value as predictors. Four of the subjects failed
all or portions of the flight test. Subject 5
scored 92 on the written examination, yet failed
the oral phase of his flight test; subject 6 scored
80 on the written examination and failed the

flight portion of his check; subject 8 made 72
on the written examination and failed both oral
and flight phases of his check; subject 3 scored
86 on the written examination and failed both
oral and flight phases of his check.

REFERENCES

1, CAB Summary General Aviation Accident Reports,
July-December 1966. Figures exclude helicopter,
parachute, balloon, glider, and accidents to ground
personnel.

. SMopE, ALFRED J., Haxt, Evcene R., and Meyer,

Donatp &., “An Assessment of Research Relevant to

Pilot Training,” AMRL-TR-66-196. Aerospace Medi-

cal Research Laboratories, Aerospace Medical Divi-

sion, Air Force Systems Command, Wright-Patterson

Air Force Base, Ohio.

Horowitz, Mitton W., “An Analysis of Anxiety as

it Affects Flight Training,” A study sponsored by

the Link Foundation, Suite M-10, Eastside Airline

Terminal, 645 First Avenue, New York, New York.

.. Horowitz, Mitton W., “The Instructor Flunks A

Test.” Flying, September 1964,

Roman, James, “Risk and Responsibility as Factors

Affecting Heart Rate in Test Pilots—The Flight

5.

12

Research Program II.”
1965.

6. Roman, James, Ouper, Harry and Jones, WALTON
L., Jz, “Flight Research Program: VII. Medical
Monitoring of Navy Carrier Pilots in Combat.”
Aerosp. Med. 38 :133-139, 1966.

7. Rowen, B, “Biomedical Monitoring of the X-15
Program” AFFTC-TN-61-4, May 1961.

8, Berry, C, A., Mrnners, H. A., McOurcnxon, E. P.,
and Pottarp, R. A. “Aeromedical Analysis” in “Re-
sults of the Third United States Manned Orbital
Flight,” NASA SP-12, October 1963.

9. Carrerson, A. D., McCurcHeon, E. P., Minvens, H. A.,
and Portarp, R. A., “IV-Mission Results. 18. Aero-
medical Observations” in “Project Mercury Summary
including Results of the Fourth Manned Orbital
Flight,” May 1963.

Aerosp. Med. 36: 518-532,


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Taste II, Heart Rates During Various Events. Table III shows the event and condition (solo,
Group dual, or check) during which the maximum and
Maneuver ea "oot minimum heart rate during the syllabus occurred.
Ast _° ae ‘ sos) Five subjects had maximum heart rates on short
seistudent) field landings, others on ordinary landings and
Stalls 96 ( 89-108) one during stalls. Three of the maximums oc-
(Instructor) curred on the: check flight, 3 on duals, and 2 on
Stalls 126 (109-153) solos. All of the minimum heart rates were re-
(Check) corded on dual flights and all during fairly mild
Short F oa 442 ( 96-187) maneuvers; it is not known how low the simu-
Short Fiela 120 ( 99-161) lated emergency was carried nor into what kind
Landings of field.
‘Taste III, Maximum and Minimum Heart Rates For Each Subject By Event.
Budject Maximum Boent Min. Event
1 156 Solo— 88 Dual Simulated
Short Field Landings Emergency
2 114 Dual— 106 Dual Stalls
Short Field Touch & Go with Hood On
8 149 Solo— 86 ‘Takeoff-dual
Short Field Landing
4 121 Dual— 88 Dual, Turns
Short Field Landing
5 114 Check Flight— 51 Dual, Stalls—
Short Field Landings
6 119 Landings, dual cm Climbs, dual
127 Takeoffs, & Stalls— 82 Glides-Takeoffs
Check Flight dual
8 166 Landings—Check Flight 7 Preliminaries
dual

B. Eye Movement.

The records of eye movements were charac-
teristic for each subject, though in an undefin-
able way just as handwriting is characteristic
for an individual. When the tapes were being
played back an experienced observer could look
at the record and identify the subject from
whom it was taken. Segments of those records
are shown for two subjects in Figure 4.

