United States

Department

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky Mountain

Research Station

General Technical

Report RMRS-GTR-145

March 2005

Stereo Photo Guide for

Estimating Canopy Fuel

Characteristics in Conifer

Stands

Joe H. Scott

Elizabeth D. Reinhardt
The Authors __________________________________________

Joe H. Scott has been a Research Forester with Systems for Environmental Management, a

nonprofit research and education foundation in Missoula, MT, since 1996. He has conducted

investigations related to surface and canopy fuel characteristics, fire behavior modeling, and

crown fire hazard assessment. From 1990 to 1996 he held positions as Forestry Specialist at

University of California at Berkeley, Research Technician at the Intermountain Research Station’s

Fire Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, and Consulting Forester and Logger specializing in

residential forestry in Missoula. Joe earned a B.S. degree in forestry and resource management

from the University of California at Berkeley and an M.S. degree in forestry from the University of

Montana, Missoula.

Elizabeth D. Reinhardt is a Research Forester in the Prescribed Fire and Fire Effects Project at

the Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. She has degrees

in English (A.B., Harvard University) and forestry (M.S. 1982, and Ph.D., 1991, University of

Montana). Her research has included studies of tree mortality, fuel consumption, modeling fire

effects, and canopy fuels. She has worked on the development of FOFEM, FFE-FVS, and

FuelCalc.

Acknowledgments ____________________________________

This work was funded by the Joint Fire Science Program, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and

U.S. Department of the Interior, and supported by the USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain

Research Station and Systems for Environmental Management. We thank Steve Slaughter and

Laura Ward, Ninemile Ranger District, Lolo National Forest; Terry Hershey, Salmon-Cobalt

Ranger District, and Barb Levesque, Salmon-Challis National Forest; Allen Farnsworth and

Chuck McHugh, Coconino National Forest; Bob Heald, Jason Moghaddas, Frieder Schurr, and

Sheryl Rambeau, University of California, Center for Forestry, Blodgett Forest Research Station;

and Ward McCaughey and Leon Theroux, Rocky Mountain Research Station’s Missoula Forestry

Sciences Laboratory for facilitating field work. We also thank the field crew members Kylie

Kramer, Matthew Duveneck, Dustin Walters, Bill Ballinger, Niki Parenteau, Andrew Christie, and

Roham Abtahi. We are grateful to Olga Helmy for processing the photographs, and to Kathy Gray

for data analysis and summary. We are grateful to Roger Ottmar, Pacific Northwest Research

Station, and Robert Ziel, Michigan Department of Natural Resources, for their helpful comments

on this manuscript.

Abstract ______________________________________

Scott, Joe H.; Reinhardt, Elizabeth D. 2005. Stereo photo guide for estimating canopy fuel

characteristics in conifer stands. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. Fort Collins, CO:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 49 p.

plus stereoscope.

Stereo photographs, hemispherical photographs, and stand data are presented with

associated biomass and canopy fuel characteristics for five Interior West conifer stands.

Canopy bulk density, canopy base height, canopy biomass by component, available canopy

fuel load, and vertical distribution of canopy fuel are presented for each plot at several stages

of sampling, each corresponding to a level of simulated low thinning (100, 75, 50, and 25

percent of the initial basal area). This guide will help fuel managers estimate canopy fuel

characteristics in similar forest conditions.

Keywords: canopy bulk density, canopy biomass, canopy base height, ponderosa pine,

Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, Sierra Nevada mixed conifer
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 1

Introduction ____________________

Crown fires in conifer forests are a concern to forest managers in the Western United States; they have, for a variety of

reasons, increased in frequency and extent in many forest types

(Arno and Brown 1991; Mutch and others 1993). Compared to

surface fires, crown fires exhibit higher spread rate and flame

length, leading to many more burned acres (per unit time),

more smoke per acre, greater and longer lasting ecological

effects (higher severity), greater threats to firefighter and

public safety, and increased risk of property loss. Private and

government land managers need to identify areas with high

potential for crown fire, and to design fuel treatments that

reduce the potential for crown fire.

Research over the last few decades has shown a number of

canopy fuel characteristics to directly or indirectly affect the

incidence and behavior of crown fires (Agee 1996; Albini and

Baughman 1979; Fahnestock 1970; Rothermel 1991; Scott

1998; Van Wagner 1977):

• canopy base height—distance from the ground surface to

the base of the canopy fuel stratum

• canopy bulk density—mass of available canopy fuel per

unit canopy volume

• canopy fuel load—the mass of available canopy fuel per

unit ground area

• stand height—average height of the tallest trees in a stand

• canopy cover—percent of vertically projected canopy

cover in the stand

• foliar moisture content—moisture content of conifer

foliage

A number of tabular and mathematical fire models and

computer-based fire modeling systems require estimates of

these canopy fuel characteristics for simulating crown fire

hazard (Fahnestock 1970; Kilgore and Sando 1975; Scott and

Reinhardt 2001), behavior (Cruz 1999; Finney 1998;

Rothermel 1991), or effects (Reinhardt and others 1997).

This photo guide includes estimates of all canopy fuel characteristics mentioned above except foliar moisture content,

which varies seasonally (Philpot and Mutch 1971). More

information on estimating foliar moisture content can be found

in Alexander (1988) and Scott and Reinhardt (2001).

