United States Department of Agriculture 

Field Guide for Managing

Cheatgrass in the Southwest 

Forest Southwestern 

Service Region TP-R3-16-04 Revised June 2017 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cover Photos 

Top left: U.S. Forest Service 

Top right: Chris Evans, River to River CWMA, Bugwood.org 

Bottom: Steve Dewey, Utah State University,Bugwood.org 

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Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.) 

Grass family (Poaceae), Bromeae tribe 

Cheatgrass is an invasive plant that is common throughout 

the southwestern United States. It is listed in New Mexico 

as a Class C noxious weed species, which allows 

management decisions to be determined at the local level 

based on feasibility of control and level of infestation. 

This field guide serves as the U.S. Forest Service’s 

recommendations for management of cheatgrass in forests, 

woodlands, rangelands, and deserts associated with its 

Southwestern Region. The Southwestern Region covers 

Arizona and New Mexico, which together have 11 

national forests. The Region also administers 4 national 

grasslands located in northeastern New Mexico, western 

Oklahoma, and the Texas panhandle. 

Description 

Cheatgrass (synonyms: downy brome, drooping brome, 

June grass, bronco grass, early chess, military grass, thatch 

bromegrass, Mormon oats) is an early emerging, 

introduced annual grass that is native to southern Europe, 

northern Africa, and southwestern Asia. As a seedling or 

young plant, cheatgrass is bright green with hairy blades 

and a dense, drooping seed head. Maturing foliage and 

seed heads are purplish in color that later change to brown 

and tan colors when dried out. 

Growth Characteristics 

• Annual or winter annual (biennial); shade intolerant; 

seed germinates mostly in late fall or early spring. 

• Slender seed stalks grow erect or are decumbent at 

base; 4 to 30 inches tall. 

• Forms tillers with 1 to 2 tillers or as many as 20 

tillers per main root. Fibrous roots continue to grow 

during winter thereby supporting greater penetration 

of the soil profile by spring. Plant also sends out 

lateral roots to maximize access to soil moisture. 

• Twisting leaf blades glabrous to hispid (covered with 

stiff or rough hairs); soft, short hairs on leaf sheaths. 

• Slender, dense, 1-sided inflorescence with multiple 

drooping spikelets. Each spikelet has 5 to 8 florets. 

• Reproduces only by seed. Each plant may produce 

between 25 and 5,000 seeds which typically mature 

by middle to late June; seeds are awned and readily 

attach to clothing and fur. Seed may remain dormant 

for 2 to 3 years in the soil, even at high temperatures. 

Ecology 

Impacts/Threats 

Cheatgrass is an aggressive invader of sagebrush, pinyonjuniper, ponderosa pine, mountain brush, and other 

rangeland and forest communities. Its ability to rapidly 

grow and reproduce before most native grasses makes it 

especially troublesome on range, croplands, and pastures. 

Cheatgrass can alter the normal fire pattern in vegetated 

areas when its populations become dense and dominant. 

After wildfire, cheatgrass thrives and can out-compete 

native herbaceous and shrubby seedlings such as antelope 

bitterbrush. The presence of cheatgrass with its awned 

seed can diminish recreational opportunities, reduce 

available forage, degrade wildlife diversity and habitat, 

and decrease land values. 

Site/Distribution 

Cheatgrass grows in a variety of habitats and climate 

zones, generally preferring areas with 6 to 22 inches of 

precipitation. It grows in most soil types, although it 

prefers relatively coarse-textured soils, and tends to avoid 

areas with saline or compacted soil. It commonly invades 

disturbed areas such as recently burned areas, roadsides, 

overgrazed rangelands, cleared areas, railway and utility 

rights-of-way, cultivated fields, and vegetation 

management projects that involved soil disturbance. First 

identified in the northeastern U.S. in 1861, it is now found 

throughout all 50 States and is widely distributed across 

the western U.S. 

Spread 

The hairy, sharply awned seeds of cheatgrass are 

transported by various means including wind, water, birds, 

rodents, etc. They easily adhere to clothing, fleece, and 

animal fur. The seed is often a contaminant in grain, hay, 

and straw. Seed carried underneath vehicles and road 

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maintenance equipment is a major means of long distance 

transport. 