Table IV shows eye movement frequencies
(movements per minute) on local and cross coun-
try flights. There is a slight, though consistent,
tendency for the eye movement frequency to be
higher yet on cross country than on local flights.

‘Taste IV, Eye Movements (Movements Per Minute) On
Local and Cross Country Flights

Subject Locat Cross Country
Solo Duat ‘Bolo Duat
1 102.6 98.4 118.2 110.4
2 76.2 69.6 78.6 90.6
3 101.4 96.0 126.0 108.0
4 5.0 78.0 89.4 95.4
5 105.6 91.2 105.6 76.2
6 91.2 85.2 120.6 82.8
7 85.8 86.4 91.2 100.2
8 79.8 19.8 81.6 61.8
Average 89.7 85.6 101.4 90.7


HEART RATE FOR SYLLABUS

140

a
3

HEART RATE
rT

HEART RATE

DUAL
DUAL vs SOLO vs CHECKRIDE
140 FOR ENTIRE SYLLABUS

SOLO CHECK

SUBJECT NUMBER

Ficure 1. Arithmetical means of heart rates for each student on solo, dual, and check flights (bar graphs). Differ-
ences between group means (inset line graph) are all significant at least at the 5% level, with the means of
dual and check flights differing at the 1% level of significance,

Preliminary events vs. initiation of flight.
One statement frequently heard is that students
are apprehensive prior to flight but settle down
once in the air. The data were examined to see
if this observation was reflected in the subjects’
heart rates immediately before flight and at ini-
tiation of flight. The results are shown in Figure
2. With the exception of Subject +2, the ini-
tiation of solo flight was accompanied by an
increase in heart rate ranging from 1 bpm to
17 bpm. On the other hand, with the exception
of Subject #8, take-off was accompanied by a
decrease in heart rate on dual flights, ranging

from 1 bpm to 22 ppm. On the check flight, six
subjects showed increases in heart rate when
flight was initiated while two subjects showed
decreases. Resting heart rates taken in the lab-
oratory prior to the flights were lower than heart
rates during preliminaries with the exception of
Subject #1 whose “resting” heart rate was higher
by 3 bpm than it was during runup on her check
flight.

Anticipation is best revealed in the pattern of
resting heart rate; six of the eight subjects ex-
hibited higher resting heart rates prior to their
check flights than prior to solo or dual flights.



subject was then fitted with stainless steel plate
electrodes placed laterally across the lower chest
for detection of the ECG; adhesive snap type
electrodes were placed at the outer canthi for
the recording of the electro-oculogram. A snap
electrode at the nape of the neck served as an
indifferent lead. ECG jelly was used with all
electrodes. The electrode leads were cabled to-
gether and brought out the neck of the subject’s
shirt. The common 5-pin connector on the sub-
ject’s cable was plugged into a socket in a small
components box containing 2 Taber 2029-S
condenser-coupled preamplifiers, the outputs of
which were connected via separate coaxial cables
to FM Channels 1 and 2 of a Lockheed Model
411-C 4-channel tape recorder. Two small boom
microphones, one each for the student and in-
structor, were commoned to one microphone
amplifier, the output of which was connected to
direct-record channel 3 of the tape recorder.
The voice amplifier and the two 2029-S ampli-
fiers were battery powered; on-off switches were
mounted on the boxes.

The small components boxes were placed in
the pockets on the backs of the seats in the air-
plane and the tape recorder was secured with
straps to the ring bolts in the luggage area di-
rectly back of the seats.

Records were taken on 14 inch tape at a speed
of 334 ips, which yielded a recording time of 1.3
hours per reel. Each Ni-Cd battery for the tape
recorder had a discharge time of about 3 hours.

‘Tapes were played back in the laboratory on
the same machine. The ECG output channel
was fitted with a T-connector and one side of
the T was fed to a cardiotachometer; the pulse
from the cardiotachometer was used to trigger
a count-printer. The count-printer was con-
trolled by a synchronous motor, notched wheels,
and microswitches so that the accumulated count
was printed, the counter reset, and the paper
advanced each minute. Thus, the continuously
recorded ECG was reduced to a list of 1-minute
heart rate values. The other side of the T was
connected directly to one channel of a Sanborn
350 recorder for noise and artifact evaluation.

