United States

Department

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky Mountain

Research Station

General Technical

Report RMRS-GTR-79-

volume 1

September 2001

Linking Wilderness Research and Management

Volume I – Wilderness Fire

Restoration and

Management:

An Annotated Reading List
Abstract

Hourdequin, Marion. 2001. Linking wilderness research and management—volume 1. Wilderness fire restoration and management: an

annotated reading list. (Wright, Vita, series ed.) Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-79-VOL 1. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 40 p.

The Wilderness Act of 1964 designates wilderness areas as places where natural conditions prevail and humans leave landscapes

untrammeled. Managers of wilderness and similarly protected areas have a mandate to maintain wildland fire as a natural ecological process.

However, because fire suppression has dominated Federal land management for most of the past century, the natural role of fire has been lost from

many wilderness areas. Managers now face the dilemma of how to restore fire to its natural role in wilderness areas affected by fire suppression

and other anthropogenic influences while protecting wilderness character and air quality, and managing the risks associated with fire. This reading

list summarizes more than 150 books, articles, and online resources that provide context for wilderness fire restoration and management. The first

section provides background information on fire ecology, behavior, and effects that forms a foundation for managing fire in wilderness. The second

section focuses more closely on wilderness and protected areas and emphasizes the restoration of fire to areas affected by fire suppression. The

final section lists additional resources, such as Web sites and sample fire plans, useful in wilderness fire planning.

Keywords: wilderness, fire management, restoration

You may order additional copies of this publication by sending your

mailing information in label form through one of the following media.

Please specify the publication title and series number.

 Fort Collins Service Center

Telephone (970) 498-1392

FAX (970) 498-1396

E-mail rschneider@fs.fed.us

Web site http://www.fs.fed.us/rm

Mailing Address Publications Distribution

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240 West Prospect Road

Fort Collins, CO 80526

Your comments needed...This is the first volume in the Linking Wilderness Research and Management series, designed to help readers access scientific information relevant to protecting and restoring

wilderness and wilderness values. If you have feedback about what you found useful or what could be

improved in this volume's content, organization, or layout, please email your comments to

RMRS_Leopold_Institute@fs.fed.us and write "series comments" in the subject line. Or send your

comments via mail to Research Application Program, Leopold Institute, PO Box 8089, Missoula, MT

59807. I am also interested in who you are as a reader, including your job title, and the purposes for which

you found this volume useful. Thank you for your time.

–Vita Wright, Series Editor

Cover photo—August 1967 lightning storm that started over 40 fires in Glacier National Park. Photo by Riley McClelland.

Series logo by Suzanne Lingle.

The following volumes in the Linking Wilderness Research and Management series will be published in 2001. To order, check the box below,

fill in the address form, and send to the mailing address listed below. Or send your order and your address in mailing label form to one of the

other listed media. Your order(s) will be filled as the volumes are published.

❏ RMRS-GTR-79-vol. 1. Wilderness Fire Restoration and Management: An Annotated Reading List.

❏ RMRS-GTR-79-vol. 2. Defining, Managing, and Monitoring Wilderness Visitor Experiences: An Annotated Reading List.

❏ RMRS-GTR-79-vol. 3. Recreation Fees in Wilderness and Other Public Lands: An Annotated Reading List.

❏ RMRS-GTR-79-vol. 4. Understanding and Managing Invasive Plants in Wilderness: An Annotated Reading List.

Send to: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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USDA Forest Service

General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-79-vol. 1. September 2001

Linking Wilderness Research and Management

Volume 1– Wilderness Fire Restoration

and Management:

An Annotated Reading List

Series Editor

Vita Wright

Research Application Program Director

Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute

Rocky Mountain Research Station

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service

Missoula, MT 59807

Author

Marion Hourdequin

Graduate Research Assistant

Duke University

Durham, NC 27705

(formerly with the Aldo Leopold

Wilderness Research Institute)
Preface

Federal land management agencies have recognized the importance of incorporating the

best available scientific knowledge into management decisions. However, both managers and

researchers have struggled to identify effective processes for accomplishing this objective. The

Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute’s Research Application Program works toward understanding barriers to the use of science in management and developing ways to make

relevant scientific information more accessible. Managers can base their decisions on the best

available scientific knowledge only if they are aware of current and relevant science as well as

how it fits into their management goals.

The Linking Wilderness Research and Management series of annotated reading lists was

developed to help land managers and others access scientific information relevant to protecting

and restoring wilderness and similarly managed lands, as well as the myriad of values associated with such lands. References in these reading lists have been categorized to draw attention

to the relevance of each publication, and then organized to provide a logical framework for addressing the issue. Each volume begins with references necessary to understand the overall

issue, and then provides references useful for identifying management goals, understanding

influences on those goals, and finally, for selecting and implementing management approaches.

For example, the Fire Restoration and Management volume begins with sections on general fire

ecology and anthropogenic effects, then covers the history and goals of wilderness fire management, and finishes with sections addressing management approaches, options, and considerations and constraints. Within each section, articles have been annotated to clarify their relevance to that section and to highlight their relevance to wilderness management.

These reading lists were designed to serve a wide audience. First, each list introduces

generalists to the breadth of factors that should be considered when addressing a management

issue. These volumes also enable specialists to maintain familiarity with research relevant to

their discipline but outside their area of expertise. For instance, the Invasive Plants volume may

be useful to a botanist who specializes in protecting rare species but is not familiar with the

invasive plant literature. For those generally familiar with the concepts, this series facilitates

access to literature that can add depth to their conceptual knowledge. Rather than produce

comprehensive bibliographies, which may be unwieldy for those with limited time, the authors

included overviews, the most current examples of literature addressing pertinent concepts, and

frequently cited classic publications. These lists can provide a starting point for readers interested in more detail on specific subjects to conduct their own literature reviews.

To facilitate access to these lists and enable us to update them, the lists are also available

through the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute’s Web site (http://www.wilderness.net/

leopold). The Leopold Institute is a Federal interagency research institute that focuses on ecological and social science research needed to sustain wilderness ecosystems and wilderness

values. I hope this series will help sustain wilderness, similarly managed lands, and associated

values by enabling managers, policymakers, educators, user groups, and others to access the

best available science on the topics covered.

—Vita Wright, Series Editor

ii

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Robert Keane, Peter Landres, Caroline Lansing, Carol Miller, David Parsons, and Catherine Stewart for reviews and helpful comments on the manuscript. We appreciate

David Ausband’s and Alison Perkins’ help with proofreading, and thank the interagency Aldo

Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, the interagency Arthur Carhart National Wilderness Training Center, and the Rocky Mountain Research Station for their sponsorship of this project.
Contents

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1

SCOPE ........................................................................................................................................................... 1

ORGANIZATION ............................................................................................................................................. 2

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................... 2

ANNOTATED READING LIST ............................................................................................. 3

I. FIRE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT............................................................................ 5

A. Overviews ................................................................................................................................................... 5

B. Fire Behavior and Effects (Selected Reviews) ............................................................................................ 7

1. Fire Behavior ........................................................................................................................................... 7

2. Fire Effects on Plants, Animals, and Ecological Processes ................................................................... . 8

3. Fire at the Landscape Scale ................................................................................................................... 9

C. Fire as a Natural Disturbance ................................................................................................................... 10

1. Ecological Disturbance and Ecosystem Management .......................................................................... 10

2. Fire Regimes: Research Methods and Management Implications ........................................................ 11

D. Anthropogenic Effects on Fire Regimes ................................................................................................... 13

1. Native American Burning ...................................................................................................................... 13

2. Fire Suppression ................................................................................................................................... 14

3. Other Interactions: Grazing, Exotic Species, and Insects ..................................................................... 15

II. RESTORING AND MANAGING WILDERNESS FIRE ................................................... 17

A. History of Wilderness Fire Management .................................................................................................. 17

B. Philosophy and Goals of Wilderness Fire Management ........................................................................... 18

C. Restoring Fire: Planning, Implementation, and Evaluation ....................................................................... 20

1. Approaches and Options: Wildland Fire, Prescribed Burning, and Minimum Impact Fire Suppression 20

2. Monitoring and Evaluating Fire Restoration .......................................................................................... 22

D. Considerations and Constraints on Restoring Wilderness Fire ................................................................ 24

1. Legal ..................................................................................................................................................... 24

2. Social and Political ................................................................................................................................ 26

3. Economic .............................................................................................................................................. 27

E. Managing Risk .......................................................................................................................................... 28

F. Current Wilderness Fire Issues ................................................................................................................. 29

1. Policy and Management ........................................................................................................................ 29

2. Administrative Boundaries .................................................................................................................... 30

3. Wildland-Urban Interface ....................................................................................................................... 31

4. Large Fires and High-Intensity Fires ..................................................................................................... 31

5. Mechanical Thinning ............................................................................................................................. 32

6. Fire and Climate .................................................................................................................................... 32

7. Air Pollution From Wildland Fires .......................................................................................................... 33

III. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES......................................................................................... 35

A. Fire Management Plans ........................................................................................................................... 35

B. Online Resources ..................................................................................................................................... 35

AUTHOR INDEX ................................................................................................................ 39

iii

USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 1

INTRODUCTION

Humans have long maintained a complex and dynamic

relationship with wildland fire. While native North Americans utilized fire for hundreds of years to promote growth

of certain plants, facilitate hunting, and clear travel corridors (Williams 1994), during most of the 20th century fire

on U.S. public lands was viewed as dangerous and destructive. For decades, Federal agencies have worked to suppress and minimize wildland fire on public lands, including

wilderness and other similarly protected areas (Parsons and

Landres 1998). To protect scenery and natural features, for

example, early National Park managers worked to save

these areas from destruction by fire (Parsons and Botti

1996). Yet ecological research gradually revealed that fire

plays a more complex role in ecosystems than we previously believed (Christensen 1988). Although it is true that

fire changes landscapes, many of these changes help to

maintain mosaics of vegetation, recycle nutrients, and conserve biological diversity (Kilgore 1986). Additionally,

anthropological research has shown that humans have not

always had an adversarial relationship with fire, and that

in fact, fire played an important role in the hunting and

gathering systems of many Native American tribes (Lewis

1985).

In light of this understanding, fire management on U.S.

