MARIJUANA AVAILABILITY IN THE UNITED STATES 

AND ITS ASSOCIATED TERRITORIES 

A Report Prepared by the Federal Research Division, 

Library of Congress 

under an Interagency Agreement with the 

National Guard Bureau Counterdrug Office (NGB-CD) 

December 2003 

 Project Manager: Rex Hudson

 Federal Research Division

 Library of Congress

 Washington, D.C. 20540−4840

 Tel: 202−707−3900

 Fax: 202−707−3920

 E-Mail: frds@loc.gov 

 Homepage: http://loc.gov/rr/frd/

p 55 Years of Service to the Federal Government p

1948 – 2003 
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Marijuana Availability

PREFACE

The objective of this report is to assess the scope of the problem of marijuana within the 

United States and its associated territories. The report attempts to determine the annual amount 

of marijuana available in this country, including domestically produced and imported marijuana; 

the major avenues through which marijuana from foreign sources is smuggled into the United 

States; how much of the total production actually gets seized by law enforcement authorities; and 

to identify links to organized crime and terrorist groups. Within the context of these objectives, 

this survey summarizes and assesses the most authoritative data published by the U.S. 

government agencies that specialize in counter-narcotics issues. Practically all of the data 

contained in this survey are derived from the online publications of these agencies. Such 

publications provide the most up-to-date information available on the subject. 

This survey focuses primarily on the 50 U.S. states, but also, to the extent that data are 

available, on selected U.S. territories (American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northern 

Mariana Islands, Guam, and the Virgin Islands), as well as the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 

which is associated with the United States. The other U.S. territories may also have a marijuana 

problem, but available pertinent data were insufficient to warrant their inclusion. 

Most of the most publications cited in this survey are those of two agencies in particular: 

the U.S. Department of Justice’s Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the National 

Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC). The publications of the DEA and NDIC proved to be by far 

the most relevant for the purposes of this survey, which is largely a summary of their data. 

Unless noted otherwise, most of the data in the Appendix section on states and territories come

from DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. The NDIC 

publications were particularly useful. The NDIC, which is a member of the Intelligence 

Community, is the nation's principal center for strategic domestic counterdrug 

intelligence. Several publications of the White House’s Office of National Drug Control Policy 

(ONDCP) were also used. 

This survey also incorporates some relevant statistics on foreign sources of marijuana 

contained in the annual International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR), which is 

published by the U.S. Department of State’s Bureau for International Narcotics and Law 

Enforcement Affairs (INL); and the annual Global Illicit Drug Trends (GIDT) report, which is 

published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). However, data from the 

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GIDT and the INCSR are cited with the caveat that they cannot be assumed to be consistently 

reliable. Both publications rely on foreign government reporting, and these data are often 

incomplete and unreliable, as is clearly the case with the data on Jamaica and Mexico. The 

UNODC data on U.S. marijuana cited in this survey presumably were provided by U.S. 

government sources, but they do not necessarily correspond with information found in the 

published U.S. government reports, and therefore are cited only for comparative purposes. The 

INCSR is considered by some analysts to be more authoritative than the GIDT. Nevertheless, a 

significant limitation of the usefulness of the INCSR to this survey is its conspicuous omission of 

data on the United States. Although providing data on domestic U.S. production of marijuana 

and other drugs is not within the mandate of the INCSR, marijuana cultivation and production is 

a major underground industry in this country. 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PREFACE........................................................................................................................................ i 

Table A. Selected Acronyms and Abbreviations........................................................................... vi 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 1 

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 5 

Products of the Cannabis Herb ................................................................................................... 5

Popularity.................................................................................................................................... 7 

Availability ................................................................................................................................. 9 

DOMESTICALLY PRODUCED MARIJUANA ........................................................................ 11 

Indoor Domestic Grows............................................................................................................ 12 

Outdoor Domestic Grows......................................................................................................... 13 

SOURCES OF FOREIGN-PRODUCED MARIJUANA............................................................. 15 

Canada....................................................................................................................................... 16 

Colombia................................................................................................................................... 18 

Jamaica...................................................................................................................................... 19 

Mexico ...................................................................................................................................... 20 

Southeast Asia........................................................................................................................... 21 

ESTIMATING MARIJUANA AVAILABILITY IN THE UNITED STATES AND ITS 

TERRITORIES............................................................................................................................. 21 

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL PRODUCTION SEIZED BY LAW ENFORCEMENT................ 23 

MAJOR AVENUES INTO THE UNITED STATES .................................................................. 25 

From Canada............................................................................................................................. 26 

By Land................................................................................................................................. 26 

By Sea ................................................................................................................................... 27 

By Air.................................................................................................................................... 27 

From the Caribbean................................................................................................................... 28 

From Colombia ......................................................................................................................... 28 

From Mexico............................................................................................................................. 29 

By Land................................................................................................................................. 30 

By Sea ................................................................................................................................... 34 

By Air.................................................................................................................................... 34 

LINKS TO ORGANIZED CRIME .............................................................................................. 35 

Major Trafficking Organizations.............................................................................................. 35

Canada....................................................................................................................................... 35 

Mexico ...................................................................................................................................... 36 

Arellano-Félix....................................................................................................................... 37 

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Vicente Carrillo-Fuentes....................................................................................................... 38 

Armando Valencia-Cornelio................................................................................................. 38 

Miguel Caro-Quintero........................................................................................................... 38 

Osiel Cárdenas-Guillén......................................................................................................... 39 

LINKS TO TERRORISM............................................................................................................. 39 

OUTLOOK ................................................................................................................................... 41 

I. U.S. STATES ............................................................................................................................ 43 

II. THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, U.S. TERRITORIES, AND THE COMMONWEALTH 

OF PUERTO RICO .................................................................................................................... 105 

SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................ 115 

Figures 

Figure 1. Primary U.S. Market Areas for Marijuana .....................................................................10 

Figure 2. Cross-Border Marijuana Distribution in North America................................................27 

Figure 3. Air, Land, and Sea Routes in Mexico Used by Mexican Drug Cartels to Smuggle 

Their Shipments into the United States .........................................................................................29 

Figure 4. Marijuana Transportation from the Philippines and Palau to the Northern Mariana

Islands (Appendix).......................................................................................................................110 

Tables 

Table 1. Percentage of College Students and Young Adults Reporting Marijuana Use, 2002 .......8 

Table 2. Percentage of High School Students Reporting Marijuana/Hashish Use, 2002................8 

Table 3. Eradicated Domestic Cannabis by Plant Type, by State, 2001 (Appendix) ..................113 

Table 4. Cannabis Plants Seized from National Forest Service Lands, 1997-2001 ......................15 

Table 5. Colombia Statistics on Cannabis Herb Production, Eradication, and Seizures, 

1993-2002 ......................................................................................................................................19 

Table 6. Jamaica Statistics on Cannabis Herb Production, Eradication, and Seizures, 

1993–2002......................................................................................................................................20 

Table 7. Mexico Statistics on Cannabis Herb Production, Eradication, and Seizures, 

1993-2002 ......................................................................................................................................21 

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Table 8. Total U.S. Eradicated Domestic Cannabis by Plant Type, 1989–2001 (Appendix)......114 

Table 9. Federal Marijuana Seizures, 1989-2002 ..........................................................................24 

Table 10. Annual U.S. Marijuana Seizures, 1990-99 ....................................................................25 

Table 11. Marijuana Seizures Within 150 Miles of the U.S.-Mexico Border, in Pounds, 

1999-2002 ......................................................................................................................................32 

Table 12. Arizona Statewide Marijuana Seizures, 1998-2001 (Appendix)...................................44 

Table 13. Annual Amounts of Marijuana Seized in Arkansas, 1998-2002 (Appendix)................46 

Table 14. Arrival Zone Marijuana Seizures, California-Mexico Border, 1995-99 (Appendix)....49 

Table 15. New Mexico Marijuana Seizures, 2000-01 (Appendix)................................................79 

Table 16. Cannabis Plots and Grows Seized and Plants Eradicated, West Virginia, 

1998-2002 (Appendix).................................................................................................................102 

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Table A. Selected Acronyms and Abbreviations 

Acronym or Abbreviation Organization or Term

CBAG California Border Alliance Group 

CNC Crime and Narcotics Center 

CQA Guam Customs and Quarantine Authority

CSIS Canadian Security Intelligence Service 

DCE/SP Domestic Cannabis Eradication and Suppression Program

DEA Drug Enforcement Administration 

ELN Ejército Nacional de Liberación (National Liberation Army) 

EPIC El Paso Intelligence Center 

FARC Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (Revolutionary 

Armed Forces of Colombia) 

FDSS Federal-wide Drug Seizure System

GIDT Global Illicit Drug Trends

GPS Global Positioning System 

HIDTA High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area 

INCSR International Narcotics Control Strategy Report

INL Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs 

JDF Jamaica Defence Force

MAM Marijuana Availability Model 

MAWG Marijuana Availability Working Group 

MIA Miami International Airport 

NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement 

NDIC National Drug Intelligence Center 

NDTS National Drug Threat Survey

NHSDA National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (now called the National 

Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH)) 

NIBC South America/Caribbean Strategic Intelligence Unit 

NIDA National Institute on Drug Abuse 

NSDUH National Survey on Drug Use and Health (formerly called the 

National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA)) 

OAS Office of Applied Studies

ONDCP Office of National Drug Control Policy 

PIJ Palestinian Islamic Jihad 

RCMP Royal Canadian Mounted Police 

SAMHSA Department of Health and Human Services’ Substance Abuse and 

Mental Health Services Administration

SLED South Carolina Law Enforcement Division 

STRIDE System to Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence 

THC delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol 

UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 

USCS U.S. Customs Service 

USPS U.S. Postal Service 

USVI U.S. Virgin Islands 

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Marijuana is considered by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the 

National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC) to be “a leading drug threat to the country.” However, 

U.S. law enforcement authorities generally regard marijuana as a lower threat than cocaine and 

diverted pharmaceuticals because it is less often associated with violent crime and property 

crime. Marijuana is the most readily available and widely used and abused illicit drug in the 

nation. Its prevalence has contributed to both an acceptance of marijuana use among some adults 

and adolescents and a perception that the drug is not harmful.1

There is no accepted estimate for marijuana demand in the United States, but estimates of 

the number of users suggest that the demand for marijuana vastly exceeds demand for any other 

drug, especially among younger users.2

 Some national substance abuse indicators suggest that 

marijuana use may rise despite relatively stable levels of use since the late 1990s. The number of 

past-year users increased significantly in 2001, and national-level prevalence studies show some

decreases in the perception of risk regarding marijuana use. 

Marijuana availability has changed little since 2002, according to reporting from law 

enforcement and public health agencies, as well as federal investigation, arrest, and seizure data.3

However, availability depends on the state and the type of marijuana. Seizure statistics indicate 

very limited availability of imported marijuana in a remote state like Alaska but significantly 

increasing quantities in Texas. It is also important to distinguish between the low-quality, 

commercial-grade marijuana imported from Mexico and the high-grade product imported from

Canada. The availability of high-grade marijuana, most of which comes from Canada, is 

increasing in every region of the United States.4

In estimating the amount of marijuana available in the United States and its territories, a 

two-part methodology that assesses the availability of both foreign and domestically produced 

marijuana appears to be the most logical approach. The White House’s Office of National Drug 

Control Policy (ONDCP) tasked the Marijuana Availability Working Group (MAWG), 

1 This paragraph is based on National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC), National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, 

January 2003. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3300/execsum.htm#Top] 2

 NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2001 - The Domestic Perspective, October 2000. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/647/marijuan.htm#Top] 3

 National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC), National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3300/execsum.htm#Top] 4

 NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 

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consisting of members of various federal agencies, with developing a methodology for making a 

reliable estimate of the amount of marijuana available in the United States on an annual basis. 

Using this two-phased methodology, the MAWG calculated a speculative estimate of domestic 

marijuana production by applying three hypothetical seizure rates to domestic cannabis 

eradication figures. Based on the federal seizure of 1,215 metric tons of marijuana in 2001, the 

MAWG estimated the street availability of marijuana in 2001 to be between 10,000 and 24,000 

pure metric tons.5

The data reviewed for this survey suggest that the street availability of marijuana is more 

likely closer to the figure of 24,000 metric tons than it is to 10,000 metric tons. There appears to 

some consensus that marijuana imported from Colombia and Mexico alone totals 7,500 metric 

tons. An undetermined but considerably smaller amount is imported from Canada and Jamaica. 

There is no generally accepted estimate for domestic marijuana production because of the 

discreet nature of cannabis cultivation, but available data suggest that marijuana production is 

high in the United States.6

 The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and U.S. 

officials have estimated that the domestic annual U.S. production of marijuana totals about 

10,000 tons, and that roughly the same amount is imported. Thus, imported and domestically 

produced marijuana appears to total close to 20,000 tons per year. For the purpose of this 

general, unscientific survey, that figure provides a useful benchmark. 

Cannabis is cultivated indoors and outdoors in every state and U.S. territory (for relevant 

marijuana data on the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and four associated U.S. 

territories, see Appendix). Indoor cultivation of high-grade hydroponic marijuana is increasing 

rapidly across the country, basically because indoor grows are less risky than outdoor grows. 

Independent Caucasian growers are responsible for most of the cultivation, transportation, and 

distribution of domestically produced marijuana, but Mexican drug-trafficking organizations are 

heavily involved in the cultivation, transportation, and distribution of Mexico-produced 

marijuana, as well as much of the cannabis being cultivated in the national forests. All of U.S. 

national forests are being extensively exploited and damaged by cannabis cultivators, some of

whom are illegal aliens hired by Mexican drug-trafficking organizations. Marijuana growers 

5 This paragraph is based on ONDCP, Drug Availability Estimates in the United States, December 2002. 6

 NDIC, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 

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armed with weapons such as AK-47 assault rifles have made the national parks especially 

dangerous for park rangers. 

At most, U.S. authorities are able to seize only about 10 percent of marijuana, and most 

of this amount is from foreign sources of supply. According to Federal-wide Drug Seizure 

System (FDSS) data, Texas ranked first in the amount of marijuana seized in 2002, accounting 

for more than the amount confiscated in the other 49 states combined. State-by-state DEA 

statistics on marijuana seizures in 2002 that are listed in the Appendix appear to be greatly 

underestimated because they are generally sharply lower than the more authoritative FDSS 

statistics for the same year. 

The four principal foreign sources of the U.S. marijuana supply are Mexico, Colombia, 

Canada, and Jamaica. Polydrug-trafficking organizations in Mexico produce most of the 

marijuana consumed in the United States. Most of the marijuana comes from Mexico, accounting 

for an estimated 7,500 tons of low-grade product smuggled annually into this country. Nearly all 

of Mexico’s marijuana production is intended for U.S. markets. Mexican drug cartels control the 

smuggling, transportation, and wholesale distribution of commercial-grade Mexican marijuana. 

Colombian and Jamaican drug-trafficking organizations are also involved, but have a lower 

profile. 

Drug-trafficking groups in Canada reportedly supply considerably less marijuana than 

either Mexico or Colombia, but most of it is extremely profitable high-grade marijuana, for 

which there is increasingly greater demand in the United States. Organized motorcycle gangs, 

particularly the Hells Angels, and Asian trafficking organizations, especially Vietnamese, are 

responsible for most marijuana smuggling from Canada to the United States.7

 Jamaican 

organized criminal groups based in Ontario control most liquid hashish trafficking through the 

United States to Canada. 

Four principal avenues allow marijuana to flow north from Mexico through the United 

States and to western and eastern Canada, northeast from the Caribbean through Florida to the 

eastern United States and eastern Canada, and south from British Columbia in western Canada to 

the western and eastern United States. The Southwest border route accounts for an estimated 65 

percent of illicit drugs sold in the United States, with marijuana being the most transshipped 

7

 NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2001 - The Domestic Perspective, October 2000. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/647/marijuan.htm#Top]

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narcotic. Transport of marijuana from source areas to markets occurs by many methods but 

primarily overland in commercial and private vehicles.8

 Primary market areas for marijuana 

include Central Arizona (Phoenix and Tucson), Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and 

Seattle.9

 U.S. drug agencies assess distribution of marijuana in the United States as stable, with a 

wide range of criminal groups, gangs, and independent dealers distributing the drug throughout 

the country. Organized crime groups are becoming increasingly involved in cannabis cultivation 

in the United States on a large scale, often controlling or coordinating the transportation and 

distribution of marijuana with other criminal groups. 

There has been relatively little open-source reporting on possible involvement by terrorist 

groups in marijuana trafficking in the United States. Afghan and Pakistani terrorist groups are 

known to be financed by approximately US$20 million of illicit funds derived from the sale of 

hashish in Canada. Indications emerged in news media in 2003 of possible Hizballah 

collaboration with Mexican drug cartels in the cultivation of cannabis in California’s Sequoia 

National Park. The cannabis fields are believed to be financed by the Mexican drug cartels that 

dominate the methamphetamine trade in the adjacent Central Valley and, in turn, have financial 

ties to Middle Eastern smugglers linked to Hizballah and other terrorist groups. Apparently, the 

cartels are using profits from methamphetamine smuggled by Hizballah associates from Canada 

into California to invest in expanding marijuana growing. 

8

 This paragraph is based in part on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3300/marijuan.htm#Top] 9 This paragraph is based on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 

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INTRODUCTION

Source: U.S. DEA, 1999 

Products of the Cannabis Herb 

Marijuana is the mind-altering substance and 

product of the Cannabis sativa L. plant. With certain 

medical exceptions, marijuana is a Schedule I substance 

under the Controlled Substances Act, and therefore is 

illegal. By far the most widely trafficked drug 

worldwide, marijuana is used because its primary active 

chemical, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), may 

induce relaxation and heighten the senses. 

Cannabis resin (hashish) is also one of the most 

widely trafficked, illicit drugs. Hashish and hashish oil, 

two additional Schedule I controlled substances derived 

from the cannabis plant, are in limited demand in the United States.10 Hashish is the THC-rich 

resinous material from the flowering tops of the female plant; potency averages 6 percent.11

According to the NDIC, marijuana often is defined not by its source of origin but by its 

quality.12 Lower-quality or commercial-grade marijuana usually includes all parts of the plant—

the dried, shredded leaves, stems, seeds, and flowers. This grade has a low potency ranging 

between approximately 1 percent and 6 percent THC. Mexico-produced marijuana, which has a 

low THC content, is commercial-grade and relatively inexpensive.

Higher-quality marijuana often is composed only of the buds and flowering top of the 

plant.13 For example, sinsemilla (Spanish for “without seed”) comprises just the buds and 

flowering tops of unpollinated female plants, where THC is most concentrated. The potency of 

sinsemilla can reach levels of over 30 percent THC but more often ranges between 10 percent 

 

10 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “Trafficking in Cannabis,” Chapter 1.2.4, Global Illicit 

Drug Trends, 2003 (Vienna, Austria), 71. [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/report_2003-06-26_1.pdf]; and U.S. DEA,

Drug Intelligence Brief: The Cannabis Situation in the United States, December 1999. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/intel/99028/99028.html] 11 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 12 This paragraph is based on NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, 

Document ID: 2002-J0403-002, August 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 13 NDIC, U.S. Department of Justice, Marijuana Fast Facts, March 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3593/index.htm#What] 

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6

and 15 percent.14 This type is typical of marijuana produced in Canada. The average marijuana 

yield for mature sinsemilla is approximately one-half pound per plant, compared with 1 pound 

per plant for commercial-grade marijuana.15 In early 2003, the national price range for sinsemilla 

was between $900 and $6,000 per pound.16

A cannabis plant being cultivated indoors. Once the 

leaves, stems, seeds, and flowers of a mature plant are 

dried and shredded, marijuana is the resulting product.

Source: NDIC, Marijuana Fast Facts, March 2003.

Overall potency as characterized by THC content is rising. According to data from the 

Potency Monitoring Project, funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), the 

average potency of samples of all cannabis types increased from 3.00 percent in 1991 to 5.23 

percent in 2001. When categorized by type, 

potency generally increased from 3.09 

percent to 5.01 percent for commercial-grade 

marijuana during the same period, but 

fluctuated for sinsemilla. The concentration 

of THC in sinsemilla averaged 10.53 percent 

in 1991, dipped to a low of 5.77 percent in 

1993, and increased steadily to a peak of 

13.38 percent in 1999 before declining to 

9.10 percent in 2001.17 Those figures indicate 

how dramatically the average THC content of 

commercial-grade and sinsemilla marijuana has risen since 1988, when the former was 3.82 

percent and the latter, 7.62 percent. The sharp increase in THC content is explained in part 

because of improved techniques for growing cannabis indoors.18 Domestic cannabis growers 

cultivate high-potency sinsemilla because it provides a product that easily competes with other 

illegal drugs.19

According to the DEA and NDIC, marijuana, as the most readily available and widely 

used illicit drug in the United States, is a leading drug threat to the country. Marijuana’s 

 

14 This paragraph is based in part on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 15 NDIC, West Virginia Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2003-S0379WV-001, August 2003. 16 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 17 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 18 NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2001 - The Domestic Perspective, October 2000. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/647/marijuan.htm#Top] 19 U.S. DEA, Drug Trafficking in the United States, October 6, 2003.

[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/concern/drug_trafficking.html] 
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prevalence has contributed to both an acceptance of its use among some adults and adolescents 

and a perception that its use is not harmful and that use carries little social stigma. However, the 

current user population is exposed to more potent marijuana than in previous years, and strong or 

high doses may result in rapidly fluctuating emotions, disorientation, or hallucinations, thereby 

exposing users and those around them to potential harm. Marijuana used in combination with, or 

as a delivery medium for, other drugs further increases the risk.

20

Popularity 

The U.S. demand for marijuana is high—far exceeding that of any other illicit drug. 

Although this report is concerned with compiling data on marijuana production and availability 

in the United States and not with quantifying marijuana usage among various age groups, some

basic statistics can be summarized in order to better appreciate the scope of the problem. 

Marijuana had an estimated 11.5 million users in 2003.21 By 2002, an estimated 40 percent of 

Americans of age 12 or older had used marijuana or hashish in their lifetime.22 Total usage 

figures tend to vary, however, depending on the source. For example, in 2002 the number of 

marijuana users in this country totaled 14.6 million, according to the National Household Survey 

on Drug Abuse (NHSDA).23 Of that number, about one-third, or 4.8 million people, had used it 

on 20 or more days in the past month. 

In 2002, 75 percent of current illicit drug users consumed marijuana.24 Approximately 55 

percent of illicit drug users in 2002 used only marijuana, 20 percent used marijuana and another 

illicit drug, and the remaining 25 percent used an illicit drug but not marijuana in the past month. 

During 2002, almost 50 percent of college students and almost 57 percent of young adults 

between the ages of 19 and 28 reported having used marijuana within their lifetime (see Table 1). 

20 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 21 U.S. DEA, Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, U.S. DEA, July 25, 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/concern/drug_trafficking.html] 22 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 23 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (formerly called the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse 

(NHSDA), 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. [http://www.samhsa.gov/oas/nhsda.htm]; and Substance 

Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2003). Overview of Findings from the 2002 

National Survey on Drug Use and Health (Office of Applied Studies, NHSDA Series H-21, DHHS Publication No.

SMA 03–3774). Rockville, MD. 24 SAMHSA. “Illicit Drug Use,” Results from the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National 

Findings, 2003. 

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Table 1. Percentage of College Students and Young Adults Reporting Marijuana Use, 2002 

Lifetime Annual Past 30 Days

College Students 49.5 34.7 19.7

Young Adults 56.8 29.3 16.9

Source: National Institute on Drug Abuse and University of Michigan, Monitoring the Future 

National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2002, Volume II: College Students & Adults Ages 

19–40 (PDF), 2003. 

According to the 2002 Monitoring the Future study, 47.8 percent of 12th, 38.7 percent of 

10th, and 19.2 percent of 8th graders had used marijuana in their lifetime. The 2002 study also 

found that 6 percent of 12th, 3.9 percent of 10th, and 1.2 percent of 8th graders had used 

marijuana daily in the past 30 days before the survey (see Table 2).25

Table 2. Percentage of High School Students Reporting Marijuana/Hashish Use, 2002 

Marijuana/Hashish 

Use 

Eighth Grade Tenth Grade Twelfth Grade 

Daily 1.2 3.9 6.0

30-Day 8.3 17.8 21.5

Annual 14.6 30.3 36.2

Lifetime 19.2 38.7 47.8

Source: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2002 Monitoring the Future Data Tables: Table 1, 

Trends in Lifetime Prevalence (PDF); Table 2, Trends in Annual and 30-Day Prevalence (PDF); 

Table 3, Trends in 30-Day Prevalence of Daily Use (PDF). 

National-level drug prevalence indicators show that the rates of marijuana use are higher 

today than in the early 1990s, when marijuana use waned.26 The Monitoring the Future study 

also tracks trends in perceived risk, disapproval, and availability of drugs to youth. More than 

half (53 percent) of high school seniors in 2002 believed that it was harmful to smoke marijuana 

regularly and 78.3 percent disapproved of regular marijuana use. Since the study began in 1975, 

 

25 Office of National Drug Control Policy. Drug Facts: Marijuana, February 2003. 

http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/marijuana/index.html. More in-depth information on marijuana 

usage in the United States can be found in the surveys published by the Office of Applied Studies (OAS), an Office 

within the Department of Health and Human Services’ SAMHSA. See Overview of Findings from the 2002 National 

Survey on Drug Use and Health [http://www.samhsa.gov/oas/nhsda/2k2nsduh/Overview/2k2Overview.htm#toc] 26 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002.

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between 83 percent and 90 percent of every senior class have said that they could obtain 

marijuana fairly easy or very easily.27

Marijuana is popular partially as a result of popularization by the media and by groups 

advocating legalization, and the trend of smoking marijuana-filled cigars known as "blunts."28

The Internet also contributes to marijuana's popularity. Marijuana appears to be the drug most 

commonly promoted on the Internet, and information regarding its cultivation, use, and sale is 

widely available.29 Websites exist that provide information and links extolling the virtues of 

marijuana. These sites provide forums for user-group discussions, post documents and messages 

for public discussions, and advocate the "legal" sale of marijuana. Several Websites advertising 

the sale of marijuana and providing instructions on home grows have also been identified. 

U.S. counterdrug officials consider marijuana to be a "gateway" to the world of illicit 

drug abuse, that is, its use results in an increased likelihood that the user will be susceptible to 

more serious drugs such as cocaine and heroin. However, a study by the RAND Drug Policy 

Research Center casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as a "gateway" to the use of cocaine 

and heroin, challenging an assumption that has guided U.S. drug policies since the 1950s.30

Availability

According to Pulse Check,

31 the most available type of marijuana is domestically 

produced commercial-grade, followed by Mexico-produced commercial-grade, then sinsemilla.32

As reported in the Pulse Checks publications of the ONDCP (Office of National Drug Control 

Policy), all but one of the 40 law enforcement and epidemiological/ethnographic sources 

consider marijuana widely available in their communities. The exception continues to be in 

27 National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2002 Monitoring the Future Data Tables, Table 9-Long-Term Trends in

Harmfulness of Drugs as Perceived by 12th Graders (PDF), Table 11-Long-Term Trends in Disapproval of Drug

Use by 12th Graders (PDF), Table 13-Long-Term Trends in Perceived Availability of Drugs, 12th Graders (PDF). 28This paragraph is based in part on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003; and in part on

Drug Facts, “Marijuana,” Office of National Drug Control Policy 

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/marijuana/index.html] 29 NDIC, Information Bulletin: Drugs, Youth, and the Internet, Document ID: 2002-L0424-006, October 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs2/2161/index.htm] 30 See Andrew R. Morral, Daniel F. McCaffrey, and Susan M. Paddock, “Reassessing the Marijuana Gateway 

Effect,” Addiction, Vol 97, 2002: 1493-1504. 31 Pulse Check is a biannual, multijurisdictional publication of the ONDCP that describes current trends in illicit 

drug use and drug markets based on nationwide interviews conducted with ethnographers and epidemiologists, law 

enforcement officials, and drug treatment providers. It is available at: 

<http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/pulsecheck.html>. 32 This paragraph is based in part on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 

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Chicago, where a law enforcement source considers the drug somewhat available.33 This is a 

puzzling exception because Chicago is generally considered to be a major hub for transshipping 

marijuana, as well as a primary destination for the drug. Primary market areas for marijuana 

include Central Arizona, Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and Seattle.34 New York 

City and Miami are the key wholesale-level drug distribution centers35 on the East Coast and 

major drug-importation hubs (see Figure 1).36

Figure 1. Primary U.S. Market Areas for Marijuana 

Source: National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC), January 2003

Most state and local law enforcement agencies that responded to the National Drug 

Threat Survey (NDTS) 2001 of the NDIC identified marijuana availability and use in the United 

States as high, while identifying the threat of marijuana to public safety and health as stable at 

varying levels.37 NDTS data show that 96.9 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies 

nationwide describe the availability of marijuana as high or medium; only 1.8 percent describes 

it as low. From region to region, the proportions of agencies reporting high or medium 

availability were very 

similar and ranged only 

from 98.9 percent in the 

Mid-Atlantic region to 91.6 

percent in the 

Florida/Caribbean.38

According to NDTS 

data, the identification of

marijuana as the principal 

drug threat varies from

region to region. Marijuana 

is identified as more of a 

threat in the following regions: New York/New Jersey (40.9 percent), Great Lakes (29.6 

percent), New England (27.3 percent), Mid-Atlantic (21.0 percent), and Southwest (19.7 

 

33 “Marijuana,” Pulse Check: Trends in Drug Abuse, Executive Office of the President, Office of National Drug

Control Policy, November 2002. [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/] 34 This paragraph is based in part on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 35 A distribution center is a city or area in the United States that regularly receives wholesale quantities of drugs 

from a domestic source and supplies wholesale or midlevel quantities to markets in and out of state. 36 U.S. DEA Briefs and Background, “Georgia,” http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/states/georgia.html. 37 This paragraph is based in part on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 38 This paragraph is based in part on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Marijuana Availability

 

percent). It is identified as less of a threat in the following regions: Florida/Caribbean (10.9 

percent), West Central (9.9 percent), Southeast (9.3 percent), and Pacific (7.8 percent).39

Of the two most common varieties of marijuana—local commercial grade and Mexican 

commercial grade—the former is ranked as widely available by 23 sources in all but four of the 

Pulse Check cities (Boston, Chicago, Detroit, and El Paso); the latter grade is ranked as such by 

21 sources in all but three cities (Miami, Portland, and Washington, D.C.).40 Sinsemilla (seedless 

marijuana) remains the third most common variety (ranked widely available by 16 sources in 12 

cities), followed by hydroponically grown marijuana (ranked widely available by 12 sources in 

nine cities). British Columbian marijuana (BC Bud) remains the least common variety, with only 

six sources ranking it as widely available in four cities: Baltimore, Billings, New York, and 

Seattle.41 It is also popular in the affluent Boston area. 