Stereo Photo Guide for

Estimating Canopy Fuel

Characteristics in Conifer Stands

Joe H. Scott

Elizabeth D. Reinhardt

We measured canopy fuels on a single fixed-radius plot at

each of five study sites in the Interior West, each in a different

conifer forest type. Each plot required approximately 1,000

person-hours to complete all sampling. The forest types and

sites sampled included:

• ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir (PPDF)—Lolo National Forest, near Missoula, Montana

• lodgepole pine stand (LP)—Tenderfoot Experimental

Forest, north-central Montana

• Douglas-fir/lodgepole pine (DFLP)—Salmon-Challis

National Forest, near Salmon, Idaho

• ponderosa pine (PP)—Coconino National Forest, near

Flagstaff, Arizona

• Sierra Nevada Mixed Conifer (SNMC)—Blodgett Forest

Research Station, Center for Forestry, University of

California, Berkeley, near Auburn, California

This photo guide is part of a larger canopy fuels project;

study site selection and exact plot location was guided by the

needs of the project as a whole. Plot locations were not chosen

randomly, but instead with the goal of including specific stand

structures. For example, the PP plot near Flagstaff was in the

densest portion of the densest stand available to us; it does not

characterize PP stands in general or even those nearby—it was

chosen to test the use of existing allometric equations to

estimate canopy fuel characteristics at an abnormally high

stand density.

With only one site in each forest type and only one plot at

each site, these values must not to be used as estimates for the

forest type in general, or even for the study site. Further study

is needed to draw conclusions about canopy characteristics in

various forest types.

How to Use This Guide ___________

This photo guide is not extensive enough to be used reliably

in all conifer forest types. However, accurate information on

canopy characteristics is so lacking (and needed) that even this

limited-extent guide may prove useful in calibrating our eyes

to “see” canopy characteristics such as canopy bulk density

and canopy fuel load. This guide does not contain enough data
2 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

points to be used as the sole basis for estimating canopy

characteristics in the field.

We recommend you read the entire text of this paper in order

to understand how the data was collected or estimated, and

what each piece of information means. The “Anatomy of a

Guide Page” section is particularly useful for that purpose.

Next, using a commercially available pocket stereoscope (or

the hand-held stereoscope provided), examine the stereo photos and data for each fully stocked plot (that is, before any trees

had been removed for sampling). This will give you an idea of

the range of initial conditions covered in the guide. Note the

visual density of foliage and fine branchwood in the photos,

and relate that to the tabulated canopy fuel characteristics and

canopy fuel profile. Visually compare the stereo images with

a fully stocked stand as you walk through it to roughly estimate

its canopy fuel characteristics.

We do not wish to imply that the densest plot in this guide is

necessarily the upper limit on canopy characteristics of all

stands in all forest types. Canopy characteristics may be more

dense than we observed on these plots, even within one of our

sampled forest types.

Finally, examine the series of guide pages for each site at

different sampling stages and associate those visual images

with the canopy fuel data provided. This offers an idea of how

canopy fuels changed as tree density was reduced by progressively removing trees, smaller diameters first. The sampling

stages were designed to roughly simulate a thinning from

below in increments of 25 percent of the initial basal area.

Other “treatments” could have very different effects on canopy

fuels, even if the residual basal area is the same as in our study.

Because of the significant influence of stand density on tree

growth and canopy architecture, our sampling stages do not

necessarily reflect canopy fuel characteristics of unmanaged

stands at one of the residual basal area levels in our study. For

example, we should not expect that an unmanaged stand with

100 ft2

per acre of basal area necessarily has the same characteristics as a stand that was thinned to the same basal area from

a denser initial condition.

Sampling Method _______________

At each study site we installed a single fixed-radius plot. Plot

radius was 10 m except at the PPDF and SNMC sites, which

were 15-m-radius plots (due to their lower stem density). At

each plot we mapped and measured basic characteristics of

every tree: species, diameter at breast height, crown position,

tree height, and crown base height. Before beginning destructive sampling, we made stereo photographs of the plot and

captured digital hemispherical images from a 25-point grid

(5-m spacing) centered at plot center.

We conducted the sampling in stages, beginning with the

smallest diameter trees in each plot and working toward the

larger diameter trees. When we had sampled 25 percent of the

initial basal area, we rephotographed the plot (stereo and

hemispherical). This guide contains photos and data for the

fully stocked stand, as well as with 25, 50, and 75 percent of the

basal area removed. This method provided estimates of canopy

fuel characteristics as if the stand had received thinning from

below treatments of increasing intensity. This sampling method

is not an exact simulation of thinning from below, because the

trees were sampled strictly based on diameter with no regard

given to tree vigor or residual spacing.

The PPDF and SNMC study sites had a significant understory tree component. In those plots we added an additional

sampling stage, roughly corresponding to an understory removal treatment, in which we first removed the understory

trees (less than 5 cm d.b.h. in the PPDF stand; less than 15 cm

d.b.h. in the SNMC stand). The remaining stages were as

described above.

For each sample tree, we weighed every branch at least 1 cm

diameter and recorded its height above the ground, basal

diameter, and length. We sorted a systematic subsample of

branches into size classes (by cutting each branch at breakpoint

diameters) and components (live versus dead) to obtain weight

of live foliage, live branchwood (by diameter class), cones,

dead branchwood (by diameter class), and lichen and moss.

We used the following diameter class breakpoints in sorting

subsample branches:

• 0 to 3 mm diameter

• 3 to 6 mm diameter

• 6 to 10 mm diameter

• 10 to 25 mm diameter

• 25 to 50 mm diameter

• 50+ mm diameter

A subset of the sorted material was oven dried to determine

moisture content. Using corrected dry-weight data for the

sorted branches, we developed regression equations to estimate the oven-dry weight of foliage and branchwood by size

class for every branch on every tree.