Invasive Features 

Cheatgrass germinates early, and its roots grow rapidly 

during winter which allows uptake of greater soil moisture 

for rapid spring growth, early maturation, and increased 

drought tolerance. Its potential for high population 

densities and serving as a fine-textured fuel increases the 

likelihood for fire ignition and spread. As a result, the 

greater frequency of fires occurring in cheatgrass-infested 

areas tends to favor overall cheatgrass dominance by 

removing reproduction of competing native plants. 

Management 

Choice of actions to take for cheatgrass control primarily 

depends on the management goals and objectives for the 

site. Control is particularly necessary when dense, 

competitive populations of cheatgrass block attainment of 

goals and objectives for land management. Because 

cheatgrass reproduces entirely from seed, management 

should focus on preventing seed production and depleting 

seed bank reserves. When implementing cheatgrass 

management, an adaptive approach should be followed 

that will allow adjustments to be made as necessary. 

The following actions shouldbe considered when planning 

a management approach for cheatgrass: 

• Maintain healthy plant communities to prevent or 

limit cheatgrass infestations. 

• Limit disturbance and revegetate quickly with 

desirable plants following a major disturbance. 

• Detect, map, and eradicate new populations of 

cheatgrass as early as possible. Keep annual records 

of reported infestations. 

• Combine mechanical, cultural, biological, and 

chemical methods for most effective control. 

• Encourage use of spray washing stations to reduce 

seed spread when mechanized equipment is utilized 

inside or near an infestation. 

Table 1 summarizes some management options for 

controlling cheatgrass under various situations. Further 

details on these management options are explained below. 

The selection of individual control method(s) for 

cheatgrass depends on the extent and density of 

infestation, current land use, and site conditions 

(accessibility, terrain, microclimate, other flora and fauna 

present, etc.). Other important considerations include 

treatment effectiveness, overall cost, and the number of 

years needed to achieve control. More than one control 

method may be needed for a particular site. 

Physical Control 

Physical methods to control cheatgrass should focus on 

removing plants to reduce seed overall production. Most 

methods require proper timing and may need to be 

repeated to reach an acceptable level of control. Seed 

reserves of desirable native species sufficient to repopulate 

a site following cheatgrass suppression or removal can 

increase effectiveness of control methods. 

Manual Methods 

Hand pulling, cutting, or digging – For small infestations 

of cheatgrass, hand pulling or hoeing before seeds are 

produced (approximately 1 week after flowering) will 

reduce seed but may not completely eliminate the 

infestation. Several consecutive years of hand removal 

may be required to reduce seed bank reserves. When 

pulling, extract as much of the root as possible. 

Mechanical Methods 

If using machinery to manage cheatgrass, the equipment 

should be cleaned after use to prevent movement of seed 

into un-infested areas. 

Tillage – Disking or other mechanical control methods 

used alone may encourage further dominance, since 

disturbance coupled with a well-aerated seedbed favors 

cheatgrass establishment. When repeatedly done, disking 

or tillage operations may be effective if cheatgrass seed is 

buried at least 4 to 6 inches deep. The moldboard plow is 

an equipment option for this purpose, but the implement is 

less effective when used in rocky soils. 

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Mowing – Repeated mowing every 2 to 3 weeks during 

spring and summer may be as effective as an 

application of glyphosate. However, mowing for just a 

single time is not effective for preventing seed 

production since plants often rapidly regrow and still 

produce seed. 

Prescribed Fire 

Fire in cheatgrass stands often leads to a displacement 

of desirable native plants and an increase in cheatgrass 

Table 1. Management options* 

Site Physical Control Cultural Control Biological Control Chemical Control 

Roadsides, Mow or grade before Use seed, mulch, and fill materials If practical, late fall and Use truck spraying 

fence lines, seed production. Repeat certified to be weed-free. early spring grazing with equipment. Wash 

and noncrop areas every 2 to 3 weeks or 

until flowering is 

complete. 

Implement sanitary requirements for 

vehicle operations and reporting of 

infestations along roads. 

Avoid excessive disturbance. Consider 

reseeding with desirable native 

perennials after cheatgrass control. 

livestock will reduce 

seed production and 

decrease risk of wildfire; 

however, heavy grazing 

may promote infestation. 

underneath vehicle 

afterward to prevent 

spread. 

