its 

riparian-dependent hosts in New Mexico. USDA 

Forest Service. Rocky Mountain Research Station. 

General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-1. 

Brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) are 

increasing in some areas of North America while 

certain populations of neotropical migratory 

songbirds (NTMs) are declining. In the Southwest, 

several species of NTMs nest only in riparian 

habitats, some of which have seen significant 

declines. Brood parasitism by the brown-headed 

cowbird and loss of riparian habitat may be the 

primary causes of these declines. The authors 

hypothesized that increased human use of riparian 

habitats in New Mexico had resulted in increased 

abundance of brown-headed cowbirds and their 

parasitism on riparian-dependent NTMs. Results 

suggested that quantitative studies should be 

conducted to determine the distribution, density, and 

rates of parasitism of brown-headed cowbirds in New 

Mexico's riparian habitat because existing data is 

inadequate. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; PARASITISM; 

NEOTROPICAL BIRDS; RIO GRANDE; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1502. Schmidt,JC; Webb,RH; Valdez,RA; 

Marzolf,GR; Stevens,LC (1997): The role of 

science and value judgement in restoring the 

Colorado River in Grand Canyon. p.34. In: 

Abstracts. 1997 annual meeting of the Ecological 

Society of America jointly with The Nature 

Conservancy. Changing ecosystems: Natural and 

human influences. 10-14 August 1997. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

The completion of the Glen Canyon Dam 

created profound river corridor changes in Grand 

Canyon. Ecological impacts of the dam have 

included reduction of frequency and magnitude of 

floods, sediment transport, and variability of water 

temperature. The dam's tailwaters created a trout 

fishery. Camping beaches have eroded. Debris flows 

have increased navigation difficulty. Native fish 

populations have declined and exotic fish populations 

have increased. Marsh and riparian vegetation has 

increased, woody debris has disappeared, and sand 

contributed by the tributaries is deposited in the river 

channel rather than on the channel margins or in 

eddies. In these circumstances, science can identify 

problems and tradeoffs but the ultimate choices 

regarding restoration and management belong to 

society. 

[FISHERIES; FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WOODY DEBRIS] 

1503. Schmidt,LJ (1996): The national riparian 

policy. p.81-84. In: National hydrology workshop 

proceedings. 27 April - 1 May 1992; Phoenix, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-GTR-279. 

In 1989, the USDA Forest Service initiated a 

national effort to make riparian area management a 

prominent part of the on-going forest planning and 

management process. The approach involved: 1) 

developing an integrated approach to implementing 

riparian standards and guidelines; 2) setting national, 

regional, and forest goals for on-the-ground 

accomplishment; 3) using an integrated basinwide 

approach to accomplish priority goals with 

demonstration areas on every district; 4) conducting 

an inventory of current riparian ecological 

conditions; and 5) building increased internal and 

external support for the initiative. 

[EVALUATION; POLICY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARlAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1504. Schmidt,RH (1991): Defining and refining 

value for riparian systems. Rangelands 13(2), 80- 

82. 

This article explores the costs and benefits of: 1) 

increasing the benefits of riparian systems or their 

products; and 2) decreasing the costs associated with 

preserving riparian systems. Economic models for 

distributing the economic values to landowners have 

not been hlly developed. 

[ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1505. Schneller-McDonald,K; Ischinger,LS; 

Auble,GT (1990): Wetland creation and 

management: Description and summary of the 
literature. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Biological Report 90(3). 198 p. 

This report provides bibliographic information 

contained in the Wetland CreatiodRestoration data 

base. One thousand one hundred records are 

included. Each record represents one article, report, 

or other publication dealing with the data subjects. 

Information contained in the records is: 1) introduced 

in a description of all fields and key words, 2) 

summarized in terms of findings in a set of graphs 

and tables, and 3) accessible through a crossreferenced index. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; CREATED WETLANDS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1506. Schrader,TA (1955): Waterfowl and the 

potholes of the North Central States. p.596-604. 

In: Water: The yearbook of agriculture. 84th 

Congress. House Document No. 32. 

The prairie pothole region of the Dakotas and 

Minnesota is the most important waterfowl nesting 

area in the United States. Formerly, it produced up 15 

million ducks (by 1955, production had dropped to 

about 5 million ducks annually). Pothole drainage for 

agricultural development was the primary cause. An 

acceptable program to save wetlands would have 

involved two factors. Subsidies to provide farmers 

with incomes equitable with that which could be 

achieved by drainage andlor compensation for the 

problems caused by undrained potholes. Another 

desirable but impractical alternative would be direct 

purchase of such lands by the federal government. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATERFOWL 

MANAGEMENT; WETLANDS] 

1507. Schroeder,K; Savonen,C (1997): Lessons 

from floods. Fisheries 22(9), 14-16. 

Human activities have contributed to the 

increased intensity of floods. Long-term goals should 

address the reestablishment of stability and resilience 

of watersheds in the face of natural disturbances 

without the need for continued human intervention 

such as constructing instream habitat or repairing 

flood damage to streams. Riparian and upland 

management can also be altered to more closely 

mimic the spatial and temporal scales of natural 

disturbances. For example, increased protection of 

riparian habitat and longer timber harvest rotations 

can help return natural flow regimes to forested 

watersheds and can establish natural delivery of 

wood into streams to maintain complex habitats. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; HUMAN IMPACTS; 

ORGANIC DEBRIS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SPATIAL SCALE; WATERSHED] 

1508. Schultz,TT; Leininger,WC (1990): 

Differences in riparian vegetation between grazed 

areas and exclosures. Journal of Range 

Management 43(4), 295-299. 

Differences in vegetation structure were 

examined in a montane riparian zone in north-central 

Colorado after 30 years of cattle exclusion and 

continued, but reduced, grazing pressure. Total 

vascular vegetation, shrub, and graminoid canopy 

cover was greater in the exclosures as compared to 

grazed areas, while forb canopy cover was similar 

between treatments. Exclosures had nearly 2 times 

the litter cover, while grazed areas had 4 times more 

bare ground. The mean peak standing crop over the 2 

years of the study in the exclosures was about 5 times 

that in the grazed areas. Cattle utilized about 65 

percent of the current years growth of vegetation. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES] 

1509. Schultze,RF; Wilcox,GI (1985): Emergency 

measures for streambank stabilization: an 

evaluation. p. 59-61. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Streams in California were severely damaged by 

severe storms in 1978- 1983. USDA Soil 

Conservation Service used several mechanical and 

revegetation techniques to stabilize streambanks and 

re-establish riparian vegetation. Results of 

evaluations of 29 separate projects were discussed 

and evaluated. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STORM EVENTS] 

1510. Schultz,TT; Leininger,WC (1991): 

Nongame wildlife communities in grazed and 

ungrazed montane riparian sites. Great Basin 

Naturalist 51(3), 286-292. 

Livestock grazing can alter vegetative structure 

and composition of riparian habitat for nongame 

species. This study, in north central Colorado, 

suggests that previous heavy cattle grazing changed 

the bird and small mammal community composition 

through reduction of shrub and herbaceous cover. 

More research is indicated for the intensities and 

season of grazing. 

[AVIFAUNA; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; SMALL MAMMALS] 

151 1. Schumaker,J (1995): Riparian grazing 

successes on Montana ranches. Conservation 
Districts Bureau. Helena, MT. 30 p. 

A compilation of successful case studies of 

riparian restoration projects and practices on 

Montana ranches. In this booklet, ranchers and 

grazing associations have benefitted by: increased 

abundance and diversity of vegetation along 

streambanks; reduced streambank erosion and 

property loss; increased forage quality and 

production; fewer weeds; higher weaning weights; 

healthier livestock; higher conception rates; lower 

calf mortality; improved water quality and fisheries; 

improved range and riparian condition; reduced 

livestock injury on icy or muddy streambanks; 

increased streamflows; and, better cooperation from 

public land management agencies. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1512. Schumann,R (1989): Morphology of Red 

Creek, Wyoming, an arid region anastomosing 

channel system. Earth Surface Processes and 

Landforms 14,277-288. 

Red Creek is an arid region anastomosing 

stream. A steep, deep, sinuous main channel is 

flanked by anastomosing flood channels or 

anabranches. Anabranch enlargement occurs by 

headward erosion and anabranches serve as 

distributary channels during floods. During periods 

of low discharges, the anabranches act as tributaries 

to the main channel, transporting runoff. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION] 

1513. Schumm,SA (1960): Effect of sediment 

characteristics on erosion and deposition in 

ephemeral stream channels. p. 31-70. USDl 

Geological Survey Prof. Paper 352-C. 

This study suggests that preventive conservation 

may be the most practical solution to some erosion 

problems, such as gully cutting. Deposition, if it is 

desired to fill a trenched channel, should be induced 

in reaches where conditions are most favorable for 

natural aggradation. Conservation measures should 

be modified depending on the character of the valley 

and its alluvium. Only certain critical reaches of a 

channel need to be controlled over larger areas. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; EROSION 

CONTROL; SEDIMENTATION] 

1514. Schumm,SA (1973): Geomorphic 

thresholds and complex response of drainage 

systems. p.299-310. In: Fluvial geomorphology. 

Binghampton symposium series #4. Binghamton, 

New York. 

The alluvial and morphological details of 

drainage systems are too complex to be explained by 

progressive erosion alone. Within the context of the 

erosion cycle such complexities as terraces or alluvial 

deposits must be explained by external variables such 

as climatic, tectonic, isostatic or land use changes. 

Some abrupt modifications of such a system can be 

inherent in its erosional development and that two 

additional concepts are required for comprehension 

of drainage system evolution: 1) geomorphic 

thresholds and 2) complex response of drainage 

systems. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

GULLY CONTROL; STREAM ECOLOGY] 

1515. Schumm,SA; Harvey,MD; Watson,CC 

(1984): Incised channels: Morphology, dynamics 

and control. Water Resources Publications, 

Littleton, CO. 

Within any area, erosional activity will be 

variable and the smaller components of the landscape 

may not be in the same stage of erosional or 

depositional development. This scenario is widely 

replicated in the semiarid regions of the western US. 

The relations developed in this book indicate that the 

distribution of erosional features can be explained 

and that the sites of additional erosion may be 

predictable. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; GEOMORPHOLOGY; GULLY 

CONTROL] 

1516. Schumm,SA; Lichty,RW (1965): Time, 

space, and causality in geomorphology. American 

Journal of Science 263,110-1 19. 

During a long period of time a drainage system 

or its components can be considered as an open 

system which is progressively losing potential energy 

and mass (erosion cycle), but over shorter spans of 

time self-regulation is important, and components of 

the system may be graded or in dynamic equilibrium. 

During an even shorter time span a steady state may 

exist. Therefore, depending on the temporal and 

special dimensions of the system under 

consideration, landforms can be considered as either 

a stage in a cycle of erosion or as a system in 

dynamic equilibrium. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

1517. Schweitzer,SH; Finch,DM; Leslie,Jr,DM 

(1996): Reducing impacts of brood parasitism by 

Brown-headed cowbirds on riparian-nesting 

migratory songbirds. p.267-276. In: Shaw,DW; 
Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired future conditions 

for Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Riparian habitats throughout the Southwest have 

been altered directly and indirectly by human 

activities. Many migrant songbird species specific to 

riparian communities during the breeding season are 

experiencing population declines. Conversely, the 

Brown-headed cowbird benefits from fragmentation 

of habitat and livestock grazing in and near riparian 

habitat. Brood parasitism by cowbirds may accelerate 

the process of local extirpation of small, remnant 

populations of migratory songbirds. Cowbird 

trapping programs have successhlly reduced brood 

parasitism of the Least Bell's Vireo and Southwestern 

Willow Flycatcher in riparian habitats of California. 

This removal technique has not been used commonly 

in riparian habitats of other states but may be 

beneficial if a significant problem is identified. 

Preliminary surveys should be conducted to 

determine abundance and distribution of cowbirds, 

and nests of potential hosts should be monitored to 

assess rates of parasitism. It is not likely that remnant 

populations of migratory songbirds can sustain 

parasitism rates of more than 30 percent. Trapping, 

habitat restoration, and research suggestions are 

presented. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; AVIFAUNA; PARASITISM; 

NEOTROPICAL BIRDS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1518. Schweitzer,SH; Finch,DM; Leslie,Jr.,DM 

(1998): The brown-headed cowbird and its 

riparian-dependent hosts in New Mexico. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report RMRSGTR-1.23 p. 

In some regions of North America, brownheaded cowbirds are increasing at the same time that 

some populations of neotropical migratory songbirds 

(NTMs) are declining. Significant declines of the 

southwestern willow flycatcher and the least Bell's 

vireo are of great concern. In this study, existing data 

on the brown-headed cowbird was collected and 

analyzed and compared to data from other states. 

Results suggest that quantitative studies should be 

conducted to determine the distribution, abundance, 

density, and rates of parasitism of brown-headed 

cowbirds in New Mexico riparian habitat because the 

existing data are inadequate. 

[BROWN-HEADED COWBIRD; NEOTROPICAL 

BIRDS; PARASITISM; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1519. Schwien,J (1991): A pitch for Badger 

Creek. Rangelands 13(4), 181-182. 

In Colorado, 18 federal, state, and local agencies 

are cooperating to restore Badger Creek to its 

original status as the premier spawning stream for 

German brown trout on the Arkansas River. Periodic 

flooding and sediment damage to gravel beds had 

reduced the stream's fishery value. Treatments 

include the implementation of best management 

practices and short duration grazing. 

[COLLABORATION; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

GRAZING TREATMENTS] 

1520. Scott,JM; Csuti,B; Jacobi,JD; Estes,JE 

(1987): Species richness: A geographic approach 

to protecting future biological diversity. 

BioScience 37(1 I), 782-788. 

The authors propose that the most efficient and 

cost effective way to retain maximal biological 

diversity in the minimal area is to focus efforts on 

species-rich areas. A geographical information 

systems mapping approach has identified unexpected 

inequities in present time wildlifelnature preserves 

and the extent of protection of species-rich habitats. 

[BIODIVERSITY; GIs; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1521. Scott,JM; Scott,MJ; Davis$; Csuti,B; 

Butterfield,B; Noss,R; Caicco,S; Anderson,H; 

Ulliman,J; D'Erchia,F; Groves,C (1990): Gap 

analysis: Protecting biodiversity using geographic 

information systems. A handbook for a workshop 

held at the University of Idaho, 29-31 October 

1990. Moscow, ID. 176 p. 

A handbook providing a detailed framework for 

instruction in the gap analysis concept. Chapters 

included are: Introduction to biodiversity and 

conservation planning; mapping actual vegetation to 

predict regional biodiversity; GIS data layers and 

mapping of biodiversity; and interpreting the data. A 

section on the mapping of wetland and aquatic 

habitats (riparian areas) indicates the difficulties of 

dealing with small but species-rich land areas. 

[BIODIVERSITY; CONSERVATION; GAP 

ANALYSIS; GIs; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1522. Scott,ML; Auble,GT (1997): The influence 

of floods, ice, and grazing on riparian cottonwood 

establishment along the Missouri River, Montana, 

USA. p.182. Abstracts. 1977 annual meeting of the 

Ecological Society of America jointly with The 

Nature Conservancy. 10-14 August 1997. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

This study documented the importance of flowrelated channel change in the establishment of plains 

cottonwood along with the quantification of ice and 
grazing related mortality along the Missouri River. 

Most excavated trees (72 percent) established in the 

year of a flow exceeding 1400 cu mi s or in the 

following two years. Flows of this magnitude create 

establishment sites for cottonwood sites at high 

elevations. Frequent ice scour and cattle grazing 

appear to limit cottonwood survival at lower 

elevations. In nonflood years, cottonwood 

establishment is largely confined to a narrow 

elevational zone below the annual high stage. 

[COTTONWOOD; FLOOD IMPACTS; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN FOREST] 

1523. Scott,ML; Auble,GT; Friedman,JM 

(1997): Flood dependency of cottonwood 

establishment along the Missouri River, Montana, 

USA. Ecological Applications 7(2), 677-690. 

The physical environment of riverine ecosystems 

is largely structured by natural flow variability. The 

latter, however, has been modified in many rivers by 

water management practices. The authors quantified 

the relationship between flow and establishment of 

the dominant tree (plains cottonwood) along one of 

the least hydrologically altered alluvial reaches of the 

Missouri River. The date and elevation of tree 

establishment relative to peak stage and discharge 

were determined over a 112-year hydrologic record. 

Flows at a magnitude recurring every 9.3 years 

created the necessary bare, moist establishment sites 

at an elevation high enough to allow cottonwoods to 

survive subsequent floods and ice jams. Almost all 

cottonwoods that survived the most recent floods 

were established > 1.2 m above the lower limit of 

perennial vegetation. Most younger individuals were 

established between 0 and 1.2 m and were unlikely to 

survive over the long term. In this case, a relatively 

narrow valley constrains lateral channel movement 

that might otherwise facilitate cottonwood 

recruitment at lower flows. Understanding locally 

dominant fluvial geomorphic processes contributes to 

effective management of flows to maintain 

cottonwood recruitment. 

[COTTONWOOD; FLOOD IMPACTS; FLUVIAL 

PROCESSES; GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

1524. Scott,ML; Horak,GC; Slauson,WL (1988): 

Landscape analysis of woody riparian vegetation 

along a portion of the Cache La Poudre River, 

CO. p.63-70. In: Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; 

Miller,LK 1eds.l. Restoration, creation, and 

management of wetland and riparian ecosystems 

in the American West. A symposium of the Rocky 

Mountain Chapter of the Society of Wetland 

Scientists. 14-16 November 1988. Denver, CO. 

Infrared aerial photography was used to assess 

the extent of woody riparian vegetation along a 

gradient from urban to agricultural areas on the 

Cache La Poudre River, Colorado. Although the 

aerial extent of riparian vegetation in the urban area 

is not significantly different than that in the 

agricultural area, detailed examinations of land use 

patterns indicated a change in occurrence and nature 

of riparian vegetation from urban to agricultural land 

uses. In urban areas, riparian vegetation is associated 

with gravel mined areas or narrow alluvial terraces 

between the channel and channel rip-rap. In contrast, 

riparian vegetation in agricultural areas with 

unconfined channels is found on point bars and low, 

uncultivated alluvial terraces along the channel edge. 

Decisions regarding the values and management of 

ecosystems should be made in view of landscape 

level changes in hydrology, vegetation dynamics, and 

land uses. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; LAND USE; LANDSCAPE 

ECOLOGY; RlPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1525. Scurlock,D (1998): From the rio to the 

sierra: An environmental history of the Middle 

Rio Grande Basin. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RMRS-GTR-5.440 p. 

The processes and evolution of the Middle Rio 

Grande Basin ecosystems, especially riparian zones, 

have been profoundly affected by human groups 

from A.D. 1540 to the present. Overgrazing, clearcutting, irrigation farming, fire suppression, intensive 

hunting, and introduction of exotic plants have 

interacted with droughts and floods to bring about 

environmental and associated cultural changes. In 

response, public laws and agencies were created to 

mitigate or reverse various environmental problems. 

Restoration and remedial programs have somewhat 

improved some issues but most environmental 

problems persist. 

[ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; 

HISTORIC RECORDS; RIO GRANDE] 

1526. (USDA) Soil Conservation Service and 

USDI Bureau of Land Management (1985): Little 

Lost River Flood Control Measure Plan and 

Environmental Impact Statement. Howe, Butte 

County, Idaho. 67 p. 

The USDA Soil Conservation Service and other 

entities proposed to reduce winter flooding in and 

around the community of Howe, Idaho. Low winter 

flows in the winter freeze, blocking the channel. 

Subsequent flows are forced out of the channel onto 
surrounding crop land, causing flooding on >I 500 

acres. Five alternatives for addressing the flooding 

problem were evaluated. The proposed measure 

would divert low winter flows from the channel into 

an infiltration trench. The stream channel would 

remain free of ice, allowing normal passage of spring 

runoff. Approximately 10.5 miles of stream will be 

dewatered from about December to March. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; HABITAT MANAGEMENT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1527. Sedell,JR; Everest,FH; Gibbons,DR 

(1989): Streamside vegetation management for 

aquatic habitat. p.115-125. In: Proceedings of the 

national silviculture workshop: Silviculture for all 

resources. 11-14 May 1987. Sacramento, CA. 

USDA Forest Service. 

The authors discuss three aspects of silvicultural 

management of Riparian Management Areas 

(RMAs); 1) effects of extended timber rotations or 

permissible rates of entry into RMAs; 2) organic 

debris standards; and 3) RMA width and shading 

requirements. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SHADING; WOODY DEBRIS] 

1528. Sedell,JR; Froggatt,JL (1984): Importance 

of streamside forests to large rivers: The isolation 

of the Willamette River, Oregon, U.S.A., from its 

floodplain by snagging and streamside forest 

removal. For. Science Lab., USDA-Forest Service, 

Corvallis, OR. Verhandlungen der 

Internationalen Vereinigung fur Theoretische und 

Angenwandte Limnologie 22,1828-1834. 

This pristine riparian forest in western Oregon 

extended 1.5 - 3 km on either side of the river. The 

pristine river was a series of multiple channels, 

sloughs, and backwater areas. Historically, the 

floodplain and valley had extensive marshes. 

Numerous downed trees helped to create and 

maintain shoals, multiple channels, oxbow lakes, and 

complex aquatic habitats at the outside bends of the 

river. After 80 years of snag removal and riparian 

forest destruction, there now exists one channel, few 

downed trees, relatively simple and homogeneous 

habitat for aquatic vertebrates, and over a four-fold 

decrease in river shoreline. The few floodplain areas 

with extensive riparian forests along our major rivers 

must be treated as the last reserves of species and 

habitats approximating the condition of pristine 

rivers. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1529. Sedgwick,JA; Knopf,FL (1 987): Breeding 

bird response to cattle grazing of a cottonwood 

bottomland. Journal of Wildlife Management 

51(1), 230-237. 

Habitat use by migratory bird species utilizing 

the grass-herb-shrub layer of vegetation in a riparian 

community (South Platte River, Colorado) subjected 

to late fall, early winter cattle grazing. Breeding bird 

populations on ungrazed control plots and fall grazed 

plots (1 6 ha) were censused over a 1 0-day period in 

spring of 1982, 1984, and 1985. Ordination of six 

species on axes of forb cover and mid-level shrub 

density cover suggested different susceptibilities to 

grazing. 

[AVIFAUNA; GRAZING IMPACTS; PLATTE 

RIVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1530. SedgwiclqJA; Knopf,FL (1990): Habitat 

relationships and nest site characteristics of 

cavity-nesting birds in cottonwood floodplains. 

Journal of Wildlife Management 54(1), 112-124. 

Lack of regeneration of cottonwood, decline in 

the dead limb lengths, trees with more than 1 m 

length of dead limb (> 10 cm diam.), and snag 

density along the South Platte River will probably 

result in the decline of cavity-nesting birds. Redheaded woodpeckers and American kestrels have the 

most particular cavity requirements for nesting. An 

aging overstory with a lower percentage of small 

trees and a lack of regeneration, resulting in lower 

small tree densities, could adversely affect 

chickadees. A mosaic of sites of differing age 

structures in cottonwood floodplains accommodates a 

greater variety of cavity-nesting species. 

[AVIFAUNA; BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1531. SedgewiclqJA; Knopf,FL (1991): 

Prescribed grazing as a secondary impact in a 

western riparian floodplain. Journal of Range 

Management 44(4), 369-373. 

The effect of late autumn cattle grazing on plant 

biomass was examined in a western Great Plains 

cottonwood riparian zone prone to catastrophic 

flooding every 5-8 years. Five 16-ha pastures were 

grazed and compared to 5 control pastures within the 

South Platte River Floodplain in northeastern 

Colorado. At a prescribed grazing level of 0.46 

ha/AUM, riparian vegetation proved to be resilient to 

the impacts of grazing. Willows responded 

negatively to grazing whereas biomass of prairie 

cordgrass was greater on grazed plots. Periodic, 

catastrophic flooding is a major perturbation to that 

ecosystem and dormant season grazing within 
prescribed guidelines is a comparatively minor 

impact within the floodplain. Grazing impacts were 

probably hrther mitigated by a major forage 

supplement of cottonwood leaves available at the 

time of cattle introductions. This forage supplement 

created a lighter grazing treatment than that 

originally prescribed. 

[COTTON WOOD; FORAGE PRODUCTION; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; PRESCRIBED GRAZING; 

WILLOW] 

1532. Sedgewick,JA; Knopf,FL (1992): Cavity 

turnover and equilibrium cavity densities in a 

cottonwood bottomland. Journal of Wildlife 

Management 56(3), 477-484. 

A fundamental factor in regulating the numbers 

of secondary cavity nesting (SCN) birds is the 

number of extant cavities available for nesting. The 

number of available cavities may be thought of as 

being the in an approximate equilibrium maintained 

by a very rough balance between recruitment and 

loss of cavities. Based on estimates of recruitment 

and loss, cavity densities in a mature plains 

cottonwood bottomland along the South Platte River 

in northeastern Colorado were ascertained. 

Equilibrium cavity density along the South Platte 

River was estimated to be 238-289 cavities1100 ha. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; COTTONWOOD; PLATTE 

RIVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1533. Sedgwick,JA; Leininger,WC (1 991): 

Prescribed grazing as a secondary impact in a 

western riparian floodplain. Journal of Range 

Management 44(4), 369-373. 

The effect of late autumn grazing on plant 

biomass was examined in a western Great Plains 

cottonwood riparian zone prone to catastrophic 

flooding every 5-8 years. At the prescribed level of 

0.46 haIAUM, riparian grazing proved to be resilient 

to the impacts of grazing. Willows responded 

negatively to grazing whereas biomass of prairie 

cordgrass was greater on grazed plots. Periodic, 

catastrophic flooding is a major perturbation to the 

ecosystem and dormant season grazing within 

prescribed guidelines is a relatively minor impact 

within the floodplain. Grazing impacts were probably 

further mitigated by a major forage supplement of 

cottonwood leaves available at the time of cattle use. 

[COTTONWOOD; FLOOD IMPACTS; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

1534. Seery,D (1993): Riparian restoration 

projects in Arizona, Soil Conservation Service. p. 

193-194. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

Five successful riparian restoration projects 

completed by the USDA Soil Conservation Service 

in Arizona were photographically displayed and 

discussed. All projects returned the functions and 

values that were lost back to the original ecosystems. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1535. Sewards,MA; Valett,HM (1996): Effects of 

livestock grazing on nutrient retention in a 

headwater stream of the Rio Puerco Basin. p.135- 

142. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. 

Desired future conditions of Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Sediment and nutrient loss from headwater 

streams of sedimentary basins in the semi-arid 

Southwest have been attributed to both over-grazing 

by livestock and to climatic cycles that influence 

arroyo fom~ation. Considerable effort has been 

directed toward the influence of livestock grazing on 

riparian species abundance and diversity, Less work 

has concentrated on the influence of livestock on 

instream processes and communities. In contrast, 

considerable research has described the importance 

of floods as ecological organizers of riparian and 

benthic communities in lotic ecosystems. The focus 

on this project was the interaction of flooding and 

livestock grazing on hydrologic and nutrient 

retention in a headwater stream of the Rio Puerco 

Basin, New Mexico. Authors propose that grazing 

decreases retention of water, nutrients, and sediments 

by changing physical and biological features of the 

stream that cause the system to be less resistant to 

natural floods and by decreasing recovery rates when 

floods do occur. This project represents initial studies 

of differing nutrient and hydrologic environments 

created by cattle exclosures. Preliminary results 

indicate that benthic biomass and transient hydraulic 

storage are greater in reaches protected from cattle 

influences. 

[BENTHIC BIOMASS; CLIMATE; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; NUTRIENT CYCLES; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

1536. Seyedbagheri,KA; McHenry,ML; 

Platts,WS (1987): An annotated bibliography of 

the hydrology and fisheries studies of the South 

Fork Salmon River. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report INT-235. Ogden, UT. 
27 p. 

A brief summary of the land management 

history of the South Fork Salmon River (Idaho) 

watershed that includes citations and annotations of 

published and unpublished reports of fishery and 

hydrology studies conducted in the drainage from 

1960 to 1986. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; FISHERIES; HYDROLOGY; 

RLPARI AN HABITAT] 

1537. Seyhan,E; Hope,AS; Schulze,RE (1 983): 

Estimation of stream flow loss by 

evapotranspiration from a riparian zone. South 

African Journal of Science 79(3), 88-90. 

Recession hydrographs from a small research 

catchment in South Africa exhibited diurnal 

fluctuations in streamflow which were superimposed 

on the general recession trend. The daily additional 

reduction in flow may be the result of greater 

evapotranspiration losses in the riparian zone during 

the day. 

[EVAPOTRANSPIRATION; HYDROLOGY; 

STREAM FLOW] 

1538. Shabman,L (1979): Mitigation planning 

under the principles and standards framework. 

p.196-202. In: Swanson,GA led.]. The mitigation 

symposium: A national workshop on mitigating 

losses of fish and wildlife habitats. 

Recent water policy reforms stress improved 

economic and environmental assessment and stricter 

application of the Principles and Standards 

framework. While there are practical limits on the 

use of the assessment tools being developed, the 

result will be improved mitigation analysis and 

increased mitigation at federal projects. 

[IMPACT MITIGATION; POLICY; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1539. Sharitz,RR; Lee,LC (1985): Limits on 

regeneration processes in southeastern riverine 

systems. p.139-143. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Principal factors affecting recruitment in 

cypress-tupelo forests were seed production, 

microsite availability, and hydrologic regime. 

Management of water levels on regulated streams 

must account for species regeneration requirements 

to maintain floodplain community structure. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1540. Sharitz,RR; Lee,LC (1985): Recovery 

processes in southeastern riverine wetlands. p.499- 

501. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; 

Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

Perturbations to riverine wetlands often degrade 

existing communities or change the potential for 

wetland sites to support those communities. 

Disturbances that are in scale with wetland 

ecosystems can lead to normal recovery processes. 

The greatest changes to wetlands occur when the 

magnitude of the disturbance exceeds or is 

asynchronous with natural environmental limits 

[ECOLOGICAL PERTURBATIONS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIVER ECOLOGY; 

WETLANDS] 

1541. Sharma,KD; Dhir,RP; Murthy,JSR (1992): 

Modeling suspended sediment flow in arid upland 

basins. Hydrological Sciences 37(5), 481-490. 

A conceptual basin model of the instantaneous 

unit sediment graph was developed for sediment 

graph prediction from arid upland basins by routing 

mobilized sediments through a series of linear 

reservoirs. The mobilized sediment during a storm 

was related to effective precipitation and the 

parameters of the model were estimated from 

observed events. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; SEDIMENTATION] 

1542. Sharp,B (1987): Management guidelines 

for the willow flycatcher. USDI Fish and Wildlife 

Service. Portland, OR. 21 p. 

The guidelines present existing information on 

the willow flycatcher (Empidonax trailii) and its 

regional status. They identify problems affecting the 

population, propose management considerations, and 

summarize management oriented information for 

affected and interested parties. Also presented are 

strategies to overcome or compensate for some of the 

identified problems. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1543. Sharpe,WE (1975): Timber management 

influences on aquatic ecosystems and 

recommendations for future research. Water 

Resources Bulletin 11(3), 546-550. 

Many timber management practices have 

profound effects on the water quality of small 

headwater streams. Such streams frequently support 
fisheries of high value. The status of current 

knowledge indicates that there are definite potentials 

for symbiotic relationships between timber and 

fisheries management. Future research efforts must 

recognize the mutually benefitting aspects of these 

heretofore separate disciplines and must carefully 

examine the complex interrelationships between 

aquatic ecosystems and the riparian forest 

environment. 

[FISHERIES; LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

FOREST; WATER QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

1544. Shaw,DC; Bible,K (1996): An overview of 

forest canopy functions with reference to urban 

and riparian systems. Northwest Science 70, 1-6. 

Functions of forest canopy ecosystems generally 

include photosynthesis; sexual reproduction of trees; 

light absorption, modification, and shading; 

atmospheric interaction; hydrologic interaction; and 

biodiversity. This paper reviews some of those 

functions and draws comparisons from two 

specialized systems, the urban and the riparian. 

Urban forest canopies abate noise, ameliorate urban 

temperature increases, conserve energy by shading 

buildings, and capture particulate matter, pollutants, 

and carbon dioxide, which make cities more 

habitable for humans. Riparian and wetland forest 

canopies affect temperature and primary production 

of aquatic habitat by shading, influence productivity 

by controlling allochthonous inputs, including coarse 

woody debris, and provide unique habitat for wildlife 

and other biota. 

[CANOPY; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1545. Shaw,DW; Finch,DM 1Eds.J (1996): 

Desired future conditions for Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 359 p. 

This proceedings represents scientific and 

applied papers presented at a symposium of the same 

title held 18-22 September 1995 at the Four Seasons 

Hotel in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The symposium 

brought together scientists, natural resource 

managers, conservationists, and representatives from 

the private sector to share their findings, ideas, and 

visions for managing, conserving, and restoring 

riparian ecosystems in the Southwest. 

[DESIRED FUTURE CONDITIONS; RlPARlAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1546. Shaw,NL; Clary,WP (1996): Willow 

establishment in relation to cattle grazing on an 

eastern Oregon stream. p.148-153. In: Shaw,DW; 

Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired future conditions 

for Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Natural establishment and growth of coyote 

willow and whiplash willow were monitored from 

1987 to 1993 on a low elevation eastern Oregon 

stream degraded by more than a century of heavy 

livestock grazing. Treatments were no grazing, 

moderate spring grazing, moderate fall grazing, and 

continued, heavy, season long grazing by cattle. 

Fresh sediments deposited by a May 1987 flood 

provided moist, open seedbed conditions for willow 

recruitment from off-site seed sources. Initial 

establishment of coyote willow was limited, but 

density increased through 1990 with some fluctuation 

thereafter. Over the 7-year period, density was 

greatest in pastures grazed moderately in spring and 

least in pastures grazed moderately in fall or heavily 

season long. By contrast, large numbers of whiplash 

willows established in 1987, but densities declined 

through 1990 and remained stable thereafter. 

Densities were greater in ungrazed or moderately 

grazed pastures compared to those grazed season 

long. Height of both willow species generally 

increased over time in all pastures and was greater in 

ungrazed or moderately grazed pastures compared to 

those grazed season long. Browsing by deer each 

summer substantially reduced willow growth in all 

pastures, possibly masking treatment differences. 

Few willows have grown beyond browsing height to 

increase site stability and begin providing on-site 

seed sources. 

[BROWSING EFFECTS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WILLOW] 

1547. Shaw,SP; Crissey,WF (1955): Wetlands 

and the management of waterfowl. p.604-614. In: 

Water: The yearbook of agriculture. 84th 

Congress. House Document No. 32. 

During the preceding one or two decades, the 

accepted method of encouraging necessary 

conservation measures had been the use of incentive 

payments to private landowners. Since the use of 

public funds for such purposes is in the long-term 

public interest, there should be little opposition to the 

use of public monies to benefit the waterfowl 

resource. Land use planners should have public 

support to preserve and improve wetlands on private 

lands, especially if they can assure the availability of 

technical and financial assistance. 

[PLANNING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT; WETLANDS] 
1548. Sheeter,GR; Claire,EW (1981): Use of 

juniper trees to stabilize eroding streambanks on 

the South Fork John Day River. USDI Bureau of 

Land Management. Oregon State Office. 

Technical Note OR-1. 

Cut juniper trees anchored along eroded banks 

proved beneficial in stabilizing them, often during 

the first year. Juniper revetment was a successfd 

substitute for costly rock structures on straight or 

slightly curved banks. Failures, associated with 

improper anchoring and placement of trees on 

outside curves, occurred on only 4 percent of the 

treated banks. 

[EROSION CONTROL; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1549. Sheeter,G; Svejcar,T (1997): Streamside 

vegetation regrowth after clipping. Rangelands 

19(1), 30-31. 

This study was designed to quantify the amount 

of regrowth occurring on a stream associated riparian 

zone in southeastern Oregon following defoliation. 

There was very little regrowth of the riparian 

community when clipping occurred after mid-July. 

Managers should be cautious in their assumptions 

about regrowth in riparian areas. Most have assumed 

that because riparian areas are relatively wet, they 

will regrow vigorously. This study suggested that 

significant regrowth after mid-summer would not be 

expected. 

[GRAZNG IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1550, Sheley,RL; Mullin,BH; Fay,PK (1995): 

Managing riparian weeds. Rangelands 17(5), 154- 

157. 

Riparian areas should be protected from invasion 

by noxious weeds because of the extreme natural 

values of these sites. Invasive weed species, such as 

purple loosestrife, can be hyper-competitive in a 

riparian setting, crowding out native species. Studies 

have shown that weeds often do not stabilize soils as 

well as native vegetation, which can lead to soil 

erosion and degradation of the stream channel. 

Managing weeds in riparian zones is difficult and 

requires an integrated, well planned, and coordinated 

strategy based on the way an area is used. Riparian 

weed management includes the integration of control 

methods to prevent weed introductions, detection and 

eradication of existing infestations, the proper 

management of livestock, and revegetation. 

[EXOTICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1551. Shelton,ML (1998): Modeled runoff and 

climate change for a central Oregon rangeland 

watershed. p. 375-384. In: Potts,DF led.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Future runoff in the Upper Crooked River Basin 

in central Oregon is modeled assuming current land 

use and grazing practices and using a previously 

developed hydro-climatic model calibrated for 

present day watershed conditions. Greatest monthly 

changes in water availability to plants were due to 

increases in evapotranspiration. The sensitivity of the 

rangeland watershed to evapotranspiration was 

attributable to the cool season concentration of 

rainfall and evapotranspiration increases in all 

months that magnify moisture deficiency and drought 

in the summer. Modeled future hydroclimate 

indicates that mitigation will be needed for adverse 

impacts on water diversion practices and water 

allocation strategies in the watershed. 

[EVAPOTRANSPIRATION; MODELING; 

PRECIPITATION; RUNOFF; WATERSHED] 

1552. Shepard,BB (1989): Evaluation of the U.S. 

Forest Service "COWFISH" model for assessing 

livestock impacts on fisheries in the Beaverhead 

National Forest, Montana. p.22-33. In: 

Gresswel1,RE; Barton,BA; Kershner,JL 1eds.l. 

Riparian resource management: An educational 

workshop. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

Billings, MT. 

The 'COWFISH' model is useful for increasing 

awareness of the effects of livestock grazing on 

aquatic resources but does not replace the need for 

physically sampling fish populations in streams 

impacted by livestock grazing. 

[COWFISH MODEL; FISHERIES; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; MODELING] 

1553. Shinn,DA (1976): Land use habits and 

changes in vegetation on eastern Oregon 

rangelands: An historic perspective. p.1135-1141. 

In: Proceedings of the first conference on scientific 

research in the National Parks. 9-12 November 

1976. USDl National Park Service Transactions 

and Procedures Series No. 5. 

Ecological and historical data concerning 

wildlife populations, changing vegetation and 

livestock grazing were coordinated with ecological, 

historical, and anthropological data concerning fire 

and man. This combination is an integrated research 

program called "historical ecology". The best 

projected application of this approach is in restorative 
management. 

[HISTORIC RECORDS; LAND USE; 

RANGELAND HEALTH; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1554. Short,HL (1985): Management goals and 

habitat structure. p.257-262. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Management goals for riparian habitats can be 

developed that dictate different management policies, 

strategies, and tactics and result in different impacts 

on wildlife. Habitat structure expressed as habitat 

layers can provide a framework for developing 

effective strategies for achieving goals because many 

different land uses can be associated with habitat 

layers. Realistic goals are essential for both 

management and monitoring. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1555. Shroeder,RL; Allen,AW (1992): 

Assessment of habitat of wildlife communities on 

the Snake River, Jackson, Wyoming. USDI - USDI 

Fish and Wildlife Service. Resource Publication 

190. 

The composition of wildlife communities in 

western riparian habitats is influenced by the 

horizontal and vertical distribution of vegetation, the 

physical complexity of the channel, and barriers to 

movement along the corridor. Based on existing 

information, a model was developed to evaluate 

wildlife communities along the Snake River. The 

model, which compares new information to pre-1956 

conditions (before levees were constructed), may be 

applied with remotely sensed data and is compatible 

with GIS analysis. The model evaluates floodplain 

and channel complexity and assesses anthropogenic 

disturbance and its potential effect on the quality of 

wildlife habitat and movement in the riparian 

corridor. 

[GIS; MODELING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1556. Shwien,J (1991): A pitch for Badger Creek. 

Rangelands 13(4), 181-182. 

Best management practices are being 

implemented on the Stirrup Ranch near Canon City, 

Colorado. State of Colorado, USDA Forest Service, 

USDI Bureau of Land Management, and the Sangre 

de Cristo RC & D are cost-sharing the improvements. 

The project will cut erosion and sediment in Upper 

Badger Creek by half within three years. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN; WATER QUALITY] 

1557. Sidle,RC (1990): Overview of cumulative 

effects concepts and issues. p.103-107. In: Forestry 

on the frontier; Proceedings of the 1989 American 

Foresters annual convention. Bethesda, MD. 

Human activities within a watershed and natural 

processes interact in a cumulative way to affect 

downstream water quality, particularly as they effect 

the rates of erosion and sediment transport. Major 

emphasis of this paper was on water quality, nutrient 

cycling, and chemical transport. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; WATER QUALITY; 

WATERSHED] 

1558. Sidle,RC (1990): Cumulative effects of 

forest practices on erosion and sedimentation. p. 

108-1 12. In: Forestry on the frontier; Proceedings 

of the 1989 American Foresters annual 

convention. Bethesda, MD. 

Various logging activities can accelerate the 

rates of sediment transport and erosion. Multiple 

human activities may occur within a forested 

drainage basin. Land managers are being asked to 

mitigate and predict the cumulative effects of these 

land uses distributed over the scale of a watershed 

and over long periods. The cumulative effects of 

multiple uses of forest lands and the interaction with 

natural processes present complex problems for 

managers. 

[COMPACTION; CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; 

EROSION; HYDROLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT] 

1559. Sidle,RC; Amacher,MC (1990): Effects of 

mining, grazing and roads on sediment and water 

chemistry in Birch Creek, Nevada. p.463-472. In: 

Watershed planning and analysis in action, 

Symposium. Proceedings of American Society of 

Civil Engineers. 9-1 1 July 1990. Durango, CO. 

Assessment of the cumulative effects of mining 

and other land uses on water quality of Birch Creek 

showed that mine dumps and roads increased fine 

sediment deposits in some reaches. Fine sediments 

were trapped by woody debris. Grazing appeared to 

have more adverse impacts on water chemistry than 

did mining activities. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; WATER QUALITY; 

WOODY DEBRIS] 
Cumulative effects: A broader approach to water 

quality research. Journal of Soil and Water 

Conservation 46(4), 268-271. 

Research on cumulative watershed effects 

requires significant departures from traditional 

procedures/approaches. Research questions are 

usually divided into their component parts with each 

part being intensively studied by its respective 

disciplines. The cumulative effects approach requires 

a look at ecological changes in the broadest context 

over varying scales of time and space. The issue 

demands the continuing participation of many 

disciplines and enhanced interaction and cooperation 

among those participants. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; MONITORING; 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; SPATIAL SCALE; 

WATER QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

1561. Siekert,RE; Skinner,QD; Smith,MA; 

Dodd,JL; Rodgers,JD (1985): Channel response of 

an ephemeral stream in Wyoming to selected 

grazing treatments. p. 276-278. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell, CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.1. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

The effects of seasonal grazing on ephemeral 

stream morphology were studied. Results indicated 

that spring grazing has no significant impact on 

stream morphology. Summer and fall grazing was 

associated with increases in channel cross-sectional 

area. These impacts were mitigated or exacerbated by 

climatic differences, Seasonal grazing was seen as a 

potential management tool for promoting channel 

stability. 

[EPHEMERAL STREAMS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

GRAZING TREATMENTS; STREAM ECOLOGY] 

1562. Siekert,RE; Smith,MA; Rodgers,JD; 

Dodd,JL; Skinner,QD (1987): Change in stream 

channel morphology with grazing of an ephemeral 

stream in Wyoming. Abstracts. 40th annual 

meeting, Society for Range Management. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GRAZING 

IMPACTS] 

1563. Silverman,AJ; Tomlinson,WD (1984): 

Biohydrology of mountain fluvial systems: the 

Yellowstone, Parts 1 and 11. Montana Water 

Resources Resources Center Completion Report 

147. December 1984.91 p. 

This is a compilation of research performed on 

the Yellowstone River. The report text consists of 

nine chapters pertaining to: 1) general riparian zone 

properties, form, and function; 2) geology and 

geomorphology of the river; 3) history of cultural 

activity and resources; 4 & 5) riparian vegetation and 

wildlife; 6) the river's fisheries; 7) river-based 

recreational use and trends; 8) threats to the 

Yellowstone River and its riparian zone; and 9) 

riparian protective or mitigative measures. 