DOMESTICALLY PRODUCED MARIJUANA 

An important source for marijuana in the United States is domestically grown cannabis, 

which includes both indoor and outdoor operations.42 U.S. drug law enforcement reporting 

suggests increased availability of domestically grown marijuana.43 The Appalachian Mountain 

region—which includes portions of Tennessee, Kentucky, and West Virginia—is considered one 

of the most productive cannabis-growing regions in the country.44

In 2002, the DEA's Domestic Cannabis Eradication and Suppression Program (DCE/SP), 

a DEA program that supports 88 state and local law enforcement agencies, reported that a total 

of 3,341,840 indoor and outdoor cannabis plants were eradicated.45 Although this statistic does 

not indicate the total estimated amount of marijuana in the United States, it provides an indicator 

39 This paragraph is based in part on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 40 “Marijuana,” Pulse Check: Trends in Drug Abuse, Office of National Drug Control Policy, November 2002.

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/] 41 “Marijuana,” Pulse Check: Trends in Drug Abuse, Office of National Drug Control Policy, November 2002.

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/] 42 ONDCP, Drug Facts, “Marijuana,” Office of National Drug Control Policy 

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/marijuana/index.html] 43 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 44 NDIC, Tennessee Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1017/marijuan.htm#Top] 45 This paragraph is based on NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, 

Document ID: 2002-J0403-002, August 2002; and U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, 

Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics Online, Table 4.38. 

[http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook/1995/pdf/t438.pdf]. 

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of the general prevalence of cannabis herb, without even taking into account that an estimated 50 

percent of the marijuana available in the United States is imported. U.S. authorities estimate that 

approximately 10,000 tons of marijuana are produced domestically in the United States.46

Whether cultivated indoors or outdoors, most domestically produced marijuana is 

intended for sale and use in the local area.47 Some of the marijuana produced in the highproduction states (Alabama, Alaska, California, Florida, Hawaii, Kentucky, Oregon, and 

Tennessee) undoubtedly is transported to other areas for sale. State and local law enforcement 

agencies throughout the United States identify Chicago and New York most frequently as 

destinations for marijuana transshipped through their areas. 

Indoor Domestic Grows 

Source: U.S. DEA, 1999 

Indoor growing operations are 

becoming a large-scale problem. 

According to 2000 DCE/SP statistics of 

the DEA, the five leading states for indoor 

growing activity were California, Florida, 

Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin.48

This listing differs slightly from the 

Bureau of Justice statistics, which lists the 

five leading states for indoor growing 

activity as California, Washington, 

Florida, Texas, and Alaska.49 These states 

do not necessarily have the most cannabis, but they may have the most, or the most effective, 

eradication programs. 

Eradication programs and drought conditions in some states have led many growers to

abandon outdoor cultivation for indoor sites, which allow growers to better conceal their 

 

46 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “Trafficking in Cannabis,” Chapter 1.2.4, Global Illicit 

Drug Trends, 2003 (Vienna, Austria), 72. [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/report_2003-06-26_1.pdf] 47 The rest of this paragraph is based on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2001 - The Domestic Perspective, 

October 2000. 48 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/intel/01020/index.html#ma1] 49 Bureau of Justice Statistics, Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics 2000, Table 4.38, December 2001. 

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operations and to control the growing environment. Financial benefits also have encouraged 

growers to move their operations indoors. Automated systems that can monitor and manipulate 

conditions in the grow room and advanced growing techniques such as hydroponics have raised 

not only the quality of the marijuana produced but also the profits derived from its sale.50

Hydroponic grow operations have been identified in every state and in Puerto Rico.51 (The highgrade marijuana produced in hydroponic operations is often called ‘hydro.”) 

Outdoor Domestic Grows 

The 10 Most Dangerous National Parks for Rangers:

1. Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument (Arizona) 

2. Amistad National Recreation Area (Texas) 

3. Big Bend National Park (Texas) 

4. Lake Mead National Recreation Area (Nevada/Arizona)

5. Coronado National Memorial (Arizona) 

6. Biscayne National Park (Florida) 

7. Shenandoah National Park (Virginia) 

8. Delaware Water Gap (New Jersey/Pennsylvania) 

9. Edison National Historic Site (New Jersey)

10. Yellowstone National Park (Wyoming) 

Source: Source: U.S Park Rangers Lodge of the Fraternal 

Order of Police, October 2003

According to preliminary 2000 DEA reporting, outdoor growing operations are largescale problems in many states.52 DCE/SP statistics corroborate that the major outdoor growing 

states in 2000 and 2001 continued to 

be California, Hawaii, Kentucky, and 

Tennessee. As they have since at least 

1998, these states accounted for over 

75 percent of the total of eradicated 

outdoor cultivated plants, according 

to 1998 DEA eradication statistics.53

DEA statistics also show that 

3,068,632 outdoor cultivated cannabis 

plants were eradicated in the United

States during 2001 (see Table 3, 

Appendix). 

Outdoor cannabis growers often conceal plants in an effort to avoid detection by law 

enforcement authorities. Cannabis cultivators often scatter the plants among other crops, use 

camouflage netting, and establish cultivation sites in remote wooded locations. Federal, state, 

and local agencies also continue to identify the widespread use of public lands for the cultivation 

 

50 This paragraph derives from NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, 

Document ID: 2002-J0403-002, August 2002. 51 This paragraph is based on NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, 

Document ID: 2002-J0403-002, August 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 52 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 53 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003; and Bureau of Justice Statistics, 

Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics 2000, Table 4.38, December 2001. These states do not necessarily have

the most cannabis, but they may have the most, or the most effective, eradication programs. 

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of cannabis. In 1999, the U.S. Forest Service seized almost 1 million pounds of cannabis plants 

and processed marijuana in 35 states. California led all states with more than 500,000 pounds 

seized, followed by Kentucky (474,300 pounds), Utah (19,300 pounds), North Carolina (14,600 

pounds), and Washington (10,300 pounds). 

Many of the key outdoor cultivation areas in the United States are on national forestland 

(see Table 4). Along with ideal growing conditions, timber practices in the national forests have 

opened a canopy for new marijuana growth in numerous areas where the sunlight penetrates the 

forest floor. As a result, marijuana plots in the national forests are found in various locations 

from bottomlands, on hillsides, to the tops of mountains, with the regeneration areas being an 

especially popular spot for growers. Marijuana growers also perceive the vast rural areas of the 

national forests as too spacious for law enforcement officials to detect all activities. Aside from

ideal locations for marijuana plots, growers often plant their crops on public lands, such as 

national forests, in an effort to draw greater protection from personal and/or financial loss from

asset forfeiture procedures, should they be apprehended. The Daniel Boone National Forest in 

Kentucky has traditionally had the most cannabis eradicated, but according to the U.S. Forest 

Service, eradication numbers are surging for forests in California. Of 719,985 cannabis plants 

eradicated from national forestland in 2001, 495,536 were in California.54

As a result of the greatly increased cultivation of U.S. forests by cannabis growers, a 

2003 study by the Justice Department found that park rangers are 15 times more likely to be 

killed or injured on the job than is an agent with the DEA.55 In 2003, the U.S. Park Rangers 

Lodge of the Fraternal Order of Police listed two Texas parks—Amistad National Recreation 

Area near Del Rio and Big Bend National Park—among the 10 most dangerous parks in the 

United States for park rangers. 

54 U.S. Congress, House of Representatives. “Statement of Frank Deckert, Superintendent, Big Bend National Park

Service, Department of the Interior, Before the House Government Reform Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug

Policy, and Human Resources, Regarding the Impact of the Drug Trade on Border Security and National Parks, 

April 15, 2003.” [http://www.nps.gov/legal/testimony/108th/lebigben.htm] 

55 “Park Rangers Facing More Danger on Job: Heightened Security Near Border Places Many 

National Law Enforcers on Front Lines,” Houston Chronicle, October 19, 2003, A-44; and Ralph 

Vartabedian, “Law Loses Out at U.S. Parks; Rangers Say They Aren't Equipped to Cope with Illegal Immigrants, 

Armed Smugglers,” Los Angeles Times, January 23, 2003: A1. 

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Table 4. Cannabis Plants Seized from National Forest Service Lands

Source: U.S. Forest Service, Law Enforcement and Investigations, 2001.

U.S. Forest Service data and law enforcement reporting suggest that in California both 

the size of grow sites and the number of plants per site are increasing, and there is evidence of 

long-term occupancy of 

some cultivation sites by 

members or employees of 

Mexican drug-trafficking 

organizations. In the 

eastern United States, 

grow sites tend to be 

smaller, with fewer plants 

per site; however, the 

number of cultivation 

sites are increasing, and 

growers tend to travel 

long distances from their 

homes to sites scattered 

throughout remote 

areas.56

SOURCES OF FOREIGN-PRODUCED MARIJUANA 

According to the DEA, marijuana smuggled into the United States accounts for most of 

the marijuana available in this country, but other official U.S. sources estimate that U.S. 

production accounts for at least half of the marijuana available in the nation.57 Canada, 

Colombia, Jamaica, and Mexico are four principal foreign sources of marijuana in the United 

States.58

There are no conclusive data on the amount of marijuana produced in Mexico, Colombia, 

Canada, and Jamaica, but most appears to be produced in Mexico (7,400 metric tons in 2001, 

according to accepted interagency methodology). U.S. authorities estimate that more than 5,000 

 

56 The remainder of this paragraph is based on NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat

Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-002, August 2002. 57 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 58 NDIC, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 

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tons of marijuana are imported annually into the United States from Mexico and Canada.59

However, that figure appears to be too low because all of the Mexican production of marijuana 

goes to the United States. Drug-trafficking organizations in Colombia and Mexico produce an 

estimated 10,000 metric tons of marijuana yearly; approximately 7,500 metric tons of that 

marijuana is intended for U.S. markets. 

Sources in Colombia and Jamaica supply marijuana more in the eastern United States, 

specifically in the Southeast and New York/New Jersey regions. Marijuana supplied by both 

Colombian and Jamaican sources has been identified in the New England and Great Lakes 

regions as well, and marijuana from Jamaican sources also has been identified in the MidAtlantic.60

Traffickers in foreign source areas and in the United States supply users with large 

amounts of marijuana of varying potency. Lower-potency marijuana, much of which is produced 

in Mexico, is prevalent and is available even in major domestic cultivation areas. The prevalence 

of higher-potency marijuana is increasing, however.61

Canada 

Canada increasingly is becoming a source country for high-grade marijuana smuggled 

into the United States.

62 High-grade marijuana smuggled into the United States from British 

Columbia, with a potency of 15 percent to 25 percent THC, is commonly referred to as "BC 

Bud," while such marijuana produced in Quebec is called "Quebec Gold."63 Law enforcement 

59 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “Trafficking in Cannabis,” Chapter 1.2.4, Global Illicit 

Drug Trends, 2003 (Vienna, Austria), 72. [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/report_2003-06-26_1.pdf] 60 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 61 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002. 62 This paragraph is based on U.S. DEA, Drug Trafficking in the United States, September 2001; NDIC, U.S.

Department of Justice, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs07/794/marijuan.htm#Map%201]; and NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence 

Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-002, August 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 63Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Colombia,” 

International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 2002, March 2003. 

[http://www.state.gov/g/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2002/html/17944.htm; and U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the 

United States, July 25, 2003. The term "BC Bud," which originally referred to the bud of the unpollinated female 

cannabis plant grown in British Columbia, has become synonymous with any high-grade marijuana from Canada. 

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17

and anecdotal reporting suggests that marijuana from Canada is now in every region of the 

United States to varying degrees. 

Marijuana from Canada probably accounts for a greater proportion of available supplies 

in the Pacific and West Central regions than in the rest of the country, but quantities are still not 

as high as marijuana grown domestically or in Mexico. Although official Canadian production 

statistics for marijuana are unavailable, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) has 

estimated annual production of marijuana in Canada in 2001 at 800 metric tons, much of which 

is consumed in Canada.64

The primary growing area for cannabis in Canada is British Columbia, although 

production has spread since the mid-1990s to the eastern provinces of Ontario and Quebec. 

Cannabis cultivation also has increased in other Canadian provinces. 

Detroit authorities seized this 

3,700-pound load of marijuana 

on delivery to a home in the 

upscale community of Grosse

Pointe Park, Michigan, on Ma

1, 2003

rch

. 

 

Source: DEA 

The size of cannabis grow operations in Canada varies widely, from a few plants grown 

in a closet to several thousand plants hidden in warehouses or underground bunkers. Canadian 

law enforcement intelligence indicates that marijuana 

traffickers there are increasingly cultivating cannabis 

indoors.65 Such indoor-grow operations have become an 

enormous and lucrative illicit industry, producing the potent 

form of marijuana (BC Bud). 66 The RCMP reports that 

Vietnamese crime groups may have mastered organic 

methods of indoor cultivation of high THC-level cannabis 

that rival the more technical hydroponic systems.67

Canadian officials estimate that cannabis cultivation 

in British Columbia is a billion-dollar industry, and that 

traffickers smuggle a significant portion of the Canadian 

harvest into the United States. BC Bud sells for between US$1,500 and US$2,000 per pound in 

Vancouver; but when smuggled into the United States, it sells for between US$5,000 and 

US$8,000 per pound in major metropolitan areas. 

64 Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, International Narcotics Control Strategy

Report, 2002, March 2003; and NDIC, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 65 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 66 U.S. DEA, Drug Trafficking in the United States, September 2001. 67 Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Colombia,” 

International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 2002, March 2003. 

[http://www.state.gov/g/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2002/html/17944.htm] 
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Marijuana Availability

 

Large indoor grow operations with thousands of plants are not uncommon. In most cases, 

these operations are under the purview of organized crime and are often sophisticated and highly 

automated. Canadian cannabis cultivators, both organized groups and independent growers, 

appear to be opting more frequently for indoor operations because they allow for year-round 

cultivation and offer better protection from law enforcement and poachers. Rental properties are 

preferred locations.

68

As a result of market saturation in British Columbia, an estimated 75 percent to 85 

percent of the BC Bud crop in excess of a billion dollars moves to the U.S. market, using 

Washington State as the primary staging area to continue movement of the product to states as 

far as Florida.69 A number of international publications have reported that approximately 50 

percent to 60 percent of the marijuana produced in Canada is smuggled into the United States 

annually.70 According to Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) officials, 95 percent of all 

marijuana grown in Vancouver is sent to the United States.71 However, these estimates have not 

been substantiated through current reporting. The amount of marijuana seized at ports of entry 

along the U.S.-Canada border increased from 0.35 metric tons in FY 1999 to 3.25 metric tons in 

FY 2000.72 Nevertheless, marijuana transported from Canada clearly amounts to only a small 

percentage of all marijuana smuggled into the United States.73

Colombia 

Estimates of marijuana production in Colombia, while not precise, have been reported in 

the INCSR (International Narcotics Control Strategy Report) as stable at 4,150 metric tons 

annually since 1996 (see Table 5). There are no current accepted interagency estimates of the 

amount of marijuana destined for the United States from Colombia. Seizure and law enforcement 

reporting suggests that multi-metric-ton quantities reach U.S. markets yearly. 

68 NDIC, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 69 Office of National Drug Control Policy, Northwest HIDTA, “Northwest HIDTA: Washington,” High-Intensity

Drug Trafficking Areas, March 13, 2003. <http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/hidta/frames_nw.html> 70 NDIC, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 71 Bill Curry, with files from Carl Hanlon, Global National, “U.S. Warns Pot Plan to Clog Border; Drug Czar 

Accuses Liberals of Naive 'Cheech and Chong' Notion of Dangers of Marijuana,” National Post [Internet Versionwww], December 11, 2002, as transcribed by FBIS Document ID: EUP20021213000341, “Canadian-US Border

Views on Fingerprinting, Marijuana Decriminalization Discussed,” December 13, 2002. 72 NDIC, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 73 NDIC, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 

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Table 5. Colombia Statistics on Cannabis Herb Production, Eradication, and Seizures, 1993-

2002* 

(in metric tons) 

Year 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993

Potential 

Harvest 

5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 4,980 4,986 5,000

Eradication — — — — — — — 20 14 50

Estimated 

Cultivation 

5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,050

Potential 

Yield 

4,150 4,150 4,150 4,150 4,150 4,150 4,150 4,133 4,138 4,125

Seizures** 73 80 46 65 69 136 235 166 2000 549

Source: Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, U.S. Department of 

State, “Colombia,” International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 2002, March 2003. 

[http://www.state.gov/g/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2002/html/17944.htm]

*Reported cannabis cultivation has not been confirmed by U.S. government survey. 

**Seizure data show combined Colombian National Police and military figures. 

Jamaica 

Jamaica is the largest producer and exporter of marijuana in the Caribbean.74 There is no

accurate estimate of the amount of cannabis under cultivation or the number of harvests per year. 

During 2002, the Jamaican government eradicated only 79.28 hectares of cannabis, far short of 

the eradication goal of 1,200 hectares agreed to in the Letter of Agreement between Jamaica and 

the United States under which the United States is providing counter-narcotics assistance to 

Jamaica (see Table 6). As a matter of policy, Jamaica does not use herbicides to eradicate 

cannabis. Manual cutting is the primary eradication method. In 2002, the Jamaican government 

seized 26,630 kilograms of marijuana and 497 kilograms of hashish oil. The Jamaican 

government requested U.S aerial surveillance support for a major cannabis eradication operation 

that was scheduled for 2003. 

According to the INCSR, the last estimate of marijuana production in Jamaica was in 

1997; approximately 214 metric tons were produced in that year. There are no accepted 

 

74This paragraph is based on Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, U.S. Department of 

State, “Jamaica,” International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 2002, March 2003. 

[http://www.state.gov/g/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2002/html/17944.htm] 

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interagency estimates of how much marijuana from Jamaica is destined for the United States. 

Current law enforcement information indicates, however, that marijuana from Jamaica is being 

smuggled in the Caribbean, often through the Bahamas, with increasing frequency.75

Table 6. Jamaica Statistics on Cannabis Herb Production, Eradication, and Seizures, 1993–2002 

Year 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993

Potential 

Harvest 

(ha**) 

Unk* unk unk unk Unk 317 527 305 308 744

Eradication 

(ha) 

80 332 517 894 705 743 473 695 692 456

Cultivation 

(ha) 

Unk unk unk unk unk 1,060 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,200

Potential 

Yield1

(mt***) 

Unk unk unk unk unk 214 356 206 208 502

Seizures2 (mt) 26.63 68.46 55.87 56.22 35.91 24.00 52.99 37.20 46.00 75.00

1

Yield is based on an estimate of 675 kilograms per hectare. 

2

Data derived from official information supplied by the Narcotics Division, Jamaica Constabulary

Force (JCF), except for hectares of cannabis cultivation, which is based on joint estimates from

the JCF, Jamaica Defence Force (JDF), and the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA.). 

*unk=unknown 

**ha=hectares 

***mt=metric tons 

Source: Based on information from Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement 

Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Jamaica,” International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 

2002, March 2003.

Mexico 

Mexico is the primary foreign supplier of marijuana to the United States, and has been a 

supplier of marijuana to this country for several decades.76 Marijuana produced in Mexico is the 

most widely available in the United States. Nearly all marijuana produced in Mexico is likely 

intended for markets in the United States. Mexico produces an estimated 7,000 to 8,000 tons of 

marijuana annually, according to U.S. estimates (see Table 7).77 Marijuana produced in Mexico 

 

75 This paragraph derives from NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, 

Document ID: 2002-J0403-002, August 2002. 76 U.S. DEA, Drug Trafficking in the United States, September 2001; and U.S. DEA, Drug Intelligence Brief: The 

Cannabis Situation in the United States, December 1999. [http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/intel/99028/99028.html] 77 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002; and “Mexico Country Brief,” Drug Intelligence Brief, July 2002, U.S. DEA, citing U.S. 

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provides a significant supplement to that grown by domestic cultivators in the United States. 

Cannabis is cultivated in small fields in remote areas of every state in Mexico, with more than 70 

percent of the total cannabis crop concentrated in northwestern Mexico.78

Table 7. Mexico Statistics on Cannabis Herb Production, Eradication, and Seizures, 1993-2002* 

(in metric tons) 

Year 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993

Potential 

Harvest 

7,900 4,100 3,900 3,700 4,600 4,800 6,500 6,900 10,550 11,220

U.S. 

Government 

Estimated 

Impact 

— 7,400 13,000 19,400 9,500 10,500 12,200 11,750 8,495 9,970

Eradication — 33,300 33,000 33,583 23,928 23,576 22,961 21,573 14,227 16,645

Estimated 

Cultivation 

— 11,500 16,900 23,100 14,100 15,300 18,700 18,650 19,045 21,190

Potential Yield 7,900 7,400 7,000 6,700 8,300 8,600 11,700 12,400 5,908 6,283

Seizures 1.494 2,007 1,619 1,459 1,062 1,038 1,015 780 528 495

Source: Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, U.S. Department of State, 

“Colombia,” International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 2002, March 2003. 

[http://www.state.gov/g/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2002/html/17944.htm]

Southeast Asia 

The availability of marijuana from Southeast Asia generally is limited to the West 

Coast.79 Marijuana produced in Thailand is available in limited quantities in areas of the western 

United States and also in New York City.80

ESTIMATING MARIJUANA AVAILABILITY IN THE UNITED STATES AND ITS 

TERRITORIES 

This report surveys the most authoritative, national-level estimates developed by federal 

law enforcement, intelligence, and health-related communities and attempts to synthesize the 

often inconsistent figures into a coherent, albeit wide-ranging, estimate. Any estimate is 

 Government Cultivation & Production Estimate, 2001; and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), 

“Cannabis,” Chapter 1.1.4, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 2003 (Vienna, Austria), 29, citing International Narcotics 

Control Strategy Report (INCSR), March 2003. [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/report_2003-06-26_1.pdf] 78 “Mexico Country Brief,” Drug Intelligence Brief, July 2002, U.S. DEA. 

[http://www.dea.gov/pubs/intel/02035/02035.html] 79 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 80 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 

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necessarily uncertain and imprecise, however, because of the illicit and clandestine nature of 

marijuana and the limited data available on which to base an estimate. 

No exact estimates of the amount of marijuana available in the United States have been 

made, and there are no reliable estimates for domestic production.81 The widespread, clandestine 

cultivation and production of marijuana at indoor and outdoor sites in the United States and the 

lack of cannabis cultivation monitoring systems and surveys make it impossible to have an 

accurate assessment of the location and extent of cultivation and production. Drug-trafficking 

organizations in four countries—Mexico, Colombia, Canada, and Jamaica—supply most of the 

foreign-produced marijuana available in the United States. Thus, the only data that can provide 

limited insight into marijuana availability are eradication and seizure statistics. 

The ONDCP (Office of National Drug Control Policy) tasked the Marijuana Availability 

Working Group (MAWG) with developing a methodology for making a reliable estimate of the 

amount of marijuana available in the United States annually.82 The MAWG, made up of 

members of various federal agencies, labeled its two-part methodology the Marijuana 

Availability Model (MAM). Using its MAM, the MAWG calculated a speculative estimate of 

domestic marijuana production by applying three hypothetical seizure rates to domestic cannabis 

eradication figures. In calculating the availability of domestically produced marijuana, the 

MAWG relied on cannabis eradication statistics along with plant yield estimates (for figures of 

this nature, see Table 8, Appendix). The lack of direct information on the magnitude of the 

domestic production component created considerable uncertainty in the estimate. 

In estimating the quantity of foreign-produced marijuana, the MAWG relied on a twostep approach. First, it estimated marijuana production in Mexico on the basis of data developed 

by the Crime and Narcotics Center (CNC) along with seizure statistics, both foreign and 

domestic. Second, it estimated the availability of foreign-produced marijuana from other source 

countries based on a calculation of the effectiveness of U.S. Customs Service (USCS) 

enforcement efforts against shipments of marijuana produced in Mexico. The MAWG

determined that the quantity of foreign-produced marijuana available in the United States in 

2001 was at least 4,581 metric tons and as high as 7,135 metric tons. Although the quantity of 

domestically produced marijuana available in the United States in 2001 was unknown, the 

81 NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2001 - The Domestic Perspective, October 2000. 82 This paragraph is based on ONDCP, Drug Availability Estimates in the United States, December 2002, x-xi, 103-

04. [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/drug_avail/index.html] 

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MAWG calculated—on the basis of cannabis eradication figures and potential yield per cannabis 

plant—that the estimated figure was between 5,577 and 16,731 metric tons. Using its two 

estimates derived for foreign- and domestically produced marijuana, the MAWG estimated the 

street availability of marijuana in 2001 to be between 10,000 and 24,000 pure metric tons. 

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL PRODUCTION SEIZED BY LAW ENFORCEMENT 

Annual seizure statistics provide an important indicator of the total amount of marijuana 

available in the United States in a given year. Marijuana seizures reflected in the Federal-wide 

Drug Seizure System (FDSS) rose from 1,777,434 kilograms in 1998 to a record 2,674,826 

pounds in 2001 (see Table 9 and Table 10). Seizures of marijuana reported in the FDSS show 

that the amount of marijuana seized declined between 2000 and 2001 from 1,236 metric tons to 

1,215 metric tons.83 It should be noted that the state-by-state DEA statistics on marijuana 

seizures in 2002 that are listed in the Appendix are generally sharply lower than the FDSS 

statistics for the same year, and therefore the DEA seizure data are most likely greatly

underestimated and of dubious value. 

Texas, Arizona, California, and, to a much lesser extent, New Mexico accounted for just 

over 90 percent (1,104 of 1,215 metric tons) of the marijuana seized in 2001; Texas alone 

accounted for more than half.84 Texas ranked first nationwide in the amount of marijuana seized 

by federal officers in 2002. According to FDSS data, the total amount of marijuana seized in 

Texas in 2002 (555,324 kilograms) was greater than the amount seized in the other 49 states 

combined (approximately 488,000 kilograms).85

There seems to be general agreement among law enforcement officials that only a 

maximum of 10 percent of the marijuana being smuggled into the United States is intercepted. 

The logistics of intercepting any smuggled drugs are daunting. For example, the 10 customs 

inspectors at the port of Charleston—the second-largest containerized seaport on the eastern 

seaboard of the United States—are able to inspect fewer than 1 percent of the 1.5 million 

83 U.S. DEA, Drug Trafficking in the United States, September 2001; NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence 

Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-002, August 2002

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview]; and U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in

the United States, July 25, 2003. 84 This paragraph is based in part on NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 85 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2003-S0387TX-001, October 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs5/5624/index.htm] 

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containers that pass through the port annually. The DEA estimates that for every container 

loaded with illegal drugs discovered at the Charleston port, at least nine other containers with 

illegal drugs have slipped through without detection.86

Calculating the total amount of 

marijuana available in a given year based on the 

amount seized during that year necessarily 

provides only a rough estimate. If only 10 

percent of illicit drugs are seized in any given 

year, then, based on the figure of 2,412,365 

pounds of marijuana seized in 2002, one could 

estimate that in 2002 the total amount of 

marijuana that traffickers succeeded in 

smuggling into the country was roughly 24 

million pounds, or about 10,889 metric tons. If 

one doubles that amount to take into account the 

domestic production of marijuana that was not 

seized, then the total amount would be closer to 

22,000 metric tons. 