We summarized the individual-tree data to the plot level in

1-m vertical layers. This guide focuses on the available canopy

fuel, which is only a portion of the total canopy biomass we

measured. Available canopy fuel is estimated here as the live

foliage plus the live 0- to 3-mm-diameter class and dead 0- to

6-mm-diameter class biomass. Larger size classes of both live

and dead canopy biomass do not burn in the short period of time

of flaming during a crown fire (less than 1 minute); therefore,

they are not included as available canopy fuel.

Although certainly not related to crown fire or canopy fuels,

we also measured diameter of the bole at various heights in

order to estimate bole volume and mass. This information will

be used later to estimate the potential harvest volume of

alternative canopy fuel treatments applied to each stand.

Anatomy of a Guide Page Pair _____

This publication contains 22 guide page pairs, one for each

site at each stage of sampling, plus an extra guide page pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 3

corresponding to understory removal stages for the SNMC and

PPDF sites. This section describes the information shown on

each guide page pair, including a description of how each

piece of information was compiled.

Stereo Photo Pair

Before each sampling stage we made several exposures of

slide film using a 35 mm camera and tripod placed approximately 15 m from plot center; the immediate foreground of the

photos is therefore outside the plot. Stereo pairs were made by

simply moving the camera and tripod approximately 8 inches

(tangential to plot center), recomposing, and making several

more exposures. (We now use a simple, inexpensive tool to

assist in making co-registered stereo images.) Because photographing the plot before each stage was a necessary step before

continuing field sampling, we could not afford to wait for

optimal light conditions. Most photographs were made in the

early morning hours. As a result, many of the images were of

poor quality; either the bright highlights were overexposed, or

the darker shadows were black. The human eye can sense a

much wider range of light intensity than can be captured

digitally or on film.

We scanned our slides and used digital imaging techniques

to improve the images. Each slide was scanned twice, once

normally and again with the scanner “analog gain” set to its

highest position. (In some cases we scanned two separate

slides of differing exposures, then manually co-registered

them.) Using professional photo processing software we

composited the two images into a single, more evenly exposed

image. This technique simply combines the best-exposed

portions of each scanned image to make a final image that is

closer to what the eye would see. In some cases we made

standard color, brightness, and contrast adjustments to further

improve quality.

To make the stereo pairs, we overlaid the adjusted left and

right images digitally, rotated and nudged them to achieve coregistration, then cropped out the nonoverlapping portions

(while maintaining the original 3:2 aspect ratio of a 35 mm

slide). Finally, we separated the left and right images and

resized the resulting pair to achieve approximately 62 mm of

infinity separation, which allows optimal stereo viewing for

most people (Ferwerda 1990). We preferred to abut the left and

right images without a gutter, which also enables slightly

larger stereo images.

The stereo pairs can be viewed with a standard pocket

stereoscope, available from forestry supply houses, or with the

stereoscope provided. To use the stereoscope provided, hold

the stereoscope to your eyes, then hold the stereo pair approximately 8 inches from the stereoscope.

Stereo pictures were not taken at the PP site; there we have

only “flat” images.

Hemispherical Photo

We used an off-the-shelf Nikon digital camera fitted with an

inexpensive 180 degree fish-eye lens to make an exposure at

the center of the plot. The analysis software simply distinguishes light (sky) from dark (biomass). We made these

exposures at dawn or dusk when the sky would be evenly lit but

the trees would not.

The hemispherical image does not represent what your eye

would see standing at the same point; it covers a much wider

range. We provide the hemispherical image for comparison

with one of your own, if available, and to illustrate the relative

changes within a plot at successive stages of sampling. The

hemispherical image displayed in each guide page pair was

taken at the center of the plot.

The small data table below the hemispherical photo summarizes canopy characteristics measured by analyzing the image

with hemiview software:

Gap fraction is the portion of the sky that is not obstructed by

canopy. Estimates of gap fraction were obtained on a 25-

point grid (5- by 5-m spacing) centered at each plot; the

value reported is the average of those 25 readings. Gap

fraction at each point was computed for only the top

54 degrees from zenith.

Canopy cover is the inverse of gap fraction (see above),

multiplied by 100 to convert to percent basis. It is the

average of 25 readings made on a 5 by 5 grid at 5-m

spacing.

Canopy Fuel Profile Diagram

We show a diagram of the vertical distribution of available

canopy fuel. We smoothed the data by plotting the 3-m runningmean of available canopy bulk density. The relative contribution

of branchwood (0 to 3 mm live, 0 to 6 mm dead, plus lichen) is

shown by the dashed line. The contribution of foliage is the

(horizontal) difference between the total and branchwood lines.

The area “under” the curve (to the left of the lines) is a visual

representation of the available canopy fuel load. The actual

value for available canopy fuel load is shown on the stand and

canopy fuel data table (described below).

To the canopy fuel profile diagrams we annotated our

estimates of two important canopy fuel characteristics: canopy

base height and canopy bulk density (each quantity is described below).

Stem Diameter Distribution Chart

This chart shows the distribution of trees at each site-stage

combination by species and diameter at breast height. We

maintained the same X-axis scale among all charts, 0 to 70 cm

diameter in 5-cm classes. The Y-axis (trees per hectare) has

one of two scales, depending on which site is plotted. The Yaxis for the PP, DFLP, and LP charts goes to 700 trees per

hectare, while the SNMC and PPDF charts, with generally

larger trees and lower overstory tree density, go only to 200

trees per hectare. The first two stages of the PPDF site exceed

this limit in the smallest diameter classes; those bars are

truncated, and the actual value for the number of Douglas-fir

trees per hectare is annotated.
4 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Stand and Canopy Fuel Data Table

Stand and canopy fuel data is reported by species (if more

than one species was present) as well as for the stand as a

whole. Details of how each factor was measured or estimated

are shown below.