The EOG channel from the tape recorder was
Jed to the other channel of the Sanborn recorder,
directly. The EOG record was made with a
condenser-coupled amplifier; thus, the display
did not reveal the duration of a glance as a dic.

recording would have. The a.c. recording was
deemed preferable in order to avoid the drift
inherent in d.c. systems that could not be bal-
anced out in dJight. The EOG record was, thus,
a series of bi-phasic blips of variable amplitude,
depending on the extent of the glance. These
blips were visually counted for determination of
frequency of lateral eye movements.

When the tapes were played back the records
were marked according to the on-going maneuver
or other activity as determined from the voice
record, thus each flight was broken down into
a series of events such as “start,” “taxi,” “runup,”
“take-off,” “cruise,” “pattern entry,” “downwind,”
“base leg,” “final approach,” “touch down,” “take-
off,” “stalls,” etc. It was also noted when the stu-
dent ‘was in control and when the instructor was
in control.

After the ECG and EOG recordings were re-
duced, the tapes were replayed and the total
number of words spoken by the student and
instructor were counted. The assumption was
that the total vocal interchange was related to
the quantity of instruction given to each student.

Numerical data were entered on IBM cards so
that computer listings could be obtained by
flight number, subject number, event (landing,
stall, etc.), student or instructor control, local
or cross-country flying and dual or solo flying.

II. Results.
A. Heart Rate

Solo vs. dual fight. Figure 1 shows a com-
parison of heart rate averages on solo, dual, and
check flights for the eight students who com-
pleted the syllabus. In only one case was the
average heart rate greater on dual than on solo
flights. The one subject responding in that
fashion is a person quite sensitive to criticism
or correction; he also required the greatest num-
ber of hours to complete the syllabus. He seemed
to regard the instructor as a critic or a judge
rather than as a teacher. All other students
appeared to draw some comfort from the in-
structor’s presence. The check flight proved to
be the most exciting event in the syllabus. With
one exception, average heart rates were greater
on the check flights than on any other flight.
The one exception, Subject +4, was more appre-
hensive about solo flight than about anything
else. She never did a full stall while solo.


AVERAGE HEART RATES FOR ENTIRE SYLLABUS

145)

135) .

130 . .

120 . :

5

110)

HEART RATE
3S
a

Bs

eof *

Toe

roof

65

5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13 14 15

FLIGHT NUMBER

Figure 3. Graph of group and individual means of heart rate for each flight.
the slope of the line of best fit is significant (P<0.01).

group mean of 110 bpm. When the instructor
was demonstrating stalls, students’ mean heart
rates ranged from 89 to 103 bpm with a group
mean of 96 bpm. On the check flight, mean
heart rates ranged from 109 to 153 bpm with a
group mean of 126 bpm.

Short Field. The group mean for short

16 17 (8 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 26 29 30 3ICHECK
FLIGHT

Regression analysis shows that
All subjects soloed between the 6th and 10th lessons.

field takeoffs was 112 bpm (range 96-187) on
dual flights with the student in control. The
group mean for short field landings was 120
bpm (range 99-161) on dual flights with the
student in control. Insufficient data were avail-
able for conclusions about students’ heart rates
on solo flights or when the instructor was in
control on dual flights.



AM 67-15

IN-FLIGHT PHYSIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF
STUDENT PILOTS

C. E. Melton, Ph. D.

Marlene Wicks
Approved by Released by
J. Roserr Diutz, M.D. P. V. Sern, M.D.
Cuter, Crvi Arromepican Ins1rruTe Feorrat Arr Sureron
August 1967

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
Office of Aviation Medicine



ECG & EOG IN TOUCH AND GO CIRCUIT

1 shntn eraiag Mm

+t

nu i

q fi
Na Pa fA iy ni
BEER EEEEEE EEC EE EEE EEL CL ELDER EEL EL CCE CECE EEE Eeeeee Pe eee Trt
Ls DOWNWIND + BASE + FINAL—4

(140) (138) (140)
secu Racing roma = 1 - = = = t Pomed
TOO EEE ES ass) CCE EES eer rrr rere)
/— FINAL +— . + TAKE OFF ++- —+— CLIMBOUT —+— CROSSWIND—4
(140) Toucnpown __(!38) urtorr (40) (138)
(138) (140)