Table 9. Federal Marijuana Seizures, 1989-

2002 

(in pounds) 

Year Quantity Seized

2002 2,412,365

2001 2,674,826

2000 2,614,746

1999 2,282,313

1998 1,777,434

1997 1,488,362

1996 1,429,786

1995 1,308,171

1994 1,041,445

1993 772,086

1992 783,477

1991 499,097

1990 483,353

1989 1,070,965

Source: Based on information adapted by

Sourcebook staff from tables provided by the 

U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement 

Administration, and Federal-wide Drug Seizure 

System, Sourcebook of Criminal Justice 

Indirect indicators rela Statistics Online, Table 4.36. ted to seizures of 

illicit cannabis products also help to explain 

other aspects of the problem. For example, the origin of seized drugs helps to identify the main 

source countries for marijuana, and these include the United States itself. However, the origin of

marijuana is difficult to determine unless it is seized at the grow site. Marijuana produced in and 

shipped from California is particularly difficult to distinguish from marijuana transshipped 

through California and produced in Mexico.87 A large percentage of the marijuana seized in the 

United States is from foreign source areas.88

 

86 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, “South Carolina,” Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/state_factsheets.html] 87 NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2001 - The Domestic Perspective, 

October 2000. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/647/marijuan.htm#Top] 88 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “Trafficking in Cannabis,” Chapter 1.2.4, Global Illicit 

Drug Trends, 2003 [Vienna, Austria], 72. [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/report_2003-06-26_1.pdf]

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Table 10. Annual U.S. Marijuana Seizures, 1990-99

Source: DEA Federal-wide Drug Seizure System (FDSS), 

The Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 2001

Most of the cannabis herb seizures in the world take place in the Americas. In 2001, the 

Americas accounted for 63 percent of all marijuana seizures worldwide. In that year, Mexico 

accounted for 39 percent of all marijuana seizures; and the United States, 15 percent. The 

combined total constituted 54 percent of the worldwide figure. While marijuana seizures have 

increased in North America since the 1990s, those of South America have declined since the 

mid-1990s.89

MAJOR AVENUES INTO THE UNITED STATES 

There appear to be four principal avenues for smuggling marijuana into the continental 

United States: the Southwest border with Mexico, the Northwest and Northeast borders with 

Canada, and the Florida coastline (see Figure 2). These avenues allow marijuana to flow north 

from Mexico through the United States and to western and eastern Canada, northeast from the 

25

 

89 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “Trafficking in Cannabis,” Chapter 1.2.4, Global Illicit 

Drug Trends, 2003 (Vienna, Austria), 71. [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/report_2003-06-26_1.pdf]
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Marijuana Availability

 

Caribbean through Florida to the eastern United States and eastern Canada, and south from

British Columbia in western Canada to the western and eastern United States. Elevated security 

since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks has deterred transportation of most drugs by 

commercial air travel, but smugglers are continuing to use parcel post and small aircraft. 

From Canada 

Traffickers transport drugs across the U.S.-Canada border at monitored and unmonitored 

points. These traffickers use a variety of methods, including smuggling by land, sea, air, and 

mail.90

By Land 

Overland drug smuggling typically occurs along the Washington State-British Columbia 

border in the West, at the Detroit-Windsor and Buffalo points of entries in the Great Lakes area, 

and along the Quebec and Ontario borders with New York, Vermont, and Maine in the East. 

Mexican drug-trafficking organizations and criminal groups based in Mexico and California are 

the primary transporters of Mexico-produced marijuana and of marijuana produced by Mexican 

criminal groups in the western states.91

Along land borders, smugglers typically transport drugs by commercial, private, and 

rental vehicles; snowmobiles; and all-terrain vehicles. They also walk across the border carrying 

drugs in backpacks. Intelligence reports indicate that drug smugglers increasingly are using 

night-vision optics and Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment to navigate in remote areas. 

Drug shipments are secreted in duffel bags or luggage and in hidden compartments of 

commercial and private vehicles, or they are commingled with legitimate cargo in commercial 

vehicles crossing the border. 

90 NDIC, “Drug Threats - Drug Transportation Across the U.S.-Canada Border,” United States-Canada Border Drug 

Threat Assessment, December 2001. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs07/794/transp.htm#Top] 91 NDIC, Colorado Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs4/4300/marijuan.htm#Top] 

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By Sea 

Figure 2. Cross-Border Marijuana Distribution in

North America

Source: NDIC, December 2001.

Traffickers also transport drugs across the border using maritime smuggling methods. 

Drugs are commonly transported across marine borders in all types of pleasure craft, from cabin 

cruisers and sailing vessels to kayaks and personal watercraft. Maritime smuggling is most 

prevalent in the Washington State-British 

Columbia area, where traffickers smuggle 

drugs by hiding shipments on vessels or 

having “mules” ride the regional ferry systems 

as drug-carrying passengers. The extent of 

maritime drug smuggling across the Great 

Lakes is largely unknown. Law enforcement 

and intelligence reports occasionally describe

the smuggling of small amounts of drugs 

across the Great Lakes. To date, however, this 

type of information has been mostly 

anecdotal, and quantifying the maritime

smuggling threat in the Great Lakes area has 

been difficult. 

By Air 

Law enforcement reporting contains several examples of drug smuggling by aircraft from

Canada to the United States. Drug smuggling by aircraft has occurred in a number of locations, 

including from British Columbia to Washington State, from the Vancouver area across the Idaho 

and Montana borders, across Lake Erie into Pennsylvania, and from Quebec to Maine. El Paso 

Intelligence Center (EPIC) reporting indicates continued suspicious small aircraft activity in 

Maine near Jackman, nine miles from the U.S.-Canada border, and at Rangely Airport, 21 miles 

from the border. Marijuana traffickers use small private aircraft to transport Canada-produced 

marijuana to the United States. 

Traffickers increasingly are shipping illegal drugs across the U.S.-Canada border in mail 

parcels. Law enforcement reporting indicates that drugs (such as heroin, cocaine, and other 

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dangerous drugs) and precursor chemicals are smuggled by mail and commercial parcel carriers 

because of the anonymity and efficiency of such delivery. Moreover, the RCMP reporting 

indicates that precursor chemicals purchased from legitimate chemical supply companies are 

shipped by mail to post office boxes registered under fictitious names. 

From the Caribbean 

Personal-use amounts of hashish are seized occasionally in the eastern and western 

United States and at ports of entry along the U.S.-Canada border. Large shipments of hashish 

destined for Canada sometimes are seized while in transit through the United States. One 

domestic seizure of 10.6 metric tons destined for Montreal accounted for nearly all of the hashish 

seized in the United States in 2000.92 Shipments of hashish and liquid hashish flow from the 

Caribbean through Florida and New York then north to eastern Canada, and directly from the 

Caribbean to eastern Canada. 

Jamaican criminal groups supply multi-metric ton quantities of marijuana to the United

States.93 Jamaican organizations also appear to be involved in dispatching Mexican marijuana by 

parcel carriers. Jamaican organized crime groups based in Ontario control most liquid hashish 

trafficking, smuggling primarily through airports. Traffickers transporting liquid hashish through 

the United States to Canada usually are linked to Canada-based criminal groups operating in 

southern Ontario and in the Atlantic Provinces.94

From Colombia 

Colombia has been a major supplier of marijuana to the United States since at least the 

1980s.95 Large quantities of Colombian marijuana are smuggled by maritime vessels from South 

America to the United States via the Caribbean. Colombian marijuana is also transported from

Colombia to Mexico by maritime vessel. Once in Mexico, marijuana typically is smuggled 

across the Southwest border into the United States. 

92 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 93 NDIC, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 94NDIC, U.S. Department of Justice, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 95 South America/Caribbean Strategic Intelligence Unit (NIBC) of the Office of International Intelligence, U.S. DEA 

Intelligence Division, The Drug Trade in Colombia: A Threat Assessment (DEA-02006), March 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/intel/02006/index.html#6]

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From Mexico

Mexican traffickers figure prominently in the distribution of drugs, including marijuana, 

in U.S. markets.96 Organized crime groups operating from Mexico have smuggled marijuana into 

the United States since the early 1970s. These groups maintain extensive networks of associates, 

often related through familial or regional ties to associates living in the United States, where they 

control multi-drug smuggling and wholesale distribution from hub97 cities to retail markets 

throughout the United States.98 As Mexico’s most widely produced drug, marijuana has the most 

routes and modes of transportation for being smuggled into the United States (see Figure 3). 

Figure 3. Air, Land, and Sea Routes in Mexico Used by Mexican Drug Cartels to Smuggle 

Their Shipments into the United States. 

Source: Report by Mexico’s Office of the Attorney General, as cited by El Norte [Monterrey,

 

96 Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Mexico,”

International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 2002, March 2003. 

[http://www.state.gov/g/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2002/html/17944.htm] 97 A transportation hub is defined as a city or area in the United States that is the destination of recurring shipments 

of wholesale quantities of drugs from a primary production area (foreign or domestic). Transportation hubs also 

function as distribution centers. 98 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 

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Mexican authorities have determined, as a result of seizing a total of 515 tons of marijuana as of 

June 2003, that Mexican drug-trafficking organizations use seven federal highway routes, six air 

routes, and five maritime routes to smuggle marijuana into the United States. 99 Employing a 

variety of transportation and concealment methods to smuggle marijuana into the United States, 

drug-trafficking groups operating from Mexico move bulk shipments of marijuana north to the 

U.S. southwestern border area by land, sea, and air. They often break down the shipments to a 

more manageable and less detectable size at stash sites along the land border before smuggling 

them into the United States. 

By Land 

Transport across the border is primarily overland by commercial, private, and rental 

vehicles and by couriers on foot. Private aircraft and watercraft are used but to a lesser extent. 

Most shipments are smuggled into the United States through or between points of entry in 

Arizona, California, and Texas. FDSS data indicate that the 610,828 kilograms of marijuana 

seized by federal law enforcement officers in Texas in 2000 accounted for the great majority of 

the marijuana seized or purchased in DEA's System to Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence 

(STRIDE) for that year. 100

Kansas is a transit state for Mexico-produced marijuana destined for drug markets 

throughout the United States. More than 80 percent of the 10,000 kilograms of marijuana seized 

on Kansas highways as part of Operation Pipeline in 2000 was destined for other areas, including 

Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Washington, D.C.101

Although the list is not inclusive, cities most likely used as transportation hubs for 

marijuana smuggled from Mexico are Los Angeles and San Diego, California; Nogales and 

Phoenix, Arizona; and Brownsville, Dallas, El Paso, Houston, Laredo, McAllen, and San 

Antonio, Texas. These cities also function as distribution centers for marijuana shipped to 

99 El Norte [Monterrey, Mexico], October 14, 2003, as translated by FBIS LAP20031015000096, “Highlights: USMexico Border Crime, Narcotics, and Security Issues,” October 14, 2003. 

[http://www.elnorte.com/ed_impresa/default.asp] 100 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002; and NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2003-S0387TX-001, October 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs5/5624/index.htm] 101 NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2002-J0403-

002, August 2002; and NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2003-S0387TX-001, October 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs5/5624/index.htm] 

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markets across the country.102 The 2003 report by Mexico’s Office of the Attorney General notes 

that the most drug-trafficking activity is seen in the Sonora-Arizona border area, which includes 

the Mexican cities of Agua Prieta, Nogales, and San Luis Río Colorado in Sonora State, where 

the groups headed by Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán and the heirs of Amado Carrillo Fuentes 

operation.103

The entire Southwest Border area is mainly a narcotics transshipment point. The EPIC 

(El Paso Intelligence Center) has documented that 65 percent of the narcotics that are sold in 

U.S. markets enter the country through the Southwest Border. The Southwest Border highintensity drug-trafficking area is comprised of four distinct trafficking corridors called “plazas,” 

which are used by the drug-trafficking organizations to ply their trade. The most transshipped 

narcotic in the area is marijuana.104

The EPIC drug seizure statistics reflect significant increases in marijuana seizures along 

the U.S. Southwest Border, the major transit area. Such seizures increased 56 percent from 1996 

to 1998.105 This trend of increasing seizures continued into the 1999-2002 period (see Table 11). 

Most of the New Mexico/Mexico international border (approximately 150 miles) is open desert 

and is generally uninhabited with innumerable roads, trails, footpaths, and ranches that allow 

smugglers easy entry into the United States and access to major highways that traverse the 

country.106 West Texas, commonly referred to as the El Paso/Juárez Corridor, serves as the 

gateway for narcotics destined to major metropolitan areas in the United States.107

Sources-of-supply from Mexico move significant quantities of marijuana and cocaine 

through the points of entry using major east/west and north/south interstate highways that 

crisscross through the El Paso Division. These highways provide the traffickers with 

transportation routes for distribution of drugs throughout the country. Drug traffickers also 

obtain warehouses in El Paso for stash locations and recruit drivers from the area to transport the 

102 This paragraph derives from NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, 

Document ID: 2002-J0403-002, August 2002. 103 El Norte [Monterrey, Mexico], October 14, 2003. 104 White House, Office of National Drug Control Policy. “Southwest Border HIDTA,” High-Intensity Drug 

Trafficking Areas, March 13, 2003. <http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/hidta/frames_sw.html> 105 U.S. DEA, Drug Intelligence Brief: The Cannabis Situation in the United States, December 1999. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/intel/99028/99028.html] EPIC seizure statistics, such as those in Table 11, tend to

be lower than FDSS statistics. For the latter, see the FDSS seizure statistics under the individual state sections in the 

Appendix. 106 U.S. DEA, Briefs and Background, “New Mexico,” http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/states/newmexico.html 107 U.S. DEA, Briefs and Background, “New Mexico.” 

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narcotics to various destinations throughout the United States. Additional threats to the region 

are the shipments of controlled substances by commercial vehicles, including aircraft, buses, and 

by Amtrak rail. El Paso is also considered a hub for significant amounts of drug proceeds being 

laundered through small businesses. The Southwest Border area of Texas is largely rural and 

sparsely populated and includes the Big Bend Corridor, a transshipment route for drugs entering 

the United States from Northeast Mexico en route to Midland/Odessa and other cities in the 

United States.108

Table 11. Marijuana Seizures Within 150 Miles of 

the U.S.-Mexico Border, in Pounds, 1999-2002 

 1999 2000 2001 2002 

Arizona 169,586 197,036 212,229 246,161

California 191,569 230,110 202,046 126,161

New 

Mexico 35,079 45,209 51,527 37,347

Texas 402,567 459,619 592,771 604,993

Source: National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC), Texas 

Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2003-S0387TX001, October 2003, citing El Paso Intelligence Center. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs5/5624/index.htm]

Most of the marijuana 

smuggled into the United States 

from Mexico is concealed in 

vehicles—often in false 

compartments—or hidden in 

shipments of legitimate agricultural 

or industrial products. Marijuana 

also is smuggled across the border 

by rail, horse, raft, and backpack.109

Shipments of 20 kilograms or less 

are smuggled by pedestrians who 

enter the United States at border 

checkpoints and by backpackers who, alone or in groups ("mule trains"), cross the border at more 

remote locations.110 Organized crime groups operating from Mexico conceal marijuana in an 

array of vehicles, including commercial vehicles, private automobiles, pickup trucks, vans, 

mobile homes, and horse trailers, driven through border ports of entry. Larger shipments ranging 

up to multi-thousand kilograms are usually smuggled in tractor-trailers. Marijuana packages are 

often wrapped in cellophane; coated with mustard, grease, and motor oil; and commingled in a 

load of other products, including anything from television sets to pickles.111

 

108 U.S. DEA, Briefs and Background, “New Mexico,” http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/states/newmexico.html 109 U.S. DEA, Drug Trafficking in the United States, September 2001. 110 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 111 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 

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Entrance to Drug-Smuggling Tunnel Discovered in Tijuana, 

Mexico, on April 4, 2003 

Source: Frontera [Tijuana, Mexico], April 9, 2003. 

Another, more unconventional method of smuggling marijuana and other drugs into the 

United States from Mexico is cross-border tunneling. U.S. and Mexican officials discovered a 

one-year-old tunnel on April 4, 2003, that drug traffickers had built directly below a concrete 

tunnel used as a drainage pipe for rivers, rain, and water in general flowing between the two 

countries.112 U.S. authorities discovered another tunnel, which was used “to introduce marijuana 

and cocaine into U.S. 

territory,” according to 

Mexican prosecutors, on 

September 12, 2003, in 

Tijuana. Measuring 492 feet 

long, five feet high, and 21⁄2 

feet wide, it runs from

Mexicali in Baja California, 

Mexico, to Calexico, 

California.113 Five such 

constructions have been 

discovered in the border area 

so far in 2003. In 2002, U.S. 

drug agents discovered a 

1,200-foot tunnel—complete with electric lights, ventilation ducts, and wooden walls—in a 

remote section of rocky border scrubland, 70 miles east of San Diego near a small town called 

Tecate. Investigators believe that the notorious Tijuana Cartel, headed by several brothers in the 

Arellano Félix family, built the tunnel at least two or three years earlier.114

 

112 Agustín Pérez Aguilar, “Resulta difícil destruir tunnel” [It Will Be Difficult to Destroy Tunnel], Frontera

[Tijuana, Mexico], April 9, 2003. 

[http://www.frontera.info/EdicionImpresa/ejemplaresanteriores/BusquedaEjemplares.asp?numnota=191377&fecha=

09/04/2003] 113 ACAN/EFE Press Agency [Panama City], September 17, 2003. 114 Kevin Sullivan, “Billions in Drugs Moved Via Tunnel: Lucrative Drug-Smuggling Mechanism Discovered,”

Washington Post, March 2, 2002. 

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By Sea 

Besides engaging in overland smuggling, drug traffickers use ocean vessels to move 

Mexican marijuana up the coast of Mexico to U.S. ports, drop-off sites along the U.S. coast, or to 

rendezvous points with other boats bound for the United States. Law enforcement authorities in 

southern California indicate that marijuana is transferred from mother ships in international 

waters to Mexican fishing vessels. The smaller vessels then deliver the marijuana to overland 

smugglers on the Mexican Baja California Peninsula. From there, the marijuana is generally 

moved to border transit points and then carried to the Los Angeles metropolitan area for 

distribution to eastern markets.115 The 2003 report by Mexico’s Office of the Attorney General 

notes that currently the Sea of Cortez is most often used to transport drugs by water.116

The Tecate tunnel was discovered in 2002. 

Source: DEA, July 2002 

By Air 

Other smuggling methods have 

included parcel post. In April 2000, U.S. 

anti-narcotics agents broke up a drug ring 

that used corrupt employees of the parcel 

service Federal Express (FedEx) to 

transport marijuana around the country. The 

DEA arrested more than 100 people, 

including 25 FedEx employees, who 

provided company aircraft and trucks to 

distribute US$160 million worth of marijuana. Organized by a powerful Mexican drug gang, the 

operation smuggled bales of marijuana to Jamaican traffickers in California, who then used 

FedEx to deliver them to dealers across the United States.117

 

115 U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the United States, July 25, 2003. 116 El Norte [Monterrey, Mexico], October 14, 2003. 117 BBC News Online, “US Busts Drug Express,” April 14, 2000. 

[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/712831.stm] 

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LINKS TO ORGANIZED CRIME 

Major Trafficking Organizations 

The demographic makeup of marijuana producers in the United States includes a wide 

range of racial, ethnic, and social groups and often reflects the general population of an area. 

Law enforcement reporting indicates that most local, usually independent, growers are 

Caucasian, although across the United States local growers also are identified as Mexican, 

Hispanic, and African American. Those identified in more regional or localized areas include 

Jamaicans (New England, New York/New Jersey, and Mid-Atlantic regions as well as Florida), 

Vietnamese and Asians (Pacific Northwest), Native Americans (Montana, New Mexico, New 

York, South Dakota, and Wisconsin), Colombians (Florida), and Dominicans (Rhode Island). 

Organized groups involved in cultivation and production include outlaw motorcycle gangs and 

drug-trafficking organizations.118

Canada 

During the 1996-2001 period, criminal groups based in Canada emerged as suppliers of 

high-grade marijuana to the United States. Organized criminal groups such as outlaw motorcycle 

gangs transport shipments of Canada-produced marijuana to U.S. markets; the wide-ranging 

involvement of such gangs in the marijuana trade is well documented in law enforcement and 

intelligence reporting. Outlaw motorcycle gangs such as the Hells Angels, however, are now 

faced with fierce competition from Vietnamese criminal groups in western Canada. Vietnamese 

gangs have been steadily encroaching on the lucrative marijuana-growing industry historically 

controlled by outlaw bike gangs in Ontario and British Columbia.119 Canadian police data 

indicate that Vietnamese gang activity in Vancouver's cannabis cultivation industry increased 

almost 20-fold between 1997 and 2000.120 Asian organized crime groups are entrenched in 

British Columbia, Alberta, and Ontario and are expanding marijuana cultivation in 

118 This paragraph derives from NDIC, “Marijuana Update,” Intelligence Brief: National Drug Threat Assessment, 

Document ID: 2002-J0403-002, August 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1335/index.htm#Overview] 119 This paragraph is based on Peter O'Neil, CanWest News Service, “Canada a ‘Haven’ for Marijuana Growers; 

RCMP Fears Gang Involvement, ‘Extreme Violence,’” Canada.com [Toronto; Internet www-text], May 9, 2003. 120 NDIC, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs07/794/marijuan.htm#Map%201]

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Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Quebec, and Atlantic Canada.121 These operations are typically highly 

organized with extensive interprovincial networks and drug-distribution networks to the United 

States. 

The bulk of the marijuana grown in British Columbia is exported to the United States,

where there is a large market and a higher profit margin. Marijuana produced in lower British 

Columbia may be transported to Ontario by rail and then into the United States in tractor-trailer 

trucks. It is estimated that, in the city of Vancouver alone, there are approximately 10,000 

clandestine marijuana grow operations. Profits generated by Vietnamese-based criminal groups 

through the cultivation and trafficking of marijuana are often reinvested to finance other illicit 

activities, or laundered money is invested into legitimate businesses. These Asian organized 

crime groups associate with other organized crime groups nationally and internationally, 

particularly in the United States and Southeast Asia.122

British Columbia’s highly potent marijuana (BC Bud) is sometimes exchanged in the

United States for harder drugs such as cocaine and hard-to-get handguns. For example, three men 

were arrested in British Columbia in February 2003 after sneaking across the Canada-U.S. 

border with dozens of guns, diamonds, and U.S. cash. Police believed that they were likely 

involved in an organized crime guns-for-drugs deal.123

Mexico 

According to Mexico’s Office of the Attorney General's, Mexico's seven major cartels 

are: the Arellano Félix in Tijuana, the Armando Valencia or Millennium, the Osiel CárdenasGuillén on the Gulf Coast, the Amezcua in Colima, the Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán in Sinaloa, 

the Diáz Parada in Oaxaca, and the Vicente Carrillo-Fuentes in Juárez. Another prominent major 

Mexican drug-trafficking group involved in trafficking in marijuana in the United States is the 

Miguel Caro-Quintero. As of September 2003, the border-based Vicente Carrillo-Fuentes or 

Juárez Cartel had become Mexico’s most powerful drug-trafficking organization, operating in 17 

121 This paragraph is based on Criminal Intelligence Service Canada (CISC), “Asian-Based Organized Crime,” 

Annual Report on Organized Crime in Canada 2003, 19-20. 

[http://www.cisc.gc.ca/AnnualReport2003/Document/CISC%202003%20Annual%20Report.pdf] 122 This paragraph is based on Criminal Intelligence Service Canada (CISC), “Asian-Based Organized Crime,” 

Annual Report on Organized Crime in Canada 2003, 19-20. 123 The Globe and Mail [Toronto; Internet version-www], February 20, 2003. 

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Benjamín 

ArellanoFélix

Ramón 

ArellanoFélix

of the 32 states in the country.124 These organizations are responsible for the majority of the 

marijuana entering the United States.

125

In addition to the aforementioned major marijuana trafficking groups, recent and 

historical intelligence has identified the Durango-based Herrera family as one of the larger 

Mexican drug-trafficking organizations. However, its trafficking in marijuana is a relatively 

minor part of its business, in comparison with its heroin and cocaine trafficking.126

Arellano-Félix 

During the period from the mid-1980s to 2002, the Arellano-Félix was one of the most 

powerful and violent drug-trafficking organizations in Mexico. From strongholds in Tijuana and 

Mexicali, the Arellano-Félix orchestrates the transportation, importation, and distribution of 

multi-ton quantities of marijuana and other drugs into the United States. However, the ArellanoFélix was dealt two huge blows in February and March 2002— the death of its notorious and 

brutal enforcer, Ramón Arellano-Félix, on February 10, 2002, and the 

arrest of its overall chief of operations, Benjamín Arellano-Félix, on 

March 9, 2002.127 The Arellano-Félix operated primarily in Tijuana, and 

between San Diego and Los Angeles in the United States. The two 

setbacks suffered by the Arellano-Félix in early 2002 may have 

weakened its ability to retain control over the Tijuana drug-trafficking 

corridor. Although the Arellano-Félix reportedly has developed ties to Russian organized crime 

and to the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de 

Colombia—FARC), which is a guerrilla and terrorist organization, the Arellano-Félix-FARC 

relationship appears to be based on cocaine and not marijuana. 

37

 

124 Mónica Medel, “Mexico's Juárez Cartel Said Most Powerful Drug Trafficking Organization,” ACANEFE 

[Panama City], September 4, 2003, citing the Mexican Office of the Attorney General. 125 “Mexico Country Brief,” Drug Intelligence Brief, July 2002, U.S. DEA. 

[http://www.dea.gov/pubs/intel/02035/02035.html] 126 U.S. DEA “The Mexican Heroin Trade,” April 2000 (DEA-20014). 

<http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/intel/20014/20014.html> 127 Reforma [Mexico City; Internet version-www], March 10, 2002, as translated by FBIS LAP20020312000111, 

“Arellano Felix Family Business, a History.” 
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Armando 

ValenciaCornelio

Vicente Carrillo-Fuentes

Although the core business of the Carrillo-Fuentes or Juárez Cartel is smuggling 

Colombian cocaine into the United States, the group also deals in marijuana and other drugs. 

Since the death of former kingpin Amado Carrillo-Fuentes in July 1997, the structure of the 

Carrillo-Fuentes drug-trafficking organization has remained mostly intact with key lieutenants 

retaining control of specific geographic areas. These lieutenants include Amado’s brother, 

Vicente Carrillo-Fuentes, Juan José Esparragosa-Moreno, and Ismael (“El Mayo”) ZambadaGarcía. Vicente Carrillo-Fuentes is wanted in Mexico and the United States in connection with a 

46-count indictment that includes charges of importing and distributing thousands of kilograms 

of marijuana.

128 However, after the death of Amado Carrillo Fuentes, the Juárez Cartel shifted to 

a command structure based on a board of directors that, in addition to the aforementioned names, 

includes Beltrán Leyva and Ignácio Coronel.129

Armando Valencia-Cornelio 

Armando Valencia-Cornelio, a Mexican national, is another significant drug 

trafficker operating in Mexico, and is a key figure in the interrelationship between 

major Mexican and Colombian drug-trafficking organizations. The ValenciaCornelio group’s primary bases of operation are in Guadalajara, Jalisco State; and 

the state of Michoacán. 

Miguel Caro-Quintero 

The Caro-Quintero organization, based in Sonora State, focuses on trafficking in cocaine 

and marijuana. Originally headed by Rafael Caro-Quintero, Miguel Angel Caro-Quintero 

became the head of the organization after the 1985 imprisonment of his brother, Rafael, on drug 

violations and his involvement in the murder of DEA Special Agent Enrique Camarena. 

Although Miguel was arrested in 1992, that effort was nullified when a Mexican federal judge in 

Hermosillo, Sonora, dropped all criminal charges and ordered his release from custody. Until his

re-arrest on December 20, 2001, Miguel Caro-Quintero operated freely throughout northwestern 

38

 

128 FBI Wanted Fugitives, September 2002. <http://www.fbi.gov/mostwant/fugitive/sept2002/septfuentes.htm> 129 Mónica Medel, “Mexico's Juárez Cartel Said Most Powerful Drug Trafficking Organization,” ACANEFE 

[Panama City], September 4, 2003. 
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Mexico, running his drug-smuggling activities from Caborca, Sonora. Miguel Caro-Quintero is 

also known to have strong ties in Hermosillo. 