Stem density is the number of live trees per unit plot area greater

than or equal to 10 cm diameter.

Basal area is the sum of the outside-bark cross-sectional area

at breast height of all live trees per unit plot area.

Branch biomass is the oven-dry mass of live and dead

branchwood of all size classes per unit plot area. We

obtained this estimate by dividing the sum of live and dead

branchwood mass for all trees on the plot by the horizontal

plot ground area. Cone biomass is reported here as branch

biomass.

Foliage biomass is the oven-dry mass of live and dead foliage

per unit plot area. We obtained this estimate by dividing

the sum of foliage mass for all trees on the plot by plot

area.

Bole biomass is the oven-dry mass of boles (less than 5 cm

diameter) of live trees per unit plot area. We obtained this

estimate by dividing the sum of bolewood mass for all live

trees on the plot by the plot area. To compute bolewood

mass for each tree we estimated bole volume by measuring bole diameter at various heights on the bole, then

multiplied the volume by species-specific oven-dry

bolewood density (Forest Products Laboratory 1999).

Bolewood density

Species kg/m3

Douglas-fir 450

Incense cedar 310a

Lodgepole pine 380

Ponderosa pine 380

Subalpine fir 310

White fir 310b

a

The value for western redcedar was used for incense cedar.

b

 The value for subalpine fir was used for white fir.

Bole biomass is not available for either flaming or smoldering

combustion in any type of wildland fire; the values are included

here for completeness and for use in estimating potential

commercial volume and biomass resulting from alternative

treatments.

Biomass of dead standing snags is not included in this guide.

Total aboveground biomass is the oven-dry mass of all living

and dead material attached to living trees per unit plot

area; here, it is the sum of branch, foliage, and bole

biomass.

Canopy fuel load is the oven-dry mass of available canopy fuel

per unit ground area. Available canopy fuel is that which

is consumed in the short duration flaming front of a crown

fire. In this paper it consists of live and dead foliage, 0- to

3-mm live branchwood, 0- to 6-mm dead branchwood,

plus any lichen and moss. We estimated canopy fuel load

by dividing the sum of available canopy fuel (for all trees

in the plot) by the plot area.

Stand height is the average height of the tallest five trees in

the plot. Stand height is used in some fire modeling

systems to estimate wind reduction factor (the ratio of

midflame to open wind speed). Because the sampling

stages simulated thinning from below, stand height does

not change with sampling stage. At the PPDF and SNMC

sites, where fewer than five trees remained in the plot in

the final sampling stage, we used the same stand height

value as for the preceding stages. Otherwise, using the

average height of the remaining trees would have indicated an increase in average stand height at the final

sampling stage.

Canopy base height is the lowest height above the ground at

which there is sufficient available canopy fuel to propagate fire vertically through the canopy (Scott and Reinhardt

2001). Using a method adapted from Sando and Wick

(1972), it is defined here as the lowest height at which at

least 0.012 kg per m3 of available canopy fuel was present

(Reinhardt and Crookston 2003), using a 3-m-deep running mean to smooth observed values.

Branch height was recorded in 1-m layers, so our estimate of

canopy base height has only that level of precision. We

assigned canopy base height to the lower boundary of the layer

in which the critical level of bulk density occurred. For

example, if the critical canopy bulk density occurred in the 4-

to 5-m layer, we assigned a canopy base height of 4 m.

Canopy base height is a difficult parameter to measure in the

field, and even more difficult to estimate from a tree list or

vertical canopy fuel distribution. This study focused on canopy

biomass and bulk density rather than canopy base height.

Therefore, neither our estimates of canopy base height in this

guide nor the method we used to obtain them should be

considered final; more research and testing are needed.

Canopy bulk density is the oven-dry mass of available canopy

fuel per unit canopy volume (Scott and Reinhardt 2001).

Available canopy fuel is defined as the foliage, 0- to 3-mm

live branchwood, 0- to 6-mm dead branchwood, and

lichen and moss. We estimate ACBD as the maximum

3-m-deep running mean from the CBD profile.

References _____________________

Agee, J. K. 1996. The influence of forest structure on fire behavior. In:

Proceedings of the 17th annual forest vegetation management conference;

1996 January 16-18; Redding, CA: 52-68.

Albini, F. A.; Baughman, R. G. 1979. Estimating windspeeds for predicting

wildland fire behavior. Res. Pap. INT-221. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment

Station. 12 p.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 5

Alexander, M. E. 1988. Help with making crown fire hazard assessments.

In: Fischer, W. C.; Arno, S. F., comps. Protecting people and homes from

wildfire in the Interior West: proceedings of the symposium and workshop;

1988 October 6-8; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-251. Ogden, UT:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research

Station: 147-156.

Arno, S. F.; Brown, J. K. 1991. Overcoming the paradox in managing

wildland fire. Western Wildlands. 17(1): 40-46.

Asner, G. P.; Scurlock, J. M. O.; Hicke, J. A. 2003. Global synthesis of leaf

area index observations: implications for ecological and remote sensing

studies. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 12: 191-205.

Cruz, M. 1999. Modeling the initiation and spread of crown fires. Missoula:

University of Montana. 157 p. Thesis.

Fahnestock, G. R. 1970. Two keys for appraising forest fuels. Res. Pap.

