REFERENIP': CO?Y 

Do Not Remove fr9m the Library 

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

National Wetlands Research Center 

FWSIOBS-82/11 .27 700 Cajun Dome Bo~~levard 

September 1984 

TR EL-82-4 

La fayette, Lou isiano 70506 

Species Profiles: Life Histories and 

Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes 

and Invertebrates (South Atlantic) 

WHITE SHRIMP 

Coastal Ecology Group 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of ~n~gers 
FWSjOBS-82/11.27 

TR EL-82-4 

September 1984 

Species Prof i 1 es : Life Hi stories and Environmental Requirements 

of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South At1 antic) 

WHITE SHRIMP 

Robert J. Muncy 

Mississippi Cooperative Fish and Wild1 ife Research Unit 

P.O. Drawer BX 

Mississippi State University 

Mississippi State, MS 39762 

Project Manager 

Larry Shanks 

Project Officer 

John Parsons 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

1010 Gause Boulevard 

Slidell, LA 70458 

Performed for 

Coastal Ecology Group 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

Waterways Experiment Station 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 

and 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team 

Division of Biological Services 

Research and Devel oprnent 

Fish and Wildlife Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Was hi ng ton, DC 20240 
Thi s series should be referenced as fol 1 ows : 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983-19-. Species profiles: life histories 

and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates. U.S. Fish 

Wi ldl . Serv. FWS/OBS-82/11. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 

This profile should be cited as follows: 

Muncy, R. J. 1984. Species profiles : 1 i fe histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (South Atlantic)--white shrimp. 

U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. FWS/OBS-82/11.27. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

TR EL-82-4. 19 pp. 
PREFACE 

This species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms, 

principally fish, of sport, commercial , or ecological importance. The profiles 

are designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists with a brief 

comprehensive sketch of the bi 01 og ical characteristics and environmental requirements of the species and to describe how populations of the species may be 

expected to react to enviromental changes caused by coastal development. Each 

profile has sections on taxonany, 1 ife history, ecological role, envi ronmental 

requirements, and economic importance, if appl icabl e. A three-ring binder is 

used for this series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared. This 

project is jointly planned and financed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and 

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to one 

of the following addresses. 

Information Transfer Special ist 

National Coastal Ecosys tems Team 

U.S. Fish and Wild1 ife Service 

NASA-Sl idel 1 Computer Compl ex 

1010 Gause Boul evard 

Sl idel 1 , LA 70458 

U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station 

Attention: WESER-C 

Post Office Box 631 

Vicksburg, MS 39180 
CONTENTS 

Page 

PREFACE ........................................................... iii 

CONVERSION TA9LE ...................................................... v 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................... vi 

NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE ........................................... 1 

MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION ............................................ 1 

REASONS FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES ....................................... 3 

LIFE HISTORY .......................................................... 4 

Spawning ........................................................... 4 

Eggs .............................................................. 4 

Larvae ............................................................. 4 

Postlarvae and Juveniles ........................................... 5 

Adults ............................................................. 6 

Migration .......................................................... 6 

GROWTH ................................................................ 7 

Mortal i ty .......................................................... 8 

Di seases and Parasi tes ............................................. 8 

THE FISHERY ........................................................... 9 

ECOLOGICAL ROLE ....................................................... 11 

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS ............................................ 12 

Temperature ........................................................ 12 

Sal ini ty ........................................................... 12 

Temperature-Sal i ni ty Interactions .................................. 13 

Substrate .......................................................... 13 

Other Environmental Considerations ................................. 13 

LITERATURE CITED ...................................................... 15 
CONVERSION TABLE 

Metric to U.S. Customary 

mil 1 imeters (nun) 

centimeters (an) 

meters (m) 

ki 1 ometers ( km) 

2 

square meters (m ) 

square ki 1 ometers ( km2) 

hectares (ha) 

liters (1) 

cubic meters (m3) 

cubic meters 

mil 1 igrams (mg) 

grams (g) ki 1 ograms ( kg) 

metric tons (t) 

metric tons 

ki 1 ocal ories ( kcal ) 

Cel sius degrees 

To Obtain 

inches 

inches 

feet 

mil es 

square feet 

square miles 

acres 

0.00003527 ounces 

0.03527 ounces 

2.205 pounds 

2205.0 pounds 

1.102 short tons 

3.968 British thermal units 

square feet (ft2) 

acres 2 

square miles (mi ) 

gal 1 ons 

cubic feet 

acre-feet 

1.8(c0) + 32 Fahrenheit degrees 

U.S. Customary to Metric 

inches 25.40 

inches 2.54 

feet (ft) 0.3048 

fa thoms 1.829 

miles (mi) 1.609 

nautical miles (mi) 1.852 

gallons (gal) 

cubic feet (ft3) 

acre- feet 

ounces (oz) 28.35 

pounds (Ib) 0.4536 

short tons (ton) 0.9072 

British thennal units (Btu) 0.2520 

mil 1 imeters 

centimeters 

meters 

meters 

kil ometers 

ki 1 ometers 

square meters 

hectares 

square ki 1 ometers 

1 i ters 

cubic meters 

cubic meters 

grams 

ki 1 ograms 

metric tons 

ki 1 ocal ori es 

Fahrenheit degrees 0.5556(F0 - 32) Cel sius degrees 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

For their he1 pful reviews and suggestions, I thank Susan Shipman, Coastal 

Fisheries Section, Georgia Department of Natural Resources; Erlwin A. Joyce, 

Jr., Di vi sion of Marine Resources, Florida Department of Natural Resources ; 

and David Whitaker, Division of Marine Resources, South Carolina Wildlife and 

llarine Resources Department. 
Figure 1. White shrimp. 

WHITE SHRIMP 

Scientific nave.. ..... .Penaeus setiferus 

(Li nnaeus) 

Common name.. ... .Mite shrimp (Figure 1) 

Other names.. .............. .Gray shrimp, 

lake shrimp, green shrimp, greentailed shrimp, blue-tailed shrimp, 

rainbow shrimp, Daytona shrimp, common shrimp, southern shrimp; in 

Mexico: camaron bl anco (Pe'rezFarfante 1969). 

Class......... ................. Crustacea 

Order.... ....................... Decapoda 

Family ......................... Penaeidae 

Geographic range: White shrimp are distributed along the Atlantic coast 

from Fire Island, New Yqrk, to Saint 

Lucie In1 et , Fl orida (Perez-Farfante 

1969), usually in water less than 

2 7 m deep (McKenzi e 1981). White 

shrimp inhabit coastal waters of the 

Gul f of Mexico from Ochl ockonee River 

of Apalachee Bay, Florida, to Ciudad 

Campeche, Mexico. Centers of abundance in North and South Carolina, 

Georgia, and northeast Florida are 

shown in Figure 2 (Whitaker 1981). 