Osiel Cárdenas-Guillén

Osiel Cárdenas Guillén under 

arrest, March 13, 2003

Source: DEA 

The Cárdenas Guillén organization, formerly known as the Gulf Cartel, together with the 

Arellano Félix and Carillo Fuentes organizations, has been one of the three enduring pillars of 

Mexican polydrug trafficking. Osiel Cárdenas-Guillén, a 

marijuana and cocaine trafficker responsible for the November 9, 

1999, attempted assault and abduction of a DEA agent and a FBI 

agent in Matamoros, Tamaulipas State, is considered a leader of 

the remnants of the Gulf Cartel. Mexican authorities captured 

Cárdenas-Guillén, one of the most wanted, feared, and violent 

drug traffickers in the world, on March 14, 2003. 

LINKS TO TERRORISM 

Open-source reporting on possible connections between terrorist groups and marijuana 

trafficking in the United States has been very limited. The involvement of the indigenous 

Colombian guerrilla/terrorist groups, particularly the FARC and, to a lesser extent, the National 

Liberation Army (Ejército Nacional de Liberación—ELN), in the cocaine trade is well known. 

There have been numerous reports of FARC and ELN members being captured with marijuana 

shipments in Colombia or simply extorting protection money from marijuana cultivators. 

However, whether these groups are actively involved in smuggling marijuana into the United 

States is unclear. 

There are indications of possible terrorist connections to marijuana smuggling from

Canada and Mexico into the United States and marijuana cultivation in the United States itself.

These apparent connections have yet to be well documented, but they may prove to be more 

substantial as more information becomes available. 

With regard to Canada, if there is any terrorist connection to Canadian marijuana 

smuggling to the United States, the major news media apparently have not reported on it in 

recent years. However, there appears to be a strong potential for such a link to develop, if it does 

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not already exist. As many as 50 international terrorist groups have a presence in Canada, and a 

few of them may see the fund-raising potential in the lucrative marijuana trade. For example, a 

May 2003 report by the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) has warned police that 

members of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) terrorist group—supported by Iran and Syria with 

funding, training, and sanctuary—may try to infiltrate Canada to set up a support base in Canada 

similar to their fund-raising network in Florida. In February 2003, the National Post reported that 

Islamic Jihad had tried to obtain a fraudulent visa so that its treasurer, Muhammed Tasir Hassan 

Al-Khatib, could come to Canada.130

Some unspecified terrorist groups in Central Asia may have a role in smuggling hashish 

through Maine or possibly Massachusetts to Canada. The RCMP (Royal Canadian Mounted 

Police) has indicated that Afghan and Pakistani terrorist groups are financed by approximately 

US$20 million of illicit funds derived from the sale of hashish in Canada.131 The increasing 

popularity of hashish in Canada is expected to change the hashish situation in Maine. Traffickers 

have moved hashish and hash oil through Maine and into Canada. It would appear, therefore, that 

Afghan and Pakistani terrorist groups may also have a role in the trafficking of hashish to a 

select few locations in the United States, such as Maine and possibly Boston, Massachusetts. 

One of the few U.S. newspapers to report on a possible Hizballah connection with the 

marijuana trade in the United States is the Los Angeles Times, which, in May 2003, published a 

particularly informative article in this regard in its back pages.132 The paper reported that 

marijuana cultivation in California’s Sequoia National Park has increased steadily since the early 

1990s, and that the number of plants seized in the state's oldest national park has jumped 

eightfold since 2001. Although most of Sequoia's cannabis cultivation is hidden in the steep 

Sierra Nevada foothills in the remote southwestern reaches of the park, large plots have been 

discovered a dozen miles from park headquarters. According to U.S. drug enforcement officials 

cited by the Los Angeles Times, the cannabis fields are financed by the Mexican drug cartels that 

dominate the methamphetamine trade in the adjacent Central Valley. The officials say there is 

evidence that the cartels, in turn, have financial ties to Middle Eastern smugglers linked to 

130 This paragraph is based on Stewart Bell, "Islamic Jihad coming to Canada, CSIS fears; Terrorists in U.S.: report," 

National Post [Internet Version-www], October 22, 2003. 131 U.S. DEA, Drug Intelligence Brief: Money Laundering in Canada, August 2003, citing The Associated Press, 

July 14, 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/intel/03034/03034.html#6] 132 This discussion is based on Julie Cart, “Park's Pot Problem Explodes; Number of Marijuana Plants Seized at

Sequoia Has Soared; Officials Say Mexican Cartels Linked to Mideast Terrorists Run the Operation,” Los Angeles 

Times, May 14, 2003: B1

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Hizballah and other terrorist groups. Ron Gravitt, special agent in charge at the Sacramento 

headquarters of California’s Bureau of Narcotics Enforcement told the Los Angeles Times: 

Our belief is that the Mexican drug organizations have gone heavily into 

marijuana operations. The overhead is much lower than running a 

methamphetamine lab. They are taking the money from meth and putting it into 

expanding marijuana growing. 

Furthermore, officials at the state narcotics agency and the DEA have pointed out that the 

Mexican cartels appear—on the basis on statements from informants and wiretaps—to have 

financial ties to Middle Eastern groups.133 Bill Ruzzamenti, director of the state's High Intensity 

Drug Trafficking Area (HIDTA) program for the Central Valley and a former DEA agent, was 

quoted: "We have a number of methamphetamine cases where we've made a direct connection 

between the Hizballah and Mexican cartels." According to the Los Angeles Times, the DEA 

suspects that associates of the Lebanon-based Hizballah have been smuggling large amounts of 

pseudoephedrine tablets—pseudoephedrine is a key ingredient of methamphetamine— in cars 

and trucks across the Canadian border for sale to the drug cartels in California. The state 

narcotics bureau suspect that the cartels are using profits from the resale of the pseudoephedrine 

to bankroll the sharp increase in marijuana cultivation on public land. 

Both al-Qa’ida and Hizballah have been reported to have members based in Canada and 

Mexico. There has been some speculation since 2001 that Islamic terrorist organizations, 

including the Sunni Muslim al Qa’ida network and the Lebanese Shi’ite Hizballah organization, 

have sought to establish a presence in that country, and that Hizballah may have established cells 

in northern Mexico, such as in Monterrey, which has sizable ethnic Lebanese and Palestinian 

communities.134

OUTLOOK 

In the assessment of the NDIC, marijuana will remain the most widely available illicit 

drug in the United States. Domestic cannabis cultivation is likely to increase, while traffickers in 

foreign source countries will continue to smuggle marijuana into the United States to profit from

high demand. The market for marijuana will remain strong given the drug's wide appeal and 

133 This paragraph is based on Cart, “Park's Pot Problem Explodes.” 134 For further details, see Ramón Miró, Organized Crime and Terrorist Activity in Mexico, 1999-2002, Library of

Congress, Federal Research Division, February 2003: 43-44 [http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/terrorism.html]. 

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profit potential.135 Most national data since the late 1990s indicate continuing overall stability in 

marijuana use. However, some national substance abuse indicators, including increased use and 

production of high-potency marijuana, suggest that demand may increase, according to the 

NDIC.136

Organized crime groups are likely to continue becoming increasingly involved in 

cannabis cultivation in the United States as well as in the transportation and distribution of 

marijuana throughout the country.137 Mexican organizations will continue to dominate wholesale 

marijuana distribution for the near future. But several state and local agencies express concern 

that given the increasing demand for marijuana and what appears to be increasing tacit approval 

of marijuana use, the profit potential will attract individuals and criminal groups not currently 

involved in cannabis cultivation and marijuana distribution.138

The Criminal Intelligence Service Canada (CISC) believes that Asian organized crime 

will expand its involvement in the growing and exporting of marijuana in order to take advantage 

of high profits, low risks, and relatively lenient sentences.139 In the assessment of the NDIC, 

marijuana smuggling from Canada to the United States probably will increase if the U.S. 

domestic demand for high-grade marijuana continues. Canadian marijuana production, largely 

controlled by Asian criminal groups and the Hells Angels organized motorcycle gang, will 

spread to previously unaffected areas of Canada through the established networks of these 

criminal groups, thereby facilitating increased marijuana smuggling to the United States. 

However, compared with the large quantities of marijuana smuggled across the U.S.-Mexico 

border, the threat that marijuana smuggling from Canada poses to the United States will remain 

low.140

135 NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2002, December 2001. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs07/716/marijuan.htm#Top] 136 NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2001 - The Domestic Perspective, October 2000. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/647/marijuan.htm#Top]; and NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, 

January 2003. 137 NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2003, January 2003. 138 NDIC, National Drug Threat Assessment 2001 - The Domestic Perspective, October 2000. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/647/marijuan.htm#Top] 139 Criminal Intelligence Service Canada (CISC), “Asian-Based Organized Crime,” Annual Report on Organized 

Crime in Canada 2003, 19-21. 

[http://www.cisc.gc.ca/AnnualReport2003/Document/CISC%202003%20Annual%20Report.pdf] 140 NDIC, United States-Canada Border Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 

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APPENDIX: CANNABIS HERB DATA FOR U.S. STATES AND ASSOCIATED U.S. 

TERRITORIES141

I. U.S. STATES 

ALABAMA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana has long had a strong presence in Alabama. However, in the 

past few years, a transformation has been seen in the level of dealers in the area and in the size of 

loads commonly seized, especially in the Huntsville area. Only a few years ago, a seizure of 10 

pounds of marijuana was fairly rare and considered significant, but now Huntsville authorities 

commonly seize loads of 50 to 100 pounds. 

Production: The overall production of marijuana within the state continues to decline. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is most common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 819.5 kilograms 

Major Avenues into the State: The main source of marijuana coming into the state is Mexico, 

with connections to South America as well as through port cities of Florida and the port of 

Mobile. African-American and Mexican criminal groups transport multi-kilogram to multihundred kilogram shipments of marijuana to Alabama from the Southwest Border. Marijuana is 

typically transported into the state by commercial and private vehicles, and by package delivery 

and express mail services. The transportation of marijuana into the state by the highway system

is increasing. Even though the highway system is a confirmed route for most of the marijuana 

seized in the state, the international airports in the state could be another strong possibility. 

Links to Organized Crime: African-American and Mexican criminal groups. 

ALASKA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most abused and widespread illegal drug in Alaska. 

Production: Most domestically produced marijuana is grown indoors. 

141 Unless noted otherwise, the data in this section come from U.S. DEA Public Affairs, Drug Trafficking in the 

United States, July 25, 2003. [http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/state_factsheets.html] 

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Indoor Domestic Grows: About 95 percent of Alaska’s production of marijuana is grown 

indoors. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Less than 5 percent of the marijuana in Alaska is grown outdoors. 

Processed and Imported: No information available.

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 0.9 kilograms. 

Links to Organized Crime: No information available. 

ARIZONA 

Marijuana Situation: Arizona is directly north of the Mexican State of Sonora, a major 

trafficker stronghold. Arizona serves primarily as a drug importation and transshipment state. 

Production: 

Indoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 24,965.1 kilograms. 

Table 12. Arizona Statewide 

Marijuana Seizures, 1998-2001 

Source: Office of National Drug

Control Policy

Earlier Federal Drug Marijuana Seizures: Marijuana seizures in 2001 were 468,231 pounds. 

This figure represents a 22 percent drop from 2000 (see 

Table 12).142

Major Avenues into the State: Along the 350 miles of 

Arizona’s border with Mexico border are three principal 

ports of entry (Nogales, Douglas, and San Luis) and three 

secondary ports of entry (Lukeville, Sasabe, and Naco). 

Most of the border area consists of inhospitable desert and 

steep mountain ranges, which are sparsely populated, 

infrequently patrolled by law enforcement, and ideal for 

drug smuggling. Multi-hundred kilogram quantities of 

marijuana are transported from Mexico to the United States 

throughout the Ports of Entry along the Southern Arizona 

 

142 Office of National Drug Control Policy, Southwest Border HIDTA Arizona Partnership, “Arizona: Threat 

Abstract,” Southwest Border: High-Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas, March 13, 2003. 

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/hidta/frames_az.html] 

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border. In fenced areas along the border, bundles of marijuana are passed through holes, which 

have been cut, or the bundles of marijuana are simply thrown over the fence. Mexican trafficking

groups use tractor-trailers, passenger vehicles, animal caravans and backpackers to smuggle the 

marijuana in quantities of between 25 and 300 kilograms. 

Links to Organized Crime: Major Mexican trafficking organizations dominate drug smuggling 

and transportation. These groups are polydrug-trafficking organizations whose smuggling 

includes marijuana. A total of 410 drug-trafficking organizations were identified in CY 2001, 

and more than 50 percent of them have international connections. 

ARKANSAS143

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely available and frequently abused illicit drug 

in Arkansas. Seizure data reflect the ready availability of marijuana in Arkansas (see Table 13). 

Most of the marijuana available in the state is produced in Mexico. Mexican criminal groups and 

local independent dealers are the primary wholesale- and retail-level marijuana distributors in the

state. Marijuana typically is distributed at the retail level from bars, strip clubs, schools, parking 

lots, residences, businesses, and at concerts. Arkansas is a transit state for marijuana shipments 

destined for drug markets throughout the United States. Marijuana transported via I-30 and I-40 

through Arkansas, primarily from California and Texas, generally is destined for states in the 

Midwest and along the East Coast. Some cannabis is cultivated locally and distributed to other 

states, including Mississippi and Texas. 

Production: Most of the marijuana available in Arkansas is produced in Mexico; however, some

cannabis is cultivated throughout the state, primarily by local independent Caucasian growers. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Law enforcement officers have encountered indoor cultivation sites 

throughout Arkansas. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: In most areas of the state, cannabis is cultivated at outdoor grow sites. 

In Arkansas outdoor cannabis cultivation sites typically yield more cannabis per site than indoor 

sites. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana produced in Mexico, particularly commercial-grade 

marijuana, is the most widely available type of the drug in the state. 

143 This section also incorporates data from the NDIC, “Marijuana,” Arkansas Drug Threat Assessment, October 

2003. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs6/6184/marijuan.htm#Top]

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Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 401.2 kilograms (DEA figure). 

Table 13. Annual Amounts of Marijuana Seized in Arkansas, 1998-2002 

(in kilograms) 

Year Amount Seized (FDSS data) Amount Seized (Operation Pipeline)* 

1998 1,149.6

1999 1,273.2

2000 1,856.6 4,327

2001 2,281.1 1,325

2002 1,330.1

Source: National Drug Intelligence Center, “Marijuana,” Arkansas Drug Threat 

Assessment, October 2003, citing Federal-wide Drug Seizure System (FDSS) data. 

* EPIC 2001 Operation Pipeline data 

Major Avenues into the State: Marijuana typically is transported into Arkansas in hidden 

compartments in private and commercial vehicles, and occasionally by couriers on buses, via the 

same routes used to transport methamphetamine and cocaine. Transporters use a variety of 

means to conceal marijuana during transportation, including boxes, metal containers, duffel bags, 

suitcases, and compartments installed in the side panels, floors, and tailgates of vehicles. 

Transporters also intermingle marijuana with legitimate items such as produce or conceal the 

drugs in luggage. Marijuana typically is wrapped in layers of cellophane and duct tape and 

covered with mustard or coffee grounds to mask the odor of the drug. The majority of marijuana 

arrests and seizures in Arkansas are from Operation Pipeline stops, as the vehicles transit through 

the state, and from parcel interceptions. Seizures in excess of 1,000 pounds are typically 

concealed in tractor-trailers destined for cities on the East Coast. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican organized crime groups are the primary transporters of 

wholesale quantities of Mexico-produced marijuana into and through Arkansas. Local 

independent dealers, primarily Caucasians, and street gangs also transport marijuana into the 

state. These transporters generally smuggle the drug into Arkansas from Mexico, California, and 

southwestern states. 

CALIFORNIA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely available and abused illicit drug in 

California. Drugs such as marijuana are smuggled into the state from Mexico; however, 

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marijuana is also produced or cultivated in large quantities within the state. Marijuana, both 

domestic and imported (from Mexico), is widely available in San Diego and Imperial Counties. 

It also continues to be the drug of choice (with methamphetamine) in the San Diego and Imperial 

County area. There is an increase in narcotics trafficking in the eastern section of San Diego, as 

well as in Imperial County. 

Authorities in Southern California have seized more marijuana than all other drugs 

combined. Marijuana also has shown the biggest increase in the number of users, particularly 

among those 18 and younger. Mexican marijuana predominates in the region, but marijuana from 

Canada (BC Bud) and domestically produced marijuana are also available. The primary 

wholesalers are Mexican drug-trafficking organizations who use middlemen to move the 

marijuana to street-level dealers. Mexican drug-trafficking organizations smuggle large amounts 

of marijuana into and through the district, using it as both a destination and a transshipment 

point.144

Production: Domestically produced marijuana is preferred in California because of the higher 

THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) content. California-grown marijuana usually contains 10 to 20 

percent THC, versus 2 to 5 percent for the Mexican variety.145

Indoor Domestic Grows: Potent domestic marijuana is cultivated in sophisticated indoor, 

hydroponic gardens throughout the state. Statewide, cultivation has increased since California's 

voters passed Proposition 215, the Compassionate Use Act of 1996, removing state legal 

sanctions for marijuana used to alleviate specific medical conditions with a doctor's 

recommendation. Cannabis "clubs" or "cooperatives" have established themselves as illegal 

distributors under the guise of "caregivers." 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: The cultivation of cannabis is widespread in Northern California, 

especially in the Emerald Triangle (Mendocino, Trinity and Humboldt counties). The large-scale 

outdoor cultivation sites that dot the Emerald Triangle often use sophisticated irrigation systems 

to produce thousands of pounds of high-grade, high-demand marijuana annually. Cannabis 

cultivators in this area are predominantly young Caucasian males.146

144 This paragraph is based on NDIC, California Southern District Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2001-

S0387SCA-001, May 2002. [http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/654/index.htm#Contents] 145 NDIC, California Northern and Eastern Districts Drug Threat Assessment, January 2001. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/653/marijuan.htm#Top] 146 NDIC, California Northern and Eastern Districts Drug Threat Assessment, January 2001. 

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Growers increasingly use state and federal lands to cultivate cannabis. The U.S. Forest 

Service reports that seizures in the Cleveland, San Bernardino, and Angeles National Forests 

increased over 300 percent in the 1999-2001 period. The Forest Service seized 49,126 pounds of 

cannabis in 1997 and 237,329 pounds in 1999 in the three areas.147 Mexican drug-trafficking 

organizations run large-scale cannabis operations in the national forests of the Central District 

(counties of Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, 

and Ventura) sending crews from Mexico to tend cannabis crops. They also hire illegal 

immigrants to manage and watch over the cannabis cultivation sites. The growers make camp

near the plots and live onsite until harvest is completed. Cultivating cannabis in remote areas of

national forests reduces the risks and costs associated with smuggling marijuana across the 

Southwest Border. The use of public lands to cultivate cannabis is appealing to domestic growers 

because the risk of asset forfeiture is substantially minimized.148

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in the state is produced in Mexico, 

but cannabis is also cultivated throughout the state. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 11,172.7 kilograms. 

Earlier Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: During 2001, California Border Alliance Group 

(CBAG) task forces and participating member agencies seized more than 209,675 kilograms of 

marijuana.149 The rate of marijuana seizures in California over the 1995-99 period shows a 238 

percent change. In 1995, 56,737 pounds were seized; in 1996, 169,287; in 1997, 138,662; in 

1998, 186,941; and in 1999, 191,514 (see Table 14). 

Major Avenues into the State: Large quantities of low-grade marijuana are transported 

overland through Mexico to the California-Mexico border. Highly potent Canadian marijuana 

(BC Bud) is also transported into the state. San Diego remains a principal transshipment zone for 

a variety of drugs, particularly marijuana, smuggled from Mexico. However, traffickers are 

looking for alternate routes to smuggle narcotics into the country because of the more thorough 

screening of people and vehicles entering the United States from Mexico at San Ysidro, 

California. Calexico's West Port of Entry, located in downtown Calexico, California, 

147 This paragraph is based on NDIC, California Southern District Drug Threat Assessment, May 2002. 148 NDIC, California Central District Drug Threat Assessment, May 2001. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs0/668/marijuan.htm#Top] 149 Office of National Drug Control Policy, Southwest Border HIDTA Arizona Partnership, “California: Threat 

Abstract,” Southwest Border: High-Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas, March 13, 2003. 

<http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/hidta/frames_ca.html> 

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experienced the greatest number of drug seizures of the three border crossing points in Imperial 

County. This increase coincides with greater air smuggling activity observed along the 

Southwest Border. 

Authorities seized 226 kilograms of marijuana on all highways in Northern California in 

1999. Almost all marijuana seized originated in and was destined for locations in California. 

Interstate 5, with about 78 percent of the seizures, is the main highway used for transporting 

marijuana. U.S. Highways 101, 99, and 395 had only a few small seizures each.150

The transporters use tractor-trailers and various other vehicles to move the marijuana 

over Mexico's highways and secondary roads to the Southwest Border.151 The principal land 

corridors from Baja California into Southern California continue to be through and between 

California port of entries. Marijuana is smuggled in commercial and private vehicles and by 

backpackers. According to the USCS, most marijuana smugglers use the San Ysidro port of 

entry, followed by Calexico and Otay Mesa. Large shipments have been commingled with 

legitimate cargo such as wood chips and produce. Multi-hundred-pound shipments of marijuana 

have been seized from personal vehicles where they were hidden in various compartments and 

places such as quarter panels and spare tires. Shipments may also be hidden in boxes of clothing. 

Table 14. Arrival-Zone Marijuana Seizures, California-Mexico Border, 1995-99 

Source: DEA, El Paso Intelligence Center, Arrival Zone Seizures, Updated February 23, 

2000. 

 

150 NDIC, California Northern and Eastern Districts Drug Threat Assessment, January 2001. 151 This paragraph is based on NDIC, California Southern District Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2001-

S0387SCA-001, May 2002. 

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The California Border Alliance Group (CBAG) reported in 2002 that marijuana 

smuggling organizations were moving their operations east of Otay Mountain, and that the 

majority of seizures were being made west of the Tecate port of entry. The Tierra Del Sol in East 

San Diego is considered a preferred smuggling area. Backpackers from Mexico can walk across 

the border, leave the marijuana at a predetermined drop site, and return to Mexico. Pickup 

vehicles have quick access to Highway 94, which connects to Interstate 8.152

The amount of marijuana seized at ports in the Central District increased from FY1998 to 

FY1999. Port seizures more than doubled from 8,930 pounds to 18,509 pounds over this period. 

The Port of Los Angeles accounted for the highest volume of marijuana seizures within the Los 

Angeles area. Activity apparently has shifted to smaller ports within the Los Angeles area. 

During FY2000, the amount of marijuana seized at the ports of Hueneme and San Luis 

increased, while that seized at Los Angeles International Airport and the Port of Los Angeles 

decreased.153

Links to Organized Crime: Trafficking organizations operating out of Mexico dominate the 

market and exploit all means and methods to smuggle Mexican marijuana into Southern 

California.154 Mexican cocaine organizations smuggle multi-ton quantities of marijuana into the 

United States and through the state’s Central District.155

COLORADO 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana, primarily produced in Mexico, is the most widely available 

and frequently abused illicit drug in Colorado. It is readily available in multi-pound quantities 

throughout the state. The highly potent Canadian form of marijuana (BC Bud) is also easily 

obtainable, although significantly more expensive. 

Production: Indoor and outdoor cannabis cultivation is widespread in the state. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor cannabis grows are common, and there have been significant 

seizures of indoor grows containing 1,000 or more cannabis plants. Indoor operations that utilize 

152 This paragraph is based on NDIC, California Southern District Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2001-

S0387SCA-001, May 2002. 153 NDIC, California Central District Drug Threat Assessment, May 2001. 154 This paragraph is based on NDIC, California Southern District Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2001-

S0387SCA-001, May 2002. 155 NDIC, California Central District Drug Threat Assessment, May 2001. 

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hydroponics to produce high THC sinsemilla are becoming more common. Indoor operations 

generally are conducted by Caucasian criminal groups and local independent producers.156

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor cannabis cultivation reportedly yields more cannabis than 

indoor cultivation in Colorado. Mexican criminal groups cultivate large-scale outdoor sites 

containing thousands of cannabis plants in remote areas of Colorado. Outdoor cannabis 

operations typically are concealed among legitimate agricultural crops or on remote National 

Forest Service lands.157

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in the state is imported from Mexico. 

Marijuana produced in Colorado and other western states, particularly California, by Mexican 

criminal groups and local independent dealers is available. High-potency marijuana imported 

from Canada is becoming increasingly available in Colorado's metropolitan areas.158

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 43.5 kilograms (DEA). Seizure data reflect the 

ready availability of marijuana in Colorado. According to FDSS data, federal law enforcement 

officials in Colorado seized 882.5 kilograms of marijuana in 1998, 901.6 kilograms in 1999, 

718.1 kilograms in 2000, and 1,591.5 kilograms in 2001. Law enforcement officials seized 

2,348.1 kilograms of marijuana in 1999 and 1,520.9 kilograms in 2000 as part of Operation 

Pipeline and 175.1 kilograms in 2000 as part of Operation Jetway.159

Major Avenues into the State: BC Bud is smuggled into Colorado from British Columbia, 

Canada, to Washington and Oregon. Bigger loads have been coming in from Mexico. Marijuana 

typically is transported into the state in commercial trucks, rental and private vehicles, and by 

package delivery services. Marijuana produced in Mexico or by Mexican criminal groups in 

Colorado and other western states is distributed primarily by Mexican drug-trafficking 

organizations and criminal groups at the wholesale level and by Hispanic and African American 

street gangs at the retail level. Caucasian criminal groups and local independent dealers are the 

primary distributors of the marijuana and sinsemilla that they produce in Colorado.160

Caucasian local independent distributors and a limited number of Mexican criminal 

groups transport Canada-produced marijuana to Colorado through northwestern states. Marijuana 

156 NDIC, Colorado Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs4/4300/marijuan.htm#Top] 157 NDIC, Colorado Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 158 NDIC, Colorado Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 159 Most of this paragraph is based on NDIC, Colorado Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs4/4300/marijuan.htm#Top] 160 Most of this paragraph is based on NDIC, Colorado Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 

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typically is transported into Colorado along the state's interstate highway system. Operation 

Pipeline data from 2000 indicate that I-25 is the highway most often used to transport marijuana 

to Colorado, although I-70 also is frequently used. Interstate 76 typically is used to transport 

marijuana from Colorado to destinations in other states. The Four Corners-Durango area is a 

major transit area for marijuana being transported from Arizona, California, and New Mexico to 

cities such as Boston, Chicago, and New York. Commercial, private, and rental vehicles 

generally are used to transport marijuana into and through the state.161

To a much lesser extent, marijuana is also transported by couriers traveling aboard 

commercial aircraft. BC Bud is transported from British Columbia via Denver International 

Airport. Couriers on commercial flights also transport marijuana to drug markets in other states 

via connecting flights through Colorado airports. A small amount of marijuana is transported to 

Colorado by package delivery services. Marijuana packages typically contain from 5 to 10 

pounds of the drug and usually are shipped from Southern California or Texas. The most 

common cities from which marijuana is transported to Colorado in mail packages are El Paso, 

Texas; Phoenix, Arizona; and Los Angeles. 162

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican polydrug-trafficking organizations control the majority of

the distribution of marijuana and other drugs in Colorado. African-American and Hispanic street 

gangs, supplied by Mexican drug-trafficking organizations, also distribute all varieties of 

marijuana at the retail level. Caucasian local independent dealers distribute locally produced 

marijuana at the wholesale and retail levels. Caucasian criminal groups in Boulder, Denver, and 

Jefferson Counties are the primary distributors of BC Bud in Colorado.163

CONNECTICUT 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most readily available illicit drug in Connecticut. It can 

be effortlessly obtained in all areas of the state. It is readily available in the greater New Haven 

area for individual use and available in multi-ounce/pound quantities for wholesale distribution 

through Jamaican trafficking groups. 

Production: 

161 NDIC, Colorado Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 162 NDIC, Colorado Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 163 NDIC, Colorado Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 

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Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor hydroponic marijuana growth sites are known to be run in 

suburban areas in New Haven County. These operations are run by a small, tight-knit group that 

shares technology and growing techniques. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in Connecticut is produced in 

Mexico; however, locally produced marijuana and marijuana imported from Canada also are 

available.164

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 10.1 kilograms.

Major Avenues into the State: Most of the marijuana available in Connecticut is transported 

from Mexico to southwestern states, then transported to Connecticut primarily via package 

delivery services.165 Jamaican traffickers, for example, receive and coordinate the bulk shipment 

of marijuana packages to the New Haven area from courier services such as the United Parcel 

Service, Federal Express, and the U.S. Postal Service (Express Mail Delivery).166 Additional 

quantities are transported via private and commercial vehicles and couriers aboard commercial 

aircraft.167 Caucasian criminal groups smuggle high-quality, Canada-produced marijuana across 

the U.S.-Canada border primarily via private vehicles and couriers on foot. Couriers on foot 

typically rendezvous with co-conspirators near the U.S.-Canada border, who then transport the 

marijuana to Connecticut via private vehicles. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican criminal groups are the dominant transporters of 

marijuana into Connecticut; however, Caucasian, Jamaican, and other Hispanic criminal groups 

as well as crews and local independent dealers of various ethnic backgrounds also transport 

marijuana into the state.168 Caucasian, Dominican, Jamaican, Mexican, and other Hispanic 

criminal groups are the principal wholesale-level distributors of marijuana in Connecticut. 