Figure 5. Pattern of eye movements during one touch-and-go circuit of the airport.

statements as “my heart leaped into my mouth,” Horowitz points out that anxiety is commonly
“My heart goes out to _______” reveal an accompanied by a slowing of heart rate. In
ancient belief that the heart is the seat of emo- this study, it appears fairly clear that there is
tion, wisdom and courage. There are 72 refer- an admixture of emotional responses so that
ences to the heart in the Book of Proverbs. “fear” and “anxiety” cannot be clearly differ-

While there are certain dangers inherent in  entiated. Heart rate builds over the length of
drawing conclusions about total body functions the syllabus in increments corresponding to the
from one measurement, the pulse rate probably two major tests of ability, the first solo flight
gives the best moment-to-moment assessment of and the check flight. These are readily identifi-
emotional state that can be conveniently recorded able obstacles with which the student is preoc-
continuously in flight. It would be highly de- cupied. They are easily and frequently identified
sirable to have records of skin resistance and by the student; yet, none of the students ever
blood pressure simultaneously with heart rate, expressed fear of any physical harm. Their
but. such measurements were not within the most common expression of fear was connected
technical capability of this facility at the time. with failure. It is entirely possible that the

10


nee

TH

SUBJECT NO.7

Fieure 4. Electro-oculograms of Subjects 6 and 7. EOG of #6 shows virtually continuous eye activity consist-
ing of many:small movements interspersed among large movements. EOG of #7 shows large movements with

periods of fixity.

Touch and Go Landings: A characteristic
pattern of eye movements accompanied touch
and go landings. Movements were minimal on
take-off roll, increased at lift-off, were large and
frequent until final approach when the gaze
again became fixed. At touch down there were
usually a few glances then fixity again as the
takeoff roll was initiated (Figure 5).

C. Word Counts.

There did not appear to be any meaningful
relationships between the average number of
words spoken per flight and the instructor’s
grade. The number of words required to com-
plete the syllabus ranged from 48,415 to 88,656
(Table V).

‘fants V. Word Counts.

Subject Total Word No. of Dual Average Average
Number Count = Flights «= WO/Flt —_Instructor Grade

1 48,415 18 2690 7

2 65,105 21 3100 70

8 62,006 20 8100 2

4 80,640 21 3840 %

5 52,903 25 2116 80

6 88,656 27 8284 B

7 52,899 20 2645 81

8 71,201 26 2789 7

IV. Discussion and Conclusions.

References to the rate of myocardial contrac-
tion and the effect of emotional states thereon
are not confined to the medical literature. Such



PRELIMINARIES vs FLIGHT

{ REstine
Ey PRELIMINARY
TAKEOFF & CLIMB

3
SUBJECT NUMBER & TYPE FLIGHT

Figure 2,. Arithmetical means of heart rates for each student in the resting state, during ground activities just
preliminary to flight, and during takeoff and climb out (events) for solo, dual and check flights (conditions).
‘The group means for heart rate in the different conditions are significantly different (P<0.01). Interaction

among events and conditions is significant (P<0.01).

Subject #5 had resting heart rates that were
equal prior to dual and check flights and both
were lower than his resting heart rate prior to
solo flight. This subject exhibited great appre-
hension about dealings with the tower though
he had high enthusiasm for flight per se. Sub-
ject #8 prior to dual and check flights had rest-
ing heart rates that were virtually equal (74
and 76 bpm) but a higher resting rate before
solo flights (82 bpm). This subject was not an
apt student and did not practice when on solo
flights.

Entire Syllabus. Heart rates over the entire
syllabus (Fig. 3) correspond to the two predomi-
nant goals in flight training, ie., solo flight as
the first goal and passing the check flight as the
second. Heart rates at the start of training
were at a low level near the resting rate and
increased over the first twelve flights; a plateau
was maintained until the end of the syllabus
when there was another increase in heart rate.

Local vs. Cross-Country Flying. From the
standpoint of heart rate, cross country flying
did not differ significantly or consistently from
local flying. Solo cross country flying gave rise
to higher heart rates than did dual cross country
flying, but the same can be said for local flying.
Judged by heart rate, cross country flying would
be a greater stress than local flying only because
of the greater duration of the flights.