Freshly caught white shrimp often 

have widely spaced body chromatophores; 

consequently they are 1 ighter colored 

than pink or brown shrimp (PerezFarfante 1969). 
MILES 

0 

KILOMETERS 

Coastal distribution 

Centers of abundance 

ATLANTIC OCEAN 

Figure 2. Distribution of white shrimp along the coasts of North and 

South Carol ina , Georgia, and northeast Florida. 

2 
The white shrimp is sometimes 

called the non-grooved shrimp (Whitaker 

1981) because its adrostral carina does 

not extend behind the middle of the 

carapace in adults (Lindner and Cook 

1970) nor to the posterior margin of the 

carapace in juveniles (Wi 11 i ams 1965). 

In contrast, the brown shrimp (P. 

aztecus) and-pink shrimp (P. duorarumT, 

co-existina alona the south7ast and aulf 

coasts of the ~nqted States, each has a 

deep groove (adrostral sulcus) extending 

almost to the posterior margin of the 

carapace. In the white shrimp, the 

adrostral sulcus is short, extending to 

the epigastric back tooth of the 

rostrum. Gastrofrontal carina is 

absent. Thelycum is open, with 

anterol ateral ridges; mesi a1 ly turned 

pair of ,fleshy protuberances on sternite 

XIV (Perez-Farf ante 1969). Antenna1 

flaqella 2.5 to 3 times the body lenqth 

in penaeus setiferus as in P. schmitt; a 

species found in Cuba, - tmqin 

~slands, and along eastern Central and 

South American At1 antic coast south to 

Laguna, Brazi 1 (~grez-Farf ante 1969). 

Zamora and Trent (1968) noted that the 

keel was smooth on the sixth abdominal 

somi te of post1 arvae white shrimp but 

bore spines on brown shrimp and pink 

shrimp. 

Sexes are easily distinguishable by 

the modified endopod of the first pair 

of pleopods on the males and the opentype thelycum between third, fourth, and 

fifth pereopods on the females (Lindner 

and Cook 1970). At lengths of 28 mm, 

males can be distinguished from females 

by the shorter and narrower endopods of 

the first pleopods and by two 

prqtuberances on sterni te XIV 

( Perez-Farf ante 1969) . 

REASONS FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES 

The white shrimp was the first 

American shrimp to be extensively 

marketed for food. Commercial shrimping 

in the United States began as early as 

1709 (McKenzie 1981); catches reached 

8,181 metric tons (t) in 1917 (when 

trawls rep1 aced haul seines), and peaked 

in the late 19201s. By the 19301s, 

there was concern that the intensive 

fishery along the southeastern Atlantic 

coast (North Carolina, South Carol ina, 

Georgia, and northeast Florida) was 

depleting the resource (Wi 11 i ams 1965). 

White shrimp contributed an estimated 

95% of shrimp catches in 1931 (McKenzie 

1981). The annual white shrimp 1 andings 

for 1976-80 averaged 3,480 t (13% below 

the 1957-80 average). The decrease was 

attributed to recent severe winters and 

cold waters during that period (McKenzie 

1981). The harvest of 2,685 t of white 

shrimp from the Southeastern States in 

1982 was valued at $29.4 million (computeri zed data from National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Miami, Florida). 

In 1957-80, the mean yearly catch 

of 3,991 t of white shrimp contributed 

58% of the total catch of penaeid shrimp 

in the United States (McKenzie 1981). 

Shrimp (80% white) accounted for 82% of 

the ex-vessel 1971-77 values of marine 

products landed in Georgia (Music 1979). 

Catches by sport shrimpers are 

rarely estimated but they must be 

considerable. Despite difficulties in 

estimating recreational shrimp fishing, 

McKenzie (1981) reported that in 1973, 

43% of coastal boat owners in South 

Carolina fished for shrimp with non1 icensed gear and in 1978, 46% of shrimp 

craft owners in North Carolina reported 

"sport shrimping" (Thei 1 ing 1981). The 

white shrimp is an important food of 

many marine and estuarine fishes and 

invertebrates and is heavi ly used for 

bait in South Carolina, Georgia, and 

Florida. In Georgia, 1,479 noncommercial recreational bait shrimpers 

were 1 icensed in 1982-83 (Susan Shipman, 

Ga . Dep. Nat. Resour. ; pers. comm.) . In 

1980, the estimated commercial wholesale 

bait shrimp catch in northeast Florida 

was 19.6 million live shrimp valued at 

$0.77 mil lion and 413.6 t of dead shrimp 

valued at $1.32 mil 1 ion (PlcKenzie 1981). 
LIFE HISTORY 

Spawni ng 

Along the south Atlantic coast of 

the United States, white shrimp spawn 

from March to November, but mostly from 

April (May in South Carolina) to October 

(Joyce 1965; Lindner and Anderson 1956; 

Music 1979; McKenzie 1981; Shipman 

1983a) . According to McKenzi e (1981) 

spawning condi tions extended into 

September in South Carolina, Georgia, 

and northeast Florida, and into October 

in central Florida. Shrimp spawn as 

late as November in Georgia, activity 

decreasing from south to north (Shipman 

1983a). Spawning peaks in May and June 

along the offshore waters of northeast 

Fl orida (Joyce 1965). In general , the 

increase of bottom water temperatures in 

spring triggers spawning, and rapid 

decreases in water temperature in the 

fall coincide with the end of spawning 

(Li ndner and Anderson 1956; Whi taker 

1981). As judged by the low percentages 

of spent females in June to August, 

white shrimp may spawn as many as four 

times during their life span (Lindner 

and Anderson 1956) ; however, there is 

some evidence that they spawn only once 

in Carol i na waters (Wi 11 i ams 1965). 

White shrimp spawn along the 

South Atlantic coast of the United 

States in water more than 9 m deep 

(Whitaker 1983a), and within 9 km from 

the shore (Lindner and Cook 1970; 

Whi taker 1983b). Spawni ng shrimp 

seemingly prefer salinities of 27 ppt 

or more (Cook and Murphy 1969). In 

the Gulf of Mexico most white shrimp 

spawn at depths of 8 to 31 m (~grezFarfante 1969) . Sexual ly mature and 

spent female white shrimp were captured 

along the northeast Florida coast only 

in offshore waters at depths over 

11 m (Joyce 1965). Little is known 

about the spawning location offshore 

from North and South Carolina (Williams 

1965), but adult shrimp tagged in North 

Edisto River estuary in South Carolina 

in May 1983 were recaptured within 9 km 

from the coast (Whi taker 1983b). 

White shrimp were first spawned in 

captivity in 1980. The general requirements for maturation and reproduction 

usually fall in the range of 20% to 60% 

1 ight intensity, 10 to 14 h photoperiod, 

20" to 28OC water temperature, and 26 to 

34 ppt salinities. In some laboratory 

experiments, white shrimp spawned only 

at night (Lindner and Cook 1970) but in 

others some spawned during day1 ight 

(Lawrence et a1 . 1980). The food source 

required was fresh marine invertebrates 

and fish supplied at 3% to 5% dry weight 

of the weight of the shrimp (Lawrence 

et a1 . 1983). 