PNW-99. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 23 p.

Ferwerda, Jacobus G. 1990. The world of 3-D: a practical guide to stereo

photography, 2nd ed. Borger, The Netherlands: 3-D Book Productions.

300 p.

Finney, M. A. 1998. FARSITE: Fire Area Simulator—model development

and evaluation. Res. Pap. RMRS-RP-4. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 47 p.

Forest Products Laboratory. 1999. Wood handbook: wood as an engineering

material. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-113. Madison, WI: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 463 p.

Kilgore, B. M.; Sando, R. W. 1975. Crown-fire potential in a sequoia forest

after prescribed burning. Forest Science. 21(1): 83-87.

Mutch, R. W.; Arno, S. F.; Brown, J. K.; Carlson, C. E.; Ottmar, R. D.;

Peterson, J. L. 1993. Forest health in the Blue Mountains: a management

strategy for fire-adapted ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-310.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. 14 p. (Quigley, T. M., ed.; Forest health in the

Blue Mountains: science perspectives).

Philpot, C. W.; Mutch, R. W. 1971. The seasonal trend in moisture content,

ether extractives, and energy of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir needles.

Res. Pap. INT-112. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 21 p.

Reinhardt, E. D.; Crookston, N. L., tech. eds. 2003. The Fire and fuels

extension to the Forest Vegetation Simulator. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRSGTR-116. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 209 p.

Reinhardt, E. D.; Keane, R. E.; Brown, J. K. 1997. First Order Fire Effects

Model: FOFEM 4.0, user’s guide. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-344. Ogden, UT:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research

Station. 65 p.

Rothermel, R. C. 1991. Predicting behavior and size of crown fires in the

Northern Rocky Mountains. Res. Pap. INT-438. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 46 p.

Sando, R. W.; Wick, C. H. 1972. A method of evaluating crown fuels in forest

stands. Res. Pap. NC-84. Saint Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 10 p.

Scott, J. H. 1998. Sensitivity analysis of a method for assessing crown fire

hazard in the Northern Rocky Mountains, USA. In: Viegas, D. X., ed.

III international conference on forest fire research; 14th conference on

fire and forest meteorology; 1998 November 16-20; Luso, Portugal.

Proc. Coimbra, Portugal: ADAI. Volume II 2517-2532.

Scott, J. H.; Reinhardt, E. D. 2001. Assessing crown fire potential by linking

models of surface and crown fire behavior. Res. Pap. RMRS-RP-29. Fort

Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station. 59 p.

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Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 7: 23-34.
6 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.30

Canopy cover (pct) 70

Douglas-fir/lodgepole pine

Initial condition

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 7

Units Douglas-fir Lodgepole pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 828 350 1,178

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 335 142 477

Basal area m2

/ha 27.8 8.5 36.3

ft2/acre 121 37 158

Branch biomass kg/m2 2.59 0.67 3.26

tons/acre 11.54 2.99 14.53

Foliage biomass kg/m2 1.28 0.31 1.59

tons/acre 5.70 1.39 7.11

Bole biomass kg/m2 8.55 2.68 11.22

tons/acre 38.12 11.95 50.06

Total above- kg/m2 12.41 3.66 16.07

ground biomass tons/acre 55.36 16.33 71.70

Canopy fuel kg/m2 1.69 0.40 2.09

load tons/acre 7.53 1.78 9.31

Stand height m 17

ft 56

Canopy base m 1

height ft 3

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.257

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0161

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
8 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.41

Canopy cover (pct) 59

Douglas-fir/lodgepole pine

75 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 9

Units Douglas-fir Lodgepole pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 541 159 701

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 219 64 284

Basal area m2

/ha 22.3 5.0 27.2

ft2/acre 97 22 119

Branch biomass kg/m2 2.28 0.44 2.71

tons/acre 10.16 1.95 12.11

Foliage biomass kg/m2 1.09 0.20 1.29

tons/acre 4.87 0.91 5.78

Bole biomass kg/m2 7.34 1.49 8.83

tons/acre 32.74 6.63 39.37

Total above- kg/m2 10.71 2.13 12.83

ground biomass tons/acre 47.77 9.49 57.26

Canopy fuel kg/m2 1.43 0.26 1.69

load tons/acre 6.37 1.15 7.53

Stand height m 17

ft 56

Canopy base m 2

height ft 7

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.222

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0138

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
10 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.53

Canopy cover (pct) 47

Douglas-fir/lodgepole pine

50 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 11

Units Douglas-fir Lodgepole pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 318 64 382

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 129 26 155

Basal area m2

/ha 16.2 2.6 18.8

ft2/acre 71 11 82

Branch biomass kg/m2 1.69 0.25 1.94

tons/acre 7.54 1.12 8.66

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.82 0.09 0.90

tons/acre 3.64 0.39 4.04

Bole biomass kg/m2 5.51 0.84 6.35

tons/acre 24.57 3.76 28.33

Total above- kg/m2 8.02 1.18 9.20

ground biomass tons/acre 35.76 5.27 41.03

Canopy fuel kg/m2 1.06 0.13 1.19

load tons/acre 4.73 0.56 5.29

Stand height m 17

ft 56

Canopy base m 3

height ft 10

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.153

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0095

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
12 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.76

Canopy cover (pct) 24

Douglas-fir/lodgepole pine

25 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 13

Units Douglas-fir Lodgepole pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 96 32 127