Federal lands has changed. Rather than attempt to suppress all fires, managers now work to minimize the risks

associated with fire while allowing fire to play a more natural role in maintaining ecological processes and communities (NPS and others 1998). Permitting a natural role for

fire is particularly appropriate for wilderness and protected

areas with the mandate to maintain natural conditions;

however, restoring fire to ecosystems after decades of fire

suppression poses many challenges (Parsons 2000). In many

areas, the structure and composition of plant communities

has changed in response to fire suppression. In the absence

of fires, woody fuels tend to accumulate in forests, which

in turn can increase their susceptibility to intense fires (Arno

and others 2000). Additionally, due to population growth

and development, many wilderness areas and National

Parks now border homes or communities, increasing the

risks associated with escaped fires. Restoring fire to wilderness and protected areas requires management that integrates ecological and social knowledge, taking into

account the effects of various management options on plant,

animal, and human communities.

A significant body of knowledge has developed surrounding fire ecology, fire management, and wilderness

fire restoration. This knowledge draws on the experiences

of managers in the field, as well as on the physical, natural, and social sciences. The literature collected here represents a small subset of this vast literature, selected for its

relevance to the issue of wilderness fire restoration and

management.

As a broad overview of the literature on wilderness fire,

this reading list does not offer sufficient information on

which to base fire management plans. Specific plans for

restoring and managing fire in wilderness will require sitespecific knowledge, because ecosystems are varied and

complex. An understanding of local plant communities,

their effects on fire behavior, and their responses to fire

will be of central importance, as will information on animal distributions, behavior and habitat requirements, patterns of natural and human disturbance, jurisdictional

boundaries, social and recreational values, and risks to life

and property. Nonetheless, the structure of this reading list,

and the papers we have cited and annotated, should provide readers with a conceptual framework for applying

wilderness fire research to management. Furthermore, the

reading list can help readers to identify the types of local

and regional knowledge needed to manage fire in wilderness in accordance with the purposes set forth in the Wilderness Act and similar legislation designed to protect the

values of naturalness and wildness on public lands.

SCOPE

This reference list provides an overview of key literature

relating to fire restoration and management in wilderness and

similarly protected areas. This list, which centers on the United

States, should be helpful to managers or researchers new to

the topic, or to those seeking knowledge about specific aspects of wilderness fire management. Because of the large

volume of information on wildland fire, as well as the efforts

of other agencies and research organizations to synthesize

this information, we did not develop a comprehensive bibliography on all aspects of fire ecology and management. Instead, we focus on the scientific literature that relates most

directly to wilderness fire issues. We have given particular

attention to the challenges of returning fire to wilderness following a history of fire suppression.

The reading list emphasizes recent literature over older

papers and favors papers with a broad geographic and scientific scope over those that are narrower. We focus on recent

literature because Federal land management agencies have

mandates to utilize the “best available science,” which usually means the most current research, and because newer papers tend to cite important older works, enabling the reader to

pursue these. A few older classic papers are included, however, where they provide the best source for concepts important to current research and management.

We chose to emphasize geographical and topical breadth

because we intend the reference list to provide a starting

point for reading and research—to outline “the lay of the

land” for wilderness fire restoration, and to be useful to

managers throughout the United States. Region- and sitespecific information and details about specific techniques

are crucial to effective fire management, but including such

information would diminish the list’s effectiveness as a
2 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

manageable outline of key general references. Additionally, although we strived for geographical balance, a substantial portion of the literature on wilderness fire

restoration comes from the Western United States, and the

list reflects this geographical concentration.

We have tried not to duplicate other efforts to compile

fire science for managers; instead we direct readers to existing databases or resources. For example, although fire

modeling is an important aspect of wilderness fire management, we include few references on this topic, because

the Fire Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, MT, serves as

an excellent resource for technical advice regarding predictive fire models. Similarly, the Tall Timbers Research

Station maintains an extensive, searchable bibliography on

fire ecology. We have attempted to identify such relevant

resources, and we refer readers to them in annotations

throughout the reading list.

Although not comprehensive, the sources cited here represent a significant portion of the wilderness related fire

literature. This reading list gathers together and organizes

this literature in a way that we hope will be useful to both

managers and researchers.

ORGANIZATION

The organizing outline for this reading list provides a

framework for understanding and evaluating wilderness fire

management options and their consequences. The list is

divided into three parts. The first part provides background

information that underpins fire management generally, including books and papers on fire ecology, fire as a natural

disturbance, and human relationships with fire. The second part, which forms the core of the reading list, focuses

specifically on fire restoration and management in wilderness and protected areas. Papers on the history and philosophy of wilderness fire set the context. Next, the list

covers planning, management, and evaluation of wilderness fire programs, as well as the constraints on fire restoration. Many of the citations in this section examine

strategies for returning fire to wilderness, in keeping with

the Wilderness Act’s mandate that in wilderness, natural

processes should prevail. The third and final section lists

additional resources—such as policy documents, online

databases, and sample fire plans—relevant to wilderness

fire restoration and management.

The reading list is further broken down by topic. Within

each topic, the articles are alphabetized by author’s last

name. Major topics are prefaced by a paragraph introducing and summarizing the literature included within the section to orient the reader and highlight key papers. To avoid

duplication, annotations for papers relating to multiple topics were included in the section we judged most relevant.

However such papers are listed and cross-referenced in the

other relevant sections as well.

REFERENCES

Arno, Stephen F.; Parsons, David J.; Keane, Robert E. 2000.

Mixed-severity fire regimes in the Northern Rocky Mountains: consequences of fire exclusion and options for the future. In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.; Borrie, William

T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a time

of change conference—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems,

threats, and management; 1999 May 23–27; Missoula, MT.

Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 225–232.

Christensen, Norman L. 1988. Succession and natural disturbance: paradigms, problems, and preservation of natural ecosystems. In: Agee, James K.; Johnson, Darryll R., eds.

Ecosystem management for parks and wilderness. Seattle,

WA: University of Washington Press: 62–86.

Kilgore, Bruce M. 1986. The role of fire in wilderness: a state-ofknowledge review. In: Lucas, R. C., ed. Proceedings: national

wilderness research conference: issues, state-of-knowledge, future directions; 1985 July 23–26; Fort Collins, CO. Gen. Tech.

Rep. INT-220. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 70–103.

Lewis, Henry T. 1985. Why Indians burned: specific versus general

reasons. In: Lotan, James E.; Kilgore, Bruce M.; Fischer,

William C.; Mutch, Robert W., eds. Proceedings—symposium

and workshop on wilderness fire; 1983 November 15–18;

Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-182. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest

and Range Experiment Station: 75–80.

National Park Service; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service; Bureau of Indian Affairs; U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service; Bureau of Land Management. 1998. Wildland and

prescribed fire management policy: implementation procedures reference guide. Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire

Center.

Parsons, David J. 2000. The challenge of restoring natural fire

to wilderness. In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.; Borrie,

William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science

in a time of change conference—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 May 23–27;

Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden, UT: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain

Research Station: 276–282.

Parsons, David J.; Botti, Stephen J. 1996. Restoration of fire in

National Parks. In: Hardy, Colin C.; Arno, Stephen F., eds.

The use of fire in forest restoration. Gen. Tech. Rep. INTGTR-341. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 29–31.

Parsons, D. J.; Landres, P. B. 1998. Restoring natural fire to

wilderness: how are we doing? In: Pruden, Teresa L.; Brennan,

Leonard A., eds. Fire in ecosystem management: shifting the

paradigm from suppression to prescription; 1996 May 7–10;

Boise, ID. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference Proceedings, No. 20. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 366–373.

Williams, Gerald W. (1994.) References on the American Indian use of fire in ecosystems [Online]. Available: http://

wings.buffalo.edu/academic/department/anthropology/Documents/firebib [2001, June 1].
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 3

ANNOTATED READING LIST
4 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 5

A. Overviews

An understanding of fire ecology provides an important

underpinning for wilderness fire management. The books,

proceedings, and articles in this section offer key background on wildland and wilderness fire. Topics include fire

behavior, fire effects on plants, animals, and ecological

processes, fire regimes, and legal, policy, and management

issues relating to fire. Two reviews (Agee 2000; Kilgore

1986) and a conference on wilderness fire (Brown and others 1995) discuss the unique issues involved in the science

and management of fire in protected areas. The other publications focus more broadly, but contain useful background

on fire science and various approaches to managing wildland fire.

Agee, James K. 1993. Fire ecology of the Pacific Northwest forests. Washington, DC: Island Press. 493 p.

Annotation: This book gives a thorough account of fire ecology in the Pacific Northwest United States. The first six chapters provide general background on the ecology of fire,

including discussions of fire regimes, the cultural history of

fire in North America, fire history methodologies, and fire’s

effects on plant communities. Examples are primarily from

the Pacific Northwest, but these chapters offer a useful overview of fire ecology generally. The remainder of the book

focuses on specific forest and ecosystem types of the Pacific

Northwest, covering fire regimes, stand development patterns,

fuels, and management issues.

Agee, James K. 2000. Wilderness fire science: a state of

the knowledge review. In: Cole, David N.; McCool,

Stephen F.; Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer,

comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc.

RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 5–22.

Annotation: This paper reviews progress in wilderness fire

science and management since Kilgore’s 1986 review (see

annotation, this section). Agee documents an increased understanding of fire behavior and effects, as well as an improvement in fire models with the advent of GIS and other

tools. However the lack of sufficient data to parameterize

and test fire models—and specifically, the lack of weather

information for wilderness—limits our ability to use predictive models in wilderness fire management. Additional

work is also needed to incorporate patchiness and variability into simulations of fire behavior and effects. In addition to identifying these research and information needs,

Agee traces the history of fire science and management in

wilderness and protected areas and points to key books

and proceedings on these topics. The review identifies three

challenging areas for future work: understanding and managing fire in a landscape context, further improving our

knowledge of fire behavior and effects, and integrating

weather and climate change data into wilderness fire science.

Brown, James K.; Mutch, Robert W.; Spoon, Charles

W.; Wakimoto, Ronald H., tech. coords. 1995. Proceedings: symposium on fire in wilderness and park management; 1993 March 30–April 1; Missoula, MT. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-320. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research

Station. 283 p.