In copulation (limited to hardshelled individuals), the male attaches 

a spermatophore onto the thelycum of 

the femal e. Spermatozoa are be1 i eved 

to be released from the spermatophore 

simul taneously with expulsion of the 

ova. About 0.5 to 1 million eggs are 

discharged per spawn from each female 

(Pckez- Farfante 1969). 

The eggs of white shrimp are 

discharged directly into the water and 

sink to the bottom (Anderson 1966; 

Lindner and Cook 1970). The spherical 

and opaque ripe eggs, which are 0.192 to 

0.3 mm in diameter, have a purplish-blue 

chorion. 

Larvae 

White shrimp are in the larval form 

for about 10 days or more, depending on 

food and habitat conditions (Johnson and 

Fielding 1956). Eggs hatch into 0.3 mm 

long planktonic naupl i i within 10 to 

12 h after fertilization (Klima et a1 . 1982). The nonfeeding naupl ii are 

carried by prevailing currents while 

they undergo five molts over a 24- to 

36-h period to become free-feedi ng 

protozoea, 1 mm total length (TL) 

(Anderson 1966). Protozoea grow to a 

length of 2.5 nnn through three 

protozoeal stages before attaining the 

first stage mysis (Dobkin 1961). 

Postembryonic stages of white shrimp 
wye first described by Pearson (1939). 

Perez-Farf ante (1969) reported five 

naupl i a1 , three protozoeal , and three 

mysis stages, followed by the first 

mastigopus or first postl arval stage. 

Post 1 arvae and Juveni les 

Planktonic post1 arvae 1 ive 

offshore, and then move inshore with 

tidal currents toward estuaries 

(Whitaker 1983a). At the end of two 

postlarval stages, about 15 to 20 days 

after hatching, the shrimp are still 

pl anktonic (Anderson 1966). They enter 

estuaries during the second postl arval 

stage (7 mm long; 2 to 3 weeks after 

hatching) and then become benthic 

( Wi 1 1 i ams 1965) . 

Favorable currents transport 1 arvae 

and early postlarvae shoreward (PerezFarf ante 1969). Duronsl et et a1 . (1972) 

sampled postl arval white shrimp in 

greater numbers at night at the surface 

than at the bottom of a tidal pass, but 

found no depth differences during day1 ight sampling, although abundance was 

lowest near the surface (0.8 m). No 

significant differences were detected in 

plankton net sampling of postlarval 

shrimp in Georgia waters at different 

depths, times of day, tidal stages, or 

lunar pulses. High turbidities may have 

influenced distribution (Baisden 1983). 

Water temperature had little effect on 

the movement of postlarvae into the 

estuaries (McKenzie 1981). 

Post1 arval white shrimp enter 

estuaries in South Carolina and North 

Carol i na from June through September 

(Anderson 1965). In Georgia, nearshore 

and northerly bottom currents carry 

white shrimp post 1 arvae into estuaries 

and sounds (McKenzie 1981). The larvae 

enter estuaries in April and early May 

in the south Atlantic, and in June and 

July in North Carolina (McKenzie 1981). 

In northeastern Florida estuaries 

juveniles were first taken in June 

(Joyce 1965). White shrimp 25 to 75 mm 

long were classified as juveniles by 

Christmas et al. (1976), whereas 

P&-ez-~arf ante (1969) considered white 

shrimp to be juveniles after they 

attained an ul timate of rostra1 

teeth: 4 to 10 on the upper rostrum and 

0 to 3 on the lower rostrum with modes 

of 8 upper and 2. lower. 

The abundance of white shrimp peaks 

in June through August in Georgia 

estuaries (Shipman 1983a). While in 

estuaries, juvenile white shrimp tend to 

move farther upstream than do juvenile 

pink or brown shrimp -- as far as 160 km 

in Louisiana and 210 km in northeast 

Florida (Pgrez-Farfante 1969). 

Juvenile white, brown, and pink 

shrimp tend to inhabit different 

substrates (Wi 11 i ams 1958). White 

shrimp prefer muddy substrates with 

loose peat and sandy mud. They lay 

their long antennae above the surface of 

the substrate when burrowing -- in 

contrast to brown and pink shrimp, which 

often bury their shorter antennae. 

Respiratory requirements during 

burrowing or cover-seekiqg, as well as 

food, influence white shrimp preference 

for a muddy or peaty substrate. 

Williams (1958) reported that juvenile 

white shrimp and brown shrimp avoid 

coarse substrate and inhabit softer 

bottoms because food (rather than 

cover) is more readily avai 1 able there. 

Shallow, muddy bottoms in waters of low 

to moderate salinity (Anderson 1966) 

serve as optimum nursery grounds for 

juvenile white shrimp (Whitaker 1983a). 

In the south Atlantic states, estuarine 

nursery areas of white shrimp are 

predominately associated with Soartina 

alterniflora wetlands (McKenzie ' 1981). 

Juvenile white shrimo conareaate in 

sandy-muddy substrate but juvGni7 e brown 

shrimp sometimes forceful ly displace 

white shrimp from this habitat (Rul ifson 

1981). Juveni le brown shrimp displ aced 

juvenile white shrimp from grass cover 

in aquaria (Giles and Zamora 1973). 

Staggered recruitment of white and brown 

shrimp probably reduces competition for 

habitat (Shi pman 1983a). Increasing 

water temperatures reduced the 

preference of white shrimp affinity for 
sandy-mud substrates rather than shell Adults 

substrates. 

In 1971-81, white shrimp were 

1 argest in South Carolina landings when 

densities were lowest, suggesting that 

intraspecific competition was reduced or 

time spent in the nursery areas was 

1 onger (McKenz i e 1981). In Georgi a, 

1 arge shrimp predomi nated the harvest 

after winter freezes, lending support to 

the suggestion that the abundance of 

white shrimp in south Atlantic estuaries 

determines the size of the shrimp in the 

fishery or during emigration in the fall 

( Sh i pman 1983a) . As the season 

progresses to June or July and juveniles 

reach lengths of about 51 mm, they move 

from shallow marshes into deeper creeks, 

rivers, and bays (Anderson 1966). Along 

the northeast Florida coast, white 

shrimp were 70 to 80 mm long in June and 

July (Joyce 1965). A sharp decrease in 

the mean length along northeast 

Florida's offshore waters in August 

corresponded closely with the arrival of 

smaller shrimp 120 to 140 mm long) from 

estuaries (Joyce 1965). Simi 1 arly, an 

increased count (an increase in numbers 

per pound) of shrimp trawled in 

. Georgia's offshore waters during August 

signal led the emigration of the summer's 

first recruits (Shipman 1983a). 