[FISHERIES; GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

YELLOWSTONE RIVER] 

1564. Silvey,HL (1993): Accommodating issues of 

scale. p.275. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The condition or integrity of the land area 

located adjacent to, or upstream of a particular 

riparian area of concern becomes as equally 

important to riparian health and welfare as does the 

condition of the riparian area itself. Impact 

magnitude may have widely different rankings in 

terms of scale but be of equal importance to 

individual resource users. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT 

ZONE; SPATIAL SCALE] 

1565. Simcox,DE; Zube,EH (1985): Arizona 

riparian areas: A bibliography. School of 

Renewable Natural Resources. University of 

Arizona, Tucson, AZ. 38 p. 

[EVALUATION; RESEARCH; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; TECHNIQUES] 

1566. Simons,DB (1975): The geomorphic and 

hydraulic response of rivers. p.209-219. In: 

Transactions of the Wildlife Management 

Institute; 40th North American wildlife and 

natural resources conference. March 1975. 

Pittsburg, PA. 

Increasing interest in conserving and improving 

our environment has identified a need for methods to 

predict river response due to various changes 

resulting from water resource planning. River 

response is an unsteady phenomenon in nature. For 

the study of transient phenomena in natural alluvial 

channels, the equations of motion and continuity can 

be used. Understanding the physical process 

governing river response is the first step toward 

successful water resources utilization and 

management. 

[HYDROLOGY; MONITORING; WATER 
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

1567. Simons,DB; Ruh-Ming,L (1 982): Bank 

erosion on regulated rivers. p. 717-747. In: Gravel 

bed rivers. [Eds: Hey,RD; Bathurst,JC; 

Thorne,CRI. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. New 

York, NY. 

Bank erosion and channel instability result from 

a wide variety of processes and causes. The factors 

and forces that control the processes of erosion and 

deposition are discussed in this chapter. A semiquantitative method for ranking the processes of bank 

erosion is presented. The different erosion processes 

may be grouped into two divisions: those related to 

pool level fluctuations behind hydropower dams and 

those related to natural fluvial erosion during major 

floods. The former tend to operate at the water 

surface and produce a berm and set back vertical 

bank. The latter operate over the whole bank but are 

concentrated at depth. They cause retreat of the 

whole bank profile and tend to destroy the berm. It is 

concluded that retreat due to pool level fluctuations 

alone will be limited to a narrow zone only 3-5 m 

wide and that natural fluvial erosion is in fact 

responsible for serious bank erosion and lateral 

shifting of the channel. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; STREAMBANK PROTECTION] 

1568. Simons,LH (1985): Small mammal 

community structure in old growth and logged 

riparian habitat. p.505-506. Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

(tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Small mammal populations in old growth and 

logged riparian habitat were measured for species 

richness and evenness. Six species occurred in both 

habitats but the red-backed vole was present only in 

old growth. Similarities in understory vegetation and 

proximity of old growth to logged areas may promote 

similar small mammal populations. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SMALL MAMMALS] 

1569. Sims,B; Piatt,J; Johnson,L; Purchase,C; 

Phillips,J (1996): Channel bed particle size 

distribution procedure used to evaluate watershed 

cumulative effects for range permit re-issuance on 

the Santa Pe National Forest. p.318-326. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech coord.1. Desired future 

conditions for Southwestern riparian ecosystems: 

Bringing interests and concerns together. USDA 

Forest Sewice. General Technical Report RMGTR-272. 

Personnel on the Santa Fe National Forest used 

methodologies adapted from Bevenger and Kin 

(1995) to collect baseline particle size data on 

streams within grazing allotments currently 

scheduled for permit re-issuance. This information 

was used to determine the relative current health of 

the watersheds as well as being used in the 

development of potential alternatives to current 

grazing practices, where deemed necessary. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; PARTICLE SIZE; 

WATERSHED] 

1570. Sims,BD; Johnson,LD (1985): Structural 

anadromous fishery habitat improvement on the 

Siskiyou National Forest. p. 502-504. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre, RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Three strategies for allowing fish passage 

through culverts were described: I) construction of 

stepped log weirs to raise the pool level at the outlet; 

2) retrofitting circular culverts with a baffle system; 

and 3) use of an open-bottomed arch-type culvert. 

Additionally, log and gabion structures were used to 

create pool habitat. All structures survived several 

seasons and were proved effective. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN STRUCTURES] 

1571. Singer,FJ; Mark,LC; Cates,RC (1994): 

Ungulate herbivory of willows on Yellowstone's 

northern winter range. Journal of Range 

Management 47(6), 435-443. 

Effects of large unmanaged populations of large, 

mammalian herbivores on vegetation, especially elk, 

is a concern in Yellowstone National Park. The issue 

is amplified by the extirpation of wolves from the 

region, the alterations of ungulate migrations by 

human activities, and other disruptions of the natural 

process. Stands of low, hedged (height-suppressed) 

willows are observed throughout the greater 

Yellowstone National Park where high densities of 

wintering elk or moose exist. The height of 47 

percent of the willow stands surveyed on 

Yellowstone's northern winter range has been 

suppressed. Tall and intermediate height willows 

contained higher concentrations of nitrogen and they 

exhibited more water stress than height-suppressed 

willows. The authors suggest that a more xeric 
climate and locally reduced water tables likely 

contributed to the willow declines on the northern 

winter range, but that the proximate factor in the 

declines was herbivory by native ungulates. 

[ELK GRAZING; GRAZlNG IMPACTS; NATIVE 

UNGULATES; WATER STRESS; WILLOW; 

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK] 

1572. Sinning,JA; Andrew,JW (1979): Habitat 

enhancement for Colorado squawfish in the 

Yampa River in conjunction with railroad 

construction. p.553-555. In: Swanson,GA led.]. 

The mitigation symposium: A national workshop 

on mitigating losses of fish and wildlife habitat. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-65. 

Impact assessments for the Colowyo Coal 

Company's Yampa River railroad spur determined 

that no adverse effect to the Colorado squawfish 

would result from construction and adverse effect 

was only a remote possibility resulting from 

operation. The company and its consultants decided 

to construct additional backwater habitat suitable for 

rearing Colorado squawfish in two locations during 

railroad construction as a habitat enhancement 

feature. The authors discuss design criteria for the 

backwaters, applications, and some problems. 

[BACKWATERS; COLORADO SQUAWFISH; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1573. Skinner,QD (1998): Stubble height and 

function of riparian communities. p.29-46. In: 

Stubble height and utilization measures: Uses and 

misuses. Oregon State University. Corvallis, OR. 

Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 682. 

Stubble height is discussed as it influences 

attributes of channels and floodplains, sediment 

deposition, plant vigor, physical stability of riparian 

zones, and use of woody plant species. Sediment 

deposition from growing vegetation may change 

water relationships of plants along banks over time 

and channel succession. As channel banks build, 

plant species composition of the near-bank riparian 

zone may also change. Plants that require high water 

tables most of the growing season may be at a 

disadvantage in competing with plants that can 

withstand rapid declines. In mature channel systems, 

the latter may become dominant. Stubble height 

required to maintain plant vigor may also decrease 

when plant succession occurs. Higher stubble heights 

of all plants may be required to maintain channel 

bank integrity and to reduce grazing of other desired 

woody species. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

SHRUBS; STUBBLE HEIGHT; UTILIZATION] 

1574. Skinner,QD; Adams,JC; Hussey,MR 

(1984): Distribution of denitrifying and sulfate 

reducing bacteria within a riparian zone along a 

mountain stream. USDI Geological Survey Water 

Resources Division. Reston, VA. Report No. 

USGSIG-879-07.22 p. 

The presence or absence of denitrifying bacteria 

as well as bacteria capable of reducing sulfate in soils 

of a mountain watershed were studied. Bacteria were 

enumerated from soil samples collected during 

summer along transects placed perpendicular to 

stream flow. Samples were taken at 3 depths. Higher 

counts of total heterotrophic aerobic bacteria, 

denitrifying bacteria and denitrifi cation potential 

existed in the upper 5 to 15 cm of soil than at 30 cm. 

Soils located close to the stream edge tended to have 

more bacterial activity than those farther from the 

stream indicating that these soils may be important 

sites for sulfate and nitrate reduction. Soil organic 

matter and water content decreased with depth at all 

communities, and those closer to the stream 

contained more organic matter and water than those 

further from the stream. 

[MICROBIOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SOILS] 

1575. Skinner,QD; Smith,MA; Dodd,JL; 

Rodgers,JD (1985): Reclamation of riparian zones 

and water law: first in time -- first in right. p. 374 

- 378. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton, DR; 

Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

This paper describes research designed to 

reclaim a degraded desert steppe stream and riparian 

zones in Wyoming. Use of trash collectors, willows, 

and beaver dams to trap sediment, and stabilize 

bedload for creating additional water storage is also 

discussed. Management in terms of user rights 

considering multiple users is addressed. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WATER LAW; 

WATER RIGHTS] 

1576. Skinner,QD; Smith,MA; Dodd,JL; 

Rodgers,JD; Siekert,RE (1986): The effects of 

selected grazing treatment on channel morphology 

and sediment within the riparian zone of Fifteen 

Mile Creek Abstracts. 39th annual meeting, 

Society for Range Management. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GRAZING 
TREATMENTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

1577. Skinner,QD; Speck,JE; Smith,M; 

Adams,JC (1984): Stream water quality as 

influenced by beaver within grazing systems in 

Wyoming. Journal of Range Management 37(2), 

142-146. 

Stream water flowing from watersheds subjected 

to continuous and deferred rotation grazing by 

livestock was sampled to enumerate bacteria for 

detecting differences between grazing treatments and 

streams. Fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, total 

counts at 20 degrees C, and bacteria capable of 

fluorescing under long wave radiation were selected 

as indicators of pollution. Bacteria counts for 

different indicator groups varied in their ability to 

detect change between grazing treatments as well as 

between streams. Fluorescing bacteria and total 

counts were of little value in explaining non-point 

source pollution whereas fecal coliform and 

streptococci were. Variation in counts of fecal 

coliform and streptococci could not be fully 

accounted for by differences in grazing management 

but is partially explained by beaver damming of 

stream flow. Given that beaver impoundment of 

selected stream reaches is equal, variation in nonpoint pollution may be caused by grazing treatment 

differences alone. 

[BEAVER; COLIFORM BACTERIA; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1578. Skinner,QD; Wesche,TA; Smith,MA; 

Dodd,JD (1988): Restoringlcreating cold desert 

riparian zones. Muddy Creek, Wyoming: A case 

study. p.173-178. In: Stuber,PJ [tech. coord.]. 

Proceedings of the national symposium on 

protection of wetlands from agricultural impacts. 

25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, CO. USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service. Biological Report 88(16). 

The Muddy Creek study evaluates riparian zone 

response to cost efficient restoration processes using 

instream structures and diversions. Sediment storage, 

vegetation production, salt storage in sediment, and 

groundwater were measured to determine worth of 

the restoration process. Preliminary results indicate 

that riparian zones help abate non-point pollution and 

that their economic value depends on who is using 

them and for what purpose. 

[COLD DESERT SHRUBS; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1579. Skovlin,JM (1984): Impacts of grazing on 

wetlands and riparian habitat: A review of our 

knowledge. p.lOO1-1103. In: Developing strategies 

for rangeland management. National Research 

CounciVNational Academy of Sciences. Boulder, 

CO. Westview Press. 

This paper reviews impacts on wetland and 

riparian habitats throughout western North America. 

It identifies problems, discusses values and functions, 

and synthesizes study findings. Major topics are the 

effects of livestock grazing on vegetation, watershed, 

and fish and wildlife. Specific subjects cover 

responses of (I) trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, 

(2) water quality, streambank stability, and features 

of upland erosion, and (3) large and small mammals, 

birds, and invertebrate organisms. Grazing strategies 

to improve habitats are proposed for better decisions 

in allocating riparian zone uses. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1580. Skoviin,JM; Meehan,WR; Buckhouse,JC; 

Vavra,M (1977): Determining the influence of 

grazing on riparian and aquatic habitats in the 

Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon. p.164- 

169. In: Proceedings of the workshop on livestock 

and wildlife-fisheries relationships in the Great 

Basin. 3-5 May 1977. Sparks, NV. Spec. Publ. 

3301; University of California. Berkeley, CA. 

The objective of a study to assess the effects of 

streamside cattle grazing and browsing on the 

terrestrial and aquatic systems are delineated, study 

procedures are outlined, and preliminary results of 

the first year in a five-year integrated pilot study are 

discussed. The study site was well suited for 

experiments on the effects of grazing methods on the 

riparian herbage and shrubs, water quality, fisheries, 

soils, and cattle production. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1581. Slaughter,CW; Aldrich,JW [comp.] (1989): 

Annotated bibliography of soil erosion and 

erosion control in sub-arctic and high-latitude 

regions of North America. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report PNW-GTR-253. 

Portland, OR. 234 p. 

The emphasis of this document is on the physical 

processes of upland soil erosion, prediction of soil 

erosion and sediment yield, and erosion control. The 

bibliography is divided into two sections: (1) 

references specific to Alaska, the Arctic and subarctic, and similar high-latitude settings; and (2) 

references relevant to understanding erosion, 

sediment production, and erosion control. Most of the 

cited works were published prior to 198 1. 
[BIBLIOGRAPHY; EROSION; HYDROLOGY] 

1582. Smelser,MG; Schmidt,JC (1998): An 

assessment methodology for determining 

historical changes in mountain streams. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report RMRSGTR-6.29 p. 

The methodology facilitates the 

collectioniorganization of historical records and 

describes how to organize the data on computer 

spreadsheets. Further, six techniques are described to 

quantify the spatial and temporal magnitude of 

historic channel adjustments. Information thus 

derived can be used by managers to gage the 

implications of resource development, and 

restoration for montane riparian systems. 

[ASSESSMENTS; HISTORIC RECORDS; 

MONITORING] 

1583. Smirnow,E (1 988): Water resources 

analyses: Flow category analysis for flow duration 

curves. Unpublished report prepared for USDA 

Forest Service. Uncompahgre and Gunnison 

National Forests. Delta, CO. 

A report that discusses a method to facilitate the 

development of flow category analysis and flow 

duration data for streams having unstable channels 

andlor considerable daily range in stage during spring 

runoff. It is intended to provide investigators with a 

tool to expedite and refine generation of flow 

duration curves/tables, flow regime frequencies, and 

sediment yields. 

[HYDROLOGY; RUNOFF; STREAM FLOW] 

1584. Smith,B; Prichard,D (1992): Riparian area 

management: Management techniques in riparian 

areas. USDl Bureau of Land Management. 

Technical Reference 1737-6.44 p. 

Large numbers of techniques have been 

developed to assist in managing riparian areas. These 

management treatments and techniques can be as 

varied as the multiple uses that occur within riparian 

zones. The application in this document focuses on 

riparian areas but some can be applied to other forms 

of wetlands. The following management techniques 

and their associated concepts are described: fencing, 

prescribed bums, forestry practices, vegetation 

plantings, opportunities from mineral activities, 

structures, beaver, bank stabilization, recreation 

planning, and road construction and maintenance. 

[BEAVER, RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; VEGETATION 

MANIPULATION; WETLANDS] 

1585. Smith,BH (1977): Recent findings on the 

condition of aquatic habitat on national resource 

lands and its potential for future management 

within the concept of multiple use. p.7. In: 

Proceedings of the 12th annual meeting. 

Colorado-Wyoming Chapter. American Fisheries 

Society. 2-3 March 1977. Cheyenne, WY. 

A major role of BLM biologists is in the 

environmental analysis process, identifying and 

attempting to mitigate the numerous impacts to 

wildlife habitats that multiple use activities incur. But 

how long or how far can habitat be mitigated? 

Reduction of impacts on sequential actions still 

produces a cumulative effect that reduces the 

quantity and quality of habitat. 

[CUMULATIVE IMPACTS; MULTIPLE USE; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1586. Smith,BH (1980): Not all beavers are bad; 

or, an ecosystem approach to stream habitat 

management, with possible software applications. 

p.6. In: Proceedings of the 15th annual meeting. 

Colorado-Wyoming Chapter. American Fisheries 

Society. 27-28 February 1980. Ft. Collins, CO. 

Pilot studies in the Rock Springs District, 

Wyoming, have indicated the establishment of stream 

habitat improvements can be achieved through a 

"software" approach of providing environmental 

limiting factors for beaver, i.e., necessary material 

and food supplies. When applied within a multi-use 

management framework, this approach could prove 

to be highly compatible with other programs (e.g. 

aspen thinning to stimulate browse regeneration). 

[BEAVER; ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1587. Smith,BH (1980): Riparian willow 

management: Its problems and potentials, within 

the scope of multiple use on public lands. p. 15-20. 

In: Proceedings of the ninth Wyoming shrub 

ecology workshop. 5-6 June 1980. Lander, WY. 

[MULTIPLE USE; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WILLOW] 

1588. Smith,BH (1981): The ecosystem approach 

to stream habitat management. p. 5. In: 

Proceedings of the Rocky Mountain regional soil, 

water, and air workshop. 2-6 February 1981. 

Jackson Hole, WY. 

With increasing awareness of the value and 

importance of stream and riparian ecosystems, it is 

necessary to achieve a more effective 

interdisciplinary approach toward total watershed 
management. The numerous impacts and problems 

presently experienced by stream ecosystems are 

indicators of greater soil or water resource problems 

associated with the management of public lands. As 

habitat values are reduced for the aquatic ecosystem, 

resource productivity is also reduced for all 

programs. Effective application of "ecosystem 

engineering" principles can result in improvements in 

aquatic habitat and in improved watershed 

management for all resources. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1589. Smith,BH (1982): Livestock-riparianfisheries interrelationships; or, functional 

applications of adaptation for personal survival. 

p.4. Proceedings of the 17th annual meeting. 

Colorado-Wyoming Chapter. American Fisheries 

Society. 3-4 March 1982. Ft. Collins, CO. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS] 

1590. Smith,BH (1983): Restoration of riparian 

habitats within the BLM's Rock Springs District. 

p.8. In: Wildlife habitat rehabilitation and 

reclamation. Proceedings of the symposium by 

Native Plants, Inc. 10-11 January 1983. Salt Lake 

City, UT. 

A summary of riparian rehabilitation programs 

currently underway in the Rock Springs District 

(Wyoming) is presented. Initially focused on stream 

habitat improvement to enhance survival of T & E 

species, the principles of these programs are now 

receiving broader multiple use applications. Present 

riparian improvement efforts are testing the 

utilization of both special beaver and livestock 

management relationships in restoring degraded 

habitats. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1591. Smith,BH; Dunder,JD (1984): Bone Draw: 

Riparian rehabilitation for development of a 

seasonal sport fishery. p.9. In: Proceedings of the 

American Fisheries Society/Wildlife Society joint 

chapter meeting. 8-10 February 1984. Logan, UT. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1592. Smith,BN; Lytle,CM; Hansen,LD; Lipp,J; 

Ziegler,H (1992): Respiration and growth in 

seedlings of cold desert shrubs. p.190-193. In: 

Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 

Wambolt,CL 1comp.l. Proceedings - Symposium 

on ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

Plants from geographic races (subspecies) of 

four species of cold desert shrubs (Artemisia 

tridentata, Atriplex canescans, Chrysothamnus 

nauseosus, and Kochia prostata) were grown from 

seed in the greenhouse. After four months, the 

seedlings were compared for shoot and root growth. 

No correlation between growth and carbon and 

hydrogen isotopic values was found. However, a 

strong correlation was found between growth and 

plant respiration. 

[COLD DESERT SHRUBS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; SEED PRODUCTION] 

1593. Smith,CM (1992): Riparian afforestation 

effects on water yield and water quality in pasture 

catchments. Journal of Environmental Quality 21, 

237-245. 

Flow records for two pasture catchments for nine 

years before and nine years after riparian 

afforestation were compared. Mean precipitation was 

102 1 mmlyear. Riparian afforestation reduced water 

yields 2 1-55 percent when the pine stand was 8 to 10 

years old. Delayed runoff declined 27-63 percent. 

Afforestation reduced the quick flow yield in one 

year by 40 percent. Peak flows declined in small 

events, were not affected in medium-sized events, 

and may have increased in large events. 

Consequences of riparian afforestation may not be 

readily predicted from the impacts of complete 

afforestation. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RUNOFF; WATER 

QUALITY; WATER YIELD] 

1594. Smith,DG (1976): Effect of vegetation on 

lateral migration of anastomosed channels of a 

glacier meltwater river. Geological Society of 

America Bulletin 87, 857-860. 

This paper describes a series of experiments 

performed on bank materials of anastomosed 

channels in floodplain silt deposits to determine the 

effect of vegetation roots on bank erodibility and 

lateral migration of channels. In cool environments 

with aggrading river conditions, where overbank 

deposition of silt, clay, and fine sand dominate the 

valley fill, vegetation roots are able to rapidly 

accumulate and decay very slowly, thereby affording 

protection to banks from erosion in deeper parts of 

the channels. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SOILS; STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1595. Smith,DG (1980): River ice processes: 

thresholds and geomorphological effects in 
northern and mountain rivers. p.323-343. In: 

Thresholds in geomorphology. Geomorphology 

symposium series. Binghamton, NY. [Eds: 

Coates,DR; Vitek,JDI. George Allen & Unwi, 

Boston,MS. 

Rivers located in northern and mountain 

environments are severely affected by winter and 

associated accumulations of river ice. Several types 

of ice accumulations can occur, depending on 

channel characteristics, weather conditions, and 

volume of river discharge. This chapter shows how 

the concept of a geomorphic threshold can be applied 

to river ice processes and describes the various river 

ice processes common to northern rivers. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; GEOMORPHOLOGY; RIVER 

ECOLOGY] 

1596. Smith,LM; Kadlec,JA (1985): Fire and 

herbivory in a Great Salt Lake Marsh. Ecology 

66(1), 259-265. 

The effects of fire and of herbivory by 

vertebrates on the standing crop and aboveground net 

primary production of Typha latifolia, Scirpus 

lacustris, S.maritimus, and Distichlis spicata 

investigated in a freshwater marsh adjacent to the 

Great Salt Lake. Production of T.latifolia, S.lacustris, 

and S.maritimus vegetation responding after fire was 

not different from control areas, but flooding 

following fire eliminated D.spicata. Grazing by 

wetland vertebrates reduced net primary production 

of marsh macrophytes. Significant reductions 

occurred in previously burned areas of T.latifolia (48 

percent), S. lacustris (25 percent), and S. maritimus (9 

percent), illustrating the importance of the herbivory 

food chain for inland marshes. Evidence of increased 

protein in vegetation responding after fire and 

preferential grazing was consistent with the 

hypothesis that wetland vertebrates select vegetation 

of higher nutritive quality. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

PRIMARY PRODUCTION; WETLANDS] 

1597. Smith,LM; Kadlec,JA (1990): Habitat 

management for wildlife in marshes of Great Salt 

Lake. p.222-231. In: Transactions of the 51st 

North American wildlife and natural resources 

conference. 

The marshes surrounding the Great Salt Lake in 

Utah have historically been known for their rich and 

plentiful avifauna. The marshes have provided vital 

habitat for breeding shorebirds and waterfowl and 

have also been critical for molting and wintering 

birds. Substantial changes have occurred in modem 

times. This study highlights historical, physical, and 

biological conditions of the Great Salt Lake marshes 

and relates recent habitat management schemes to 

vegetation succession and associated wildlife use. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; HABITAT MANAGEMENT; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1598. Smith,MA; Dodd,JL; Skinner,QD; 

Rodgers,JD (1993): Dynamics of vegetation along 

and adjacent to an ephemeral channel. Journal of 

Range Management 46(1), 56-64. 

Ephemeral channels may be greater contributors 

to non-point sediment loads than perennial channels 

because of their abundance and lower vegetative 

cover. This study examined above- and belowground standing crop responses of selected 

vegetation classes and density of shrubs to grazing 

use and yearly weather variation along an ephemeral 

stream in north-central Wyoming. Perennial grass 

standing crop in channels did not respond to grazing 

but decreased up to 73 percent with decreases in 

frequency and amount of precipitation. On 

floodplains and uplands, perennial grass standing 

crop was not responsive to grazing. Shrub density did 

not increase as much in grazed as in ungrazed 

pastures. Location on channels influenced root 

biomass but grazing did not. Lack of general negative 

grazing influences on vegetation suggest short 

periods (10 days) of grazing (as used in this study) 

represent a sustainable management alternative for 

grazing in a cold desert. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; CLIMATE; 

EPHEMERAL STREAMS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

1599. Smith,MA; Rodgers,JD; Dodd,JL; 

Skinner,QD (1992): Habitat selection by cattle 

along an ephemeral channel. Journal of Range 

Management 45(4), 385-390. 

Higher proportions of cattle selected channel and 

floodplain habitats than selected upland habitat. 

Animal preference for channel habitat was attributed 

to more available forage in the channels. In contrast, 

selection of floodplains was sue to succulence and 

high protein content of greasewood. Greater 

avoidance of upland areas by cattle was likely due to 

greater distances to drinking water. 

[EPHEMERAL STREAMS; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN PASTURES] 

1600. Smith,MA; Rodgers,JD; Dodd,JL; 

Skinner,QD (1993): Habitat selection by cattle 

along an ephemeral channel. Rangelands 15(3), 

120-122. 
When adequate livestock water is present, 

grazing cattle will be more likely to select areas of 

higher forage quality and quantity. Increased 

selection did not result in increased utilization in 

preferred areas. Limited water distribution in large 

allotments probably increases utilization closer to 

water. Vegetation in or near channels can best be 

protected by developing water points in adjacent 

uplands while monitoring utilization of water 

channels. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1601. Smith,RD (1996): Geomorphic effects of 

large woody debris in streams. p.113-127. In: 

National hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 

April - 1 May 1992; Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

This paper reviews the geomorphic effects of 

inchannel obstructions, including large woody debris. 

It includes discussion of debris flows, debris 

removal, obstruction pool interactions, obstruction 

channel morphology interactions, mechanisms of 

pool scour, and scour in obstruction related pools. 

There is also a discussion of information needs for 

widespread application of the turbulent scour model 

in forest streams. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; STREAM 

IMPROVEMENTS; WOODY DEBRIS] 

1602. Smith,SD; Herr,CA; Hokett,SL; 

Cochran,GF (1992): Effects of a simulated pluvial 

maximum climate on soil-plant water relations 

and potential recharge near Yucca Mountain, 

Nevada. p.171-175. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

A simulated pluvial maximum climate was 

applied to experimental plots near Yucca Mountain, 

Nevada. Summer dormancy was alleviated in all 

shrub species tested. Deep soil moisture recharge 

(> 1.2 m) occurred in the first summer on bare plots 

but not until winter dormancy on vegetated plots. If 

pluvial climatic conditions return during the life of 

the proposed nuclear waste facility, deep soil 

moisture recharge could occur. 

[DORMANCY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS; 

WATER RELATIONS] 

1603. Smith,SD; Murray,KJ; Landau,FH; 

Sala,AM (1995): Structure of woody riparian 

vegetation in Great Basin National Park. p.246- 

251. In: Proceedings: Wildland shrub and arid 

land restoration symposium. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-GTR-315. 

The community composition and population 

structure of the woody riparian vegetation in 

Nevada's Great Basin National Park are described. 

Community analyses were accomplished by sampling 

229 plots along an elevational gradient of 8 major 

stream systems in the Park. TWINSPAN analysis 

identified 4 primary species groups that were 

characterized by aspen, white fir, Woods rose, and 

narrow-leaf cottonwood as dominants, respectively. 

Detrended Correspondense Analysis (DECORANA) 

showed that the most important environmental 

factors associated with the distribution of species 

were slope and elevation, with flood related 

physiographic factors having a secondary effect. 

Analysis of size-class distributions indicated that 

each of the four dominants showed good recruitment 

on most watersheds. Overgrazing by domestic 

livestock and stream diversion were the two primary 

disturbance factors affecting riparian vegetation in 

the Park. 

[PLANT COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

1604. Snodgrass,JW; Meffe,GK (1998): Influence 

of beavers on stream fish assemblages: Effects of 

pond age and watershed position. Ecology 79(3), 

928-942. 

There was high species turnover among 

impounded and previously impounded reaches, 

therefore beavers affected patterns of species richness 

at the drainage basin scale. They collected more 

species in first and second order streams than in third 

order streams. Studies suggested that: 1) beavers 

have a positive effect on fish species richness in low 

order backwater streams but maintenance of this 

effect requires preservation of both spatial and 

temporal dynamics of beaver pond creation and 

abandonment; and 2) the positive relationship 

between stream fish species richness and drainage 

area described for many streams may be a recent 

phenomenon resulting from the extirpation of 

beavers from much of their historical range. 

[BEAVER; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1605. Snyder,WD (1988): Stem cutting 

propagation of woody phreatophytes in eastern 

Colorado. p.151-156. In: Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; 

Scott,ML; Miller,LK 1eds.l. Restoration, creation, 
and management of wetland and riparian 

ecosystems in the American West. Proceedings of 

the symposium. 14-1 6 November 1988. Denver, 

CO. Rocky Mountain Chapter of the Society of 

Wetland Scientists. 

Plantings of six native woody phreatophytes and 

one exotic species are evaluated. Techniques are 

related to expected survival. Options for establishing 

trees, shrubs, and vines, within riverbottom 

floodplains include: removing top soil to near the 

water table, irrigation to maintain moist soils, 

planting rooted seedlings, and using polypropylene 

plastic sheeting as a weed barrier. 

[PLANT PROPAGATION; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

1606. Snyder,WD; Miller,GC (1992): Changes in 

riparian vegetation along the Colorado River and 

Rio Grande, Colorado. Great Basin Naturalist 

52(4), 357-363. 

Changes in vegetation including area occupied, 

canopy cover, and maturity class of cottonwoods 

within lower elevational zones of the Colorado River 

and Rio Grande in Colorado were monitored over 25 

and 37 years, respectively. Estimated loss of 

cottonwoods along the Colorado River was 17.5 

percent. Cottonwoods along the Rio Grande 

increased 9.5 percent. Shrubs declined along the Rio 

Grande but not along the Colorado River. Loss of 

hay fields declined along both rivers; developed 

lands increased along the Colorado River. Wildlife 

habitat deteriorated much more rapidly along the 

Colorado than along the Rio Grande. 

[COLORADO RIVER; COTTONWOOD; RIO 

GRANDE; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1607. Sokol,C (1993): Rivers from a timber 

industry perspective. p.37-38. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian Management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Sewice. General Technical Report RM226. 

The timber industry's view of riparian 

management has changed in the past few years. The 

new role involves participation with various agencies 

and entities in developing Coordinated Resources 

Management Plans (CRMP). Pilot projects such as 

the Spenser Creek CRMP have been very successful. 

[CRMP; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1608. Sollins,P; Glassman,CA; Dahm,CM (1985): 

Composition and possible origin of detrital 

material in headwater streams. Ecology 66,297- 

299. 

Fragmented but otherwise unaltered plant debris 

did not compose the bulk of the detrital C and N in 

the stream channel and floodplain materials that were 

sampled. The heaviest fraction accounted for the 

majority of the C and N in the fine detritus from four 

streams but for only a small to negligible proportion 

of C and N in waterlogged riparian foliage and wood. 

Even FI material was substantially different in 

composition from the original plant material, Al and 

Fe having accumulated in large amounts. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; ORGANIC DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1609. Solomon,JM; Horak,GC (1979): Promising 

legal and procedural strategies for reserving 

instream flows in thirteen western states. p.546- 

549. In: Swanson,GA led.]. The mitigation 

symposium: A national workshop on mitigating 

losses of fish and wildlife habitat. USDA Forest 

Sewice. General Technical Report RM-65. 

The authors identify, describe, and evaluate the 

most promising strategies for reserving flows at 

existing and proposed projects. These strategies were 

designed to promote the bargaining process between 

Federalistate resource development and conservation 

interests. 

[STREAM FLOW; WATER CONSERVATION; 

WATER QUALITY; WATER RIGHTS] 

161 0. Sonett,ML; Stovall,PL (1 998): Small grade 

control (check dam) function and design in the 

Embudo Watershed, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 

p. 417-426. In: Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

The Embudo Watershed contains 52 grade 

control structures, built of rock and brush, or rock, or 

rock, wire, and brush. Evaluation criteria for these 

structures included: I) accumulated sediment 

volume, 2) dam dimensions, 3) performance 

characteristics, and 4) repair recommendations. 

Narrative records, regardless of dimensions, 

indicated that the structures were filled to capacity 

one year after construction. Although grade control 

structures trapped sediment for an estimated 1-2 

years after construction, they reduce sediment yield 

more significantly by lowering flow velocities and 

stabilizing banks. 

[CHECK DAMS; RUNOFF; SEDIMENTATION; 

WATERSHED] 
161 1. Sotir,RB; Frazier,L (1997): Stream 

realignment and restoration achieved through 

partnership. Land and Water, MarchIApril, 13- 

18. 

Installation of soil bioengineering stabilization 

systems has facilitated the foundation for potential 

long-term success toward the goals of restoring a 

riparian stream corridor in Tennessee, while also 

fulfilling aesthetic requirements and economic 

constraints. 

[BIOENGINEERING; FLOOD IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1612. Sparks,RE (1995): Need for ecosystem 

management of large rivers and their floodplains. 

BioScience 45(3), 168-181. 

Most of the 79 large river - floodplain 

ecosystems in the world have been altered by human 

activity, the others face alteration soon. These are 

complex ecosystems that consist of flowing channels, 

together with the floodplain lakes, backwaters, 

forests, and wetlands that support much of the Earth's 

terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity. These systems 

are characterized by seasonal floods that promote the 

exchange of nutrients and organisms among a mosaic 

of habitats. The annual flood pulses are so 

predictable and long lasting that plants, animals, and 

human societies have adapted to take advantage of 

them. Ecosystem management works with such 

natural processes as erosion, sedimentation, and 

seasonal flood pulses. Nonstructural approaches to 

flood management, such as opting not to rebuild 

damaged structures in flood-prone areas and moving 

people out of harm's way, are congruent with 

restoration of floodplains and riparian zones. Over 

the long term, ecosystem management could save 

money and enhance economic efficiency, because 

natural services are restored (e.g. flood storage, 

conveyance, and moderation; water purification; fish 

and wildlife production; and biodiversity 

preservation) instead of being maintained by human 

intervention at great costs and considerable risks of 

failure. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; EROSION; 

FLOOD IMPACTS; HUMAN IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIVER ECOLOGY; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

1613. Speaker,R; Moore,K; Gregory,S (1984): 

Analysis of the process of retention of organic 

matter in stream ecosystems. Verhandlung 

Internationale Vereinigung Limnologie 22(3), 

1835-1841. 

Lotic ecosystems are substantially different from 

most other ecosystems as the continuous 

unidirectional flow through the system tends to 

transport matter to downstream reaches. The process 

of retention removes matter from transport and 

makes it available for utilization by stream biota, thus 

providing a link between input and storage. A 

method is described for the quantitative assessment 

of retention of particulate matter in streams and 

several major stream retention features are identified 

that can be influenced by the structure and 

composition of riparian zones. Short-term leaf 

retention curves performed well to a negative 

exponential model. Though leaves were retained at 

fairly uniform rates at many sites, the presence of 

wood debris dams had a major influence on reach 

retention patterns. Retention structures differed 

greatly in their relative efficiency of trapping leaves. 

[MATERIAL TRANSFER; ORGANIC DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

1614. Speaker,RW; Luchessa,KJ; Franklin,JF; 

Gregory,SV (1988): The use of plastic strips to 

measure leaf retention by riparian vegetation in a 

coastal Oregon stream. The American Midland 

Naturalist 120(1), 22-31. 

Plastic strips, rather than leaves, were tested in 

studies estimating the rate of removal of coarse 

particulate organic matter from low order forested 

streams. Processes involved in the retention of 

organic debris, both instream and on bank, are 

discussed in relation to the results of an experiment 

comparing the debris retention by streams sections 

with manipulated bank vegetation densities. 

[DECOMPOSER FOOD CHAIN; ORGANIC 

DEBRIS; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1615. Spear,MJ (1985): Position paper: activities 

and views of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on 

riparian ecosystems. p.27-29. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott.PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Riparian habitat is vital to the Nation's fish and 

wildlife resources. Presently, many activities are 

adversely impacting this important ecosystem. 

Programs of the USDI Fish and Wildlife Service that 

provide protection for riparian zones are discussed. 

Examples of projects to conserve riparian areas are 

emphasized. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 
1616. Sponholtz,PJ (1997): Effects of grazing on 

a riparian system: Where have all the fish gone? 

p.190. Abstracts. 1997 Annual meeting of the 

Ecological Society of America jointly with The 

Nature Conservancy. 10-14 August 1997. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

Livestock grazing effects on a riparian 

ecosystem were examined at sites on the Verde River 

in Arizona. Streambank vegetation was 60 percent 

lower, channel width 50 percent greater and flow 

velocity 85 percent lower at the grazed site. Fish 

density at the grazed site was 50 percent lower than 

at the ungrazed site. Results of this study suggest that 

livestock grazing on the Verde River influences the 

total fish community by altering near and instream 

aquatic habitat. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; FISHERIES; 

GRAZING IMPACTS] 

1617. Sprugel,DG (1991): Disturbance, 

equilibrium, and environmental variability: What 

is "natural vegetation" in a changing 

environment? Biological Conservation 58, 1-18. 

In recent years, the definition of "natural" 

ecosystems has undergone a change of perspective. It 

is now realized that in most areas some type of large 

scale disturbance is indigenous and must be 

considered in any realistic interpretation of 

"naturalness". In some areas, an equilibrium may 

exist in which patchy disturbance is balanced by 

regrowth, but in others equilibrium may be 

impossible because: I) individual disturbances are 

too large of infrequent; 2) ephemeral events may 

have long lasting disruptive effects; andlor 3) climate 

changes interrupt any movement toward equilibrium 

that does occur. Vegetation may not be stable over 

long periods of time in a given area even without 

man's influence. For any given site at any given time, 

there are several communities that could be the 

'natural vegetation". 

[NATURAL AREAS; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1618. Squires,G (1991): Mined land reclamation 

in riparian areas. p.18-19. In: What does riparian 

mean to me? Proceedings of the third annual 

convention. Colorado Riparian Association. 6-8 

November 1991. Pueblo, CO. 

The Colorado Mined Land Reclamation Act 

requires that every mining operation must have a 

reclamation permit. Among other requirements, the 

application for the permit must include a mining plan 

and a reclamation plan plus other requirements. The 

applicant must also provide a warranty bond to 

ensure the reclamation of the site disturbance. 

[MINED LAND RECLAMATION; MINING 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1619. Stabler,DF (1985): Increasing summer 

flow in small streams through management of 

riparian areas and adjacent vegetation: A 

synthesis. p.206-210. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton, DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Summer streamflow increases were obtained by 

construction of small dams, suppression of woody 

vegetation in and adjacent to riparian zones, and 

removal of livestock from streamsides. Potential may 

exist for managing small valley bottoms for summer 

flow increase, while maintaining or enhancing 

riparian habitat, range, and watershed values. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; STREAM FLOW] 

1620. Stafford,MP (1994): Control of purple 

loosestrife with herbicides and the effect and 

subsequent response of wetland plant 

communities. p.51. In Proceedings of the Idaho 

Weed Control Association. 49th Annual Meeting. 

15-17 February 1994. Boise, ID. 

Field studies were conducted to determine the 

effects of herbicides on the control of purple 

loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). The effects of 

herbicide treatments on the non-target vegetation was 

documented the year of treatment and the following 

year. Triclopyr Garlon 3A applied at 3.0,4.5, and 

6.0 pounds IAc provided excellent selective control 

of purple loosestrife when applied in the bud to early 

flowering stage. Reductions in dicot cover were 

generally observed with purple loosestrife replaced 

by bedstraw and bladderwort. Monocots such as reed 

canarygrass, cattail and giant reedgrass increased 3- 

to 4-fold in coverage 

[EXOTICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; WETLANDS] 

1621. Stahlecker,DW; Kennedy,PL; Cully,AC; 

Kuykendal1,CB (1989): Breeding bird assemblages 

in the Rio Grande Wild and Scenic River 

Recreation Area, New Mexico. The Southwestern 

Naturalist 34(4), 487-498. 

Breeding bird assemblages were quantified on a 

7,600-ha study area in northern New Mexico. Birds 

were censused on spot-mapping grids within six of 

the eight habitats during the spring and summer of 
1985. Population estimates were made for 43 species 

in at least one habitat while 1 13 confirmed and 

potential breeding species were documented in the 

study area. The riparian habitat had the highest 

density of breeding birds (203.3 pairs140 ha) while 

sagebrushigrasslands had the lowest density (75.6 

pairs140 ha). Sagebrushlgrassland habitat had the 

lowest species richness, and wooded canyon benches 

had the highest species richness. The greatest 

similarity in breeding bird species occurred in 

adjacent and structurally similar habitats. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SPECIES RICHNESS] 

1622. Stahr,L (1993): Oregon's watershed 

enhancement program. p.244. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH Itech. coord.]. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report RM226. 

The governor's Watershed Enhancement Board 

provides grants, funds, and technical assistance to 

Oregonians proposing projects which demonstrate 

the benefits of improvement or enhancement of 

riparian or watershed areas. 

[WATER QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

1623. Stanford,JA (1979): Proliferation of river 

deltas in reservoirs: A natural mitigative process? 

p.193-195. In: Swanson,CA led.]. The mitigation 

symposium: A natural workshop on mitigating 

losses of fish and wildlife habitats. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-65. 

Sedimentary and ecological dynamics of 

riverine-formed deltas in Texas, Oklahoma, and 

Montana illustrate importance of alluvial wetlands to 

river-reservoir ecosystems. Natural creation of deltas 

may be considered mitigation of habitat lost by 

reservoir construction. Conversely, destruction of 

existing delta habitat by mismanagement of lake 

level regime may present mitigation problems. 

[RESERVOIRS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

1624. Stanley,EH; Buschman,DL; Boulton,AJ; 

Grimm,NB; Fisher,SG (1994): Invertebrate 

resistance and resilience to intermittency in a 

desert stream. American Midland Naturalist 131, 

288-300. 

During wetting, drying, dry, and rewetting 

phases in an intermittent Arizona stream, invertebrate 

responses to water loss were investigated. Some taxa 

were resistant to drying because they could tolerate 

changing water quality and move upstream to avoid 

stranding. Community shifts occurred at one site 

when it became isolated from up- and down-stream 

reaches. No community changes were detected at a 

second site which remained connected with upstream 

reaches by surface flow. Mortality after water loss 

was severe as few individuals survived longer than 

10 days. Low resistance during the dry phase was 

associated with rapid moisture loss from sediments. 

Slower rates of recovery may reflect the composition, 

reduced size, and remoteness of macroinvertebrate 

colonist pools. However, invertebrate persistence in 

desert streams where both flooding and drying are 

frequent is due largely to their ability to rapidly 

recolonize disturbed sites. 

[DESERT STREAMS; FLOOD IMPACTS; 

MACROINVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1625. Starlund,S (1993): Public participation in 

the planning and management of rivers: 

Washington State Scenic River System. p.261-272. 

In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF, Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

Often, public participation in river planning has 

had the appearance of government planners seeking 

acceptance and approval of their product. 

Acknowledging the value of involving the river 

community is critical. The integration of social and 

cultural valueslissues is not only important for 

planning but is also a crucial means of securing longterm commitment for river conservation action. 

[PLANNING; RlPARIAN HABITAT; RIVER 

ECOLOGY; SOCIAL VALUES] 

1626. Stednick,JD (1988): The influence of 

riparianlwetland systems on surface water quality. 

p.17-19. In: Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; 

Miller,LK [edsj. Restoration, creation, and 

management of wetland and riparian ecosystems 

in the American West. A symposium by the Rocky 

Mountain Chapter of the Society of Wetland 

Scientists. 14-16 November 1988. Denver, CO. 

Principles of water quality maintenance or 

improvement by riparianlwetland systems have been 

used to wastewater renovation systems. The removal 

or immobilization of organic or inorganic sediments, 

nitrogen and phosphorous, and heavy metals has the 

potential to improve point source and non-point 

source water quality. Riparianlwetland management 

must include recognition of the hydrology-soils- 
water quality interrelationships. 

[NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIPARlAN ECOLOGY; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1627. Steinblums,lJ; Leven,AA (1985): Riparian 

area management in the Pacific Southwest Region 

of the USDA Forest Service. p.507-509. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH jtech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

A brief paper which summarizes the USDA 

Forest Service direction regarding the management 

of riparian zones, specifically in the Pacific 

Southwest. 

[EVALUATION; POLICY; RESEARCH; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1628. Steiner,F; Pieart,S; Cook,E; Rich,J; 

Coltman,V (1995): State wetlands and riparian 

area protection programs. Environmental 

Management 18(2), 183-201. 

The protection of wetlands and riparian areas has 

emerged as an important environmental planning 

issue. In the United States, several federal and state 

laws have been enacted to protect wetlands and 

riparian areas. Specifically, the federal Clean Water 

Act includes protection requirements in Sections 30 1 

and 303 for state water quality standards, Section 401 

for state certification of federal actions (projects, 

permits, and licences), and Section 404 for dredge 

and fill permits. The Section 401 water quality state 

certification element has been called the "sleeping 

giant" of wetlands protection because it empowers 

state officials to veto or condition federally permitted 

or licenced activities that do not comply with state 

water quality standards. State officials have used this 

power infrequently. Several states have put in place 

model programs. Consequently, there are many 

examples to follow for other states. 

[CLEAN WATER ACT; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WATER QUALITY; WETLANDS] 

1629. Stephenson,BA; Woods,L (1993): 

Transplanting mature riparian trees using a tree 

spade or crane. p.204-6. Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

When tree spades are used to transplant mature 

trees, the major portion of the root-ball remains intact 

with minimal disturbance to roots within the grab. 

Soil floral, faunal, and mycorrhizal components 

move with the tree to the mitigation site, increasing 

the speed at which they colonize the site. 

Transplanting with a crane may not maintain the soil 

integrity around the root-ball as a tree spade does. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN SHRUBS; 

TRANSPLANTS] 

1630. Stern,DH; Stern,MS (1980): Effects of 

bank stabilization on the physical and chemical 

characteristics of streams and small rivers: An 

annotated bibliography. USDI Fish and Wildlife 

Service. Biological Services Program. FWSIOBS80112. 78 p. 

An annotated bibliography was prepared as part 

of a project to synthesize and reference available 

information on the impacts of bank stabilization on 

physical and chemical characteristics of small 

streams. The bibliography has 213 references and is 

indexed by 26 key subject headings. Included papers 

vary from technical documents to general discussions 

addressing the physical and chemical changes that 

result from bank stabilization techniques. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; STREAMBANK STABILITY; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1631. Stevens,LE (1997): Natural and altered 

patterns of riparian diversity, Grand Canyon, 

Arizona. p.36. In: Abstracts. 1997 Annual meeting 

of the Ecological Society of America jointly with 

The Nature Conservancy. 10-14 October 1997. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

Arid region riparian vegetation provides an 

excellent opportunity to test whether interactions 

between productivity (P) and disturbance (D) affect 

patterns of species richness (S). In this study, 

maximum species diversity occurred at the 

intermediate levels of P and D. Geomorphology and 

life history traits modify the S patterns across D and 

P gradients. 

[BIODIVERSITY; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SPECIES RICHNESS] 

1632. Stevens,LE; Brown,BT; Simpson,JM; 

Johnson,RR (1977): The importance of riparian 

habitat to migrating birds. p.156-164. In: 

Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. coord.1. Symposium 

on the importance, preservation, and management 

of riparian habitat. 9 July 1997. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-43. 

Paired study sites in riparian and adjacent, 
nonriparian habitats were censused for spring 

migrant passerines. The riparian plots contained up to 

10.6 times the number of migrants per hectare found 

on adjacent, nonriparian plots. Stop-over habitat 

selection is indicated by differing migrant densities 

and species diversities in various habitats. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1633. Stevens,M (1990): Between land and water 

are wetlands of Idaho. Idaho 10(4), 13-24. 

This is a nontechnical article describing the 

history, types, functions, and values of Idaho 

wetlands. It concludes with a discussion of regulatory 

protection for riparian areas and wetlands. 

[RIPARIAN VEGETATION; WETLANDS] 

1634. Stevens,R; McArthur,ED; Davis,JN 

(1992): Reevaluation of vegetative cover changes, 

erosion, and sedimentation on two watersheds - 

1912-1983. p.123-128. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [tech. 

coord.1. Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Sewice. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Two adjoining depleted subalpine watersheds 

near Ephraim, Utah, have been protected from 

grazing since 19 12 and 1920, respectively. Studies 

have demonstrated that management practices can 

stabilize depleted subalpine range through long 

periods of nonuse or, more rapidly, with restoration 

techniques. 

[COVER, GRAZING IMPACTS; WATERSHED] 

1635. Stevens,R; Walker,SC (1998): Salt-cedar 

control. Rangelands 20(4), 9-12. 

Salt-cedar is a facultative phreatophyte which 

vigorously consumes water and invades riparian 

areas and lowlands where it competitively replaces 

native plants. In these studies, salt-cedar control 

employing a number of herbicides was established 

within salt-cedar stands with and without various 

types of bark and stem injuries. These stands were 

located southwest of Delta, Utah. On poorly drained, 

silty clay soil, percent of salt-cedar plants killed 

varied with herbicide, pruning, and age of salt-cedar 

plants. 

[EXOTICS; HERBICIDES; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; SALT-CEDAR] 

1636. Still,DA; Shih,SF (1985): Using Landsat 

data to classify land use for assessing the 

basinwide runoff index. Water Resources Bulletin 

21(6), 931-940. 

Remote sensing data in the form of Landsat 

computer compatible tapes (CCT) were used to 

determine land use and land cover as an aid in 

hydrologic studies that were used to estimate 

basinwide runoff index. Results showed that Landsat 

data can be used to monitor the USGS land use Level 

1. One advantage of using the Landsat data for land 

use classification is that new data are periodically 

available for updating the land use information. 

[LAND USE; MONITORING; REMOTE SENSING; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1637. Stinnett,DP; Smith,RW; Conrady,SW 

(1988): Riparian areas of western Oklahoma: a 

case study of the Canadian River. p.22-29. In: 

Stuber,PJ [tech. coord.1. Proceedings of the 

national symposium on protection of wetlands 

from agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. 

Collins, CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Sewice. 

Biological Report 88(16). 

An inventory was conducted for wetland 

composition on the Canadian River floodplain in 

1954-55 and in 198 1-84. Eleven palustrine and 

riverine wetland types were quantified through 

computer digitization. Results were analyzed for 

temporal and for trend identification in distribution of 

wetland types. Total wetlands declined from 38,655 

ha to 23,7 17 ha. Conversion of floodplain land to 

agriculture and plant colonization of unconsolidated 

alluvial sediments have occurred. Wetland and 

associated floodplain changes were principally due to 

hydrological modifications in the upper Canadian 

River Basin. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; CANADIAN 

RIVER; INVENTORY; MODELING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1638. Storch,RL (1979): Livestock/streamside 

management programs in eastern Oregon. p.56- 

59. In: Cope,OB led.]. Forum -- Grazing and 

RiparianIStream Ecosystems, Denver, CO. 3-4 

November, 1978; Trout Unlimited, lnc. 

Uncontrolled livestock grazing has seriously 

affected the water quality of streams throughout the 

West. Techniques are described to improve the 

streamside, including: water deflectors, check dams, 

shrub planting, grazing systems, fencing, alternative 

waters, exclosures, etc. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1639. Storch,RL (1983): The integration of the 

riparian zone in the grazing management of 

associated rangelands. p.19-21. In Proceedings of 
Symposium on forestland grazing. 23-25 

February, 1983. Washington State University. 

Spokane, WA. 

Riparian and aquatic ecosystems need to be 

classified using ecological principles that emphasize 

characteristics of ecosystems rather than resource 

use. Both ecosystems should be classified by an 

interdisciplinary team of resource specialists using a 

system that incorporates the elements of soil, 

vegetation, water, and land forms. This would allow: 

I) linkage of the riparian and aquatic systems with 

the upland ecological land classification system; and 

2) the capability to predict changes in the ecosystems 

due to natural influences and resource management 

practices. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

MULTIPLE USE] 

1640. Strahan,J; McBride,JR (1987): The effects 

of streamflow regulation on riparian vegetation in 

central California. In: Streamside management: 

Riparian wildlife and forestry interactions. An 

interdisciplinary symposium. 11-13 February 

1987. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 

The effects of streamflow regulation on riparian 

vegetation were studied on 30 streams in central 

California. Differences in seedling establishmentsurvival and size structure-composition of riparian 

forests were compared on regulated and nonregulated 

streams segments. Seedlings were found on 90 

percent of the nonregulated stream segments but on 

only 33 percent of the regulated study sites. Densities 

were generally moderate to high on nonregulated 

streams and low on many regulated segments. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; STREAM FLOW] 

1641. Stream Renovation Guidelines Committee. 

The Wildlife Society and American Fisheries 

Society (1983): Stream obstruction removal 

guidelines. American Fisheries Society 9 p. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STREAM 

IMPROVEMENTS] 

1642. Stringham,TK, Buckhouse,JC; 

Krueger,WC (1998): Stream temperatures as 

related to subsurface water flows originating from 

irrigation. Journal of Range Management 51,88- 

90. 

Continuous stream temperature data were 

collected from adjacent reaches of a third order 

stream in eastern Oregon. The upstream reach was 

located within a nonirrigated meadow and the 

downstream reach was located within an irrigated 

meadow. Daily maximum stream temperatures in the 

reach located within the irrigated meadow were 

found to be I to 3 degrees C cooler than the 

nonirrigated reach. Daily minimum stream 

temperature exhibited the opposite relationship. 

[GROUNDWATER; HYDROLOGY; IRRIGATION 

IMPACTS; STREAM TEMPERATURE] 

1643. Stringham,TK; Krueger,WC; Thomas,DR 

(1998): Understanding the relationship between 

water table depth and plant communities: 

Implication for riparian management and 

restoration. p.345. In: Potts,DF Led.]. Range 

management and water resources. Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, 

NV. 

Within an irrigated eastern Oregon riparian 

valley, water table levels and soil moisture content by 

plant community type were measured every two 

weeks during growing season. Results indicated that 

soil moisture andor depth to the water table was the 

dominant variable in determination of the plant 

community. The relationship between water table 

depth and soil moisture can be used to determine the 

impact of a permanent water table change on the 

existing plant communities. Meadow water table 

profiles indicated a strong relationship between creek 

surface, meadow water tables, soil moisture and plant 

communities enhances managers abilities to predict 

plant community response to stream restoration or 

degradation. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RlPARIAN 

VEGETATION; SOILS; WATER TABLE 

EFFECTS] 

1644. Stromberg,J (1998): Dynamics of Fremont 

cottonwood (Populus fremontii) and salt-cedar 

(Tamarix chinensis) populations along the San 

Pedro River, Arizona. Journal of Arid 

Environments 40, 133-135. 

Exotic salt-cedar woodlands have displaced 

riparian forests of natives Fremont cottonwood and 

willows (Salix spp.) along many southwestern rivers. 

In the middle basin of the San Pedro River, salt-cedar 

dominates only at the drier sites. At sites with 

perennial stream flows, salt-cedar is codominant with 

Fremont cottonwood. Salt-cedar has been declining 

at those sites, possibly due to frequent winter 

flooding, high spring stream flows, and exclusion of 

livestock, all factors that favor cottonwood 

establishment. Such occurrences are evidence that 

degraded Sonoran riparian ecosystems have a 

capacity for self-repair. In contrast, the upper basin is 
showing an increase in salt-cedar abundance at sites 

that have evidence of groundwater decline. Salt-cedar 

is still relatively sparse in the upper basin due to the 

combination of cool temperatures and persistence of 

perennial stream flows in most areas. Throughout the 

river bottom, salt-cedar and cottonwood have both 

been influenced by changing flood patterns. 

[COTTONWOOD; EXOTICS; HYDROLOGY; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; SALT-CEDAR] 

1645. Stromberg,JC (1997): Growth and 

survivorship of Fremont cottonwood, Goodding 

willow, and salt-cedar seedlings after large floods 

in central Arizona. Great Basin Naturalist 57(3), 

198-208. 

During winter 1993, Arizona experienced 

regional river flooding. Flood waters eroded 

floodplains and created 50-m-wide scour zones 

available for colonization by pioneer plant species. 

The slow rate and long duration of the flood water 

recession allowed establishment of springgerminating native trees like Fremont cottonwood 

and Goodding willow as well as summer-germinating 

species including the exotic salt cedar. Goodding 

willow and Fremont cottonwood showed zonation in 

the floodplain, while salt cedar was equally abundant 

in zones with saturated and dry surface soils. 

Floodplain elevation (and soil moisture) influenced 

shoot growth rate to different degrees among the 3 

species. 

[COTTONWOOD; FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; SALTCEDAR; WILLOW] 

1646. Stromberg,JC; Patten,DT (1988): Total 

protection: One management option. p.61-62. In: 

Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK 

[eds.]. Restoration, creation, and management of 

wetland and riparian ecosystems in the American 

West. Proceedings of the symposium. 14-16 

November 1988. Denver, CO. Rocky Mountain 

Chapter of the Society of Wetland Scientists. 

Intensive sampling of riparian plots in southern 

Arizona is providing new information on the 

establishment requirements of key riparian species. 

Flood timing in relation to seed dispersal may affect 

community structure. Floods scour vegetation and 

provide a seed bed, provide moist conditions, and 

allow root growth of seedlings to keep pace with 

declining water levels. 

[FLOODPLAlN MANAGEMENT; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

SEED PRODUCTION] 

1647. Stromberg,JC; Patten,DT (1991): Riparian 

vegetation instream flow requirements: A case 

study from a diverted stream in the eastern Sierra 

Nevada, California, USA. Environmental 

Management 14(2), 185-194. 

A methodology is described for determination of 

instream flow requirements for maintenance of 

riparian trees. Tree ring data revealed strong 

relationships between tree growth and stream flow 

volume for riparian species on an alluvial stream. 

These relationships allowed development of models 

that predict growth rates from hydrologic variables. 

The models can be used to assess instream flow 

requirements under the assumption that certain levels 

of growth are necessary to maintain the population. 

Previous models have focused on aquatic animals 

and may underestimate the requirements of the entire 

riparian ecosystem. 

[MODELING; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; STREAM FLOW] 

1648. Stromberg,JC; Tiller,R; Richter,B (1996): 

Effects of groundwater decline on riparian 

vegetation of semiarid regions: The San Pedro, 

Arizona. Ecological Applications 6(1), 113-131. 

Groundwater depletion threatens many riparian 

ecosystems in arid and semiarid regions of the world. 

The aquifer that sustains Arizona's San Pedro River 

riparian ecosystem, for example, is threatened by 

regional groundwater declines and localized pumping 

from the alluvial aquifer. This paper demonstrates the 

important role of shallow groundwater in structuring 

the San Pedro River plant community, portions of 

which function as reference areas that indicate site 

potential for a globally rare forest type. Several 

ecological indicators varied with depth to 

groundwater, including a weighted average wetland 

indicator score calculated for herbaceous and woody 

plant species, cover of plants within wetland 

indicator groups, and frequency of indicator plant 

species. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; 

GROUNDWATER; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY] 

1649. Stuber,PJ [coord j (1988): Proceedings of 

the national symposium on protection of wetlands 

from agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. 

Collins, CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Biological Report 88(16), 221. 

A compilation of papers and discussions 

presented at the national symposium. Formal papers 

addressed four main topics: 1) agricultural impacts 

on wetlands; 2) national legislative wetland 
protection strategies; 3) statelregional wetland 

protection strategies; and 4) management protection 

strategies. 

[POLICY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1650. Stuber,RJ (1985): Trout habitat, 

abundance, and fishing opportunities in fenced vs. 

unfenced riparian habitat along Sheep Creek, 

Colorado. p.310-314. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; 

Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Fencing was constructed to protect 40 ha of 

riparian habitat in northeastern Colorado from the 

adverse impacts of recreation use and animal 

trampling. Within the fenced area, fish habitat was 

narrower, deeper, had less streambank alteration, and 

better streamside vegetation than unfenced sections. 

Estimated trout standing crop was twice as great, and 

proportional stock density (PSD) was higher than in 

unfenced sections. There was also a higher 

proportion of nongame fish present in unfenced 

sections. 

[EXCLOSURES; FISHERIES; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; RECREATION IMPACTS] 

1651. Studenmund,RG (1993): The Nature 

Conservancy's Sweetwater River project. p.356- 

358. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

The Nature Conservancy (TNC) has realized that 

the protection of biological diversity will be achieved 

most effectively through the conservation of whole 

ecosystems. Given the geographic scale of most 

ecosystems, TNC will not be able to protect diversity 

through land acquisitions alone. Partnerships with 

both public and private sectors provides a more 

comprehensive and affordable approach. The 

Sweetwater River Project can become the kind of 

model that epitomizes that collaborative concept. 

[BIODIVERSITY; PARTNERSHIPS; RIPARlAN 

HABITAT; RIVER ECOLOGY; SWEETWATER 

RIVER] 

1652. Sun,K (1988): Historical perspective of 

riparian areas along the Oregon Trail. p.71-72. In: 

Mutz,K; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ml; Miller,LK [eds.]. 

Restoration, creation, and management of wetland 

and riparian ecosystems in the American West. A 

symposium of the Rocky Mountain Chapter of the 

Society of Wetland Scientists. 14-16 November 

1988. Denver, CO. 

This paper describes range sites based on 

photographic and narrative information in the 

Sweetwater Valley, Wyoming from the 1870s to the 

present time. The author projects contemporary 

technical ratings systems to historical conditions. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; SWEETWATER 

RIVER] 

1653. Surber,G; Williams,K; Manoukian,M 

(1998): Drinking water quality for beef cattle: An 

environment friendly and production 

management enhancement technique. p. 201-208. 

In: Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management and 

water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Evaluations of livestock preferences for damlpit 

drinking water compared to tank water showed an 80 

percent preference for tank water. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; WATER QUALITY] 

1654. Suring,LH; Vohs,Jr.,PA (1979): Habitat 

use by Columbian white-tailed deer. Journal of 

Wildlife Management 43,610-619. 

The study area was the Columbian White-Tailed 

Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) National Wildlife 

Refbge, on the Washington shore of the Columbia 

River. The climate was wet (245 cm) and mild, 

promoting continued growth of forage throughout the 

year. Communities providing both cover and forage 

were more heavily utilized than were communities 

providing cover or foliage alone. Browse was not 

used, apparently because of the year round 

availability of green forage. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WHITE-TAILED DEER] 

1655. Sutherland,PL; Knapp,JA (1 988): The 

impacts of limited water: A Colorado case study. 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 43(4), 

294-298. 

The transfer of irrigation water to other uses in 

Colorado and the West poses challenges to land 

resource, economic, and social questions. Since 

agricultural water is the most readily available source 

for conversion to other uses, senior water rights, with 

the greatest potential for transfer and generally the 

best water quality, have been selected for transfer. 

Lack of current legal limitations under the "pure" 

prior appropriation doctrine of water allocation has 

allowed water transfers without concern for the 
adverse effects of social, economic, and water quality 

impacts. 

[WATER LAW; WATER RIGHTS; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1656. Svejcar,TJ; Riegel,GM; Conroy,SD; 

Trent,JD (1992): Establishment and growth of 

riparian shrubs in the northern Sierra Nevada. 

p.151-154. In: Clary,WP; McArthur,Ed; 

Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL [comp.]. Proceedings - 

Symposium on ecology and management of 

riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report INT-289. 

Results from a planting study suggest that 

successful establishment of Geyer's willow cuttings 

can be achieved if the base of the cutting is within 30 

cm of the midsummer water table depth. In 

Lemmon's willow, drought years caused shorter 

periods of active photosynthesis, plus lower 

maximum rates. Willow leaves also had very low 

photosynthetic rates during the first 4 to 6 weeks of 

growth. Willows can be established successfully, but 

the delay in active photosynthesis of willow leaves 

and rapidly changing soil conditions during 

midsummer may place constraints on willow planting 

success. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; RIPARIAN 

SHRUBS; WILLOW] 

1657. Swan,B (1979): Riparian habitat -- the 

cattlemen's viewpoint. p.4-6. In: Cope,OB [ed.]. 

Forum -- Grazing and riparianlstream 

ecosystems. 3-4 November 1978. Denver, CO. 

Trout Unlimited, Inc. 

The land base of this country consists of 54 

percent that has no productive capabilities for food 

production for man other than by way of grazing 

animals. Every AUM produced from our range 

resource releases the equivalent of 8 bushels of corn 

for human use or export. Because of the pressures to 

increase food production and livestock grazing, the 

problems of riparian habitat should be included in the 

discussion about grazing on public and private lands. 

[ECONOMICS; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1658. Swanberg,TR (1 997): Movements of and 

habitat use by fluvial bull trout in the Blackfoot 

River, Montana. Transactions of the American 

Fisheries Society 126,735-746. 

The seasonal movements and habitat use by 

fluvial bull trout (Salvelinus confluetus) were 

investigated by using radiotelemetry and snorkel 

surveys. Adult bull trout used deep pools and were 

positively associated with habitat units containing 

mountain whitefish (Prosopium williamsoni). Eighty 

six percent of migrants returned down-river to within 

20 m of sites occupied in the spring. Results 

suggested that water temperature influenced the 

movement of fluvial bull trout and that tributary 

habitat was important for both spawning and 

nonspawning fish. Results also demonstrated that the 

large spatial scale and diversity of habitats are 

required to sustain fluvial bull trout populations. 

[BULL TROUT; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1659. SwanlqGW (1985): Streamside 

management units in the Pacific Northwest. p.435- 

438. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; 

Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH (tech. coord. I. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

A stream classification system based on use 

made of the water with specific water quality 

objectives established for each of four classes of 

streams was the foundation for streamside 

management units operating in Washington and 

Oregon. Inherent in the concept is the underlying 

premise that the land immediately adjacent to streams 

is key to protecting water quality but that this land 

can be managed to protect riparian values and in 

most cases still achieve a reasonable return of other 

resource values. 

[CLASSIFICATION; MULTIPLE USE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1660. Swanson,FJ (1997): Flood disturbance in a 

mountain landscape, Oregon. p.36. In: Abstracts. 

1997 Annual meeting of the Ecological Society of 

America jointly with The Nature Conservancy. 

10-14 August 1997. Albuquerque, NM. 

This study addressed flood disturbance in steep, 

geologically unstable, mountain landscapes. 

Disturbance along order 1 to 3 streams is influenced 

by the patchy pattern of mass movement processes. 

Flood disturbance on higher order streams is 

controlled in part by transport rates of sediment and 

large woody debris. Such processes influence the 

extent of channel change and of uprooting, burial, 

and abrasion of riparian vegetation. Near-stream 

vegetation in this environment is disturbed primarily 

by mechanical damage during flood peaks. 

Management of forest landscapes can significantly 

affect floods bu altering streamflow, availability and 

transport rates of sediment and wood, the potential 

for initiation and runout of mass movements, and the 
resistance and resilience of stream and riparian 

communities to disturbance. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SEDIMENTATION; STREAM FLOW; WOODY 

DEBRIS] 

1661. Swanson,FJ; Fredrikson,RL; 

McCorison,FM (1982): Material transfer in a 

western Oregon forested watershed. p.267-291. In: 

Edmonds, RL [ed.]. Analysis of coniferous forest 

ecosystems in the Western United States. (USIIBP 

Synthesis Series 14.) Hutchinson Ross Publishing 

Co. Stroudsburg, PA. 

This chapter differentiates the erosional 

processes that occur in uplands (hill slope processes) 

from the processes that occur in the channel itself 

(stream channel processes). Definitions for hill slope 

processes are given for solution transport, litter fall, 

surface erosion, soil creep, root throw, debris 

avalanche and slump and earth flow. Definitions 

included in the stream channel process include 

solution transport, suspended sediment, bedload 

transport and debris torrents. Other factors that 

influence erosion rates include existing vegetation, 

soil type, slope, type of bedrock, amount, timing and 

type of precipitation, watershed size, and stream 

channel characteristics. Erosion is then discussed for 

a hypothetical watershed as old-growth forest, the 

same watershed after a wildfire, and the same 

watershed after a clear-cut. No research data were 

presented. 

[EROSION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT; SOILS] 

1662. Swanson,FJ; Graham,RL; Grant,GE 

(1985): Some effects of slope movement on river 

channels. p.273-278. In: International symposium 

on erosion debris flow and disaster prevention. 3-5 

September 1985. Tsukuba, Japan. 

The geomorphic response of a channel to slope 

movements depends on the rate of colluvium delivery 

from hillslopes relative to the rate of removal by 

fluvial processes. For slope movements ranging from 

extremely slow to slow (less than 1.5 mimo), the 

balance between slope and fluvial influences can be 

considered in terms of the channel constriction ratio, 

defined as the ratio of slope movement to channel 

width, expressed as percentlyr. Sites with faster 

constriction ratios may experience more frequent 

stream bank instability and sediment production. 

Rapid slope movements discharging large volumes of 

colluvium into channel can form dams. Dam volume, 

river discharge, and size of distribution of dam 

material determine the potential for dam failure and 

release of water from impounded lakes. The 

implications for hazard prediction and mitigation are 

discussed. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; DAMS; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; SOILS] 

1663. Swanson,FJ; Gregory,SV; Sedel1,JR; 

Campbell,AG (1982): Land - water interactions: 

the riparian zone. p.267-291. In: Analysis of 

coniferous forest ecosystems in the western United 

States. [Ed:Edmonds,RL]. USIIBP Synthesis 

Series 14. Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co. 

Stroudsburg, PA. 

Chapter nine discusses the characteristics of 

riparian zones in coniferous forests of western 

Oregon. Riparian zones are the interface between 

aquatic and terrestrial environments. In the Pacific 

Northwest they usually, have a herbaceous layer, a 

shrub layer, and then a coniferous tree over story. 

Plant communities in the riparian zone are influenced 

by number of factors including; soils, gradient, light, 

moisture, amount of large woody debris, stream 

channel characteristics, as well as the frequency and 

intensity of flooding and scouring. Possible impacts 

from wildfire and logging are briefly mentioned. No 

research data were presented. 

[ORGANIC DEBRIS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1664. Swanson,GA Icoordl. (1979): The 

mitigation symposium; a national workshop on 

mitigating losses of fish and wildlife habitats. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

65.696 p. 

This symposium, consisting of 133 papers 

presented in three concurrent sessions and a poster 

session, involved 9 private organizations and 8 

federal agencies. Subjects were: coastal zone 

wetlands: inland wetlands; economic considerations; 

mining, oil, and gas; planning, evaluation, and 

inventory; surveys; legal and political considerations; 

transportation systems; and state perspectives. 

[HYDROELECTRIC IMPACTS; OILiGAS 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1665. Swanson,S (1986): The value of healthy 

riparian areas. University of Nevada-Reno. 

College of Agriculture. Cooperative Extension 

Service Fact Sheet. 3 p. 

Riparian areas sustain and attract many species 

of wildlife. Their vegetation shadesicools the 

streams, builds stream banks by catching sediment, 

and holds overhanging streambanks with root 

systems. Riparian floodplains buffer floods and store 
water for slow release during dry seasons. They also 

buffer temperature extremes and filter undesirable 

material from the water. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

1666. Swanson,S (1988): Riparian values as a 

focus for range management and vegetation 

science. p.425-445. In: Tueller,PT led.]. 

Vegetation science applications for rangeland 

analysis and management. Kluwer Academic 

Publishers. Boston, London. 

Riparian vegetation is defined by its association 

with free or unbound water. The productivity and 

diversity of riparian vegetation and its relationship 

with aquatic ecosystems makes it extremely valuable 

to fish, wildlife, livestock, and people. Intense human 

and livestock use has accentuated the naturally high 

disturbance in most riparian areas. This has caused 

significant alteration to riparian vegetation and 

hydrologic processes, threatening the quality of 

riparian habitats. The long process of developing an 

integrated interdisciplinary and hierarchical riparian 

classification is just beginning. 

[CLASSIFICATION; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN VALUES] 

1667. Swanson,S (1989): Priorities for riparian 

management. Rangelands 11(5), 228-230. 

Selection of priority stream reaches is the first 

step toward proper management, particularly in 

stream valleys that are long and deeply filled with 

erodible sediments. Classification can be used for 

selecting the most appropriate management strategy. 

Grazing strategies may be appropriate in certain 

circumstances but none of them are a panacea. Each 

riparian or upland grazing problem is unique and 

requires a remedy that suits the circumstances. 

Classification can also be usehl for identifying 

potential responses. Monitoring the problem is also 

essential. 

[GRAZlNG IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN ENHANCEMENT] 

1668. Swanson,S; Franzen,D; Manning,M 

(1987): Rodero Creek: Rising water on the high 

desert. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 

42,405-407. 

Whenever structures are required to heal a gully 

network, the project should proceed upstream from a 

point of geologic control as near the top of the 

watershedlgully system as possible. It is ideal to build 

just below the deterioration so that watershed 

stabilization comes soon. Without geologic or other 

durable control, however, it is possible for a 

downstream head-cut to move upstream and capture 

the bottom and eventually other dams. 

[GULLY CONTROL; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1669. Swanson,S; Miles,R; Leonard,S; Genz,K 

(1987): Classifying rangeland riparian areas: the 

Nevada approach. Interagency task force report. 

Nevada Riparian Management and Research and 

Management Task Force; Reno, NV. 13 p. 

An interagency task force developed a 

classification of riparian areas to facilitate 

communication between managers and scientists. 

This paper presents their classification. The goal was 

to develop a system that was interdisciplinary, 

hierarchical, simple yet reliable, uselid for 

management, based on potential, and mappable. The 

classification begins at a broad level and proceeds 

through the intermediate steps that focus on the types 

of associated aquatic ecosystems and the 

environment of riparian vegetation and its sera1 

communities. Ecological site and riparian community 

types are not named because they have not been 

identified. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1670. Swanson,S; Myers,T (1993): Managing for 

integrated use. p.19-21. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH Itech.coord.1. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report RM226. 

Riparian areas are the linkage connecting deserts 

and mountains as well as forming the transition from 

upland to aquatic. The influence of riparian 

vegetation becomes greater as the stream orders 

become lower. A river at any point is the sum of it's 

upstream parts. The key to integrated use of rivers is 

open communication between all governmental 

agencies and nongovernmental entities along with 

overlapping authority. 

[CLASSIFICATION; COLLABORATION; 

INTEGRATED USE; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1671. Sweep,DH; Zilincar,JM; Smith,BH; 

Hardy,RV (1985): Integration of riparian systems 

management strategies within the context of 

multiple use land management programs in 

southwestern Wyoming. p.371-373. In: 

Johnson,RR; Zeibel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 
and their management: Reconciling conflictin4 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Fodest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-120. 

Extent of multiple use activities on public lands 

in southwestern Wyoming places significant 

pressures on riparian ecosystems. Experience 

indicates that by using an integrated, interdisciplinary 

management approach, it is possible to maintain 

existing healthy riparian habitat, and improve or 

recover lost habitat. 

[MULTIPLE USE; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1672. Swenson,EA (1988): Progress in the 

understanding of how to reestablish native 

riparian plants in New Mexico. p.144-150. In: 

Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK 

[eds.]. Restoration, creation, and management of 

wetland and riparian ecosystems in the Ameriean 

West. Proceedings of the symposium. Rocky 

Mountain Chapter of Wetland Scientists. 14-16 

November 1988. Denver, CO. 

The author describes proven techniques for 

establishing riparian plants. Woody species are best 

accomplished by dormant pole planting and 

understory plants are established by containerized 

plant or rhizome placement. Guidelines are provided. 

[PLANTINGS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1673. Swenson,EA; Mullins,CL (1985): 

Revegetating riparian trees in the southwestern 

floodplains. p.135-138. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF [tech. coord.]. 

Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

Man's activities continue to alter riparian areas. 

Managers have been generally unsuccessful in using 

conventional techniques to replace riparian trees. An 

inexpensive method for reestablishment of Rio 

Grande cottonwood, narrow-leaf cottonwood, and 

Goodding willow is now available. 

[COTTONWOOD; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN FOREST; WILLOW] 

1674. Swift,BL (1984): Status of riparian 

ecosystems in the United States. Water Resoudces 

Bulletin 20(2), 223-228. 

The author attempted to review all of the 

available data regarding the extent and status of 

riparian ecosystems in the United States. This review 

also addressed the amount of land that was originally 

covered by woody riparian vegetation and how much 

remains. He concludes that riparian woodlands are 

one of this country's most heavily modified natural 

vegetation types and that they have been reduced in 

many regions by more than 80 percent. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1675. Szaro,RC (1980): Factors influencing bird 

populations in Southwestern riparian forests. 

p.403-418. In: Proceedings, Management of 

western forests and grasslands for nongame birds. 

Salt Lake City, UT. 11-14 February 1980. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report INT-86. 

Riparian forests comprise only a minor portion 

of the available habitat in the arid Southwest but 

support extremely high bird populations. Most birds 

show a remarkable dependency on water related 

habitat for breeding areas, wintering areas, and 

migratory corridors. Bird communities in riparian 

forests are affected by vegetation type, structure, 

density, adjacent habitat, recreational use, grazing, 

and location. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1676. Szaro,RC (1989): Riparian and scrubland 

community types of Arizona and New Mexico. 

Desert Plants 9(3-4), 69-124. 

The primary objectives of this study were to: 1) 

develop the structural framework of a classification 

system for Arizona and New Mexico based on actual 

site vegetative data; 2) determine tree and shrub 

densities and species composition of community 

types; 3) provide a species list of common plants; 4) 

provide average physical site characteristics by 

community type; and 5) discuss various factors 

affecting riparian plant community composition. 

[CLASSIFICATION; DESERT SCRUB; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1677. Szaro,RC (1990): Southwestern riparian 

plant communities: Site characteristics, tree 

species distributions, and size-class structures. 

Forest Ecology and Management 33134,315-334. 

Elevation, stream direction, stream gradient, and 

valley cross-sectional area affect the distribution of 

riparian tree species in the southwestern United 

States. Canonical discriminant analysis was used to 

examine variability of physical site characteristics on 

153 sites in New Mexico and Arizona. Elevation was 

the most significant factor for all community types, 

all riparian forest types, and all riparian shrub 

community types. Both stream gradient and stream 
direction also correlated significantly, but on a m re 

limited and local level. Tree population size 

structures and tree species distribution were studi d 

on sites where species were dominant and at othe 

walnut 

codominance 

sites where 

(Juglam 

they occurred. 

of some 

major), 

species, such 

was 

The 

directly 

dominance 

as 

related 

Arizona 

andlor 

to sib 

I 

characteristics such as elevation and direction of 

stream flow. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1678. Szaro,RC (1991): Wildlife communities of 

southwestern riparian ecosystems. p.173-201. n: 

Rodiek,JE; Bolen,EG [eds.].Wildlife and habi ats 

in managed landscapes: An overview. Island 

Press, Washington, DC. 

1 

Successful management of southwestern rip&ian 

communities requires a suite of strategies to enhabce 

and maintain riparian diversity. An ecosystem 

approach to management of riparian systems shoqld 

consider goals and standards for the condition of 

major indicators of plant and animal community 

health. It should provide for the continued 

monitoring of habitat indicators and of species' 

population levels over an extended time period to1 

fully assess the effects of environmental 

perturbations and the adequacy of management 

strategies. Ongoing studies address the need for q 

long-term ecosystem approach. This chapter also ~ 

discusses: 1) appropriate management actions; 2)1 

factors affecting riparian zone management; 3) 

examples from case studies; and 4) recommendat/ons 

for future research and development. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITA$; 

Rl PARIAN VEGETATION] 

1679. Szaro,RC; Belfit,SC (1 986): Herpetofa nal 

use of a desert riparian island and its adjacen 

scrub habitat. Journal of Wildlife Manageme t 

50(4), 752-761. 

i 

The restriction of water flow in 1959 in Queen 

Creek in Whitlow Ranch Dam, Pinal County, 

Arizona, has caused the development of a 15-ha 

riparian island upstream behind the dam. The 

herpetofaunas of the riparian interior, riparian edk, 

desert wash, and upland habitats were sampled td 

assess the value of this type of development for 

mitigating continued losses of riparian habitat. Tttal 

species richness was 4 in the riparian interior, 7 /n 

the riparian edge, 14 in the desert wash, and 15 i the 

desert upland. Many of the locally expected spec es 

were absent. The lack of invasion by typical ripa ian 

species probably results more from biogeograph' 1 

considerations and flooding patterns than from 

structural and physical conditions of this newly 

formed riparian habitat. Regression models for 

species abundance emphasize the importance of 

using floristic information rather than summary 

variables in developing animal-habitat relationships. 

[AMPHIBIANS; BIODIVERSITY; 

HERPETOFAUNA; MITIGATION; REPTILES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1680. Szaro,RC; Belfit,SC (1987): Small mammal 

use of a riparian desert riparian island and its 

adjacent scrub habitat. USDA Forest Service. 

Research Note RM-473. 

A 15 ha riparian island was created upstream of 

a dam built in 1959. Small mammal populations in 

the riparian interior, riparian edge, desert wash and 

upland habitats surrounding the island were sampled 

to assess the value of this type of development (water 

flow restriction by dam) for mitigating continued loss 

of riparian habitat. The riparian island had few small 

mammals; more were recorded in the adjacent desert 

washes and desert upland habitats. Habitat models 

were developed for the desert shrew, Arizona pocket 

mouse, and Bailey's pocket mouse. The authors 

conclude that potential is limited for using the 

development of a dense willow gallery forest 

resulting from changes in hydrologic regime to 

mitigate the loss of more structurally diverse riparian 

habitats. Canopy opening to increase development of 

shrub and herbaceous layers and import of riparian 

fauna from similar islands might improve the value 

of the mitigation riparian island small mammal 

habitat. Species studied included: desert shrew 

(Notiosorex crawfordii), Arizona pocket mouse 

(Perognathus amplus), Bailey's pocket mouse 

(Perognathus baileyi). 

[MITIGATION; RIPARlAN HABITAT; SMALL 

MAMMALS] 

1681. Szaro,RC; Belfit,SC; Aitken,JK; Babbs,RD 

(1988): The use of timed fixed-area plots and a 

mark-recapture technique in assessing riparian 

garter snake populations. p.239-246. In: 

Management of amphibians, reptiles, and small 

mammals in North America. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-166. 

Wandering garter snake populations along a 

thin-leaf alder riparian community in northern New 

Mexico were sampled using timed fixed-area plots 

and a mark-recapture method. Both methods served 

to determine yearly differences and relative 

magnitude of snake density between years. 

Population estimates determined by fixed-area plots, 
1682. Szaro,RC; Belfit,SC; Aitkin,JK, Rinn@,JN 

(1985): Impact of grazing on a riparian gart 

snake. p.359-363. In: Johnson,RR, Ziebell,C $ ; 

Patton,DR, Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. cobrd. 

1. Riparian ecosystems and their management: 

Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-1 8 April 1984. 

Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-120. 

The number of wandering garter snakes were 

significantly higher where cattle grazing was 

excluded than along grazed portions of the Rio de las 

Vacas in northern New Mexico, where the domibant 

vegetation was a high elevation, thin-leaf 

alderlwillow plant community. Differences were 

attributed to the regeneration of streamside 

vegetation and the increased amount of organic 

debris. 

[GARTER SNAKES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

HERPETOFAUNA; ORGANIC DEBRIS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

however, were inconsistent between study plots 

the same year. 

[GARTER SNAKES; RIPARIAN; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1683. Szaro,RC; DeBano,LF (1985): The effects 

of streamflow modification on the developmegt of 

a riparian ecosystem. p.211-215. In: Johnson, 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre, fR; H 

(tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16618 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Servick. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Riparian vegetation development/hydrologi~: 

regime interrelationships were examined in soutQern 

Arizona. Data indicated that a flood control struature 

can have a positive impact on riparian ecosysteni 

development and could be used as a mitigation tool 

to restore critically threatened habitat. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

STREAM FLOW] 

in 

1684. Szaro,RC; Jakle,MD (1985): Avian us8 of a 

desert riparian island and adjacent shrub haqitat. 

The Condor 87,511-519. 

A central Arizona bird community contribuFed 

from 23 to 33 percent of the birds along the adjaeent 

desert washes, and from 7 to 15 percent of the bikds 

in the adjacent desert upland. Conversely, the detert 

bird community contributed only from 1 to 1.5 

percent of the birds in the riparian island. Bird 

density ranged from 336 to 446 birds140 ha in the 

riparian core and edge in 198 1 - 1982. Bird densitk in 

I 

the adjacent desert decreased with distance from the 

edge of the riparian island to a low of 10 1 birds140 ha 

in 198 1, to 137 birds/40 ha in 1982, in the segment 

600- 1,000 m from the riparian edge. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1685. Szaro,RC; King,RM (1990): Sampling 

intensity and species richness; Effects on 

delineating southwestern riparian plant 

communities. Forest Ecology and Management 

33134,335-349. 

Riparian communities in the southwestern 

United States often occur in patches and isolated 

pockets along stream corridors, making 

classifications of community types highly dependant 

on sampling design and methodology. The authors 

determined the number of plots (5 X 25 m) and tree 

species richness in estimating density, basal area, and 

species ranks. Variability in species density ranks for 

the most frequent species stabilized, with about 10-20 

plots. As species richness increased, so did the 

variability associated with estimating ranks. Studies, 

which are based on only a few arbitrarily selected 

sample plots, may not produce reliable results. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN STUDIES; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1686. Szaro,RC; Patton,DR (1986): Riparian 

habitat classification in the southwestern U.S. In: 

Proceedings of the 51st North American wildlife 

and natural resources conference. 21-26 March 

1986. Reno, NV. 

The classification of riparian vegetation in the 

southwestern United States has been complicated by 

the large variety of physical and environmental 

factors, contributing to a high plant species diversity. 

The problem is compounded further by the relatively 

small land areas of most riparian systems. A 

structural framework of a classification system is 

presented that incorporates community types based 

on existing vegetation. 3 1 riparian community types 

are delineated and described. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1687. Szaro,RC; Rinne,JN (1988): Ecosystem 

approach to management of southwestern 

riparian communities. p.501-511. In: Transactions 

of the North American wildlife and natural 

resources conference: 53rd annual meeting. 

Wildlife Management Institute. Washington, DC. 

The paper describes common problems with 

ecosystem studies, including: riparian area responses 
to grazing exclosures, geographic variation, and 

water impoundment. The response to grazing on 

riparian areas can vary depending on the populations 

measured, whether birds, reptiles, fish, small 

mammals, etc. Researchers and managers need to act 

cooperatively in study designs so that testable 

hypotheses are addressed and proper controls 

applied. Sufficient preliminary data is frequently 

lacking. 

[BIODIVERSITY; CLASSIFICATION; 

EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS] 

1688. Tabacchi,E; Planty-Tabacchi,A-M; 

Decamps,O (1990): Continuity and discontinuity 

of the riparian vegetation along a fluvial corridor. 

Landscape Ecology 5(1), 9-20. 

The concept of continuityldiscontinuity was 

applied to the riparian vegetation of the corridor of 

the River Adour in southwest France, in order to 

define longitudinal structure, and to test the degree of 

floristic continuity of the fluvial axis. The measure of 

floristic connectance along the river course was 

based on presencelabsence data, and was applied to 

successive stretches of the river, at various resolution 

levels. Analysis showed that the river corridor could 

not be assumed to be floristically continuous. 

Observed discontinuities may correspond to two 

types of change in the riparian vegetation; zones of 

slow change (high level of floristic connectance) or 

zones of sharp change (low level of floristic 

connectance). 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN STUDIES; 

RlPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1689. Taber,RD (1987): Ecology of large 

mammals in riparian systems of the Pacific 

Northwest. In: Streamside management: Riparian 

wildlife and forestry interactions. 11-13 February 

1987. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 

Based on the review of the species habitat 

accounts available in the literature, the author has 

ranked the overall importance of the riparian system 

in the welfare of each species population in forest 

environments and grouped them into species 

dependent upon or finding optimum habitat in 

riparian areas, species that are more abundant in 

riparian areas, and species that use riparian areas but 

are abundant in other habitats as well. The habitat 

features of riparian systems that are considered to be 

of ecological importance to these large mammal 

species are: abundance of prey and carrion, 

productivity of shrubherb layer, early spring 

phenological development of food plants, reduced 

snow accumulations in winter, aquatic habitat, and 

lineal contiguity. 

[MAMMALS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1690. Tabor,JE (1976): Inventory of riparian 

habitats and associated wildlife along the 

Columbia River. p.352-771. In: Final Report. US 

Army Corps of Engineers. North Pacific Division. 

[COLUMBIA RIVER; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1691. Tainter,JA; Tainter,BB (1996): Riverine 

settlement in the evolution of prehistoric land use 

systems in the Middle Rio Grande Valley, NM. 

p.22-32. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM (tech. coord.]. 

Desired future conditions for Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-227. 

Ecosystem management should be based on the 

fullest possible knowledge of ecological structures 

and processes. In prehistoric North America, the 

involvement of Indian populations in ecosystem 

processes ranged from inadvertent alteration of the 

distribution and abundance of species to large-scale 

management of landscapes. The knowledge needed 

to manage ecosystems today is incomplete without 

understanding past human involvement in ecological 

processes and the adjustments of ecosystems to 

human components. Land use processes suggest that 

there were periods of significant prehistoric 

disturbance to both upland and valley ecosystems. 

[HUMAN IMPACTS; LAND USE; PREHISTORIC 

DISTURBANCE; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1692. Tallent-halsell,NG; walker,LR (1 997): 

goodding willow ecology in manmade 

southwestern riparian ecosystems. p.194. 

Abstracts. 1997 Annual meeting of the Ecological 

society of America jointly with The Nature 

Conservancy. 10-14 August 1997. Albuquerque, 

NM. 

Manmade riparian ecosystems in the southwest 

are adversely affected by water level fluctuations, 

increased soil salinization, and interspecifi c 

competition. Most Goodding willows were found in 

monospecific stands where individuals were the same 

height, suggesting cloud reproduction. Survival 

depends on their ability to withstand 10 months of 

inundation a year. Invasion of salt-cedar into adjacent 

willow stands is restricted by the lower flood 

tolerance of salt-cedar. Results suggest that shifting 

the water level cycle to correspond to the natural 

reproductive cycle of the willow may favor 

establishment of seedlings and artifi cia1 cuttings and 
may also increase interspecific competition from saltcedar. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; RlPARIAN VEGETATION; 

SALT-CEDAR; WATER LEVELS; WILLOW] 

1693. Tank,JL; Webersr,JR 1998): Interaction of 

substrate and nutrient availability on wood 

biofilm processes in streams. Ecology 79(6), 21 68- 

2 179. 

The effects of decomposing leaf litter and 

dissolved inorganic nutrients on the heterotrophic 

biofilm of submerged wood were examined in 

streams with and without leaves. Microbial processes 

on wood in the litter-excluded stream were compared 

to a reference stream using microbial respiration, 

fungal biomass, and extracellular enzyme activity. 

Exclusion of leaf litter enhanced all of those 

parameters. It was concluded that nutrients are more 

available for other heterotrophic processes in the 

absence of nutrient immobilization by leaves. 

Competition for nutrients may regulate heterotrophic 

microbial processes in streams. 

[DECOMPOSER FOOD CHAIN; LITTER FALL; 

MICROBIOLOGY; NUTRIENT CYCLES] 

1694. Tarlock,AD (1991): New water transfer 

restrictions: The West returns to riparianism. 

Water Resources Research 27(6), 987-994. 

Fundamental shifts in water allocation and 

management are occurring throughout the West. 

Changing public values have forced the reallocation 

of existing water supplies. This reallocation can be 

accomplished in three ways: 1) the rededication of 

unallocated or unused blocks of storage water on 

federal and state reservoirs; 2) the voluntary transfer 

of existing water rights; and 3) the redefinition of 

existing rights by judicial decisions and legislation 

which trim consumptive entitlements. Many 

emerging new watershed rules, which could make all 

transfers presumptively suspect, and reintroducing 

the principal of watershed protection in the form of a 

premise that river systems should be managed on an 

ecosystem basis. 

[WATER ALLOCATION; WATER QUALITY; 

WATER RIGHTS; WATERSHED] 

1695. Taylor,DM (1986): Effects of cattle grazing 

on passerine birds nesting in riparian habitat. 

Journal of Range Management 39(3), 254-258. 

Nine transects, in areas with different histories of 

cattle grazing, were established along the Blitzen 

River in Oregon. Counts of birds and measurements 

of vegetation were made in the summers of 198 1 and 

1982. Increased frequency of grazing on an annual 

basis correlated significantly with decreases in bird 

abundance, shrub volume, and shrub heights. Bird 

abundance increased significantly with increased 

shrub volume and taller shrub heights. Bird counts 

were 5 to 7 times higher on an area ungrazed since 

1940 than on two areas grazed annually until 1980, 

and 11 to 13 times higher than on a transect severely 

disturbed by extensive grazing and dredging 

activities. 

[AVIFALJNA; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1696. Taylor,GB; Barnes,JA; Van Lear,DH 

(1996): Impacts of beavers (Castor canadensis 

carolinensis) on riparian ecosystems, water 

quality, and trout habitat in the Chauga River 

drainage. p.534-535. In: Proceedings of the 

Society of American Foresters national 

convention. Indianapolis, IN. 7-10 November 

1993. 

The Chauga River is located in the extreme 

northwestern comer of South Carolina, and 

represents the lower end of southern Appalachian 

trout habitat. Beaver have impacted, to varying 

degrees, 60 percent of 62 inventoried streams in the 

Chauga river drainage. A study was conducted to 

determine the effects of beaver on riparian 

ecosystems, water quality, and trout habitat. Beaver, 

through their herbivory and dam building, have 

significantly altered riparian forests and aquatic 

ecosystems to the detriment of trout habitat within 

the Chauga drainage. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT; TROUT; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1697. Teaford,JW (1986): Beaver pond 

management. Section 5.5.2 in: US Army Corps of 

Engineers wildlife resources manual. 

Environmental lmpact Research Program. 

Technical Report EL-86-10. 10 p. 

Ponds created by beavers satisfy many needs for 

waterfowl, such as habitat for nesting, roosting, 

resting, and foraging. Therefore, these ponds provide 

many opportunities for waterfowl management. This 

report describes a technique for drainage ponds and 

planting Japanese millet, which has been widely used 

in the South. Also provided are recommendations for 

evaluating potential management sites, constructing 

and installing drainage structures, planting, and 

reflooding. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; BEAVER; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT] 

1698. Technical riparian Work Group. (1992): 
Integrated riparian evaluation guide. USDA 

Forest Service. Intermountain Region. 60 p. 

The guide presents an integrated approach for: a) 

stratifying and classifying riparian areas according to 

their natural inherent characteristics and conditions; 

b) data collection; c) evaluation of riparian areas; d) 

future development and linkage of a riparian 

database; e) preparation of a written narrative to 

interpret the data and suggest management 

applications; f) providing a process to prioritize or 

rank riparian areas based on management objectives; 

and g) strengthening the riparian management 

implications of the Forest Land Management Plan. 

[CLASSIFICATION; EVALUATION; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1699. Teskey,RO; Hinkley,TM (1977): Plant and 

soil responses to flooding. Volume I in: Impact of 

water level changes on woody riparian and 

wetland communities. USDI Fish and Wildlife 

Service. OBS-77158.30 p. 

This is a scientific literature review detailing the 

impact of water level changes on growth and 

development of important riparian and wetland trees 

and shrubs and describing physiological mechanisms. 

It applies to all geographic areas in the contiguous 48 

states. 

[FLOOD IMPACTS; RIPARlAN HABITAT; 

SOILS] 

1700. Theurer,FD; Lines,I; Nelson,T (1 985): 

Interaction between riparian vegetation, water 

temperature, and salmonid habitat in the 

Tucannon River. Water Resources bulletin 21(1), 

53-64. 

This analysis relates physical process, 

ecological, and economic models to: I) analyze the 

instream water temperatures with respect to existing 

and proposed riparian vegetation under natural 

conditions; 2) use these water temperatures to 

determine salmon and steelhead fish populations that 

were based upon field count and known temperature 

preference data; and 3) determine the economic 

worth based upon the estimated carrying capacity of 

the river, the estimated number of return spawners, 

and the economic value of commercially caught and 

sport caught salmon and steelhead. 

[FISHERIES; RlPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; STREAM TEMPERATURE; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1701. Thomas,AE (1986): Seen a riparian area 

lately? Good ones are green! P. 8-9. In: Inside 

Idaho. April ed. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management., Idaho State Office, Boise, ID. 

Riparian areas are very important to a variety of 

wildlife, livestock, watershed, and recreation values. 

Their condition affects stream profiles (width, depth, 

etc.), water temperature through shading, food 

supplies for fish, and sediment control. These factors 

influence numbers, size, species present, and general 

health of fish in the stream. Wildlife species, from 

raptors to big game to small rodents, make heavy use 

of riparian areas for either seasonal or permanent 

homes, as migration routes, or for casual visits. Less 

than 0.6 percent of public land in ldaho can be 

considered riparian, of which over 80 percent appear 

to be in some stage of degradation. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1702. Thomas,AE (1986): Riparian protection1 

enhancement in Idaho. Rangelands 8(5), 224-227. 

This paper describes a "pilot" riparian 

management program on public land in Idaho. The 

fundamental strategy involves the elimination of 

problem-causing factors from riparian systems. The 

latter could include ribbon fencing, temporary 

exclusion of livestock, revegetation, and bank 

stabilization. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

ENHANCEMENT; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1703. Thomas,AE (1 987): Idaho riparian 

management, aquatic protection and enhancement 

program. USDI Bureau of Land Management 

Technical Bulletin 87-3 (A&B). Idaho State Off~ce. 

Boise, ID. 

A compilation of statewide information 

regarding riparian areas and riparian projects being 

administered by all field offices in Idaho. This report 

also describes riparian restoration and enhancement 

efforts that are planned or in progress. 

[RIPARIAN ENHANCEMENT; RlPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1704. Thomas,AE; Wentzell,C (1 986): A 

bibliography of riparian topics with emphasis on 

the Intermountain West. Technical Bulletin 86-4. 

USDI Bureau of Land Management. ldaho State 

Office. Boise, ID. 69 p. 

A bibliography of current literature in the field 

of riparian management, which is available from 

Idaho State Office, BLM. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; BLM; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 
Edges. In: Wildlife habitats in managed 

rangelands -- The great basin of southeastern 

Oregon. USDA Forest Service. Portland, OR. 

General Technical Report PNW-189. 

Edge can be a measure of overall diversity of 

any area. Diversity is considered as inherent 

(community1community) edge, induced (successional 

stage/successional stage) edge and total edge. Size of 

stands are related to expected wildlife diversity. 

[BIODIVERSITY; RANGE MANAGEMENT; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1706. Thomas,JW; Maser$; Rodeik,JE(1979): 

Riparian zones in managed rangelands - Their 

importance to wildlife. In: Cope,OB fed.]. Forum 

- Grazing and riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 

November 1978. Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, 

Inc. 

This paper is a modification of Thomas et.al 

(1 979) which dealt with riparian zones in managed 

forests and has been modified here to apply to 

riparian zones in managed rangelands. 

[RANGE MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1707. Thomas,JR; Maser,C; Rodiek,JR (1979): 

Riparian zones. In: Wildlife habitats in managed 

rangelands - The Great Basin of southeastern 

Oregon. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report PNW-85. 

Riparian zones are the most critical wildlife 

habitats in managed rangelands. More wildlife 

species depend entirely on or spend 

disproportionately more time in this habitat than any 

other. The zone is also disproportionately important 

for grazing, recreation, timber production, fisheries 

production, road location, and water quantity and 

quality. In this report, the importance of wildlife is 

examined and guidance given for management. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1708. Thomas,JW;Maser,C; Rodiek,JE (1979): 

Riparian zones. p.40-47. In: Thomas,JW [ed.]. 

Wildlife habitats in managed forests - The Blue 

Mountains of Oregon and Washington. USDA 

Forest Service. Agriculture Handbook 553. 

Riparian zones can be identified by the presence 

of vegetation that requires free or unbound water or 

conditions that are more moist than normal. Riparian 

zones can vary considerably in size and vegetative 

complexity because of the many combinations that 

can be created between water sources and physical 

characteristics of a site. Such characteristics include 

gradient, aspect, topography, soil, type of stream 

bottom, water quality, elevation, and plant 

community. In the Blue Mountains of Oregon, 

riparian zones: 1) create well-defined habitat zones 

within the much drier surrounding area; 2) they make 

up a minor proportion of the overall area; 3) they are 

generally more productive in terms of biomass; and 

4) they are a critical source of diversity within the 

ecosystem. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1709. Thompson,DQ (1991): History of Purple 

Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria L.) Biological 

control efforts. Natural Areas Journal 11(3), 148 

P. 

After a relatively slow beginning on the 

northeastern maritime coast, purple loosestrife has 

spread across temperate North America to the Pacific 

Coast. It has displaced native wetland vegetation in 

pastures, marshes, and riparian meadows. Thus far, 

all methods of cultural, mechanical, and chemical 

controls have proven unsatisfactory for use in natural 

areas. Since 1968, the beginnings of a purple 

loosestrife monitoring network have succeeded in 

obtaining congressional support for the biological 

control of purple loosestrife. 

[BIOLOGICAL CONTROL; EXOTICS; NATURAL 

AREAS; PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1710. Thompson,J; Votk,K; Knapp,C (1994): 

Trapper Creek aquatic and riparian restoration 

project. p.169-171. In: Summit showcase displays 

and ecosystem case studies. USDI Bureau of Land 

Management Summit. Incline Village, NV. April 

1994. 

Loss of riparian vegetation along Trapper Creek 

in western Colorado has resulted in high summer 

water temperatures, increased width:depth ratios and 

a lower water table. Colorado cutthroat trout are now 

found only in lower reaches where steep canyon 

walls provide shade and deeper channels. This report 

describes a partnership between BLM and Trout 

Unlimited, Inc. to rehabilitate the stream channel. 

Volunteers to date have contributed over 1,000 hours 

of labor to this project. 

[COLLABORATION; RIPARIAN; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; VOLUNTEERS] 

171 1. Thompson,WH; Ehrhart,RC; Hansen,PL; 

Parker,TG; Haglan,WC (1998): Assessing health 

of a riparian site. p.3-12. In: Potts,DF led.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources. 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association, 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 
Current assessment capability quantifies values 

that indicate the ability of a riparian system to 

function. Quantities are weighted to yield a 

comparative rating. The evaluation can be used to: 1) 

assess present functional health of a stream segment; 

2) identify factors needed for remedial attention; and 

3) monitor effectiveness of management change. The 

method can be used to evaluate a 200 m stream 

segment in about 2 hours. It does not require precise 

measurements, but relies on visual estimation of nine 

readily observable features. 

[EVALUATION; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HEALTH; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; 

TREND] 

1712. Thomson,BL (1987): Land use conflicts in 

riparian habitats, the British Columbia Interior. 

Streamside management: Riparian wildlife and 

forestry interactions. An interdisciplinary 

symposium. 11-13 February 1987. University of 

Washington. Seattle, WA. 

In the British Columbia southern interior, 

naturally scarce riparian vegetation has been 

permanently lost to settlement and road and rail 

construction. Riparian vegetation is also continually 

disturbed by agricultural and forestry activities. Lack 

of planned management actions in past developments 

in riparian areas has led to the degradation of those 

sites and has severely impacted wildlife populations. 

[CONFLICT RESOLUTION; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1713. Thorn,CE; Darmody,RD (1985): Grainsize distribution of the insoluble component of 

contemporary eolian deposits in the alpine zone, 

Front Range, Colorado. Arctic and alpine 

Research 17(4), 433-442. 

Grain-size parameters were used to describe the 

character of eolian in-fall to the alpine zone of the 

Indian Peaks section of the Colorado Front Range. In 

general, the upper valley, although to the Continental 

Divide, received finer material than the lower valley. 

Although the samples exhibited the same local, 

mesoscale variability, this appears to be secondary 

and the emergent picture in study years was of a 

thoroughly homogenized, silt rich deposit of 

relatively uniform grain-size falling onto the entire 

alpine zone. 

[GEOLOGY; GEOMORPHOLOGY; SOILS] 

1714. Thornburg,T (1993): Verde River corridor 

project. p.397-401. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,JH; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

The Verde Watershed Association was 

established on January 19, 1993, at a conference in 

Prescott, Arizona. Arizona State Parks staff were 

involved as facilitators only. The association is the 

result of local individuals and groups, not state or 

federal agencies, and is a consensus-based 

organization. It will oversee the development of a 

coordinated river corridor management strategy. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

1715. Thorne,CR (1981): Field measurements of 

rates of bank erosion and bank material strength. 

p.503-512. In: Proceedings of the Florence 

symposium: Erosion and sediment transport 

measurement. IAHS Publication No. 133. 

Traditional and new methods of monitoring rates 

and locations of bank erosion are reviewed. These 

range from detailed measurements using erosion pins 

to large scale studies using aerial photos and maps. It 

is shown that ideally bank erosion should be studied 

using on-site measurements for detailed erosion data 

and remote sensing information for large scale and 

long-term data. Techniques for the evaluation of soil 

erodability and shear strength are reported. Particular 

attention as paid to new approaches being developed 

in the U.S. and to new instruments such as borehole 

shear tester and unconfined tension tester. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; 

STREAMBANK PROTECTION; TECHNIQUES] 

1716. Thorne,CR; Tovey,KN (1981): Stability of 

composite river banks. Earth Surface Processes 

and Landforms 6,469-484. 

The stability of a river bank depends on the 

balance of forces, motive and resistive, associated 

with the most critical mechanism of failure. Many 

mechanisms are possible and the likelihood of failure 

occurring by any particular one depends on the size, 

geometry and structure of the bank, the engineering 

properties of the bank material, the hydraulics of 

flow in the adjacent channel and climatic conditions. 

Rivers flowing through alluvial deposits often have a 

composite structure of cohesionless sand and gravel 

overlain by cohesive siltlclay. Bank erosion occurs 

by fluvial entrainment of material from the lower, 

cohesionless bank at a much higher rate than material 

from the upper, cohesive bank. This leads to 

undermining that produces cantilevers of cohesive 

material. Upper bank retreat takes place 

predominantly by the failure of these cantilevers. 

Three mechanisms of failure have been identified: 
shear, beam, and tensile failure. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; SOILS; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

171 7. Thorne,CR; Zevenbergen,LW (1984): 

Estimating mean velocity in mountain rivers. 

Hydraulic Engineer. 11 1(4), 612-624. 

It is often necessary to estimate the mean 

velocity in ungaged mountain rivers, but the flow 

resistance equations available for this purpose require 

further testing and development. Such rivers are 

characterized by coarse bed materials, steep slopes, 

and low depths. Three equations were recently 

developed that are specifically intended for large 

scale roughness and applied to this problem. The 

errors were systematic and the equations all tended to 

overestimate mean velocity compared to observed 

values. Further research is required. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; HYDROLOGY; 

MODELING] 

171 8. Thorne,CR (1 982): Processes and 

mechanisms of river bank erosion. In: Gravel bed 

rivers. [Eds: Hey,RD; Bathurst,JC; Thorne,CRI. 

John Wiley and Sons Ltd. New York, NY, 227- 

271. 

The importance of bank erosion to channel 

hydraulics and sedimentary processes makes it 

appropriate that a review and investigation of the 

way in which a river erodes its banks should be 

undertaken. It is necessary to consider the processes 

responsible for the erosion of material from a bank 

and the mechanisms of failure resulting from the 

instability created by those processes. Erosional 

processes fall into two groups: fluvial entrainment, 

and sub-aeriallsub-aqueous weakening and 

weathering. Usually it is particular combinations of 

processes which are the most effective in causing 

erosion. Mechanisms of failure depend on the size, 

geometry, and structure of the bank and the 

engineering properties of bank material. Mechanical 

bank failures provide supply material to the toe. Its 

removal from there depends on fluvial entrainment. 

The balance between rates of supply and removal 

may be described by the state of basal endpoint 

control. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

SEDIMENTATION; STREAMBANK 

PROTECTION] 

1719. Thurow,R; King,J (1989): Effects of fine 

sediment on fish populations. p.49-56. In: 

Proceedings of the third federal intraagency 

sedimentation conference. March, 1989. Las 

Vegas, NV. Federal Energy Regulatory 

Commission. 

The authors evaluated the particle size 

distribution of egg pockets, redd pits, and tail-spills, 

artificially constructed redds, and undisturbed 

substrate outside redds. Egg pockets were located in 

upper strata an average of 14.9 cm below the 

substrate surface. Egg pockets contained fewer fines 

(<6.35 mm) than other sites. except in artificial redds. 

As substrate depth increased, percent fines tended to 

increase at all sampling sites and variability in 

percent fines among sites was reduced. They 

observed no change in percent fines sampled from 

May to July, except in cleaned intrusion sites where 

free interstitial areas rapidly accumulated sediments. 

Dissolved oxygen levels declined in redds during 

incubation. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

1720. Thurow,RF (1994): Underwater methods 

for study of salmonids in the Intermountain West. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-GTR-307.28 p. 

This guide describes underwater methods using 

snorkeling gear to study fish populations in flowing 

waters of the Intermountain West. It outlines 

procedures for estimating salmonid abundance and 

habitat use and provides criteria for identifying and 

estimating the size of fish underwater. 

[ANADROMOUS FISH; HABITAT 

MANAGEMENT; POPULATION DYNAMICS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1721. Thurow,RF; Lee,DC; Rieman,BE (1997): 

Distribution and status of seven native salmonids 

in the interior Columbia River Basin and portions 

of the Klamath River and Great Basins. North 

American Journal of Fisheries Management 17, 

1094-1110. 

The composition, distribution, and status of 

fishes within the study area is very different than it 

was historically. Although several of the salmonid 

taxa are distributed throughout their potential range, 

declines in abundance and distribution and 

fragmentation into smaller patches are apparent for 

all forms. None of the salmonid taxa have known or 

predicted strong populations in more than 22 percent 

of their potential ranges, with the exception of 

Yellowstone cutthroat trout. If current indicators of 

the taxa are useful indicators, many aquatic systems 

are remnants of what were larger and more complex, 

diverse, and connected systems. 
[FISH POPULATIONS; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1722. Tiedemann,AR; Helvey,JD; Anderson,TD 

(1978): Stream chemistry and watershed nutrient 

economy following wildfire and fertilization in 

eastern Washington. Journal of Environmental 

Quality 7(4), 580-588. 

During the first 3 years after severe wildfire, 

maximum concentrations of nitrate-N in stream water 

increased from pre-fire levels of <O.Ol6 to 0.56 

mgiliter on a bumed, unfertilized watershed and to 

0.54 and 1.47 mglliter on two watersheds that were 

bumed and fertilized. Increased levels appear to be 

primarily a result of increased nitrification. Organic 

N concentration in streamflow was nearly doubled 

during the second year after fire compared to pre-fire 

levels. Relative to the background conditions and 

levels observed in the control stream, the fire exerted 

protracted impacts on the chemistry of these streams. 

Results, however, indicate that fire and fertilization 

exerted negligible results on chemical water quality 

for municipal use. 

[FIRE IMPACTS; NUTRIENT CYCLES; WATER 

QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

1723. Tiedemann,AR; Higgins,DA; Quigley,TM; 

Sanderson,DB; Marx,HR (1987): Responses of 

fecal coliform in stream water to four grazing 

strategies. Journal of Range Management 40(4), 

322-329. 

Concentration and loadings (output, number 

day(- 1) km(-2)) of fecal coliform (FC) indicator 

bacteria were measured from 1979 through 1984 in 

stream-flow from 13 forested watersheds under the 

following range management strategies: (A) no 

grazing; (B) grazing without management for 

livestock distribution; (C) grazing with management 

to obtain livestock distribution; and (D) grazing with 

management to obtain livestock distribution and 

cultural practices to increase forage. Both FC 

concentrations (number1 100ml) and instantaneous 

loadings differed significantly among strategies, 

seasons, and water years. Differences among 

strategies for mean concentrations were A<C=B<D. 

For instantaneous loadings, significant differences 

were A<C, B or D; and C<D. FC concentrations were 

the same for winter and for snow-melt runoff 

seasons but concentrations of both were significantly 

lower than during the summer period. Loadings were 

different for each season with 

winter<summer<snowmeIt runoff. A definite 

relationship was established between the presence of 

cattle on the pastures and FC concentrations. 

Elevated FC counts in strategy D watersheds and 

loadings in excess of 1 O(8) organisms day(- l )km(-2) 

in the winter season provide evidence that organisms 

live into and through the winter period in animal 

feces, sediment, and soil. Results provide evidence 

that livestock removal may not provide an immediate 

solution to elevated levels of FC in stream-water. 

[COLIFORM BACTERIA; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1724. Tiedemann,AR; Higgins,DA; Quigley,TM; 

Sanderson,HR (1989): Stream chemistry 

responses to four range management strategies in 

eastern Oregon. USDA Forest Service. Research 

Paper PNW-RP-413. Portland, OR. 9 p. 

Four grazing management strategies, 

implemented as part of the Oregon Range Evaluation 

Project, are described. Nitrate-N, P04, Ca, Mg, K 

and Na levels and pH were monitored in streamwater. Grazing systemslstrategies included seasonlonglno distribution management (8.2 hdAUM), 

deferred rotatioduniform pasture use (7.7 hdAUM), 

deferred rotatiodintensive management with pasture 

improvement (2.8 hdAUM), and rest 

rotationiintensive management with pasture 

improvement (2.8 hdAUM). 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

RIPARIAN FOREST; WATER QUALITY] 

1725. Tiedemann,AR; Quigley,TM; 

Anderson,TD (1988): Effects of timber hawest on 

stream nutrient chemistry and dissolved nutrient 

losses in northeast Oregon. Forest Science 34(2), 

344-358. 

The study examined stream-water nutrient levels 

before and after partial clear-cut of Pacific Northwest 

watersheds. The maximum treatment was clear-cut of 

4 1 percent of the watershed area in two blocks (3.6 

and 8.5 ha), machine piling and burning of slash with 

machine scatter of unburned slash. For another 

watershed, 17 percent of the area was clear-cut in two 

small blocks (0.8 and 2.4 ha). A selective harvest was 

performed in a third watershed and no harvest in the 

fourth control watershed. 

[LOGGING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN FOREST; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1726. Tiedemann,RB (1988): Development and 

use of a wetland bank as a mitigation alternative 

in Idaho. p.55-60. In: Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; 

Scott,ML; Miller,LK [eds.]. Restoration, creation, 

and management of wetland and riparian 

ecosystems in the American West. A symposium of 
the Rocky Mountain Chapter of the Society of 

Wetland Scientists. 

Wetlands restoration is, at times, impossible to 

accomplish on-site, comes with such risk that 

successful mitigation cannot be assured, or can only 

be accomplished at extraordinary cost. Use of a 

previously constructed, off-site wetland may be 

appropriate in these situations to compensate for 

wetland losses. This paper documents the 

development of the wetland banking system in Idaho 

and the consensus building which has led to a 

memorandum of agreement with all resource and 

regulatory agencies with a statutory interest in 

wetland issues. The Idaho effort is the first to enlarge 

the scope of wetland banking to an entire state and to 

all the activities of an single agency (Idaho 

Transportation Department). 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WETLAND 

MITIGATION BANKING; WETLANDS] 

1727. Tilley,LJ; Slack,KV; Kennelly,SS (1991): 

Transport of invertebrates and detritus in 

streams. p.9-17. In: Proceedings of the fifth 

federal intraagency sedimentation conference. 18- 

21 March 1991. Las Vegas, NV. 

Stream sediment includes living and non-living 

particulate organic matter along with inorganic 

particles. Living organisms range in size from 

bacteria to large plants and animals. Non-living 

organic matter is mostly of plant origin. Drift, the 

downstream movement of invertebrates in the water 

column is a universal feature of streams and an 

important component of suspended particulate 

organic matter. Drift samples, usually collected with 

nets, contain the invertebrates along with the organic 

and inorganic particles collectively termed detritus. 

Particulate organic matter is important to stream 

ecosystem functioning, and is also involved in the 

transport and fate of plant nutrients, trace metals, 

pesticides and other substances. This study describes 

sampling techniques and the factors affecting drift 

and detritus abundance in Rocky Mountain streams. 

[FISHERIES; INVERTEBRATES; ORGANiC 

DEBRIS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

1728. Tiner,RW (1990): Use of high altitude 

aerial photography for inventorying forested 

wetlands in the United States. Forest Ecology and 

Management 33134,593-604. 

The USDI Fish and Wildlife Service is 

conducting an inventory of the wetlands of the US 

through its National Wetlands Inventory Project 

(NWI). The project selected high-altitude aerial 

photography (1 :40,000 to 1 : 130,000 scale) as its 

primary data source. Stereoscopic interpretation of 

this photography is an efficient and cost-effective 

method for identifying, classifying, and inventorying 

wetlands on a national, state, or regional level. 

[AERIAL PHOTO; INVENTORY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1729. Tiner,RW (1991): The concept of a 

hydrophyte for wetland identification. BioScience 

41 (4), 236-246. 

Existence of wetland ecotypes lacking 

distinguishing morphological characteristics to 

separate them from the typical species and the broad 

ecological amplitude or wide wetness tolerance of 

many species make it difficult to rely on plant 

community composition to identify many wetlands 

and delineate their boundaries. Consequently, 

evaluation of soil properties and other hydrological 

characteristics are essential to accurate identification 

and delineation of wetlands. 

[HYDROPHYTES; PLANT COMMUNITIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SOILS; WETLANDS] 

1730. Tiner,Jr.,RW (1988): Agricultural impacts 

on wetlands in the northeastern United States. p.9- 

14. In: Stuber,PJ [tech.coord.]. Proceedings of the 

national symposium on protection of wetlands 

from agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. 

Collins, CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Biological Report 88(16). 

Despite its reputation as a highly industrialized 

region, the northeastern U.S. is mostly farmland and 

forests. Consequently, the agricultural impacts to 

wetlands are more significant than commonly 

thought. Available information about these impacts is 

presented. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1731. Todd,AH (1 996): Watershed 

rehabilitation: A program for Lake Tahoe. p.178- 

186. In: National hydrology workshop 

proceedings. 27 April - 1 May 1992. Phoenix, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-GTR-279. 

Watershed rehabilitation has been recognized as 

a critical element in the programs needed to improve 

the quality of Lake Tahoe's waters. Erosion control 

and restoration needs in the Lake Tahoe Basin have 

been estimated at over $300 million on urban and 

forest lands. The USDA Forest Service developed a 

comprehensive watershed rehabilitation program for 

forest land in approximately 1980 and has since 
completed projects on over 3,000 acres of disturbed 

slopes and stream zones. The program includes 

holistic watershed problem inventories, cooperative 

fisheriesistream zone rehabilitation projects, retrofit 

of forest facilities and roads, harsh site revegetation, 

KV and mitigation projects, and erosion control 

monitoring. Program success stems from 

institutionalizing the Forest commitment to 

watershed rehabilitation in the planningibudget 

process, and the involvement of partners and support 

groups. 

[PARTNERSHIPS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

WATERSHED] 

1732. Todd,PA (1992): Mountain beaver habitat 

use and management implications in Yosemite 

National Park. Natural Areas Journal 12(1), 26- 

31. 

Sierra Nevada mountain beavers were studied in 

Yosemite National Park, California to describe 

current and historic distributions and habitat use, and 

to evaluate the need for state or federal protection. A 

survey of eight riparian areas, each 15 km long, 

conducted during the summers of 1988 and 1989 

indicated that distribution has changed over the past 

100 years partly from human impacts. Development 

pressures have impacted several active sites. Four 

variables characterizing mountain beaver habitat, 

which may be useful in distinguishing potential 

habitat, were shrub and herbaceous plant abundance, 

stream depth, and stream gradient. Techniques used 

in this investigation may be applicable to species of 

concern in other natural areas. 

[BEAVER; CLASSIFICATION; NATURAL 

AREAS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1733. Todd,R; Buckhouse,JC (1998): 

Management effects on water temperatures in the 

Sprague River water. p.440. In: Potts,DF led.]. 

Range management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Tributaries to the Sprague River in Oregon 

provide irrigation water to irrigated mountain 

meadows which support seasonal cattle grazing. 

Temperature data were collected above and below 

these diversions at selected grazed and forested 

stream reaches. Collected data suggest that ambient 

air temperatures were more significant than 

management activities in influencing stream 

temperature. Water temperatures of return flows were 

not significantly higher than main channel 

temperatures. Temperatures mostly exceeded Oregon 

water quality standards. Proper management may 

result in beneficial effects on stream temperatures. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RANGE MANAGEMENT; 

STREAM TEMPERATURE; WATER QUALITY] 

1734. Toliver,J (1993): What are wetlands? 

Journal of Forestry 91(5), 12-14. 

Managers, scientists, and administrators must 

play an important role in the future of wetland 

forests. The official policy of the U.S. EPA is no net 

loss of wetlands area in the U.S. Riparian zones have 

their greatest value as buffers and filters between 

urban and agricultural developments and our most 

vital life support - water. Preservation of public 

riparian rights provides an effective hedge against 

over-development of urban sprawl and agriculture or 

forest monoculture. 

[HUMAN IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN ZONES; WETLANDS] 

1735. Toliver,JR (1 996): Multiple use values of 

forested wetlands - policy and management 

implications. p.168-173. In: National hydrology 

workshop proceedings. 27 April - 1 May 1992. 

Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest Sewice. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

Applying "normal silvicultural activities" 

through state-of-the-art "Best Management Practices" 

is crucial to maintaining and enhancing the multipleuse benefits and values of forested wetlands. The 

1977 Clean Water Act permitting normal silvicultural 

activities or practices in forested wetlands allows 

managers the opportunity to manage these wetlands 

for values such as timber, wildlife habitat, and clean 

water. Silvicultural practices and how they are 

applied to maintain or enhance the multiple-use 

benefits of forested wetlands are discussed. 

[BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES; CLEAN 

WATER ACT; FORESTRY MANAGEMENT; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1736. Tremble,M (1993): The Little Colorado 

River. p.283-289. In: Te!lman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.1. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Sewice. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

Issues of scale have received increased attention 

from the scientific community. In effective riparian 

management planning, organizational and cultural 

perspectives must also be considered. The author 

addresses differences between the Navajo world view 

and mainstream Anglo world view and cites 

problems arising from those differences. Managers 
need to address problems or goals by examining 

processes that operate over many spatial and 

temporal scales. 

[ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT; PLANNING; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1737. Tribe,S; Church,M (1999): Simulations of 

cobble structure on a gravel streambed. Water 

Resources Research 35(1), 311-318. 

The authors present a two-dimensional, time 

dependent, kinematic simulation of a gravel 

streambed that models impacts between clasts as 

elastic collisions without momentum transfer 

between discrete, circular discs. The basic algorithm 

causes simulated stones to cluster into longitudinal 

structures that resemble such gravel bed forms as 

imbricate clusters and cluster bed forms. A modified 

algorithm incorporating programming rules such as 

stone rotation, entrainment probability inversely 

proportional to stone size, and the shielding effects of 

neighbors causes simulated stones to cluster into 

structures that resemble transverse ribs. The number 

of stones seems to have the most control on the 

development of an extended surface structure. 

[MODELING; STREAMBEDS] 

1738. Triquet,AM; McPeek,GA; McComb,WC 

(1987): Songbird diversity in clear-cuts with and 

without a riparian buffer strip. Journal of Soil 

and Water Conservation 42: 500-503. 

The following community parameters were 

monitored on four watersheds in 1983 and 1986; 

equitability, richness, and diversity. Parameters were 

similar among all watersheds before treatment of two 

with different harvest methods in 1983. Bird 

abundance increased 21 percent and 23 percent on 

the two clear-cuts during the second growing season 

after cutting. Bird species richness and bird diversity 

were highest on an uncut control area of mature 

forest and a best management practices harvest unit 

with a riparian buffer strip. Bird diversity and species 

equitability were lowest on a logger's choice unit 

with no buffer strip. Clear-cutting with best 

management practices provided habitat for some 

species of mature forest birds that logger's choice 

clear-cutting did not. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; BEST MANAGEMENT 

PRACTICES; BUFFER ZONES; LOGGING 

IMPACTS] 

1739. Triska,FJ (1984): Role of wood debris in 

modifying channel geomorphology and riparian 

areas of a large lowland river under pristine 

conditions: a historical case study. Verhandlung 

lnternationale Vereinigung Limnologie 22(3), 

1876-1 892. 

The author reviewed historical records to 

estimate the impact of woody debris on a 400-500 

km reach of the Red River, Louisiana. In a primal 

condition, the banks consisted of unstable alluvial 

deposits which were easily eroded. Sediment and 

riparian trees formed trees from eroded banks formed 

organic debris dams which blocked the channel and 

promoted channel aggradation. At one time, exposed 

wood covered 80-120 km of channel. Adjacent 

riparian areas were impacted by flooded forests and a 

series of large lakes were formed. After removal of 

organic debris, the most recently formed lakes 

drained over a period of 30 years. Wood debris 

reduced the river's width from 185 m to 

approximately 40 m and aggraded the river bed to a 

maximum of 7 m. Tributary channels were dammed 

or filled with organic debris and the river was 

permanently opened to navigation in 1873. By the 

early 1900ts, dam and snag removal, levees, dredging 

and removal of bank-side trees resulted in a cleared, 

meandering channel, which might today be mistaken 

as typical of a pristine lowland river. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; HISTORIC RECORDS; 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

1740. Troendle,CA; King,RM (1987): Effect of 

partial and clear-cutting on stream-flow at 

Deadhorse Creek, CO. Journal of Hydrology 90, 

145-1 57. 

Two subalpine sub-drainages were used to 

demonstrate the comparable impact on water yield of 

two tree harvesting practices. Thirty six percent of 

one subdrainage was clear-cut commercially using 

five-tree height circular openings. In contrast 40 

percent of the basal area of the other subdrainage was 

removed by partial cutting in the first step of a threestep shelterwood cut. Annual flow and peak flow 

from the clear-cut watershed were increased 

significantly. The partial cut resulted in a significant 

in total water equivalent in the winter snow-pack and 

an apparent increase in total annual streamflow that 

was comparable to the clear-cut. 

[HYDROLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; STREAM 

FLOW] 

1741. Tubbs,AA (1980): Riparian bird 

communities of the Great Plains. p.419-433. In: 

Proceedings: Management of western forests and 

grasslands for non-game birds. 11-14 February 

1980. Salt Lake City, UT. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report INT-86. 
One hundred thirty six birds utilizing riparian 

communities in the Great Plains are identified and 

categorized. Breeding birds restricted to riparian 

vegetation may outnumber obligates of other 

grassland communities sevenfold. Grazing, water 

diversion, land conversion, and wood-harvesting are 

destructive impacts in the region. Sensitive and 

decreasing species are discussed. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1742. Tucker,TL; Leininger,WC (1987): 

Livestock grazing affects fish habitat and 

nongame wildlife populations in a mountainous 

riparian area. Abstracts of the 40th Annual 

meeting of the Society for Range Management, 

Boise, ID. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK 

EFFECTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1743. Tucker-Schulz,T; Leininger,WC (1990): 

Differences in riparian vegetation structure 

between grazed areas and exclosures. Journal of 

Range Management 43(4), 295-299. 

Differences in vegetation structure were 

examined in a montane riparian zone in north-central 

Colorado after 30 years of cattle exclusion and 

continued, but reduced, grazing pressure. In order to 

assess the changes in the riparian community, canopy 

coverage, density, and standing crop of riparian 

species were measured in 1985 and 1986. Total 

vascular canopy cover was greater (P<0.05) in the 

exclosures as compared to grazed areas, while forb 

canopy cover was similar (P<0.05) between 

treatments. Exclosures had nearly 2 times the litter 

cover, while grazed areas had 4 times as much bare 

ground. Willow canopy cover was 8.5 times greater 

in protected areas than in grazed areas. Kentucky 

bluegrass cover was 4 times greater in grazed areas 

than exclosures, while the cover of fowl bluegrass 

was 6 times greater in protected sites. Mean peak 

standing crop over two years of the study was 2,410 

kgha in the exclosures and 1,2 17 kgha in caged 

plots within grazed areas. Cattle utilized 

approximately 65 percent of the current year's growth 

of vegetation during the 1985 and I986 grazing 

seasons. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN; WILLOW] 

1744. Tufford,DL; McKellar,HN,Jr; Hussey,JR 

(1998): Instream non-point source nutrient 

prediction with land-use proximity and 

seasonality. Journal of Environmental Quality 27, 

100-1 11. 

This study developed multiple regression models 

relating land use to in-stream concentrations of total 

nitrogen (TOTN) and total phosphorous (TOTP) in 

eight, low-order watersheds. The study area included 

dominant land-use categories of agriculture, forest, 

urban, and wetland. Land-use data were obtained 

from a pre-existing GIs database derived by 

classification of satellite images. The models 

partitioned land-use categories according to distance 

from stream channels using a series of buffe I r zones 

around each stream. Effects of point source 

contributions were removed from observed in-stream 

concentrations so that non-point source effects could 

be more clearly delineated. Land close to the stream 

channel (<I 50m) was a better predictor of nutrient 

concentrations than land away from the channel. 

Land use change scenarios (converting forest and 

wetland to agriculture) support the conclusion that 

management of stream water quality will be the most 

effective with emphasis on riparian and adjacent 

land. 

[LAND USE; NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; 

NUTRIENT CYCLES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1745. Tung,YK; Hathhorn,WE (1989): 

Determination of the critical locations in a 

stochastic stream environment. Ecologic;al 

Monitoring 45,43-61. 

Due to the existence of many uncertainties in a 

stream environment the determination of th~e critical 

location is important. This is complicated by the lack 

of a universally acceptable definition for critical 

stream location in a stochastic stream environment. 

Four potentially usable criteria for defining critical 

location are discussed. Techniques are presented to 

find these critical locations. 

[HYDROLOGY; MONITORING; WATEIR 

QUALITY] 

1746. Tupa,M; Olgeirson,E; Stevens,M (1 988): 

Beaver Creek stream relocation and restoration, 

Beaver Creek Ski Area, Avon, CO. p.112-114. In: 

Mutz,KM; Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK 

[eds.). Restoration, creation, and management of 

wetland riparian ecosystems in the American 

West. A symposium of the Rocky Mountain 

Chapter of the Society of Wetland Scientists. 

This paper describes an interdisciplinary team 

approach to designing and constructing a stream 

reach in the central Rocky Mountains. Pooled skills 

and backgrounds contributed to the overall success of 

this project. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 
1747. Turner,RE (1988): Secondary production 

in riparian wetlands. p.491-501. In: Transactions 

of the 53rd North American wildlife and natural 

resources conference. 

Riparian wetlands have high primary production 

that is available to consumers, a fluctuating 

environment, and an aquaticlterrestrial food web or 

chain, which results in secondary production. 

Riparian ecosystems, therefore, have more trophic 

levels per number of trophic links than do nonwetland ecosystems. No apparent large differences 

were anticipated between the number of trophic 

species to number of trophic links and mean chain 

length for wetland and non-wetland ecosystems. 

Numbers of predator-prey and predator-to-predator 

links should be lower in wetland than in stable 

ecosystems. Vegetation canopy of riparian wetlands 

adds to maximum ecosystem dimension resulting in 

relatively longer food chains compared to other 

wetland ecosystems. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; RIPARIAN 

ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1748. Twitchell,M (1987): Fish and wildlife 

preservation, environmental protection, and the 

Northwest's electric power system: a panel of 

views. Anadromous Fish Law Memo, Issue No 42, 

August 1987.27 p. Natural Resources Law 

Institute, Lewis and Clark College; Portland, OR. 

This memo contains edited and footnoted 

versions of speeches given at the 5th Annual Public 

lnterest Law Conference held in Eugene, Oregon in 

March 1987. It includes speakers who have been 

involved with the preservation and restoration of the 

Northwest anadromous fish runs. Topics covered are: 

1) the Northwest Power Act and Indian treaty fishing 

rights; 2) proposals to expand the Pacific Interstate 

lines; 3) Federal Energy Regulatory Commission's 

(FERC) activities; and 4) status of the controversial 

Winchester Dam on Oregon's North Umpqua River. 

It concludes with a question and answer session. 

[FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY 

COMMISSION; INDIAN TREATY FISHING 

RIGHTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER LAW] 

1749. University of Washington (1987): 

Streamside Management - Riparian, wildlife 

interactions. Proceedings of the symposium. 

College of Forest Resources, University of 

Washington. 11-13 February 1987. Seattle, WA. 

This collection of 28 papers was presented in 

their original form at a program initiated by the 

University of Washington's College of Forest 

Resources and other departments to address the 

production and protection of forest, fish, and water 

resources in Pacific Northwest watersheds. 

[RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1750. USDA (1944): The history of western range 

research. Agricultural History 18,127-143. 

During World War I, there was a patriotic but illadvised expansion of cattle and sheep numbers that 

failed to accomplish the desired increase in essential 

livestock products. By 1944, there was a better 

understanding of the basic principles of range 

management: proper kind and class of livestock, 

proper season of grazing, proper distribution of 

livestock, and proper numbers of animals. Also, by 

this time, there was general acceptance of 

conservative grazing standards. Emphasis by this 

time was turning to range betterment and more 

economic livestock production, and the application of 

research to expand that knowledge. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HISTORlC RECORDS; 

RANGE MANAGEMENT] 

1751. USDA Forest Service (1990): Integrated 

riparian evaluation guide. Technical riparian 

work group. Intermountain Region. Ogden, UT. 

102 p. 

The guide provides an integrated approach for: 

1) a process to stratify and classify riparian areas 

according to their natural inherent characteristics, and 

their respective existing conditions; 2) data 

collection; 3) evaluation of riparian areas; 4) 

development and linkage of a riparian data base; 5) 

preparation of a written narrative to interpret the data 

and suggest management applications; 6) providing a 

process to prioritize or rank riparian areas based on 

management objectives; and 7) strengthening the 

riparian management implications for Forest 

Management Plans. 

[EVALUATION; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1752. USDA Forest Service, Region 4 (19??): 

Identification of riparian areas in the planning 

process. An administrative report. Ogden, UT. 

[PLANNING; RIPARIAN ZONES] 

1753. USDA Soil Conservation Service, Camas 

Soil Conservation District and USDA Forest 

Service (1987): Idaho Cooperative River Basin 

Study: Camas Creek erosion and sediment study. 

116 p. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; STREAMBANK 

STABILITY] 
1754. US Department of the Interior (1992): 

Wetlands stewardship. 50 p. 

Wetlands have crucial ecological values and 

functions. More than one-third of the threatened or 

endangered plants and animals in the U.S. utilize 

wetland habitats during some portion of their life 

cycle. Wetlands have critical roles in maintaining the 

hydrology and serving as reservoirs and groundwater recharge areas. They can reduce flood peaks in 

flood plains by 80 percent. They filter water, 

maintain water quality, control erosion, and remove 

pollutants. Wetlands are also vital to the commercial 

and recreational sectors. This document outlines the 

plan the USDI has developed to implement the 

President's wetland goals. 

[ECONOMICS; EROSION CONTROL; 

GROUNDWATER; HYDROLOGY; POLLUTION; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1755. USDI Bureau of Land Management (1975): 

Birch Creek aquatic habitat management plan. 

ldaho Falls District Office; Idaho Falls, ID. 86 p. 

Birch creek occurs in a closed basin in 

northeastern ldaho. The water originates from 

scattered springs in the upper valley and sinks into 

the Snake River Aquifer in the lower basin 

elevations. The stream is the life support system for 

aquatic and terrestrial wildlife, domestic animals, and 

humans in the basin. Riparian areas and aquatic 

habitat here have been severely abused. Man has 

altered the channel and historic overgrazing by 

livestock has adversely affected vegetation and 

damaged stream banks. The habitat management plan 

described was designed to enhance and protect 

riparian and aquatic habitat. 

[EXCLOSURES; GRAZING IMPACTS; SNAKE 

RIVER; STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

1756. USDI Bureau of Land Management (1984): 

Riparian zones -- life support systems of the 

desert. Arizona Public Lands Update, Special 

Issue. Phoenix, AZ. BLM Arizona State Office. 4 

P . 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMZ] 

1757. USDI Bureau of Land Management (1985): 

Riparian aquatic information data summary 

RAIDS. Division of Resource Systems, Denver 

Service Center; Denver, CO. 35 p. 

[INVENTORY; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; TECHNIQUES] 

1758. USDI Bureau of Land Management (1986): 

Selected riparian area management strategies for: 

Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, 

Nevada, Wyoming. Unpublished report on file, 

BLM State Office, Boise, ID. 55 p. 

Riparian management strategies for several 

western states are discussed. Plans for all of the 

states are similar, calling for inventory of riparian 

areas, modifying land use plans, and establishing 

long term monitoring. This was a planning document 

for riparian pilot projects. Cost estimates are 

provided in some instances for pilot projects. No 

management strategies are presented or discussed in 

detail. This is a general informational riparian 

planning report. No research data presented. No 

literature cited. 

[MONITORING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1759. USDI Bureau of Land Management (1989): 

Wyoming riparian management activity guide - 

1989. Bureau of Land Management. Wyoming 

State Office. Cheyenne, WY. 58 p. 

This document presents the Wyoming riparian 

management strategy for public lands. It provides a 

listing and description of riparian projects, including 

planned actions, projects, monitoring, research, 

training, information transfer, and funding options. 

[BLM; GRAZING IMPACTS; POLICY] 

1760. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

(1990): Fish and Wildlife 2000. Annual progress 

report. Washington, DC. 29p. 

This report summarizes those projects 

implemented under BLM's "Fish and Wildlife 2000 a 

plan for the future." Planned fish and wildlife 

projects, including habitat management and 

restoration, are included. 

[BLM; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1761. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

(1991): Riparian-wetlands initiative for the 1990's. 

BLMIWOIGI-91/001+4340.50 p. 

The riparian-wetland initiative for the 1990's 

provides a blueprint for management and restoration 

of riparian-wetland areas encompassing 23.7 million 

acres of BLM lands. Four national goals have been 

established: I) restore and maintain riparian-wetland 

areas so that 75 percent or more are in proper 

functioning condition by 1997; 2) protect riparianwetland areas and associated uplands through proper 

land management and avoid or mitigate negative 

impacts 3) ensure an aggressive riparian-wetland 

infonnationloutreach program; and 4) improve 

partnerships and cooperative restoration and 

management processes in implementing the riparianwetland initiative. 
[RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN-WETLAND 

INITIATIVE] 

1762. USDI Bureau of Land Management. New 

Mexico State Office. (1990): New Mexico Riparian 

- Wetland 2000: A management strategy. Santa 

Fe, NM. 

This document was intended to identify and 

consolidate planning decisions and to determine the 

needs for future planning development related to 

riparian-wetland area resource management. It also 

identifies issues not addressed in land use plans that 

may be essential for meeting legal obligations and 

management prescriptions. Monitoring programs are 

also proposed including the use of permanent photo 

points, vegetation transects, and the cyclic collection 

of large scale aerial photography and other 

techniques. 

[MONITORING; PLANNING; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE; WETLANDS] 

1763. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service (1980): 

Riparian ecosystems: a preliminary assessment of 

their importance, status and needs. Eastern 

Energy and Land Use Team. Kearneyville, WV. 

13 p. 

A majority of the nation's wildlife, including a 

relatively large proportion of endangered species, 

depend on riparian habitats for their survival. Most 

riparian areas are jeopardized by intensive economic 

pressures for a variety of alternative land and water 

uses. As much as 70 to 90 percent of all original 

riparian communities in the U.S. have already been 

destroyed. High fish and wildlife values, multiple 

intrinsic values, and high economic values of natural 

riparian ecosystems argue for their protection and 

management. Present conservation efforts have 

proven to be ineffective. 

[RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1764. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service (1980): 

Summaries of riparian and stream alteration 

studies completed by the Eastern Energy and 

Land Use Team. Eastern Energy and Land Use 

Team and National Water Resources Analysis 

Group. 38 p. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER RESOURCE 

MANAGEMENT] 

1765. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service (1980): 

Stream-side areas --management dividends. 

Biological Services Program, FWSIOBS-80155. 10 

P . 

[MULTIPLE USE; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION] 

1766. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service (1990): 

Wetlands. Meeting the president's challenge. 1990 

Wetlands Action Plan. 64 p. 

A mandate from the President has prescribed a 

policy of "no net loss" for the nation's wetlands. The 

role of the USDI Fish and Wildlife Service in 

achieving that goal is discussed in detail. 

[POLICY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1767. USDI Bureau of Land Management. 

(1999). Photographic guide to median stubble 

heights. Idaho BLM Technical Bulletin No. 99-01. 

A photographic field guide prepared by the BLM 

Challis Field Office to provide a practical 

monitoring tool for determining the stubble heights 

on riparian areas. 

[RIPARIAN VEGETATION; STUBBLE HEIGHT; 

UTILIZATION] 

1768. US Environmental Protection Agency - US 

Department of Agriculture (1998): Clean water 

action plan: Restoring and protecting American 

waters. 89 p. 

In the 25 years since the passage of the 1972 

Clean Water Act, much progress has been made 

toward reducing water pollution and restoring 

waterways. Restoration of water quality has had 

dramatic benefits but serious problems persist. States 

report that about 40 percent of their waters do not 

meet water quality standards. About % of the 

nations's over 2,000 major watersheds have serious 

or moderate water quality problems. This action plan 

provides a blueprint for restoring and protecting the 

nation's water resources and proposes aggressive new 

actions to strengthen the program. 

[CLEAN WATER ACT; PLANNING; WATER 

QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

1769. US General Accounting Office. (1988): 

Public Rangelands. Some riparian areas restored 

but widespread improvement will be slow. 

GAOIRCED-88-105: Report to congressional 

requesters. Washington, DC. 85. 

This report examines federal efforts to restore 

degraded riparian areas on public rangelands, 

achievements to date, the extent of the problem 

remaining, and the factors that will impede more 

widespread progress in the future. 

[POLICY; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1770. Vale,TR (1 975): Pre-settlement vegetation 
in the sagebrush-grass area of the Intermountain 

West. Journal of Range Management 28(1), 32-36. 

A total of 29 journals and dairies were reviewed 

for their vegetative descriptions of the sagebrushgrass area in an attempt to assess the vegetation 

conditions in the northern Intermountain West. Early 

writings suggest that a pristine vegetation was 

visually dominated by shrubs. Stands of grass 

apparently were confined to wet valley bottoms, 

moist canyons, and mountain slopes. Most of the area 

was covered by thick stands of brush. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; HISTORIC RECORDS; 

RANGELAND HEALTH] 

1771. Valencia,R (1993): Arizona riparian 

inventory and mapping project. p.242. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian 

management: common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

The Arizona Game and Fish Department has 

initiated a statewide inventory of riparian areas in 

response to recent legislation and in order to better 

understand the functions and values of riparian 

ecosystems in the arid Southwest. 

[INVENTORY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1772. Valiela,D; Whitfield,PH (1 989): 

Monitoring strategies to determine compliance 

with water quality objectives. Water Resources 

Bulletin 25,63-69. 

Two sampling techniques designed to test for 

compliance with water quality objectives were 

examined. Those objectives based on long-term mean 

requirements are best met by fixed frequency 

sampling at frequent intervals. For those objectives 

based on maximum allowable concentrations, 

effective sampling strategies increase the likelihood 

of detecting noncompliance. 

[HYDROLOGY; MONITORING; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1773. Vance,L; Tate,K (1 998): Assessment of the 

air-water temperature relationship under 

differing conditions in several northern California 

streams. p.439. In: Potts,DF [ed.]. Range 

management and water resources: Proceedings of 

the AWRA specialty Conference. American Water 

Resources Association. 27-29 May 1998. 

The observed relationship between air and water 

temperatures has suggested the potential for 

predicting water temperatures from air temperature 

data. In this study, they hypothesized that although 

strong linear correlations could be found in many 

sites when monthly mean temperatures were 

compared, diurnal relationships would not be equally 

correlated. Results of the analysis are discussed. 

[AIR TEMPERATURE; STREAM 

TEMPERATURE; WATER QUALITY] 

1774. Vance,M (1986): Wetland conservation: a 

bibliography. Vance Bibliographies; P.O. Box 229, 

Monticello, 1L 61856; Public Administration 

Series: Bibiliography #P 2058, ISSN: 0193-970X, 

ISBN: 1-55590-1 18-2.20 p. 

Lists 196 technical and scientific articles on the 

subject of conservation of wetlands and riparian 

areas. Bibliography is not annotated. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

1775. Vander Haegen,GE; Tipping,JM; 

Hammer,SA (1998): Consumption of juvenile 

salmonids by adult steelhead in the Cowlitz River, 

Washington. California Fish and Game 84,48-50. 

This study was conducted to add information to 

that known about the frequency of adult steelhead 

predation on juvenile salmonids. Observed low 

incidence of juvenile salmonids in the stomachs of 

adult summer steelhead suggests that the hatchery 

program on the Cowlitz River does not impair 

sympatric populations of juvenile salmonids through 

predation. Observations suggest that adult summer 

steelhead sampled from June through October had 

sufficient energy reserves to carry them through 

December spawning and that they infrequently fed in 

fresh water. 

[FISH HABITAT; PREDATION; SALMONIDS; 

STEELHEAD] 

1776. Vander Haegen,WM; Degraaf,RM (1996): 

Predation on artificial nests in forested riparian 

buffer strips. Journal of Wildlife Management 

60(3), 542-550. 

Artificial nests were used to examine predation 

in riparian buffer strips created by commercial clearcutting and in unharvested control areas on industrial 

forest-lands in eastern Maine. Nests in riparian buffer 

strips were deprecated more often than those in intact 

riparian areas. The pattern was similar for both 

ground and shrub nests and for both trials. Predation 

rate for nests in control stands was 15 percent, 

compared to 3 1 percent in 20-40m wide buffer strips 

along tributary streams and 23 percent in 60-80m 

wide buffer strips along main-stem streams 

(P=0.045). Predation rates were similar (P=0.41) in 

main-stem and tributary buffer strips. Greater 
predation rates documented for nests in riparian 

buffer strips likely resulted from an elevated number 

and diversity of predators associated with the narrow, 

linear forest stands. Red squirrels and blue jays were 

responsible for >50 percent of the identified 

depredations. Managers should leave wide buffer 

strips (> 150m) buffer strips along riparian zones to 

reduce edge related nest predation, especially in 

landscapes where buffer strips are an important 

component of the existing mature forest. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

PREDATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1777. Vanderheyden,J (1985): Managing for 

multiple resources in western Cascades forest 

riparian areas: an example. p.448-452. In: 

Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems 

and their management: Reconciling conflicting 

uses. 16-18 April 1985. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Concepts of multiple use and riparian area 

dependent resources were incorporated into a district 

level riparian area management policy. The linkage 

of riparian areas to the aquatic resource and 

cumulative watershed processes is integrated into the 

policy designed to provide consistent direction for 

on-the-ground management. 

[MULTIPLE USE; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1778. Van Dyne,GM; Burch,W; Fairfax,S; 

Huey,W (1984): Forage allocation on arid and 

semi arid public grazing lands: summary and 

recommendations. p.1-25. In: Developing 

strategies for rangeland management: A report 

prepared by the committee on developing 

strategies for rangeland management. (: ) 

National Research CounciUNational Academy of 

Sciences. Westview Press, Boulder and London. 

This summary focuses on the physical and 

biological aspects of forage allocation, including the 

large domestic and wild herbivores and the plants on 

which they graze. Recent legislation has broadened 

the concept of forage allocation considerably. To 

meet legislated mandates of multiple use and 

sustained yield, livestock and other grazing animals 

must be considered as only one of many uses of the 

public resource in the West. 

[FORAGE PRODUCTION; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

1779. Van Haveren,B; Janes,EB; Jackson,W 

(1985): Non-point pollution control on public 

lands. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 

40(1), 92-94. 

BLM meets its water quality responsibilities in 

various ways: water quality improvement objectives 

are integrated into land use plans; funding for soil 

and water programs is used mainly for project 

activities; and many watershed rehabilitation projects 

are implemented. Other resource management 

strategies, including improved grazing systems, 

intensive riparian management practices, and good 

forest management, all contribute directly to 

improved water quality. 

[NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT; WATER QUALITY] 

1780. Van Haveren,BP (1986): Management of 

instream flows through runoff detention and 

retention. Water Resources Bulletin 22(3), 399- 

404. 

The use of reservoirs and land treatments to 

manage stream flow for the maintenance or 

enhancement of instream flow values is a valid 

concept. Historically, large reservoirs have been 

used for flood control and water-supply regulation. 

Smaller structures have enjoyed widespread use for 

soil and water conservation in headwater areas. 

Where reservoir releases can be controlled, it is 

technically feasible to regulate flows for the 

enhancement of instream values. However, 

institutional and political obstacles may preclude the 

operation of some reservoirs for this purpose. 

Retention and detention structures and land 

treatments, implemented for soil and water 

conservation purposes, have often had favorable 

effects on the stream flow hydrograph. Decreases in 

peak flows and increases in low flows have been 

documented. Design concepts for runoff control 

structures are discussed in relation to in stream flow 

management objectives. Hydrological simulation is 

offered as a potential tool for project design and 

feasibility analysis. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; RUNOFF; STREAM 

FLOW] 

1781. Van Haveren,BP; Jackson,WL (1986): 

Rehabilitating riparian ecosystems in semiarid 

environments. p.280-289. In: Proceedings of the 

51st North American wildlife and natural 

resources conference. 21-26 March 1986. Reno, 

NV. The Wildlife Management Institute. 

Proper hydrological function of the floodplain, 

stream-dependent water table, and stream channel 

erosion and deposition processes are all necessary for 

a healthy riparian ecosystem. These factors and 
interrelationships are brought to bear in a discussion 

of rehabilitation principles and approaches for use on 

degraded riparian areas. Channel conditions such as 

incised streams and laterally unstable streams which 

are commonly associated with degraded riparian 

areas are discussed. Proper identification of the 

causes of degradation and stage of channel evolution 

is required before developing a rehabilitation plan. 

Stream riparian systems undergoing major 

geomorphic or hydrological adjustments should not 

be treated with habitat improvements until the 

channel has reached a new dynamic equilibrium. 

The stream riparian zone is defined as the entire 

active channel area, including the portion of the 

flood-plain that supports a riparian vegetation 

community. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; GEOMORPHOLOGY; 

HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1782. Van Hees,WWS (1990): Boreal forested 

wetlands - What and where in Alaska. Forest 

Ecology and Management 33134,425-438. 

There are extensive areas of forested wetlands 

throughout interior Alaska. Tree cover on these sites 

is composed primarily of black spruce (Picea 

mariana) but also includes stands of poplar (Populus 

sp.). The Forest Inventory and Analysis method 

developed by USDA Forest Service shows promise 

for low costlunit area estimation. Current utilization 

of the resource is minimal due to low human 

population levels, inadequate economic and physical 

infrastructures, and the dispersed nature of the 

resource. 

[BOREAL FOREST; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

1783. Van Sickle,J; Gregory,SV (1990): 

Modeling inputs of large woody debris to streams 

from falling trees. Journal of Canadian Forest 

Resources 20, 1593-1 601. 

A probabilistic model predicts means and 

variances of the total number and volume of large 

woody debris pieces falling into a stream reach per 

unit time. The estimates of debris input are based on 

the density (treeslarea), tree size distribution, and 

tree-fall probability of the riparian stand adjacent to 

the reach. Distributions of volume, length, and 

orientation of delivered debris pieces are also 

predicted. Applied to an old-growth conifer stand in 

Oregon, the observed inputs from the riparian stand 

exceeded estimated inputs; debris pieces observed in 

the stream were generally smaller than predicted. 

[MODELING; RIPARlAN FOREST; RIPARlAN 

HABITAT; WOODY DEBRIS] 

1784. Van te Chow (1964): Handbook of applied 

hydrology. McGraw-Hill Inc. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; WATER 

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT] 

1785. Van Velson,R (1979): Effects of livestock 

grazing upon rainbow trout in Otter Creek, 

Nebraska. p. 53-55. In: Cope,OB led.]. Forum -- Grazing and riparianlstream ecosystems.3-4 

November 1978. Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, 

Inc. 

Prior to implementation of this case study, 

impaired habitat conditions exemplified the damage 

that improper livestock management practices can 

impose on trout. Results of the habitat improvement 

project are indicative of the rewards in terms of fish 

production that can result from stream restoration. 

[FISHERIES; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; TROUT] 

1786. Varela-Romero,A (1993): The role of the 

Centro Ecologico de Sonora in the protection and 

conservation of wetlands in Sonora. p.276-282. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,MG; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.]. Riparian management: Common 

threads and shared interests. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-226. 

The paper describes a collaboration between the 

Centro Ecologico de Sonora (CES) and the Nature 

Conservancy to protect and preserve natural 

resources in a region across international boundaries. 

The program includes the study of areas with 

significant biodiversity, economic, social, and scenic 

interest and the development of substantive 

management strategies. 

[INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

1787. Vasiliev,OF (1987): System modeling of the 

interaction between surface and ground waters in 

problems of hydrology. Journal of Hydrological 

Sciences 32(3), 297-31 1. 

A largely theoretical paper on modeling the 

interactions between ground and surface waters. The 

model has five subcomponents which are complex, 

with formulae for determining several of the subcomponent sections. Submodels are interception 

evapotranspiration; vertical one dimensional moisture 

transport in the root zone and underlying unsaturated 

zone; horizontal two-dimensional groundwater 

saturated flows; horizontal two-dimensional 

overland-channel flow: and a snowmelt submodel. 
The model was primarily developed for engineers 

and hydrologists. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; SURFACE 

WATER-GROUNDWATER INTERACTION] 

1788. Vavra,M (1984): Livestock production 

possibilities on stream-side meadows. p.35-44. In: 

Bedell,TE led.]. Proceedings of 1984 Pacific 

Northwest range management short course: 

Range watersheds, riparian zones and economics: 

Interrelationships in management and use. 25-27 

January 1984. Pendleton, OR. Oregon State 

University. 

[ECONOMICS; GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1789. Vellidis,G; Lowrance,R; Smith,MC; 

Hubbard,RK (1993): Methods to assess the water 

quality impact of a restored riparian wetland. 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 48(3), 

223-230. 

The feasibility and effectiveness of restoring a 

riparian wetland and using it as a bioremediation site 

for nutrients moving downslope from an animal 

waste application site is being evaluated. In question 

is the short term effectiveness of the restored wetland 

in enhancing the quality of water leaving the site. 

The wetland was restored by reintroducing a 

combination of native trees that will be harvested for 

pulpwood or timberwood. Native grasses and forbs 

were allowed to reestablish themselves among the 

trees. An intensive monitoring system using a 

network of shallow groundwater wells and automated 

surface runoff collectors was established to measure 

nutrient movement through the wetland in shallow 

groundwater and surface runoff. Soil samples are 

collected for nutrient analysis and denitrification 

measurements. Details of wetland restoration, 

instrumentation, and sampling strategies are 

discussed. 

[ASSESSMENTS; BIOREMEDIATION; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WETLANDS] 

1790. Vincent,D (1996): Riparian restoration of 

Senorito Canyon, a tributary of the Rio Puerco. 

p.253-257. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. 

Desired future conditions of Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing together interests 

and concerns. USDA Forest Sewice. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Senorito Canyon, a non-functional, degraded 

tributary stream of the Rio Puerco in New Mexico, 

has begun to respond to management strategies by 

the USDI Bureau of Land Management. Restoration 

of the riparian ecosystem has been accomplished 

principally through livestock grazing management 

and planting and reestablishment of the native 

cottonwood~willow communities. 

[COTTONWOOD; GRAZING IMPACTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; WILLOW] 

1791. Vinebrooke,RD; Leavitt,PR (1999): 

Differential responses of littoral communities to 

ultraviolet radiation in an alpine lake. Ecology 

80(1), 223-237. 

Differences in habitat conditions may affect 

differential sensitivities of benthic and planktonic 

communities to UV radiation. Results of this study 

indicated that UV radiation affects shallow-water 

communities in cold and unproductive systems 

mainly through direct effects, rather than by indirect 

effects mediated by the food-web processes. Access 

to physical rehges was evidently a key factor 

determining habitat-specific responses to UV 

radiation. UV radiation did not adversely affect 

motile epepelon and zoobenthos that could seek 

refuge in sediments, but it did suppress attached 

epilithic taxa. In habitats devoid of physical refuge, 

UV tolerance was associated with photo-protective 

pigmentation (e.g. zooplankton) and possibly a 

capacity for DNA repair. UV exposure can affect 

abiotic regulation of littoral food webs in extreme 

environments, such as alpine, polar, and 

anthropogenically acidified ponds and lakes. 

[ALPINE LAKES; MICROBIOLOGY; UV 

RADIATION] 

1792. Vinson,MR (1988): Sediment dynamics in 

meandering and straight sections of a relocated 

stream channel. p.76-87. In: Mutz,KM; 

Cooper,DJ; Scott,ML; Miller,LK [eds.]. 

Restoration, creation, and management of wetland 

and riparian ecosystems in the American West. 

Proceedings of the symposium. 14-16 November 

1988. Denver, CO. Rocky Mountain Chapter of 

the Society of Wetland Scientists. 

Sediment dynamics were analyzed in 

meandering and straight sections of a relocated 

stream channel in coarse alluvium. Although both 

sections had similar substrate distributions prior to 

the introduction of water, the meandering section 

exhibited greater particle size segregation, less 

instream fine sediment, and more over-bank fine 

sediment than did the channelized section ten months 

after the introduction of water to the new channel. 

Sediment deposition in the form of point bars was 

inversely related to meander radius of curvature. 
Within the meandering channel, sediment was 

deposited almost exclusively along the channel 

banks. Sediment deposition within the straight 

channel was uniformly distributed over the channel 

bed and banks. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; CHANNEL 

MORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENTATION; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT] 

1793. Von Guerard,P (1991): Variation in 

streambed material, bedload, and benthic 

invertebrates. Unreferenced, p.13-1 to 13-8. 

Grain-size distribution of streambed material 

and bed-load and the occurrence of benthic 

invertebrates were determined at two sites in SE 

Colorado. Grain-size distribution of streambed 

material differed noticeably at the upstream sample 

site but were similar at the downstream sample site. 

There were significant differences between the two 

sites for mean density values for all major taxa of 

benthic invertebrates. Median density of all 

organisms was 9,500lsq m at the upstream site and 

370lsq m at the downstream site. Even though other 

factors affected the density of benthic invertebrates, 

analysis indicated that as the grain-size of the 

streambed material approaches that of bedload, 

benthic invertebrate populations might be adversely 

affected. 

[INVERTEBRATES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1794. Vowell,JI (1996): Management issues in 

forested wetlands. p.174-177. In: National 

hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 April - 1 

May 1992; Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

Management issues involving forested wetlands 

are largely centered around balancing utilization of 

the timber resource with other wetland functions and 

values. Because of the nature of timber harvesting 

activities, forest management issues concerning 

streamside management zones, bedding, wetland 

conversion, and wet weather operations are complex 

and often controversial. These issues are discussed, 

along with associated regulations, where applicable. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1795. Wagner,FH; Keigley,RB; Wambolt,CL 

(1995): Comment: Ungulate herbivory of willows 

on Yelllowstone's northern winter range: 

Response to Singer et al(1994). Journal of Range 

Management 48(5), 475-477. 

In a recent Journal of Range Management 

article, Singer et al. (1994) report results of a willow 

study on the northern elk winter range of 

Yellowstone National Park and the immediate 

vicinity. The authors measured production, forage 

quality, moisture stress, and tannin content of growth 

shoots, all in relation to ungulate browsing, 

browsing-induced architectural variation, and 

altitude. The inference that reduced chemical 

defenses is attracting further heavier browsing is not 

supported. The prevailing evidence remains that the 

progressive decline of woody vegetation on the 

northern range, especially willow, has been induced 

by a wintering elk herd that has greatly increased 

since establishment of the Park. 

[BROWSING EFFECTS; ELK GRAZING; 

GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN SHRUBS; 

WILLOW; YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK] 

1796. Wagstaff,FJ (1986): Economic issues in 

grazing and riparian area management. In: 

Proceedings of the 51st North American wildlife 

and natural resources conference. 21-26 March 

1986. Reno, NV. The Wildlife Management 

Institute. 

Positive economic benefits from improved 

riparian conditions may off-set the negative impacts 

from limiting livestock grazing. Because of 

intensified management costs, the public may be 

faced with increased expenditures. Irregularities will 

be perceived by the many interests involved in 

riparian habitat management. Many of these 

problems will lead to costly litigation and social 

disharmony. However, reasoned approaches could 

lead to greater net social benefit levels. Issues and 

problems will not become simpler or easier and 

economics alone will not resolve the problems. 

[ECONOMICS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1797. Wald,J (1979): The BLM and the NEPA 

process. p.61-63. In: Cope,OB (ed.1. Forum -- 

Grazing and riparianlstream ecosystems. 3-4 

November 1979. Denver, CO. Trout Unlimited, 

Inc. 

Delays in EIS preparation and the inadequacies 

of the statements have left the agency (USDI Bureau 

of Land Management) vulnerable to legal challenges. 

More recently, this situation has improved. The 

implementation of rest-rotation, however, is not a 

panacea. All entities will have to work together to 

enlist the support and understanding of the livestock 

industry for needed changes kn grazing management. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 
Effect of various grazing systems on type and 

density of cattle trails. Journal of Range 

Management 39(5), 428-430. 

Number and kinds of cattle trails may have a 

dramatic impact on relative amount of bare soil and 

subsequently on amount and rate of soil erosion. The 

objective of this study was to quantify the effect of a 

cell-designed, rotational grazing treatment (RG) on 

density and kind of cattle trails in relation to other 

grazing treatments. It was concluded that 

implementation of a cell-designed, RG system will 

cause a significant increase in density and number of 

trails, particularly near the cell center. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS; SOILS] 

1799. Walker,MD; Walker,DA; Everett,KR 

(1989): Wetland soils and vegetation, arctic 

foothills, Alaska. USDI Fish Wildlife Service. 

Biological Report 89(7), 89. 

Analyses of relationships between hydric soils 

and wetland plant species in the northern foothills of 

the Brooks Range, Alaska, were conducted. The site 

is considered to be representative of broad regions of 

acidic tussock tundra in the foothills. Seven soil 

subgroups were identified. Weighted and index 

averages were calculated for each of 84 samples by 

weighing each species according to its wetland 

indicator status in a published list of vascular wetland 

plants of the U.S. Analysis of variance among soil 

types using averages based on vascular species alone 

or in combination with cryptogamic species led to a 

highly significant distinction between hydric and 

non-hydric soils. Cryptogams, lichen-moss crusts on 

the soil surface which have not been reviewed for 

wetland status, did not separate the soil types 

properly. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; SOILS] 

1800. Walker,MJ; Montemgno,CD; Jenkins,MB 

(1998): Source water assessment and non-point 

sources of acutely toxic contaminants: A review of 

research related to survival and transport of 

Cryptosporidiumparvum. p.467. Potts,DF led.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

This review summarizes recent research related 

to survival and transport of C. parvum oocysts, as an 

acutely toxic contaminant with non-point sources in 

animal agriculture. Significance of infected domestic 

animals as potential sources of C. parvum are 

discussed. Laboratory and field studies of survival 

and transport are reported. Source control approaches 

in the context of public health protection are 

presented. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY] 

1801. Wallace,JB; Grubaugh,JW; Whiles,MR 

(1996): Biotic indices and stream ecosystem 

processes: Results from an experimental study. 

Ecological Applications 6(1), 140-151. 

The authors investigated the ability of the North 

Carolina Biotic Index (NCBI) and the Ephemeroptera 

+ Plecoptera + Trichoptera (EPT) index to track the 

experimental manipulation of the invertebrate 

community and resultant alteration of several 

ecosystem-level processes in headwater streams in 

western North Carolina. The EPT index was the 

easiest to use from both the standpoint of time 

required for sample processing and ease of 

application. The EPT index was relatively simple and 

displayed a remarkable ability to track the secondary 

production of invertebrates in the treatment stream. 

[BIOTIC INDICES; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1802. Wallace,N (1988): Circle irrigation and 

wetlands. p.166-172. In: Stuber,PJ (tech. 

coord.].Proceedings of the national symposium on 

the protection of wetlands from agricultural 

impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, CO. . USDI 

Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological Report 

88(16). 

The prairie pothole region of the north central 

states is a major waterfowl producing area with over 

1,000,000 wetland acres under protective easement. 

The area also provides excellent opportunities for 

irrigated crops. Problems arise when protected 

wetlands become impassable quagmires for circle 

irrigators. During a two-year study, several 

techniques were developed for crossing wetlands 

with circle irrigators without biologically degrading 

wetland values. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1803. Wallace,PM; Kent,DM; Rich,DR (1 996): 

Responses to wetland tree species to hydrology 

and soils. Restoration Ecology 4(1), 33-41. 

The authors conducted a study of the flood 

tolerance of nine wetland tree species on seven soil 

types in western Florida. Seedlings were subjected to 

1 1 months of continuous shallow inundation or moist 

soil conditions on three mineral soils, two organic 
soils, a manufactured designed to mimic the practice 

of layering muck over mineral soil, and a stockpiled 

topsoil. In general, greatest net height and total 

biomass were achieved on moist organic soils, and 

least net height and total biomass were achieved on 

stockpiled top-soils and inundated soils. Findings 

suggest that transfer of organic soils will benefit 

restoration and creation efforts, and that layering 

organic soils over mineral soil is more effective than 

using mineral soils or stockpiled topsoil. 

[HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN FOREST; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; SOILS] 

1804 Wallin,P (1993): Management of rivers with 

special designations. p.349-351. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report RM226. 

The author predicts that we will see a new kind 

of designation for rivers that will address the health 

of the whole watershed, including the economic 

health of its human community. The concept will 

endorse river conservation of all rivers, no matter 

how ordinary, not just the "crown jewel" rivers. The 

new designation will bring all the players into the 

game, federal, state, and private. It will give local 

government and business and agriculture some real 

incentives for buying into watershed protection. It 

will also give a central role to citizen organizations in 

working on watershed restoration. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIVER ECOLOGY; 

WATERSHED] 

1805. Walling,DE; Kane,P (1982): Temporal 

variation of suspended sediment properties. p.409- 

419. In: Proceedings of the Exeter symposium, 

July 1982. Recent developments in the explanation 

and prediction of erosion and sediment yield; 

IAHS Publication No. 137. 

Increasing awareness of the role of suspended 

sediment in the transport of nutrients and 

contaminants, of the significance of water-sediment 

interactions as an influence on river water quality and 

of the importance of sediment in non-point pollution, 

requires an improved understanding of spatial and 

temporal variations in suspended sediment properties. 

A study of suspended sediment yields in the basin of 

the River Exe, Devon, England, undertaken by the 

authors, has attempted to provide information on the 

nature and extent of temporal variations in sediment 

geochemistry. Results from four measuring stations 

relating to major element composition, clay 

mineralogy, and organic constituents are presented. 

Detailed patterns of storm period variation in 

sediment properties are illustrated. The implication 

of these findings are reviewed. 

[NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; 

SEDIMENTATION; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1806. Walling,DE; Webb,BW (1982): Sediment 

availability and the prediction of storm-period 

sediment yields. p.327-337. In: Proceedings of the 

Exeter symposium. July 1982. Recent 

developments in the explanation and prediction of 

erosion and sediment yield; lAHS Publication 

No.137. 

The form of the suspended sediment 

concentration/discharge relationship or rating curve 

for a drainage basin reflects the overall pattern of 

erosion and sediment delivery operating in the 

upstream area. As such it may prove useful in the 

development of a realistic model of storm-period 

sediment yield. Several workers have highlighted the 

existence of 'exhaustion effects' in the form of the 

relationship and an attempt has been made to 

evaluate the evidence for temporal variations in 

sediment availability. Detailed records of suspended 

sediment concentration provided by continuous 

recording turbidity sensors installed in several basins 

in Devon, UK, have been used to study this feature of 

basin response. The implications for the 

development of sediment yield models are discussed. 

[MODELING; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1807. Wallis,C (1993): Keeping the Oldman 

River rolling along - the courts as a tool for 

riparian habitat protection. p.341-346. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH Itech.coord.1. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

In 1987, the federal and provincial governments 

of Alberta, Canada, issued licences to construct the 

Oldman River Dam. Friends of the Oldman River 

(FOR) was formed to initiate legal action alleging 

that Alberta did not follow proper procedures in 

issuing the construction licence. At the time this 

paper was given, construction had been completed 

but the reservoir had not been filled. 90 percent of 

the predicted environmental impacts from dam 

operations had not occurred. It is still possible that 

legal actions by FOR might block flooding of the 

reservoir area. 
[DAMS; LEGAL ACTIONS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1808. Walters,MA; Teskey,R; Hinkley,TM 

(1980): Pacific Northwest and Rocky Mountain 

Regions. Vol.VI1. USDI Fish and Wildlife 

ServicelOBS-78/93; N; 90; Impact of water level 

changes on woody riparian and wetland 

communities. 

A literature review that synthesizes existing 

information on the effect of water level changes on 

woody plants found in riparian and wetland 

communities. Riparian vegetation in this region is 

exposed to large fluctuations in water levels. Spring 

run-off and summer droughts result in large changes 

in the water status of the vegetation in riparian zones. 

This review discusses both the impact of flooding 

and drought on riparian vegetation. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; WATER STRESS] 

1809. Walters,MA; Teskey,R; Hinkley,TM 

(1980): Pacific Northwest and Rocky Mountain 

Regions. Vol. VII. In: Impact of water level 

changes on woody riparian and wetland 

communities. USDI Fish and Wildlife Sewice. 

OBS 78/94. 47 p. 

Riparian vegetation in the Pacific Northwest and 

Rocky Mountain regions of the western United States 

is exposed to large fluctuations in water levels. 

Spring runoff and summer droughts result in large 

changes in the water status of the vegetation that 

occupies the riparian zone. Coupled with natural 

fluctuations in water levels are man originated 

fluctuations. The purpose of this review was to 

discuss both the impact of flooding and drought on 

riparian vegetation. 

[CLASSIFICATION; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1810. Walters,MA; Teskey,RO; Hinckley,TM 

(1980): Impact of water level changes on woody 

riparian and wetland communities. Volume VIII. 

Pacific Northwest and Rocky Mountain Regions. 

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological 

Sewices Program: FWSIOBS-78/94. 46 p. 

Riparian vegetation in the Pacific Northwest and 

Rocky Mountain regions of the United States is 

exposed to large fluctuations in water levels. Spring 

runoff and summer droughts result in large changes 

in the water status of the vegetation that occupies 

riparians zones. Natural fluctuations in the water 

level are compounded by man's activities. Flooding 

and drought have profound influences on these sites. 

Volume VIII covers the mountainous areas of the 

Pacific Northwest from northern California through 

Washington and Oregon and along the Rocky 

Mountains from Montana and Idaho south through 

New Mexico and Arizona. 

[BIBLIOGRAPHY; GROUNDWATER; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

181 1. Ward,N (1993): The problem of sediment 

in water for fish. Ontario Ministry of Natural 

Resources. Northern Ontario Boreal Forest 

Management Technical Note-21.8 p. 

Erosion and the resultant input of soil particles to 

lakes and streams is of particular concern to fish 

managers. Spring floods and "flushing flows" are 

necessary to remove sediment from between the 

rocks, not just from spawning bed surfaces. Problems 

of having sediment deposited in water can be 

minimized if contractors use prescribed construction 

practices. For water crossing sites that may affect 

critical fish habitat, it is advisable to develop 

sediment control plans. 

[EROSION; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

1812. Warner,RE (1979): Fish and wildlife 

resource needs in riparian ecosystems. USDI Fish 

and Wildlife Sewice, National Water Resources 

Analysis Group. Eastern Energy and Land Use 

Team. 

On May 30-3 1, 1979, a workshop including 17 

member participants, met for two days of discussion 

and analysis. Among its findings was the conclusion 

that a national program needed to be: a) system 

oriented; b) based on long-term perspective; c) based 

on a public trust doctrine; d) an integration of the 

activities of federal agencies; e) involved with the 

public but unresponsive to special interests; f) 

avoiding irreversible intrusions into ecosystems; g) 

laden with integrative and education programs; and 

h) consisting of research, management, planning, and 

educational programs. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1813. Warner,RE; Hendrix,KM leds.]. (1984): 

In: Proceedings of California riparian systems: 

Ecology, conservation, and productive 

management. University of California. Berkeley, 

CA. 

[AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS; MANAGEMENT 

PLANS; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1814. Warner,WS (1990): A PC-based analytical 
stereo-plotter for wetland inventories: An efficient 

and economical photogrammetric instrument for 

field offices. Forest Ecology and Management 

33134,571-581. 

Highly flexible photogrammetric systems, 

controlled entirely by PC technology, can collect 

primary data from aerial photographs and process 

these data in a variety of cartographic systems and 

statistical programs. This paper describes an 

instrument in use by the USDA Forest Service and 

other organizations that has relatively low cost and 

high accuracy that make it suitable for field office 

use. 

[INVENTORY; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

181 5. Warren,PL; Anderson,LS (1985): Gradient 

analysis of a Sonoran Desert wash. p.150-155. In: 

Proceedings of the first North American riparian 

conference. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

Vegetation was sampled along two parallel 

environmental gradients in the Sonoran Desert - one 

each in an upland bajada site and in a xeroriparian 

wash site. The wash gradient was more complex than 

the upland site, with three areas of plant species 

turnover compared to zero turnover along the upland 

gradient. This was likely due to the interactions of 

three major limiting environmental factors related to 

watershed area acting in different portions of the 

wash gradient. The upland gradient is controlled by 

only one overriding environmental factor. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION; WATERSHED] 

1816. Warren,PL; Schwalbe,CR (1985): 

Herpetofauna in riparian habitats along the 

Colorado River in Grand Canyon. p.347-354. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

Population densities and species composition of 

lizards were sampled in riparian and non-riparian 

habitats along the Colorado River. The highest 

densities were found in shoreline habitats, moderate 

densities in riparian habitats, and lowest densities in 

non-riparian densities. Rapidly fluctuating river flow 

levels may have a deleterious effect on lizard 

populations by trapping populations on alluvial bars 

and inundating nest sites. 

[HERPETOFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1817. Wauer,R (1977): Significance of Rio 

Grande riparian systems upon the avifauna. 

p.165-174. In: Johnson,RR; Jones,DA [tech. 

coord.1. Importance, preservation, and 

management of riparian habitats: A symposium. 9 

July 1977. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-43. 

The Rio Grande corridor in west Texas serves as 

a significant migratory and emigration route for 

avifauna and 38 species are known to nest within the 

riparian habitat. Nine species are discussed as 

indicators of change within the system and the 

importance of the Rio Grande area as a refugium is 

described. 

[AVIFAUNA; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1818. Wear,DN; Turner,MG; Naiman,RJ (1998): 

Land cover along an urban-rural gradient: 

Implications for water quality. Ecological 

Applications 8(3), 619-630. 

The pressures of development in rural 

mountainous areas hold crucial implications for water 

quality. Simulation modeling was used to examine 

how position along urban-rural gradients affects 

landscape patterns in watersheds. Results indicate 

that position along the gradient has a significant 

effect on land-cover changes on private but not 

public lands. Two locations along the urban-rural 

gradient may hold disproportionate influence over 

water quality in the future: 1) the most remote 

portion of the landscape; and 2) at the outer envelope 

of urban expansion. 

[LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY; MODELING; WATER 

QUALITY] 

1819. Weber,Cl,et a1 (1990): Short-term methods 

for estimating the chronic toxicity of effluents and 

receiving waters to freshwater organisms. US 

Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental 

Monitoring Systems Laboratory. Second edition 

methods manual. No PB 89-207 013lAS. 

Cincinnati, OH. 

The manual describes methods for estimating the 

chronic toxicity levels for certain indicator species, 

including the fathead minnow (Pimephales 

promelas), a cladoceran (Ceriodaphnia dubia), and a 

green algae (Selenastrum capricornutum). 

[EFFLUENTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

TOXICOLOGY; WATER QUALITY] 

1820. Weber,DJ; Fernandes,GW (1992): Insect 

galls and chemical composition of white rubber 

rabbitbrush on riparian and dry sites. p. 203-207. 

In: Clary,WP; McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; 
Wambolt,CL Icomp.]. Proceedings - Symposium 

on ecology and management of riparian shrub 

communities. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report INT-289. 

The total hydrocarbon fraction was higher in 

leaves from dry hillside sites, but the number of 

individual components was greater in the 

hydrocarbon fraction from leaves from riparian sites. 

That increased number was attributed to the more 

diverse metabolic activity of riparian sites. A 

pregnane type of compound was present in higher 

concentrations in the leaf tissue of plants on the dry 

sites. 

[INVERTEBRATES; PLANT TISSUE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1821. Wegner,DL (1985): Dividing the water: 

Precepts of the Colorado River Law. p.453-455. 

In: Johnson,RR; Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; 

Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

The extent of riparian vegetation development 

along the rivers and streams that comprise the 

Colorado River System is a function of a myriad of 

legal and operational factors. Utilization of the 

Colorado River water can be identified with several 

key issues, federal acts, and treaties. The paper 

outlines the major arguments and perceptions that 

define present day levels of water use and the extent 

of riparian vegetation. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATER ALLOCATION; 

WATER RIGHTS] 

1822. Weiland,MA; Hayward,RS (1997): Cause 

for the decline of large rainbow trout in a 

tailwater fishery: Too much putting or too much 

taking? Transactions of the American Fisheries 

Society 126,758-773. 

In this case study, rainbow trout densities have 

been sustained against increased fishing pressure 

over the last thirty years mainly by increasing the 

stocking rates of catchable size fish. Short residence 

times of rainbow trout resulting from heavy fishing 

pressure and high vulnerability to angling were 

generally considered to be the main reason for 

limited growth after stocking. The authors found that 

increasing stocking rates have been paralleled by 

food base degradation, leading to sub-maintenance 

consumption rates and poor growth conditions. 

Greater attention to energetic conditions is 

recommended. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; TROUT] 

1823. Weiner,AH (1998): Kenai River 

restoration and management. Fisheries 23(1), 6- 

10. 

A comprehensive program of restoration, land 

acquisition, recreation enhancement, and land 

management is underway on the Kenai River in 

Alaska. This program is attempting to restore 

degraded fish habitat in the riparian zone of the mainstem, to acquire land to protect fish habitat, to 

provide recreational access for anglers, and to 

manage land in the watershed to prevent 

development-related harm. Funding for this program, 

currently in excess of $21 million, is provided by the 

state of Alaska, the Exxon Valdez oil spill civil 

settlement and criminal restitution funds, National 

Marine Fisheries Service, Federal Aid for Sport Fish 

Restoration Fund, Dingell-Johnson Sport Fish Fund, 

Land and Water Conservation Fund, and the Federal 

Highway Administration. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1824. Welch,R; Jorday,TR (1983): Analytic nonmetric close-range photogrammetry for 

monitoring stream channel erosion. 

Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote 

Sensing 49(3), 367-374. 

Vertical stereo-pairs are recorded before and 

after storms with a non-metric 35-mm camera from a 

platform (H = 9.5 m) constructed over a gauged 

stream channel. Image measurements are easily 

undertaken on positive film enlargements with a 

cartographic digitizer, and provide the input x, y 

image coordinates required for an analytical solution. 

Studies to-date have produced mean errors of 

approximately +I- 3 mm in the X and Y terrain 

coordinates and +/- 6.5 mm in Z (111 500 H). These 

accuracies approximate those obtained from 

measurements on the original negatives undertaken 

with a stereo-comparator. The procedures described 

provide accurate results at minimum cost, and can be 

used to monitor stream channel erosion. Computer 

graphics routines provide and efficient means of 

constructing DTMs, contour maps, and threedimensional displays of changes in elevation due to 

storm runoff. Non-metric close-range 

photogrammetry appears to provide an inexpensive, 

efficient, and accurate means for monitoring gully 

and stream channel erosion. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; GULLY CONTROL; 

PHOTO PLOTS; STREAMBANK PROTECTION; 

TECHNIQUES] 
1825. Weller,MW (1990): Waterfowl 

management techniques for wetland 

enhancement, restoration and creation useful in 

mitigation procedures. p.517-528. In: Wetland 

creation and restoration: The status of the science. 

[Eds: Kusler,JA; Kentula,MAl Island Press, 

Washington, DC. 

Wildlife managers have long been involved in 

wetland restoration and enhancement and have 

developed functional techniques for management. 

Most of these procedures use natural processes to tap 

natural seed banks, modify coverlwater ratios, or 

control weeds via water level control and herbivores. 

This chapter presents strategies for restoring, 

creating, or enhancing wetlands to meet mitigation 

requirements. These procedures may also be used to 

enhance wetland functions such as water quality, 

shoreline protection, and esthetic values. 

[RIPARIAN RESTORATION; WATERFOWL 

MANAGEMENT; WETLANDS] 

1826. Weller,MW (1998): Issues and approaches 

in assessing cumulative impacts on waterbird 

habitat in wetlands. Environmental Management 

12(5), 695-701. 

Vertebrates are commonly used as indicator 

species after wetlands are subjected to environmental 

impacts because they are conspicuous. Such impacts 

may take place at the landscape level where extensive 

areas are lost; at the wetland level where some units 

of closely spaced wetlands are modified, or at the 

level of individual wetland through modification or 

fragmentation. Vertebrates utilize habitats differently 

according to age, size, sex, geographic location, and 

season. Habitat evaluations based on a single 

observation can be biased. Current wetland 

evaluation systems incorporate wildlife habitat as a 

major feature. Several approaches for estimating bird 

habitat losses are derived from population curves 

based on natural and experimentally induced 

population fluctuations. Additional research needs 

are identified. 

[ASSESSMENTS; AVIFAUNA; CUMULATIVE 

IMPACTS; WETLANDS] 

1827. Weller,MW; Griftith,JS,Jr; Noble,RL; 

Stickney,RL (1986): Aquatic and wetland 

ecosystems: multifaceted challenges. In: 

Proceedings of the 51st North American wildlife 

and natural resources conference.21-26 March 

1986. Reno, NV. The Wildlife Management 

Institute. 

The best mechanism for addressing the difficult 

problems facing aquatic resources may best be met 

with university programs that are designed for longterm research. Turnover of principal investigators is 

slower in universities. Moreover, students in many 

institutions can produce publishable papers. Research 

in universities is cost effective and can provide more 

results per dollar. Graduate students can be put into 

the field at minimal cost and university faculty can be 

expected to maintain objectivity. 

[RESEARCH; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1828. Welling,CH; Pederson,RL; van der 

Valk,AG (1988): Temporal patterns in 

recruitment from the seed bank during drawdowns in a prairie wetland. Journal of Applied 

Ecology 25,999-1 007. 

This study described seasonal patterns of 

seedling recruitment and assesses the potential 

impact on recruitment of environmental conditions 

during draw-downs. Further, vegetation produced by 

draw-downs which perseveres for one or two years or 

longer is compared. 

[EMERGENT VEGETATION; WETLANDS SEED 

BANK] 

1829. Wells,MD (1991): Wetlands in watersheds. 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 46(6), 

415-416. 

Creating numerous small watershed dams, both 

on crop land and woodland areas, has enhanced 

wildlife values in Missouri. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WATERSHED; 

WETLANDS] 

1830. Wells,RW; Trofymow, JA (1 998): Coarse 

woody debris in the coastal forests of southern 

Vancouver Island. Northwest Science 72(2), 23-24. 

In this study, trends of coarse woody debris 

abundance across chronosequence plots established 

on both the drier east side and the wetter west side 

were examined. Total biomass of CWD on the east 

side was substantially lower than on the west side. 

[ASPECT; LARGE WOODY DEBRIS] 

1831. Welsh,Jr.,HH; Ollivier,L (1 998): Stream 

amphibians as indicators of ecosystem stress: A 

case study from California's Redwoods. Ecological 

Applications 8(4), 11 18-1 132. 

After road construction released fine sediments 

into pristine streams during a storm event in northern 

California, the authors initiated a study of stream 

amphibians as indicators of stream ecosystem stress. 

Densities of amphibians (tailed frogs, Pacific giant 

salamanders, and southern torrent salamanders) were 
significantly lower in streams impacted by sediment. 

Sediment effects were species-specific and reflected 

differential use of stream microhabitats. However, 

the shared vulnerability of these species to infusions 

of fine sediments is probably the result of common 

reliance on interstitial spaces in the streambed. Since 

many stream-dwelling amphibians are long lived and 

exist in relatively stable populations, these attributes 

make them more tractable and reliable indicators of 

potential biotic activity in stream ecosystems than 

anadromous fish or macroinvertebrates. 

[AMPHIBIANS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; STRESS; 

WATER QUALITY] 

1832. Weltz,M; Wood,MK (1986): Short 

duration grazing in New Mexico: effects on 

sediment production. Journal of Soil and Water 

Consewation 41(4), 262-266. 

A study was conducted to determine the influences of 

short duration grazing, continuous grazing, and 

grazing exclusion from cattle on soil erosion as 

expressed by sediment concentration and total 

suspended sediment in two range sites in New 

Mexico. Total sediment concentration was greater on 

all grazed treatments than on the exclosure; there 

were no differences among grazed treatments. 

Doubling the stocking rate and applying a shortduration system resulted in significantly greater 

sediment concentration. Total sediment production in 

the grazed, short duration pasture was triple that in 

the moderate, continuous pasture. These increases 

were attributed to reduced biomass and increased 

bare ground. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

SEDIMENTATION; SOILS] 

1833. Wentworth,TR; Johnson,GP; 

Kologiski,RL (1988): Designation of wetlands by 

weighted averages of vegetation data: A 

preliminary evaluation. Water Resources Bulletin 

24(2), 389-396. 

Weighted averages (WA) of vegetation data 

proved to be a useful tool for assessing wetland status 

of the vegetation types included in this study: 1) 

rankings of vegetation stands by WA correlated well 

with their positions on environmental moisture 

gradients, and 2) the results of WA could be used - 

together with a wetland1 upland break-point - to 

designate areas as wetland or upland but these should 

be verified with supplemental data on soils and 

hydrology. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

WETLANDS] 

1834. Wesche,TA; Goertler,CM; Frye,CB 

(1985): Importance and evaluation of instream 

and riparian cover in smaller trout streams. 

p.325-328. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebel1,CD; 

Patton,DR, Ffolliott,RH; Hamre,RH (tech. 

coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tuscon, AZ. USDA Forest Sewice. 

General Technical Report RM-120. 

Cover is an important trout habitat component 

resulting from the geomorphological characteristics 

of a stream channel, the streambank interface with 

the riparian community, and the stream flow. The 

significance of the riparian contribution to the overall 

stream cover as related to brown trout population size 

is described. 

[COVER; FISHERIES; RlPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; TROUT] 

1835. Wesche,TA; Goertler,CM; Frye,CB 

(1987): Contribution of riparian vegetation to 

trout cover in small streams. North American 

Journal of Fisheries Management 7,151-153. 

Cover is an important trout habitat component 

resulting from the geomorphologic characteristics of 

a stream channel, the streambank interface with the 

riparian community, and the stream flow. By means 

of regression analysis, this study quantitatively 

describes the relative importance of three cover 

parameters (overhead bank cover, rubble-boulderaquatic vegetation areas, and deepwater areas) and 

two cover models as indicators of trout standing 

stock in eight small streams in southeast Wyoming. 

Results indicated that overhead bank cover, provided 

primarily by riparian vegetation, is the cover 

parameter that explains the greatest amount of 

variation in trout population size. 

[COVER, FISHERIES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; TROUT] 

1836. Wesche,TA; Reiser,DW; Hasfurther,VR 

(1986): Development and testing of a new 

technique for measuring fine sediment in streams. 

p.49-53. In: The 1986 National symposium on 

mining, hydrology, sedimentology, and 

reclamation; University of Kentucky; Lexington, 

KY. 

The collection and analysis of bed material 

samples has been a standard practice for determining 

the quantity of fine sediments (less than 3.35 mm 

diameter) in stream gravels. However, the sampling 

techniques currently in use can be labor and 

equipment intensive. Also, inaccuracy in 

quantification of the finer fractions can occur 
dependent upon bed material composition. This paper 

reports on a study which has evaluated the utility of a 

sediment trapping device for measuring fine 

sediment in the inter-gravel environment. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; 

TECHNIQUES] 

1837. Wesche,TA; Reiser,DW; Hasfurther,VR; 

Hubert,WA; Skinner,QD (1989): New technique 

for measuring fine sediment in streams. North 

American Journal of Fisheries Management 9, 

234-238. 

Collection and analysis of bed material samples 

has been a standard practice for determining the 

quantity of fine sediments in stream gravels. This 

technique, however, can be labor and equipment 

intensive and inaccuracies in quantification of finer 

materials can occur. This study evaluated the utility 

of a sediment trapping device for measuring fine 

sediment in an inter-gravel environment. 

[HYDROLOGY; POLLUTION; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

1838. West,RA; Paustian,SJ; Martin,JR (1989): 

A proposed stream-side riparian mapping system 

for the Tongass National Forest. p.73-85. In: 

Proceedings of watershed '89: A conference on the 

stewardship of soil, air and water resources. 21-23 

March 1989. Juneau, Alaska. USDA Forest 

Service. 

A mapping system is proposed that employs a 

hierarchical inventory utilizing GIs technology. 

Level I identifies watershed boundaries and areas and 

is used to estimate the annual precipitation and to 

compute water budgets. Level I1 delineates 

boundaries between the aquatic-riparian ecosystems 

and the surrounding terrestrial environment by 

overlaying the soillplant association layer and the 

watershed layer. Level 111 comprises mapping of the 

aquatic and riparian ecosystems. Level IV maps 

specific riparian sites as defined by particular plant 

associations with specific soils and channel types. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; GIs; INVENTORY; PLANT 

COMMUNITIES; SOILS; SPATIAL SCALE] 

1839. Wheeler,D (1993): The Boulder open space 

program. p.162-163. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

In recent years, desire for outdoor recreation has 

focused human intrusion further into riparian 

corridors. Intensified human use, however, has 

consumed all the remaining wildlife values of stream 

corridors. The Boulder Creek Trail now 

accommodates more than 4000 human trips per day. 

The success of this program has created a public 

demand for even more trails. Further development 

will only diminish the available space for wildlife. 

Long-term cumulative impacts of various uses and 

preservation options need to be carefully considered 

before the community can make informed decisions. 

[OPEN SPACE; RECREATION IMPACTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1840. Whigham,D; Dykyjova,D; Hejny,S (Eds.) 

(1994): Wetlands of the world: Inventory, ecology, 

and management. Vol.1. Africa, Australia, 

Canada and Greenland, Mediterranean, Mexico, 

Papua, New Guinea, South Asia, Tropical South 

America, United States. 1st ed. Kluwer Academic 

Publ., Dordrecht, The Netherlands. 788 p. 

In the public mind, wetlands have been 

transformed in recent years from mosquito-infested 

swamps suited for ditching, diking, and reclamation 

into valuable ecosystems with high intrinsic and 

aesthetic value that provide beneficial services to 

humans and wildlife. Each chapter in this book 

corresponds to a common format. Each geographical 

region and climate is described followed by 

descriptions of geology, geomorphology, and 

hydrology; distribution of wetlands within the region; 

flora, fauna, and ecological attributes; human 

impacts; and conservation/management 

recommendations. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; HYDROLOGY; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1841. Whitfield,PH (1998): Reporting scale and 

the information content of stream flow data. 

Northwest Science 72(1), 42-51. 

Hydrological metering programs are collected 

continuously around the world. However, measured 

signals are usually reported on time scales longer 

than the original observations (e.g. daily, weekly, 

monthly, etc.). In this study, records of data from 

several years from a number of watersheds in British 

Columbia were analyzed. Results bring into question 

whether or not reporting of mean daily discharge is 

appropriate for streams of different size scales or 

from different hydrological regions. Daily mean 

discharge is an appropriate reporting scale for 

watersheds of large area and low precipitation. In 

smaller watersheds or those receiving heavy rains, a 

finer time interval is a more relevant scale. 

[HYDROLOGY; SPATIAL SCALE; STREAM 
FLOW; WATERSHED] 

1842. Whitney,JC (1996): The Middle Rio 

Grande: Its ecology and management. p.4-21. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM Itech. coord.]. Desired 

future conditions for Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. Genera1 Technical 

Report RM-227. 

The Middle Rio Grande riparian forest, or 

"bosque", represents the largest cottonwood gallery 

riparian forest in the southwestern United States. 

This reach of the Rio Grande extends from Cochiti 

Dam downstream 260 km to San Marcial, New 

Mexico. It constitutes 8 percent of the river's total 

length and 34 percent of it's length in New Mexico. 

The valley traverses three major biotic communities 

and it's reach can be subdivided into 4 reaches which 

coincide roughly with the four geologic basins along 

this portion of the Rio Grande Rift. This system has 

been affected by man's activities throughout 

prehistoric and modem eras. The Rio Grande is 

regulated for water supply and flood control. The 

effects of this interaction have contributed to the 

character of the riparian ecosystem in its current 

expression. This paper discusses the climate, 

geology, hydrology, river morphology, and 

anthropogenic factors that have contributed to past 

and current expressions of the Middle Rio Grande 

riparian habitat. 

[BOSQUE; GALLERY FOREST; GEOLOGY; 

GEOMORPHOLOGY; HUMAN IMPACTS; 

HYDROLOGY; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1843. Whittaker,JG; Davies,TRH (1982): 

Erosion and sediment transport processes in steppool torrents. p.99-104. In: Proceedings of the 

Exeter symposium, July 1982; Recent 

developments in the explanation and prediction of 

erosion and sediment yield; IAHS Publication No. 

137. 

In upland regions, streams often exhibit a steppool rnorphology where water cascades between 

relatively deep pools. The capacity of such streams 

to entrain adjacent slope material depends not only 

on water flow rate and channel slope, but also on the 

degree of in-filling of the pools by sediment. This 

situation has been idealized, using a laboratory 

channel containing regularly spaced baffles. The 

results appear consistent with findings of studies of 

real torrents. The laboratory investigation has 

revealed that the erosive capacity of step-pool 

streams reaches a maximum (for a given flow rate) 

when the pools are almost full of sediment; that is, 

when sediment transport rates are high. This 

behavior is conducive to erosion of adjacent slopes 

and contrasts with that of alluvial streams. Despite 

steady inputs, water and sediment outputs from the 

laboratory channel were often independently 

unsteady. Step-pool streams thus seem to display 

intrinsic unsteadiness, particularly of sediment 

movement. These findings seem to relate also to 

low-slope alluvial channel processes. Conventional 

linear analysis may be inappropriate for these 

situations. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT; SOILS] 

1844. Whitten,D (1991): What riparian means to 

me. p.3. In: Proceedings of the third annual 

convention."What does riparian mean to me?" 

Colorado Riparian Association. 6-8 November 

1991. Pueblo, CO. 

Animal impact or herd effect can be an effective 

tool to bring about desired future condition and 

improve our watersheds. Despite its complexities, 

this process can benefit all the resources of a grazing 

allotment. 

[DESIRED FUTURE CONDITIONS; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; LIVESTOCK EFFECTS] 

1845. Wichert,GA; Rapport,DJ (1998): Fish 

community structure as a measure of degradation 

and rehabilitation of riparian systems in an 

agricultural drainage basin. Environmental 

Management 22(3), 425-443. 

In this study, the authors examined fish 

communities in terms of an array of indicators of 

structure and related these to changes in riparian 

vegetation and agricultural practice within a drainage 

basin. The evidence suggests that management 

practices designed to foster healthier environments 

by reestablishing riparian vegetation were associated 

with positive impacts on the integrity of the fish 

community. Concurrently, intensification of 

agricultural practices in parts of the drainage basin 

had a degrading influence. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; FISHERIES; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SPATIAL SCALE] 

1846. Wight,JR; Pierson,FB; Flerchinger,GN 

(1992): Influence of sagebrush on the soil 

microclimate. p.181-185. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,WL 

[comp.]. Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 
INT-289. 

Since effective management of sagebrush-grass 

ranges requires establishment of desirable perennials, 

this study examined the influence of sagebrush on the 

near-surface soil microclimate. Maximum soil 

temperatures at a 1 cm depth differed by as much as 

30 degrees C between interspace and shrub-covered 

areas. Shrub cover prolonged the periods of soilwater conditions favorable for seedling 

establishment. Solar radiation was reduced 50 

percent or more by sagebrush canopy. Reduced 

radiation and litter accumulation under sagebrush 

canopies significantly moderated the extremes in the 

soil microclimate. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; SAGEBRUSH; SOILWATER CONDITIONS; SOILS] 

1847. Wigley,TB (1995): Wildlife in streamside 

management zones: What do we really know? 

p.85-90. In: At the water's edge: The science of 

riparian forestry conference. 19-20 June 1995. 

Duluth, MN. 

Streamside management zones (SMZs) are strips 

of forest vegetation maintained along waterways and 

often contain riparian and upland habitat. 

Increasingly, SMZ characteristics are being 

recommended on the basis of their perceived 

relationship to biodiversity. An overview is presented 

of results of existing studies that address relationships 

between characteristics of SMZs and wildlife 

communities. Bird species richness often increases 

with SMZ width, but most of the increase is in 

narrower width classes. Bird species sometimes 

characterized as forest-interior species can be 

supported in SMZs, but reproductive success is not 

understood. Microhabitat features in SMZs appear to 

be especially important to small mammal 

communities. Because of the limited number of 

studies, herpetofauna in SMZs is poorly understood. 

Many factors, other than the width, affect the value 

of SMZs as wildlife habitat. For a number of reasons, 

the database describing wildlife policies in SMZs is 

limited and not adequate for devising policy. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; EVALUATION; POLICY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; SMZ] 

1848. Wild Horse Associates (1992): 

Classification and inventory of riverinelriparian 

habitat: Five Mile Creek Basin, Umatilla National 

Forest, Oregon. Prepared for North Fork John 

Day Ranger District, Umatilla National Forest, 

USDA Forest Sewice. 169 p. 

Classification and inventory of riverinelriparian 

habitat was conducted in the watershed of Five Mile 

Creek, an Order 4 tributary of Camas Creek which 

flows to the North Fork John Day River in Oregon. 

The focus of the classification was to identify 

riparian types. These vegetation types were nested in 

a hierarchical classification so that it could be used to 

compare this with other watersheds with similar 

ecological potential. Also assessed was the condition 

of these sites, which ranged from near natural to 

severely impacted. 

[CLASSIFICATION; GIs; INVENTORY; 

RIPAMAN HABITAT; TECHNIQUES] 

1849. Wilen,BO; Frayer,WE (1990): Status and 

trends of U.S. wetlands and deepwater habitats. 

Forest Ecology and Management 33134,181-192. 

Historically, annual wetland losses have 

averaged 458,000 acres: 440,000 acres of palustrine 

losses of which 300,000 acres are forested, and 

18,000 acres of estuarine wetland losses of which 

less than 100 acres are shrubs, scrub trees, or 

forested. Of these losses, 66 percent are forested 

wetlands. Agricultural development was responsible 

for 87 percent of wetland losses and 90 percent of the 

losses of forested wetlands. Urban development and 

other development caused only 8 percent and 5 

percent of the losses, respectively. Forested-wetland 

losses caused by urban development and other 

development were 6 percent and 4 percent, 

respectively. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1850. Willard,DE; Willis,JA; Hillegeist,CL 

(1988): Regional-scale impacts from using 

agricultural wastewater for wildlife refuges. p.47- 

54. In: Stuber,PJ [tech. coord.]. Proceedings of the 

national symposium on protection of wetlands 

from agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. 

Collins, CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Biological Report 88(16). 

Many western wetlands serve as agricultural 

wastewater sumps. These will inevitably build up 

contaminants. Mitigation sites should receive water 

upstream of agriculture. These upstream rehges will 

have greater ecological utility if they are available for 

populations to "spread the risk" before the existing 

sump rehge becomes hazardous. Time is short! 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1851. Williams,JR; Nicks,AD; Arnold,JG (1985): 

Simulator for water resources in rural basins. 

Hydraulic Engineer 11 1(6), 970-986. 

A model called SWRRB (Simulator for Water 

Resources in Rural Basins) was developed for 

simulating hydrological and related processes in rural 
basins. The objective in model development was to 

predict the effect of management decisions on water 

and sediment yields with reasonable accuracy for 

ungaged rural basins throughout the United States. 

The three major components of SWRRB are weather, 

hydrology, and sedimentation. Processes considered 

include surface runoff, percolation, return flow, 

evapotranspiration, pond and reservoir storage, and 

sedimentation. Besides water, SWRRB also 

simulates sediment yield using the Modified 

Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) and a 

sediment routing model. Tests with data from a 538 

km(2) basin in Oklahoma and a 17.7 km(2) basin in 

Texas indicate that SWRRB is capable of simulating 

water and sediment yield realistically. 

[HYDROLOGY; MODELING; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT] 

1852. Williams,KS (1993): Use of terrestrial 

arthropods to evaluate restored riparian 

woodlands. Restoration Ecology 1(2), 107-116. 

This study was implemented with the goal of 

using terrestrial arthropods to evaluate the progress 

of a riparian restoration effort along the San Luis Rey 

River in California. The evaluation was 

accomplished by comparing characteristics of the 

arthropod community at the reconstructed system to 

those of a naturally occurring riparian woodland used 

as a reference site. Relative abundances of indicator 

assemblages were compared between sites to 

evaluate the establishment and maintenance of 

processes critical for the natural function of the 

reconstructed riparian ecosystem. Abundance of 

certain groups, such as detritivores suggested that 

arthropods had propagated rapidly at the restoration 

site, a possible indication of resiliency. Relatively 

low numbers of other arthropods, such as predators 

and parasites, at the reconstructed site indicated the 

need for continued monitoring. Decline of pollinators 

and herbivores by the last year of study at the 

reconstructed site suggested they may have 

immigrated or been introduced with transplanted 

vegetation but had difficulty colonizing the site. 

[ARTHROPODS; MONITORING; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1853. Williams,SE; Stahl,PD (1987): Importance 

of mycorrhizal fungi in land revegetation. p.72-89. 

In: Proceedings 39th annual meeting, Great Plains 

agricultural forestry committee. 22-25 June 1987. 

Certain fungi, together with plant roots, form 

structures termed mycorrhizae that are advantageous 

to both plant and fungi. Sometimes this mutualism is 

essential to the growth and survival of the host plant. 

Numerous shrubs in the western US. are highly 

dependent on mycorrhizae for enhanced survival. 

[MYCORRHIZAE; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

SOILS] 

1854. Wills,L (1993): A grass roots perspective - 

Feather River coordinated resource management. 

p.316-322. In: Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; 

Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. 

coord.]. Riparian management: Common threads 

and shared interests. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-226. 

Current public focus has been on the cumulative 

overuse of resource supplies perpetuated in and by 

the resource dependent communities. Until the 

consumer takes some responsibility for one hundred 

years of cumulative resource problems, the political 

"quick fix" solution will continue to be reduced 

multiple use in areas valued by consumers as 

playgrounds and intensified uses of less visible 

watersheds to provide products for runaway 

consumer demand. 

[CRMP; PLANNING; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1855. Wilms,J; Rood,SB; Wilms,W; Tyree,M 

(1998): Branch growth of riparian cottonwoods: A 

highly sensitive dendrochronological tool. Trees 

12,215-223. 

Conservation of riparian forests relies on the 

provision of in-stream flows that are sufficient to 

sustain tree growth. In this study, annual branch 

growth increments were investigated as an indicator 

of environmental favorability for riparian 

cottonwoods. Branch growth increments provided an 

accurate but short duration (I or 2 decades) record of 

environmentally favorable conditions for growth. 

Close correlation between branch growth and stream 

flow indicated that water was the principal limitation 

to growth of riparian cottonwoods and that these 

trees obtained their water from a source linked to a 

stream, the water table. Branch increment analysis 

can provide a management for: 1) determining instream flow needs for riparian cottonwoods; and 2) 

analyzing impacts of stream flow alterations. 

[COTTONWOOD; DENDROCHRONOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN FOREST; STREAM FLOW] 

1856. Wilson,BN; Barfield,BJ (1986): A 

detachment model for non-cohesive sediment. 

Transactions of the American Society of 

Agricultural Engineers 29(2), 445-449. 

A detachment algorithm was developed using 

Einstein's bed load transport concepts. It was based 

on the probability of turbulent detachment forces 
exceeding the submerged weight of particles. During 

the process, a theoretical inconsistency in Einstein's 

bed load formulation was corrected. The use of the 

algorithm was demonstrated in predicting the bed 

scour rate in detention ponds. Results showed that the 

model predicted values with proper trends. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; MODELING; SEDIMENT 

TRANSPORT] 

1857. Wilson,L (1962): Observations on the dambuilding behavior of the beaver (CastorJiber L.) in 

a stream tank Technical Report EOOAR 

Contract No>AF 61(052)-195.29 p. 

This report summarizes the dam-building 

activities of young beavers in a 10 by 2 m stream 

tank in response to various stimuli. These included 

stream velocity, water level, rushing water, and 

building material. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1858. Wilson,L (1987): Riparian boundary 

determination guidelines. In: Streamside 

management: Riparian wildlife and forestry 

interactions. An interdisciplinary symposium. 11- 

13 February 1987. University of Washington. 

Seattle, WA. 

In order to make management decisions 

regarding riparian resources, boundaries frequently 

must be delineated and choices must be made. 

Making these decisions may require information on 

plant ecology, wildlife ecology, aquatic ecology, 

topography, and hydrology. A series of questions in 

each of these areas was compiled to aid decisionmakers in assembling the information necessary to 

make riparian boundary determinations which protect 

the critical functions of the riparian zone. 

[INVENTORY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1859. Wilzbach,MA; Cummins,KW; Hal1,JD 

(1986): Influence of habitat manipulations on 

interactions between cutthroat trout and 

invertebrate drift. Ecology 67(4), 898-911. 

This study examined the interactions of the 

riparian setting (logged vs. forested) and prey 

availability on the prey capture efficiency and growth 

of the cutthroat trout, and to determine if the riparian 

setting influences the impact of trout predation on 

drift composition. Short-term relative growth rates of 

cutthroat trout, experimentally confined in stream 

pools, were greater in a logged than in a forested 

section of stream. Differences in growth rates were 

attributed to differences among pools in invertebrate 

drift density, and to differences in trout foraging 

efficiency that were related to differences between 

the sections in the amount of overhead shading and 

substrate crevices. Mean percentages of introduced 

prey captured by trout were greater in logged control 

pools and pools of both sections whose bottoms were 

covered with fiberglass screening to eliminate 

substrate crevices than in forested control pools and 

logged pools that were artificially shaded. A 

logarithmic relationship was found between trout 

foraging efficiency and surface light of pools. Drift 

density significantly increased relative to controls in 

pools from which trout were removed in the logged 

reach, but not in the forested section. 

[FISHERIES; LOGGING IMPACTS; 

MACROINVERTEBRATES; PREDATION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; TROUT] 

1860. Windel1,JT; Willard,BE; Cooper,DJ; 

Foster,SQ; Knud-Hansen,CF; Rink,LP; 

Kiladis,GN (1986): An ecological characterization 

of Rocky Mountain Montane and subalpine 

wetlands. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Biological Report 86(11). National Ecology 

Center. Washington, DC. 295 p. 

This report is intended to provide information 

for the assessment, planning, and permitting activities 

of federal and state agencies. It is also an educational 

source document for those interested in the 

ecological fbnctioning and value of high-elevation 

wetlands. It draws on all types and sources of 

scientific information and provides both an analysis 

and a synthesis. Attempts were also made to 

recognize and identify gaps in the scientific literature. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1861. Winegar,HH (1977): Camp Creek channel 

fencing -- plant, wildlife, soil, and water response. 

Rangeman's Journal 4(1), 10-12. 

This paper argues that, along with flow recovery 

projections, that natural recovery of western riparian 

systems will improve water quality, enhance all 

components of productive fisheries habitat and 

riparian dependent wildlife habitat and will provide a 

significant yet undetermined recovery of riparian 

systems and maintenance of late season flow. Natural 

recovery should be a prerequisite to other treatments. 

[EXCLOSURES; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1862. Winger,PW; Schultz,DP; Johnson,WW 

(1988): Contaminant residues in fish from 

national wildlife refuges in the Southeast. p.38-46. 

In: Proceedings of the national symposium on 

protection of wetlands from agricultural impacts. 

25-29 April 1988. Ft. Collins, CO. USDI Fish and 
Wildlife Service. Biological Report 88(16). 

In fish from five of twenty refuges sampled, 

mean residue concentrations of organochlorine 

chemicals in fish tissue were at levels high enough to 

pose a threat to fish-eating wildlife. Concentrations 

of elemental contaminants in fish were considered 

higher than background levels in only six of twenty 

refuges surveyed. Potential environmental impacts of 

the chemicals of the elements at these levels are not 

known. Most refuges in the Southeast reflect 

contamination from agricultural chemicals, but only 

5 of 20 examined were seriously contaminated. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; POLLUTION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1863. Winsor,C (1977): Methods of improving 

small trout streams. Fly Fisherman. Late Season, 

1977,38-41. 

This is a topical article that analyzes which 

methods fit which type of creek and suggests some 

rules to guide fishing groupslclubs, individual stream 

owners, and even fish commissions, in their streamimprovement work to provide better fly fishing. 

Different types of streams demand different methods 

of improvement. The author presents three rules for 

stream improvement: 1) never touch a good natural 

pool; 2) take advantage of any natural conditions 

when you improve; and 3) drop a boulder or two in 

the pool at the dam or in the fast water above. 

[FISHERIES; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS] 

1864. Winter,PL (1993): Positives and negatives 

of recreation in riparian areas. p.155-157. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM Itech. coord.1. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

Conflicts between recreational users becomes 

more likely as an area's popularity increases. 

Conflicts occur between users whose recreational 

choices are incompatible. Depreciative behaviors are 

most likely to occur in areas with high use. Meetings 

between resource managers and various user groups 

can be helpful in reducing conflicts. 

[CONFLICT RESOLUTION; RECREATION 

IMPACTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1865. Winward,AH (1 984): An ecosystem 

classification for intermountain riparian areas. 

p.1-5. In: Bedell,TE [ed.]. Proceedings of 1984 

Pacific Northwest range management short 

course: Range watersheds, riparian ones and 

economics: Interrelationships in management and 

use. 25-27 January 1984. Pendleton, OR. Oregon 

State University. 

Riparian areas normally make up about 1-4 

percent of any one geographic region. There has been 

a tendency to overlook the value or importance of 

these areas, perhaps because of their small size. 

However, they provide a majority of the herbaceous 

forage from a small minority of an allotment. They 

provide the largest number and density of birds. They 

are also significant to fisheries, to certain wildlife 

species, and to numerous recreationists. Riparian 

areas are more important to more users than any 

other ecosystem. A proposal for classification of 

riparian areas is described that shows how riparian 

areas can be developed at several levels of intensity. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1866. Wirtz,B; Martinez,R; Sims,B (1996): 

Watershed restoration on the French Mesa 

Grazing Allotment. p.201-204. In: National 

hydrology workshop proceedings. 27 April - 1 

May 1992; Phoenix, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

General Technical Report RM-GTR-279. 

A Watershed Condition Inventory was 

completed on the French Mesa Grazing Allotment on 

the Santa Fe National Forest in north central New 

Mexico in 1988. This inventory identified and 

documented numerous erosional problems which 

were linked to ongoing land management practices. 

Meetings were held with allotment permittees and 

interdisciplinary Forest Scrvicc planning team. The 

team was successful in reaching consensus with the 

permittees and restoration measures were employed. 

These measures included earth dam gully plugs, 

sagebrush mowing, fencing which created new 

pastures, road management, and repair of existing 

developments. The key to success was in establishing 

cooperative ties with the permittees and overcoming 

traditional attitudes. 

[CONSENSUS; EROSION CONTROL; GRAZING 

IMPACTS; WATERSHED] 

1867. Wissmar,R; Halbert,C; Chu,J; Doyle,J 

(1993): Skagit wild and scenic river: management 

status and issues. p.373-388. In: Tellman,B; 

Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; DeBano,LF; 

Hamre,RH [tech. coord.1. Riparian management: 

Common threads and shared interests. USDA 

Forest Service. General Technical Report RM226. 

USDA Forest Service has the authority to 

administer federal land within the Skagit Wild and 
Scenic River but no management authority or 

enforcement capability over state and private land 

within the corridor. Funding for management has 

been sparse and has originated primarily from the 

recreation program. Other hnding has been delayed. 

These factors have combined to seriously 

compromise the USDA Forest Service desired 

management objectives for protecting and enhancing 

the values that caused the Skagit River to be added to 

the National Wild & Scenic Rivers system. Problems 

are exacerbated by the complications of 26 separate 

agencies or entities having management 

responsibilities within the corridor. 

[COLLABORATION; FRAGMENTATION; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIVER ECOLOGY; 

SKAGIT RIVER; WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS] 

1868. Wissmar,RC; Smith,JE; McIntosh,BA; 

Li,HW; Reeves,GH; Sedell,JR (1994): A history of 

resource use and disturbance in riverine basins of 

eastern Oregon and Washington (early 1800s1990s). Northwest Science 68(Special Issue), 1-35. 

A historical review of human activities 

influencing stream and riparian ecosystems in eastern 

Oregon and Washington shows that cumulative 

effects of resource uses and management over the last 

two centuries are altering the health of many river 

basins. Past practices such as livestock grazing and 

forest harvest near riparian areas and streams became 

collectively significant over long time periods and 

are continuing today. Historic cumulative effects on 

stream and riparian ecosystems include livestock 

grazing and mining from the 1860s until about 19 10. 

Timber harvest, roads, fire management, dams, 

irrigation, and fisheries increased in importance 

during the 20th century. Continuous dissent from 

competing entities only compounds this situation as 

available water and habitats continue to decline. 

Alternatively, new basin-wide management strategies 

of federal agencies and environmental organizations 

offer hope for improving the ecosystem diversity and 

population levels of fish and wildlife. Intact 

watersheds function as critical habitats and rehgia 

for fish and wildlife of adjoining ecosystems. 

[ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT; RESOURCE 

CONFLICTS; RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1869. Witt,D; Tate,K; Atwil1,ER; 

McDougald,NK; George,MR (1998): A rapid 

method for estimating livestock manure 

deposition on rangeland watersheds. p.135. In: 

Potts,DF led.]. Rangeland management and water 

resources: Proceedings of the AWRA specialty 

conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

This study evaluated a double sampling 

technique to allow estimation of manure loading 

across a watershed through time. Regression 

relationships predicting dry weight per plot were 

highly significant for all trials. ANOVA indicated no 

difference between actual manure loading (measured 

by collection) and loadings estimated by observers, 

indicating the technique was accurate and consistent 

among observers. 

PON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION; WATER 

QUALITY; WATERSHED] 

1870. Wolman,MG (1954): A method of sampling 

coarse river-bed material. Transcripts of the 

American Geophysical Union. 35(6, Dec. 1954), 

951-956. 

This determination of the size of material on the 

bed of a stream is based upon an analysis of the 

relative area covered by particles of given sizes. The 

method is applicable to those rivers which flow on 

coarse material and may be waded during periods of 

low water. Sampling consists of measuring the 

intermediate axis of 100 pebbles picked from the bed 

of the channel on the basis of a grid system. From 

this sample a frequency distribution is drawn from 

which the desired size parameters are read. The 

advantages of the areal sampling procedure over bulk 

sampling are: I) that it is applicable to very coarse 

materials; and 2) that it provides a more 

representative sample of an entire reach of a stream. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; SAMPLING; 

SEDIMENTATION] 

1871. Wolman,MG (1959): Factors influencing 

erosion of a cohesive river bank. American 

Journal of Science 257(March, 1959), 204-216. 

The sinuous channel of Watts Branch in 

Montgomery County, Maryland, traverses a grassy 

meadow nearly devoid of trees. The creek has a 

drainage area of four square miles and the river bank 

is composed primarily of cohesive silt. Re-surveys to 

cross sections during the five years 1953-1957 have 

revealed as much as seven feet of lateral erosion. 

Approximately 85 percent of the observed erosion 

occurred during the winter months, December 

through March. Erosion was most severe at the water 

surface. Second in erosion effectiveness were cold 

periods during which wet banks, frost action, and low 

rises in stage combined to produce 0.6 foot of erosion 

in six weeks during the winter. Significant erosion 

also resulted from the combination of moist banks 

and low rises in stage. Lastly, crystallization of ice 
and subsequent thawing, without benefit of changes 

in stage, also produced some erosion as did flashy 

summer floods even on hard dry banks. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; EROSION; RIVER 

ECOLOGY; STREAMBANK PROTECTION] 

1872. Wolman,MG; Gerson,R (1978): Relative 

scales of time and effectiveness of climate in 

watershed geomorphology. Earth Surface 

Processes and Landforms 3,189-208. 

River channels in temperate regions widened by 

floods of recurrence intervals from 50 to more than 

200 years may regain their original width in matters 

of months or years. In semi-arid regions, recovery of 

channel form depends not only on flows but upon 

climatic determinants of the growth of bottomland 

vegetation resulting in variable rates of recovery, on 

the order of decades, depending on the coincidence 

of average flows and strengthened vegetation. In 

truly arid regions, the absence of vegetation and flow 

precludes the recovery and the width of channels 

increases in areas up to 100 km2, but remains 

relatively constant at larger drainage areas. Measured 

recovery times described in the literature vary from 

less than a decade for some tropical areas to decades 

or more in temperate regions. Recurrence incidence 

of high magnitude storms which trigger mass wasting 

range from 1 to 2 years in some tropical regions, to 3 

or 4 per hundred years in some areas of seasonal 

rainfall and to 100 or more years in some temperate 

regions. 

[CLIMATE; DRAINAGES; GEOMORPHOLOGY] 

1873. Wondzell,SM (1997): Debris jams and 

flooding control long-term dynamics of the 

hyporheic zone. p.209. Abstracts. 1997 Annual 

meeting of the Ecological Society of America 

jointly with The Nature Conservancy. 10-14 

August 1997. Albuquerque, NM. 

Stream ecosystems are linked to terrestrial 

ecosystems underlain by shallow water tables via 

flows of water through the hyporheic zone. 

Subsurface flows are controlled by the configuration 

of primary and secondary channels. Floods which 

change the configuration of channels can profoundly 

alter subsurface flow paths. In this case study, change 

in the relative elevation of the primary channel and 

the abandonment of the secondary channel 

dramatically altered subsurface flow paths in nearstream locations. Stream reaches vary in their 

susceptibility to flood induced channel changes 

depending on the width of the main channel, degree 

on constraint, longitudinal gradients, and sediment 

size distribution. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; FLOOD IMPACTS; 

STREAM ECOLOGY] 

1874. Wood,JC; Wood,MK (1988): Infiltration 

and water quality on range sites at Fort Stanton, 

New Mexico. Water Resources Bulletin 24(2), 317- 

323. 

The authors examined soil infiltration rates, 

sediment concentration and runoff water quality for 

range sites on a mesa top, hillside slopes and on 

valley bottom with varied grazing treatments and 

fertilization (valley bottom only). Soil infiltration on 

grassland was susceptible to grazing. Short duration 

grazing of pinyon pine-juniper treatments did not 

affect infiltration. Fertilization of bottomlands with 

soil conditions that favored plant growth increased 

plant biomass and cover. Higher stocking rates can 

be achieved if plant cover and biomass are sufficient 

to offset adverse effects of increased animal 

disturbance. Fertilized bottom-lands have increased 

chemical nutrient losses. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; GRAZING TREATMENTS; 

SOILS; WATER QUALITY] 

1875. Woods,LG (1966): Multiple use 

management of mountain riparian vegetation. 

p.37-43. In: Vegetation management on flood 

plains and riparian lands: Phreatophyte 

symposium. Pacific Southwest Interagency 

Committee 66-3 Meeting. 30 August 1966. 

Albuquerque, NM. 

Streamside zones are usually the sensitive 

tension areas where conflicts in uses and competition 

for resources and uses are found. These are also the 

areas where multiple use restraints limit what can or 

cannot be done with respect to manipulating 

vegetation. This does not preclude the possibilities of 

intensive management of streamside vegetation for 

increased water yield. Management decisions will 

require coordinated planning to develop feasible 

projects that will command public support. 

[MULTIPLE USE; RIPARIAN HABITAT; 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION; WATER YIELD] 

1876. Wozniak,FE (1996): Human impacts on 

riparian ecosystems of the Middle Rio Grande 

Valley during historic times. p.33-43. In: 

Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired 

future condition for Southwestern riparian 

ecosystems: Bringing interests and concerns 

together. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-GTR-272. 

The development of irrigation agriculture in 

historic times has profoundly impacted riparian 
ecosystems in the Middle Rio Grande Valley of New 

Mexico. A vital relationship has existed between 

water resources and settlement in the semi-arid 

Southwest since prehistoric times. Levels of 

technology have influenced human generated 

changes in the riparian ecosystems of the Middle Rio 

Grande Valley. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; HUMAN 

IMPACTS; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1877. Wozniak,FE (1998): Irrigation in the Rio 

Grande Valley, New Mexico: A study and 

annotated bibliography of the development of 

irrigation systems. USDA Forest Service. Rocky 

Mountain Research Station. RMRS-P-2.204 p. 

This report describes the development of 

irrigation systems in the Rio Grande Valley of New 

Mexico from their origins in prehistoric Puebloan 

times through the Hispanic and Anglo-American 

irrigation constructions. Historic settlement and their 

interconnections to the land grant communities of 

Spanish and Mexican eras are discussed. The report 

also includes an annotated bibliography of published 

and unpublished sources relating to the primary 

subject matter. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; BIBLIOGRAPHY; 

IRRIGATION IMPACTS; R10 GRANDE] 

1878. Wunder,L; Carey,AB (1996): Use of forest 

canopy by bats. Northwest Science 70,79-85. 

Eleven of the 15 species of bats in the Pacific 

Northwest are known to make regular use of the 

forest canopy for roosting, foraging, and 

reproduction. Common roosting sites are in cavities, 

crevices, and foliage. Several species forage in forest 

gaps, along forest edges, or in riparian areas. 

[BAT SPECIES; CANOPY; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1879. Wunderlich,RC; Winter,BD; Meyer,JH 

(1994): Restoration of the Elwha River Ecosystem. 

Fisheries 19, 1 1-1 9. 

Historically, the Elwha River in western 

Washington was renowned for the abundance and 

diversity of anadromous salmonids. Most of the river 

system lies within the Olympic National Park and 

remains in pristine condition, but two dams in the 

lower river have blocked all anadromous fish for 

more than 80 years. To restore the Elwha's historic 

fishery resources and resolve an impasse about 

federal licensing of the dams, the U.S. Congress 

passed the Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries 

Restoration Act in 1992. The act required an analysis 

of alternatives (dam retention with fish passage 

facilities vs dam removal) to achieve full ecosystem 

and fishery restoration. Analysis indicates that 

removal of both dams is the only option that will 

achieve full restoration, but dam removal and fish 

restoration efforts could span 20 years and cost $147 

to $203 million. Although fish restoration poses 

problems because of limited native runs, sediment 

management presents the most significant 

environmental challenge and cost. Nevertheless, a 

unique opportunity to filly restore the ecosystem of a 

major anadromous-salmonid-producing river is at 

hand. 

[ANADROMOUS FISH; FISHERIES; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIVER ECOLOGY] 

1880. Xiang,W-N (1996): CIS-based riparian 

buffer analysis: injecting geographic information 

into landscape planning. Landscape and urban 

planning 34(1), 1-10. 

Establishment and maintenance of riparian 

buffer zones along shorelines or streams is a common 

best management practice in the U.S. These 

vegetated areas function as sinker, filter, and 

transformer to delay, absorb, or purify contaminated 

runoff before it enters surface waters. Their 

effectiveness for non-point source pollution control 

has been widely recognized. This paper describes a 

case study in which a GIs-based buffer analysis was 

conducted on a North Carolina watershed. This study 

accomplished a series of tasks that likely could not 

have been accomplished in conventional ways. These 

tasks included: 1) calculating and mapping variable 

riparian buffer zones; 2) identifying inadequately 

regulated areas; and 3) estimating land acquisition 

costs associated with unregulated areas. 

[BUFFER STRIPS; GIs; INVENTORY; NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1881. Yong,W; Finch,DM (1996): Land-bird 

species composition and relative abundance 

during migration along the middle Rio Grande. 

p.77-92. In: Shaw,DW; Finch,DM [tech. coord. 1. 

Desired future conditions for Southwestern 

riparian ecosystems: Bringing interests and 

concerns together. USDA Forest Service. General 

Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

The authors report species composition and 

relative abundance of stopover migrants during 

spring and fall migration along the middle Rio 

Grande in 1994. They recorded 157 land-bird species 

using mist-netting and survey methods at sites on the 

Rio Grande, the Bosque del Apache, and the Rio 

Grande Nature Center. A total of 6,509 birds was 
captured. Of 157 species, 47 percent were neotropical 

long distance migrants, 50 percent were short 

distance migrants, and the remaining 3 percent were 

residents or border migrants. Comparisons of relative 

abundance from the 1994 field research to similar 

findings from studies conducted in 198 1 - 1983 and 

1987- 1990 demonstrated that populations of many 

species have remained relatively stable over 

approximately 6 or 12 year periods, while some 

species have become common or rare. 

[AVIAN ECOLOGY; RIO GRANDE; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT] 

1882. Yoo,KH; Molnau,M (1987): Upland soil 

erosion simulation for agricultural watersheds. 

Water Resources Bulletin 23(5), 819-827. 

A soil erosion simulation model that considered 

the physical conditions of agricultural watersheds and 

interfaced with an existing watershed hydrology 

model was developed. The model compares the 

transport capacity of the overland flow to determine 

the fate account for the free soil particles that have 

already been detached and are readily available to be 

transported by overland flow. The model was tested 

on two agricultural watersheds in the Pacific 

Northwest and calibrated by trial-and-error to 

determine coefficients. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; HYDROLOGY; 

MODELING; SOILS] 

1883. York,J (1991): Riparian restoration 

plantings. p.35-41. In: Roth,D; Bridges,C; 

Zimmerman,C. [eds.]. What riparian means to 

me? Proceedings of the third annual convention. 

Colorado Riparian Association. 6-8 November 

1991. Pueblo, CO. 

Vegetative plantings of dormant stubs (logs) 

have proven to be highly successful means of 

forming streambank vegetation. The author cites the 

planting of 40-50,000 stubs from which 95 percent 

successfully established. Contract specifications and 

guidelines are included. 

[PLANT COMMUNITIES; PLANTINGS; 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1884. York,JC (1985): Dormant stub planting 

techniques. p. 513-514. In: Johnson,RR; 

Ziebell,CD; Patton,DR; Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH 

[tech. coord.]. Riparian ecosystems and their 

management: Reconciling conflicting uses. 16-18 

April 1985. Tucson, AZ. USDA Forest Service. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

Dormant stubs of black willow and cottonwood 

successfully stabilized when planted along the toe of 

banks and levees. 3-6 inch logs, 6-7 feet long, 

planted into the water table, resulted in exceptionally 

good survival and first season growth. Original 

plantings have survived several minor and one major 

flood and have provided protection to their respective 

banks and levees. 

[PLANTINGS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

TECHNIQUES] 

1885. Young,DA (1 988): Development of water 

management plans to protect waterfowl resources 

during agricultural drainage. p.121-130. In: 

Stuber,PJ [tech. coord.]. Proceedings of the 

national symposium on protection of wetlands 

from agricultural impacts. 25-29 April 1988. Ft. 

Collins, CO. USDI Fish and Wildlife Sewice. 

Biological Report 88(16). 

The interest in expanded drainage activities in 

Alberta prompted various government agencies to 

commission water management planning exercises 

which could accommodate the interest of various 

water user groups including agriculture and wildlife. 

[AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS; RIPARIAN 

HABITAT; WETLANDS] 

1886. Young,DW (1998): Hydrology of stock 

watering rights in Arizona's adjudications. p.305- 

315. In: Potts,DF led.]. Range management and 

water resources: Proceedings of the AWRA 

specialty conference. American Water Resources 

Association. 27-29 May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Since 1977, the Arizona State Land Department 

and the Attorney General's Office have conducted 

research projects to measure the capacity of stock 

ponds, determine the effective retention of stock 

ponds, and model the effects of stock ponds on 

watershed hydrology. Results of this study are 

summarized. 

[HYDROLOGY; STOCK PONDS; WATER 

RIGHTS; WATERSHED] 

1887. Young,JA; Allen,FL (1997): Cheatgrass 

and range science: 1930 - 1950. Journal of Range 

Management 50(5), 530-535. 

Cheatgrass is currently and historically a serious 

point of contention among a wide variety of people 

interested in sagebrushhunchgrass. Nowhere are 

these differences more apparent than in the scientific 

community. The period 1930 - 1950 was a period of 

awakening interest by range scientists. Cheatgrass 

both provides the bulk of forage on many ranges and 

is the symbol of environmental degradation. Trying 

to cope with the endless ramifications of cheatgrass 
invasion, dominance, persistence, and potential 

community decline keep forcing scientists to 

critically evaluate the ecological principles upon 

which range management is based. 

[EXOTICS; GRAZING IMPACTS; SECONDARY 

SUCCESSION] 

1888. Young,JA; Allen,F; Clements,CD (1998): 

The Wooten Plan - Division of Nevada rangelands 

based on water. p. 293-298. In: Potts,DF [ed.]. 

Range management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Mr. E.O. Wooten was a US Department of 

Agriculture economist who was assigned, in the 

1920s, to find ways of achieving proper control over 

federal lands being used by the livestock industry in 

Nevada. In 1925, the Nevada legislature passed a law 

to control grazing within a 3-mile radius of recorded 

water rights. Conflicting and overlapping claims 

doomed the law to failure. 

[GRAZING IMPACTS; PUBLIC LAND; WATER 

RIGHTS] 

1889. Young,JA; Palmquist,DE; Blank,RR; 

Clements,CD (1998): Perennial pepperweed in 

riparian ecosystems. p.137-143. In: Potts, DF [ed.]. 

Rangeland management and water resources: 

Proceedings of the AWRA specialty conference. 

American Water Resources Association. 27-29 

May 1998. Reno, NV. 

Perennial pepperweed (Lepidium latifoliurn) is 

an exotic, highly invasive weed that initially infests 

riparian and wetland areas before invading 

agricultural fields. The weed forms dense, near 

mono-specific colonies that reduce forage 

production, biological diversity, and limits use of 

these areas by livestock, wildlife, and humans. 

Persistent accumulations of this species form 1 m tall 

entanglements on flood plain meadows, changing 

flow characteristics and sedimentation during floods. 

The coarse root system of this plant does not protect 

stream banks from erosion. 

[EXOTICS; RIPARIAN ECOLOGY] 

1890. Young,MK (1999): Summer die1 activity 

and movement of adult brown trout in highelevation streams in Wyoming, USA. Journal of 

Fish Biology 54, 181-189. 

Implanted transmitters in adult brown trout of 

various sizes in two montane streams were used to 

determine variation in die1 activity. More fish tended 

to be active and move greater distances each hour 

during twilight and night than during the day. Mean 

hourly light intensity was significantly negatively 

correlated with activity and distance moved. 

Maximum water temperature was not correlated with 

any measure of die1 activity. Fish were active an 

average of 1 1 hours, had a mean home range of 4 1 

m, and moved an average of 121 m daily. Fish length 

and distance moved were also significantly positively 

correlated. 

[FISH HABITAT; RIPARIAN HABITAT; TROUT] 

1891. Young,RA; Huntrods,T; Andersom,W 

(1980): Effectiveness of vegetated buffer strips in 

controlling pollution from feedlot runoff. Journal 

of Environmental Quality 9(3), 483-497. 

Buffer strips were tested for their abilit,y to 

control pollution from feedlot runoff by using a 

rainulator. Cropped buffer strips on a 4 percent slope 

reduced runoff and total solids transported fiom a 

feedlot by 67 percent and 79 percent, respectively. 

Total N and P were reduced by an average of 84 

percent and 83 percent, respectively. Results 

indicated that nonstructural discharge control 

practices are a good alternative for controlling 

pollution occurring from feedlot runoff. 

[BUFFER ZONES; COLIFORM BACTERJA; NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION] 

1892. Young,RA; Onstad,CA (1982): Tlhe effect 

of soil characteristics on erosion and nutrient loss. 

p.105-113. In: Proceeding of the Exeter 

symposium, July 1982. Recent developments in the 

explanation and prediction of erosion and 

sediment yield; IAHS Publ. No. 137. 

Soil properties which exert a significant 

influence in the type of erosion occurring, inter-rill or 

rill, were compared. Those characteristics most 

influential in determining a soil's susceptibility to 

inter-rill erosion are the degree of aggregation of the 

surface soil, the stability of soil aggregates to 

breakdown under raindrop impact, and the type and 

amount of clay in the soil. The characteristics 

influencing susceptibility to rill erosion are: organic 

matter content, aggregate density, bulk density of the 

surface soil, and the dispersion ratio. Some factors 

affecting the transportability of detached particles 

were also examined along with their possible effects 

on nutrient enrichment of sediment. 

[GEOMORPHOLOGY; NON-POINT SOURCE 

POLLUTION; SEDIMENT TRANSPORT; SOILS] 

1893. Youngblood,AP; Padgett,WC; 

Winward,AH (1985): Riparian commun~ity type 

classification in the Intermountain Regi'on. p.510- 
512. In: Johnson,RR; Ziebel1,CD; Patton,DR; 

Ffolliott,PF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

ecosystems and their management: Reconciling 

conflicting uses. 16-18 April 1985. Tucson, AZ. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

RM-120. 

Riparian ecosystems in Idaho, Wyoming, and 

Utah were classified into community types based 

upon similarities in floristic composition. The 

method provides a tool for resource management. 

Diagnostic keys that utilize conspicuous plant species 

are provided for field identification. Environmental 

relationships, successional status, and management 

implications are discussed. 

[CLASSIFICATION; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1894. Yount,JD; Niemi,GJ (1990): Recovery of 

lotic communities and ecosystems from 

disturbance - A narrative review of case studies. 

Environmental Management 14(5), 547-569. 

This paper presents a narrative account of case 

studies on the recovery after disturbance of flowing 

water systems. In the majority of studies examined, 

the systems recovered rapidly. The most commonly 

cited reasons for short recovery times were: 1) life 

history characteristics that allowed rapid 

recolonization and repopulation of the affected areas; 

2) the availability and accessibility of unaffected 

upstream and downstream areas as sources of 

organisms for repopulation; 3) the high flushing rates 

of lotic systems that allowed them to dilute or replace 

polluted waters; and 4) the fact that lotic systems are 

naturally subjected to a variety of disturbances and 

the biota have evolved the characteristics that favor 

flexibility or adaptability. Longer recovery times 

were generally associated with alterations to physical 

conditions. 

[LOTIC SYSTEMS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1895. Yuncevich,GM (1993): The San Pedro 

National Conservation Area. p.369-372. In: 

Tellman,B; Cortner,HJ; Wallace,MG; 

DeBano,LF; Hamre,RH [tech. coord.]. Riparian 

management: Common threads and shared 

interests. USDA Forest Service. General Technical 

Report RM-226. 

The San Pedro Riparian National Conservation 

Area (NCA) was created by passage of the Arizona 

Conservation Act in 1988. The NCA was established 

to conserve, protect, and enhance the riparian area 

and the aquatic, wildlife, archaeological, 

paleontological, scientific, cultural, educational, and 

recreational resources of the public land surrounding 

the San Pedro River. 

[NATIONAL CONSERVATION AREA; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1896. Zasada,J; Tappeiner,J; O'Dea,M (1 992): 

Clone structure of salmonberry and vine maple in 

the Oregon Coast Range. p.56-60. In: Clary,WP; 

McArthur,ED; Bedunah,D; Wambolt,CL Icomp.]. 

Proceedings - Symposium on ecology and 

management of riparian shrub communities. 

USDA Forest Service. General Technical Report 

INT-289. 

Salmonbeny and vine maple, both important 

riparian shrubs in western Oregon, form large clones 

of varying densities. Salmonberry clones develop in 

an active process that requires growth of a rhizome 

into an area followed by ramet production from the 

rhizome seed bank. Vine maple clones, however, 

develop by layering when stems are pinned to the 

ground by falling trees or branches 

[PLANT COMMUNITIES; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION; RIPARIAN SHRUBS] 

1897. Zedler,JB; Williams,GD; Desmond,JS 

(1997): Wetland mitigation: Can fishes distinguish 

between natural and constructed wetlands? 

Fisheries 22(3), 26-28. 

This paper recommends that plans for mitigating 

damages to natural wetlands strive to mimic 

reference systems in all features, including 

geomorphic heterogeneity and hydrologic complexity 

(hydroperiod, salinity, currents, and water quality) 

and that only the most natural wetlands of the region 

be used as role models. Mitigation banking has the 

advantage of allowing resource values to be 

determined in advance of losing habitat, but 

must be landscape-level consequences. 

[CREATED WETLANDS; MITIGATION 

BANKING; WATERSHED; WETLAND 

MITIGATION] 

here 

1 996): 

Using simple structures for flow dispersion in wet 

meadow restoration. p.258-259. In: Shaw,DW; 

Finch,DM [tech. coord.]. Desired future conditions 

for Southwestern riparian ecosystems: Bringing 

interests and concerns together. USDA Forest 

Service. General Technical Report RM-GTR-272. 

Historically, wet meadow restoration projects 

have relied on heavy earth moving equipment to 

harden nick points and install gully plugs or terraces 

to trap and detain sediments The authors 

experimented with a variety of simple hand-built 

structures fashioned of logs, rocks, geotextile fabrics 
andlor sandbags designed to disperse runoff, re-wet 

surface and subsurface soils and stimulate the growth 

of wetland dependent vegetation adapted to erosion 

control and sediment detention. Workers were 

utilized from a variety of labor pools. 

[EROSION CONTROL; GULLY CONTROL; 

MEADOWS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION] 

1899. Zeedyk,WD (1996): Managing roads for 

wet meadow ecosystem recovery. USDA Forest 

Service. FHWA-FLP-96-016. 

Riparian and watershed restoration and 

enhancement have received much attention in recent 

years. Effective restoration techniques are not often 

well understood. The focus of this project was to 

"keep the water on the mountain" and as a result 

improve riparian habitat. The publication provides a 

riparian restoration guide which will be used as a 

reference document for use in understanding wet 

meadow functions, identifying treatment 

opportunities, planning and implementing new or 

remedial treatments, and monitoring results. 

[EROSION CONTROL; HEADCUTTING; 

HYDROLOGY; MEADOWS; RIPARIAN 

RESTORATION] 

1900. Zentner,J (1997): Soil considerations in 

riparian restoration. Restoration & Management 

Notes 15(1), 56-59. 

Many riparian construction projects begin with 

excavation to establish required grades. The result is 

a site on which the planting substrate is a relatively 

sterile sub-grade. Application of topsoil as a substrate 

amendment can be extremely beneficial. Many of the 

concerns about using topsoil relate to the introduction 

of weeds. This is most germane in areas in which 

wetland weeds are found. It is then advisable to use 

only those top-soils contain relatively few adapted 

weeds. Addition of organic material alone is another 

means of providing raw nutrients without weed 

introduction. 

[ORGANIC DEBRIS; RIPARIAN RESTORATION; 

SOILS; TOPSOIL] 

1901. Zimmerman,RC; Goodlet,JC; Comer,GH 

(1967): Influence of vegetation on channel form of 

small streams. p.255-275. In: International 

Association of Scientific Hydrology, Publication 

No. 75. Symposium on river morphology. 

Data on channel width of several small streams 

in the Sleepers River basin of northern Vermont have 

provided some measure of the influence of vegetation 

on channel form. In the Sleepers River basin there 

are apparently two thresholds along streams. In a 

downstream direction, the first threshold occurs at 

points with drainage areas of .2 to .8 square mile. 

Upstream from these points, width does not increase 

in a downstream direction, living tree roots cross the 

channel, and dams of organic debris are common. 

The flow is commonly underground. Points with 

drainage areas of .2 to .8 square miles have annual 

high flows of 10 to 20 cfs. With drainage areas 

exceeding .2 to .8 square miles widths increase, but 

channel form is highly variable, and mean widths 

may vary by as much as 5 feet depending upon the 

type of vegetation. Relatively, uniform widths occur, 

regardless of vegetation, where the drainage area 

exceeds 4 to 6 square miles. Points with drainage 

areas of about 5 square miles are apparently the 

second threshold. These points have annual high 

flows in the range of 100 to 150 cfs. Beyond these 

points, the influence of vegetation on channel form is 

marginal compared with that of geological 

differences and the sinuosity of the flow itself. 

[CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY; RIPARIAN 

VEGETATION] 

1902. Zonge,L; Swanson,S (1996): Changes on 

streambanks in the Sierra Nevada Mountains: 

Perspectives from a dry and a wet year. 

Restoration Ecology 4(2), 192-199. 

This paper summarizes the findings of a twoyear study of vegetation and stream-bank erosion on 

incised streams. The first year of the research was 

conducted during the sixth year of a drought. During 

the second year of study, precipitation totals ranged 

from normal to 200 percent of normal. The focus of 

the study was to determine if vegetation established 

on a bank affects the erosion of or deposition on that 

bank. During the drought year, most banks showed 

relatively little change. During the high water year, 

27 percent of all vegetation and 32 percent of all bare 

lower banks retreated more than 250 mm. This 

similarity between vegetated and unvegetated banks 

indicates that, on the streams studied, vegetation had 

little effect on bank erosion. 

[CHANNEL DYNAMICS; DROUGHT EFFECTS; 

RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN VEGETATION; 

STREAMBANK STABILITY] 

1903. Zube,EH; Simcox,DE (1987): Arid lands, 

riparian landscapes and management conflicts. 

Environmental Management 11(4), 529-535. 

The paper reports on a mail survey of the 

perceptions, attitudes, and opinions of the general 

public and special interest groups toward a riparian 

landscape in the Sonoran Desert. A specific point of 

enquiry is the relative position of professional 
resource managers compared with other groups on 

issues such as land use planning, appropriate 

management prescriptions, and appropriate land uses 

adjacent to riparian areas. Discriminant analysis of 

response data reveals significant differences among 

several special interest groups and the general public, 

and identifies an important challenge for the 

managers who are more aware of the fragility of arid 

lands and riparian ecosystems and of threats to their 

continued productivity posed by rapid urban 

expansion. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; RIPARIAN 

MANAGEMENT ZONE] 

1904. Zurowski,W (1979): Preliminary results of 

European beaver reintroduction in the tributary 

streams of the Vistula River. Acta Theriologica 

24(7), 85-91. 

In 1977, there were about 254 beaver families in 

Poland. Most of them inhabited tributary streams in 

northeast Poland. In 1976- 1977, experimental 

reintroduction was started into the central portion of 

the country. Introduced beavers were either removed 

from the free-living population or taken from a 

beaver farm at Popielno. In a selected site, artificial 

lodges or burrows were prepared. Good results were 

obtained in areas frequented by people. 

[BEAVER; RIPARIAN HABITAT] 

1905. Zwank,PJ; Sparrowe,RD; Porath,WR; 

Torgerson,O (1979): Utilization of threatened 

bottomland habitats by white-tailed deer. Wildlife 

Society Bulletin 7,226-232. 

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were 

monitored from 197 1 to 1978 to document their 

utilization of bottomland habitats threatened by water 

resource development (Swan Lake National Wildlife 

Refuge, bottomland in north central Missouri). Data 

collected support other observations that deer in 

agricultural areas of the Midwest utilize bottomland 

habitats throughout the year. The destruction of 

naturally vegetated bottomlands constitutes a threat 

to viable white-tailed deer populations. 

[RIPARIAN HABITAT; WHITE-TAILED DEER] 
KEYWORD INDEX 

A 

ACIDMINEWASTES ..................................................................... 518 

ADAPTIVEMANAGEMENT .............................................................. 1292 

AERIAL PHOTO .... 45. 108.115.345.391.405.407.408. 5 16.545.637.702.709.771.998. 1 174.1378. 1467. 

1524. 1728 

AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS .... 43.95.292.427.446.462.606.660.664.745.775.851.881.929.932. 1020. 

1051. 1052. 121 1. 1253.1464.1500.1637. 1730. 1802. 1845. 1862. 1876. 1877. 1882. 1885 

AIRTEMPERATURE ..................................................................... 1773 

ALDER ................................................................................. 850 

ALGAE ................................................................................. 769 

ALPINELAKES ......................................................................... 1791 

AMPHIBIANS ......................................... 94.375.376.610.879. 1 106. 1406. 1679. 183 1 

ANADROMOUSFISH ......................................... 117.246.529. 1022.1114. 1720. 1879 

AQUACULTURE ........................................................................ 1422 

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS ... 44. 121.139.372~483~523.558.602.622.808.903.933.1025~ 11 17. 1143. 1148. 

1172. 1302. 1304.1332.1334. 1345. 1354.1359.1388. 1392.1398.1436. 1498. 1590. 1616. 1813 

AQUATICPLANTS .......................................................... 411.421.558. 1127 

ARCVIEW ............................................................................... 663 

ARROYOS ............................................................................... 354 

ARTHROPODS ..................................................................... 1175. I852 

ARTIFICIALlNTELLIGENCE .............................................................. 380 

ASPECT ................................................................................ 1830 

ASPEN .......................................................................... 103.286. 644 

ASSESSMENTS .................... 297.326~430.471.569.800.889.1257.1302.1451~ 1582.1789. 1826 

AVlAN ECOLOGY ... 31.91. 138.222.259.335.414.415.539.541.666.866.941.962.967. 1000. 1034. 1037. 

1112. 1122. 1124. 1134. 1423. 1501.1517. 1532. 1542.1597. 1621. 1632. 1675. 1684.1697. 1738. 1776. 

1847. 188 1 

AVIFAUNA . . 10.32.34.94.155. 156.224.287.322.334.442.465.527.540.542.543.667.811.825.867.928. 

932.939.940.942.943.945.971. 1034. 1101~1120.1253. 1254. 1416. 1429. 1481. 1482. 1488. 1510. 

1517. 1529. 1530. 1542. 1675. 1695. 1741. 1817. 1826 

B 

BACKWATERS ......................................................................... 1572 

BATSPECIES ....................................................................... 321. 1878 

BEAVER . 53.58.61. 85. 126. 134. 194.204.235.344.384.411.460.491.513.639.672.797. 832. 873.875.923. 

925.951.962. 1005. 1053. 1089. 1107. 11 16. 1122.1123. 1125.1197. 1215. 1216. 1225. 1284. 1285. 

1300. 1499. 1577. 1584. 1586. 1604. 1696. 1697. 1732. 1857. 1904 

BEDLOAD ................................................................... 260.288.293. 917 

BELOW-GROUNDBIOMASS ......................................................... 752. 1085 

BELOW-GROUND HERBIVORY ............................................................ 286 

BENTHICBIOMASS ................................................................ 1172. 1535 

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES . . 341~361~627~717~718.720~725.773~809.821~921. 1 142. 1165. 1 193. 

1374. 1556. 1735. 1738 

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........ 44. 164.347.406.421.477.487.488.508.546.595.789.831.887.931. 1065. 1091. 

1 125. 1160. 1 180. 1429. 1493. 1505.1536. 1581. 1630. 1704. 1774. 1810. 1877 

BIOCHEMICALPROCESSES ............................................................... 601 
BIODIVERSITY . 13.15.38.54.56.84.94.103. 112. 186.224.301.371.376.431.500.542.543~590~622~640. 

643.670.701.801.879.892.901.940.943.945. 1090.1092. 1096. 1 120. 1 121. 1 177. 1 184. 1239. 1261. 

1375. 1406. 1520. 1521. 1530. 1631. 1651. 1679. 1687. 1705 

BlOENGINEERlNG ...................................................... 20.132.343.1269. 1611 

BIOGEOMORPHIC TECHNIQUES ........................................................... 630 

BIOLOGICALCONTROL ................................................................. 1709 

BIOLOGICALINTEGRITY ............................................................. 621. 984 

BIOMASS .......................................................................... 955. 1290 

BIOREMEDIATION ...................................................................... 1789 

BIOTICINDICES ........................................................................ 1801 

BIOTICPOTENTIAL ...................................................................... 891 

BITTERBRUSH .................................................................. 183.295. 565 

BLM ......................................................... 347.391.836.910. 1704. 1759. 1760 

BOREALFOREST ................................................................... 414. 1782 

BOSQUE .................................................................. 441.577.1169. 1842 

BROWN-HEADEDCOWBIRD ............................................................. 1518 

BROWSING EFFECTS .................................................. 294.899. 1443. 1546. 1795 

BUFFER STRIPS .................................. 128.394.656.744.757.953. 1058. 1199. 1214. 1880 

BUFFER ZONES ................................................... 258.377.842. 1263. 1738. 1891 

BULLTROUT ...................................................................... 1431. 1658 

BUTTERFLIES .......................................................................... 1231 

C 

CANADIANRIVER ...................................................................... 1637 

CANOPY .................................................. 903. 113 1. 1358. 1399. 1484. 1544. 1878 

CARRYINGCAPACITY .................................................................... 85 

CHANNEL DYNAMICS 46.48.88.94.97.107.265.314.329.330.356.382.435.439.561.620.630.632.647. 

654.699.712.713.731.736.738.740.756.759. 765 7 77 837 83 96 946948957987 1015. 

1016.1030.1031.1095.1104.1108.1200.1209.1238.1269.1272. 1279. 1286. 1299. 1343. 1366. 1369. 

1378.1415.1425. 1432.147171512. 1514.1516. 1567.1595. 1717. 1718. 1781.1792. 1873. 1902 

CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY . 22.23.48.49.97.120.137. 140.196. 197.238.239.262.265.273.278.293.310. 

313.346.348.356. 572.637.654.655.665.693.699.728.736.742.755.756.759.760.778. 837.906. 

907.936.957.985. 1016.1017. 1030. 1031.1033.1080~ 1129. 1135. 1136. 1146. 1277. 1278. 1283. 1286. 

1289. 1293. 1367. 1369. 1458.1459. 1464. 1468. 1469.1471. 1500. 1512~1513~1515~ 162.1567. 1576. 

1595. 1598.1662.1739. 1792. 1824. 1838. 1843. 1870. 1871. 1901 

CHECK DAMS ................................. 96.502.726.727.729.733.737.739. 1041.1042. 1610 

CHEMICALBUDGETS .................................................................... 976 

CHEMICALRESPONSES ................................................................. 1314 

CHEMICALSINKS ...................................................................... 1051 

CLASSIFICATION ... 80.83.89. 130. 153. 167.169.214.222.225.227.228.237.273.299.304.326.332.383. 

399.446.447.455.493.495. 510. 535.536.548. 552.57425799584.587.5992648.680.681.684.686. 

687.696.723.735.747.804.805. 8 13.848.865.969549561006. 1013. 1043. 1044. 1048. 1067. 

1107. 1134. 1162. 1171. 1191. 1212. 1280. 1287. 1305.1320. 1390.1392. 1412. 1468. 1469. 1489. 1652. 

1659. 1666. 1669. 1670.1676. 1677. 1685.1687.1698. 1732. 1809.1833. 1848. 1865. 1893 

CLEAN WATERACT .............. 6~907184~201~202~430.776.782~1177.1193.218. 1628. 1735. 1768 

CLIMATE .......................... 34.87.305.416.580.692.1012. 1056. 1060. 1288. 1535. 1598. 1872 

COBBLE MULCH AGRICULTURE ......................................................... 1301 

COLD DESERT SHRUBS ............................................................ 1578. 1592 

COLIFORM BACTERIA .................................... 17 1. 174. 175.252.413. 1577. 1723. 189 1 

COLLABORATION .... 1 13. 143~211~250~275~306~324.445.532.690.715~762.818.927. 1307. 1376. 15 19. 

1670. 1710. I867 

COLORADORIVER ............................................................... 32.203. 1606 

COLORADOSQUAWFISH ................................................................ 1572 
COLUMBIARIVER ............................................................. 885.1295. 1690 

COMPACTION ..................................................................... 1494. 1558 

CONFLICT RESOLUTION .................................................. 818. 13 12. 1712. 1864 

CONNECTIVITY ......................................................................... 186 

CONSENSUS ........................................................... 182.445.716.825. 1866 

CONSERVATION .................................................................... 198. I521 

CONSERVATIONBIOLOGY ............................................................... 280 

CONTAMINATION ................................................... 6.809.810. 1 173. 1389 

COTTONWOOD ..... 38. 170.318.342.389.397.415.533.573.613.629.770.772.799.847.867.1059. 1089. 

1090. 1146. 1147. 1254. 1457. 1458. 1482. 1490. 1522. 1523.1531.1533. 1606. 1644. 1645. 1673. 1790. 

1855 

COVER ................................................................. 1372.1634.1834. 1835 

COWFISH .......................................................................... 363. 1035 

COWFISHMODEL ....................................................................... 1552 

CREATED WETLANDS ... 1. 190.257.431.588.651.751.831.983.994. 1021. 1065. 1156. 1160. 1202. 1215. 

1249. 1393. 1450. 1505. 1897 

CRMP ............................................................... 429.964.1027.1607. 1854 

CULTURALIMPACTS ................................................................... 1395 

CULTURALVALUES .................................................................... 1161 

CUMULATIVE IMPACTS ............... 206.213. 3 16.624.636.701.748.933.934. 1557.1560. 1585. 1826 

CUTTHROATTROUT ..................................................................... 483 

CUTTINGS ......................................................................... 850. 1105 

D 

DAMS ............................................. 318.416.533.608. 1024.1457. 1458. 1662. 1807 

DECISIONMAKING ..................................................................... 1292 

DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS ............................................................ 569 

DECOMPOSER FOOD CHAIN ........................................... 127.448.1175. 16 14. 1693 

DEERBROWSING ........................................................................ 820 

DEFINITIONS ....................................................................... 747. 1402 

DEFOLIATION ........................................................................... 328 

DENDROCHRONOLOGY ................................................................. 1855 

DESERTSCRUB .................................................................. 1676 

DESERTSTREAMS ...................................................................... 1624 

DESERTTORTOISE ..................................................................... 1102 

DESIRED FUTURE CONDITIONS ........................ 13 1. 1 128. 1276. 1277. 140 1. 1440. 1545. 1844 

DETRITUS .............................................................................. 448 

DEWATERING ........................................................................... 461 

DIFFUSE-SOURCE POLLUTION ........................................................... 1303 

DISTURBEDWILDLANDS ................................................................ 1178 

DIVERSIONSITES ........................................................................ 314 

DORMANCY ........................................................................... 1602 

DRAINAGES .............................................. 239.440.695.725.883. 1189. 1301. 1872 

DREDGING .......................................................................... 710. 711 

DROUGHTEFFECTS ................................................................ 1483. 1902 

DRYLANDPLANTS ....................................................................... 11 

E 

ECOLOGICAL CONDITION ..................................................... 1 127. 1 128. 1252 

ECOLOGICALIMPACTS ................................................................. 1024 

ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY ......................................... 186.432.694. 1092. 1 150. 1401 

ECOLOGICALNICHES ..................................................................... 31 

ECOLOGICAL PERTURBATIONS .......................................................... 1540 
ECOLOGICALSITE ...................................................................... 1006 

ECONOMICVALUES ..................................................................... 786 

ECONOMICS ..... 16.112.118.133.154.212.266.388.412.426.471.477.526.781~1029. 1152. 1153. 1189. 

1240. 1260. 1273. 1274. 13 15. 1364. 1426. 1504. 1657. 1754. 1788. 1796 

ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT . 28.83.278.371.474.619.701.762.965.1182. 1248. 1249. 1387. 1396. 1412. 

1586. 1588.1612. 1648.1747. 1868 

EDGEEFFECT ........................................................................... 975 

EDUCATION ......................................................................... 592 

EFFLUENTS ................................................................ 556.601. 1819 

ELKGRAZING ............................................................ 561.1221.1571. 1795 

EMERGENT VEGETATION ...................................................... 557. 1233. 1828 

ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT ......................................................... 9 19. 1736 

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT .................................... 3 16. 1038. 107 1. 1492. 1525 

EPHEMERAL STREAMS ................................................... 440. 156 1. 1598. 1599 

EROSION ... 72.88. 140. 152.254.255.434.439.449.559.623.632.662.742.876.938.990.992. 1095. 1138. 

1139.1296.1298. 1322.1369.1459.1467.1485.1558.1581. 1612.1661.1811~ 1871 

EROSION CONTROL . . 20.727.729.732.737.741. 85 1. 1 1 13. 1271. 1285. 15 13. 1548. 1754. 1866. 1898. 1899 

EUTROPHICATION ................................................................... 842. 882 

EVALUATION .... 326.369.569.626.947. 1257. 1258. 1330. 135 1. 1477. 1503. 1565. 1627. 1698. 171 1. 1751. 

1847 

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION ............................................... 103.583. 1290. 1537. 155 1 

EVOLUTION ............................................................................ 1466 

EXCLOSURES .... 241.298.333.484.485.561.847.905.985.997.1235.1357.1359.1364. 1383.1427. 1508. 

1650. 1687. 1743. 1755. 1861 

EXOTICS ... 270.272.368. 45 1.464.494.512.942.944. 1000. 1007. 1422. 1550. 1620. 1635. 1644. 1709. 1887. 

1889 

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ....................................................... 993.1436. 1437 

F 

FECALMATERIAL ........................................................................ 76 

FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION .......................................... 1748 

FENCING ............................................................................... 484 

FERTILIZATION ................................................................ 129,292, 1407 

FIELDKEY .............................................................................. 617 

FIRE IMPACTS ......... 26,67,157,215,234,270,272,332,386, 5 19,565,661, 93 1,1170,1243,1596, 1722 

FISHDISPERSAL .................................................................... 181, 1499 

FISH HABITAT ... 117,205,221,244,246,453,469,474,479,483,503,589,620,622,677,710,743,903,936, 

993, 1032, 1036, 1057, 1 157, 1 196, 1277-1279, 1302, 143 1, 1469, 1497, 1775, 1890 

FISHMANAGEMENT ................................................................. 277, 743 

FISH POPULATIONS ..................................................... 5 1, 18 1,890, 1083, 172 1 

FISHERIES ... 64,65,81,84,92, 111, 120,128, 149, 151,153, 164, 181, 188, 191-193,245,277,280,291,311, 

363,387,393,412,422,470,473,486-488,522,525, 528, 529,566,575,582, 589,595,622,638,653, 

664,720,723,744,753,768,776,794,795, 802, 803, 828, 855, 873, 885, 890,904,905,935,937,946, 

953,968,984,991,1001, 1022, 1026,1029, 1035, 1070, 1071, 1083, 1084, 1098, 11 18, 1126, 1130, 1132, 

1133, 1153,1181,1186, 1230,1232,1243,1269,1316-1318,1320, 1323, 1324, 1329,1332, 1334, 1336, 

1337, 1339, 1340,1342, 1344, 1347,1348, 1350, 1354, 1358,1386, 1394, 1398, 141 1, 1434, 1437, 1441, 

1448, 1453, 1461, 1464, 1502, 1536, 1543, 1552, 1563, 1570,1589,1591, 1604,1616, 1650,1658,1700, 

1719,1721, 1727, 1742, 1785,1811,1812, 1822,1823,1834,1835,1845,1859,1863, 1879 

FLOOD IMPACTS . 47, 101, 112,223,265,302,318,427,453,494,512,633,646,647,658,669,693,698,700, 

722,829,948,1019,1082,1147, 1169,1175,1243,1368,1373,1375, 1458,1462,1465,1502, 1507, 

1522,1523, 1526, 1533, 161 1, 1612, 1624, 1645, 1660, 1692, 1699, 1873 

FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT ...... 5, 1 12, 2 12, 2 14,556, 62 1,775,940,974, 10 19, 1375, 14 18, 1490, 1646 

FLUVIAL PROCESSES ......................................................... 1252, 1289, 1523 
FOODCHAINS ........................................................................... 934 

FOODWEBS ............................................................... 129,381,1025,1149 

FORAGE PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390,478,969, 153 1,1778 

FORESTEDGE .......................................................................... 1416 

FORESTLAYERS ....................................................................... 1484 

FOREST MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133, 164,233,458,505,933 

FORESTSUCCESSION ................................................................... 1217 

FORESTWETLANDS ...................................................................... 78 

FORESTRYMANAGEMENT .............................................................. 1735 

FRAGMENTATION ...................................................................... 1867 

FRESHWATER CONSERVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1422 

G 

GALLERY FOREST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200,1147,1162, 1254, 1457,1842 

GAPANALYSIS .................................................................. 54,301,1521 

GARTERSNAKES .................................................................. 1681,1682 

GEOLOGY .................................................................. 1480,1713,1842 

GEOMORPHOLOGY . . 46,47,72,73,141, 178,238,239,260,305,314,379,384,416,436,443,492,505,520, 

550, 573,574,589,623,631,632,634,646,647,665,704, 706, 708,712,713,726,730,731,733,736- 

739,757,759,760,784,785, 817,832, 836, 857, 858, 861,876, 884,906,907,949,956,968,988,991, 

1006,1015,1017,1018,1024,1033,1064,1080,1095,1141,1171,1172,1174,1195,1217,1221,1228, 

1238, 1255, 1270,1281-1283,1289,1299,1308,1313,1320, 1339, 1366, 1390, 1425, 1456, 1467, 1494, 

1514-1516, 1523, 1563, 1594, 1595, 1601, 1661,1662, 1713,1715, 1716, 1718, 1739,1781, 1784, 1836, 

1838,1840,1842,1856,1872, 1892 

GlLARIVER .............................................................................. 91 

GIs . . 320,380,447,449,464,598,663,749,750,873,874,975,977, 1002, 1372, 1394, 1399, 1478, 1520, 1521, 

1555,1838,1848, 1880 

GLOBALWARMING .............................................................. 443,452,779 

GLOSSARY .............................................................................. 747 

GRAMINOIDS ....................................................................... 813,816 

GRAZINGIMPACTS . 3,7, 11, 14, 17, 19,22,23,25,29,44,51,63-66,73,76,93, 102, 109, 110, 118, 122, 123, 

125, 13 1, 142, 157, 170, 171, 175-177, 179, 192, 194,201,202,215,240-243,247-249,25 1,252,254, 

255,269,281,284,298,308,309,312,322,323,328,329,331,333,334,336-338, 340, 341,348,358, 

359,362-364,369,373,378,385,386,390,396,397,410,413,423-425,432,460, 467, 468,475,478, 

484,485,496,507-509,5 15,5 17,554,561,562, 568,570, 578,581 , 591, 596,603,615,6 16,627,628, 

642-645, 649,650,652, 663,664,673-675,682,703,715,725,761,763,764,773,777,780-782,803, 

812, 822, 838, 862,872, 893-895, 897-899,905,910,920,921,923,930,932,935,936,938,945,962, 

963,965,967,970,992,993,997,999, 1003, 1007-1009,1011, 1035,1036, 1042, 1070, 1073-1076, 1078, 

1086, 1087, 1093,1094,1098-1 100,1111,1120,1121, 1124, 1129, 1132,1155, 1164, 1193, 1195,1203, 

1204, 1206, 1213, 1214, 1221, 1235, 1240, 1251, 1252, 1256, 1260, 1266, 1267, 1276, 1288, 1290, 1297, 

1298, 1317-1319, 1321-1326, 1328, 1329,1333, 1335-1338, 1340-1342, 1344-1346, 1348, 1350, 1353- 

1357,1359-1361,1364, 1365,1367,1370,1382,1383,1387,1395,1404-1406,1408,1414,1419,1427, 

1434-1437, 1442,1443, 1446-1448,1470, 1476, 1477, 1481, 1486, 1490, 1508, 1510, 151 1, 1519, 1522, 

1529, 1531, 1533, 1535, 1546, 1549, 1552, 1556, 1559, 1561, 1562, 1569, 1571, 1573, 1577, 1579, 1580, 

1589, 1596,1598-1600,1616,1634,1638,1639,1650,165~ 1657, 1666,1667,1682,1687, 1695,1701, 

1702, 1723, 1724, 1733, 1742, 1743, 1750, 1755, 1759, 1770, 1778, 1785, 1788, 1790, 1795, 1797, 1798, 

1800, 1832,1844, 1866, 1874, 1887, 1888 

GRAZING TREATMENTS . 142, 177,242,243,251,252,281,284,339,340,378,485,513,517,562,596,603, 

616,715,780,781,862,894,930,938, 1073-1075, 1086, 1094, 1 155, 1203, 1206, 1325, 1328, 1333, 1335, 

1338, 1340, 1353, 1361, 1365, 1405, 1437, 1519, 1561, 1576, 1577, 1639, 1667, 1724, 1798, 1832, 1874 

GREEN-LINEMETHOD ................................................................... 276 

GREENHOUSEEFFECT ................................................................... 443 

GROUNDWATER . . . . 296,302,605,657,751,766,836,958, 1053, 1222,1428, 1472, 1642, 1648, 1754, 1810 
GROWINGSEASONS .................................................................... 1056 

GROWTHRATES ......................................................................... 955 

GULLY CONTROL . . 140. 196.197. 63 1.713.726.730.733.734.737.740.741.1041. 1097. 1270. 1271. 1293. 

1313. 1366. 1514.1515.1668. 1824. 1898 

H 

HABITAT MANAGEMENT .................. 487.677. 69 1.797.920. 1 108. 1 183. 1294. 1526. 1597. 1720 

HEADCUTTING ......................................................................... 1899 

HEAVYMETALS .................................................................... 856. 1079 

HERBICIDES ........................................................ 114.489.1158.1222. 1635 

HERBIVORY ............................................................................ 467 

HERPETOFAUNA ................................ 21 8.268.610.845.879.880. 1047. 1679. 1682. 1816 

HISTORIC RECORDS ..... 75.219.281.398.466.500.578.652.671.771.909. 1046.1166. 1194.1256. 1302. 

1414. 1476. 1479. 1480. 1485. 1525.1528. 1553. 1582. 1739. 1750. 1770 

HUMAN IMPACTS . . 21.219.250. 3 17.374.400.537.624.641.767.908. 11.51, 1448. 1507. 1612. 1691. 1734. 

1842. 1876 

HYDRAULICS ......................................... 46.49.520.731.759. 1016. 1017. 1272. 1425 

HYDROCHEMICAL INFLUENCES ......................................................... 1347 

HYDROELECTRIC IMPACTS ................................... 495.705.707.950.1027. 1453. 1664 

HYDROGEOMORPHIC ................................................................... 1257 

HYDROLOGICUNITAREA ................................................................. 24 

HYDROLOGY . 68.72.79.86.88.96. 107. I1 1. 112. 114. 115. 119. 130. 152. 189.207.208.253.283.288.296. 

302~3537355.367.379.382~387.392.402.416.431.434.440.444.449.48l. 490. 492. 504. 505.5209 

525. 531. 534.538. 547. 552. 553. 563. 571.585-587. 597. 605.614. 636.646.649. 659. 693.697. 700. 

706.707.724.735.743.751.763.764.766.783.785.789.826.8355852.853.85728597 860.878.8829 

883~886~909.914.917.918.926.950.958.959.976978987.990994996 1002. 1012. 1014. 101 8. 

1026. 1031. 1045. 1048. 1052. 1054. 1063. 1082. 1097. 1113. 1137. 1139. 1146. 1171. 1174. 1176. 1192. 

1215. 1220.1232.1234. 1237~1264~1272.1314.1347~1373.1375.1379-1381.386. 1403.1421. 1424. 

1428-1430. 1444. 1452. 1456. 1474. 1475. 1478.1480. 1483.153 5.1 537. 1541. 1557. 1558. 1564. 1566. 

1581. 1583. 1642. 1644. 1648.1683. 1717. 1740. 1745. 1754. 1772. 1780. 1781. 1784. 1787. 1803.1809. 

1837.1840-1842. 185 1.1882. 1886. 1899 

HYDROPHYTES ........................................................................ 1729 

I 

IMPACTMITIGATION ............................................................... 511. 1538 

INDIANTREATYFISHINGRIGHTS ........................................................ 1748 

INERTIAVALUES ........................................................................ 349 

INFILTRATION ................................................................. 571. 989 

INSTREAM STRUCTURES ....................................... 436. 5 15.607. 76 1.796. 14 15. 1462 

INTEGRATEDUSE ...................................................................... I670 

INTERDISCIPLINARYTEAMS ............................................................. 110 

INTERESTEDPUBLICS ................................................................... 445 

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ........................................................... 1786 

INVENTORY . 9.78. 194.2267372.404.405.486.493.516.6377679.683.685.686.709.754.954. 1154. 1191. 

1194. 1205. 1207. 1224. 1276. 1278. 1279.1287. 1295.1308. 1310. 1327. 1370. 1377. 1378. 1394. 1402. 

1410. 1417. 1489. 1637. 1690. 1728. 1757. 1771. 1814. 1838. 1848. 1858. 1880 

INVERTEBRATES . 38.300.381.403.456.523.769.779.937.1089. 1 1 17.1436.1454.1499. 1727. 1793. 1820 

IRRIGATIONIMPACTS ......................................................... 608.1642. 1877 

ISOTOPEANALYSIS ...................................................................... 548 

L 

LACUSTRINE ECOLOGY .............................................. 185.557. 83 1.834.900.9 10 

LAGOMORPHS ......................................................................... 820 

LANDETHICS ....................................................................... 280. 676 
LAND USE ........ 275.278.346.647.966.967. 1046. 1 1 14. 1228. 1438. 1478. 1524. 1553. 1636. 1691. 1744 

LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY ..................... 70.263.278.465.912. 1062. 141 8. 1482. 1498. 1524. 181 8 

LARGE WOODY DEBRIS .... 120.145.206.244.245.453.469.656.670.765.778.796.871.957.1023.1199. 

1830 

LEGALACTIONS ....................................................................... 1807 

LIGHT ABSORPTION ..................................................................... 808 

LITTER FALL .......................................................... 127.403.512.10037 1693 

LITTORALZONE ......................................................................... 448 

LIVESTOCK EFFECTS . 22.23.29.64.93. 109.240.241.251.269.309~328~337~341~363~386.396~397~410. 

423.438. 502.507.561.627.644.650.663.673.682.703.777.781. 847. 895.935.952.965.967.993. 

1009. 1036. 1076.1078. 1087. 1093.1100. 1 164. 1 193. 1 195. 1203.1213.1214.1221.1266.1267. 1290. 

1321.1322. 1326.1328. 1341. 1342.1355.1365. 1370.1395. 1434. 1442. 1446.1494. 1533.1573. 1576. 

1600. 1742.1778.1790.1798. 1844 

LOGGING IMPACTS ... 41. 135. 145. 147.148. 162.218.229. 23 1.244~246~291~311~315.351.375~377~392~ 

394.490. 526.528.529. 566.593.595.625.637.63s. 670 697.744 794 87 926.953969 1054. 1058. 

1083.113 7.1 140~1142.1302.1348.1543. 1558.1568. 1725.1738.1740.1776. 1859 

LOTICECOSYSTEMS ............................................................... 1149. 1894 

M 

MACROFAUNA .......................................................................... 817 

MACROHABITAT ....................................................................... 1057 

MACROINVERTEBRATES .... 121. 29 1. 38 1.446.479.668.710.765.807.984. 113 1.1148.1304.1438.1442. 

1451. 1624. 1859 

MAMMALS .......................................................................... 94. 1689 

MANAGEMENTPLANS .......................................................... 497.870. 1813 

MAPPING ....................................................................... 679.685. 909 

MARSHES ............................................................................ 16. 888 

MATERIALTRANSFER .................................................................. 1613 

MEADOWS ..... 69.130.157.215.216.286.304.322.431.501.596.780.1028.1085. 1101.1150. 1405.1430. 

1488. 1898. 1899 

MEDUSAHEAD .......................................................................... 159 

MICROBIOLOGY .......................................................... 819.1574.1693. 1791 

MICROHABITATS ........................................................................ 579 

MIGRATION ............................................................................. 576 

MNED LAND RECLAMATION .................................................. 1450. 1455. 1618 

MINING IMPACTS ...... 207~221~285~297.518.553~632~710~711.807. 1 19.1347.1349.1455. 1472. 161 8 

MITIGATION ................................................. 588.609.1201.1393.1679. 1680 

MITIGATIONBANKNG ................................................................. 1897 

MODELING .... 36.68.79. 139. 189~278~310~325.363~379.390.403.449.481.495.550.555.563.567~571. 

582.589.659.662.689.691.707.725.755.797.800 83 84 68 7 6 9 3 3 9 3 4 9 6 8 9 8 8 9 9 0 1 0 2 6 . 

1035. 1044. 1052. 1219. 1233. 1264. 1285. 1375. 1403. 1420.1445. 1475. 1541. 1551. 1552. 1555. 1637. 

1647.1717~1737~1780.1783.1787~ 1806.1818.1851. 1856. 1882 

MONITORING ... 9.40.63.106. 108. 110.141. 149.276.319.345.361.369.372.380.385.391.399.401.404. 

407.409.480.482.499.516. 545.562.584.585.59l~630.6343645.6633686.688.699.702.7062708. 

709.750.838.846.853.886.889.922.947.978.985998 1004. 1054. 1064. 1070. 1154. 1205. 1207. 

1208. 1210. 1249. 1276. 1311. 1327. 1351. 1402. 1419. 1438. 1441.1465. 1474. 1560. 1566. 1582. 1636. 

1711. 1745. 1751. 1757. 1758. 1762. 1772. 1801. 1852 

MOOSE ................................................................................ 1443 

MOWING ........................................................................... 386 

MULEDEER ......................................................................... 295. 961 

MULTIDISCIPLINARYSTUDIES ........................................................... 858 

MULTIPLE USE ..................... 122.269.792. 1408. 1585. 1587. 1639. 1659. 1671.1765. 1777. 1875 

MULTlSCALE ANALY SlS ................................................................ 1277 
MULTIVARlANCEANALYSlS ........................................................... 5. 319 

MYCORRHIZAE ........................................................................ 1853 

N 

NATIONAL CONSERVATION AREA ....................................................... 1895 

NATIVEFISHES ......................................................................... 1440 

NATIVEUNGULATES ................................................................... I571 

NATURAL AREAS ................................................ 997. 1390.1392. 1617. 1709. 1732 

NEOTROPlCAL BIRDS ................................................. 432.539. 150 1. 15 17. 15 18 

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION . . 6.7.76. 125. 171. 174. 175.252.292.297.339.377.413.429.430.446. 

456.531.592.598.627.776.782.798.809.821.824842872 1050. 1140. 1165. 1213. 1214. 1263. 

1296. 1297. 1374.1400.1421. 1577. 1578. 1723. 1744. 1779. 1800. 1805. 1869. 1880. 1891. 1892 

NUTRIENT CYCLES . . 129. 144.157.2637292.352.358.360.381.389.428.512.519.547.567.593.605.642. 

673.766.798.808.819.833.842.901. 1025. 1040. 1049. 1082. 1149.1157~1163~1172.1195~ 1213. 

1216. 1248. 1263. 1303. 1306. 1420. 1495. 1496. 1535. 1608. 1626. 1693. 1722. 1744 

0 

OILIGASIMPACTS .............................................................. 285.511. 1664 

OLD-GROWTHFOREST ................................................................... 625 

OPENSPACE ........................................................................ 99. 1839 

ORGANIC DEBRIS .... 127. 144. 147. 148.348.351.360.403.448.490.505.646.906.907. 1080. 1084. 1172. 

1343.1495. 1507. 1608. 1613.1614.1663.1682.1727. 1900 

P 

PARASITlSM ............................................................. 415.1501.1517. 1518 

PARKMANAGEMENT .................................................................... 549 

PARTICLESIZE ......................................................................... 1569 

PARTNERSHIPS ............. 113. 199.324.437.475.612.715.716.806.858. 1088. 1168. 1371. 1651. 1731 

PASSIVE RESTORATION .............................................................. 768. 892 

PATHOGENS ....................................................................... 102. 1213 

PEATLANDS .................................................................. 300.1391. 1392 

PEBBLECOUNTS ........................................................................ 141 

PECOSRIVER ...................................................................... 806.1034 

PERMITTING ........................................................................... 1179 

PFANKUCH STREAM CHANNEL EVALUATION ............................................. 194 

PHOTO PLOTS .................................................... 632.634.708.1060.1064. 1824 

PHOTOSYNTHESIS ....................................................................... 901 

PHREATOPHYTES ........................... 32.219.289.303.357.402.461.633.790.793. 1445. 1452 

PINYON-JUNIPER ........................................................................ 626 

PLANNING .... 24.223.256.420.445.624.635.767.788.914.964. 1022. 11 10. 1128. 125 1. 1258. 1460. 1547. 

1625. 1736. 1752. 1762.1768. 1854 

PLANT COMMUNITIES . 33.80.89. 168. 169.276.333.365.493.510.565.683.687.696.721.771.960. 1000. 

1003. 1067. 11 15. 1212. 1239. 1280. 1288. 1357. 1372. 1380. 1429. 1481. 1484. 1508. 1603. 1617. 1646. 

1676.1729.1810.1838.1883. 1896 

PLANTIDENTIFICATION ................................................................. 617 

PLANT MATERlALS ................................................. 289.527. 55 1.774.814. 1 188 

PLANTPHENOLOGY ....................................................................... 4 

PLANTPHYSIOLOGY ................................................................... 1430 

PLANTPRODUCTION ................................................................... 1003 

PLANT PROPAGATION ..................................................... 365.527. 1 188. 1605 

PLANT TISSUE ......................................................................... 1820 

PLANTYIELDS .......................................................................... 332 

PLANT-SOIL RELATIONSHlPS ............................................................. 158 
PLANTINGS ......................................... 1 15.275.289.294.337. 1 105. 1672. 1883. 1884 

PLATTE RIVER ........................................ 69.396.398.462.752.939. 1261. 1529. 1532 

PLAYAS ................................................................... 158.180.721. 1282 

POINTSOURCEPOLLUTION ............................................................. 1400 

POLICY . . 82.90. 125. 161.233.526.560.602.827.843.863.943.972.973.986. 1014. 1 1 19. 1202. 1241. 1242. 

1245.1262. 1387.1460.1477. 1503.1538.1627.1649. 1759. 1766.1769. 1847 

POLITICALISSUES ....................................................................... 232 

POLLUTION ..................... 274.462.463.660.766. 1029. 1058. 1 173.1349. 1472. 1754.1837. 1862 

POPULATION DYNAMICS .................................................... 14.854. 143 1. 1720 

POTHOLES .............................................................................. 783 

PRECIPlTATlON ................................................. 135.580.1002. 1060.1372. 1551 

PREDATION ................................................ 4 15.658. 1497. 1499. 1775. 1776. 1859 

PREHISTORICDISTURBANCE ............................................................ 1691 

PRESCRIBED BURNING ......................................................... 157. 5 19. 1 139 

PRESCRIBEDGRAZING .................................................................. 1531 

PRIMARY PRODUCTION ......................................................... 593.882. 1596 

PROPER FUNCTIONING CONDITION .................................... 977. 1252. 1379- 138 1. 1470 

PROTECTEDRIVERS ..................................................................... 635 

PROTOCOLS ............................................................................ 385 

PUBLICCOMMENT ........................................................ 812.863.1111. 1449 

PUBLICLAND ..................................................................... 1395. 1888 

PUBLIC TRUST DOCTRINE ....................................................... 84 1.844. 1 109 

PUEBLOINDIANS ....................................................................... 1301 

PURPLELOOSESTRIFE .................................................................. 1709 

R 

RANGE MANAGEMENT ............... 497.569.580.592.612. 1007. 1060. 1444. 1705. 1706. 1733. 1750 

RANGELAND ECOSYSTEMS ......................................................... 372. 1008 

RANGELAND HEALTH ..................................................... 569.652.1553. 1770 

RANGELANDSTREAMS .................................................................. 385 

RAPTORS ................................................................................ 91 

RECREATION IMPACTS .... 21.66,124, 156.199. 3 17,537.549.577.641,786.864.1068. 1426. 1650. 1839. 

1864 

RECRUITMENT ................................................................. 936,960, 1059 

REDOXPOTENTIAL .......................................................... 367,642,856. 882 

REFERENCESITES ................................................................... 699, 848 

REGULATIONS .................................................................. 161,184, 556 

REMOTE SENSING ... 108.273,345.407,481,754.835,977, 1219. 1289. 131 1, 1378. 1399, 1403, 1444. 1636 

REPTILES ................................................................... 94,610,879, 1679 

RESEARCH .. 105,544,831.913.986. 1149,1291,1315.1335~ 1351. 1352,1360,1362.1375, 1385.1435, 1437, 

1441, 1565, 1627, 1827 

RESEEDING ............................................................................. 927 

RESERVOIRS ...................................................................... 1259, 1623 

RESILIENCY ...................................................................... 349 

RESOURCE CONFLICTS ................................................................. 1868 

RESTROTATION ........................................................................ 1094 

RESTORATIONPROJECTS ................................................................ 419 

RIO GRANDE . . 98-100,321, 389,441, 5 12,544,577,601,799,802, 1000, 1 194, 1371, 1501, 1525, 1606, 1842, 

1876,1877, 188 1 

RIPARIAN ........ 39,309,467,507.761,848,921,924.993, 1012. 1164, 1381, 1504, 1556. 1681, 1710, 1743 

RIPARIAN CONDITION ...................................................... 136,326,591. 1210 

RIPARIAN ECOLOGY .. 8,22,88,98, 122, 124. 132,210,214.268,269,305,373,403.434,450,472,499,514, 

523,543,642,669,685,731,738,784,801,833,843,852,853,865,869,877,896,941,944,954.999. 
1009, 1028, 1051, 1065, 1143, 1148, 1175, 1195, 1239, 1319, 1441, 1491, 1560, 1615, 1626, 1648, 1663, 

1674, 1678, 1739, 1747, 1763, I78 1, 18 12, 1827, I83 1, 1865, 1876, I889 

RIPARIAN ENHANCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142,163,187,308,435,438,554, 1356, 1382, 1667,1702,1703 

RIPARIAN FOREST . . . . 2,26,50,56,67,70,73,89,128,145,148,160, 165, 195, 198,206,270,279,307,325, 

342,368,376,387,397,414,415,450,452,457,460,473,521, 538,567,572, 573,605,613,624,626, 

628,629,640,689,757,758,770,772,778,791,796,799,854,867,871,875,89l, 970, 1023, 1040, 

1049,1054, 1090,1158,1181,1198,1199,1245,1263,1274,1306,1309,1310,1384,1388,1416, 1418, 

1458, 1482, 1484, 1489, 1522, 1523,1527, 1530, 1539, 1543, 1544,1593, 1614, 1629, 1673, 1677, 1724, 

1725,1749,1783, 1803, 1855 

RIPARIAN HABITAT . . . 3-5, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 19,21,26,27,29-41,43-45,50,52, 54-57,59-63,66,67,69, 

70,74,75,78,80-85, 89-92,94,95,98, 104-106, 108-110, 113, 116, 118, 121, 124, 126, 130, 133, 136- 

139, 143, 146, 148, 149, 151, 153-156, 158-169, 172, 173, 180-187, 191-193, 195, 198-203,205,207,212, 

214,216-219,222-227,232-236,245,250,254,259,263,264,266,268,270-272,274,276,277,279,281, 

282,284-287,291,294,295,299,301,303,311,315,317-322,324,325,327,332,334,335,344,345, 

347,351,353,357,359,360,366,370-372,375-377,380,383,387,388,391,394-396,398-400,402-408, 

41 1,414,420,421,423,424,427,429,434,437,44l,442,447,450-452,454-458,460-462,465,466, 

469,471 -473,477,482,484,486-489,491,493,495,496,498-5005 lo- 3 5 6 523, 525-529,532, 533, 

535-537,539-549,554-557, 560,564-567,574,575,577,579, 582-584,588,590,593-595, 599,604,606, 

610,611,615,617,618,626,635,638-641,648,651,653,657,660,661,664,666-668,671,672,674, 

676,678-681,683-687,689-691,694,696,698, 705,709,716-720,723,744-747,749, 750, 753,754, 757, 

758,767,770,775,779,786,787,790-794,797,798,SO 1,802,804-807,8 10,s 1 1,s 13,s 18, 8 19,823, 

825, 827-830,832,836, 841, 843-845,847, 851, 854,855, 863-871, 873-875, 877, 879-881,885, 887, 888, 

890, 891, 896, 898,900,904,908,911,916,919,920,922,925,928,929,931-933,937,939-946,953- 

955,957,961,963,964,966,967,971-975,979,984991995 99 1000,1004,1005,101 0, 1013,1020, 

1027, 1029, 1034, 1037-1040, 1043, 1044, 1046-1048, 1050, 1053,1056, 1058, 1061, 1062, 1066-1069, 

1071, 1072, 1079, 1081,1083, 1087, 1089, 1091, 1096,1098-1102, 1104,1106, 1107,1109,1110,1112, 

11 14-1 118, 1120-1 125, 1127, 1128, 1130-1 134, 1143, 1145, 1147, 1148, 1151-1 156, 1158, 1161, 1162, 

1166,1168-1171,1173,1177,1180,1181,1183, 1184, 1189,1194,1197-1199,1201,1202,1207,1208, 

1210-1212, 1215, 1216, 1221-1226, 1229, 1230,1236, 1239, 1242, 1243, 1245, 1246, 1252-1254, 1259- 

1261, 1265, 1268,1269, 1273-1275, 1277, 1280, 1284, 1285, 1287, 1292, 1294,1295, 1301, 1303-1307, 

1309-1312,1315-1318,1321, 1323-1325,1327,1329-1334,1338,1341,1343-1345,1351,1352,1354, 

1358, 1359, 1361, 1363, 1368, 1371, 1372, 1376-1378,1380,1382,1384,1385, 1388, 1389, 1391, 1392, 

1394, 1396-1399, 1401, 1406,1407, 1409-1418, 1423, 1426, 1429, 1438-1442, 1445, 1451, 1453, 1454, 

1457, 1463-1466, 1472,1473, 1477, 1481, 1482, 1486-1493,1498, 1499, 1501, 1503-1507, 1510, 1517, 

1518, 1520, 1521, 1524, 1527-1530, 1532, 1536, 1539, 1542, 1544-1547, 1550, 1553-1555, 1563, 1565, 

1568, 1570, 1572, 1574,1579,1580,1584-1588,1597,1600,1602-1604, 1606-1608,1612-1615,1617, 

1619-1621, 1623-1625, 1627, 1628, 1632, 1636, 1637,1640, 1645, 1647, 1649, 1651, 1652, 1654, 1657- 

1659, 1663-1665,1669-1671, 1673-1682, 1684,1686,1688-1691,1695-1700,1704-1709,1712,1714, 

1719-1721, 1727-1730, 1732, 1734-1 736, 1741, 1742,1744, 1747-1 749, 175 1, 1756-1758, 1760, 1763- 

1766, 177 1, 1774,1776, 1777, 1782, 1783, 1793, 1794,1796, 1799, 180 1,1802, 1804, 1807, 1808, 18 10- 

18 17, 1819-1 822, 1827,1829, 1833-1 835, 1839,1840, 1842, 1845-1 850, 1854, 1857-1862, 1864, 1865, 

1867, 1868, 1875, 1876, 1878, 1880, 1881, 1885, 1890, 1893, 1895, 1902-1905 

RIPARIANHEALTH ................................................................. 979,1711 

RIPARIANISSUES.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312,336,812,822, 1111, 1397 

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONE . . . . 3,24,25,41,52,53,65,82,98, 104, 106, 1 16, 123, 128, 13 1, 148, 162, 

169, 193, 199,202,203,212,227,234,252,254,283,287,299,308,323,324,340,344,347,361,374, 

406,420,424-426,437,438,441,451,466,475,508,509,5l4, 515,526,544,549, 555,560, 581,584, 

633,640,643,648,649,675,678,686,687,690,704,71 I, 718-720,735,761,762,771,788,789,826, 

868,893,897,911,952,963,965,966,977,999, 1006, 101 1,1038, 1042, 1050, 1062, 1074, 1075, 1093- 

1223,1224,1257,1268,1273, 1280, 1312, 1339, 

1417, 1434, 1439, 1473, 1487, 1503, 151 1, 1554, 

1704, 1711, 1714,1749, 1751, 1761, 1762, 1777, 

RIPARIAN PASTURES . . . . . 
RIPARIAN PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,237,651,684,956,1063, 1 126, 1275, 1404, 1428, 1430, 1465 

RIPARIAN RESTORATION . 1, 18,20,28,35,37,40,42,58-61,77, 81, 86,94,99-101, 132-134, 150, 179, 188, 

190,201,204,209-21 1,220,243,248,249,257,261,264,273,275,281,289,290,305-307,330,337, 

338,343,349,361,365,389,393,412,419,422,432,433,435,436,438,439,445,453,474,476,480, 

485,489,500-502,506,5 13,5 14,5 17,5 18, 52 1,522, 524,527, 530, 55 I, 553, 575, 58 1,600,607,609, 

613,619-621,629,630,651,688,694,695,698,705,706,714,717,722,726,729,732,740,741,765, 

768,772,774,783,788,795,796,799, 806, 813-815, 831, 834, 839, 840, 846, 850, 855,889, 892,902, 

904,912-915,923,924,927,947-949,951,952,960 971,973,974,978980983, 98 986, 994, 1013, 

1019,1021-1023,1028,1039,1041,1059,1065,1084,1085,1088,1091,1092, 1103,1105,1108,1114, 

11 15, 1125, 1142, 1149, 11.50, 11.59, 1178, 1179, 1182, 1185, 1186, 1188, 1190, 1197, 1202, 1209, 1219, 

1227, 123 1, 1235, 1236,1244, 1247, 1249, 1250,1258, 1259, 1264, 1269, 1271, 1294, 1300, 1334, 1362, 

1365,1376,1383,1393,1395,1398,1411,1413,1427,1432,1433,1449,1450,1455, 1461, 1470,1478, 

1502, 1509, 1517, 1526,1534, 1540, 1545, 1548,1570, 1575, 1578, 1586,1590-1592, 1605, 161 1, 1618, 

1629, 1638, 1641, 1643, 1646, 1656,1668,1672,1702, 1703, 1710, 1726, 1731, 1746, 1753, 1761,1769, 

1781, 1785,1786, 1789, 1790,1823,1825, 1852, 1853,1861, 1863, 1864, 1868, 1879, 1883, 1884, 1894, 

1896, 1898- 1900 

RIPARIANRIGHTS ....................................................................... 444 

RIPARIAN SHRUBS . . . . 74,99, 170,270,272,298,307,336,354,368,433,530,551,572,746,758,774,829, 

898,900,925,942,945,962, 1103, 1188, 1447, 1495, 1573, 1598, 1603, 1605, 1629, 1656, 1795, 1896 

RIPARIANSTRUCTURES ........................................................ 506,982,1570 

RIPARIANSTUDIES ........................................................... 1291,1685,1688 

RIPARIANVALUES ................................................................ 1151,1666 

RIPARIAN VEGETATION . . . . 27,67,75,118,121,123,129,200,237,243,249,251,265,271,273,282,298, 

300,302,326,330,338,343,348,354,357,360,398,399,401,433,464,468,469,482,494,505, 507, 

568,591,595,599,604,618,628,631,657,684,704,705,721,722,728,760,775,784,790,792,793, 

805,816,864,866,893,894,937,939,942,944,950,956,958,992,998,1058,1068,1070,1076,1083, 

1084, 1099, 1103,1119, 1129,1133, 1162, 1169, 1191,1194, 1211, 1217, 1220,1237, 1238, 1246, 1266, 

1268, 1297, 1298,1303, 1305,1331, 1332, 1342, 1343, 1355,1368, 1379, 1409, 1410, 1414, 1447, 1500, 

1524, 1528, 1549, 1563, 1594, 1617, 1620, 1631, 1633, 1635, 1640, 1643-1645, 1647, 1652, 1660, 1663, 

1665, 1672,1674,1678, 1683-1 686, 1688, 1690, 1692, 1700, 1701, 1765, 1767, 1788, 1799, 1803, 1808, 

1809, 1815, 1834, 1835, 1875, 1901, 1902 

RIPARIAN ZONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,75,206,258,290,702,715,975, 1082, 1734, 1752 

RIPARIAN-WETLANDINITIATIVE .................................................... 327,1761 

RIVERECOLOGY . . . 15,182,221,232,251,255,416,538,621,841,858, 1022, 1024,1043,1044, 11 10,1149, 

1242, 1378, 1457, 1487, 1523, 1540, 1595, 1612, 1625, 1651, 1714, 1804, 1867, 1871, 1879 

RIVERMEANDERS ...................................................................... 1015 

ROAD IMPACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55,267,350,490,600,698,98 1,1138,1142 

ROOTDEPTH ............................................................................ 752 

RUNOFF . . . . . 71, 145, 152, 189,292,440,481,570,571,576,662,724,763,764,989, 1192, 1234, 1290, 1296, 

1301, 1456, 1496, 1551, 1583,1593, 1610,1780 

RUSHES ............................................................................ 813,815 

S 

SAGEBRUSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159,295,334,337,362,565, 1028, 1288, 1466, 1846 

SALINITY .......................................................................... 158,1201 

SALMONRECOVERY ................................................................ 692,919 

SALMONRIVER ......................................................................... 520 

SALMONIDS . . 129, 164,576,653,796,903,936,1117, 1130, 1131, 1159,1186,1199, 1227,1302,1363,1431, 

1775 

SALTMARSHES .................................................................... 834,1265 

SALT-CEDAR . . . . . 32,38,222,270,272,3 18,368,45 1,489,583,791,811,845, 1034, 1635, 1644, 1645, 1692 

SALT-TOLERANCE ...................................................................... 1282 

SAMPLING .................................................................... 838,1276,1870 
SANITARYLANDFILLS .................................................................. 1173 

SCENICQUALITY ........................................................................ 236 

SCIENCE ............................................................................... 1292 

SEASONALPOOLS ....................................................................... 901 

SECONDARY SUCCESSION ...................................................... 170, 4 1 1, 1887 

SEDGES ................................................................. 14,17,816,1404, I407 

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT . . 47,49,71,96,293,310,338,490,550,742,756,837,857,859,861,876,917,988, 

989, 1030,1033,1051, 1079, 1135, 1136, 1141, 1200, 1228, 1270, 1299,1313, 1459, 1557-1559, 1613, 

166 1, 171 6, 1779, 1792, 1805, 1806, 1836, 1843, 185 1, 18.56, 1892 

SEDIMENTATION . . 66,71, 153, 164, 172, 178, 196,197, 23 1,238,253,260,267,288,329,330,356,434,459, 

490,570,623,654,656,662,807,861,918, 1032, 1033,1058,1063,1113, 1135-1139,1141, 1142, 1271, 

1293, 1296-1299, 1363,1367, 1389,1467,1470,1512,1513,1535, 1541, 1610, 1612, 1660, 1715, 1716, 

1718, 1719, 1727, 1792, 1805, 1811, 1832, 1837, 1870 

SEEDBANK ............................................................................. 557 

SEED PRODUCTlON .......................... 101, 183,332,689,814,815,899, 1059, 1081, 1592, 1646 

SHADING .............................................................. 50,401,995,1388, 1527 

SHARP-TAILEDGROUSE ................................................................ 1072 

SHOOTGROWTH ......................................................................... I4 

SHORELINES ........................................................................ 428, 777 

SILTREMOVAL ......................................................................... 1159 

SKAGITRIVER .................................................................... 1157, 1867 

SMALL MAMMALS ..... 30,31,37,56,57,138, 166,286,334,335,394,395,457,458,611,810, 1101, 1106, 

1120, 1121, 1123, 1261, 1346, 1510, 1568, 1680 

SMZ ........................................................ 323,457,871,1278,1309,1756, 1847 

SNAKERIVER .............................................................. 62,464,1071, 1755 

SNOWMELT ............................................................................ 830 

SOCIAL VALUES ........................................................... 676,786, 1449, 1625 

SOILTEMPERATURE ..................................................................... I73 

SOIL-WATER CONDITIONS ................................... 195,368,959, 1281,1290, 1474, 1846 

SOILS ... 12,27,80,96,169, 171, 176,196,208,217,240,253,263,304,328, 33 1,362,417,418,449,504,505, 

5 10,550,566,568,586,641,655,659,687,730,734,740,835,883,990, 1012, 1 137, 1140, 1171,1212, 

1228, 1247,1250.1280,1281,1288.1289,1313,1380,1381, 1421,1429, 1459,1494,1574,1594,1602, 

1643,1661, 1662,1699, 1713,1716, 1729, 1798, 1799,1803, 1832,1838, 1843,1846, 1853, 1874, 1882, 

1892, 1900 

SOLARRADIATION ...................................................................... 229 

SOUTHWESTERN DESERT STREAMS ................................... 142,554,1048, 1166, 1226 

SPATIAL SCALE . . 8, 167,370,379,403,440,574,667,706,915,916,934,984, 1171, 1182, 1227, 1282, 1372, 

1412, 1439, 1482, 1507, 1560, 1564, 1838, 1841, 1845 

SPAWNINGHABITAT ................................................. 576,629,1032,1159, 1230 

SPEClESDlSTRIBUTION ................................................................. 1066 

SPECIESRECOVERY ..................................................................... 306 

SPECIES RICHNESS ..................................... 381,479,503, 1000, 1368, 1482,1621, 1631 

STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES .................................................. 106,996, 1419 

STATEPARKS ........................................................................... 577 

STEELHEAD ............................................................................ 1775 

STEWARDSHIP .................................................... 445,532,676,688, 1039, 1487 

STOCKPONDS .......................................................................... I886 

STORMEVENTS ................................................................... 1345, I509 

STREAM ECOLOGY . 23,64,92, 127,144, 147,238,305,350,370,372,373,486,498,664,728,749,753,769, 

803,807,817,829,839,840, 884, 1018, 1133, 1172, 1176, 1179,1316, 1468, 1499, 1514, 1516, 1561, 

1613, 1873 

STREAM FLOW . 69,84,87, 107, I1 1, 1 19, 180, 191,211,236,288, 3 15,355,368,434,453,454,494,498,525, 

533, 572,573,597,615,629,636,658,697,700,753,826,859,878,916-918,926,95O, 1018, 1045, 1059, 

1061, 1103, 11 13, 11 18, 1126, 1139, 1147, 1176, 1196, 1232, 1233, 1236, 1363, 1373, 1386, 1445, 1453, 
1458~1470~1471.1537.1583.1609.1619.1640.1647.1660.1683. 1740. 1780.1841. 1855 

STREAM IMPROVEMENTS ... 188.261.267.422.488.501.677.795.892.949. 1005. 1186. 1354. 1461.1463. 

1601. 1641. 1755. 1863 

STREAM TEMPERATURE ................. 26.117. 136.229.779.794.995. 1057. 1642. 1700. 1733. 1773 

STREAMVELOCITY ..................................................................... I238 

STREAMBANK PROTECTION .... 72.150.239.254.255.313.343.439.654.655.785.895.980. 1031. 1073. 

1247. 1255. 1289. 1378. 1567. 1715. 1718. 1824. 1871 

STREAMBANK STABILITY .... 20.48. 132. 172. 173. 177. 197.247.262.385.538.623.657.987. 1075. 1078. 

1250.1308.1331.1353.1357.1358.1366.1369.1463.1548.1594.1630.1716.1753. 1902 

STREAMBEDS .......................................................................... 1737 

STRESS ........................................................................... 1248. 1831 

STUBBLE HEIGHT ............................ 13 1.328. 33 1.338.341.478.675.1296. 1297. 1573. 1767 

SUCCESSION ............................................................. 5. 103.643.924. 1 146 

SURFACE WATER-GROUNDWATER INTERACTION ...................... 262.886. 1472. 1475. 1787 

SUSTAINABILITY ........................................................... 371.544.602. 1182 

SWEETWATERRIVER .............................................................. 1651. 1652 

T 

TECHNIQUES ...... 586.645.859.860.886.922.1064.1097.1208.1247.1283. 1286.1289. 1294. 1330. 1565. 

1715.1757.1824.1836.1848~ 1884 

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS ............................................................ 1025 

TERRESTRIAL1 AQUATIC INTERACTIONS .................................................. 146 

TOPSOIL ............................................................................... I900 

TOXICOLOGY ...................................................................... 810. 1819 

TRANSPLANTS ...................................................................... 1629 

TREEDISTRIBUTION ..................................................................... 604 

TREEPRODUCTS ........................................................................ 626 

TREESIZE .............................................................................. 770 

TREND ................................................................................ 1711 

TRIBALLANDS ......................................................................... I161 

TROUT ..... 9.51.64. 151.192.193.277.393.412.503.653.716.803.905.951.968.1057.1117. 1126.1243. 

1696. 1785. 1822. 1834. 1835. 1859. 1890 

U 

UPLANDVEGETATION .............................................................. 611. 1102 

URBAN IMPACTS ................................................... 154.400.427.588.908. 1432 

UTILIZATION ....................... 109. 13 1.331.339.364.663.675.862.930. 1094. 1346. 1573. 1767 

UVRADIATION ..................................................................... 448.1791 

v 

VEGETATION MANAGEMENT .................. 96.329.346.417.418.502.607.724.727.733.789. 887 

VEGETATION MANIPULATION ................................................... 21 5.433. 1584 

VIDEOGRAPHY ...................................................................... 326. 722 

VOLUNTEERS ....................................................... 1 16. I 190. 1209.1449. 171 0 

W 

WARM WATER STREAMS ............................................................... 1497 

WASTEWATER .......................................................................... 601 

WATER ALLOCATION .......................................................... 250. 1694. 182 1 

WATERBALANCE ................................................................... 878. 976 

WATERBANKS ......................................................................... I167 

WATERCONSERVATION ................................................................ 1609 
WATERCYCLES ........................................................................ 1145 

WATERFEATURES ..................................................................... 1013 

WATERISSUES .......................................................................... 182 

WATER LAW ................. 42,201,202,454,597,776, 1069,1144, 1196, 1218, 1232, 1575, 1655, 1748 

WATERLEVELS .................................................................... 834,1692 

WATERLOSS ............................................................................ 583 

WATERPERMITS ........................................................................ 444 

WATERPOTENTIAL ...................................................................... 958 

WATERQUALITY.. . 6,7, 15,22,24, 102, 110,114, 125,128, 171,174, 175, 177,205,221,230,247,252,267, 

297,309,316,350,352,358,366,374,381,413,417,418,421,429,430,456,459,463,470,475,503, 

531,559,592,598,601,602,608,612,615,625,668,748,776,782, 809, 821, 823, 824,830, 853, 856, 

872,89O,lOOl, 1050, 1051,1054,1055, 1079, 1140,1158, 1163, 1165, 1167, 1193, 1202, 1213, 1214, 

1218,1222, 1251, 1284,1303, 1349, 1374, 1400,1420, 1421, 1500, 1538,1543, 1556, 1557, 1559, 1560, 

1577, 1593, 1609, 1622, 1626, 1628, 1630,1653, 1655, 1694, 1696, 1700, 1722-1725, 1733, 1'745, 1754, 

1768, 1772, 1773, 1779, 1800, 1805,1806, 1818, 1819, 183 1, 1869, I874 

WATERREGIMES ........................................................................ 572 

WATERRELATIONS ................................................................ 959,1602 

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT . 68,79, 11 1, 119, 185,230,392,402,473,492,534,560,585. 608,614, 

725,787,789,828,877,1002, 1008, 1014,1232,1386,1403, 1424,1452,1479,1480, 1485, 1566, 1665, 

1764, 1784 

WATER RIGHTS ... 180,355,444,454,597,836, 1055,1061, 1144,1167, 1202,1460, 1575,1609, 11555,1694, 

1821, 1886, 1888 

WATERSOURCES .................................................................... 321,548 

WATERSTRESS ............................................................... 272,1571,1808 

WATERSUPPLY .................................................................... 302,1373 

WATER TABLE EFFECTS ......... 208,304,342,362,367,431,434,451,752,852, 1028, 1430,1465, 1643 

WATER TEMPERATURES ............................................................ 996, 1053 

WATERTRAPPING ...................................................................... 1301 

WATERTREATMENT .................................................................... 559 

WATERTURBIDITY ...................................................................... 459 

WATER YIELD ............................................... 135,283,552,969,1192, 1593, 1875 

WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT. ...................... 235,660,887,101 0, 1 100,1506, 1547, 1697, 1825 

WATERSHED.. .. 13, 15,22,28,40,71,86-88,102,135, 141,152, 178,182,189,205,209,211,213,220,223, 

231,246,253,256,258,274,297,304,320,352,357,418,438,439,470,472,474,480,497, 519,536, 

552,559,563, 574,575,579,593,600,614,615,625,626,636,638,688,695,697,698,727,732,734, 

742, 762-764,821,838, 853,860, 883,9 1 1,915,969 974,979,982,989,995, 100 1, 1004, 1043, 1 1 13, 

1163,1178, 1182, 1192,1220, 1227, 1234,1267,1306,1314, 1353,1372, 1396, 1420, 1424,1485, 1507, 

1543, 1551,1557, 1560, 1569,1610,1622, 1634,1694, 1722, 1731, 1768, 1804, 1815,1829, 1841, 1866, 

1869, 1886, 1897 

WESTERNJUNIPER ...................................................................... 504 

WETLANDLOSSES ...................................................................... 1187 

WETLANDMITIGATION ............................................................ 1202,1897 

WETLAND MITIGATION BANKING ............................................... 476,849,1726 

WETLANDS ... 1,2, 16,43,45, 77,90, 95, 105, 1 10, 1 13, 143, 180, 184, 190,207,2 13,215,257,27& 287,296, 

300,303,316,345,353,365-367,372,383,389,409,428,443,459,462,477,478,518, 524,532, 535, 

536,606,609,624,660,682,686,695,701,714,745,748,750,783,800, 813, 827,830, 8411, 848, 849, 

870,881,884,888,900,913,931,934,972,976,983, 1010,1012, 1020, 1021, 1045, 1056, 1061, 1096, 

1109, 1127, 1145, 1149, 1156,1160,1173, 1177, 1181, 1184,1187, 1189, 1201, 1202,1229, 11233,1237, 

1241, 1246, 1262, 1265,1311,1361, 1379-1381, 1391,1393, 1399, 1407, 1417,1433,1486, 11492,1493, 

1505, 1506,1540, 1547, 1584, 1596, 1597, 1620, 1623,1628, 1633,1649,1664,1675, 1709,1726,1728- 

1730, 1734-1736,1762, 1766,1774,1782, 1786, 1789,1794, 1802, 1814,1825,1826, 1829, 1833,1840, 

1849, 1850, 1860, 1862, 1885 

WETLANDSSEEDBANK ................................................................. 1828 

WHITE-TAILED DEER ............................................... 19,359,496,854,1654,1905 
WHOOPINGCRANES ...................................................................... 69 

WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS .......................................................... 635. 1867 

WILDUNGULATES ...................................................................... 298 

WILDERNESS .......................................................................... 1252 

WILDFIRE ............................................................................... 742 

WILLOW ... 20~74.85~170~272~362.389.617.618.650.746.804~899.925.955.960.1066. 1081. 1105. 1 123. 

1275. 1378. 1443. 1531. 1546. 1571.1587. 1645. 1656. 1673.1692. 1743. 1790. 1795 

WINDTHROW ........................................................................... 656 

WOODY DEBRIS .................. 728. 1063. 1091. 1130. 1166. 1236. 1502.1527. 1559. 1601.1660. 1783 

X 

XERORIPARIAN ............................................................ 332.869.961. 1102 

Y 

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK ................................................... 157 1. 1795 

YELLOWSTONERIVER .................................................................. 1563 
ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION 

The Rocky Mountain Research Station develops scientific information and technology to improve management, protection, and use of 

the forests and rangelands. Research is designed to meet the needs 

of National Forest managers, Federal and State agencies, public and 

private organizations, academic institutions, industry, and individuals. 

Studies accelerate solutions to problems involving ecosystems, 

range, forests, water, recreation, fire, resource inventory, land reclamation, community sustainability, forest engineering technology, 

multiple use economics, wildlife and fish habitat, and forest insects 

and diseases. Studies are conducted cooperatively, and applications 

may be found worldwide. 

Research Locations 

Flagstaff, Arizona 

Fort Collins, Colorado* 

Boise, ldaho 

Moscow, ldaho 

Bozeman, Montana 

Missoula, Montana 

Lincoln, Nebraska 

Reno, Nevada 

Albuquerque, New Mexico 

Rapid City, South Dakota 

Logan, Utah 

Ogden, Utah 

Provo, Utah 

Laramie, Wyoming 

*Station Headquarters, Natural Resources Research Center, 

21 50 Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526 

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