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 39 13 52

Basal area m2

/ha 6.7 1.5 8.2

ft2/acre 29 6 36

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.84 0.17 1.01

tons/acre 3.76 0.74 4.50

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.36 0.06 0.41

tons/acre 1.60 0.25 1.85

Bole biomass kg/m2 2.54 0.52 3.06

tons/acre 11.35 2.30 13.66

Total above- kg/m2 3.75 0.74 4.48

ground biomass tons/acre 16.71 3.29 20.01

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.47 0.08 0.55

load tons/acre 2.09 0.35 2.45

Stand height m 16

ft 52

Canopy base m 5

height ft 16

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.069

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0043

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
14 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.48

Canopy cover (pct) 52

Lodgepole pine

Initial condition

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 15

Units Subalpine fir Lodgepole pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 0 1,146 1,146

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 0 464 464

Basal area m2

/ha 0.01 42.7 42.7

ft2/acre 0.04 186 186

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.002 2.77 2.77

tons/acre 0.009 12.34 12.35

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.002 0.80 0.80

tons/acre 0.010 3.57 3.58

Bole biomass kg/m2 0.002 13.88 13.88

tons/acre 0.005 61.93 61.93

Total above- kg/m2 0.005 17.45 17.45

ground biomass tons/acre 0.023 77.83 77.86

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.003 1.00 1.00

load tons/acre 0.013 4.46 4.47

Stand height m 20

ft 66

Canopy base m 1

height ft 3

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.112

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0070

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
16 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.48

Canopy cover (pct) 52

Lodgepole pine

75 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 17

Units Subalpine fir Lodgepole pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 0 701 701

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 0 284 284

Basal area m2

/ha 0.0 32.7 32.7

ft2/acre 0 142 142

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.00 2.42 2.42

tons/acre 0.00 10.78 10.78

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.00 0.62 0.62

tons/acre 0.00 2.77 2.77

Bole biomass kg/m2 0.00 11.31 11.31

tons/acre 0.00 50.44 50.44

Total above- kg/m2 0.00 14.34 14.34

ground biomass tons/acre 0.00 63.98 63.98

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.00 0.78 0.78

load tons/acre 0.00 3.46 3.46

Stand height m 20

ft 66

Canopy base m 5

height ft 16

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.093

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0058

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
18 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.60

Canopy cover (pct) 40

Lodgepole pine

50 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 19

Units Subalpine fir Lodgepole pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 0 350 350

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 0 142 142

Basal area m2

/ha 0.0 21.1 21.1

ft2/acre 0 92 92

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.00 1.76 1.76

tons/acre 0.00 7.87 7.87

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.00 0.42 0.42

tons/acre 0.00 1.86 1.86

Bole biomass kg/m2 0.00 7.23 7.23

tons/acre 0.00 32.25 32.25

Total above- kg/m2 0.00 9.41 9.41

ground biomass tons/acre 0.00 41.97 41.97

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.00 0.51 0.51

load tons/acre 0.00 2.28 2.28

Stand height m 19

ft 62

Canopy base m 6

height ft 20

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.060

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0037

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
20 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.76

Canopy cover (pct) 24

Lodgepole pine

25 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 21

Units Subalpine fir Lodgepole pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 0 96 96

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 0 39 39

Basal area m2

/ha 0.0 7.9 7.9

ft2/acre 0 34 34

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.00 0.84 0.84

tons/acre 0.00 3.75 3.75

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.00 0.17 0.17

tons/acre 0.00 0.77 0.77

Bole biomass kg/m2 0.00 2.89 2.89

tons/acre 0.00 12.90 12.90

Total above- kg/m2 0.00 3.91 3.91

ground biomass tons/acre 0.00 17.43 17.43

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.00 0.21 0.21

load tons/acre 0.00 0.94 0.94

Stand height m 18

ft 59

Canopy base m 10

height ft 33

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.028

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0017

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
22 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.41

Canopy cover (pct) 59

Ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir

Initial condition

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 23

Units Douglas-fir Ponderosa pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 241 241 481

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 97 97 195

Basal area m2

/ha 7.8 22.6 30.4

ft2/acre 34 99 133

Branch biomass kg/m2 1.01 2.17 3.18

tons/acre 4.51 9.67 14.18

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.65 0.46 1.11

tons/acre 2.89 2.05 4.93

Bole biomass kg/m2 1.90 8.18 10.08

tons/acre 8.46 36.49 44.95

Total above- kg/m2 3.56 10.81 14.36

ground biomass tons/acre 15.86 48.20 64.06

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.89 0.51 1.40

load tons/acre 3.99 2.27 6.26

Stand height m 23

ft 75

Canopy base m 0

height ft 0

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.089

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0056

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
24 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.41

Canopy cover (pct) 59

Ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir

Understory removed (≤5 cm)

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 25

Units Douglas-fir Ponderosa pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 241 241 481

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 97 97 195

Basal area m2

/ha 7.3 22.5 30.0

ft2/acre 32 98 129

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.95 2.17 3.11

tons/acre 4.23 9.63 13.86

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.60 0.46 1.06

tons/acre 2.67 2.04 4.72

Bole biomass kg/m2 1.84 8.14 9.98

tons/acre 8.19 36.33 44.52

Total above- kg/m2 3.38 10.76 14.14

ground biomass tons/acre 15.10 48.00 63.10

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.82 0.51 1.33

load tons/acre 3.66 2.26 5.92

Stand height m 23

ft 75

Canopy base m 1

height ft 3

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.086

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0054

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
26 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.50

Canopy cover (pct) 50

Ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir

75 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 27

Units Douglas-fir Ponderosa pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 42 184 226