Rangeland, Use tillage with disc Use seed and forage hay certified to be Late fall and early spring Use ground broadcast 

pasture, or or plow to bury seed 4 weed-free; use pellets for horses in grazing with livestock sprayer on fairly level 

riparian to 6 inches deep after backcountry areas. will reduce seed ground or use 

corridors cheatgrass emerges in 

spring. Avoid 

excessive disturbance. 

Repeat if necessary. 

Consider prescribed 

burning in combination 

with herbicide or 

reseeding. However, 

burning pure stands may 

increase dominance. 

When moving livestock or vehicles 

through infested areas, inspect and 

remove seed from animals, clothing, 

and vehicles before entering uninfested areas. 

Avoid excessive disturbance. Consider 

reseeding with desirable native 

perennials after cheatgrass control. 

production and decrease 

risk of wildfire; however, 

heavy grazing may 

promote infestation. 

backpack sprayer for 

areas difficult to 

access. Wash 

underneath vehicle 

afterward to prevent 

spread. Broadcast 

spraying by aerial 

methods may be used 

on thicker stands if 

allowed. 

Wilderness, Manual methods (such as Use seed and forage hay certified to Same as above. Use backpack sprayer. 

other natural hand pulling) to remove be weed-free; use pellets for horses in 

areas, and/or 

small 

plants may be needed to 

protect other resources. backcountry areas. 

infestations When moving livestock through 

infested areas, inspect and remove 

seed from animals and clothing before 

entering un-infested areas. 

Post signs warning visitors to remove 

seed from clothing or animals before 

leaving infested areas. 

Avoid excessive disturbance. Consider 

reseeding with desirable native 

perennials after cheatgrass control. 

* Choice of a particular management option must be in compliance with existing regulations for the land resource. 

density and dominance. However, prescribed fire has 

been used with some success as an aid to cheatgrass 

control in certain areas with mixed shrub and grasses 

during late spring to early summer. Burning is usually 

more effective when used in combination with other 

control methods such as chemical control or reseeding 

with desirable native perennials (see “Integrated 

Control Methods” at the end of this section for more 

information). 

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Cultural Control 

Seed and materials used for mulch, forage, or fill should be 

certified to be weed-free; pellets may be used for horses in 

backcountry areas. Travel through infested areas by 

vehicles, humans, and livestock should be discouraged. If 

not, a program to check and remove seeds from vehicles and 

livestock can be implemented. In cultivated fields, crop 

rotation can be used to reduce cheatgrass. Re-seeding with 

desirable native perennials may be necessary after 

cheatgrass control. 

Biological Control 

Grazing 

Cheatgrass does not compete well with established 

perennial grasses; therefore, proper grazing management 

and practices that encourage perennial grasses will aid in 

cheatgrass suppression. Cheatgrass provides good quality 

forage for about 6 to 8 weeks early in the season, which is 

also the optimal time to graze.However, mature 

cheatgrass can have negative effects on livestock when 

consumed in late spring and summer due to the presence 

of the stiff awns on its seed. 

To reduce cheatgrass stands, graze while the cheatgrass is 

green during the spring and again in the fall by using a 

high intensity, short duration approach. Proper timing and 

close management of livestock is required to minimize 

impact to non-target desirable plant species. Grazing 

newly emerged cheatgrass in the late summer or fall when 

it is less likely to regrow will reduce fuel levels during 

wildfire season. Although cheatgrass grazed in the spring 

may regenerate new culms and still produce seed, a 

reduction in seed production is possible if grazing is 

practiced twice per year for 2 consecutive years. 

Classical Biological Control 

There are no approved classical biocontrol agents for 

cheatgrass at this time, although a number of potential 

biocontrol agents are currently being researched, which 

includes a fungus, a mold, and several mites. A hostspecific strain of the bacterium, Pseudomonas 

fluorescens, has been formulated as a biopesticide to 

control cheatgrass; however, its effectiveness against 

cheatgrass in the Southwest is unknown. Methods to 

manipulate nutrients and soil microbes as a means for 

cheatgrass control are also being studied. 

Chemical Control 

Herbicides listed in table 2 will effectively control 

cheatgrass when properly applied; however, these 

herbicides may also impact non-target species as they are 

generally nonselective in nature. Aquatically approved 

formulations and surfactants should be used in or near 

water. Each herbicide product will have different 

requirements and restrictions. Thus, it is important to read 

the label carefully and follow all instructions and 

guidelines when mixing and applying chemical 

herbicides. 

Herbicide Application 

Herbicides approved for use on cheatgrass are usually best 

applied in fall or early winter before soils are frozen.An 

optimal period for fall application is between the first light 

frost and the first heavy frost after which all applications 

should be stopped. Herbicide treatments are less efficient 

in the spring once cheatgrass starts to enter its early leaf 

development stage. If a spring application is made, then 

plants should be sprayed when they are growing 

vigorously and are no more than 2 to 3 inches tall. 

Whenever any area is sprayed, non-target native plants 

ideally should be dormant and protect from any off-target 

drift or soil movement. 

To control cheatgrass over broad areas, the application of 

a herbicide is generally required as part of any restoration 

strategy. Herbicide application will reduce cheatgrass 

while increasing available soil moisture for establishment 

of native plants. Fall application of herbicide usually has 

the greatest chance for successful seeding of rangeland 

and pastures. Since reseeding is often problematic, it may 

take several replanting efforts to establish desired plants. 

Chemical control can be more effective when used in 

combination with reseeding (see “Integrated Control 

Methods” at the end of this section for more information). 

All herbicides listed in table 2 can be applied by broadcast 

or spot spray methods. Backpack or hand-held sprayers 

should be used for smaller, less dense infestations. For 

larger areas, it may be more practical to use an ATV or 

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Table 2. Herbicide recommendations 

Common 

Chemical 

Name 

(active 

ingredient) 

Product 1 Example

Broadcast 

Treatment 

(rate per 

acre) 

Spot 

Treatment 

(spray 

solution)2 

Time of 

Application Remarks 

Indaziflam Esplanade 

200 SC 

3.5-7 ounces NA Apply prior to weed 

seed germination 

Pre-emergent herbicide. Labeled for noncrop areas but not for rangeland. 

Imazapic Plateau 2–12 ounces 

+ 1 quart 

MSO 

(methylated 

seed oil) 

0.25–1% + 1% 

MSO 

Fall or spring Amino acid inhibitor; residual. Broad 

spectrum weed control for roadsides and 

non-crop areas. Controls annual and 

perennial weeds with minimal effects on 

perennial grasses. 

May leach into groundwater. Not for use 

along waterbodies. 

Imazapic + 

glyphosate 

Journey 16–21 

ounces + 1 

quart MSO 

1% + 1% MSO Fall or spring Broad spectrum weed control for roadsides, 

wildlife habitat, and non-crop areas. 

Glyphosate Roundup Pro, 

Rodeo, 

Accord, 

many others 

0.5–1 pint 0.5–2% Early spring, after 

cheatgrass emerges 

and before native 

perennial seedlings 

emerge. Has a narrow 

application window. 

Nonselective amino acid inhibitor; will kill 

desirable vegetation, including native 

grasses, forbs, and woody species. Foliar 

application only; quickly de-activated in the 

soil. 

Rimsulfuron Matrix SG 3–4 ounces 3–4 ounces per 

100 gallons of 

water 

Apply in late fall on 

emerged seedlings for 

best results. 

Labeled for roadsides and bare ground sites 

but not for rangeland. Pre-emergence or 

early post-emergence timing will control 

several grass and broadleaf species. 

Sulfometuron 

methyl + 

chlorsulfuron 

Landmark XP 1–1.5 ounces 1–1.5 ounces 

per 100 gallons 

of water 

Warm, moist 

conditions following 

application accelerates 

herbicide activity. 

Registered for use in non-crop situations 

only. Read product label carefully before 

applying. Care should be exercised when 

used in the vicinity of desired plants. Has a 

12 month grazing restriction. 

1 Trade names for products are provided for example purposes only, and other products with the same active ingredient(s) may be available. Individual 

product labels should be examined for specific information and appropriate use with cheatgrass. 

2 Spray solution is the herbicide/water ratio in a spray mix that may be used for spot treatment with backpack or hand-held sprayers. The amount of product 

applied during an annual growing season must not exceed the maximum application rate per acre as specified by the product label – refer to the product 

label for the site type and application. 