Annotation: This conference proceedings contains a wide

variety of papers about wilderness fire, written by both

researchers and managers. Most papers relate directly to

fire management and represent many different angles, including ecological science, communication and public relations, compliance with Federal laws and regulations, and

funding. Most of the papers are short and free of technical

jargon. The volume provides a good overview of key issues relating to fire and protected areas.

I. FIRE ECOLOGY AND

MANAGEMENT
6 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

DeBano, Leonard F.; Neary, Daniel G.; Ffolliott, Peter

F. 1998. Fire’s effects on ecosystems. New York: John

Wiley and Sons. 333 p.

Annotation: This recent textbook provides an overview of

fire behavior and fire effects on ecosystems and relates

this information to fire management. The book includes a

brief summary of each section (Fire Dynamics, Soil Responses, Responses of Other Resources, and Management

Implications), and the chapters are broken into subcategories, allowing the reader to reference specific topics.

Although not focused specifically on protected areas, the

book considers a variety of topics relevant to wilderness

fire management, including a detailed section on fire

effects on cultural resources. Other pertinent topics include

discussions of planning prescribed burns and the role of

fire in ecosystem restoration. Also, the discussion of soil

and belowground effects of fire sets this book apart from

other similar texts.

Hardy, Colin C.; Arno, Stephen F., eds. 1996. Proceedings: the use of fire in forest restoration: a general session at the annual meeting of the Society for Ecological

Restoration; 1995 September 14–16; Seattle, WA. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-341. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research

Station. 86 p.

Annotation: This proceedings contains papers relating to

needs assessment for fire restoration, restoration of fire in

inland forests, and restoration of fire in Pacific Westside

forests. The themes of structural and process restoration

unite many of the contributions.

Kilgore, Bruce M. 1986. The role of fire in wilderness:

a state-of-knowledge review. In: Lucas, R. C., ed. Proceedings: National wilderness research conference: issues,

state-of-knowledge, future directions; 1985 July 23-26; Fort

Collins, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-220. Ogden, UT: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Research Station: 70–103.

Annotation: This thorough review outlines wilderness fire

research and relates this information to management.

Kilgore discusses fire history, effects, and behavior, reviews

research methods and findings in these areas, and shows

how fire research has been applied to park and wilderness

management. In addition, the paper points out ongoing

controversies in wilderness fire management and identifies research needs. The paper heavily cites the literature

and references many classic studies from throughout the

United States, Canada, and Australia. Although written

nearly two decades ago, the paper remains a useful resource

on the topic of wilderness fire.

Nodvin, Stephen C.; Waldrop, Thomas A., eds. 1991.

Fire and the environment: ecological and cultural perspectives: proceedings of an international symposium;

1990 March 20–24; Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE69. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Southeast Forest Experiment Station. 429 p.

Annotation: This proceedings covers a broad range of topics relating to wildland fire and its management. Subtopics covered in the proceedings include fire ecology, fire

management, cultural issues, fire history, and the

Yellowstone fires of 1988. Although not all of the papers

relate directly to wilderness fire, a number of the studies

focus on National Parks, and a variety of key ecological,

policy and social issues are discussed.

Pyne, Stephen J.; Andrews, Patricia L.; Laven, Richard D. 1996a. Introduction to wildland fire—second edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 769 p.

Annotation: This book provides an overview of fire science and management. The first part discusses the fundamentals of wildland fire, covering fire behavior, fuels and

weather. The second section emphasizes fire regimes, fire

ecology, and fire history and provides an introduction to

fire management. Fire management is the exclusive focus

of the third section, which includes detailed discussions of

fire suppression and prescribed fire. The final section, concerning fire around the world, offers an international perspective. Although the subject of wilderness fire does not

play a prominent role in the book, the topics covered are

relevant to all fire management, and a number of case studies deal with fire in parks and wilderness areas. Additionally, each chapter concludes with a section on further

readings to assist the reader in pursuing specific topics.

Tall Timbers Research Station. (Ongoing). E. V.

Komarek Fire Ecology Database. Available: http://

www.talltimbers.org/feco.html [2001, June 1].

Annotation: This extensive, online, keyword-searchable

database includes more than 10,000 articles relating to the

ecology and management of fire. The database draws on

scientific papers, books, conference proceedings, and

agency documents and is international in scope, though

weighted somewhat toward the Southeastern United States.

The database is updated continuously and is free to access.

Whelan, Robert J. 1995a. The ecology of fire. New York:

Cambridge University Press. 346 p.

Annotation: Whelan provides an overview of the ecology

of fire, emphasizing population and community level

effects. The book covers basics of “the phenomenon of

fire,” then turns to fire’s effects on individuals and populations of animals and plants. The influence of fire on community characteristics such as species richness and

composition are also considered. Whelan closes with a

chapter on fire management, which describes the challenges

of applying ecological theory to management and attempts

to overcome some of those challenges by relating the information from earlier chapters to practical issues faced

by managers. Included is a section on hazard reduction

burning and its ecological implications, as well as a discussion of prescribed fire which lists a number of questions useful in deciding how to restore fire to natural areas.

Whelan, Robert J. 1995b. Fire and management. In:

Whelan, Robert J. The ecology of fire. New York:

Cambridge University Press: 294–308.

Annotation: In this chapter, Whelan discusses the prospects for and barriers to ecologically-based fire management. Fire has been used by humans for centuries for a

variety of utilitarian purposes with little attention to

ecosystem-level effects, though we now have an improved
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 7

understanding of the ecological role of fire. Lack of communication between scientists and managers and the dearth

of management-related science act as barriers to the integration of ecology into fire management. Many fire programs emphasize hazard-reduction burning rather than

natural fire regimes. Differences in the ecological effects

of hazard-reduction burning versus natural fire are discussed. Whelan recommends the use of historical fire regimes to guide fire management, though he acknowledges

limitations in fire history methodologies as well as disagreement about the goals of fire restoration. A list of considerations for natural fire management is included along

with suggestions for research and monitoring for natural

fire programs. The article contains information relevant to

planning prescribed burning and to managing fire for “naturalness” rather than purely utilitarian goals.

B. Fire Behavior and Effects

(Selected Reviews)

This section contains a number of recent papers on fire

behavior and fire effects on plants, animals, landscapes,

and aquatic ecosystems. In selecting papers, we emphasized reviews that synthesize a portion of the literature on

these vast topics. For example, under fire behavior, Albright

and Meisner (1999) review fire simulation systems and their

use in fire management, while Turner and Romme (1994)

discuss the relationship between landscape characteristics

and fire behavior. In the realm of fire effects, Gresswell

(1999) provides a discussion of aquatic systems, Johnson

and Miyanishi (1995) examine the importance of fire behavior and effects in planning prescribed burns,

McLoughlin (1998) looks at the effects of fire seasonality

on plants and animals, Brown and Smith (2000) discuss

fire effects on flora, and Smith (2000) synthesizes the literature on animals’ responses to fire. In “Fire at the Landscape Scale,” papers focus on spatial patterns of fire and

landscape heterogeneity, and the reciprocal interactions

between fire and landscape characteristics. Included

throughout are references to more comprehensive information sources, such as the Fire Effects Information System compiled and maintained by the U.S. Forest Service

Fire Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, MT. These resources

may be particularly helpful to those seeking information

on a specific species or aspect of fire effects and behavior.

1. Fire Behavior

Albright, Dorothy; Meisner, Bernard N. 1999. Classification of fire simulation systems. Fire Management Notes.

59(2): 5–12.

Annotation: This article provides an overview of fire behavior models and their uses. Albright and Meisner classify fire simulation systems as physical, physical-statistical,

statistical, or probabilistic and explain the differences

among these types. Additionally, techniques for simulating fire spread (for example, bond percolation, cellular

automaton) are described. The paper also identifies key

considerations for managers selecting a fire simulation

system and provides a brief description of six recent systems. The paper distills a substantial amount of technical

information into a clear and accessible format, paying particular attention to the use of models in fire management.

Johnson, E. A.; Miyanishi, K. 1995. The need for consideration of fire behavior and effects in prescribed

burning. Restoration Ecology. 3(4): 271–278.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.B.2, page 8.

Pyne, Stephen J.; Andrews, Patricia L.; Laven,

Richard D. 1996b. Fire behavior. In: Pyne, Stephen J;

Andrews, Patricia L.; Laven, Richard D. Introduction to

wildland fire—second edition. New York: John Wiley and

Sons: 46–89.

Annotation: This chapter provides a thorough overview

of fire behavior. Different types of fire—ground fire, surface fire, and crown fire—are discussed, along with their

relationships to fuels, topography, and weather. The chapter also covers fire growth, spread, and intensity, and fire

modeling techniques. Pyne and others include case histories for a number of specific fires from the Western, Midwestern, and Southeastern United States, linking the fire

behavior principles discussed in the chapter to specific

management situations.

Turner, Monica G.; Romme, William H. 1994. Landscape dynamics in crown fire ecosystems. Landscape

Ecology. 9(1): 59–77.

Annotation: This paper discusses factors that control crown

fire behavior, with particular attention to landscape characteristics. Work in Yellowstone National Park and elsewhere illustrates that landscape features and crown fires

influence one another: landscapes shape fire behavior and

fire behavior shapes landscapes. Crown fires tend to occur

in drought-prone areas, and they generate nonequilibrium

dynamics, making it difficult to characterize “natural” fire

regimes for these areas and posing a challenge for natural

fire management. The paper points out that fire behavior is

influenced by patterns and processes at multiple scales in

space and time; therefore models that focus only on local

scale processes may be inadequate to predict burning patterns, particularly for crown fires or fires that spread through

“spotting.”

www.fire.org. (2000, July 10–last update). Available:

http://www.fire.org [2001, June 1].

Annotation: This Web site provides access to a number of

tools and models currently available to help predict fire

behavior. The site itself is more of a clearinghouse than a

content-rich resource. However, it offers links to the

BehavePlus, FARSITE, and FIREFAMILY+ fire prediction

tools. In addition, the site links to both the Fire Effects

Information System (FEIS, annotated below, section I.B.2)

and the Citation Retrieval System, a keyword-searchable

database of the scientific literature used in compiling the

FEIS.
8 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

2. Fire Effects on Plants, Animals, and Ecological Processes

Agee, James K. 1993. Fire ecology of the Pacific Northwest forests. Washington, DC: Island Press. 493 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 5.

Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. 2000. Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech.

Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-VOL-2. Ogden: UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research

Station. 257 p.

Annotation: This volume offers a thorough review of the

scientific literature pertaining to wildland fire’s effects on

vegetation and fuels. Following an opening chapter which

provides background on fire regimes, the report offers a

detailed discussion of fire’s effects on plants—how fire

influences plant mortality, vegetative regeneration and regeneration by seed, and other aspects of plant growth and

reproduction. Chapters three through seven examine fire

effects on plants in five major North American ecosystems.

The eighth chapter focuses on climate change interactions

with fire, and the final chapter examines the relationship

between ecological principles and fire management.

Though the volume covers a vast literature, the organization of the chapters makes the information accessible and

clear.

DeBano, Leonard F.; Neary, Daniel G.; Ffolliott, Peter

F. 1998. Fire’s effects on ecosystems. New York: John

Wiley and Sons. 333 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 6.

Gresswell, Robert E. 1999. Fire and aquatic ecosystems

in forested biomes of North America. Transactions of the

American Fisheries Society. 128: 193–221.

Annotation: This review examines the effects of fire on

biological and physical characteristics of aquatic ecosystems and identifies research needs relating to aquatic ecosystems and fire. Although fire can have both direct and

indirect effects on nutrients, aquatic invertebrates, and

fishes, these effects vary depending on watershed characteristics (for example, geomorphology, soils), pre- and

postfire vegetation structure, climate, weather, and other

factors. Additionally, fire interacts with the anthropogenic

effects of land use history. Two detailed tables summarize

the results of selected studies on the biological and physical effects of fires on forested watersheds. Although the

author makes few generalizations about fire and aquatic

systems, he does suggest that many aquatic species evolved

with and are adapted to fire. However, postfire recovery of

populations at the landscape scale requires connectivity

and refugia that can act as sources for recolonization.

Haase, Sally M.; Sackett, Stephen S. 1998. Effects of

prescribed fire in giant sequoia-mixed conifer stands in

Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. In: Pruden,

Teresa L.; Brennan, Leonard A., eds. Fire in ecosystem

management: shifting the paradigm from suppression to

prescription; 1996 May 7–10; Boise, ID. Tall Timbers Fire

Ecology Conference Proceedings, No. 20. Tallahassee, FL:

Tall Timbers Research Station: 236–243.

Annotation: This study investigated the effects of prescribed burning on soil temperature, tree cambium temperature, and soil nutrients in giant sequoia-mixed forest

in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. Although

soil and cambium temperatures reached levels with the potential to damage sequoia trees, the authors recorded no

mortality in giant sequoia. In contrast, sugar pine experienced significant mortality (67 percent). However, the authors suggest that regeneration of both sugar pine and giant

sequoia after prescribed burning suggests that the loss of

sugar pine is short term. Although the paper is specific to

two tree species in the Sierra Nevada, the study highlights

the potential effects of prescribed burning, and the indepth

methods section may be useful in designing similar studies elsewhere.

Johnson, E. A.; Miyanishi, K. 1995. The need for consideration of fire behavior and effects in prescribed

burning. Restoration Ecology. 3(4): 271–278.

Annotation: Johnson and Miyanishi argue in this paper

that prescribed burn prescriptions should be based not on

the goal of emulating “natural” or historic conditions, but

rather on specific management goals related to fire effects.

The paper reviews basic information on the process, behavior, and effects of fire, then discusses the applications

of this information to setting fire objectives. Although the

general approach described may not be consistent with

wilderness and protected area management strategies, a

number of Johnson and Miyanishi’s recommendations—

such as using site-specific, experimental techniques—may

be helpful.

Leenhouts, Bill. 1997. Presettlement fire and emission

production estimates: a framework for understanding

potential system change. In: Bryan, D.C., ed. Conference

proceedings—environmental regulation and prescribed fire:

legal and social challenges. Tallahassee, FL: Center for

Professional Development, Florida State University:

236–241.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.F.7, page 34.

McLoughlin, Lynette C. 1998. Season of burning in the

Sydney region: the historical records compared with

recent prescribed burning. Australian Journal of Ecology. 23: 393–404.

Annotation: Although this paper focuses on fire in the region surrounding Sydney, Australia, it addresses an issue

of potential importance to North American fire management that has received little attention in the literature.

McLoughlin first reviews studies of how the seasonality of

fire affects plant and animal species. The paper then compares the seasonal distribution of recent prescribed fires

near Sydney to the timing of fires during the early years of

settlement (1788–1845). McLoughlin notes that the timing of fires has shifted away from spring and summer toward the winter months. Although the effects of this shift

are not well understood, seasonality may have important

ecological consequences, and more research is needed to

understand the implications of replacing historic patterns

of fire with prescribed burning during a different season.
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 9

Mooney, Harold A.; Bonnicksen, Thomas M.; Christensen,

Norman L.; Lotan, James E.; Reiners, William A. 1981.

Fire regimes and ecosystem properties: proceedings of the

conference; 1978 December 11–15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech.

Rep. WO-26. U.S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture. 594 p.

Annotation: See annotation in Section I.C.2, page 12.

Neary, Daniel G.; Klopatek, Carole C.; DeBano, Leonard

F.; Ffolliott, Peter F. 1999. Fire effects on belowground

sustainability: a review and synthesis. Forest Ecology and

Management. 122: 51–71.

Annotation: This paper discusses the effects of fire on

belowground processes. These processes in turn affect nutrient and water availability, and hence, plant growth, survival, and community composition. The effects of fire on

biotic and abiotic processes in the soil are influenced by

fire frequency and severity, both of which can be related to

weather patterns and past management practices. Severe

fires, which burn hot and move slowly, typically raise soil

temperatures more than faster moving, less intense fires.

Soil temperature plays an important role in determining

fire effects on belowground sustainability. As temperatures

rise above certain thresholds, nutrient volatilization and

loss of organic matter occur, changes in soil physical characteristics take place, and soil organisms (bacteria, fungi,

invertebrates) are killed. The authors point out that these

changes influence soil nutrients and hydrology, which affect plant growth and community composition. Because

plants in turn affect nutrient and organic matter inputs to

the soil, fire-induced changes soil and plant communities

can initiate feedback mechanisms that further modify soils.

Throughout the paper the authors provide specific examples

from the literature, emphasizing research from the Southwestern United States. Information on soil nutrients and

organic matter, microbes, and soil vertebrates and invertebrates is discussed in separate sections, making the paper

easy to navigate. In addition, the final section synthesizes

existing information and identifies key research needs, calling for more work on the interactions among land use practices, fire, and belowground sustainability.

Russell, Kevin R.; Van Lear, David H.; Guynn, David

C., Jr. 1999. Prescribed fire effects on herpetofauna:

review and management implications. Wildlife Society

Bulletin. 27(2): 374–384.

Annotation: This article reviews both the direct and indirect effects of fire on reptiles and amphibians, with an

emphasis on literature and examples from the southeastern United States. The authors discuss behavioral responses

to fire (for example, dispersal, burrowing) as well as research on fire’s population-level impacts on herpetofauna.

Most studies indicate that population effects are relatively

small, and the authors suggest that the negative effects of

prescribed fire on amphibian and reptiles (via direct mortality) may be outweighed by the benefits of prescribed

fire for maintaining herptile habitat. The role of prescribed

fire in shaping upland and aquatic habitats is discussed,

with some attention to the role of burn season and intensity. The benefits, drawbacks, and uncertainties associated

with the use of herbicides as a fire proxy are also outlined.

The authors conclude with a section on management implications and research needs.

Smith, Jane Kapler. 2000. Wildland fire in ecosystems:

effects of fire on fauna. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research

Station; Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-VOL-1. 83 p.

Annotation: This technical report synthesizes the extensive literature on fire’s effects on fauna. After an overview

of fire regimes and historical patterns of fire in North American ecosystems, the report discusses fire’s direct and indirect effects on animals at a variety of spatial and temporal

scales. One chapter focuses exclusively on direct effects,

identifying injury and mortality, escape and emigration,

and immigration as three major responses to fire. The subsequent three chapters examine fire effects on animals at

population, community, and landscape scales, and a fourth

chapter emphasizes fire effects on wildlife foods. The report concludes with a discussion of management implications. Though birds and mammals are emphasized

throughout, amphibians, reptiles and insects are also considered.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory

(2001, May). Fire Effects Information System, [Online].

Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2001,

June 1].

Annotation: This online database summarizes the literature on fire effects for approximately 900 plant species,

100 animal species, and 16 Kuchler vegetation types of

North America. For each species and vegetation type, the

database provides basic background information (for example, geographical distribution, ecological characteristics) and summarizes the scientific literature regarding the

relationship between the species or vegetation type and

fire. Additionally, references are listed for each species or

vegetation type, allowing the reader to pursue individual

studies on a particular topic of interest.

Whelan, Robert J. 1995a. The ecology of fire. New York:

Cambridge University Press. 346 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 6.

3. Fire at the Landscape Scale

Baker, William L. 1992. The landscape ecology of large

disturbances in the design and management of nature

reserves. Landscape Ecology. 7(3): 181–194.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.C.1, page 10.

Baker, W. L. 1993. Spatially heterogeneous multi-scale

response of landscapes to fire suppression. Oikos. 66:

66–71.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.D.2, page 14.

Lertzman, Ken; Fall, Joseph. 1998. From forest scales

to landscapes: spatial scales and the roles of disturbances. In: Peterson, David L.; Parker, V. Thomas, eds.
10 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

Ecological scale: theory and applications. New York: Columbia University Press: 339–367.

Annotation: This chapter highlights the need to examine

ecological disturbances at multiple scales. Using fire as an

example throughout the chapter, the authors identify “seven

lessons from stands to landscapes”: key ideas for understanding disturbance regimes and landscape patterns at

multiple scales and for understanding the relationships

between small and large scale processes. Connections between ecological theory, empirical data, and land management are discussed throughout the chapter.

Sampson, R. Neil; Atkinson, R. Dwight; Lewis, Joe W.

2000. Mapping wildfire hazards and risks. [Co-published

simultaneously as Journal of Sustainable Forestry, volume

11, numbers 1/2 2000.] New York: Food Products Press.

328 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.E, page 28.