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 17 74 92

Basal area m2

/ha 2.6 20.8 23.3

ft2/acre 11 90 102

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.44 2.07 2.50

tons/acre 1.96 9.21 11.17

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.20 0.44 0.63

tons/acre 0.88 1.95 2.83

Bole biomass kg/m2 0.86 7.80 8.65

tons/acre 3.82 34.78 38.60

Total above- kg/m2 1.49 10.30 11.79

ground biomass tons/acre 6.66 45.93 52.59

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.28 0.48 0.76

load tons/acre 1.27 2.14 3.41

Stand height m 23

ft 75

Canopy base m 5

height ft 16

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.055

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0034

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
28 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.70

Canopy cover (pct) 30

Ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir

50 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 29

Units Douglas-fir Ponderosa pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 0 113 113

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 0 46 46

Basal area m2

/ha 0.0 16.6 16.6

ft2/acre 0 72 72

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.00 1.76 1.76

tons/acre 0.00 7.85 7.85

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.00 0.37 0.37

tons/acre 0.00 1.65 1.65

Bole biomass kg/m2 0.00 6.32 6.32

tons/acre 0.00 28.21 28.21

Total above- kg/m2 0.00 8.45 8.45

ground biomass tons/acre 0.00 37.70 37.70

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.00 0.40 0.40

load tons/acre 0.00 1.79 1.79

Stand height m 23

ft 75

Canopy base m 11

height ft 36

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.037

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0023

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
30 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.81

Canopy cover (pct) 19

Ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir

25 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 31

Units Douglas-fir Ponderosa pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 0 57 57

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 0 23 23

Basal area m2

/ha 0.0 9.2 9.2

ft2/acre 0 40 40

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.00 0.99 0.99

tons/acre 0.00 4.42 4.42

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.00 0.22 0.22

tons/acre 0.00 1.00 1.00

Bole biomass kg/m2 0.00 3.44 3.44

tons/acre 0.00 15.36 15.36

Total above- kg/m2 0.00 4.66 4.66

ground biomass tons/acre 0.00 20.78 20.78

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.00 0.24 0.24

load tons/acre 0.00 1.05 1.05

Stand height m 23

ft 75

Canopy base m 12

height ft 39

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.022

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0014

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
32 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.31

Canopy cover (pct) 69

Ponderosa pine

Initial condition

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 33

Units Ponderosa pine

Stem density trees/ha 2,070

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 838

Basal area m2

/ha 69.0

ft2/acre 301

Branch biomass kg/m2 3.66

tons/acre 16.32

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.88

tons/acre 3.94

Bole biomass kg/m2 16.53

tons/acre 73.73

Total above- kg/m2 21.07

ground biomass tons/acre 93.99

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.93

load tons/acre 4.14

Stand height m 16

ft 52

Canopy base m 5

height ft 16

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.166

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0104

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
34 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.48

Canopy cover (pct) 52

Ponderosa pine

75 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 35

Units Ponderosa pine

Stem density trees/ha 1,146

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 464

Basal area m2

/ha 53.2

ft2/acre 232

Branch biomass kg/m2 3.34

tons/acre 14.92

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.76

tons/acre 3.39

Bole biomass kg/m2 13.11

tons/acre 58.49

Total above- kg/m2 17.22

ground biomass tons/acre 76.80

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.80

load tons/acre 3.56

Stand height m 16

ft 52

Canopy base m 6

height ft 20

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.147

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0092

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
36 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.53

Canopy cover (pct) 47

Ponderosa pine

50 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 37

Units Ponderosa pine

Stem density trees/ha 605

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 245

Basal area m2

/ha 35.9

ft2/acre 156

Branch biomass kg/m2 2.43

tons/acre 10.83

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.51

tons/acre 2.28

Bole biomass kg/m2 9.06

tons/acre 40.44

Total above- kg/m2 12.00

ground biomass tons/acre 53.54

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.53

load tons/acre 2.38

Stand height m 15

ft 49

Canopy base m 7

height ft 23

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.104

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0065

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
38 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.77

Canopy cover (pct) 23

Ponderosa pine

25 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 39

Units Ponderosa pine

Stem density trees/ha 223

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 90

Basal area m2

/ha 17.8

ft2/acre 77

Branch biomass kg/m2 1.28

tons/acre 5.69

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.26

tons/acre 1.17

Bole biomass kg/m2 4.57

tons/acre 20.40

Total above- kg/m2 6.11

ground biomass tons/acre 27.27

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.27

load tons/acre 1.21

Stand height m 15

ft 49

Canopy base m 9

height ft 30

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.057

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0036

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
40 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.26

Canopy cover (pct) 74

Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

Initial condition

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 41

Units White fir Incense cedar Douglas-fir Ponderosa pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 170 170 14 28 382

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 69 69 6 11 155

Basal area m2

/ha 22.8 14.8 0.4 8.9 46.8

ft2/acre 99 64 2 39 204

Branch biomass kg/m2 1.36 1.12 0.04 1.29 3.80

tons/acre 6.06 5.00 0.16 5.74 16.97

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.65 0.46 0.02 0.35 1.48

tons/acre 2.89 2.05 0.09 1.56 6.61

Bole biomass kg/m2 9.91 3.54 0.09 5.07 18.61

tons/acre 44.22 15.81 0.39 22.59 83.02

Total above- kg/m2 11.92 5.13 0.14 6.70 23.89

ground biomass tons/acre 53.17 22.89 0.64 29.90 106.59

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.81 0.53 0.02 0.35 1.72

load tons/acre 3.61 2.37 0.11 1.56 7.66

Stand height m 34

ft 112

Canopy base m 2

height ft 7

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.101

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0063

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
42 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.26