DELAWARE 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is abundantly available in both wholesale and retail quantities 

in Delaware. It is the most readily available illicit drug in the state. Higher-quality marijuana is 

164 NDIC, Connecticut Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs5/5333/marijuan.htm#Top] 165 NDIC, Connecticut Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2003. 166 U.S. DEA state data. 167 The remainder of this paragraph is based on NDIC, Connecticut Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2003. 168 This paragraph is based on NDIC, Connecticut Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2003. 

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available, particularly in Newark. Recreational use of marijuana remains popular with high 

school- and college age-students, but adults remain the predominant users of marijuana, 

especially in large social gatherings, such as rock concerts. Marijuana is typically smoked in 

combination with crack cocaine, heroin, and PCP. 

Production: Cannabis is cultivated both outdoors and indoors in Delaware. Caucasian local 

independent dealers and abusers are the primary cannabis cultivators in the state. Cannabis 

cultivators in Dover and Milford attempt to conceal operations by growing cannabis intermingled 

with corn plants or indoors in basements or closets. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Common. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Common. 

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in Delaware is imported from

Mexico; however, locally produced marijuana also is available.169

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 1.2 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Because of their proximity to major thoroughfares, localities 

throughout the state remain transshipment points as well as consumer markets. Jamaican 

criminal groups are the primary transporters of marijuana into the state. African-American and 

Caucasian local independent dealers and Mexican criminal groups also transport marijuana into 

the state, although to a lesser extent. Most of the marijuana available in Delaware is transported 

from Philadelphia and New York City by private vehicles and couriers aboard trains and buses. 

Some marijuana is transported from Mexico and southwestern states by package delivery 

services, private vehicles, and commercial trucks.170

Links to Organized Crime: At the retail level, Hispanic, African-American, and Caucasian 

groups, along with some dominant Jamaican organizations, control the marijuana market by 

distributing bag, ounce, and pound quantities to users across Pennsylvania and Delaware. 

Jamaican criminal groups are the primary wholesale-level distributors of marijuana in Delaware. 

These criminal groups often sell multi-pound quantities of marijuana to African-American and 

Caucasian local independent dealers and local street gangs, who then distribute the drug at the 

retail level in the state.171

169 NDIC, Delaware Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs4/4025/marijuan.htm#Top] 170 NDIC, Delaware Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 171 Most of this paragraph is based on NDIC, Delaware Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 

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FLORIDA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana, both domestically grown and imported, is readily available 

throughout Florida and is the most widely available and frequently abused illicit drug in the state. 

Production: Cannabis plants are cultivated both indoors and outdoors in the state. Although 

significant quantities of marijuana are produced in Florida, most of the marijuana available in the 

state is produced in Jamaica or Mexico. Additional quantities of marijuana are produced in other 

U.S. states—particularly California and southwestern states—as well as in Canada and 

Colombia. Of all the cannabis plants eradicated in Florida in 2001, 63 percent were cultivated in 

12 counties—Alachua, Brevard, Duval, Gadsden, Hillsborough, Holmes, Jackson, Lee, MiamiDade, Okeechobee, Orange, and Santa Rosa. Both hydroponic marijuana and commercial-grade 

marijuana are readily available in Florida. Hydroponically produced marijuana is considerably 

more expensive than commercial-grade marijuana.172

Federal, state, and local law enforcement officials indicate that aggressive aerial detection 

missions and occasional drought conditions have, at least in part, contributed to a shift from large 

outdoor grows to indoor grows and smaller, more widely dispersed outdoor grows. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Domestic indoor cultivation is a significant industry throughout 

Florida. Indoor grows in Miami can be found in gated communities and in houses rented 

specifically for growing.173 The availability of plant hot houses and large commercial nurseries 

allow traffickers ready access to the necessary equipment for indoor grow operations, 

particularly in southwest Florida. The Fort Myers RO reports that growers are aware of federal 

threshold limits and are growing fewer than 100 plants per grow to reduce the risk of federal 

penalties. Cuban refugees have become increasingly involved in marijuana grow houses.174

According to DEA statistics, Florida ranked third after California (113,009 plants) and 

Washington (25,799 plants) for the number of cannabis plants seized from indoor grows in the 

United States in 2001.175

172 NDIC, Florida Drug Threat Assessment Update, Document ID: 2003-S0381FL-001, July 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs5/5169/marijuan.htm#Top] 173 “Marijuana,” Pulse Check: Trends in Drug Abuse, Office of National Drug Control Policy, November 2002.

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/] 174 “Marijuana,” Pulse Check: Trends in Drug Abuse, Office of National Drug Control Policy, November 2002.

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/] 175 NDIC, Florida Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2003. 

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Outdoor Domestic Grows: Most of the marijuana available in Florida is produced in Jamaica or 

Mexico. Significant quantities of marijuana also are produced in Florida and other U.S. states—

particularly California and southwestern states—as well as in Canada and Colombia.176

Processed and Imported: 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 3,145 kilograms in 2002 (DEA). Marijuana was seized 

more frequently than any other illicit drug in Florida each year from 1997 through 2001. 

According to FDSS data, the amount of marijuana seized by federal law enforcement officials in 

Florida fluctuated but decreased overall from 33,439 kilograms in 1997 to 30,184 kilograms in 

2001.177

Major Avenues into the State: The more than 8,000 miles of Florida coastline and the short 

distance of 45 miles between The Bahamas and Florida provide unlimited opportunities for drugtrafficking organizations to use maritime conveyances to smuggle drugs. South Florida, 

specifically Miami-Dade and Broward counties, are still favorite areas of drug traffickers for the 

smuggling of large quantities of marijuana into the continental United States from South 

America, Central America, and the Caribbean. Jacksonville and Miami are regional distribution 

centers for wholesale and retail quantities of marijuana. 

Smuggling occurs by various types of maritime conveyances and cargo freighters, as well 

as by private and commercial aircraft. Miami International Airport (MIA) continues to be the 

number one airport in the U.S. for international freight and number three in the world for total 

freight. Additionally, there is a continued shift to ground transportation (e.g., bus, rail, and 

vehicle) as a means of transporting narcotics throughout the state and to northern destinations. 

Marijuana is imported into the Jacksonville area from the U.S. Southwest border, Canada, and 

Jamaica by every available transportation method. The Panhandle region continues to be a transit 

area for marijuana from Mexico. Seizures continue along Interstate 10 from trucks, rental 

vehicles, and trailers traveling east into Florida. Mexican commercial grade marijuana continues

to be brought into the Orlando area from the southwest border. It is concealed in hidden 

compartments in passenger cars and large commercial vehicles, in luggage on commercial air 

flights, or concealed within freight shipments. 

176 NDIC, Florida Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2003. 177 NDIC, Florida Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2003. 

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Links to Organized Crime: Miami is the primary domestic command and control center for 

Colombian narcotics traffickers. However, Jamaican and Mexican criminal groups are the most 

prominent wholesale distributors of marijuana in Florida, with no specific organization or group 

controlling the majority of wholesale marijuana distribution in the state. The most prominent 

mid-level and retail distributors of marijuana in the state are Jamaican, Mexican, AfricanAmerican, Caucasian, Cuban, and other Caribbean criminal groups; local independent African 

American and Caucasian dealers; and gangs such as Gangster Disciples, Latin Kings, Vice 

Lords, and Sureños 13.178

GEORGIA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana, the most commonly abused drug in Georgia, is readily 

available throughout the state. 

Production: 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Because of DEA's eradication program and the recent drought, some

dealers have resorted to indoor cultivation of marijuana. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Generally, local outdoor cannabis cultivation sites are increasing 

because of normally ideal growing conditions in the regions. 

Processed and Imported: Texas and Arizona are the usual sources of marijuana that is imported 

from Mexico and ultimately distributed in Georgia. The primary wholesale suppliers of 

marijuana are Mexican nationals. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 992 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Because of its location on the I-95 corridor between New York 

City and Miami, the key wholesale-level drug distribution centers on the East Coast and major 

drug importation hubs, Georgia is both a final destination point for drug shipments and a 

smuggling corridor for drugs transported along the East Coast. In addition, Interstate Highways 

10 and 20 run directly into Georgia from drug entry points along the Southwest Border and Gulf 

Coast. With Georgia bordering North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee, Atlanta is the 

base for several major dealers who maintain trafficking cells in these states. As the largest city in 

the South and as a hub for all East/West and North/South travel, Atlanta has become an 

178 NDIC, Florida Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2003. 

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important strategic point for drug-trafficking organizations, especially Mexican-based traffickers 

who hide within legitimate Hispanic enclaves. 

Links to Organized Crime: 

HAWAII 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana, the second most significant drug threat to the state, is widely 

available and frequently abused in Hawaii, especially by teenagers. Most marijuana available in 

Hawaii is produced locally. It is suspected that much of Hawaiian marijuana is exported to the 

mainland. The availability of marijuana is perceived by the local population as normal. 

Marijuana is frequently encountered in the public schools among students as young as sixth 

grade. A recent survey of high school students indicated that 70 percent of the respondents have 

easy access to marijuana.179

Production: The state consistently ranks among the top five in the number of cannabis plants 

eradicated. On average, from 1995 to 1999 approximately 650,000 plants were eradicated each 

year in Hawaii. During 2000 law enforcement agencies eradicated fewer than 467,000 plants 

because Hawaii County did not participate in statewide eradication efforts. Hawaii maintains its 

status as a "national leader" in the production of high-grade marijuana, such as "Kona Gold." 

Cannabis grown outdoors in Hawaii contains some of the highest THC levels in the nation 

because of the optimal growing conditions, nutrient- and mineral-rich volcanic soil, and 

advances in hybridization techniques. Cannabis cultivators can produce at least two crops per 

year in Hawaii. Cannabis cultivation and the production of marijuana have become more 

prevalent in the wake of sugarcane plantation closings that have resulted in a depressed local 

economy. Local independent growers, primarily Pacific Islanders, cultivate cannabis outdoors 

year-round. Small, mail-order marijuana operations from the islands to the mainland exist and 

survive by shipping small quantities through air parcel providers. Marijuana may be shipped to 

the West Coast in shipping containers marked "household goods," as growers allegedly move to 

the mainland, although this has not been confirmed.180

179 NDIC, Hawaii Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs07/998/marijuan.htm#Top] 180 NDIC, Hawaii Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002. 

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Indoor Domestic Grows: Homegrown marijuana, either harvested from sophisticated indoor 

grows or from outdoor grows, remains a staple for the local demand and for export to the 

mainland. Medical marijuana certificates are a concern on the islands, where local users are 

permitted to grow several plants at their residences for personal consumption. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Cannabis is grown primarily outdoors in Hawaii by Pacific Islander 

and other local independent cultivators. Although cannabis is cultivated throughout the state, 

most cannabis cultivation sites are located on the island of Hawaii. More than 80 percent of the 

plants eradicated in the state in 1999 were on the island of Hawaii. Cannabis also is cultivated on 

Kauai, Maui, and Molokai. The size of outdoor cannabis plots varies widely, from as few as five 

plants to as many as several thousand. Growers often use federal and state land for cannabis 

cultivation to avoid having their personal property seized. The Department of Land and Natural 

Resources estimates that 70 percent to 80 percent of cannabis cultivation in Hawaii is done on 

government land, approximately 10 percent on company land previously planted with sugarcane, 

and the remainder on private land. Growers often cultivate small cannabis plots in remote 

mountainous areas, making it difficult for law enforcement authorities to locate and eradicate the 

plants.181

Processed and Imported: 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 2.7 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Local independent dealers and, to a lesser extent, Mexican 

criminal groups transport Hawaii-produced marijuana to the West Coast, primarily California, as 

well as to Canada and Mexico. Local independent dealers also transport Canada-produced 

marijuana from the West Coast into Hawaii, and they distribute the drug at the wholesale level. 

Pacific Islander and other local independent dealers are the primary wholesale and retail 

distributors of marijuana throughout Hawaii. Occasionally, BC Bud is smuggled to the 

continental United States from Vancouver and Quebec and transported to Hawaii. Canadaproduced marijuana typically is smuggled across the U.S.-Canada border via commercial truck, 

private vehicle, or courier; however, there have been incidents of BC Bud being smuggled 

directly from Canada into Hawaii. Marijuana is transported from island to island within the state 

by courier and package delivery service.182

181 NDIC, Hawaii Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002. 182 NDIC, Hawaii Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002. 

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Links to Organized Crime: 

IDAHO 

Marijuana Situation: Indoor and outdoor cannabis cultivation is widespread. 

Production: 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor marijuana cultivation is common. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor marijuana cultivation is widespread.

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is available but not preferred. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 1.6 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: No information available. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican national polydrug-trafficking organizations control most 

drug-trafficking organizations in the state. 

ILLINOIS 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely available and commonly abused illicit drug 

in Illinois. 

Production: Cannabis is cultivated throughout Illinois at indoor and outdoor grow sites. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor grows often are located in residential basements and have 

intricate lighting systems to stimulate plant growth. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor grow sites are located on public or private land and are 

generally concealed among vegetation or inside fenced yards.

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 1,871.4 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Because of its geographical location and multi-faceted 

transportation infrastructure, Chicago is the major transportation hub and distribution center for 

illegal drugs throughout the Midwest. Commercial trucks, passenger vehicles, package delivery 

services, air packages or couriers, and railways are the most common means traffickers use to 

transport drugs into Chicago. Mexican drug-trafficking organizations and criminal groups supply 

most of the marijuana available in Illinois. They transport the marijuana in bulk quantities from

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Mexico through southwestern states using commercial vehicles. The marijuana often is 

intermingled with legitimate cargo such as produce.183

Links to Organized Crime: The Illinois Division of the DEA targets Mexico-based polydrugtrafficking organizations for marijuana-trafficking investigations. 

INDIANA 

Marijuana Situation: Indiana is an active drug transportation and distribution area. Marijuana 

abuse remains a significant problem within Indiana. 

Production: Indoor and outdoor grows are common. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Locally produced marijuana is cultivated throughout Indiana at indoor 

grow sites. Indoor grows are located in private residences or large barn-type buildings on private 

land. Indoor grows often are located in residential basements and have intricate lighting systems 

to stimulate plant growth. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Locally produced marijuana is cultivated throughout Indiana at 

outdoor grow sites. These sites are on public or private land, usually in farm fields or near 

riverbanks, and are generally concealed among vegetation or inside fenced yards. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana produced in Mexico is transported and distributed by 

Mexican organizations. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 15.1 kilograms.

Major Avenues into the State: Highway (automobile and trucking) and airline trafficking are 

the primary means of drug importation, with busing systems as a secondary means. Mexican 

drug-trafficking organizations transport the marijuana in bulk quantities from Mexico through 

southwestern states using commercial vehicles. The marijuana often is intermingled with 

legitimate cargo such as produce. 184Seven interstate highway systems and 20 U.S. highways 

provide interstate and intrastate links for drug trafficking, especially with the Southwest Border 

and California. Transportation is usually by tractor-trailers in multi-hundred pound quantities. 

The northern part of Indiana lies on Lake Michigan, which is a major waterway within the St. 

Lawrence Seaway system providing international shipping for all sections of the Midwest. 

183 NDIC, Illinois Drug Threat Assessment Update, Document ID: 2002-S0382IL-001, May 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1010/marijuan.htm#Top] 184 NDIC, Illinois Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002. 

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Links to Organized Crime: Mexican criminal groups are the primary wholesale distributors of 

marijuana within Indiana.

IOWA 

Marijuana Situation: Both imported and domestic marijuana is readily available in Iowa. 

"Ditch-weed," which is used as filler for higher-purity imported marijuana, is a continuing 

problem.

185

Production: 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Small indoor grow operations have been found in eastern and central 

Iowa. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Small outdoor grow operations have been found in eastern and 

central Iowa. 

Processed and Imported: The majority of the marijuana is imported from the southwest border 

with Mexico by motor vehicles, and mail delivery services. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 5.1 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Iowa serves as a transshipment point for drugs being transported 

to the eastern United States via Interstate 80. Interstates 29 and 35 also provide a critical northsouth transportation avenue for drug traffickers. 

Links to Organized Crime: 

KANSAS 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is readily available throughout Kansas. Domestically produced 

marijuana is available throughout the state, but the imported marijuana from Mexico dominates 

the market. 

Production: Most of the marijuana available in Kansas is produced in Mexico; however, some

cannabis also is cultivated throughout the state, primarily by local independent Caucasian 

growers. Outdoor cannabis cultivation is more common than indoor cultivation. Cannabis is 

185 The term "ditch weed" is commonly used to describe wild marijuana. 

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cultivated both outdoors and indoors in Barton County and in Coffeyville, Garden City, Kansas 

City, Topeka, and Wichita.186

Indoor Domestic Grows: Common. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: In Kansas outdoor cannabis grow sites typically yield more cannabis 

than indoor sites. Outdoor cannabis growers often conceal cannabis plants to avoid detection by 

law enforcement authorities. In Lyon County, cultivators place small groups of cannabis plants 

around utility poles. In Jefferson County camouflage netting is used to conceal cannabis in 

remote wooded locations.

187

Processed and Imported: Marijuana, particularly commercial-grade marijuana produced in 

Mexico, is the most widely available illicit drug in Kansas.188

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 1,472.1 kilograms in 2002 (DEA). According to FDSS 

data, federal law enforcement officials in Kansas seized 1,741.3 kilograms in 1998, 3,484.8 

kilograms in 1999, 5,827.6 kilograms in 2000, and 2,539.4 kilograms in 2001. Law enforcement 

authorities that reported to Operation Pipeline seized more than 4,900 kilograms of marijuana in 

1999 and over 10,000 kilograms in 2000. Kansas Highway Police seized 7,566 kilograms of 

marijuana in 2000 and 2,884 kilograms in 2001. In 2001 the Kansas City Police Department 

seized 488 kilograms of marijuana.189

Major Avenues into the State: Marijuana is imported from Mexico through cities on the 

southwest border and transported in large shipments by the interstate highways through Dallas 

and Oklahoma City, and on to Kansas City. From Kansas City, the marijuana is further 

distributed to other cities in Kansas and other states. Kansas is a transshipment point for drugs 

being transported to the eastern United States via Interstates 35 and 70 from the southwest border 

and west coast cities. Law enforcement officials in Lawrence, Kansas, just west of Kansas City, 

are reporting a large influx of high-purity BC Bud marijuana from Canada. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican criminal groups are the primary transporters of wholesale 

quantities of Mexico-produced marijuana into Kansas. 

186 NDIC, Kansas Drug Threat Assessment Update, March 2003. 187 NDIC, Kansas Drug Threat Assessment Update, March 2003. 188 NDIC, Kansas Drug Threat Assessment Update, March 2003. 189 NDIC, Kansas Drug Threat Assessment Update, March 2003. 

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KENTUCKY 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the primary drug threat in the state of Kentucky, which is the 

site of large-scale marijuana cultivation. Most of the marijuana produced in the state is exported 

to markets in other states, including Illinois, Ohio, Kentucky, New York, California, Texas, 

Pennsylvania and Washington D.C. The contrast between marijuana production rates in 

Kentucky and consumption rates in the state reflects this export trend. Far more marijuana is 

cultivated in Kentucky than the local market consumes. Additionally, anecdotal information 

from cities such as Detroit, Philadelphia, Washington D.C., New York City, etc., suggests that 

Kentucky marijuana is prized in those markets. 

Production: Kentucky routinely ranks third or fourth in terms of total marijuana production, 

after California, Hawaii, and sometimes Tennessee. From 1990 through 2000, the Daniel Boone 

National Forest, located in eastern Kentucky, has led all national forests for the number of 

cannabis plants eradicated. In 1999, 38 percent (184,000 plants) of all cannabis eradicated on 

national forest land was taken from the Daniel Boone National Forest. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Cannabis is more commonly cultivated outdoors in Kentucky, but the 

number of indoor cannabis grows, including sophisticated hydroponic operations, is increasing 

throughout Kentucky. According to 1998 DCE/SP statistics, California, Florida, Oregon, Alaska, 

and Kentucky are the five leading states for indoor cannabis eradication.190

Outdoor Domestic Grows: A primary source of marijuana cultivation has been the Eastern 

Kentucky region in particular, especially the Daniel Boone National Forest, which covers more 

than 690,000 acres. The forestlands are remote, sparsely populated, very accessible, and fall 

within what is known as the "marijuana belt," so-named because of ideal soil and climate 

conditions for cannabis cultivation. Overall, 102,288 marijuana plants were eradicated in the 

Daniel Boone National Forest in 2002. 

The Daniel Boone National Forest is harmed by the collateral effects of marijuana 

cultivation, which includes property damage to natural resources, archeological sites, and 

wildlife, including endangered species. Marijuana producers have destroyed numerous trees, 

plants, and fauna, as well as gates and fences, to clear cultivation sites and drive vehicles to/from

the marijuana plots. Additionally, during the cultivation of marijuana, growers frequently use a 

190 NDIC, Kentucky Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1540/marijuan.htm#Top] 

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variety of poisonous chemical fertilizers upon forestlands. In 2002, 136 acres of the Daniel 

Boone National Forest were classified by the U.S. Forest Service as "impacted environmentally 

because of drug activity." 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 6.3 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Mexican criminal groups are the primary transporters of 

Mexico-produced marijuana into Kentucky, which they usually transport through California and 

southwestern states. Mexico-produced marijuana is transported across the U.S.-Mexico border, 

then north to I-40 and I-70. Marijuana also is transported through Kentucky in airline cargo.191

Links to Organized Crime: The same Mexican criminal groups that transport Mexico-produced 

marijuana into Kentucky distribute it at the wholesale level. These groups usually sell the 

marijuana to local Caucasian independent dealers, who are the dominant retail distributors of 

Mexico-produced marijuana.192

LOUSIANA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely available illicit drug in Louisiana, and 

homegrown marijuana is an important element of the illegal drug threat in the state. 

Production: Marijuana produced locally and in neighboring states is readily available. Louisiana 

provides an adequate environment for cannabis cultivation. The growing season extends for most 

of the year because of the state's generally temperate climate. Cannabis is sometimes intermixed 

with other crops, making it visible only from the air. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: The availability of high-grade domestically produced marijuana has 

increased as a result of modern techniques of indoor cultivation (i.e., the use of cloning and 

hydroponics to increase the potency). 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor cannabis cultivation appears to be decreasing in Louisiana 

because of the widespread availability of inexpensive Mexico-produced marijuana, increased 

eradication efforts, and recent droughts.193

191 NDIC, Kentucky Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2002. 192 NDIC, Kentucky Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2002. 193 NDIC, Lousiana Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2001. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs0/666/marijuan.htm#Top] 

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Processed and Imported: Most marijuana available in Louisiana is produced in Mexico. 

Louisiana's proximity to Texas and the Southwest Border ensures a steady supply of Mexicoproduced marijuana, which is inexpensive in large part because of its low THC content (average 

3.3 percent).194

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 46.7 kilograms.

Major Avenues into the State: Conventional drugs such as marijuana comprise the bulk of 

drugs shipped through and arriving in Louisiana. Overland transportation utilizing private and 

commercial vehicles is the most commonly encountered smuggling method in Louisiana. 

Colombian, Mexican, and Caribbean traffickers traveling to and from Miami, Houston, or the 

Southwest Border via I-10, I-12, I-20 (East / West routes) and Interstate 55 (North / South route) 

are largely responsible for the transportation and distribution of marijuana into Louisiana. 

Additionally, regional and local drug-trafficking organizations ensure widespread availability 

throughout the state. In many regions of Louisiana, the price of marijuana has been decreasing 

because of the availability of Mexico-produced marijuana transported from hub cities in Texas 

(Houston, Dallas, San Antonio, Brownsville, and El Paso). A common practice among 

distributors is to "bulk up" domestic marijuana with less expensive, lower-quality, Mexicoproduced marijuana to increase profits 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican drug-trafficking organizations clearly dominate the 

greatest portion of wholesale distribution through Texas into Louisiana, but Colombian and 

Caribbean traffickers are also actively involved. Local independent dealers, street gangs, and 

some small ethnic drug-trafficking groups dominate domestic marijuana retail distribution. 

MAINE 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana, locally grown and imported from Canada, Massachusetts, and 

New York, is the primary drug of abuse in Maine. Marijuana is plentiful and readily available. 

Hashish is available sporadically in small quantities, but the increasing popularity of hashish in 

Canada may change the hashish situation in Maine. Traffickers have moved hashish and hash oil 

through Maine and into Canada. 

194 NDIC, Lousiana Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2001. 

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Production: Marijuana growing in the Portland area continues to become more sophisticated, 

with new seedlings moved indoors for the winter and then moved outdoors again in the spring.195

Indoor Domestic Grows: Year-round indoor grows are common. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in Maine is produced in Mexico; 

however, locally produced marijuana and high-grade marijuana produced in Canada also are 

available. Commercial-grade marijuana is often obtained from middlemen in the southern New 

England states and New York. Caucasian traffickers typically supply locally grown marijuana as 

well as marijuana shipped from the southwest border and Canada. Shipments ranging from 15 to 

500 pounds typically enter the state via Interstate 95 in automobiles, campers, rental trucks, and 

tractor-trailers. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 5.8 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Caucasian criminal groups, local independent dealers, and 

organized motorcycle gangs are the primary transporters of marijuana into Maine. They transport 

the drug from southwestern states, Massachusetts, and Canada primarily via private and 

commercial vehicles and package delivery services. Canada-produced marijuana also is 

smuggled across the U.S.-Canada border into Maine by couriers on foot, snowmobiles, or allterrain vehicles. Upon entering the United States, the couriers usually rendezvous with coconspirators who transport the drug to its final destination via private vehicles.196 Interstate 95 

provides an important north-south transportation route for traffickers traveling most frequently to 

sources of drug supply in several northeastern Massachusetts cities. Additionally, Maine’s 228 

miles of coastline and 3,478 miles of shoreline offer ample opportunities for smugglers. 

Links to Organized Crime: Motorcycle groups control much of the marijuana distribution in 

Maine, using associates to distribute approximately 300 to 500 pounds monthly. 

MARYLAND 

Marijuana Situation: The most widely abused drug in Maryland, marijuana remains easily 

available in every part of the state. Low levels of marijuana cultivation occur in the state, 

195 “Marijuana,” Pulse Check: Trends in Drug Abuse, Office of National Drug Control Policy, November 2002.

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/] 196 NDIC, Maine Drug Threat Assessment Update, August 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs5/5764/marijuan.htm#Top] 

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primarily in western Maryland and along the Eastern Shore, where private farmland and public 

parkland are conducive to growers' concerns for anonymity. 

Production: Marijuana produced in Maryland is available to a lesser extent than Mexicanproduced marijuana. Cannabis is cultivated both indoors and outdoors within the state. Local 

independent dealers, primarily Caucasians, cultivate cannabis and dominate retail distribution of 

all types of marijuana in Maryland.197

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor cultivation is increasing because the quality of the marijuana 

obtained from indoor grows tends to be higher and the drug commands a higher price. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor cultivation is common during the summer months, especially 

on the Eastern Shore. In Caroline County on the Eastern Shore, the Sheriff's Office reported in 

2000 that most of the marijuana sold in its jurisdiction was locally grown, primarily outdoors. 

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in Maryland is produced in Mexico. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 13.9 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). According to FDSS data, 

federal law enforcement agencies in Maryland seized 224.5 kilograms of marijuana in 1998, 

323.3 kilograms in 1999, and 394.4 kilograms in 2000.198

Major Avenues into the State: Some of the marijuana consumed in Maryland is produced 

within the state, but most is produced in Mexico and transshipped through California and 

southwestern states. Jamaican criminal groups are the dominant transporters of marijuana into 

Maryland; Mexican criminal groups transport lesser amounts into the state. Jamaican criminal 

groups usually purchase marijuana from Mexican criminal groups in the southwestern United 

States and transport it primarily via package delivery services into Maryland, although 

transportation by automobile, bus, and airline does occur.199

Maryland is situated on the north end of the mid-Atlantic region and bisected by 

Interstate-95. Drugs, weapons, and illicit proceeds destined for points south of New York City 

routinely transit the state through Baltimore. Maryland's drug situation is complicated by the 

presence of two major metropolitan areas in the state: Baltimore and its surrounding counties in 

the northern part of the state, and the suburban counties of Washington, DC in southern 

197 NDIC, Maryland Drug Threat Assessment Update, August 2002. 198 NDIC, Maryland Drug Threat Assessment Update, August 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1827/index.htm] 199 NDIC, Maryland Drug Threat Assessment Update, August 2002. 