Turner, Monica G.; Hargrove, William W.; Gardner,

Robert H.; Romme, William H. 1994. Effects of fire on

landscape heterogeneity in Yellowstone National Park,

Wyoming. Journal of Vegetation Science. 5:731–742.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.F.4, page 32.

Turner, Monica G.; Romme, William H. 1994. Landscape dynamics in crown fire ecosystems. Landscape

Ecology. 9(1): 59–77.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.B.1, page 7.

C. Fire as a Natural Disturbance

In recent decades, ecologists have learned that natural

disturbance plays a key role in maintaining ecological processes, generating a mosaic of vegetation types, and providing diverse habitat for animal species. The papers in

the first part of this section discuss ecological disturbances

in a management context. Christensen (1989) applies ecological theory on disturbance to the management of wilderness, and Baker (1992) discusses how knowledge of

disturbance regimes can be used to guide both the design

and management of protected areas. Landres and others

(1999) argue that management planning can incorporate

natural disturbance by using the concept of natural variability.

Papers in the second part focus on fire regimes and how

an understanding of fire patterns through time can guide

management. Maruoka and Agee (1994) offer a brief summary of fire history methods and the different types of information they provide, while Moore and others (1999)

and Swetnam and others (1999) discuss how historical reference conditions can be used in fire restoration planning.

Other papers model the effects of fire management strategies over time (Baker 1993, 1994), compare recent fire

patterns to historic regimes (Brown and others 1994; Fule

and Covington 1999; Fule and others 2000), and compare

historic and recent smoke emissions (Leenhouts 1997).

1. Ecological Disturbance and Ecosystem

Management

Baker, William L. 1992. The landscape ecology of large

disturbances in the design and management of nature

reserves. Landscape Ecology. 7(3): 181–194.

Annotation: In this paper, Baker discusses the role of natural disturbance in the design and management of natural

areas. Maintenance of natural disturbance regimes is recommended as a goal for nature reserves. However, reserve

design typically has failed to take natural disturbance fully

into account, emphasizing instead species habitat requirements. More research is needed to better understand disturbance attributes—particularly patterns of disturbance in

space and time—and their effects on landscape structure,

which in turn can assist in reserve design. The latter section of the paper discusses options for managing disturbance in natural areas, including the use of disturbance

surrogates, suppression, and prescribed disturbances.

Throughout the paper, the author uses examples involving

fire.

Christensen, Norman L. 1988. Succession and natural

disturbance: paradigms, problems, and preservation of

natural ecosystems. In: Agee, James K.; Johnson, Darryll

R., eds. Ecosystem management for parks and wilderness.

Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press: 62–86.

Annotation: This paper provides a detailed history of plant

succession paradigms and discusses fire and ecosystem

management in light of our contemporary understanding

of plant communities and how they change over time.

Christensen contrasts the classical model of succession,

where determinate patterns of community change lead to a

stable, climax condition with recent work highlighting the

complexity and diversity of successional patterns. Under

the old model, plant communities were distinct entities,

thus managers could focus on preserving representation of

a number of distinct plant community types. Newer understanding, however, suggests that plant communities are not

distinct but rather grade into one another. Additionally,

natural disturbance has been found to play a key role in

maintaining a diversity of plant communities at the landscape scale. The author emphasizes the importance of allowing or reintroducing natural disturbances such as fire

in order to maintain landscape heterogeneity and ecosystem diversity.

Christensen, Norman L. 1989. Wilderness and natural

disturbance. Forum for Applied Research and Public

Policy. 4(2): 46–49.

Annotation: This short, nontechnical paper outlines

changes in our understanding of ecological disturbance

from the early 20th century to the present and describes

the implications of these changes for wilderness management. Early ecologists viewed ecological succession as

leading to a stable, climax state, whereas contemporary

scientists view nature as constantly changing in response

to natural disturbance. Under this latter, dynamic model,

we should aim to preserve natural processes in parks and

wilderness areas rather than focus on maintaining a par-
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 11

ticular static state. Christensen discusses the implications

of the “patch dynamics” model for both reserve design and

management.

Landres, Peter B.; Morgan, Penelope; Swanson,

Frederick J. 1999. Overview of the use of natural variability concepts in managing ecological systems. Ecological Applications. 9(4): 1179–1188.

Annotation: This paper discusses the background and justification for using the concept of natural variability in setting natural resource management objectives. Natural

variability, also referred to as “historic range of variability” and “natural range of variability,” can set the context

for management of fire and other disturbances in ecological systems. The authors discuss methods for assessing

natural variability and applying this information to management. Incorporation of natural variability would move

management toward greater flexibility and require adaptability in the face of surprise events. This flexibility can

improve management, but also provides opportunities for

abuse: the authors caution that natural variability should

not be used to justify the large-scale substitution of resource extraction for natural disturbance in light of their

different effects. A greater understanding of the historic

role of natural disturbances can make natural variability a

more effective tool for setting goals and predicting outcomes under different management regimes.

Lertzman, Ken; Fall, Joseph. 1998. From forest scales

to landscapes: spatial scales and the roles of disturbances. In: Peterson, David L.; Parker, V. Thomas, eds.

Ecological scale: theory and applications. New York: Columbia University Press: 339–367.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.B.3, page 9.

2. Fire Regimes: Research Methods and

Management Implications

Agee, James K. 1993. Fire ecology of the Pacific Northwest forests. Washington, DC: Island Press. 493 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 5.

Baker, William L. 1992. The landscape ecology of large

disturbances in the design and management of nature

reserves. Landscape Ecology. 7(3): 181–194.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.C.1, page 10.

Baker, William L. 1993. Spatially heterogeneous multiscale response of landscapes to fire suppression. Oikos.

66: 66–71.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.D.2, page 14.

Baker, William L. 1994. Restoration of landscape structure altered by fire suppression. Conservation Biology.

8(3): 763–769.

Annotation: This paper presents the results of a simulation study of landscape disturbance by fire in the Boundary Water Canoe Area in Minnesota. Using a geographic

information systems (GIS) model and historic fire data,

Baker modeled two fire regimes—the actual historic regime for this area followed by fire restoration, and the fire

regime in the absence of human settlement—examining

the effects of each “treatment” on landscape structure. The

model predicted a 50–75 year recovery time for certain

landscape attributes (for example, mean patch shape) and

much longer times (up to 250 years) for the recovery of

other characteristics (for example, mean patch age). Baker

points out that landscape recovery time will vary depending on the historical fire regime as well as the patterns of

reintroduced fire. The limits of this type of simulation study

are discussed, however models can be useful in predicting

the effects of fire management policies over time.

Barrett, S. W.; Arno, S. F. 1982. Indian fires as an ecological influence in the Northern Rockies. Journal of

Forestry. 80: 647–651.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.D.1, page 13.

Brown, James K.; Arno, Stephen F.; Barrett, Stephen

W.; Menakis, James P. 1994. Comparing the prescribed

natural fire program with presettlement fires in the

Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. International Journal of

Wildland Fire. 4(3): 157–168.

Annotation: This study examines historical and recent fire

regimes for the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness of eastern

Idaho and western Montana. Brown and others reconstructed presettlement fire histories based on fire scars and

stand age classes, and the location and intensity of more

recent fires (within the 12 years preceding the report) were

mapped based on aerial photos, interviews with fire staff,

overflights, and other data sources. Comparisons between

historic and recent fire patterns show a lower fire frequency

in recent years, despite a wilderness fire restoration program initiated in 1970. The authors suggest fire suppression as a likely contributor to this difference. The paper

provides an example of how historical and contemporary

fire regimes can be described, mapped, and compared, providing baseline information for wilderness fire restoration.

Brown, James K.; Bradshaw, Larry S. 1994. Comparisons of particulate emissions and smoke impacts from

presettlement, full suppression, and prescribed natural

fire periods in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 4(3): 143–155.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.D.2, page 26.

Caprio, Anthony C.; Graber, David M. 2000. Returning fire to the mountains: can we successfully restore

the ecological role of pre-European fire regimes to the

Sierra Nevada? In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.;

Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Proceedings: wilderness science in a time of change—Volume 5:

wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999

May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 233–241.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.C.2, page 23.

Fule, Peter Z.; Covington, W. Wallace. 1999. Fire regime changes in La Michilia Biosphere Reserve,

Durango, Mexico. Conservation Biology. 13(3): 640–652.

Annotation: This study compares historical fire regimes

across a gradient of moisture and elevation in northern
12 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

Mexico’s La Michilia Biosphere Reserve. The authors used

fire scars to reconstruct fire history and identify recent

changes in patterns of fire. Based on these data, Fule and

others discuss general trends as well as the roles of site

characteristics, climate, and human influences in La

Michilia’s fire regimes. The use of fire history and ecology in reserve planning and management is also considered.

Fule, Peter Z.; Heinlein, Thomas A.; Covington, W.

Wallace; Moore, Margaret M. 2000. Continuing fire

regimes in remote forests of Grand Canyon National

Park. In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.; Borrie,

William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 May

23-27; Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-V-5. Ogden, UT:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station: 242–248.

Annotation: This study describes fire history in three areas of Grand Canyon National Park from 1700–1997. The

results are interpreted in terms of climate and historical

changes in fire management. The authors discuss the relevance of presettlement fire data to current fire management and identify impediments to the reintroduction of fire

in Grand Canyon National Park.

Maruoka, Kathleen R.; Agee, James K. 1994. Fire histories: overview of methods and applications. Tech. Notes

BMNRI-TN-2. Technical Notes from the Blue Mountains

Natural Resources Institute. OR: Blue Mountains Natural

Resources Institute. 5 p.

Annotation: This note provides a concise overview of fire

history methodologies and their utility in various situations.

Point frequencies and area frequencies can each be used to

reconstruct historic fire patterns, though they provide information at different spatial scales. Point frequencies are

generally preferable in areas with low-intensity fire regimes,

while area frequencies function better for areas with standreplacing fires. Area frequencies can be used in calculating both the natural fire rotation and the fire cycle.

Thorough fire histories generally depend on a combination of stand ages and fire scar sampling; techniques for

collecting and analyzing fire scars are discussed. Finally,

the paper briefly explains how fire history information can

be applied to fire management and planning of prescribed

fire.

McLoughlin, Lynette C. 1998. Season of burning in the

Sydney region: the historical records compared with

recent prescribed burning. Australian Journal of Ecology. 23: 393–404.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.B.2, page 8.

Mooney, Harold A.; Bonnicksen, Thomas M.; Christensen,

Norman L.; Lotan, James E.; Reiners, W. A. 1981. Fire

regimes and ecosystem properties: proceedings of the conference; 1978 December 11–15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech.

Rep. WO-26. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

594 p.

Annotation: Although this symposium proceedings is two

decades old, it contains a variety of papers by prominent

ecologists on the interactions between fire regimes and

ecosystem properties. The first section includes overviews

of fire regimes and their effects on northern ecosystems,

western forests and shrublands, grasslands, southeastern

ecosystems, and the tropics. In the second section, plant

adaptations and responses to fire are discussed. The third

part emphasizes the relationship between fire and ecosystem properties such as biogeochemical cycles, geomorphic

process, and hydrology. The final section examines fire

management options in light of ecological understanding

and public policy.

Moore, Margaret M.; Covington, Wallace W.; Fule,

Peter Z. 1999. Reference conditions and ecological restoration: a southwestern ponderosa pine perspective.

Ecological Applications. 9(4): 1266–1277.

Annotation: This paper outlines the concepts of reference

conditions and the evolutionary environment and explains

their relationship to ecological restoration, using southwestern ponderosa pine forests as an example. Moore and

others discuss the need to select and prioritize key ecosystem components in determining reference conditions, then

illustrate how reference conditions can be used to plan restoration targets and techniques. The authors also point out

the need for site-specific approaches and the importance

of considering both ecological and social conditions in planning restoration. The paper is relevant to wilderness fire

management because the examples involve southwestern

protected areas with altered fire regimes, and the potential

differences in restoration goals for wilderness versus Federal public lands generally are discussed.

Pyne, Stephen, J.; Andrews, Patricia L.; Laven, Richard D. 1996a. Introduction to wildland fire—second edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 769 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 6.

Swetnam, Thomas W. 1993. Fire history and climate

change in giant sequoia groves. Science. 262: 885–889.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.F.6, page 33.

Swetnam, Thomas W.; Allen, Craig D.; Betancourt, Julio

L. 1999. Applied historical ecology: using the past to

manage for the future. Ecological Applications. 9(4):

1189–1206.

Annotation: This paper discusses both the utility and limitations of historical ecology in relation to land management and ecological restoration. The authors discuss the

strengths and weaknesses of both natural (for example, tree

rings, pollen, packrat middens) and documentary (for example, historical photos, maps, diaries) data sources. Both

source reliability and sampling methods are critical in developing ecological histories, and multiple lines of data

are recommended. The article includes a case study of historical vegetation composition and fire regimes in the

Southwestern United States and describes its relevance to

ecological restoration. The authors conclude that historical ecology can provide context for contemporary land management, reveal the variables that drive natural disturbance,

and assist in the development of predictive fire models.

Taylor, A. H. 2000. Fire regimes and forest changes in

mid and upper montane forests of southern Cascades,
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 13

Lassen Volcanic Park, California, U.S.A. Journal of Biogeography. 27: 87–104.

Annotation: In this study, Taylor investigated fire regimes

and forest structure in mid- and upper-montane forests in

northern California’s Lassen Volcanic Park. Forest composition was found to vary with elevation and soil moisture, and fire regimes varied with forest composition and

elevation. Additionally, changes in both forest composition and fire regimes occurred following the initiation of

fire suppression in 1905. Taylor discusses the implications

of these changes for management, and in particular for the

reintroduction of fire to Lassen Volcanic and other National

Parks.

D. Anthropogenic Effects on

Fire Regimes

Humans have interacted with fire for thousands of years,

and these interactions have varied widely from time to time

and place to place. Wilderness management provides a

paradigm for human interaction with fire, but one that generally emphasizes minimal interference with ecological processes. Yet wilderness managers today face the challenge

of actively restoring fire to reverse the influences of U.S.

fire suppression throughout the 20th century. To define an

appropriate management paradigm for wilderness fire, it

is helpful to consider how humans have interacted with

fire in the past, how land use practices such as grazing

have affected fuels and fire regimes, and how wilderness

fire restoration might affect ecological systems through

influences on habitat structure, plant communities, and

forest insects and disease. The papers in this section discuss Native Americans’ historical use of fire (Arno 1985;

Barrett and Arno 198; Boyd 1999; Lewis 1985) and the

relevance of Native American fire use to wilderness management (Vale 1993), the effects of fire suppression on

ecosystems (Arno and Brown 1991; Arno and others 2000;

Baker 1992, 1993; Keeley and others 1999), and other ecosystem changes associated with fire and anthropogenic effects.

1. Native American Burning

Arno, Stephen F. 1985. Ecological effects and management implications of Indian fires. In: Lotan, James E.;

Kilgore, Bruce M.; Fischer, William C.; Mutch, Robert W.,

eds. Proceedings—symposium and workshop on wilderness fire; 1983 November 15-18; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech.

Rep. INT-182. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 81–86.

Annotation: In this short paper, the author reviews Indian

fire use in a variety of North American vegetation types

from the Great Plains to the Pacific Coast. In each case,

the ecological effects of historical burning as well as the

effects of management following European settlement are

discussed. Arno then discusses the implications of Indian

fire practices for park and wilderness management. Understanding the historical role of fire in specific ecosystems may assist managers in predicting vegetation responses

to different fire regimes. Additionally, managers may in

some cases seek to restore presettlement fire regimes and

simulate Native American burning. However, the justification for substituting prescribed fire for Native American

burning hinges on the definition of “natural” and clarification of management direction for protected areas.

Barrett, S. W.; Arno, S. F. 1982. Indian fires as an ecological influence in the Northern Rockies. Journal of

Forestry. 80: 647–651.

Annotation: Barrett and Arno used both fire scar sampling

and interviews with descendants of Native Americans and

European settlers to characterize fire history in western

Montana from the time prior to European settlement (pre1860) to late 20th century. Mean fire intervals and interviews suggested that burning by Native Americans was

frequent prior to fire suppression, which began circa 1910.

Some areas, such as accessible valley bottoms, were burned

more frequently than remote sites. Details of these findings and their implications for forest and wilderness management are discussed.

Boyd, Richard. 1999. Indians, fire and the land in the

Pacific Northwest. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 313 p.

Annotation: According to editor Robert Boyd, “the papers in this volume summarize virtually everything that is

known about Pacific Northwest Indian use of fire in the

environment” (p. 4), though he admits that much information has been lost as elders and their oral histories have

died. The book provides a number of studies of Indians

and fire in the Pacific Northwest, taking account of the

geographical and cultural variation in fire use practices.

Because the studies are grounded in diverse disciplines

(anthropology, history, botany, and forestry), the book documents the relationships between Indians, fire, and ecological change from multiple perspectives. Though not directly

tied to wilderness, the book may provide a historical and

cultural context for contemporary fire management, particularly in the Pacific Northwest.

Lewis, Henry T. 1985. Why Indians burned: specific

versus general reasons. In: Lotan, James E.; Kilgore,

Bruce M.; Fischer, William C.; Mutch, Robert W., eds. Proceedings—symposium and workshop on wilderness fire;

1983 November 15–18; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep.

INT-182. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 75–80.

Annotation: In this paper, Lewis points out that Native

American burning cannot be fully understood apart from

its larger cultural context. Anthropological research has

shown that indigenous people utilized fire not in isolation,

but as one element of their hunting and gathering practices. Lewis illustrates this point with an example from the

tribes of northern Alberta. Next the author turns to the implications of Native American fire use for contemporary

park and wilderness management. Because native people

used fire in conjunction with a variety of land management techniques, emulating Native American burning
14 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

alone—without hunting, for example–may cause unexpected or undesired effects. Park planners seeking to reintroduce fire may benefit by consulting with anthropologists

knowledgeable about the context in which fire was historically used.

Vale, Thomas R. 1998. The myth of the humanized landscape: an example from Yosemite National Park. Natural Areas Journal. 18(3): 231–236.

Annotation: This paper challenges the idea that pristine

wilderness is a mere construct based on a Eurocentric notion of North America as uninhabited prior to European

colonization. Using Yosemite National Park as an example,

Vale argues that many landscapes, particularly in the West,

were not manipulated intensively by Native Americans on

a broad scale. In Yosemite, Vale suggests that human influences were concentrated in the valley, while higher mountainous areas were relatively unaffected by humans. Studies

of historical fire regimes suggest that natural ignitions were

responsible for much of the fire activity in Yosemite; Native American influences on fire may have been minimal

and concentrated in particular areas. Vale suggests neither

the idea of pure, pristine wilderness nor that of a fully humanized landscape captures the complexity of historical

ecosystems. Empirical studies are needed to sort out where

and how humans historically influenced the land.

Williams, Gerald W. (1994). References on the American Indian use of fire in ecosystems, [Online]. Available:

http://wings.buffalo.edu/academic/department/anthropology/Documents/firebib [2001, June 1].

Annotation: This resource briefly summarizes research on

fire use by Native Americans and lists more than 200 references from ecology, anthropology, history, geography,

and archaeology relating to this topic. The overview identifies 11 ways in which Native Americans employed fire.

These include hunting, crop management, improved growth

and yields, fireproofing, insect collection, pest management, warfare, economic extortion, clearing of travel corridors, felling trees, and clearing of riparian areas. These

motivations are addressed in the articles listed in the reading list, which range from reports written by 19th century

European settlers to recent research findings on American

Indians’ use of fire.

2. Fire Suppression

Arno, Stephen F.; Brown, James K. 1991. Overcoming

the paradox in managing wildland fire. Western Wildlands. 17(1): 40–46.

Annotation: This article discusses the paradox created by

efforts to protect natural resources by suppressing fire. The

authors suggest that decades of fire suppression have, in

many wildlands, placed resources at risk. Focusing primarily on natural areas outside of wilderness, Arno and Brown

explain how fire suppression can affect vegetation structure and fire processes in areas with different fire regimes.

Historical fire suppression strongly affects managers’ options for maintaining or restoring fire as a “natural ecosystem process.” This task is further complicated by adjacent

lands management, residential development in and around

wildlands, and limited funds. Opportunities to restore natural fire regimes using prescribed natural fire and managerignited fire are discussed, considering constraints that vary

from place to place and time to time.

Arno, Stephen F.; Parsons, David J.; Keane, Robert E.

2000. Mixed-severity fire regimes in the  ̊Northern

Rocky Mountains: consequences of fire exclusion and

options for the future. In: Cole, David N.; McCool,

Stephen F.; Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer,

comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc.

RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 225–232.

Annotation: In this paper, Arno and others describe the

typical consequences of fire suppression in areas with

mixed-severity fire regimes. These consequences include

declines in fire-dependent species such as ponderosa pine,

increased dominance by uniform, single-aged stands, increased basal area, and greater tree density. The authors

use areas of the Bob Marshall Wilderness that historically

experienced mixed-severity fire regimes to illustrate

changes under fire suppression. Possible fire restoration

strategies for wilderness—particularly wilderness areas

characterized by mixed-severity fire regimes—are then

discussed and evaluated in light of their ecological effects,

their consistency with wilderness values, and their practicality.

Baker, William L. 1993. Spatially heterogeneous multiscale response of landscapes to fire suppression. Oikos.

66: 66–71.

Annotation: In this paper, Baker describes a simulation

study designed to examine the effects of fire suppression

on landscape attributes in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area

Wilderness of Minnesota. Using a GIS-based model, Baker

simulated both historical fire regimes (with suppression

beginning in 1911) and presettlement fire regimes (no suppression) from 1868 to 2368. The author presents the results of each simulation treatment at various spatial scales,

pointing out how landscape heterogeneity varies depending on the scale of analysis. The implications of suppression-induced landscape changes for animal species are

discussed. However, Baker cautions that attributing landscape change to fire suppression is difficult, given a variety of other factors (for example, grazing practices) that

can also alter landscapes and vegetation structure. Baker

concludes by suggesting that only a spatially explicit approach to prescribed burning can mitigate suppression effects without simply creating additional disturbance.

Because such an approach requires detailed understanding

of how landscape patches have been affected by fire suppression, the author recommends that prescribed burning

programs proceed with caution, particularly in parks and

wilderness areas.

Baker, William L. 1994. Restoration of landscape structure altered by fire suppression. Conservation Biology.

8(3): 763–769.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.C.2, page 11.
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 15

Boucher, Paul F.; Moody, Ronald D. 1998. The historical role of fire and ecosystem management of fires: Gila

National Forest, New Mexico. In: Pruden, Teresa L.;

Brennan, Leonard A., eds. Fire in ecosystem management:

shifting the paradigm from suppression to prescription;

1996 May 7–10; Boise, ID. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology

Conference Proceedings, No. 20. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 374–379.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.C.2, page 22.

Brown, James K.; Arno, Stephen F.; Barrett, Stephen

W.; Menakis, James P. 1994. Comparing the prescribed

natural fire program with presettlement fires in the

Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. International Journal of

Wildland Fire. 4(3): 157–168.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.C.2, page 11.

Fule, Peter Z.; Heinlein, Thomas A.; Covington, W.

Wallace; Moore, Margaret M. 2000. Continuing fire

regimes in remote forests of Grand Canyon National

Park. In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.; Borrie,

William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 May

23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden,

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station: 242–248.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.C.2, page 12.

Keeley, Jon E.; Fotheringham, C. J.; Morais, Marco.

1999. Reexamining fire suppression impact on brushland fire regimes. Science. 284: 1829–1832.

Annotation: In this paper, Keeley and others scrutinize

the assertions that fire size and intensity in California

shrublands have increased in response to fire suppression.

Based on an examination of fire history data, the authors

found that although fire frequency increased over the course

of the 20th century, fire size and intensity did not increase.

The claims of increased fire size and intensity are based

on faulty assumptions about changes in fire regimes. The

authors point out that fire suppression appears to have had

little effect on stand-replacing fire regimes in California

shrublands. In contrast, many Western U.S. forests have

experienced substantial changes in fire patterns under fire

suppression. The results of this study suggest that the responses of different ecosystems to fire suppression may

vary, and site-specific information is needed to understand

the impacts of fire suppression on a particular area.

3. Other Interactions: Grazing, Exotic

Species, and Insects

D’Antonio, Carla M. 2000. Fire, plant invasions, and

global changes. In: Mooney, Harold A.; Hobbs, Richard

J., eds. Invasive species in a changing world. Washington,

DC: Island Press: 65–93.

Annotation: This chapter reviews what is known about

the interactions between fire, exotic plants, and global

change. D’Antonio points out that fire frequently facilitates plant invasions, although in some ecosystems it may

hinder establishment and spread of exotic plants. Disturbance by fire may affect the rate of exotic plant invasion,

and conversely, exotic plants may influence disturbance

regimes. For example, in some areas the presence of some

invasive plants increases the intensity and severity of fires

as compared to historical conditions. Finally, fire and invasion may interact with land use and global climate

change, although the specific nature of interactions involving global climate change is not well understood. Throughout the paper, D’Antonio both analyzes general patterns

and provides specific examples, and the studies she reviews

are summarized in tables and organized geographically.

Fule, Peter Z.; Covington, W. Wallace. 1999. Fire regime changes in La Michilia Biosphere Reserve,

Durango, Mexico. Conservation Biology. 13(3): 640–652.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.C.2, page 11.

Hobbs, Richard J.; Huenneke, Laura F. 1992. Disturbance, diversity, and invasion: implications for conservation. Conservation Biology. 6(3): 324–337.

Annotation: In this paper, Hobbs and Huenneke discuss

how disturbance affects ecological communities and their

susceptibility to invasion by exotic species. Beginning from

a theoretical perspective, the authors characterize disturbance as a complex phenomenon, varying in type, frequency, and intensity. Specific examples are then discussed,

including how fire affects plant communities. In fire-dependent ecosystems, fire may be crucial to maintaining

the diversity of plant communities, while fire suppression

may alter community structure and composition. On the

other hand, fire can facilitate invasion by exotic plants—

and invasion, in turn, can alter disturbance regimes and

community response to disturbance. This paper provides a

thorough overview of the relationships between diversity

and invasion, drawing primarily on examples from grasslands around the world.

Madany, Michael H.; West, Neil E. 1983. Livestock grazing-fire regime interactions within montane forests of

Zion National Park, Utah. Ecology. 64(4): 661–667.

Annotation: This paper offers an example of how livestock grazing and fire can interact to alter vegetation structure and composition and to change disturbance frequency.

Comparing two ungrazed mesas in Zion National Park to a

nearby, grazed plateau, the authors found that although both

areas had ponderosa-pine dominated overstory, the understory of the grazed area was dominated by woody species

such as pine, juniper, and oak, whereas the ungrazed understory was largely composed of herbaceous plants. With

less herbaceous cover, the grazed areas became less susceptible to fire and recruitment of woody plants increased.

Although grazing effects observed here may not be generalized to all ecosystem types, this study provides an example of how an anthropogenic factor can significantly

alter forest structure and fire regimes.

McCullough, Deborah G.; Werner, Richard A.;

Neumann, David. 1998. Fire and insects in northern and

boreal forest ecosystems of North America. Annual Review of Entomology. 43: 107–127.

Annotation: This paper discusses the ways in which fire

and insects can interact, providing examples of how fire
16 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

regimes can affect insect diversity and insect outbreaks and

conversely, how defoliating insects can alter forest structure and composition and change susceptibility to fire. The

use of fire to control insects, the sometimes analogous effects that insects and fire have on succession, the effects of

fire suppression on insect population dynamics, and the

ways in which fire can alter insect community composition and diversity are each discussed. Although the paper

emphasizes a particular geographical region—northern and

boreal forests—the section on fire suppression may be helpful to those interested in wilderness fire restoration and

how changes in fire regimes can alter insect dynamics,

which in turn may affect both forest structure and patterns

of fire.
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 17

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research

Station. 283 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 5.

Christensen, Norman L. 1991. Wilderness and high intensity fire: how much is enough. 1991. In: High intensity fire in wildlands: management challenges and options;

1989 May 18–21; Tallahassee, FL. Tall Timbers Fire Conference Proceedings No. 17. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers

Research Station: 9–24.

Annotation: This keynote address focuses on the relationship between ecological science and fire management

throughout the 20th century. Christensen discusses the

changing views of ecological succession and stability from

the classical view of succession to climax to the contemporary paradigm of complexity and change. These changes

are reflected in the management of wildland fires: under

the classical view, fires and other disturbances were to be

avoided in order to maintain stable, climax communities,

whereas the modern view suggests that change is inherent

in natural systems and fire maintains important ecological

processes. Specific implications of this paradigm shift for

the management of wilderness fire are discussed.

Christensen, Norman L. 1995. Fire and wilderness. International Journal of Wilderness. 1(1): 30–34.

Annotation: In this paper, Christensen discusses the evolution of parks and protected area management in relation

to fire. When parks were first established in the late 19th

century, they were viewed as “museums” to be preserved

in a static condition. In recent decades, however, ecologists and managers began to recognize that natural systems are dynamic, and to adjust management to take change

into account. Fire management policies have shifted from

suppression to restoration of “natural” disturbance regimes

using both natural and planned ignition fires. However,

restoring fire has not been easy: ecological change is complex, and clear goals are needed to guide management.

A. History of Wilderness Fire

Management

Fire management in wilderness has changed significantly

during the past century. After the dramatic fires of 1910,

Federal public lands policy shifted strongly toward fire

suppression. The goal of preventing fires from “damaging” ecological systems reflected the prevailing scientific

theory of the time, which emphasized the development of

ecosystems to a stable, climax state. As ecologists began

to question the “balance of nature” paradigm and develop

new views of ecosystems as dynamic, the use of fire suppression to preserve areas in a static state also came under

scrutiny. In 1968, the National Park Service initiated a

major change in policy, allowing lightning-caused fires to

burn within the bounds of specific prescriptions and permitting manager-ignited prescribed fire (Parsons and Botti

1996). Other major Federal land management agencies with

wilderness jurisdiction also have modified their policies to

accommodate fire as a natural disturbance, although fire

suppression continues to play a major role. The articles in

this section examine the history of fire wilderness management and discuss policy changes over the course of the

last century.

Agee, James K. 2000. Wilderness fire science: a state of

the knowledge review. In: Cole, David N.; McCool,

Stephen F.; Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer,

comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc.

RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 5–22.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 5.