Among juveniles, white shrimp are 

usually more active than are brown or 

pink shrimp during day1 ight. In 

Galveston Bay, Texas, trawl catches of 

juvenile shrimp 35 to 97 mm long were 

significantly larger in daytime than at 

night (Clark and Caillouet 1975). In 

Florida, the percentage of white shrimp 

taken during daytime was 83% of all 

shrimp in inshore waters but only 57% in 

deep water (Joyce 1965). Small white 

shrimp may be more active during the day 

than Targer ones (Joyce 1965). In the 

laboratory, white shrimp did not burrow, 

but they were quiescent on the bottom or 

in shal low depressions for several hours 

during the day (Wickham and Minkler 

19 75). 

White shrimp usually mature 

sexually at age I during the calendar 

year after they hatch. Mature males 

have joined petosmal endopods at 105 to 

127 mm, produce ripe sperm at 118 mm TI-, 

and have ful ly devejoped spermatophores 

at 155 mm TL (Perez-Farfante 1969). 

The small est ripe female recorded by 

Burkenroad (1939) was 135 mm long, and 

the minimum length of ripe females in 

the northern Gulf of Mexico was 140 mm 

(St. Amant and Lindner 1966). In 

Florida, the ovaries of white shrimp 

begin to develop at 110 mm in fall and 

complete development when growth resumes 

in the spring (Joyce 1965). Adult white 

shrimp are powerful swimmers capable of 

migrating great distances (with 

currents) and living in euphotic 

littoral zones at relatively high light 

intensities (Young 1959). White shrimp 

catches in bottom trawls may also be low 

during the midday quiescent period on 

the substrate surface (Wickham and 

Minkler 1975). In contrast Veal et al. 

(1983) reported that since white shrimp 

generally burrow into the bottom at 

night, they may become more difficult to 

catch. Bottom trawl catches at night 

also might be lower when white shrimp 

are actively swimming in the water 

column. Longshore currents influence 

movement patterns along the southeast 

At1 antic coast (Shipman 1983b). 

Numerous reports from shrimpers 

indicated that white shrimp sometimes 

school on the surface, particularly in 

late fall and early winter during their 

southerly offshore migrations (Susan 

Shi pman , pers. comm.) . 

Migration 

White shrimp along the southeast 

At1 antic coast mi grate southward 

during autumn and early winter and then 

northward in late winter and early 

spring (Lindner and Cook 1970; McKenzie 

1981; Whitaker 1982; Shipman 1983b). 

More specific migrations reported by 

Joyce (1965) showed a major southerly 

migration from North Carolina to Cape 
Canaveral, Florida, in fall and a 

northerly migration from the Cape in 

spring. In Georgia, a mark and 

recapture study revealed that 96% of the 

shrimp recovered in the winter came from 

more southerly waters (Shipman 1983b) . A white shrimp tagged in October off 

North Carolina was recaptured 576 km 

southward off Florida's east coast and 

one white shrimp tagged in January off 

central Florida was recaptured 416 km to 

the north off South Carolina (Anderson 

1966). Whitaker (1981) suggested a 

correlation between shrimp migration and 

1 atitude with activity being greatest in 

the more southern areas. In northeast 

Florida, white shrimp 120 to 140 mm TL 

moved offshore from August through April 

(Joyce 1965). Detai led analyses of 

white shrimp sampling from June 1962 - 

June 1963 by Joyce (1965) revealed that 

white shrimp caught off Cape Canaveral, 

Florida had migrated from more northern 

nursery areas in December and January, 

suggesting that Cape Canaveral is the 

southern limit of commercial white 

shrimping along Florida's east coast. 

Southward movements of 10 to 20 km per 

day during fall were suggested by Joyce 

(1965) for schooling white shrimp along 

the northeast Florida coast. Movements 

of individual shrimp tagged in Georgia 

waters and recaptured off Florida ranged 

from 1.8 to 6.9 nautical miles per day 

(Shipman 1983b). Offshore migrants make 

up the valuable spring fishery for adult 

females in Georgia, South Carolina, and 

North Carolina in years following 

relatively mi ld winters (McKenzie 

1981). 

White shrimp emigration from 

estuaries is governed largely by body 

size, age, and envi ronmental conditions 

(Kl ima et a1 . 1982; Shipman 1983b). 

Low water temperatures (<18" C) and 

spring tides at full moon stimulated 

mass movements from South Carolina 

estuaries (Whitaker 1982). During ebb 

tides, white shrimp tend to school and 

migrate near the surface at night 

(Benson 1982). Wi 11 i ams (1958) 

suggested that muddy substrate is not 

strongly preferred during emigration 

from estuaries to the sea. Emigration 

was delayed in South Carolina and 

Georgia when unusually low freshwater 

inflow caused high salinities (Shipman 

1983b). In South Carolina, shrimp 

congregated in the deeper channels 

(staging areas) as water temperatures 

declined to about 9°C (McKenzie 1981). 

Recent studies showed that white shrimp 

movements offshore in fall and winter 

are triggered by water temperature 

declines in estuaries in the south 

At1 antic (Shipman 1983b), and Louisiana 

(White and Boudreaux 1977) . Precipitation, spring tides, and strong 

tidal exchanges associated with northeasterly storms also influence the 

t imi ng and magnitude of emi grat i on from 

inshore waters (Shipman 1983b). 

GROWTH 

Juvenile white shrimp grow during 

summer and fa1 1, grow slowly over 

winter, and then resume growth as water 

temperatures rise in the estuaries 

during April and May. Spring growth is 

about equal to the summer growth of 

18 to 30 mm per month. Similar growth 

rates were calculated from markrecapture studies in Georgia from 1978 

to 1981 (Shipman 1983b). The rate of 

increase in weight is relatively low 

among the small white shrimp, highest 

in mid-sizes, and decreasing among the 

1 arger ones (Kutkuhn 1962). 

Following two mysis stages and two 

postlarval stages, young white shrimp 7 

mm long enter the estuaries where their 

growth rate is about 1.2 mm per day 

(Williams 1965). Juvenile shrimp in the 

south Atlantic qrow 1.0 to 2.3 mm Der 

day or 28 to 64-mm per month (~c~enzie 

1981). 

Young white shrimp 13 to 68 mm long 

(mode 33 mm) first appear in Georgia's 

upper creek and marsh areas in June; by 

July the mode increases to 43 mm and the 

range from 13 to 103 mm (Harris 1974). 

White shrimp in Georgia rivers and 

sounds are about 78 mm long in July, 108 
mm in August, 130 mm in September, and 

146 mm in October. During winter the 

1 engt h-f requency mode dec 1 i nes when 

growth stops and the larger shrimp 

migrate southward offshore. White 

shrimp that overwintered in inshore 

waters grew from a mqdal length of 118 

mm to 162 mm in June, 176 mm in August, 

and 180 mm in September. Modal lengths 

in the offshore population were 143 mm 

in March, 172 mm in June, and 181 mm in 

August. The growth of tagged adult 

white shrimp of both sexes up to 15 days 

after release was greatest in summer at 

0.41 mm per day compared with 0.14, 

0.10, and 0.13 mm per day in fall, 

winter, and spring, respectively 

( Shi pman 1983b). Anderson (1966) 

reported that white shrimp were 80 mm 

long within 2 months after hatchinu in 

May, 110 mm by 3 months, 130 mm by 4 

months, 145 mm by 5 months, and 155 mm 

by 6 months (November). They grew 

slowly from November through March, but 

resumed growth in spring; 1-year-old 

spawners were 173 mm long in May. 