Canopy cover (pct) 74

Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

Understory removed (≤15 cm)

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 43

Units White fir Incense cedar Douglas-fir Ponderosa pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 170 113 14 28 325

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 69 46 6 11 132

Basal area m2

/ha 22.7 13.8 0.4 8.9 45.8

ft2/acre 99 60 2 39 200

Branch biomass kg/m2 1.35 1.08 0.04 1.29 3.75

tons/acre 6.04 4.80 0.16 5.74 16.74

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.64 0.43 0.02 0.35 1.44

tons/acre 2.87 1.92 0.09 1.56 6.44

Bole biomass kg/m2 9.91 3.46 0.09 5.07 18.52

tons/acre 44.21 15.42 0.39 22.59 82.61

Total above- kg/m2 11.91 4.96 0.14 6.70 23.75

ground biomass tons/acre 53.11 22.14 0.64 29.90 105.95

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.80 0.49 0.02 0.35 1.67

load tons/acre 3.59 2.19 0.11 1.56 7.45

Stand height m 34

ft 112

Canopy base m 4

height ft 13

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.101

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0063

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
44 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.40

Canopy cover (pct) 60

Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

75 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 45

Units White fir Incense cedar Douglas-fir Ponderosa pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 85 28 0 28 142

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 34 11 0 11 57

Basal area m2

/ha 17.9 7.6 0.0 8.9 34.3

ft2/acre 78 33 0 39 150

Branch biomass kg/m2 1.16 0.62 0.00 1.29 3.07

tons/acre 5.19 2.75 0.00 5.74 13.69

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.52 0.23 0.00 0.35 1.10

tons/acre 2.31 1.04 0.00 1.56 4.92

Bole biomass kg/m2 8.10 2.11 0.00 5.07 15.28

tons/acre 36.14 9.42 0.00 22.59 68.16

Total above- kg/m2 9.79 2.96 0.00 6.70 19.45

ground biomass tons/acre 43.65 13.21 0.00 29.90 86.76

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.66 0.26 0.00 0.35 1.27

load tons/acre 2.93 1.17 0.00 1.56 5.66

Stand height m 34

ft 112

Canopy base m 10

height ft 33

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.081

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0050

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
46 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.56

Canopy cover (pct) 44

Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

50 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 47

Units White fir Incense cedar Douglas-fir Ponderosa pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 28 28 0 28 85

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 11 11 0 11 34

Basal area m2

/ha 7.7 7.6 0.0 8.9 24.2

ft2/acre 33 33 0 39 105

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.61 0.62 0.00 1.29 2.52

tons/acre 2.74 2.75 0.00 5.74 11.23

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.25 0.23 0.00 0.35 0.84

tons/acre 1.13 1.04 0.00 1.56 3.73

Bole biomass kg/m2 3.19 2.11 0.00 5.07 10.37

tons/acre 14.24 9.41 0.00 22.59 46.25

Total above- kg/m2 4.06 2.96 0.00 6.70 13.72

ground biomass tons/acre 18.10 13.21 0.00 29.90 61.21

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.32 0.26 0.00 0.35 0.93

load tons/acre 1.43 1.17 0.00 1.56 4.17

Stand height m 33

ft 108

Canopy base m 11

height ft 36

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.037

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0023

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution
48 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005

Gap fraction 0.73

Canopy cover (pct) 27

Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

25 percent of initial basal area

Hemispherical photo Canopy fuel profile

Stereo photo pair
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-145. 2005 49

Units White fir Incense cedar Douglas-fir Ponderosa pine All species

Stem density trees/ha 14 14 0 14 42

(≥10 cm) trees/acre 6 6 0 6 17

Basal area m2

/ha 3.9 3.9 0.0 5.0 12.7

ft2/acre 17 17 0 22 55

Branch biomass kg/m2 0.28 0.26 0.00 0.68 1.22

tons/acre 1.24 1.17 0.00 3.04 5.45

Foliage biomass kg/m2 0.11 0.10 0.00 0.18 0.40

tons/acre 0.50 0.44 0.00 0.82 1.77

Bole biomass kg/m2 1.49 1.17 0.00 2.79 5.44

tons/acre 6.65 5.20 0.00 12.43 24.28

Total above- kg/m2 1.88 1.53 0.00 3.65 7.06

ground biomass tons/acre 8.39 6.82 0.00 16.29 31.50

Canopy fuel kg/m2 0.14 0.11 0.00 0.18 0.44

load tons/acre 0.64 0.50 0.00 0.82 1.97

Stand height m 32

ft 105

Canopy base m 15

height ft 49

Canopy fuel kg/m3 0.027

bulk density lbs/ft3 0.0017

Stand and canopy fuel data

Stem diameter distribution

Notes

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Studies accelerate solutions to problems involving ecosystems,

range, forests, water, recreation, fire, resource inventory, land reclamation, community sustainability, forest engineering technology,

multiple use economics, wildlife and fish habitat, and forest insects

and diseases. Studies are conducted cooperatively, and applications

may be found worldwide.

Research Locations

Flagstaff, Arizona Reno, Nevada

Fort Collins, Colorado* Albuquerque, New Mexico

Boise, Idaho Rapid City, South Dakota

Moscow, Idaho Logan, Utah

Bozeman, Montana Ogden, Utah

Missoula, Montana Provo, Utah

Lincoln, Nebraska Laramie, Wyoming

*Station Headquarters, Natural Resources Research Center,

2150 Centre Avenue, Building A, Fort Collins, CO 80526

RMRS

ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION