Aircraft Accidents and 

Incidents Associated 

With Visual Disturbances 

From Bright Lights During 

Nighttime Flight Operations 

Van B. Nakagawara

Ron W. Montgomery

Kathryn J. Wood

Civil Aerospace Medical Institute

Federal Aviation Administration

Oklahoma City, OK 73125

November 2006

Final Report

DOT/FAA/AM-06/28

Office of Aerospace Medicine

Washington, DC 20591
NOTICE

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship 

of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest 

of information exchange. The United States Government 

assumes no liability for the contents thereof.

___________

This publication and all Office of Aerospace Medicine technical reports are 

available in full-text from the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute’s publications 

Web site: 

www.faa.gov/library/reports/medical/oamtechreports/index.cfm
i

Technical Report Documentation Page 

1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No. 

DOT/FAA/AM-06/28 

4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

Aircraft Accidents and Incidents Associated With Visual Disturbances From Bright November 2006 

Lights During Nighttime Flight Operations 6. Performing Organization Code 

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report 

No. 

Nakagawara VB, Montgomery RW, Wood KJ 

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) 

FAA Civil Aerospace Medical Institute 

P.O. Box 25082 

Oklahoma City, OK 73125 

11. Contract or Grant No. 

12. Sponsoring Agency name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period 

Covered 

Office of Aerospace Medicine 

Federal Aviation Administration 

800 Independence Ave, S.W. 

Washington, DC 20591 14. Sponsoring Agency Code 

15. Supplemental Notes 

16. Abstract 

INTRODUCTION. Preservation of optimal night vision is important for pilots operating an aircraft at night. 

When the eyes are adapted to low-light levels, exposure to bright light can result in temporary visual impairment 

due to glare, flashblindness, and afterimages. The purpose of this study was to investigate operational problems 

experienced by civilian airmen exposed to bright light sources while performing nighttime aviation activities. 

METHODS. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Aviation Accident and Incident Data System 

(January 1982 to February 2005) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Accident/Incident Data System 

(January 1978 to January 2005) were queried using terms associated with night vision problems. Accident and 

incident reports annotated with one or more of these terms were reviewed to determine whether vision difficulties 

resulting from exposure to bright lights contributed to the mishap. RESULTS. Vision problems resulting from 

exposure to bright lights at night were found to have contributed to 58 mishaps. Reports included 30 (NTSB) 

accidents and 28 (FAA/NTSB) incidents. The majority of accidents (57%) occurred during the approach and 

landing phase of flight. Incidents occurred most frequently while taxiing (54%) and during approach and landing 

(36%). CONCLUSIONS. Exposure to glare sources at night can affect an aviator’s dark adaptation and has 

contributed to aviation accidents and incidents. The study of these events assists airport authorities in defining 

appropriate modification of existing airport lighting systems and eliminating hazardous lighting near flight paths 

and surface movement areas (e.g., ramps, taxiways, runways). Preventive measures for avoiding similar glare 

conditions that impair vision and compromise the safety of aviation operations at night will be discussed. 

17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement 

Vision, Aviation, Glare, Flashblindness, Afterimage, 

Impairment

Document is available to the public through the 

Defense Technical Information Center, Ft. Belvior, 

VA 22060; and the National Technical Information 

Service, Springfield, VA 22161

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price 

Unclassified Unclassified 9 

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized 

1

Aircraft Accidents and Incidents Associated With Visual Disturbances

From Bright Lights During Nighttime Flight Operations

BACKGROUND

Today’s commercial and military aircraft have sophisticated avionics and computer-based systems to 

assist aviators with many common flight operations. 

Aviation safety, however, is still largely dependent on 

the pilot’s ability to efficiently process the visual scene, 

both inside and outside the cockpit, while controlling 

the aircraft in the aviation environment. Even the most 

technologically advanced aircraft require pilots to make 

quick decisions in response to air traffic control (ATC) 

instructions, changing weather conditions, and during 

“see-and-avoid” traffic situations. General aviation (GA) 

aircraft usually have fewer automated systems to assist the 

pilot, making vigilance even more critical to flight safety. 

Pilots are normally well trained to effectively cope with 

difficulties they encounter in the aviation environment. 

Operation of an aircraft at night, however, presents its 

own unique problems. Darkness limits a pilot’s visual 

range and reduces the time a pilot has to respond to a 

critical situation, which can seriously compromise aviation safety. When the eyes are adapted to low-light levels, 

exposure to bright light can result in temporary visual 

impairment due to glare, flashblindness, and afterimages, 

further limiting the pilot’s response time (1).

The human eye captures and processes light energy 

(photons) of different intensities and wavelengths. Light 

passes through the cornea, the opening in the iris (pupil), 

crystalline lens, vitreous humor, and finally reaches the 

retina (Figure 1). The retina contains receptor cells called 

rods and cones that are stimulated by light and send signals 

through the optic nerve to the brain. The brain interprets 

these signals as a visual image. The rods are highly sensitive 

to light and are primarily responsible for vision in dimly 

lit environments (scotopic vision). Of poorer quality 

than daytime vision, scotopic vision transforms colors to 

shades of gray and black. In a darkened environment, peak 

resolution of central vision is equivalent to Snellen visual 

acuity of 20/200 or less after complete dark adaptation. 

As a result, an object viewed at night should be fixated on 

a few degrees off the visual axis (or adjacent to the fovea) 

in the peripheral retina, where the rods are more densely 

concentrated. In contrast, the cone receptors require much 

more light to react and function best at higher levels of 

illumination (photopic vision). Cones are densely concentrated in the macular region (fovea and parafoveal), which 

corresponds to the central portion of the field of view, 

where they provide resolution of fine detail (i.e., Snellen 

20/20 or better) and color discrimination (2).

The eye’s dual-receptor system allows it to maintain 

sensitivity over a large range of ambient light levels. The 

intensity of light from the sun is approximately 30,000 

times that of the moon, yet the eye can function in bright 

sunlight as well as in dim moonlight when adapted for 

each condition.

At intermediate levels of illumination, the rods and 

cones function simultaneously. The transition zone between photopic and scotopic vision, where the level of 

illumination is equivalent to twilight or dusk, is called 

mesopic vision (2). Neither the rods nor the cones operate at peak efficiency in this range, but both actively 

contribute to visual perception. Mesopic vision may be 

of primary importance to the pilot when operating an 

aircraft at night, since some level of ambient illumination 

is often present in the cockpit.

Figure 1: Diagram of the human eye.
2

Dark adaptation is an independent process during 

which each eye adjusts from a state of high luminance to 

one of low luminance. This adjustment to lower levels of 

illumination involves biochemical, physical, and neuronal aspects. Both rods and cones contain light-sensitive 

chemicals called photopigments. The photopigment in 

the rods is called rhodopsin, or “visual purple.” There are 

three different types of cone photopigments (red-, blue-, 

and green-sensitive). Upon exposure to light, photopigments undergo a chemical reaction that converts light 

energy to electrical activity, initiating visual impulses in 

the retina that are transmitted through nerve fibers from 

the eyes to the brain. The initial chemical reaction is called 

light adaptation and, in this process, the photopigments 

are decomposed. Intense light decomposes the photoreceptor pigments rapidly and completely, thus reducing 

retinal sensitivity to dim light (3). Regeneration of the 

photopigments occurs during dark adaptation.

The fully dark-adapted eye, in which photopigment 

regeneration is complete, restores retinal sensitivity to 

its maximal level. Depending upon the eye’s state of 

preadaptation to light, dark adaptation is about 80% 

complete within 30 minutes, but it may take several 

hours to achieve total dark adaptation (3). Retinal adaptation can be affected by physical changes in the size 

of the pupil. The amount of light entering the eye is 

proportional to the area of the pupil (i.e., the square 

root of the pupillary radius). In a healthy adult 18 - 50 

years of age, the diameter of the pupil can constrict to 

1.5 mm and dilate to 8 mm, which equates to a 30-fold 

range in the quantity of light entering the eye (3). This 

range in pupil size often diminishes with age, as the iris 

becomes less reactive to light, resulting in smaller pupils 

under low-light conditions, longer adaptation periods, and 

poorer scotopic vision. There are other factors, however, 

that can compromise an individual’s ability to achieve 

dark adaptation or, once exposed, recover it in a timely 

manner, including preexisting physical conditions (4), 

altitude hypoxia (5), and the effects of diet (6), alcohol 

(7), smoking (8), and medication (9).

The common visual effects from bright light that may 

compromise night vision are:

Flashblindness – A visual interference effect that 

persists after the source of illumination has been 

removed (10).

Afterimage – A transient image left in the visual field 

after an exposure to a bright light (10).

Glare – Obstruction of an object in a person’s field 

of vision due to a bright light source located near the 

same line-of-sight (10).

The Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA’s) Vision 

Research Team has an ongoing research program that 

•

•

•

investigates the effects of lasers and other high-intensity 

light sources on pilot vision and performance. This 

study reviewed aircraft accident and incident reports to 

determine whether visual difficulties from bright light 

sources encountered by civilian airmen performing 

nighttime aviation activities were contributing factors 

in these mishaps.

METHODS

Reports from the National Transportation Safety Board 

(NTSB) Aviation Accident and Incident Data System and 

the FAA Accident/Incident Data System were reviewed 

for this study (11). Computer searches of the databases 

were conducted using the word “night,” together with 

each of the following terms: glare, bright light, flash, 

flashblindness, blind, reflection, and vision. The search 

periods varied due to differences in the dates when these 

databases were established and last updated (i.e., NTSB: 

Jan 1982 – Feb 2005, and FAA Accident/Incident Data 

System: Jan 1978 – Jan 2005).

The NTSB database is the official repository of aviation 

accident data, causal factors, and selected incident data, 

while the FAA Accident/Incident Data System contains 

accident and incident data records for all categories of civil 

aviation (12).1 The records collected from the database 

searches were categorized by type of event. The narratives 

of each record were individually reviewed to determine 

whether visual impairment during nighttime aviation 

operations was a contributing factor and to ensure that 

reports from the two databases were not duplicated.

RESULTS

Total aircraft accidents and incidents by the phase of 

flight are summarized in Table 1. There were 58 reported 

mishaps that identified vision problems at night resulting 

from exposure to sources of bright light as a contributing factor in the accident (n=30) or incident (n=28). 

The majority of accidents (n=17) occurred during the 

approach and landing phase of flight. Incidents occurred 

most frequently while taxiing (n=15) and during approach 

and landing (n=10).

1 The terms aviation accident and incident refer to events that are defined, in 

part, as follows:

Accident. An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft, which 

takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention 

of flight until such time as all such persons have disembarked, in which:

a) a person is fatally or seriously injured,

b) the aircraft sustains major damage or structural failure,

c) or, the aircraft is missing or completely inaccessible.

Incident. An occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation 

of an aircraft, which affects or could affect the safety of operation.
3

PHASE OF FLIGHT ACCIDENT INCIDENT TOTAL

Taxiing 6 15 21

Takeoff/Departure 3 2 5

Enroute 4 1 5

Approach/Landing 17 10 27

TOTAL 30 28 58

Table 1: Aircraft accidents and incidents categorized by phase of flight.

DISCUSSION

Flight crewmembers were more susceptible to night 

vision problems during the approach and landing phases 

of flight, possibly due to prolonged exposure to low-light 

levels prior to being illuminated by airport lighting systems 

or other bright light sources. The greatest percentage 

(47%) of aviation accidents (n=17) and incidents (n=10) 

found in this study occurred during these maneuvers. 

In the text of these reports, pilots commented that they 

lost the ability to judge distances (depth perception) 

after experiencing glare or from being flashblinded by 

approach or runway lights (5 accidents, 5 incidents). 

One of these accidents occurred when the pilot asked the 

control tower to turn up the intensity of the approach 

lights so she could visually acquire the runway on approach. The pilot reported that she experienced “excessive glare in her contact lenses” on short-final approach, 

which distracted her and caused her to collide with the 

approach-light structure. Other pilots complained of 

similar visual difficulties when their landing lights were 

reflected back into the cockpit by dust, fog, rain, snow, or 

ice just prior to landing (5 accidents, 2 incidents). There 

were 3 incidents where the pilot-in-command reported 

being flashblinded and seeing “spots” or other afterimages when laser light illuminated the cockpit during 

approach maneuvers. Three accident reports described 

vision problems resulting from inappropriate interior 

lighting or instrument lights. After being distracted by 

bright light sources, several reports suggest that pilots 

lost their ability to properly judge height and distance, 

resulting in short (or long) landings and collisions with 

terrain (and/or obstacles) at either end of the runway. In 

other instances, pilots damaged their landing gear during 

hard landings caused by flaring too early (or too late), 

which resulted in the loss of control of the aircraft (2 accidents). Finally, 2 reports described accidents involving 

emergency medical evacuation helicopters. One occurred 

when the pilot crashed after hitting power lines while 

attempting to land, and the other damaged the aircraft 

during a hard landing near the scene of a traffic accident. 

Both reports suggested that the pilots were flashblinded 

by the lights of emergency vehicles on the ground at the 

accident scenes.