Flight Manewvers. Table IL shows mean heart
rates for the group on those maneuvers com-
monly held to be the most stressful.

First Solo. Mean heart rates on first solo
ranged from 106 bpm to 141 bpm with a group
mean of 120 bpm. At no time during the first
solo flight did the heart rate of any of the stu-
dents fall below 100 bpm.

Stalls. Insufficient data were available for
conclusions about stalls on solo flights. When
the student was in control on dual flights mean
heart rates ranged from 96 to 143 bpm with a


year. The study described here was undertaken
to provide some insight into the physiological
responses to flight of one segment of the general
aviation population, the student pilot.

The ultimate aims of the project are to (1)
compare the physiological responses of student
pilots. in flight with their responses to other ac-
tivities, such as driving, working at daily tasks,
etc., in order to place flying within the context
of daily effort; (2) attempt to establish correla-
tions between the responses of the student during
training and his/her career in aviation through
the years; (3) reveal any effect of age, sex, or
physical condition upon the response to the flight
situation. This paper, while describing some of
the physiological responses of student pilots
during flight, suffers from the lack of objective
measures of performance.

II. Methodology.

Ten subjects, 8 men and 2 women, ranging in
age from 28 to 45, began the study. Two of the
men were dropped from the program, one ad-
ministratively and the other for illness; thus,
complete data were obtained on 6 men and 2
women, though interesting episodes from the
two dropped subjects are presented. Table I
shows the distribution of the subjects according
to age, sex, and occupation.

Subjects were selected on the basis of motiva-
tion to fly. No announcement about the project
was made through any of the printed media.
Word of the project spread through conversa-
tion; about 50 people inquired about serving as
subjects. It was explained to them that a re-
quirement for entry into flight training was a
passing grade on the F.A.A. Private Pilot Writ-
ten Examination, and that a self-help ground
school, consisting of necessary supplies, books
and a phonograph record-film strip course, was
available. The 24 sets of books and supplies
were quickly picked up by potential subjects.
The first 10 persons who reported passing the
written examination were accepted as subjects.
It was assumed that these 10 were more highly
motivated to study and pass the examination
barrier than the others.

Six of the eight subjects who completed the
syllabus took those portions of the U.S. Air
Force Officer Qualifying Test, Form 6, relating
to flight aptitude. The portion of the battery
related to general knowledge was deleted.

These 10 subjects were exposed to a syllabus
that consisted of a modified version of the course
of instruction in the Flight Instructor’s Hand-
book. ‘The syllabus was not rigidly fixed in
length, as the selected end point for the project
was a flight test for certification, thus necessi-
tating remedial work for some subjects. The
syllabus basically provided 40 hours of training;
the actual number’ of hours required by each
student, based on the instructor’s judgment,
ranged from 41.6 to 49.8 hours (Table I), The
general policy was established that a lesson
would be repeated until performance was sat-
isfactory. The syllabus met all requirements for
pilot certification.

The experimental design called for the same
instructor for the entire project. However, the
first instructor resigned in order to take a job
with an airline after he had given six to twelve
hours vf instruction to the first four subjects.
The rest of the training was administered by
another instructor. The instructor was asked to
attempt to utilize the same instructional method
for all students and not to adapt his method to
their need, in other words, to maintain a friendly
but slightly impersonal attitude. He was also
asked to use the same verbiage, insofar as pos-
sible, with all of the students. These require-
ments proved to be virtually impossible for the
instructor. to meet. All flights were in a 1966
Cessna 150 airplane.

Subjects completed pre- and post-flight ques-
tionnaires for every flight. The preflight ques-
tionnaire was a brief history of the previous 24
hours and inquired into the amount and quality
of sleep, enthusiasm for flight, alcohol ingestion
during the previous 24 hours, physical com-
plaints, and medication. The post-flight ques-
tionnaire asked the student to evaluate his feel-
ings about that flight in terms ranging from
exhilaration through shame and fear to hope-
lessness and inadequacy. It also requested the
student to state the procedures or maneuvers
with which he was most happy and unhappy,
whether or not he was air sick, dizzy, or dis-
oriented. The instructor also filled out a post-
flight questionnaire evaluating the student’s
performance in terms of a numerical grade.

The subject reported to the laboratory before
every flight where his sublingual temperature
and heart rate were taken. Temperature was
taken only to reveal any unsuspected fever. The




IN-FLIGHT PHYSIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF STUDENT PILOTS

I. Introduction.

On an average day in the United States about
two light airplane accidents occur because of the
inattention, negligence, forgetfulness, ignorance,
ineptitude, or stupidity (natural or pharmacolo-
gical) of the pilot. These accidents cause the
deaths of an average of about two people per
day. In a sense, all of these accidents can be
attributed to training deficiencies. Either the
pilot did not absorb enough of his training, he
was not presented with sufficient training, he
forgot his training, or he failed to reinforce his
training through practice. The identification
of such individuals early in their flying careers
is a desirable goal.

Most studies carried out on student pilots have
emphasized their performance characteristics
either in flight or in a laboratory. Such studies
have yielded a great ‘amount of information
about learning and how various factors affect it.
However, as Smode, Hall and Meyer? have
pointed out, “Research on retention, as presently
conceived, has reached an impasse. The same
conclusions ‘continue to be generated with very
little additional substance added.” Horowitz
has dealt with anxiety as a deterrent to learn-
ing® and has analyzed private pilot training in
terms of curriculum and instructor effectiveness‘.
He differentiates fear and anxiety on the basis
that fear is a short term response to an identifi-
able threat whereas anxiety is a slowly building
diffuse response. Horowitz concludes that anx-
iety adversely affects perception, cognitive func-
tioning and motor responses and arises primarily
in a student pilot from his uncertainties in a
strange environment and his ego involvement
about how well he is performing.

Flight is assumed to be a stress to one degree
or another in the physiological sense. While
stress itself has never been adequately defined
in objective terms, certain physiological conse-
quences of “flight stress” are recognized. Pre-
dominant among these are increased heart rate,
decreased skin resistance, increased pulmonary

ventilation, sweating, increased muscular tension,
and elevated blood pressure. All of these func-
tions are either sympathetically mediated or
sympathetically affected and conform to the
concept of “fight or flight.” Thus, “stress of
flight” might be thought of as the sum of all of
the fear and anxiety-producing experiences that
one undergoes in flight. Flight stress is thought
to be lessened by other factors; for example, fear
and anxiety are reduced by experience and fa-
tigue by physical conditioning.

Risk and responsibility apparently play a
role in the amount of stress imposed on a pilot
as judged from heart rate. Roman’s studies on
pilots in a two-place F-104B aircraft clearly
showed that a change from passenger to pilot
duties was accompanied by a consistent increase
in heart rate’. The increase was greater in pro-
portion to the demands of the mission. In an-
other study of Navy carrier pilots, Roman,
Older and Jones* found that heart rates of ex-
perienced combat pilots flying A4’s on missions
over South Vietnam showed peak heart rates at
launch and recovery with the lowest values oc-
curring during actual bombing runs. Other
studies by Roman® have shown that the slot man
of the USAF Thunderbirds had a heart rate
higher than the average of the rest of the team
(170 bpm vs. 189 bpm). High heart rates of
pilots of the K-15 vehicle and the M-2 lifting
body (170 and 188 bpm, respectively), as com-
pared with pilots flying high-performance air-
craft, are quoted by Roman’.

It appears that there is a sizable and growing
body of literature relative to the physiological
responses of pilots operating machines so sophis-
ticated that they are referred to as “vehicles”
or “weapons systems” instead of airplanes. Not
much iis known, on the other hand, about the
responses of the citizen, who may be near or at
middle age and more out of than in “condition.”
Such men, however, together with their younger
and older colleagues of both sexes, make up that
vast number of people who take up flying each



ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors would like to express their thanks to Mr. Paul Costiloe of
the University of Oklahoma Medical Center Biostatistical Unit for his help
with the data, to Mr. J. H. Van Zant for his great patience and cooperation
in his capacity as instructor on the project, to all the subjects for their will-
ingness to serve under conditions that occasioned no little physical discom-
fort, and, finally, to all of the subjects’ supervisors who exhibited great for-
pearance and understanding when their employees disappeared for many
hours at a time.

Qualified requesters may obtain Aviation Medical Reports from Defense Documentation
Center. The general public may purchase from Clearinghouse for Federal Scientifie and
Technical Information, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Springfield, Va. 22151


heart rates observed in this study reflect a con-
structive tenseness, also mentioned by Horowitz’.

Something. akin to, if not identical with, the
heart rate increases that Roman® observed to
occur when control was passed from one pilot
to the other was observed in this project, also.
Heart rates were generally lowest on dual flights
when the instructor was in control. When con-
trol was passed to the student, a heart rate in-
crease occurred. When the student was com-
pletely responsible for the conduct of the flight,
heart rates were higher yet.

Those events in the syllabus giving rise to the
highest heart rates all involved low airspeed.
Five of the eight subjects had their maximum
heart rates during short field procedures. This
is reminiscent of Roman’s® findings on carrier
combat pilots, who showed maximum heart rates
on launch and recovery, both being essentially
“short field” procedures. The other three sub-
jects had maximum heart rates on stalls (1) and
normal landings (2).

With regard to the absolute level of heart
rates recorded, it would appear that the private
pilot training curriculum is about as stressful as
combat flying*, X-15" and lifting body flying’,
low altitude flying in high performance jets’,
and, indeed, orbital flight*®, Heart rates of sub-
jects in this study approached or exceeded those
of pilots in the above mentioned more dangerous
flights. For these student pilots the amount of
ego investment is probably as great and, pro-
portionately, the task looms just as large as
orbital flight does for an astronaut. Certainly
thoughts of flight almost completely preoccupy
the student pilot. He reports frequent dreams
of flying, he makes many “social” calls at the
laboratory when the weather is bad just to talk
flying with other students who gather there, he
spends a great deal of time listening to the tower
on the radio monitor. By his own admission,
flight dominates his life. Throughout this pro-
ject not once did a student forget to report for
a flight. This training was given without cost
to these students. One wonders how much more
the financial burden would add to the emotional
investment of regular student pilots.

Fear of crashing does not apparently seem to
be a major factor. One incident illustrates this
contention. The instructor had frequently stated
that airspeed should be controlled with pitch
attitude and altitude should be controlled with

il

power adjustments. One student on his 12th
flight noted that his airspeed was 10 mph too
Jow on final approach. He forthwith pointed
the nose of the airplane at the ground and held
it there. The instructor immediately admonished
the student about the inadvisability of his action
and attempted to seize control. However, the
student was the stronger of the two. Provi-
dentially, a soft drink bottle (12 oz. size) came
forward from the baggage compartment, together
with coats and debris, and struck the student on
the back of the head. The instructor at that
moment prevailed and pulled out of the dive;
by his account, the airspeed was past Vne. The
airplane zoomed up and over a power line and
the instructor made a normal landing on the
runway. The student’s heart rate changed only
10 beats per minute during the episode. It is
not known, unfortunately, what the instructor’s
pulse rate was.

For most students, one unnerving factor does
not involve flight per se but is, simply, use of
the radio transmitter. Fear of misunderstanding
and consequent failure to comply with the tower’s
instructions bothers most students greatly. A
common student complaint is that they cannot
understand the tower. When questioned closely,
it develops that there is no problem of loudness
or clarity of the tower’s transmissions, but rather
that the instructions do not “sink in.” Such
events are viewed purely as arising from the
emotional state engendered by the flight situa-
tion. Visits to the tower appeared to do more
than anything else to alleviate “mike fright;”
however, understanding of the tower’s transmis-
sions did not improve until the syllabus was
about halfway completed.

Eye movements and word counts proved to be
not very revealing measurements. Eye move-
ments tended to be somewhat more frequent when
the student was in control of the airplane than
when the instructor was flying and, likewise, eye
movements tended to be more frequent on cross-
country than on local flights. There did not
appear to be any correlation between eye move-
ments and instructor’s grade.

Instructor’s grade likewise tends to be useless.
It appears that his appraisal is largely impres-
sionistic. The Air Force Officer Qualifying
Test apparently gives little insight into the fu-
ture performance of these private pilots; neither
did scores on the written examination have much