Female shrimp grow faster and reach 

larger sizes than males (Etzold and 

Christmas 1977). In northeast Florida 

the largest female sampled by Joyce 

(1965) was 192 mm long and the largest 

male was 175 mm long; most shrimp longer 

than 115 mm were females. Anderson 

(1966) reported females as long as 

197 mm in the Carolinas and males as 

1 ong as 182 min. 

Mortal i ty 

Few white shrimp live as long as 

one year (Anderson 1966); however, mark 

and recapture studies showed that a few 

lived as long as 27 months in 

Mississippi (Etzold and Christmas 1977), 

more than 17 months in Georgia (Shipman 

1983b), and as long as 4 years (average 

18 months) in Texas (Kl ima et al. 1982). 

Because of the usually short life span, 

the abundance of white shrimp would be 

expected to fluctuate widely from year 

to year but apparently compensating 

factors are at work; e.g., in 1977 after 

a massive winter kill in Georgia coastal 

waters, when the numbers of spawning 

white shrimp were reduced to 7% of 

normal, subsequent recruitment into the 

fishery was only 40% below normal (Music 

1979). For white shrimp in the south 

Atlantic fishery, instantaneous 

mortality rates (McKenzie 1981) were 

0.02 to 0.25 (fishing), 0.21 to 0.56 

(natural), and 0.24 to 0.80 (total). 

Weekly mortalities ranged from 13 to 

51%; the lower rates were nearer to 

reality for both juveniles and adults 

(McKenzie 1981). 

Hurricanes cause major losses of 

white shrimp in the Gulf of Mexico. A 

hurricane striking the Louisiana coast 

in summer 1957 destroyed large numbers 

of white shrimp when salinities 

increased, cover and food supplies were 

destroyed, dispersal and stranding were 

excessive, and turbulence in estuaries 

was high (Kutkuhn 1962). Hurricane 

Carla caused a 61% drop in the 1961 

Louisiana catch of white shrimp and 

Hurricane Camille caused an 88% drop in 

production in Mississippi in August 1969 

(Barrett and Gi 1 lespie 1973). Sudden 

cold fronts and subsequent declines in 

water temperatures have caused mortality 

and reduced recruitment of white shrimp 

in south Atlantic shallow inshore 

waters; two consecutive mi 1 d winters 

may be required to support spring 

harvests in South Carolina (Whi taker 

1983a). 

Diseases and Parasites 

The effect of diseases and 

parasites on white shrimp mortality is 

not we1 1 known (Barrett and Gi 1 lespie 

1973). A 99% 1 oss of egg production was 

attributed to a mi crosporidi an parasite 

infection of white shrimp gonads (Gunter 

1956), yet the next year's production 

was as high as that of the preceeding 

year. Vibrio infection of male white 

shrimp pmed egg fertilization under 

1 aboratory conditions (Middleditch et 

al. 1980). Literature reviews of 

diseases and parasites of penaeid shrimp 

show that viruses, bacteria, fungi, 

protozoa, helminths, and nematodes often 
infect shrimp (Lindner and Cook 1970; 

Couch 1978; Overstreet 1978). Diseases 

and parasites ranked after predation and 

periodic physical catastrophes as 

limiting factors in nature and after 

nutrition and reproduction requirements 

in mariculture (Couch 1978). Symbionts 

may be related to shrimp kills during 

1 ow oxyqen conditions (Overstreet 1978). 

A par-asitic cestode, ~rochristanel ia 

penaei , infecting the hepatopancreas of 

adultshrimp is of some concern in the 

Mississippi Sound; however, from an 

economi c standpoint, mi crosporidi an 

protozoans that cause a "cotton" 

appearance in the musculature of shrimp 

are the most threatening (Christmas et 

a1 . 1976). In Georgia in 1978-81, 

mi crosporidi an parasites were observed 

in 3.9% of 33,350 white shrimp captured 

for tagging. Lower recovery rates of 

tags from infected than from uninfected 

shrimp suggested higher mortality among 

the infected shrimp (Shipman 1983b). 

Hutton et al. (1959) suggested that 

infected shrimp may be more susceptible 

to predation and disease. 

THE FISHERY 

The characteristics of the white 

shrimp fishery in the south Atlantic -- 

including processing, rnarketi ng, 

economics, and sociological aspects -- 

were reported by McKenzie (1981). The 

shrimp industries along the Atlantic 

coast of North Carolina, South Carolina, 

Georgia, and Florida are based mainly on 

white, brown, and pink shrimp. Florida's fishery includes the rock shrimp 

(Sicyonia brevirostris) . White shrimp 

contributed 58% of the total 1957-80 

catch in the four States. The low was 

31%, following the severe winter of 

1976-77, and the high was 76% in 1973. 

White shrimp contributed an average of 

81% to the catch along the east coast of 

Florida, and 78% of the total catch in 

Georgia, 58% in South Carolina, and 6% 

in North Carolina. The average annual 

white shrimp 1 andings in 1976-1980 

(mi 11 ions of pounds, heads off) were 

0.16 for North Carolina, 2.47 for South 

Carolina, 3.41 for Georgia, and 1.63 

along the east coast of Florida 

(McKenzie 1981). 

The average annual white shrimp 

landings in 1976-80 were 13% below the 

average of the 1957-80 landings. 'The 

decrease was attributed to the severe 

winters of 1976-77 and 1977-78. The 

Georgia Department of Natural Resources 

(1983) reported a 34% drop in 1981 from 

the 1971-80 white shrimp landings. The 

drop was caused by unusually low winter 

water temperatures in 1980-81. Annual 

catches in Georgia and Florida have 

been relatively steady, averaging 

near 18% and 29%, respectively, about 

the coefficient of variation for 

the 195 7-80 (24-year) average; this 

average varied 54% in South Carolina and 

114% in North Carolina (McKenzie 1981). 

In the South Atlantic, white shrimp 

1 andings (heads-off) in 1957-80 ranged 

from a low of 3.2 million 1b in 1977 to 

a high of 12.2 million 1b in 1971. 

Although fluctuations in abundance are 

natural and are expected even when 

environmental factors appear favorable 

(McKenzie 1981) , a1 teration of habitats 

by pollution or physical causes in 

numerous estuaries are becoming serious 

factors influencing shrimp production 

(Etzold et a1 . 1983). 

White shrimp enter the commercial 

fishery when the gravid shrimp 

congreqate off the central and southward 

coast of South Carolina in April or May 

and remain in the South Carolina fishery 

through June or early July. In Georgia, 

the white shrimp fishery season opens in 

June in t e r r i t o r i a1 offshore waters. 

Juveniles enter the coastal fishery in 

August in South Carolina, Georgia, and 

northeast Florida. In North Carolina, 

they are caught mainly in the fall in 

the area from Southport to Cape Fear. 

The fishery continues through mi dDecember in South Carolina and to the 

end of December in Georgia and northern 

Florida (McKenzie 1981). Catches in 

nearshore waters of Georgia are lowest 

in June and peak in August and September 

(Music 1979). Catch per unit of effort 
was highest in northern Georgia's 

offshore waters in late summer and fall 

and landings peaked in September and 

October (Ga. Dep. Nat. Resour. Coastal 

Resources Div., Data Manage. Section, 

pers. comm.) . As water temperatures 

drop, white shrimp move southward and 

are caught in coastal waters of extreme 

southern Georgia in January (Music 

1979); however, some may be caught 

as late as February depending on the 

date of closure of territorial waters 

(Susan Shi pman, pers. comm.) . Joyce 

(1965) reported that abundance peaked 

in December and January in northern 

Florida from St. Augustine to Cape 

Canaveral . >lost commercial shrimp catch is 

made within 9 km of the coast (Etzold 

et al. 1983) on trawlable bottoms within 

the 11-m depth contour. The breadth 

of the Continental Shelf within the 

11-m (6-fathom) contour is greatest 

along the northern and central Georgia 

shelf, but is narrower along the 

coast of northeast Florida, South 

Carolina, and North Carolina. About 99% 

of North Carolina's white shrimp catch 

was taken in its territorial waters. 

For the other states, the percentages 

were 90% for South Carolina, 85% for 

Florida, and 59% for Georgia. In 

Georgi a, two 3-year studies (1974-77, 

19 78-81) of monthly shrimp distribution 

and abundance were made by using 30-nin 

trawl samples to evaluate shrimp 

at 36 stations in estuaries and 

nearshore waters out to 4.8 km (Music 

19 79; Shi pman ,1983a). The catch 

of white shrimp per hour averaged 

50 1b and 32 lb in sounds (52% and 44% 

of total), 44 1b and 34 Ib in creeks 

(46% and 48% of the total), and 1.5 1b 

and 5 1b in outside waters (2% and 7% of 

the total). 

Freshwater inflow is the dominant 

factor influencing abundance, di stri bution, and growth of white shrimp 

(McKenzie 1981). During the drought and 

low freshwater inflow in 1980, the 

shrimp moved further up estuaries, which 

lengthened their residency there and 

increased mortality. The lower 1 andings 

in 1980-81 were caused by low freshwater 

inflow and low winter water 

temperatures. 

Since juvenile white shrimp live in 

coastal wetlands, the areas of such 

wetlands are useful measures of 

potenti a1 abundance (Turner 1977). The 

areas of coastal wet1 and are 79,826 ha 

in North Carolina, 204,146 ha in South 

Carolina, 192,508 ha in Georgia, and 

47,631 ha in northeast Florida (McKenzie 

1981). None of the four states permit 

commerci a1 trawl ing in designated 

nursery areas. A positive re1 ation 

between the 1962 and 1963 fall white 

shrimp commercial 1 andings in Florida 

with relative abundance of July inshore 

samples was reported by Joyce (1965). 

Production estimates of offshore 

harvests in Alabama and Mississippi also 

have shown a strong relation to inshore 

abundance of juveniles (St. Amant and 

Lindner 1966; Loesch 1976). Christmas 

and Etzold (1977) concluded that 

subsequent year recruitment is not a 

major consideration in management 

because it is largely independent of the 

abundance of parent stock; therefore, 

management would be aimed toward 

maximimum sustained yield from the 

current year's recruitment. In Georgia, 

there was 1 ittle re1 ation between the 

size of the fall white shrimp landings 

and salinity, abundance of juveniles in 

August, and abundance of gravid shrimp 

in the preceding spring (Shipman 1983a). 

Sport and noncommercial bait shrimp 

fisheries are di fficul t to evaluate 

because not all are 1 icensed (McKenzie 

1981). Recreational catch has been 

estimated to equal 10% of the south 

Atlantic commercial catch (Etzold et al. 

1983). The most important data are from 

boat registrations. In 1973, 44% of the 

16,780 registered recreational boat 

owners in 11 eastern South Carolina 

counties caught an estimated total of 

371 mt of shrimp. Of the 15,888 

shrimping craft owners licensed in North 

Carolina in 1978, 46% were sport 

fishermen who caught as much as 3% of 
the commercial catch. In Georgia in 

1982-83, there were 1,479 bait shrimping 

1 icenses, 76 commercial bait 1 icenses, 

and 1,959 commercial food shrimping 

1 icenses. In 1980-81, 127 noncommercial licenses were issued for the 

St. Johns River, Florida allowing sport 

fishermen to take up to 50 1b per day of 

shrimp by trawling in inshore waters 

only on weekends and holidays. 

Although shrimp are important bait 

for sport fishing in North and South 

Carol i na, the 1 ive-bai t industry is 

re1 at ively small (McKenzie 1981). In 

Florida the commercial bait fishery 

landed and sold 22.3 million live shrimp 

annual ly in 1972-80 (McKenzie 1981). 

ECOLOGICAL RClLE 

White shrimp convert detritus, 

plant material, microorganisms, 

macroinvertebrates, and fish parts into 

useful protein for carnivores (e.g. 

other invertebrates, fish, and man). 

Naupl ii subsist on yolk granules until 

they reach the protozoea I stage 

(McKenzi e 1981) . White shrimp larvae 

feed on zooplankton and phytoplankton; 

white shrimp protozoea feed on green 

a1 gae, diatoms, or copepods (Dobkin 

1961). In a laboratory test, cultured 

algae were fed to protozoea and newly 

hatched brine shrimp up to the mysis 

stage (Cook and Murphy 1969). Early 

stages of white shrimp larvae feed 

on plankton and suspended detritus 

(Christmas and Etzol d 1977). 

Juvenile and adult white shrimp are 

benthic omnivores; the major differences 

in food selection are the kinds and 

availability of materials selected. 

Juveni le and adult penaeids are benthic 

omnivores that feed largely at night, 

except in turbid waters (McKenzie 1981). 

Fecal pellets of fish and invertebrates 

can be an important food item of 

juvenile shrimp. Lindner and Cook 

(1970) noted that white shrimp were 

selective particulate feeders. Major 

food reported in three studies were 

detritus, chitin, parts of annelids and 

gastropods, fish parts, bryozoans, 

sponges, corals, fi 1 aments of algae, and 

vascular plant stems and roots 

(Christmas and Etzold 1977). Lipids 

supplied by annelids in the diet were 

important for ovarian maturation 

(Middleditch et al. 1980). 

Cannibal ism is common among 

juyenile and adult white shrimp 

(Perez-Farfante 1969), but McKenzie 

(1981) suggested that the cannibal ism 

reported in the literature was related 

to crowding in aquaria. Bottino et al. 

(1980) found that body fatty acids in 

shrimp were influenced by diet. Food 

conversion ratios of 1.8 and 1.9 (i.e., 

1.8 or 1.9 1b of food yield 1 1b of 

shrimp) were reported for white shrimp 

fed in two marine ponds at Marifarms, 

Inc., Panama City, Florida (Brown 1977). 

Assimi lation efficiency in juvenile 

white shrimp may reach 80% to 85% for a 

variety of pl ant and animal materials 

(McKenzie 1981). White shrimp were an 

important food for many marine and 

e$tuarine fish (Gunter 1956; 

Perez-Farfante 1969; Lindner and Cook 

1970; McKenzie 1981 ; Benson 1982) . Larval and juvenile shrimp were 

important food items for 13 of 21 

juvenile fish species captured from 

seagrass beds in Florida estuaries of 

the Gulf of Mexico (Carr and Adams 

1973). 

White shrimp are invaluable in the 

food chains of coastal 'waters. They 

recycle basic nutrients by feeding on 

organic matter and microorganisms in 

sediments (Odum 1971; Carr and Adams 

1973). Concentrat ions along the 

Louisi ana coast are greatest where 

substrates are high in organic content 

and where water temperatures and 

salinities are favorable (Barrett and 

Gi 1 lespie 1973; Gaidry 1974). Kutkuhn 

(1966) i 1 lustrated the dependence of 

white shrimp on the estuarine 

environment . Juveni les tolerate lower 

salinities than do many other fish and 

shellfish; this salinity tolerance 

reduces competition between shrimp and 
fish and may be as important as food 

supply for the growth and survival of 

these seasonal migrants (Hedgpeth 1963; 

Gunter 1967). 

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS 

Water temperature directly or 

indirectly influences white shrimp 

spawning, growth, habitat selection, 

osmoregul ation, movement, migration, and 

mortality. Spring water temperature 

increases trigger spawning, and rapid 

water temperature declines in fa1 1 

portend the end of spawning (Lindner and 

Anderson 1956). Growth is fastest in 

summer and slow or negligible in winter. 

Water temperatures below 20°C inhibit 

growth of juvenile shrimp (Etzold and 

Christmas 1977) and growth is virtually 

nil at 16°C (St. Amant and L,indner 

1966). Growth rates increase rapidly as 

temperatures increase above 20" C. 

Increased water temperature affects 

molting rate (~Grez-~arf ante 1969). 

Good correlation between heatingdegree-days and catchleffort ratio for 

penaeid shrimp was similar to 

correl a t i o n s of yield-per-hectare versus 

1 at i t ude (Turner 1977). Temperature and 

food supply limited the growth of white 

shrimp postlarvae more than did salinity 

differences between 2 and 35 ppt 

(Zein-Eldin 1964). 

Severe winters in 1939-40, 1966, 

1976-77, and 1977-78 caused mass 

mortality and reduced catches in the 

South Atlantic white shrimp fishery 

( McKenzi e 1981; Sh i prnan 1983a; Whit aker 

1983a). The Georgia Department of 

Natural Resources (1983) reported a 34% 

drop in white shrimp landings in 1981 

and a 99% drop in 1981 spring catch of 

roe shrimp after the unusually cold 

1980-81 winter. White shrimp are more 

tolerant of high temperatures and less 

tolerant of low temperatures than either 

brown or pink shrimp (Etzold and 

Christmas 1977). Among postlarvae, 

brown shrimp were more resistant than 

white shrimp to higher temperatures. 

White shrimp mortality was reported 

at water temperatures of 8°C and lower 

(Joyce 1965). Mortality of white shrimp 

is total at 3°C or lower, regardless of 

salinity. White shrimp survival at low 

temperatures depends on ambient 

temperature, the rate of temperature 

decline, the duration of low 

temperatures and sal i ni ty (Joyce 1965) . The impact of low water temperature and 

low salinity on white shrimp was 

discussed by Music (1979) and Shiprnan 

(1983a). Adult white shrimp (> 90 mm 

long) may be more susceptible than 

juveniles to cold temperatures (Whitaker 

1983a). Wiesepape (1975) found the 

24-h LC50 (temperature causing 50% 

mortal i ty in 24 h) to be 36' and 37°C 

for white shrimp acclimated at 29" and 

34"C, respectively. Post 1 arvae and 

30-mm long juveniles have similar but 

higher resistance times than 50-mm 

j u v e n i l e s . 

Salinity 

Adult white shrimp spawn offshore 

where salinities are at least 27 ppt. 

The larvae move shoreward and become 

second-stage postlarvae as they enter 

estuaries on flood tides. Juvenile 

white shrimp moved 160 km upstream into 

water of less than 1.0-ppt salinity 

waters in the St. Johns River, Florida 

(Joyce 1965). Juvenile white shrimp 

have even been recovered from Lake 

Monroe Power St at i on f i 1 ter screens 

located 270 km from the mouth of the St. 

Johns River -- especially when low 

rainfall and low river stages caused 

reverse tidal flow (Edwin Joyce, 

pers. cbmm., February 1984). The high 

calcium ion concentrations in the 

St. Johns River may explain the 

relative ease with which marine species 

enter and remain in low salinity waters 

(Joyce 1965). The lowest salinity in 

which white shrimp were recorded in the 

noythern Gulf of Mexico was 0.42 ppt 

( Perez-Farf ante 1969). Although field 

studies indicate that juvenile white 

shrimp prefer low salinities, laboratory 
studies have revealed that white shrimp 

appear to tolerate a wide range of 

salinities; they have been successful ly 

reqred at salinities of 18 to 34 ppt 

( Perez-Farf ante 1969). McKenzi e (1981) 

cited several studies in which fast 

growth was reported for white shrimp at 

salinities of 7 to 15 ppt. 

White shrimp in Georgia move toward 

higher salinity waters as sexual 

development progresses, and most spawn 

offshore in the sea (Harris 1974). 

Tem~erature - Salinity Interactions 

Temperature-sal ini ty to1 erance 

ranges for white shrimp vary at 

different life stages, but the 

interact ions are more pronounced at the 

extremes of tolerance. For example, 

Couch (1978) reported that broken-back 

syndrome (dorsal separation of third and 

fourth pleural pl ates on abdominal) 

appears after sudden drops in salinity 

(from 15 ppt to 3 ppt) in cold water 

(8°C). The critical thermal maxima for 

white shrimp are influenced largely by 

acclimation temperatures, and to a 

lesser extent by salinity and size of 

test animal (Laney 1973). Freshwater 

inflow may affect coastal water 

temperatures, which in turn affect the 

growth rates (White and Boudreaux 1977) 

and migration of white shrimp (Shipman 

1983b). Spring spawning of white shrimp 

coincides with a rapid rise in bottom 

water temperatures in high salinity 

offshore waters (McKenzie 1981). 

Substrate 

White shrimp prefer shal low, 

muddy-bottom substrate. Landings of 

shrimp along the Louisiana coast were 

highest in areas where substrates were 

highly organic (Barrett and Gil lespie 

1973; Gaidry 1974). A relative higher 

1 inear correlation (RZ = 0.69) between 

intertidal land area and average annual 

shrimp catch along Louisiana's inshore 

regions was reported by Turner (1977). 

The re1 ati on between inshore catches and 

hectares of vegetated estuarine habitat 

in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico 

(Tampa Bay, Florida, to Mobile Bay and 

Perdido Bay, Alabama) also showed a 

strong correlation (R~ = 0.64). A 

direct re1 ationship between commercial 

shrimp landings and intertidal vegetated 

areas and degrees latitude was reported 

by Turner (1977). The annual landings 

(kglha) in 1955-64 were 19.7 in North 

Carolina, 7.9 in South Carolina, 13 in 

Georgia, and 22.4 in east Florida. 

White shrimp undoubtedly composed most 

of the landings except in North 

Carolina. Southward fa1 1 migration 

probably account for the high landings 

from Florida waters. The area of 

nearshore soft sediments correlate we1 1 

with white and brown shrimp distribution 

from Pamlico Sound, North Carolina to 

northern Florida (McKenzie 1981). 

Temporal and spatial shifts by 

brown, white, and pink shrimp help 

reduce direct interspecific competition 

especially for certain substrate (Lassuy 

1983). White shrimp burrow less deeply 

into muddy substrates and are more 

active in daylight than are brown or 

pink shrimp. Staggered seasonal 

recruitment of brown and white shrimp 

into south Atlantic estuaries would 

reduce competition (Baisden 1983). 

Other Environmental Considerat ions 

The loss of nursery grounds has 

been considered the major threat to the 

white shrimp fishery in the Gulf of 

Mexico because that is where shrimp are 

most vulnerable to habitat disturbance 

(Gunter 1956). Studies in Florida, 

Louisiana, and Texas identified 

1 andf i 11, dredging, and impoundments as 

major detriments to shrimp production 

(Christmas and Etzold 1977; Etzold et 

al. 1983). Because of the loss of rich 

organic material along bulkheads, shrimp 

abundance there was reduced to about 118 

that of nearby unaltered shorelines 

(Mock 1967). About 18,171 ha of 

wetlands, 3.5% of the total, were lost 

from the South Atlantic coast between 

1954 and 1968 (McKenzie 1981). Manmade 
canals in Louisiana estuaries have 

increased sal i ni ty and adversely 

affected white shrimp survival and 

growth (Big1 ane and LaFleur 1968). 

Increased salinities have favored brown 

shrimp over white shrimp in the 

central -northern Gulf of Mexico 

(Christmas and Etzold 1977). The 

effects of pesticides and pollution on 

shrimp habitat along the gulf coast are 

also of concern (Biglane and LaFleur 

1968; Christmas and Etzold 1977). 

Several exampl es of white shrimp losses 

to pesticides along the South Carolina 

coast were given by McKenzie (1981) and 

the toxicities and biological effects of 

pesticides, heavy metals, petroleum 

products, and chemotherapeutic chemicals 

were given by Couch (1978). Trawl 

catches of white shrimp dropped below 

seasonal averages when dissolved oxygen 

was below 3.0 mg/l in altered, eutrophic 

canals associated with housing 

developments in West Bay, Texas (Trent 

et a1 . 1976). Maintaining suitable 

nursery grounds ultimately may decide 

the future of the shrimp resources of 

the gulf coast (Christmas and Etzold 

1977) and south Atlantic (McKenzie 1981; 

Etzold et al. 1983). 
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~enaeis setiferus (Linn.) in 

ca~tivitv. Tul ane Stud. Zoo1 . 

Joyce, E.A., Jr. 1965. The commercial 

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1 ife histories and environmental 

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SO1 73 -101 

REPORT DOCUMENTATION .IL"~-* NOPAGE FWS/OBS-82/11.27* I I num"c* -*- *- L m). od LUC(~IO 

Species. Profiles : Life Hi stories and Environmental Requirements 

of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (South Atlantic) -- White 

~ - -~ - I 

i. ?e.(.rmm~ 0esan11aenm kerr e~ ~e~ees. 10. ~mlTasrmorb khtn Mississi~~i Coo~erative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit 

L Rere D~M 

septelrlber 1984 

Shrimp 

7. ~~al 

Robert J. Muncv 

P.O. rawer BX ' 

Mississippi State University 

Mississippi State, MS 39762-5603 

- 

O*smuretnm amu m. 

8% I~sodrc Owew1acnm kame DM 16atas* 

National Coastal Ecosystems Team U.S. Army Corps of Engi neers 

Fish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment Station 

I* U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Report No. TR EL-82-4 

U.S. Department of the 1nterior P.O. B&X 631 

Uashington, DL 20240 Vicksburg, MS 39180 

I& *b.tnc( 

Species 

(Urnit 

profiles 

r00 ' 

are literature sumnaries of the taxonomy, morphology, range, life 

hi story, and environmental requirements of aquatic species. They are prepared to assist 

in environmental impact assessment. The white shrimp, Penaeus setiferus, is the most 

important comnercial species in the Southeastern United States. It serves an important 

ecological role as food for other large invecebrates and fishes. Major bait industry 

is in northeast Florida and Georgia. .Spawning occurs offshore within 9-m depth contour 

where salinities are at least 27 ppt. In spring, postlarval shrimp move with tidal 

currents into inshore estuarine waters. Juvenile wni te shrimp prefer shal low organicrich substrate with low salinities (1-10 ppt). Nearshore soft sediment areas correlated 

well with white and brown shrimp distributions. Water temperature influences spawning, 

growth, .habitat selection, emigration, and mortality. Low winter temperatures have 

greatly affected survival, recruitment, and harvest in the South Atlantic fishery. 

Maintaining suitable nursery grounds is a major concern for the future of the fishery. 

14. 

1 

I?. Drvrum Anolmla r Deunmm 

Estuaries 

Fishes 

Growth 

Feeding 

IS. Suwmmrv nun 

b. IdoIWlIlom/Oo.r.CH.. Iems 

Uhite shrimp Life history 

Penaeus seti ferus Spawning 

Sal i ni ty requirements 

Temperature requi rements 

Habitat requi rernents c WSAII VrlUGrwm 

IL ~waate~~v ~~a~errm I 19. -war class ~v&.s me-I 121. *. J ~asea 

Unlimited 

LW~ INSL-Ut.18) OPVIOWAL ronu 172 

~nclassi f ied 

m. kurocr class nr.s P~WI 

Unclassified 

19 22. rue 
REGION 1 

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