Taxiing aircraft accounted for the second largest percentage (36%) of night vision mishaps (6 accidents, 15 

incidents). Ineffective lighting configurations in the airport environment appear to be a root cause of these visual 

difficulties while taxing. The majority of these involved 

pilots who strayed off ramps, taxiways, and runways (2 

accidents, 5 incidents), hitting obstacles (3 incidents) 

or other aircraft (4 accidents, 5 incidents) due to the 

effects of glare and/or flashblindness. In several of these 

mishaps, the pilots reported that inappropriate or poorly 

positioned ramp or apron lighting hampered their ability to distinguish runway markings or determine exactly 

where the taxi surface began and ended. One incident 

occurred when a pilot stopped too abruptly, causing his 

aircraft to nose over and damage the propeller. According 

to the report, reflections and shadows from the airport 

lighting produced an illusion that someone had run in 

front of the aircraft. Another incident occurred when glare 

interfered with a pilot’s ability to see a hold short line 

(i.e., a line indicating the boundary between the taxiway 

and an active runway). This resulted in a collision with 

a second aircraft that was cleared to taxi on the runway. 

At many of the airports where these mishaps occurred, 

pilots described the runway and taxiway markings as 

inadequate, in need of repair, or totally obscured (due 

to poor meteorological conditions). It appears, when 

mechanical and/or meteorological problems combine 

with a pilot’s loss of dark adaptation, the risk of runway 

incursions, collisions between aircraft, and excursions off 

of aircraft movement areas (onto terrain that is either too 

rough or too soft to support the weight of the aircraft) 

increases.

Takeoff and departure maneuvers appear less influenced 

by the effects of night vision problems. Less than 9% of 

the events (3 accidents, 2 incidents) identified in this study 

occurred during this phase of flight. In these mishaps, 
4

the aircraft either hit an obstruction (2 accidents) or the 

terrain (1 accident, 1 incident) during or shortly after 

takeoff. In the other incident, which occurred during 

the takeoff and departure of a Boeing 737 air carrier, the 

first officer (FO) was visually incapacitated when exposed 

to an unidentified ground-based laser (13). The FO was 

flashblinded in his right eye and had afterimages in the 

left after being illuminated by a green laser light. He also 

reported that he experienced brief spatial disorientation 

and temporarily lost his ability to focus. Fortunately, 

the captain took over control of the aircraft and the FO 

suffered no permanent eye damage. If both the captain 

and FO had been exposed and equally affected, this event 

could have ended tragically.

Approximately 9% of these mishaps occurred during 

enroute flight operations (4 accidents, 1 incident). Exposure to abruptly changing lighting conditions during 

low-level flight operations can increase the chance of 

aviation mishaps. Three pilots reported being affected 

by glare and/or flashblindness from exposure to various bright light sources that resulted in collisions with 

obstacles (2 accidents) and the terrain (1 incident). One 

accident involved a monocular pilot who was flying without a current FAA airman’s certificate just after sunset. 

The aircraft collided with trees and crashed, killing the 

pilot and his two daughters. The accident occurred immediately after the aircraft made a low pass over a valley 

where a group of campers were gathered including the 

pilot’s oldest daughter. The contributing factors in this 

tragedy included the pilot’s pre-existing visual deficit, 

incomplete dark adaptation, and an ill-advised low 

pass over a valley made darker by the shadows from the 

surrounding hilly terrain. The fifth mishap involved a 

United States Coast Guard pilot on an authorized night 

tactical flight. The report indicated that the aircraft flew 

at a high rate of speed from daylight into night conditions. Dark adaptation was impeded by flight through 

a range of light conditions created by the terrain and 

ambient light levels. Without proper dark adaptation, 

the pilot was unable to make out changes in the elevation of the terrain, which rose abruptly by 300 feet at 

the point of impact.

In addition to the NTSB and FAA database searches, 

a similar search was conducted of the Aviation Safety 

Reporting System (ASRS). The ASRS was established in 

1988 under a Memorandum of Agreement between the 

FAA and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to lessen the likelihood of aviation accidents 

(11). It is a voluntary and confidential incident reporting 

system where pilots, ATC personnel, flight attendants, 

mechanics, ground personnel, and others involved in 

aviation operations can file reports concerning instances 

where aviation safety is compromised. The ASRS includes 

reports submitted from 1988 through November 2004. 

While ASRS reports may be criticized for allowing the 

submission of anonymously obtained, subjective accounts 

that cannot be properly investigated, the information 

they provide may be important in identifying potentially 

hazardous situations.

The ASRS database contained 153 reports where night 

vision problems resulted in unsafe conditions. Fifty-nine

percent (n=90) of these events occurred during taxiing 

operations, while 27% (n=41) involved approach and 

landing maneuvers. Enroute flight and takeoff/departure 

operations accounted for 7.2% (n=11) and 5.2% (n=8) 

of these incidents, respectively. Flight crewmembers and 

ATC personnel submitted the three remaining reports 

identifying visual problems caused by airport lighting. 

Under some circumstances, poorly positioned airport 

lighting and temporary construction lights obstructed the 

tower controller’s view of aircraft or hindered the flight 

crew’s view of other aircraft and terrain as they navigated 

airport ramps, taxiways, and runways.

One example of ATC personnel hampered by glare 

from airport lighting involved a runway collision between 

USAir flight 1493 and Skywest flight 5569 at Los Angeles 

International Airport on February 1, 1991, that resulted 

in 34 fatalities (14). The accident occurred when the 

USAir Boeing 737 that was cleared to land collided with 

the Skywest Fairchild Metroliner that was holding on the 

same runway awaiting clearance to takeoff. Although 

not determined to be the primary cause of the accident, 

the NTSB’s findings included the following statement: 

“The ability of the Los Angeles Air Traffic Control tower 

personnel to distinguish aircraft on the runways and other 

airport traffic movement areas, including the accident site, 

was complicated by some of the terminal II apron lights 

which produced glare.” This unsafe lighting situation 

was rectified after this accident. 

During this search, only 3 reported incidents were 

found as the result of laser illumination. Although there 

are only a handful of aviation incidents documented by 

the Department of Transportation regarding pilots being visually impaired by laser light, there are more than 

500 reports of laser incidents from other FAA sources, 

newspaper accounts, safety documents, etc. As a result, 

the FAA established Flight Safe Exposure Levels with 

corresponding Laser-Free, Critical, and Sensitive Zones 

over and around airports when it adopted “Recommended 

Interim Guidelines” drafted by the Society of Automotive 

Engineers’ Laser Safety Hazards Subcommittee in 1995. 

These new procedures were later incorporated into FAA 

Order 7400.2, Procedures of Handling Airspace Matters, 

Chapter 29, Outdoor Laser Operations. More recently, 
5

the FAA’s System Operations Security published on January 11, 2005, an Advisory Circular entitled “Reporting 

of Laser Illumination of Aircraft” (AC No: 70-2). This 

document provides guidance on reporting of laser illumination of aircraft and aircrew mitigation procedures if 

illuminated by a laser light. Further research on laser light 

in outdoor environments and their affects on aviation is 

needed as this technology continues to mature and new 

laser and high-intensity light applications emerge.

Exposure to light that is several orders of magnitude 

brighter than that to which the eyes are adapted can 

reduce or eliminate a pilot’s ability to correctly perceive 

depth or clearly see obstacles and the terrain (Figure 2). 

The period of time and extent to which these effects may 

last varies considerably among individuals.

As these events illustrate, aviation personnel performing flight operations at night are presented with a serious 

challenge. The darkness of night and the human eye’s 

reliance on light requires that a balance be maintained 

between dark and light adaptation to optimize visual performance for the task at hand. During critical nighttime 

operations, direct exposure to very bright light sources 

can result in the loss of dark adaptation, while adaptation to total darkness can result in night myopia (i.e., 

diminished visual acuity due to the inactivity of the eye’s 

cone receptors). The following are recommendations to 

optimize visual performance and enhance aviation safety 

during nighttime activity.

Clean the windscreen thoroughly during the preflight 

check. It should also be inspected regularly for damage 

or excessive wear that may result in glare from increased 

light scatter, and worn windscreens should be replaced 

when transparency becomes degraded.

Allow eyes to become properly dark-adapted by wearing sunglasses during the day, and avoid brightly illuminated environments (e.g., beach or snow skiing) 

before flying at night.

•

•

Avoid medications that could affect eyes’ sensitivity 

to light or prolong recovery from exposure to a bright 

light source whenever possible. These include some 

over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory 

drugs and prescriptive medications, such as antibiotics, 

oral contraceptives, and acne medication.

Keep one eye shut should you look in the direction 

of a bright light source to maintain dark adaptation 

in at least one eye.

Use the glare shield (sun visor), bill of a cap, or other 

opaque objects to shield your eyes from harsh ramp 

lighting.

Be aware that some forms of ophthalmic correction 

or refractive surgical procedures can increase sensitivity to glare.

Report to the appropriate airport authorities all damaged, ineffective, or inappropriate airport navigation 

aids and lighting problems both on and off airport 

property.

To avoid flash blinding other pilots, dim aircraft landing lights as soon as safety concerns allow.

Once the runway is identified, have the approach 

lights dimmed whenever possible to avoid excessive 

glare and to preserve dark adaptation during roll-out 

and taxiing operations.

Be prepared for external lighting to reflect back into 

the cockpit when flying in marginal weather conditions, such as fog, mist, rain, or snow.

Use off-axis vision and peripheral visual clues to assist in 

judging altitude and distances when glare is present.

Maintain a marginal lighting condition in the cockpit 

to retain some cone photopigment function and to 

avoid night myopia.

Be aware that physiological conditions (e.g., monocular 

vision and advanced age) or smoking can adversely affect your ability to adapt to a darkened environment 

and/or accurately judge distances at night.

In conclusion, this study found that pilots and other 

aviation personnel have been distracted and/or disoriented from the effects of bright lights during nighttime 

aviation activities. The effects are primarily seen in loss 

of visual skills, depth perception, and temporary visual 

impairment due to glare, flashblindness, and afterimages. 

The flight operations most affected by glare, flashblindness, and loss of proper dark adaptation were taxiing 

and approach/landing. Pilots were unable to effectively 

judge altitude and/or distances while landing and taxiing 

their aircraft. Glare from bright lights made it difficult 

for pilots to see the edges of taxiways and runways and 

created problems for controllers when viewing aircraft 

activities from the tower. Heightened situational awareness 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Figure 2: Cockpit glare induced by a 532 nm 

laser exposure (50 μW/cm2).
6

and the elimination of avoidable exposure to bright light 

sources are important steps in preventing the debilitating effects on vision at night. The study of such mishaps 

can assist airport authorities in defining appropriate 

modification of existing airport lighting systems and 

eliminating hazardous lighting near air traffic corridors. 

In addition, a good understanding of what can trigger 

vision difficulties at night could avert similar mishaps 

and improve aviation safety.

References

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McLin L, et al. The effects of laser illumination 

on operational and visual performance of pilots 

conducting terminal operations. Washington, DC: 

Department of Transportation/Federal Aviation 

Administration: 2003. Report No. DOT/FAA/AM03/12. 

2. Cline D, Hofstetter HW, Griffin JR. 4th Ed. Dictionary of Visual Science. 1989. Vision.783-6.

3. Hart WM Jr. Visual Adaptation. Hart WM Jr. Ed. 

Adler’s physiology of the eye 9th ed. 1992; 16:502-

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4. Midena E, Degli Angeli C, Blarzino MC, Valenti 

M, et al. Macular function impairment in eyes 

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60(12):1183-6.

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medlineplus/ency/article/002400.htm (accessed 

4/27/2005)

7. Adams AJ, Brown B. Alcohol prolongs time 

course of glare recovery. Nature. Oct 9; 1975 

257(5526):481-3.

8. von Restorff W, Hebisch S. Dark adaptation of the 

eye during carbon monoxide exposure in smokers 

and nonsmokers. Aviat Space Environ Med. Oct 

1988; 59(10):928-31.

9. Adams AJ, Brown B, Haegerstrom-Portnoy G, Flom 

MC, et al. Marijuana, alcohol, and combined drug 

effects on the time course of glare recovery. Psychopharmacology (Berl). Jan 31, 1978; 56(1):81-6.

10. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 

Z136.6 -2005, American National Standard for 

Safe Use of Lasers Outdoors. 

11. Federal Aviation Administration National Aviation Safety Data Analysis Center. At URL: www.

nasdac.faa.gov/servlet/page?_pageid=72,78&_

dad=nasdac&_schema=NASDAC (accessed June 

2005).

12. International Civil Aviation Organization. International standards and recommendation practices: 

Aircraft accident and incident Investigation, Annex 

13 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation. Chapter 1: Definitions. At URL: www.iprr.

org/Manuals/Annex13.html#defs (August 2005)

13. NTSB Identification No. LAX96IA032.

14. NTSB Report: AAR-91-08. Runway Collision of 

USAIR Flight 1493, Boeing 737 and Skywest Flight 

5569 Fairchild Metroliner, Los Angeles, California, 

February 1, 1991.