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Maryland. In addition, Maryland's major seaport in Baltimore contributes to a substantial amount 

of international drug traffic coming into the state.

Links to Organized Crime: Jamaican and Mexican organized crime groups are involved. 

MASSACHUSETTS 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most readily available illicit drug in Massachusetts. 

Production: Domestically grown marijuana is found in all areas of Massachusetts, from the 

extreme western part of the state all the way out to Nantucket Island. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: In the past few years, the state has seen an increase in the marijuana 

cultivated indoors hydroponically as well as an increase in the size of the plants and their THC 

levels. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in Massachusetts is produced in 

Mexico. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 13.9 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). FDSS data indicate that 

federal law enforcement officials in Massachusetts seized 78.5 kilograms of marijuana in 

2002.200

Major Avenues into the State: Most marijuana in the state originates in Mexico or the 

Southwestern United States. However, marijuana of both Colombian and Jamaican origin has 

been encountered, and most of the Boston area’s marijuana comes from Canada.201 The majority 

of the marijuana in Massachusetts is imported from the southwest border with Mexico by 

aircraft, land vehicles, and delivery services. Personal-use quantities of hashish continue to arrive 

in Boston on flights from the Netherlands and other source countries. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican criminal groups are the dominant transporters of 

marijuana into Massachusetts. Caucasian, Dominican, Jamaican, and Hispanic criminal groups 

200 NDIC, Massachusetts Drug Threat Assessment Update, 2003 Update, May 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3980/index.htm] 201 “Marijuana,” Pulse Check: Trends in Drug Abuse, Office of National Drug Control Policy, November 2002.

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/] 

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are the principal wholesale-level distributors of marijuana in the state.202 The Hell’s Angels 

group controls the importation of the Boston area’s marijuana from Canada.203

MICHIGAN

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most commonly used and readily available illicit drug 

throughout the state of Michigan. It is popular among every racial and ethnic group in the region 

and is particularly popular among high school students. 

Production: Domestically grown marijuana is available and may even be grown for export to 

other near-by states and Canada. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information 

available. 

On September 19, 2003, authorities seized this 2000

GMC cargo van, which had been converted into a

homemade armored vehicle by marijuana traffickers in

Detroit. 

Source: DEA 

Processed and Imported: The vast majority 

of marijuana sold in Michigan originates in 

Mexico, but high-grade marijuana comes 

from Canada. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002:

529 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: No 

information available. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican 

organized crime groups are involved in 

supplying the state’s Mexican marijuana. 

Individuals of Vietnamese decent are growing high-grade marijuana in rental houses in Ontario, 

Canada, and using trucks hauling trash from Ontario into Michigan to smuggle marijuana into 

the United States and cash back into Canada. 

 

202 NDIC, Massachusetts Drug Threat Assessment Update, 2003 Update, May 2003. 203 “Marijuana,” Pulse Check: Trends in Drug Abuse, Office of National Drug Control Policy, November 2002.

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/] 

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MINNESOTA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most commonly used and readily available drug in 

Minnesota. 

Production: Marijuana is readily available from local cultivators. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Common. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Common. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 9.5 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Mexican drug-trafficking organizations and criminal groups are 

the primary transporters of marijuana into the state. According to the Minneapolis Police 

Department, bulk marijuana shipments are smuggled across the U.S.-Mexico Border to 

southwestern states such as Arizona and Texas and then divided into smaller loads of up to 500 

pounds. The smaller loads are then transported to Minnesota by private vehicle. Marijuana is also 

transported into the state via package delivery services, as evidenced by recent seizures. 

Marijuana also is transported into the state from Canada, although there have been no major 

recent seizures.204

Links to Organized Crime: In Minnesota, Mexican drug-trafficking organizations control the 

transportation, distribution, and bulk sales of marijuana. Numerous Mexican groups and street 

gangs such as the Latin Kings are operating in the state. As a general rule, the upper echelon 

Mexican distributors in Minnesota transport the majority of their proceeds back to family 

members residing in Mexico. At the retail level, independent African-American traffickers, 

African-American street gangs, Native-American gangs, and independent white groups purchase 

marijuana from Mexican traffickers. 

MISSISSIPPI 

Marijuana Situation: The drug of choice and most widely abused drug among consumers in 

Mississippi is marijuana. Marijuana is trafficked and used by all ethnic and socioeconomic 

groups in Mississippi. 

Production: 

204 NDIC, Minnesota Drug Threat Assessment Update, June 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1158/marijuan.htm#Top] 

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Indoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Domestically cultivated marijuana is available throughout Northern 

Mississippi in patches of four to five plants in and around dense vegetation on United States 

forestry land and around area lakes. 

Processed and Imported: 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 294.4 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: The movement of illegal drugs into and through Mississippi has

been a significant problem for law enforcement for a number of years. Mississippi is ideally 

suited with its interstate system, deepwater and river ports, and air and rail systems as the 

"Crossroads of the South" to facilitate drug movement from the South Texas/Mexico area and 

Gulf ports to the entire mid west and eastern seaboard of the United States. Drug-trafficking 

patterns indicate the interstate highway system to be the preferred method of transporting illegal 

drugs into and through Mississippi. Large quantities of Mexican marijuana are transported from

Texas through Mississippi on interstates 10, 12, and 55 destined for larger cities in the 

Northeastern and Southeastern United States. Couriers in pick-up trucks, vans, tractor-trailers 

and buses transport the marijuana in 50, 100 and 200 pound quantities in concealed 

compartments. Proceeds from the drug sales are returned in the same manner. 

Links to Organized Crime: 

MISSOURI 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is readily available throughout the state, with Mexican 

marijuana being imported from the Southwest Border. 

Production: 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor marijuana growing continues to increase. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 28.8 kilograms.

Major Avenues into the State: 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican polydrug-trafficking organizations control a large majority 

of the distribution of marijuana in Missouri. 

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MONTANA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is readily available throughout Montana, and is the most 

commonly abused illegal drug in the state. A recent survey conducted by the Montana State 

Addictive and Mental Disorders Division indicated that 47 percent of all high school students 

had used marijuana in their lifetime. The survey also found that 27 percent described themselves 

as regular users. 

Production: 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Locally produced marijuana is primarily grown indoors, with grows 

generally consisting of fewer than 100 plants. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 7.7 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: The majority of the marijuana consumed in Montana originates 

in Mexico. Mexican polydrug-trafficking organizations transport marijuana in vehicles from the 

southwest border states to Montana. Trafficking groups normally acquire supplies of marijuana 

from the Southwest Border area and smuggle hundred-pound loads into Montana on a monthly 

or bi-monthly basis. Potent B.C. Bud or Kind Bud from the Pacific Northwest and Western 

Canada is increasing in popularity and availability. B.C. Bud is often smuggled directly into 

Montana across the Canadian border. This marijuana would then be transshipped to other areas 

of the United States. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican polydrug-trafficking organizations. 

NEBRASKA205

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most prevalent and frequently abused illicit drug in 

Nebraska. Most of the marijuana available in the state is produced in Mexico, although some

cannabis is cultivated locally. 

Production: A large percentage of locally cultivated cannabis is grown outdoors; however, 

cannabis growers increasingly are using sophisticated indoor cultivation operations. Domestic 

production of both outdoor and hydroponic indoor grows have been steady, with many seizures 

205 This section is based largely on NDIC, Nebraska Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2003-S0389NE-001, 

July 2003. <http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs4/4934/index.htm>

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netting upwards of 500 plants. Caucasian local independent dealers are the primary cannabis 

cultivators in the state. Cannabis is cultivated both indoors and outdoors in Lincoln, Norfolk, and 

Omaha. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Plants are increasingly cultivated indoors because they generally yield 

high potency marijuana, which sells for a higher price. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: In Nebraska, outdoor cannabis cultivation sites typically have more 

than twice as many cannabis plants per site as indoor operations. Cultivators in western Nebraska 

occasionally intermingle cannabis plants with corn crops, in an effort to avoid detection by law 

enforcement authorities. Some growers use the land of unsuspecting farmers and plant cannabis 

throughout the field to minimize the risk of detection. Cannabis growers often cultivate a hybrid 

plant that does not grow as tall as corn plants and, therefore, remains well hidden from 

landowners and authorities. 

Processed and Imported: 

Seizure Data: Seizure data reflect the ready availability of marijuana in Nebraska. According to 

FDSS data, federal law enforcement officials in Nebraska seized 339 kilograms in 1998, 2,120 

kilograms in 1999, 1,335 kilograms in 2000, and 438 kilograms in 2001. Law enforcement 

authorities that reported to Operation Pipeline seized more than 2,501 kilograms in 1999 and 

more than 1,009 kilograms in 2000. The Omaha Police Department seized almost 497 kilograms 

of marijuana in 2001. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 0.1 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Mexican criminal groups are the primary transporters of 

wholesale quantities of Mexico-produced marijuana into Nebraska from Mexico, California, and 

southwestern states in private and commercial vehicles. Mexican criminal groups also recruit 

individuals to transport marijuana to Nebraska from these locations. A common route used to 

transport marijuana is I-15, which traverses Southern California, Nevada, and the northwestern 

corner of Arizona, then connects with I-80 in northern Utah. Interstate 80 provides easy west-toeast access across the state. Transporters usually use I-80 to haul marijuana destined for other 

states through Nebraska. They frequently travel from California and southwestern states through 

Nebraska along I-80 en route to destinations in Michigan, Minnesota, and Ohio. Marijuana 

typically is transported to Nebraska in hidden compartments within private and commercial 

vehicles, as well as being concealed in boxes, metal containers, duffel bags, and suitcases. 

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Links to Organized Crime: Marijuana produced outside of Nebraska and transported into the 

state is controlled by Mexican drug-trafficking organizations at the wholesale level. Mexican 

criminal groups and, to a lesser extent, local independent dealers are the primary wholesale and 

retail marijuana distributors in the state. 

NEVADA 

Marijuana Situation: Domestically cultivated and Mexican-grown marijuana remains readily 

available in Nevada 

Production: 

Indoor Domestic Grows: There was an increased prevalence of indoor marijuana cultivation in 

the Las Vegas area during 2002. Growers are using elaborate hydroponic equipment to cultivate 

high-grade marijuana. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 0.9 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Because of its close proximity to California and its porous 

border, Nevada often serves as a transshipment point for various drugs to the central and eastern 

sections of the United States. Mexican marijuana arrives in Nevada primarily from California by 

ground transport. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican polydrug-trafficking organizations are still the primary 

source of marijuana smuggled into the area. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely abused and readily available illicit drug in 

New Hampshire. The percentage of New Hampshire residents aged 12 or older who reported 

having abused marijuana in the past month (6.0 percent) was higher than the percentage 

nationwide (4.8 percent), according to the 1999 and 2000 National Household Survey on Drug 

Abuse.206

206 NDIC, New Hampshire Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs4/4123/marijuan.htm] 

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Production: Domestically produced marijuana is available in New Hampshire, though not as 

readily in recent years. Cannabis is cultivated both outdoors and indoors in New Hampshire. 

Caucasian local independent dealers and abusers are the primary cannabis cultivators in the state. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Common. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Because of the rural nature of the state, particularly the northern two 

thirds, the potential growing areas are limitless, and most of the outdoor growers have reduced 

the size of their plots and increased the variety and scope of their concealment efforts. 

Processed and Imported: High-potency, Canadian-grown marijuana is readily available in New 

Hampshire. This high-potency, Canadian-grown marijuana’s THC content can range from 15 

percent to as much as 25 percent. THC content in excess of 22 percent has been seen in the state. 

Most of the marijuana available in New Hampshire, however, is produced in Mexico.207

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 0 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: For the past several years, almost all foreign-origin marijuana 

encountered in New Hampshire originated in Mexico. Local Caucasian independent dealers 

travel weekly or bi-monthly to Arizona and Southern California to obtain 200- to 300-pound 

quantities of the drug. The marijuana is usually transported into the state by land vehicle. 

Marijuana is also being shipped in relatively small quantities (20 to 50-pound packages) into the 

state, often directly from southwestern states, utilizing U. S. and other mail services. The dealers 

and criminal groups typically travel to Lowell and Lawrence, Massachusetts, in private vehicles 

to purchase marijuana from individuals and criminal groups of various ethnic backgrounds for 

retail-level distribution in New Hampshire.208 High-quality, Canada-produced marijuana is 

smuggled across the U.S.-Canada border via private vehicles, snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, 

and by couriers on foot. These smugglers typically rendezvous in New Hampshire with members 

of their criminal group, who transport the drug to its final destination via private vehicle. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican organized crime groups are involved. 

NEW JERSEY 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely available and frequently abused illicit drug 

in the state. 

207 NDIC, New Hampshire Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 208 The remainder of this paragraph is based on NDIC, New Hampshire Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 

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Production: Cannabis is cultivated both indoors and outdoors throughout rural New Jersey, 

particularly in Atlantic, Cumberland, Gloucester, and Warren counties. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor grows often are located in private residences. Indoor marijuana 

grows are usually encountered in the southern rural areas of the state, where detection is more 

difficult. It also is cultivated indoors in metropolitan areas of the state. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Rural areas of the state provide the opportunity for outdoor grows. 

Cannabis plants often are hidden in farmers' fields by replacing corn plants with cannabis plants 

or by planting the cannabis between the rows of corn. 

Processed and Imported: The majority of the marijuana encountered in the state is of Mexican 

origin, although Jamaican and Canadian marijuana has also been seen, but on a much lesser 

scale. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 1.1 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). Marijuana is the most 

frequently seized illicit drug in New Jersey, constituting almost 60 percent of the total illicit 

drugs seized by federal law enforcement officials in the state from 1999 through 2001.209

Major Avenues into the State: The so-called "crossroads of the east” and gateway state, New 

Jersey is an ideal strategic corridor as well as a vulnerable corridor for transportation of drug 

contraband and illicit currency between the major industrial markets of New York and 

Philadelphia, with major interstate highways, roadways, international airports/seaports, and other 

arteries capable of accommodating voluminous amounts of passenger and cargo traffic. Criminal 

groups and local independent dealers in at least two states, New York and Pennsylvania, 

transport marijuana into New Jersey. Typically, marijuana is transported to the New Jersey area 

by automobiles, tractor-trailers, vessels, U.S. Postal Service, overnight services, parcel post, and 

commercial air from Southwest Border States. Most of the marijuana seizures in the state have 

occurred at Newark Liberty International Airport, where passengers from Southwest Border 

states attempt to smuggle marijuana, which is usually wrapped in cellophane and placed within 

luggage. Additionally, bulk packages, normally weighing between 10 to 50 pounds each, arrive 

daily at parcel/cargo services. Although hashish is rarely encountered in the state, more than 565 

kilograms being shipped from India to Detroit were seized in October 2002. 

209 NDIC, New Jersey Drug Threat Assessment Update, August 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1703/marijuan.htm#Top] 

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Most marijuana available in New Jersey, particularly in Newark, originates in Mexico

and Jamaica. Marijuana produced in Mexico frequently is smuggled in multi-ton shipments 

inside tractor-trailers from California and southwestern states into New Jersey. Marijuana 

produced in Jamaica usually is smuggled into New Jersey in commercial maritime vessels and 

aircraft and through express mail services. Some marijuana produced in Jamaica is smuggled in 

maritime vessels to other U.S. states and then transported in private and commercial vehicles into

New Jersey.210

Links to Organized Crime: Although Jamaica- and Mexico-based criminal groups are 

dominant marijuana transporters and distributors, no particular criminal group or independent 

dealer controls the transportation of marijuana into New Jersey or its distribution within the 

state.211

NEW MEXICO 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most readily available and most commonly abused drug 

in New Mexico. Marijuana smuggled from Mexico is available from a multitude of sources in 

both New Mexico and West Texas and is the most prevalent drug in New Mexico. Domestic 

cannabis eradication programs have led to an increase of over 200 percent in marijuana seizures 

over the past three years (see Table 15). 

Production: Cannabis is cultivated in the state by local independent growers. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Although indoor cannabis cultivation is practiced in New Mexico, 

hydroponic systems are uncommon. Cannabis cultivated indoors in New Mexico typically is 

intended for personal consumption. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor cannabis cultivation is more common than indoor 

cultivation. The climate and vast, sparsely populated rural areas of New Mexico create a suitable 

environment for outdoor cannabis cultivation. Outdoor growers often cultivate cannabis among 

natural vegetation in an effort to conceal the crop.

212

210 NDIC, New Jersey Drug Threat Assessment Update, August 2002. 211 NDIC, New Jersey Drug Threat Assessment Update, August 2002. 212 NDIC, New Mexico Drug Threat Assessment Update, April 2002. 

<http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs07/803/marijuan.htm#Top>

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79

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in the state is produced in Mexico; 

however, some locally produced marijuana also is available. Marijuana loads seized from private 

vehicles and semi-tractor-trailers range from 500 to 8,000 pounds. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 10,912.4 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Mexico-produced 

marijuana typically is transported to New Mexico 

from Ciudad Juarez and Palomas, Mexico; El Paso, 

Texas; Phoenix, Arizona; and Los Angeles, 

California. The principal marijuana smuggling routes 

include I-10, I-25, I-40, US 54, US 84, and SR-9.213

Table 15. New Mexico Marijuana Seizures, 

2000-01

Source: Office of National Drug Control 

Policy

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican drugtrafficking organizations and Mexican criminal 

groups dominate the transportation and wholesale 

distribution of Mexico-produced marijuana 

throughout the state. Local independent dealers control the wholesale distribution of locally 

produced marijuana. Mexican criminal groups, street gangs, and local independent dealers are 

the primary retail distributors of Mexico- and locally produced marijuana throughout New 

Mexico.214 The largest drug threat in New Mexico is the transshipment of drugs and drug 

proceeds by Mexican drug-trafficking organizations, which have also established local polydrug 

distribution organizations that are capable of distributing multiple kilogram quantities locally and 

regionally. 

NEW YORK 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely available and frequently abused illicit drug 

in New York. 

Production: A limited amount of cannabis is cultivated locally, especially in Upstate New York. 

Cannabis plants are cultivated both indoors and outdoors in the state. However, the trend has 

 

213 NDIC, New Mexico Drug Threat Assessment Update, April 2002. 214 NDIC, New Jersey Drug Threat Assessment Update, April 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs07/803/marijuan.htm#Top] 
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shifted from large outdoor grows to indoor grows and smaller, more widely dispersed outdoor 

grows.215

Indoor Domestic Grows: Common. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Common. 

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in the state is produced in other U.S. 

states or in Mexico, Jamaica, or Canada. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 382.8 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). According to FDSS data, 

federal law enforcement officials in New York seized more marijuana (approximately 16,677 

kilograms) than any other drug except cocaine from 1998 through 2001. The annual amount 

seized fluctuated but was relatively stable from 1998 (2,852 kilograms) through 2001 (2,713 

kilograms). According to EPIC Arrival Zone Seizure Statistics, law enforcement officials in New 

York seized approximately 10,089 kilograms of marijuana transported on commercial aircraft 

from 1997 through 2001.216

Major Avenues into the State: Most of the marijuana entering the New York City area, and 

some upstate regions, appears to be arriving by air freight or auto/truck transport from Florida or 

the southwestern United States. Significant amounts also arrive by commercial overnight 

package services. Upstate regions receive marijuana from the Southwestern United States, and 

there are continuous reports of local indoor grow operations. Canada is also a source for a 

significant quantity of marijuana entering New York State. 

Links to Organized Crime: Jamaican criminal groups are the most prominent wholesale 

distributors of marijuana in New York. They are also the primary mid-level and retail marijuana 

distributors in New York. However, no specific organization or group controls the distribution of 

marijuana. Mexican criminal groups, members of traditional organized crime, and members of 

outlaw motorcycle gangs such as Hells Angels also distribute wholesale quantities of marijuana 

in New York. Traditional organized crime members distribute significant wholesale and midlevel 

quantities of marijuana in the New York City area.

217

215 NDIC, New York Drug Threat Assessment, November 2002. 216 NDIC, New York Drug Threat Assessment, November 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs2/2580/marijuan.htm#Top] 217 NDIC, New York Drug Threat Assessment, November 2002. 

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NORTH CAROLINA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is one of the most prevalent drugs in North Carolina and its 

availability is increasing in part because of smuggling operations by Mexican trafficking 

organizations into the state directly from Mexico and in part because of ever-larger amounts 

being smuggled into the state by campers, pickup trucks, and larger vehicles. Marijuana is one of 

the illicit drugs most commonly transported and distributed by traffickers from Mexico, who 

hide within ethnic Mexican communities. 

Production: Cannabis cultivation is widespread in North Carolina. Outdoor cannabis cultivation 

is more common than indoor cultivation because of the state's long growing season, temperate 

climate, and rural areas that allow growers to conceal cultivation sites. During the 2000-2002 

period, DCE/SP (Domestic Cannabis Eradication Suppression Program) authorities seized 

domestically grown marijuana in increasing quantities.218

Indoor Domestic Grows: Growers also cultivate high-potency cannabis in indoor hydroponic 

operations. Indoor grows vary in size and number from dozens to several hundred cannabis 

plants. Indoor cultivation requires the grower to regulate light, heat, humidity, and fertilizer. 

Using hydroponic techniques, Caucasian and African-American independent producers are the 

primary cultivators of cannabis.219

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Cannabis growers frequently use federal forestland, particularly in 

western North Carolina, to minimize the risk of personal property seizures if the plots are seized 

by law enforcement. Mexican and Caucasian criminal groups are the primary cultivators of 

outdoor cannabis. Reporting from law enforcement officials indicates that cannabis cultivation is 

widespread in areas, including the Pisgah and Nantahala national forests in the western part of 

the state. Outdoor cultivation sites in North Carolina are larger than before, according to law 

enforcement authorities.220

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 0.5 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). The amount of marijuana 

seized in the state increased dramatically from 1998 through 2001. Federal law enforcement 

218 NDIC, North Carolina Drug Threat Assessment, April 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3690/marijuan.htm#Top] 219 NDIC, North Carolina Drug Threat Assessment, April 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3690/marijuan.htm#Top] 220 NDIC, North Carolina Drug Threat Assessment, April 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3690/marijuan.htm#Top] 

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authorities in North Carolina seized 801 kilograms of marijuana in 1998, 2,301 kilograms in 

1999, 4,885 kilograms in 2000, and 3,826.8 kilograms in 2001, according to FDSS data. 

Major Avenues into the State: Mexican trafficking organizations have been smuggling 

marijuana into the state, particularly into the central portion (Piedmont). The marijuana comes 

directly from Mexico by containerized cargo transported by tractor-trailer trucks. In addition, 

marijuana is being smuggled in ever-larger amounts by campers, pickup trucks, and larger 

vehicles. 

Criminal groups, particularly Jamaican, also transport marijuana into North Carolina on 

commercial airlines, employing couriers who conceal the drug in their luggage or strap packages 

of it under their clothing. Mexican drug-trafficking organizations based in Mexico supply 

marijuana to Jamaican criminal groups in San Diego, California, who then distribute the drug to 

other Jamaican criminal groups in North Carolina and other southeastern states. Mexican, 

African-American, and Caucasian criminal groups also transport marijuana into North Carolina 

from southwestern states via package delivery services. Mexican, African American, and 

Caucasian criminal groups also transport marijuana into the state on buses and passenger 

trains.221

Links to Organized Crime: In North Carolina, Mexican criminal groups are the primary 

wholesale distributors of marijuana produced in Mexico. African American, Caucasian, and 

Jamaican criminal groups also distribute wholesale quantities of Mexico-produced marijuana.222

NORTH DAKOTA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is one of the primary drugs of choice in North Dakota and the 

most readily available illicit drug in the state. Marijuana availability is increasing throughout 

North Dakota. 

Production: Marijuana is increasingly available from local cultivators. Local cultivation of

marijuana, however, is relatively small scale. Ditch weed, initially grown for the hemp used to 

produce rope during World War II, is abundant in the southeastern part of North Dakota. In 2002 

more than 3 million ditch-weed plants were eradicated. 

221 NDIC, North Carolina Drug Threat Assessment, April 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3690/marijuan.htm#Top] 222 NDIC, North Carolina Drug Threat Assessment, April 2003. 

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Indoor Domestic Grows: Most of the locally grown cannabis is cultivated indoors, accounting 

for an estimated 80 percent of all seizures in the state.223

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Less common than indoor grows. 

Processed and Imported: Mexico-produced and, to a lesser extent, locally produced marijuana 

are the most common types available; however, Canada-produced marijuana also is available.224

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 0.4 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). Marijuana seizures by North 

Dakota law enforcement officials nearly doubled, going from 258 pounds in 1993 to 507 pounds 

in 1999.225

Major Avenues into the State: The supplies emanate mainly from the Southwest Border. 

Private vehicles and commercial mail carriers are used to ship small quantities, ranging from five

to ten pounds, while tractor-trailers are used to transport larger shipments. Mexican criminal 

groups transport most of the marijuana available in the state. These groups primarily use private 

vehicles to transport the drug from Mexico through the southwestern states into North Dakota. 

They also use Chicago, Denver, and Minneapolis as distribution centers and receive direct 

shipments of pound, multi-pound, and kilogram quantities from Laredo, Brownsville, and 

Crystal City, Texas. Marijuana also is transported into North Dakota from Manitoba, Canada.226

Links to Organized Crime: Mexico-based drug-trafficking organizations dominate and manage 

the transportation of marijuana from the Southwest Border to North Dakota. To transport the 

marijuana from the Southwest Border, these organizations utilize tractor-trailers, many of which 

have sophisticated traps installed. 

OHIO 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely abused and readily available illicit drug 

throughout the state of Ohio. 

Production: Ohio is a source area for marijuana cultivation. Cannabis is cultivated throughout 

the state at both outdoor and indoor grow sites.227

223 NDIC, North Dakota Drug Threat Assessment, May 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1052/marijuan.htm#Top] 224 NDIC, North Dakota Drug Threat Assessment, May 2002. 225 NDIC, North Dakota Drug Threat Assessment, May 2002. 226 NDIC, North Dakota Drug Threat Assessment, May 2002. 227 NDIC, Ohio Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1798/marijuan.htm#Top] 

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Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor grows often are located in residential basements and have 

intricate lighting systems to stimulate plant growth. In northern Ohio, the use of hydroponics and 

other sophisticated indoor growing techniques that produce sinsemilla with a high THC content 

continues to increase. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor grow sites are located on public and private land usually in 

remote areas. The rural areas of Ohio provide an adequate environment for the outdoor 

cultivation of cannabis, most of which occurs in the southern part of the state. 

Processed and Imported: The available supply of marijuana ranges from one pound to multihundred pound quantities. Mexican marijuana is frequently encountered in the state of Ohio. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 775 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Ohio is a distribution point for Mexican marijuana from the 

southwest border. Large quantities are shipped into Ohio mainly overland from the southwest 

border states, and smaller quantities through package delivery services and the mail. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican criminal groups are the dominant wholesale suppliers of 

marijuana in Ohio. They supply multi-hundred kilogram quantities of marijuana to most districts 

throughout the state. Local independent and Jamaican criminal groups also are responsible for 

shipping and distributing wholesale amounts of marijuana into Ohio in multi-kilogram quantities. 

OKLAHOMA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is readily available in all areas of Oklahoma and is the main 

illegal drug of abuse in the state. 

Production: Domestically produced marijuana is available in Oklahoma, though not as readily 

in recent years. Oklahoma, along with several other southern states, has endured severe drought 

conditions over the past three years. This situation has affected the local production of marijuana. 

The northeastern and southeastern regions of Oklahoma are major cannabis cultivation 

areas for high-quality marijuana. Growers continue to cultivate cannabis in the rugged, forested 

terrain of southeastern Oklahoma in areas such as the Ouachita National Forest, which is located 

along the Arkansas border. Within Oklahoma, cannabis grows usually consist of 100 or fewer 

plants and typically are located near a water source. In the rugged, remote areas of northeastern 

Oklahoma, cannabis is grown in individual plots consisting of 20 or fewer plants. Once 

harvested, this marijuana is distributed locally or, to a lesser extent, transported out of state. In 

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the Oklahoma City and Tulsa areas, locally grown cannabis is in high demand due to its high 

quality and because local residents prefer to deal with known local suppliers.228

Indoor Domestic Grows: Cannabis eradication efforts by state officials as well as a recent 

drought have caused many outdoor growers to shift their operations to indoor grow locations. 

Hydroponics and aeroponics are just two types of cultivation methods that are currently used by 

local growers.229

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is prevalent. Mexican “Sensimilla,”

usually found in “pressed/brick” form, is the most common type of marijuana seen in Oklahoma, 

particularly in urban areas. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 490.4 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Marijuana imported from Mexico is usually imported in 

combination with other illegal drugs being transported to Oklahoma and other states north and 

east. The majority of the marijuana is imported from the southwest border by passenger vehicle 

and occasionally in freight vehicles.

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican drug-trafficking organizations and Mexican criminal 

groups are the primary wholesale distributors of Mexico-produced marijuana available in 

Oklahoma.230

OREGON 

Marijuana Situation: Oregon is a source of marijuana, which is readily available in the state. 

Production: 

Indoor Domestic Grows: The majority of marijuana available in Portland is cultivated in home

grow operations. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Canadian and domestic marijuana in the Portland area is available in 

multi-pound amounts. Mexican marijuana is present, but not prevalent. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 19.5 kilograms.

228 NDIC, Oklahoma Drug Threat Assessment, October 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs2/2286/marijuan.htm#Top] 229 NDIC, Oklahoma Drug Threat Assessment, October 2002. 230 NDIC, Oklahoma Drug Threat Assessment, October 2002. 

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Major Avenues into the State: Mexican-grown marijuana is transported using existing heroin 

and methamphetamine distribution routes and methods. It is typically transported overland via 

Interstate 5 and U.S. Highway 101 in western Oregon. Traffickers typically use passenger 

vehicles fitted with hidden compartments or attempt to otherwise conceal the drugs within the 

vehicle. Canadian marijuana smugglers use passenger vehicles, fishing vessels, private aircraft 

(fixed wing and helicopters), and "mules" to smuggle the drug into the state. Traffickers take

advantage of rural airfields to smuggle large quantities of marijuana. 

Links to Organized Crime: 

PENNSYLVANIA231

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely available and commonly abused illicit drug 

in Pennsylvania. It is abundantly available in both wholesale and retail quantities in the state. In 

western Pennsylvania, marijuana abundance is attributed to the continued use of commercial 

shipping companies to transport it as well as the existence of growing operations in the area. 

Recreational use of marijuana is popular with high school- and college-age students, but adults 

are the predominant users of marijuana, especially in large social gatherings, such as rock 

concerts. Marijuana is typically smoked in combination with crack cocaine, heroin, and PCP. 

Production: Significant quantities of locally produced marijuana are available. Cannabis is 

grown both outdoors and indoors in Pennsylvania. Caucasian criminal groups and local 

independent dealers are the primary cultivators of cannabis in the state. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Local indoor grows are still not common in the Philadelphia area, but 

they are increasing.232

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Most outdoor cultivation occurs in the northwestern part of the state, 

particularly in Erie, Crawford, Mercer, Venango, and Warren counties. Cannabis increasingly is 

cultivated in remote areas to avoid detection. Some growers are using private farmland, typically 

owned by others, or public lands to avoid property seizures and forfeitures. 

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in the state is produced in Mexico, 

but marijuana produced in other states, as well as in Canada and Jamaica, is available. 

231 This section incorporates data from NDIC, Pennsylvania Drug Threat Assessment Update, October 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs6/6180/marijuan.htm#Top] 232 “Marijuana,” Pulse Check: Trends in Drug Abuse, Office of National Drug Control Policy, November 2002.

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/] 

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Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2001-02: 28.6 kilograms. (DEA). According to FDSS 

data, federal law enforcement officials in Pennsylvania seized 1,567.5 kilograms of marijuana in 

2002, a significant increase from the 377.3 kilograms seized in 2001.233

Major Avenues into the State: Marijuana is transported into the state primarily by private and 

commercial vehicles from Arizona, California, Texas, and Mexico, among other areas. It also is 

transported into the state by rental vehicles; by couriers aboard commercial aircraft, buses, and 

trains; by package delivery services; and occasionally by maritime vessels. Because of their 

proximity to major thoroughfares, localities throughout the state are transshipment points as well 

as consumer markets. In particular, the city of Reading and areas in central Pennsylvania, which 

are homes to several trucking warehouses, serve as hubs for marijuana trafficking organizations 

transporting bulk loads of marijuana to distributors in the eastern United States. In general, 

Philadelphia's street corner distribution networks are the main sources of supply for drugs sold to 

users throughout the state. 

Links to Organized Crime: Jamaican and Mexican criminal groups are the primary wholesalelevel marijuana transporters of marijuana into Pennsylvania and distributors in the state. Most 

trafficking and distribution is perpetrated by a variety of Hispanic and African-American 

organizations that are scattered throughout Pennsylvania and Delaware. Some of these groups 

are connected primarily to sources in New York City, yet some distribute drugs that were either 

brought to the region via other transshipment locations or that were shipped or transported 

directly to Philadelphia or other localities from source areas. At the retail level, Hispanic, 

African-American, and Caucasian groups, along with some dominant Jamaican organizations, 

control the marijuana market by distributing bag, ounce, and pound quantities to users across 

Pennsylvania and Delaware. 

RHODE ISLAND 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely available and commonly abused illicit drug 

in Rhode Island. The marijuana trend in Rhode Island supports a widespread and readily 

available market of fairly large amounts of this drug. Prices of marijuana will vary seasonally as 

the supply fluctuates. The marijuana available in Rhode Island is mostly Mexican; however it is 

233 NDIC, Pennsylvania Drug Threat Assessment Update, October 2003. 

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supplemented by limited amounts of other foreign based and domestic marijuana. 

Hydroponically produced marijuana is also available in Rhode Island. 

Production: Some of the marijuana available in Rhode Island is produced within the state. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Cannabis is cultivated primarily indoors in Rhode Island. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: There is some outdoor cultivation in the state.

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in Rhode Island is produced in 

Mexico; marijuana produced in Canada and Jamaica also is available.234

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 0.6 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). The amount of marijuana 

seized by federal law enforcement officials in Rhode Island fluctuated from 1998 through 2002. 

According to FDSS data, federal law enforcement officials in Rhode Island seized 160.5 

kilograms of marijuana in 1998, 2.6 kilograms in 1999, 1.3 kilograms in 2000, 8.5 kilograms in 

2001, and 90.4 kilograms in 2002.235

Major Avenues into the State: Marijuana from foreign and domestic sources is transported into 

Rhode Island by various groups using a variety of methods, including parcel carriers and couriers 

on commercial airlines. Mexican criminal groups transport multi-kilogram shipments of 

marijuana from sources in Mexico and transportation hubs in California and southwestern states, 

primarily using commercial and private vehicles. Marijuana transported in commercial vehicles 

often is intermingled with legitimate cargo, and marijuana transported in private vehicles often is 

concealed in hidden compartments. Caucasian, Dominican, and Jamaican criminal groups as well 

as various local independent dealers also transport marijuana into Rhode Island. A majority of 

the “hydro” marijuana is transported into Rhode Island by tractor-trailers. Canada is the major 

source of supply for this type of marijuana in Rhode Island.236

Since September 11, 2001, Dominican criminal groups have altered their methods of 

transportation when smuggling marijuana into Rhode Island. Prior to September 11, members of 

Dominican criminal groups would fly to southwestern states, purchase marijuana from Mexican 

suppliers, and then transport the drug back to Rhode Island concealed in luggage. Although some

234 NDIC, Rhode Island Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3979/marijuan.htm#Top] 235 NDIC, Rhode Island Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2002. 236 This paragraph is largely based on NDIC, Rhode Island Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2002. 

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members of such groups continue to transport marijuana as couriers aboard commercial aircraft, 

they more frequently use package delivery services.237

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican criminal groups are the primary transporters of marijuana 

into Rhode Island. However, Dominican criminal groups are also involved. 

SOUTH CAROLINA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most prevalent illegal drug of abuse in South Carolina. 

Production: Outdoor cannabis fields are more common than indoor operations in South 

Carolina, but indoor operations are increasing significantly. Local independent dealers, mostly 

Caucasian, are the primary growers of cannabis, operating mostly in the rural areas of the state. 

The sparsely populated regions of South Carolina that have adequate precipitation provide an 

environment conducive to the domestic cultivation of cannabis.238

Indoor Domestic Grows: Less common than outdoor grows. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Many cannabis growers concerned with mandatory sentencing 

requirements for cultivating large single plots have begun planting numerous smaller plots 

containing fewer plants scattered over a larger area. Many growers attempt elaborate 

concealment methods to disguise cannabis plants from law enforcement detection. Members of 

the South Carolina National Guard and the South Carolina Law Enforcement Division (SLED) 

routinely eradicate small patches of outdoor marijuana. 

Processed and Imported: Mexico is the most common source location. Being less expensive, 

Mexico-produced marijuana is more widely available than locally produced marijuana and is 

transported into the state in large quantities.239

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 544.8 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Mexican criminal groups are the primary transporters of 

marijuana into the state. Multi-kilogram shipments of marijuana also are transported to South 

Carolina from the Southwest Border area, Florida, and Georgia. Multi-hundred-kilogram 

shipments of marijuana have been occasionally transshipped through the Port of Charleston. 

Mexican criminal groups smuggle marijuana into South Carolina from Mexico through the 

237 NDIC, Rhode Island Drug Threat Assessment Update, July 2002, citing the DEA Providence Resident Office. 238 NDIC, South Carolina Drug Threat Assessment Update, December 2001. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs07/717/marijuan.htm#Top] 239 NDIC, South Carolina Drug Threat Assessment Update, December 2001. 

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Southwest Border area, using the interstate highway system, mostly in private vehicles. Interstate 

40 is a major transit route for Mexico-produced marijuana destined for South Carolina. Local 

distributors also transport Mexico-produced and Caribbean-produced marijuana into South 

Carolina from Atlanta via interstates 85 and 20, and from Florida via the I-95 corridor. 240

Distributors also use parcel delivery services and commercial tractor-trailers, airlines, 

buses, trains, and ships to transport marijuana into the state. Distributors frequently mail multikilogram shipments of marijuana to South Carolina from California and Texas. Multi-kilogram

quantities of marijuana also have been seized from airline passengers traveling to South Carolina 

from Los Angeles, Houston, and Las Vegas and from commercial bus passengers traveling from

Mexico, Florida, and Texas to the state. Maritime vessels also are used to smuggle multihundred-kilogram quantities of marijuana directly from Mexico and the Caribbean through the 

Port of Charleston to the eastern United States.241 Traffickers utilize 40-foot and 20-foot shipping 

containers to transport contraband, which is secreted in the midst of legitimate commercial 

products. 

South Carolina is identified more as a drug "consumer state" rather than as a "source 

state." However, there has been increasing evidence of organizational activity extending to major 

distribution hubs. In the case of marijuana, these hubs include southern Texas/Mexico and 

southern California. Additionally, Mexican-based traffickers have taken advantage of the 

increase in Latino immigration to the state by hiding within Hispanic enclaves. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican criminal groups, outlaw motorcycle gangs, and Caucasian 

and African-American independent dealers control wholesale distribution of marijuana in South 

Carolina.242 In addition to targeting Mexican drug-trafficking organizations, recent investigations 

have targeted Cuban, Haitian, and Jamaican traffickers. 

SOUTH DAKOTA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is readily available in all areas of South Dakota. It is the most 

abused of the illegal controlled substances. 

Production: 

240 NDIC, South Carolina Drug Threat Assessment Update, December 2001. 241 NDIC, South Carolina Drug Threat Assessment Update, December 2001. 242 NDIC, South Carolina Drug Threat Assessment Update, December 2001. 

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Indoor Domestic Grows: Higher-purity marijuana is produced in indoor grow operations, which 

typically contain fewer than 100 plants, in the Sioux Falls area. Larger indoor operations have 

been found in the Rapid City area in western South Dakota, ranging from a few plants to several 

hundred. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: The controversial issue of "hemp" is a high-profile topic. During 

2001-02, members of the Oglala Sioux Tribe attempted to plant fields of "hemp" on the Pine 

Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 1.7 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Multi-hundred-pound quantities of marijuana are transported 

into the state from the southwest border of the United States. Smaller quantities are also shipped 

by express mail services or purchased from Hispanic males in the Sioux City area and driven 

back to Sioux Falls. Trafficking organizations are increasingly using Interstate 90, which runs 

east to west through South Dakota, for the transportation of drugs and currency. 

Links to Organized Crime: No information available. 

TENNESSEE 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most readily available drug in Tennessee. Marijuana 

abuse and trafficking is a serious problem throughout the state and especially in rural areas. 

Marijuana is favored over other drugs of abuse by some in certain areas of Tennessee, which is 

predominantly a "user" and a transshipment state. Tennessee is not a major source area for any 

drug except domestically grown marijuana. 

Production: Tennessee is a major supplier of domestically grown marijuana. Tennessee, along 

with West Virginia and Kentucky, produces the majority of the United States' supply of domestic 

marijuana. Prosecution of marijuana growers in the state has been extremely difficult because of 

a gap in intelligence on crop locations and because many of the domestic marijuana sites 

detected are so small that even if the owner/grower were identified, the U.S. Attorney would be 

reluctant to prosecute. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor cannabis grows are becoming more common in Tennessee. 

Indoor cannabis cultivators using hydroponic techniques produce marijuana with higher levels of

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THC. Indoor cannabis production, which occurs year-round, is easily concealed from law 

enforcement officials and thieves.243

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Cannabis is cultivated primarily outdoors in Tennessee, where 

growing conditions are ideal. Cannabis plants are cultivated primarily in the AppalachiaCumberland Plateau region in eastern and central Tennessee, which has ample rainfall and a 

temperate climate. Between 1993 and 2000, Tennessee ranked among the top five states in the 

nation based on the number of cannabis plants eradicated. The quantity of cannabis eradicated in 

Tennessee in 1999 had an estimated street value of more than $628 million, surpassing the value 

of tobacco, the largest legitimate cash crop, which was valued at $218 million. 

Processed and Imported: Mexico-produced marijuana is the type most commonly available in 

Tennessee. Mexican marijuana has also been seized in the state. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 19.4 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). According to FDSS data, 

federal law enforcement officials in Tennessee seized 2,120.4 kilograms of marijuana in 1999 

and 3,015.7 kilograms in 2000. The Tennessee Bureau of Investigation seized 5.2 kilograms of 

marijuana in 1999 and 12.3 kilograms in 2000. “Law enforcement officials” seized 199.8 

kilograms of marijuana in 1999 and 148.1 kilograms in 2000 under Operation Jetway and 

2,395.4 kilograms of marijuana in 1999 and 5,658.3 kilograms in 2000 under Operation Pipeline. 

Major Avenues into the State: Geographically, Tennessee is unique because it is bordered by 

eight other states. The interstate and state highway systems crisscross Tennessee's four major 

cities and traverse each of its borders. These highways, which carry a very large volume of 

traffic, are a primary means of moving drugs to and through Tennessee. As a result, the drug 

situations in the neighboring states have an impact on the drug situation in Tennessee. 

Mexican criminal groups, some associated with Mexican drug-trafficking organizations, 

transport large quantities of marijuana into and through Tennessee in tractor-trailers from

distribution centers primarily in Mexico, Arizona, California, and Texas. Mexican criminal 

groups usually transport between 100 and 1,000 pounds of marijuana per shipment. Mexicoproduced marijuana also is transported into and through the state in private vehicles, especially 

large automobiles or sport utility vehicles with built-in concealed compartments in the gas tanks. 

African-American and Hispanic street gang members travel in private vehicles from Tennessee 

243 NDIC, Tennessee Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1017/marijuan.htm#Top] 

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primarily to California, Florida, Illinois, Missouri, New York, and Texas to purchase Mexicoproduced marijuana from other street gangs and transport the drug back. Members of Gangster 

Disciples and Vice Lords in western Tennessee commonly transport marijuana in private 

vehicles from Chicago and St. Louis to Tennessee on I-55. Members of Mara Salvatrucha in 

Nashville transport marijuana in private vehicles primarily from California, Texas, and New 

York via I-40 and I-81. Members of Niggas from Lonsdale, a Knoxville-based gang, transport 

marijuana in private vehicles from Florida using I-75 and New York using I-81. Mexican 

criminal groups also ship Mexico-produced marijuana into and through Tennessee concealed in 

packages sent through commercial package delivery services.244

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican criminal groups and, to a lesser extent, street gangs such 

as Gangster Disciples, Mara Salvatrucha, and Vice Lords are the primary wholesale distributors 

of Mexico-produced marijuana in Tennessee.245

TEXAS 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is readily available and is considered the most widely used 

illegal drug throughout the State of Texas. Largely because of its multifaceted transportation 

infrastructure and its proximity to Mexico and other Latin American production countries, Texas 

is a national distribution center for illicit drugs. 

Production: Marijuana produced in Texas is available, although to a lesser extent than marijuana 

produced in Mexico.246 Cannabis is cultivated in the state at indoor and outdoor grow sites. 

Caucasian criminal groups and independent Caucasian producers are the primary cultivators of 

cannabis within Texas. Mexican criminal groups and independent Mexican producers also 

cultivate cannabis in the state, but to a lesser extent.247

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor grow sites are located in every part of the state. In recent years, 

increased enforcement activity has led to the seizure of several significant indoor marijuana 

cultivation operations in the North Texas area. These operations range in size from 100 to more 

than 1,100 plants and have produced marijuana with THC levels as high as 15 percent. 

244 NDIC, Tennessee Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002, citing the DEA Memphis Resident Office. 245 NDIC, Tennessee Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002. 246 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2003-S0387TX-001, October 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs5/5624/index.htm] 247 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 

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Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor grow sites primarily are located in the eastern and northern 

areas of the state. The climate and topography in western and southern Texas are not conducive 

to outdoor cannabis cultivation. Cannabis cultivators often use dense, forested areas as 

cultivation sites to avoid detection by law enforcement. These cultivation sites are typically 

small, containing 30 to 40 plants, well concealed, and scattered over large areas.248

Processed and Imported: Marijuana produced in Mexico is the predominant type available and 

trafficked in the state.249

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 136,870.8 kilograms. NDIC reports 555,324 

kilograms.250

Earlier Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: Marijuana frequently is seized in Texas, and 

seizures often involve large quantities of the drug. FDSS statistics, which are higher than those in 

Table 11, indicate that the quantity of marijuana seized by federal law enforcement officers in 

Texas increased dramatically from 364,525 kilograms in 1998 to 540,197 in 1999, 610,828 

kilograms in 2000, and 555,324 in 2002.251 State and local law enforcement officers in Texas 

reporting to Operations Pipeline/Convoy seized a total of 63,514 kilograms of marijuana from

commercial and private vehicles traveling on Texas highways in 2000. Marijuana was, by far, 

the most frequently seized drug under Operations Pipeline/Convoy.252

Major Avenues into the State: Texas is a significant entry point for marijuana smuggled into 

the United States. The EPIC (El Paso Intelligence Center) data reflecting drug seizures made 

within 150 miles of the U.S.-Mexico border indicate that more marijuana was seized in Texas 

than in any other state along the border from 1999 through 2002.253

Marijuana is imported primarily from the Texas/Mexico border by privately owned 

vehicles and commercial trucks. The U.S. Border Patrol often makes multi-hundred-pound 

marijuana seizures from "backpackers" at points along the Rio Grande River, and from vehicles 

transiting at the U.S. Border Patrol secondary checkpoints located inside Texas. At the Ports of 

Entry, ton-quantity seizures of marijuana are often made from commercial trucks attempting to 

248 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 249 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 250 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 251 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 252 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 253 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 

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enter the United States. Large quantities of marijuana are routinely seized by all levels of law 

enforcement during highway interdiction stops in the North Texas area.254

Marijuana transporters also smuggle marijuana into Texas using couriers traveling aboard 

commercial and private aircraft, buses, boats, and passenger trains; couriers traveling between 

points of entry on horses, all-terrain vehicles, and foot; and package delivery services.

255 In 

addition, Mexican drug-trafficking organizations also smuggle marijuana into the state by coastal 

freighters and fishing boats.256 Yet another means of transport used by drug transporters to 

smuggle marijuana into Texas are freight railcars.257

The greater Dallas/Fort Worth area serves primarily as a drug distribution and 

transshipment area. The area’s central location and its physical and cultural proximity to the 

Mexican Border provide a natural advantage for drug distribution/transshipment. As a result of 

its geographical location and extensive transportation infrastructure, Houston continues to be a 

primary transshipment area for the bulk importation of most major categories of drugs, including 

marijuana. As a result of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the El 

Paso/Ciudad Juárez area has experienced a significant increase in cross-border traffic in recent 

years. The people crossing the international bridges on a daily basis and the large transportation 

industry available in this area (air, bus, trucking, and rail) provide drug traffickers with 

innumerable drug and money-smuggling opportunities. Rural, desert-like areas in New Mexico 

and West Texas, whether they be large ranches or National Park land backing up to the border, 

or some easily crossed places along the Rio Grande, offer plentiful smuggling opportunities to 

drug-trafficking organizations. The Southwest Border area of Texas is largely rural and sparsely 

populated and includes the Big Bend Corridor, a transshipment route for drugs entering the 

United States from Northeast Mexico en route to Midland/Odessa and other cities in the United 

States. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican drug-trafficking organizations dominate the smuggling of 

marijuana from Mexico into Texas. They typically smuggle marijuana into Texas across the 

U.S.-Mexico border through points of entry and transport the drug to locations within the state or 

254 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 255 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 256 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 257 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 

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to drug markets throughout the country.258 Drug smuggling and transportation in the Dallas/Fort 

Worth area are dominated by major Mexican drug-trafficking organizations. These groups are 

polydrug organizations smuggling marijuana and other illegal drugs to the Dallas/Fort Worth 

area for distribution in the Eastern, Southeastern, and Midwestern United States. Drug smuggling 

and illicit transportation in the Houston area are primarily dominated by Mexican, Colombian, 

and Dominican polydrug-trafficking organizations. 

UTAH 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is a popular drug in Utah and is the most widely available 

illicit drug in the state. 

Production: Although most of the marijuana available in Utah is produced in Mexico and 

California, cannabis is cultivated in the state, particularly in the northern areas. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Significant quantities are produced indoors. Caucasian criminal groups 

and local independent dealers dominate the production of high-potency marijuana at indoor grow 

sites throughout Utah.259 Homemade irrigation systems have been developed to counteract the 

arid climate of these remote sites and camouflage techniques have become more sophisticated. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor cultivation is the more common method of producing 

marijuana in Utah. Cannabis is easily grown in the remote areas of the state, which are most 

conducive for growing operations due to the fertile soil. Some owners of outdoor grows have 

utilized armed Mexican immigrants to tend the plants. Weber County is the center of cannabis 

cultivation in the state. Mexican criminal groups and, to a lesser extent, Caucasian local 

independent dealers, increasingly are using public lands in Utah for cannabis cultivation.260

Processed and Imported: Marijuana produced by Mexican criminal groups in Mexico and 

California is the most common type available in the state. Generally, marijuana produced in 

Mexico and California has a lower potency than locally produced marijuana and sells for a lower 

price at the wholesale level.261 The importation of marijuana from British Columbia, Canada, 

remains active in Utah. 

258 NDIC, Texas Drug Threat Assessment, October 2003. 259 NDIC, Utah Drug Threat Assessment, March 2003. 260 NDIC, Utah Drug Threat Assessment, March 2003. 261 NDIC, Utah Drug Threat Assessment, March 2003. 

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Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 1.5 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). According to FDSS data, 

marijuana seizures made by federal law enforcement officers in Utah decreased from 635 

kilograms in 1998 to 13 kilograms in 2001. Law enforcement officials in Utah reported 

marijuana seizures totaling 950 kilograms in 1999, 437 kilograms in 2000, and 490 kilograms in 

2001 as part of Operation Pipeline. They did not report any marijuana seizures in 2000 as part of

Operation Jetway; however, in 2001 they reported seizing 14 kilograms of the drug.262

Major Avenues into the State: Mexican criminal groups dominate the transportation of 

marijuana into Utah. These criminal groups transport marijuana primarily from Mexico. Some

Caucasian and Mexican local independent dealers as well as street gangs also transport 

marijuana from transshipment points in California, Colorado, and Nevada into the state. 

Caucasian criminal groups and local independent dealers are the primary transporters of highpotency marijuana into and throughout Utah from Colorado, Oregon, Washington, and British

Columbia, Canada. Marijuana typically is transported into Utah in private or rental vehicles via 

interstate 15, 70, and 80 and US 89 and US 191. Commercial and private aircraft, buses, and 

package delivery services also are used.263 Most of the marijuana transported into Utah, often in 

wholesale quantities, is in transit to other areas of the United States. Transportation routes for 

marijuana transiting Utah include interstates 15 and 70 and US 191.264

Links to Organized Crime: In Utah, Mexican criminal groups are the predominant wholesale 

and mid-level distributors of marijuana produced by Mexican criminal groups in Mexico and 

California.265

VERMONT 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana, which is readily available in all areas of the state, is the most 

widely abused and readily available drug in Vermont. 

Production: Cannabis is cultivated both outdoors and indoors throughout Vermont. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor grows, to include hydroponic systems, are maintained on a 

small scale.

262 NDIC, Utah Drug Threat Assessment, March 2003. 263 NDIC, Utah Drug Threat Assessment, March 2003. 264 NDIC, Utah Drug Threat Assessment, March 2003. 265 NDIC, Utah Drug Threat Assessment, March 2003. 

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Outdoor Domestic Grows: In the past, local growers maintained large-scale outdoor cultivation 

operations. However, the current trend of local marijuana cultivation has changed to small 

outdoor plots that can be difficult to detect. 

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in Vermont is produced in Mexico; 

however, high-quality BC Bud from Canada and locally produced marijuana also are 

available.266 Mexican and hydroponically grown marijuana from Canada are common in the 

state. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 16.6 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). According to FDSS data, 

federal law enforcement officials seized 450.1 kilograms of marijuana in 2002.267

Major Avenues into the State: Various criminal groups, street gangs, and local independent 

dealers transport marijuana into Vermont. Most of the Mexico-produced marijuana available in 

the state is transported from Massachusetts and New York in private or rental vehicles. However, 

package delivery services and couriers aboard commercial aircraft also are used to transport 

marijuana into the state, often directly from areas near the U.S.-Mexico border. Higher-quality, 

Canada-produced marijuana also is smuggled across the U.S.-Canada border using similar 

conveyances; couriers go on foot or use snowmobiles or all-terrain vehicles. Vermont’s two 

interstate highways 89 and 91 terminate at the U.S./Canada border, providing drug traffickers 

easy access to metropolitan areas in Canada and the United States. Once across the border, 

marijuana smugglers typically rendezvous with individuals who then transport the drug via 

private vehicle to locations throughout Vermont or on to Massachusetts, New York, and other 

states. Canada-produced marijuana occasionally is smuggled across the U.S.-Canada border into 

Vermont by Hells Angels outlaw motorcycle gang members, primarily in private vehicles.268

Links to Organized Crime: Loosely organized Caucasian criminal groups and Caucasian local 

independent dealers are the primary retail-level marijuana distributors in the state.269

266 NDIC, Utah Drug Threat Assessment, March 2003. 267 NDIC, Vermont Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3999/marijuan.htm#Top] 268 NDIC, Vermont Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002. 269 NDIC, Vermont Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2002

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VIRGINIA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely abused and most readily available drug in 

the state of Virginia. 

Production: Cannabis cultivation in Virginia is widespread.

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor grows are increasingly common. Hydroponic indoor grows 

have not been encountered. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor marijuana cultivation flourishes during the spring and 

summer. 

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in the state is commercial grade 

product, imported from the southwestern United States. Demand for high-grade marijuana, 

however, is at extremely high levels, with source areas ranging from the Pacific Northwest to the 

New England states. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 27.5 kilograms.

Major Avenues into the State: Most of the marijuana available in Virginia is transported from

southwestern states. Jamaican criminal groups are the primary transporters of marijuana into the 

state. Mexican criminal groups based in North Carolina also transport marijuana into Virginia, 

most frequently to the central and western parts of the state. Marijuana typically is transported 

via private vehicles and package delivery services. Additional quantities of marijuana are 

transported into the state via commercial vehicles and couriers aboard commercial aircraft, 

buses, and trains.270 Virginia cities situated along Interstate 95 are vulnerable to "spillover" drug 

distribution from traffickers moving between the two major eastern drug importation hubs of 

New York City and Miami. 

Links to Organized Crime: Local independent dealers and criminal groups, primarily 

Jamaicans and Mexicans, are the principal wholesale- and retail-level marijuana distributors in 

Virginia.271 Mexican trafficking organizations are making enormous inroads in the marijuana 

distribution markets in nearly every part of the state. 

270 NDIC, Virginia Drug Threat Assessment Update, June 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs4/4531/marijuan.htm#Top] 271 NDIC, Virginia Drug Threat Assessment Update, June 2003. 

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WASHINGTON 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is readily available in multi-pound quantities throughout the 

state. Three types are normally encountered: locally grown (either from indoor or outdoor grow 

operations), Canadian BC Bud, and Mexican marijuana. Of these varieties, locally grown 

sinsemilla and BC Bud are preferred, because they have a far superior THC content than 

Mexican grown marijuana. Canadian BC Bud is the most prevalent variety in many areas, given 

the proximity to the border and the extent of cross border smuggling. 

Production: Cannabis cultivation occurs throughout the state and may be increasing. Locally 

produced marijuana is the predominant type available throughout the state.272

Indoor Domestic Grows: Common. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: A large percentage of the cannabis cultivation in Washington occurs 

in the western portion of the state. Cannabis cultivators often use public lands such as national 

forests and parks, many of which are in the western part of the state, as cannabis cultivation sites 

because of their remote locations.

273

Processed and Imported: The two main varieties of marijuana produced in Canada and Mexico 

are imported. Canada-produced marijuana (BC Bud) is more readily available in Washington 

than Mexico-produced marijuana.274

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures: 103.6 kilograms, 2002 (DEA). According to FDSS data, 

federal law enforcement officials in Washington seized 1,193 kilograms of marijuana in 1998, 

1,477 kilograms in 1999, 3,304 kilograms in 2000, and 4,164 kilograms in 2001.275

Major Avenues into the State: Sharing a border with Canada, Washington is a transshipment 

point for drugs entering Canada and Canadian marijuana (BC Bud), and other drugs entering the 

United States. Canada-based Asian criminal groups, primarily Vietnamese, and outlaw

motorcycle gangs, primarily Hells Angels, as well as Caucasian criminal groups and local 

independent dealers based in Canada and Washington transport significant quantities of Canadaproduced marijuana into the state. Canada-based Indian and Pakistani criminal groups also 

smuggle wholesale quantities of marijuana into the state, but to a lesser extent. Marijuana 

272 NDIC, Washington Drug Threat Assessment Update, February 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3138/marijuan.htm#Top] 273 NDIC, Washington Drug Threat Assessment Update, February 2003. 274 NDIC, Washington Drug Threat Assessment Update, February 2003. 275 NDIC, Washington Drug Threat Assessment Update, February 2003. 

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produced in Canada also is smuggled through Washington, primarily Seattle, en route to drug 

markets in surrounding states.276

Transporters use a variety of means to smuggle Canada-produced marijuana into 

Washington. They commonly smuggle Canada-produced marijuana into the state by private 

vehicle on I-5, on National Forest System roads, and on logging roads. Aircraft, all-terrain 

vehicles, boats, commercial buses, cold drops, commercial trucks, package delivery services, 

horses, kayaks, couriers with backpacks, and snowmobiles also are used.277

Marijuana produced in Mexico also is transported into Washington, but to a lesser extent 

than marijuana produced in Canada. Mexican criminal groups—often based in the SeattleTacoma area—are the dominant transporters of Mexico-produced marijuana into Washington. 

These criminal groups often transport Mexico-produced marijuana into the state by private 

vehicle on I-5 and US 97 and US 101.278

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican National polydrug organizations dominate the drug trade. 

However, various criminal groups, local independent dealers, and outlaw motorcycle gangs 

conduct wholesale marijuana distribution in Washington.279

WEST VIRGINIA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely available and commonly abused illicit drug 

in West Virginia.280

Production: West Virginia commonly serves as a source area for domestic marijuana. A 

substantial amount of the marijuana available in West Virginia is produced locally. Cannabis 

cultivation is common throughout the state, particularly in the southern counties of Boone, 

Cabell, Fayette, Lincoln, Logan, Mason, McDowell, Mingo, and Wayne. Caucasian local 

independent dealers and loosely organized criminal groups, composed primarily of family 

members and close friends, are the primary cannabis cultivators in West Virginia. Locally 

cultivated cannabis usually is harvested in August. Much of the marijuana produced is sold to 

local distributors and abusers as well as distributors in other states. The supply of locally 

276 NDIC, Washington Drug Threat Assessment Update, February 2003. 277 NDIC, Washington Drug Threat Assessment Update, February 2003. 278 NDIC, Washington Drug Threat Assessment Update, February 2003. 279 NDIC, Washington Drug Threat Assessment Update, February 2003. 280 NDIC, West Virginia Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2003-S0379WV-001, August 2003. 

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produced marijuana typically is depleted by December, creating a demand for marijuana from

other sources.281

Indoor Domestic Grows: Less common than outdoor grows. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Most cannabis cultivators use land in rural and mountainous areas. 

They typically use public land or land owned by other people to avoid property seizures and 

forfeitures. Outdoor cannabis grows are more common than indoor grows in West Virginia (see 

Table 16). The DEA West Virginia domestic marijuana coordinator estimates that roughly 10 

percent or less of the cannabis cultivated in West Virginia is eradicated each year. 

Table 16. Cannabis Plots and Grows Seized and Plants Eradicated, West Virginia, 1998-

2002 

Year 

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 

Outdoor plots seized 649 812 664 564 688

Outdoor plants eradicated 40,149 35,342 37,575 35,287 30,166

Indoor grows seized 24 41 53 30 39

Indoor plants eradicated 549 1,649 1,529 848 721

Source: DEA Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program. 

Cultivators are now dispersing their plants over a larger area, sometimes using up to 300 separate 

plots, each containing one to four plants. This tactic makes detection by air, as well as 

eradication, more difficult for law enforcement.282

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in West Virginia is produced in 

Mexico, but a substantial amount is imported from neighboring states by Caucasian local 

independent dealers and loosely organized criminal groups that are composed primarily of family 

members and close friends.283

Federal Drug (marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 7.3 kilograms. 

Earlier Federal Drug (marijuana) Seizures, 1998-2001: The amount of marijuana seized by 

federal law enforcement officials in West Virginia increased each year from 1998 through 2001, 

 

281 NDIC, West Virginia Drug Threat Assessment, August 2003. 282 NDIC, West Virginia Drug Threat Assessment, August 2003. 283 NDIC, West Virginia Drug Threat Assessment, August 2003. 

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before decreasing dramatically in 2002. According to FDSS data, federal law enforcement 

officials in West Virginia seized 4.1 kilograms of marijuana in 1998, 15.2 kilograms in 1999, 

46.8 kilograms in 2000, 90.5 kilograms in 2001, and 7.3 kilograms in 2002.284

Major Avenues into the State: Drug distributors in West Virginia are uniquely placed to take 

advantage of sources of supply from both nearby eastern cities like Baltimore, Pittsburgh, or 

Washington, D.C., as well as large mid-western cities such as Columbus, Ohio; and Detroit, 

Michigan. In addition to receiving supplies from surrounding states, these dealers, groups, and 

gangs transport marijuana from southwestern states and Florida to West Virginia. They primarily 

use private vehicles and, to a lesser extent, commercial vehicles and package delivery services. 

Out-of-state transporters primarily use private vehicles equipped with hidden compartments, 

commercial vehicles, and couriers aboard buses and trains to transport marijuana to West 

Virginia. Transporters often package marijuana with dryer sheets, yellow mustard seeds, coffee 

grounds, jalapeño peppers, hot pepper flakes, cleaning products, or other materials to mask the 

drug's odor. Caucasian local independent dealers and loosely organized criminal groups routinely 

transport locally produced marijuana from West Virginia to surrounding states such as Ohio and 

Maryland, and as far south as Florida. These dealers and criminal groups primarily use private 

vehicles to transport West Virginia-produced marijuana to out-of-state locations.285

Links to Organized Crime: Caucasian and African-American local independent dealers and 

loosely organized criminal groups, composed primarily of family members and friends, are the 

principal transporters and wholesale- and retail-level distributors of most illicit drugs available in 

West Virginia.286

WISCONSIN 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most readily available and most widely abused drug 

throughout Wisconsin. Sixty percent of prison inmates test positive for marijuana when entering

correctional institutions, and one-fourth of all marijuana users also use other drugs. 

Production: The availability of marijuana in the state is augmented by local cultivation. 

Cannabis is cultivated outdoors and indoors throughout Wisconsin. Violence associated with 

284 NDIC, West Virginia Drug Threat Assessment, August 2003. 285 NDIC, West Virginia Drug Threat Assessment, August 2003. 286 NDIC, West Virginia Drug Threat Assessment, August 2003. 

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cannabis cultivation is an increasing concern to Wisconsin law enforcement officers. Cannabis 

cultivators often are heavily armed and use boobytraps and warning devices to protect cultivation 

sites from law enforcement authorities and the public. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Indoor grows often are located in private residences. Wisconsin ranked 

fifth among all states for indoor marijuana growing activity in 2000, with 137 indoor grow sites 

seized.287

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Outdoor grow sites typically are located in remote areas on private 

land as well as public land. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana produced in Mexico is the dominant type. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 8 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Mexican drug-trafficking organizations and criminal groups are 

the primary transporters of Mexico-produced marijuana into the state. These drug-trafficking 

organizations and criminal groups use private and rental vehicles, as well as tractor-trailers to 

transport bulk quantities of marijuana into Wisconsin from Mexico through southwestern states. 

Couriers on commercial aircraft also have been used to transport bulk quantities of marijuana 

into Wisconsin.288 Milwaukee and Madison are both major destinations for Mexico-produced 

marijuana and transshipment points to other areas in the state. 

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican drug-trafficking organizations and criminal groups are the 

primary wholesale and mid-level distributors of marijuana in the state. 

WYOMING 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is the most widely available illegal drug in Wyoming. It is 

readily available to users, but is less popular than methamphetamine. 

Production: Cannabis is cultivated in Wyoming, mainly indoors. These grow operations are 

easier to conceal from law enforcement authorities and yield harvests year-round. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Typically, indoor marijuana grows are small and are located in private 

residences. The marijuana from these indoor grows is usually for local distribution or personal 

use. 

287 NDIC, Wisconsin Drug Threat Assessment Update, June 2002, citing U.S. DEA.

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs1/1159/marijuan.htm#Top] 288 NDIC, Wisconsin Drug Threat Assessment Update, June 2002. 

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Outdoor Domestic Grows: Marijuana is easily grown in the remote areas of the state.

Nevertheless, growers are abandoning the large outdoor cultivation sites for smaller indoor 

grows because they are easier to maintain and conceal from law enforcement, and because high 

altitudes and a short growing season also limit outdoor cannabis cultivation in Wyoming. 

Processed and Imported: The majority of seized bulk marijuana is of Mexican origin, but there 

is a noticeable increase of seized marijuana originating in British Columbia, Canada. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: 0 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Most marijuana consumed in Wyoming is transported from

Mexico. Mexican criminal groups transport large quantities of marijuana from the Southwest 

Border states to Wyoming. Marijuana commonly is transshipped through Arizona, California, 

Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, and Utah. Denver is a significant transshipment area for 

marijuana destined for Wyoming—both Mexico-produced marijuana and marijuana produced in 

California by Mexican criminal groups. Mexican criminal groups based in Denver transport 

wholesale quantities of marijuana to Wyoming and distribute it locally.289

Interstate 80 is the primary transportation route used by criminal groups to transport 

marijuana to and through Wyoming. Interstate 25 frequently is used. Criminal groups have also 

used I-90 to transport marijuana. Marijuana often is concealed inside duffel bags stowed in 

vehicle trunks and cargo areas. The use of hidden compartments in vehicles is not a common 

method of concealing marijuana in Wyoming.290

Links to Organized Crime: Mexican criminal groups dominate marijuana distribution at the 

wholesale level.291

II. THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, U.S. TERRITORIES, AND THE 

COMMONWEALTH OF PUERTO RICO 

AMERICAN SAMOA292

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana, which is widely available, is the most commonly 

abused illegal drug in American Samoa. However, its use does not pose the same

289 NDIC, Wyoming Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs07/712/marijuan.htm#Top] 290 NDIC, Wyoming Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 291 NDIC, Wyoming Drug Threat Assessment, December 2001. 292 NDIC, American Samoa Drug Threat Assessment, June 2001, Document ID: 2001-S0388AS-001. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs0/674/index.htm#Contents] 

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problems to local authorities as methamphetamine, which has recently supplanted 

marijuana as the most serious drug threat in American Samoa. Although low by 

comparison with the U.S. national average, the level of marijuana use is disturbing to a 

society based on traditional Polynesian values and culture. Distributors and users barter

marijuana for crystal methamphetamine and cocaine. 

Production: American Samoa authorities report that cannabis cultivation is a significant local 

problem. A depressed local economy, weakened even more by sugar plantation closings, has 

increased the probability that some residents would engage in cannabis cultivation or the 

importation and distribution of marijuana. Most cannabis grown in the territory is for local 

consumption. Local authorities believe that many independent entrepreneurs cultivate cannabis 

and distribute marijuana on the islands. Local independent growers distribute marijuana, but tend 

to distribute the drug in their own areas. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Cannabis growers are adapting to law enforcement efforts. The 

growers plant crops in small patches in remote mountainous areas, which makes the plots 

difficult to locate and time-consuming to eradicate. Growers also use camouflage techniques to 

impede detection. American Samoa officials also report the presence of a hybrid plant that is 

denser and more difficult to detect from the air. Laws allowing forfeiture of private real estate 

have prompted growers to plant cannabis on public lands, such as parks, to avoid such penalties. 

Processed and Imported: In addition to local cultivators, much of the marijuana in American 

Samoa comes from the neighboring independent nation of Western Samoa. There is no 

information on the distribution of marijuana from Western Samoa or other extra-territorial

sources. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 1999-2000: During the American Samoa fiscal year 2000 

(July 1, 1999, to June 30, 2000), territorial customs authorities confiscated more than 10,000 

pounds of marijuana in 22 seizures at the airport and ferry terminals. 

Major Avenues into the State: Criminal groups, which law enforcement officials have not 

identified, use cargo vessels and commercial airlines to smuggle marijuana to American Samoa. 

The marijuana was compacted in five plastic bags, wrapped in duct tape, and stored inside large 

vinyl bags. Smugglers generally conceal marijuana inside shipments of taro plants, hide it in 

bundles of fine mats, or mix it with dry goods and food. Drug-trafficking organizations and 

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criminal groups often use the mail system and cargo vessels to smuggle drugs to American 

Samoa. The U.S. Postal Service (USPS) delivers mail in American Samoa. The USPS in 

Honolulu screens all packages bound for American Samoa from Hawaii before handlers load the 

packages onto aircraft. Drug-trafficking organizations also use cargo vessels to smuggle 

marijuana from Samoa to American Samoa. The government of American Samoa is responsible 

for its own customs and immigration enforcement. 

Links to Organized Crime: No information available. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is widely available and abused in the District of Columbia. The 

percentage of D.C. residents who report marijuana abuse is statistically comparable to the 

percentage nationwide.293 Marijuana, both commercial-grade and high-grade, is available in the 

District of Columbia. 

Production: Cannabis cultivation is very limited in the District of Columbia, primarily as a 

result of its urban setting. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Hidden outdoor grows are increasing.294

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in the District of Columbia is 

produced in Mexico. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: According to FDSS, federal law enforcement 

officials seized 3.6 kilograms of marijuana in 2002; however, the Metropolitan Police 

Department reported seizing 59.5 kilograms. 

Major Avenues into the State: Most of the marijuana available in is transported from

southwestern states, primarily by package delivery services. Additional quantities of marijuana 

are transported into the District of Columbia by private and commercial vehicles and couriers 

aboard commercial aircraft. 

Links to Organized Crime: Jamaican and Mexican criminal groups are the principal 

distributors of wholesale quantities of marijuana in the District of Columbia; however, no single 

293 NDIC, District of Columbia Drug Threat Assessment Update, May 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs4/4000/marijuan.htm] 294 “Marijuana,” Pulse Check: Trends in Drug Abuse, Office of National Drug Control Policy, November 2002.

[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/drugfact/pulsechk/] 

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criminal group, crew, or local independent dealer controls the majority of wholesale- or retaillevel marijuana distribution in the District. Most crews that sell retail quantities of cocaine also 

distribute marijuana. Marijuana typically is sold at the same venues as cocaine. 

GUAM295

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana poses a significant threat to Guam. The drug is commonly 

abused and readily available on Guam despite considerable law enforcement and eradication 

initiatives. The Guam Customs and Quarantine Authority (CQA) conducts far more 

investigations related to marijuana than to any other drug type. Marijuana-related offenses 

accounted for roughly one-fourth of adult drug-related arrests in 1999. Nevertheless, the number 

of marijuana-related federal sentences on Guam has been very low (none in FY2000 and only 

one in FY2001). Marijuana abuse by young people is a particular concern. 

Production: Cannabis is cultivated both outdoors and indoors on Guam, primarily for personal 

consumption. Because of the poor soil, domestically produced marijuana has lower THC levels 

than marijuana produced in other source areas. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: In order to combat local cannabis cultivation, DEA has established the 

DCE/SP (Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program) on Guam. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Violence is occasionally associated with cannabis cultivation on 

Guam. Law enforcement authorities encounter a significant number of small cannabis plots in 

remote areas, and cannabis growers occasionally booby-trap these cultivation sites, endangering 

both law enforcement officers and the general public. 

Processed and Imported: Marijuana imported from Mexico is common. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 1998: In 1998, the most recent year for which data are 

available, law enforcement agencies seized more than 350 pounds of marijuana. The Guam CQA 

seized 113.79 grams of marijuana in 2001, a decrease from 9,918 grams seized in 2000. 

Major Avenues into the State: Marijuana typically is smuggled into Guam from the Republic 

of Palau and, to a lesser extent, from Hawaii and the Federated States of Micronesia by package 

delivery services or in commercial air cargo. Often the relatives of Guam residents who are of 

Palauan descent ship large coolers containing fish or yams with 5 to 10 pounds of marijuana 

295 NDIC, Guam Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2003-S0388GU-001, August 2003. 

[http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs4/4001/index.htm#Contents] 

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hidden inside the coolers' walls. Bodycarriers aboard commercial aircraft also transport 

marijuana into Guam. Drug-detection dogs are used as an effective measure against this method, 

according to DEA. 

Links to Organized Crime: Wholesale distribution of marijuana is limited, and appears to be 

controlled by organized criminal groups. In February 2000 Guam police arrested a 35-year-old 

man and seized 24 bags of dried marijuana leaves worth more than $100,000 at the street level. 

Police believe that the man was connected to an organized crime syndicate operating from Palau. 

COMMONWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is readily available and commonly abused in the 

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.296 However, the extent of marijuana abuse 

cannot be accurately quantified because of the lack of drug abuse statistics and marijuana-related 

survey data for the territory. The marijuana available in the territory typically is smuggled from

neighboring countries (See Figure 4). Some is produced locally; however, local production 

decreased from 2000 to 2001 as a result of law enforcement efforts. 

Production: 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Cannabis is cultivated locally in small quantities. From 2000 to 2001, 

law enforcement eradication efforts caused a decrease in local cannabis cultivation, and 

distributors had to obtain most of their marijuana from sources outside the commonwealth. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: No information available. 

Processed and Imported: Most marijuana is smuggled from sources in the Philippines or the 

Republic of Palau. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2002: n/a 

Major Avenues into the State: Drugs smuggled by Filipino criminal groups into the Northern 

Mariana Islands often are transported by couriers aboard commercial aircraft or in air cargo, as 

well as in cargo containers aboard commercial maritime vessels. Individuals in the 

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands also use maritime vessels and package delivery 

services to smuggle small quantities of illicit drugs into the territory for their personal use. 

Criminal groups from Palau generally pay couriers to transport marijuana concealed on their 

296 This section is based on NDIC, Northern Mariana Islands Drug Threat Assessment, Document ID: 2003-

S0388MP-001, October 2003.

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bodies or packed in coolers. Local cultivators in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana 

Islands also transport small quantities of marijuana from island to island.

Figure 4. Marijuana Transportation from the Philippines 

and Palau to the Northern Mariana Islands 

Source: NDIC, October 2003

Links to Organized Crime: According to the Department of Public Safety Criminal 

Investigation Bureau, marijuana is 

transported to the Commonwealth of the 

Northern Mariana Islands by criminal 

groups that cultivate cannabis in the 

Philippines and the neighboring island of 

the Republic of Palau. 

PUERTO RICO297

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is one of 

the most widely available and commonly 

abused illicit drugs in Puerto Rico. 

According to law enforcement officials, 

marijuana abuse likely is much more 

widespread than indicated by treatment 

admission numbers and spans most socioeconomic and age groups. 

Production: Cannabis cultivation in Puerto Rico is limited. 

Indoor Domestic Grows: When cannabis is cultivated in Puerto Rico, it generally is grown 

outdoors. 

Outdoor Domestic Grows: Most of the cannabis grown in Puerto Rico is cultivated in small plots

in the central mountain area and in the Rio Grande region of northeastern Puerto Rico. However, 

the terrain, temperature, and rainfall in Puerto Rico are not conducive to large-scale cannabis 

cultivation. 

Processed and Imported: Most of the marijuana available in Puerto Rico is produced in 

Mexico. Marijuana produced locally or in Colombia or Jamaica also is available, but to a lesser 

extent. 

 

297 Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands Drug Threat Assessment, July 2003, Document ID: 2003-S0381PR-001

http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3950/ 

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Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 1999-2002: According to FDSS data, federal law 

enforcement officials in Puerto Rico seized 565.4 kilograms of marijuana in 1999, 411.9 

kilograms in 2000, 299.2 kilograms in 2001, and 571.1 kilograms in 2002. 

Major Avenues into the State: Puerto Rican criminal groups primarily use couriers aboard 

commercial aircraft and package delivery services to transport Mexico-produced marijuana into 

Puerto Rico. Couriers, typically Puerto Rican men, generally conceal the drug on their persons or 

in luggage. Couriers most often transport the drug from California and Texas, often transiting 

U.S. cities such as Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas, Indianapolis, Orlando, Miami, Philadelphia, and 

Pittsburgh before arriving in Puerto Rico. Marijuana transported into Puerto Rico by package 

delivery services usually is mailed from California or Texas. In 2001, 331 kilograms of 

marijuana were seized as part of Operation Jetway in Puerto Rico. That same year, authorities 

seized 205 kilograms of marijuana from commercial aircraft at airports in Puerto Rico. Some of 

the CBP seizures may be included in Operation Jetway data. 

Dominican drug-trafficking organizations and criminal groups are the primary 

transporters of Colombian marijuana into Puerto Rico. Colombian drug-trafficking organizations 

often use the transportation services of these Dominican drug-trafficking organizations and 

criminal groups to smuggle marijuana into the territory. These drug-trafficking organizations and 

criminal groups primarily transport the marijuana in small maritime vessels, including go-fast 

boats. 

Links to Organized Crime: Puerto Rican criminal groups and local independent dealers are the 

principal distributors of wholesale and retail quantities of marijuana in Puerto Rico. 

U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS298

Marijuana Situation: Marijuana is one of the most widely available and commonly abused 

illicit drugs in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI). Marijuana abuse spans most socioeconomic and 

age groups. 

Production: 

Indoor Domestic Grows: Much less common than outdoor grows. 

298 Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands Drug Threat Assessment, July 2003, Document ID: 2003-S0381PR-001

http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs3/3950/ 

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Outdoor Domestic Grows: Domestically produced marijuana in the USVI is cultivated primarily 

outdoors; however, poor terrain and arid climate across the USVI produce a low-quality product. 

Nearly all the marijuana produced is intended for local distribution. Cultivation sites most 

commonly are located in rural areas across the islands and typically contain 100 to 200 cannabis 

plants. 

Processed and Imported: Most marijuana available in the USVI arrives from southern island 

locations such as St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. 

Federal Drug (Marijuana) Seizures, 2000-02: The DEA Caribbean Division reported the 

following marijuana seizures in the USVI: 0.3 kilograms in FY2000, 28.6 kilograms in FY2001, 

and 465.5 kilograms in FY2002. 

Major Avenues into the State: Most marijuana available in the USVI arrives from southern 

island locations such as St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines; however, its origin is 

unknown. Neither the principal transporters nor the origin of marijuana arriving in the USVI 

from these locations is known. Marijuana primarily is transported to the USVI in small maritime 

vessels. 

Links to Organized Crime: In the USVI, local criminal groups and independent dealers are the 

primary wholesale and retail distributors of marijuana. 

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113

Table 3. Eradicated Domestic Cannabis by Plant Type, by State, 2001 

State Total

Cultivated 

Plants 

Eradicated 

Outdoor 

Plots 

Eradicated 

Outdoor 

Cultivated 

Plants 

Eradicated 

Indoor 

Grows 

Seized 

Indoor 

Cultivated 

Plants 

Eradicated 

Bulk 

Processed 

Marijuana 

(in pounds) 

Ditch weed 

Eradicated1

Total U.S. 3,304,760 37,926 3,068,632 2,379 236,128 25,321 569,712,725 

Alabama 38,597 1,407 38,474 4 123 1,394 — 

Alaska 9,128 1 86 135 9,042 48 — 

Arizona 2,960 28 2,810 10 150 23 29 

Arkansas 39,503 264 39,197 23 306 11 — 

California 1,199,818 1,900 1,086,809 372 113,009 5,254 — 

Colorado 4,170 75 1,948 20 2,222 303 134,169 

Connecticut 1,320 32 1,191 2 129 3 — 

Delaware 1,361 14 1,283 4 78 0 363 

Florida 28,206 341 13,055 210 15,151 3,242 — 

Georgia 57,534 315 56,372 27 1,162 52 — 

Hawaii 525,413 11,934 525,041 7 372 139 — 

Idaho 1,509 5 123 11 1,386 29 — 

Illinois 32,965 422 30,961 50 2,004 608 3,098,808 

Indiana 27,567 1,399 24,383 94 3,184 275 212,904,736 

Iowa 1,375 17 1,036 8 339 2,730 14,520 

Kansas 2,721 51 1,546 10 1,175 136 100,472 

Kentucky 421,724 8,856 413,851 54 7,873 3,113 — 

Louisiana 3,814 110 3,348 23 466 5 — 

Maine 11,036 192 9,314 42 1,722 74 — 

Maryland 4,054 122 3,670 33 384 113 — 

Massachusetts 1,763 61 1,353 6 410 350 — 

Michigan 32,037 154 27,135 59 4,902 244 — 

Minnesota 3,552 18 1,432 42 2,120 163 4,506,438 

Mississippi 10,110 163 10,080 6 30 720 — 

Missouri 12,027 346 9,865 67 2,162 228 61,982,618 

Montana 1,866 8 903 12 963 132 — 

Nebraska 80 2 15 5 65 2 1,676,655 

Nevada 7,732 9 3,593 22 4,139 272 — 

New Hampshire 900 31 686 12 214 11 200 

New Jersey 1,013 61 831 10 182 1,708 — 

New Mexico 6,310 13 4,784 9 1,526 49 — 

New York 7,664 232 6,381 37 1,283 460 470 

North Carolina 89,900 1,462 88,925 18 975 205 — 

North Dakota 3,860 5 3,765 5 95 5 2,755,431 

Ohio 34,010 1,976 32,103 25 1,907 343 — 

Oklahoma 7,928 213 2,644 130 5,284 126 — 

Oregon 6,358 532 4,588 164 1,770 54 — 

Pennsylvania 6,358 532 4,588 164 1,770 171.5 — 

Rhode Island 156 2 32 2 124 0 — 

South Carolina 9,927 122 9,228 15 699 5 — 

South Dakota 3,454 2 3,420 3 34 278 263,260,015 

Tennessee 479,391 2,696 477,904 14 1,487 430 — 

Texas 50,110 867 40,133 94 9,977 814 712,000 

Utah 1,849 6 113 7 1,736 9 — 

Vermont 3,769 163 3,351 19 418 133 109 

Virginia 16,170 283 13,279 54 2,891 332 0 

Washington 49,246 155 23,467 216 25,779 0 — 

West Virginia 36,135 564 35,287 30 848 114 2,567,110 

Wisconsin 6,360 191 2,653 154 3,707 484 180,589 

Wyoming 145 4 35 2 110 85 — 

— Data not available. 1 May include tended ditch weed. Source: Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of Domestic Cannabis Eradication 

and Suppression Program. Unpublished data (2002). 
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Marijuana Availability

Table 8. Total U.S. Eradicated Domestic Cannabis by Plant Type, 1989–2001 

(plants in thousands)

Year Cultivated Plants

Outdoors* 

Ditch weed Cultivated Indoor 

Plants 

Total Plants 

Eradicated 

1989 5,636 124,289 — 129,925

1990 7,329 118,548 — 125,877

1991 5,257 133,786 283 139,326

1992 7,490 264,207 349 272,046

1993 4,049 387,942 290 392,281

1994 4,032 504,414 220 508,665

1995 3,054 370,275 243 373,572

1996 2,843 419,662 217 422,723

1997 3,827 237,140 224 241,193

1998 2,283 132,408 233 134,924

1999 3,205 130,192 208 133,605

2000 2,598 139,581 217 142,396

2001 3,069 569,713 236 573,018

—Data not available. 

Note: Data for eradication supported through DEA Office of Domestic Cannabis Eradication and 

Suppression Program. 

*May include tended ditch weed. 

Source: DEA Office of Domestic Cannabis Eradication and Suppression Program, Drug Enforcement 

Administration, 1982–2001.

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