UTV sprayer or a conventional boom sprayer that is 

pulled or mounted to a truck or tractor. Any equipment 

used to spray herbicide should be calibrated. 

Precautionary measures should be taken if non-target 

plants (including woody species) need to be protected. 

Integrated Control Methods 

To restore native plants in large areas dominated by 

cheatgrass infestations, the following combinations of 

control methods should be considered: 

• Broadcast spray–reseed–spot spray – Use 

broadcast spraying to remove cheatgrass from the 

target area. If reseeding is needed, then use a 

range drill to plant desired native perennial 

species. To protect newly planted material or to 

allow native grasses to return naturally, a 

coordinated prescribed grazing plan should be 

implemented with cooperating livestock operators. 

Sprayed areas should be monitored and re-treated 

as necessary with spot spraying. This multi-year 

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program for cheatgrass control has been 

demonstrated to provide one of the best outcomes 

over the long term 

• Tillage–reseed – Use spring tillage to interrupt 

cheatgrass growth. Follow up in the fall with repeat 

tillage and/or herbicide application to eliminate new 

seedlings. In late fall or early winter, consider 

reseeding with desirable perennial species. 

• Prescribed burn–reseed – Perform a prescribed 

burn in early summer when cheatgrass seed is still in 

the inflorescence stage or during the fall to prepare 

the site for later seeding during the fall/winter/spring. 

Use a range drill to seed desirable native perennial 

species. Coordinate with prescribed grazing to 

trample seed into the ground through hoof- action 

and to protect newly planted material. 

Management Strategies 

Prioritizing areas for treatment with a combination of 

control methods will enhance long-term success for 

managing cheatgrass. Treatment priority should be 

assigned to small or sporadic infestations on otherwise 

healthy sites, which can be followed by treatment of larger 

infestations. 

Before initiating any treatment, examine every proposed 

site closely to determine if native grasses will return 

naturally or if reseeding is necessary. If desirable native 

plants are common, they will often flourish once 

cheatgrass is removed, thereby allowing natural 

restoration. However, reseeding should particularly be 

considered if native plants are nearly absent. 

Successive treatments of cheatgrass are usually needed to 

control seed germination and emerging seedlings. In most 

cases, 3 or more consecutive years of treatment will be 

necessary to deplete the seed bank. Since it is ordinarily 

useless to treat a cheatgrass-infested area only one time 

without retreatment, sufficient resources must be allocated 

for the area where control is attempted. After initial 

treatment, resources should also be available to respray or 

retreat the treated area successfully. Previously treated 

areas should be monitored continuously and retreated 

when necessary to forestall cheatgrass recovery. 

Adaptive Management 

Cheatgrass is pervasive throughout the western United 

States and controlling it across broad areas is mostly 

impractical. Therefore, realistic goals and objectives 

should be established to manage cheatgrass infestations 

occurring extensively throughout a given landscape. To 

improve long-term success, consider using an adaptive 

management approach with the overall goal of restoring 

desirable plant communities. The stepwise process for 

adaptive management involves: 

1. Assessment of the overall weed problem, 

2. Establishing management goals and objectives, 

3. Implementation of control strategies and measures, 

4. Monitoring the effectiveness of management 

actions, 

5. Evaluating actual outcomes in relation to expected 

results, and 

6. Adjusting practices as necessary. 

Steps of this process should be repeated in sequence as part 

of a continuous learning cycle that improves management 

planning and strategy by learning from the outcomes of 

previous management actions. In general, an adaptive 

management strategy is considered to be successful if: 

1. Stakeholders are actively involved and remain 

committed to the process, 

2. Monitoring and assessment are used to adjust and 

improve management decisions, and 

3. Management goals and/or objectives for the 

resource are being achieved. 

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References and Further 

Information 

Carpenter, A.T. and T.A. Murray. 1999. Element 

Stewardship Abstract for Bromus tectorum. The 

Nature Conservancy. Arlington, VA. Available at 

http://www.invasive.org/gist/esadocs/documnts/ 

bromtec.pdf (accessed June 2010). 

Duncan, K, K. McDaniel, and M. Renz. 2005. Chemical 

Weed and Brush Control for New Mexico 

Rangelands. New Mexico State Univ. Las Cruces, 

NM. Available at http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/ 

circulars/CR_597.pdf. 

Launchbaugh, K. 2008. Targeted Grazing. University of 

Idaho. Moscow, ID. Available at http://www.cnr. 

uidaho.edu/rx-grazing/index.htm (accessed June 

2010) 

Menalled, F., J. Mangold, and E. Davis. 2008. Cheatgrass: 

Identification, Biology and Integrated 

Management. Montana State University 

Cooperative Extension 500-1008SA. Bozeman, 

MT.Available at http://www.msuextension.org/ 

publications/AgandNaturalResources/MT200811A 

G.pdf (accessed February 2010). 

North Dakota Department of Agriculture. 2010. Invasive 

Species Web-based Manual. Plant Industries. 

Bismarck ND. Available at 

http://www.agdepartment.com/noxiousweeds/ 

pdf/Cheatgrass.pdf (accessed February 2010) 

Northam, E. and W. Meyer, et al. 2009. Non-Native 

Invasive Plants of Arizona. Conservation Districts 

and RC&D Areas of Arizona and the University of 

Arizona Cooperative Extension. Publication 

AZ1482. Available at http://cals.arizona.edu/pubs/ 

natresources/az1482.pdf (accessed Feb. 2010) 

Pellant, M. 1996. Cheatgrass: The Invader that Won the 

West. BLM Idaho State Office. Boise, ID. Available 

at http://www.icbemp.gov/science/pellant.pdf 

(accessed June 2010). 

Renz, M. and F. Sholedice. 2006. Cheatgrass/Bromus 

tectorum. p. 58-59. In Troublesome Weeds of New 

Mexico. New Mexico State Univ. Las Cruces, NM. 

Available at http://www.emnrd.state.nm.us/fd/ 

Publications/documents/NMTroublesomeWeeds.pdf 

(accessed February 2010). 

USDA. 2010. National Invasive Species Information 

Center. Available at http://www.invasivespeciesinfo. 

gov/plants/downybrome.shtml (accessed February 

2010) 

USDA/NRCS. 2010. National Plant Database. Available at 

http://www.plants.usda.gov (accessed February 

2010) 

Williams, B.K., R.C. Szaro, and C.D. Shapiro. 2009. 

Adaptive Management: The U.S. Department of the 

Interior Technical Guide. Adaptive Management 

Working Group, U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Washington, DC. URL: https://www2.usgs.gov/sdc/ 

doc/DOI%20Adaptive%20ManagementTechGuide.pdf 

Young, J. 2006. Invasive Plants of California’s Wildland. 

California Invasive Plant Council. Berkley, CA. 

Available at http://www.cal-ipc.org (accessed 

February 2010). 

Zouhar, K 2003. Bromus tectorum. In Fire Effects 

Information System (Online). U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory 

(Producer). Available athttp://www.fs.fed.us/ 

database/feis (accessed February 2010 

Suggested Web Sites 

DCNR Invasive Exotic Plant Tutorial for Natural Land 

Managers: http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/Forestry/ 

invasivetutorial/cheatgrass_M_C.htm 

For information about calibrating spray equipment: 

NMSU Cooperative Extension Service Guide A613, Sprayer Calibration. Available at 

http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_a/A613 

Herbicide labels available at http://www.cdms.net/ 

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For more information or 

other field guides, contact: 

USDA Forest Service 

Southwestern Region 

Forest Health 

333 Broadway Blvd., SE 

Albuquerque, NM 87102 

Or visit the Southwestern Region’s 

website for invasive species: 

http://www.fs.usda.gov/goto/r3/invasivespecies 

The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader 

information only and does not imply endorsement of any 

product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

Recommendations made here for 

pesticide use are not obligatory, 

nor do they imply that discussed 

uses have been registered. All 

uses of pesticides must be 

registered by appropriate State 

and/or Federal agencies before 

they can be applied. 

CAUTION: Pesticides can be 

injurious to humans, domestic 

animals, desirable plants, and fish or other wildlife—if they 

are not handled or applied properly. Use all pesticides 

carefully and lawfully. Follow recommended practices for the 

disposal of surplus pesticides and pesticide containers.