Brown, James K.; Mutch, Robert W.; Spoon, Charles

W.; Wakimoto, Ronald H., tech. coords. 1995. Proceedings: symposium on fire in wilderness and park management; 1993 March 30–April 1; Missoula, MT. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-320. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

II. RESTORING AND MANAGING

 WILDERNESS FIRE
18 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

And even when goals and management plans are set, we

should “expect the unexpected,” since we lack complete

knowledge or control. Management that adapts in response

to new information from research or monitoring will be

most successful in achieving goals.

Parsons, David J.; Botti, Stephen J. 1996. Restoration

of fire in National Parks. In: Hardy, Colin C.; Arno,

Stephen F., eds. The use of fire in forest restoration. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-341. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research

Station: 29–31.

Annotation: This paper discusses the evolution of National

Park Service fire management from attempting to suppress

all fires to understanding fire as a natural process. Parsons

and Botti trace the development of prescribed natural fire

and prescribed burning programs in the National Parks,

evaluate their success, and identify a number of challenges

facing contemporary managers of fire in parks and other

natural areas. These challenges include clarifying goals and

objectives, integrating scientific research into management,

working with limited resources, and cooperating across

agency and administrative boundaries.

Parsons, David J.; Landres, Peter B. 1998. Restoring

natural fire to wilderness: how are we doing? In: Pruden,

Teresa L.; Brennan, Leonard A., eds. Fire in ecosystem

management: shifting the paradigm from suppression to

prescription; 1996 May 7–10; Boise, ID. Tall Timbers Fire

Ecology Conference Proceedings, No. 20. Tallahassee, FL:

Tall Timbers Research Station: 366–373.

Annotation: This paper discusses the evolution of fire restoration in wilderness, and evaluates the current situation

on Federal lands. After briefly outlining the history of fire

management in wilderness managed by the National Park

Service (NPS), Forest Service (USFS), Bureau of Land

Management (BLM), and the Fish and Wildlife Service

(USFWS), the authors evaluate the accomplishments of

each agency’s fire program. The National Park Service currently has the most complete fire management records.

However, wilderness is not separated from nonwilderness

in NPS documentation. The three other agencies (USFS,

BLM, USFWS) have poor or incomplete records, or have

made little use of prescribed natural fire. The authors conclude with a number of recommendations, including better record keeping, increased coordination among agencies,

improved integration of science, and explicit goals and standards for fire restoration.

B. Philosophy and Goals of Wilderness

Fire Management

Wilderness and similarly protected areas are guided by

unique philosophies that generally emphasize natural conditions and processes and aim to minimize human impacts.

Thus, active management of fire in wilderness presents a

dilemma: is it possible to reintroduce fire without “trammeling” wilderness? The articles in this section wrestle

with philosophical questions such as this, which play an

important role in setting wilderness management goals. For

example, is it acceptable to manipulate wilderness vegetation in the short term to achieve longer term objectives of

restoring fire as a natural process (Landres and others 2000;

Sydoriak and others 2000)? And on a more practical level,

should managers begin by reintroducing fire as a process,

or should vegetation structure be restored to some historical condition before initiating prescribed burns (Agee and

Huff 1986)? What types of goals should guide wilderness

fire management (Barrett 1999; Bonnicksen and Stone

1985; Kilgore 1985)? Although they offer few definitive

answers, the papers in this section raise important issues

for consideration and elucidate some of the philosophical

issues related to restoration of wilderness fire.

Agee, James K.; Huff, Mark H. 1986. Structure and

process goals for vegetation in wilderness areas. In:

Lucas, R. C., ed. Proceedings—National Wilderness Research Conference: current research; 1985 July 23–26; Fort

Collins, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-212. Ogden, UT: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Research Station: 17–25.

Annotation: This paper lays out a variety of ecological

and philosophical considerations associated with wilderness fire management goals. The authors separately address goals for areas with frequent, intermediate, and

infrequent fire, illustrating the importance of site characteristics in determining appropriate goals and methods.

Specific examples from a variety of forest types are discussed, and the authors portray the complexity of wilderness fire management, taking into account factors such as

the relationship between fire and insect infestation, the role

of climate in driving vegetation change and fire, and the

effects of fire suppression on both vegetation structure and

disturbance processes.

Barrett, Stephen W. 1999. Why burn wilderness? Fire

Management Notes. 59(4): 18–21.

Annotation: In this article, Barrett draws on his own fire

history studies in central Idaho wilderness in asserting that

recent fire patterns differ significantly from historical regimes in this region. Recent fires tend to be more intense

and less frequent than those prior to 1900, and Barrett argues that their effects likely differ as well. Human influences have modified natural patterns and processes in

wilderness, therefore human actions—in the form of prescribed fires—are needed to restore these patterns and processes. Barrett argues that simply leaving wilderness alone,

as some advocate, will lead to species declines and the

perpetuation of “mutant ecosystems of our own making.”

Bonnicksen, T. M.; Stone, E. C. 1985. Restoring naturalness to the National Parks. Environmental Management. 9: 479–486.

Annotation: Fire management in National Parks suffers

from a lack of quantitative standards by which to measure

naturalness, according to Bonnicksen and Stone. The majority of National Parks are guided by legislation that directs managers to maintain natural conditions—but without

clear standards, it is impossible to evaluate the effectiveness of park management. The authors assert that prescribed

burning programs have been broadly applied in the parks

of California’s Sierra Nevada without well-defined goals.
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 19

Defining goals requires a better understanding of ecological history and thorough descriptions of historic stand structure that include spatial patterns. Bonnicksen and Stone

argue that to restore natural fire processes and natural fire

effects, vegetation structure may require manipulation in

advance of reintroducing fire.

Brown, James K.; Mutch, Robert W.; Spoon, Charles

W.; Wakimoto, Ronald H., tech. coords. 1995. Proceedings: symposium on fire in wilderness and park management; 1993 March 30–April 1; Missoula, MT. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-320. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research

Station. 283 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 5.

Kilgore, Bruce M. 1985. What is “natural” in wilderness fire management? In: Lotan, James E.; Kilgore, Bruce

M.; Fischer, William C.; Mutch, Robert W., tech. coords.

Proceedings—symposium and workshop on wilderness fire.

Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-182. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and

Range Experiment Station: 57–67.

Annotation: In this paper, Kilgore explores the concept of

“natural” in managing wilderness fire, drawing both on

the literature and on a survey of scientists and managers.

The term “natural” has been interpreted in multiple ways,

and ambiguity surrounds its definition. Can human-set fires

be natural? Does natural fire management entail replicating historical fire patterns and effects, or allowing fire to

evolve as a dynamic part of an ecosystem? Kilgore discusses a variety of responses to the question of naturalness, then concludes that natural fires are those that burn

within the range of variability and cause the range of effects found prior to European technological influence.

Landres, Peter B.; White, Peter S.; Aplet, Greg;

Zimmermann, Anne. 1998a. Naturalness and natural

variability: definitions, concepts, and strategies for wilderness management. In: Kulhavy, David L.; Legg,

Michael H., eds. Wilderness and natural areas in Eastern

North America: research, management, and planning.

Nacogdoches, TX: Stephen F. Austin State University,

Arthur Temple College of Forestry, Center for Applied Studies: 41-50.

Annotation: The Wilderness Act charges managers with

maintaining natural conditions—but what is natural, and

how do we manage for naturalness? This article draws on

ecology and the concept of historical range of variability

to answer these questions. However, the authors acknowledge that science alone cannot define naturalness. The definition of naturalness depends on value judgments, which

should be explicit and subject to debate. After providing a

conceptual grounding, the authors describe a five-step strategy for managing natural areas for naturalness. Although

the paper does not explicitly focus on fire, the concepts

and framework are applicable to wilderness fire restoration and management.

Landres, Peter B.; Brunson, Mark W.; Merigliano,

Linda; Sydoriak, Charisse; Morton, Steve. 2000. Naturalness and wildness: the dilemma and irony of managing wilderness. In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.;

Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5:

wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999

May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 377–381.

Annotation: In this paper, Landres and others discuss two

primary goals of wilderness management, naturalness and

wildness, grounded in the 1964 Wilderness Act. Especially

as protected areas experience alterations caused by human

actions outside of wilderness, the goals of naturalness and

wildness come into conflict. It is no longer possible simply to “leave wilderness alone” and expect natural conditions to prevail. Landres and others identify tradeoffs

between managing for naturalness and wildness, and discuss a case study from the Bandelier Wilderness in New

Mexico, posing a series of difficult questions relating to

ecological restoration, including restoration of fire, in this

area.

Parsons, David J. 1990. Restoring fire to the Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest: reconciling science, policy,

and practicality. In: Hughes, H. G.; Bonnicksen, T. M.,

eds. Proceedings of the first annual meeting of the Society

for Ecological Restoration; [Date of conference unknown];

Madison, WI. University of Wisconsin, Madison: 271–279.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.C.2, page 23.

Parsons, David J.; Graber, David M.; Agee, James K.;

van Wagtendonk, Jan W. 1986. Natural fire management in the National Parks. Environmental Management.

10(1): 21–24.

Annotation: In this paper, Parsons and others discuss the

goals of park and wilderness fire management, arguing that

managers should aim to restore “the unimpeded interaction of native ecosystem processes and structural elements.”

The authors reject the view that parks should be managed

to maintain the landscape in a particular historical state.

Interference with natural processes should be limited to

situations involving a compelling reason to intervene (for

example, to mitigate human impacts or protect life and

property). Parsons and others explain the justification for

their position and discuss its implications for fire restoration and issues related to historical burning by Native

Americans.

Parsons, D. J.; van Wagtendonk, J. W. 1996. Fire research and management in the Sierra Nevada National

Parks. In: Halvorson, William L.; Davis, Gary E., eds.

Ecosystem management in the National Parks. Tucson, AZ:

University of Arizona Press: 24–48.

Annotation: This paper reviews the history and interplay

of fire management and fire ecology research in the Sierra

Nevada National Parks. In addition, it outlines past and

present challenges to restoring fire in these parks. Parsons

and van Wagtendonk describe the development of both

prescribed burning and prescribed natural fire programs in

the parks, in conjunction with scientific research and monitoring. They discuss debates over fire management goals,

and the controversy over restoring presettlement conditions

versus reintegrating fire as a process. Finally, the authors

identify obstacles to the restoration of fire in the Sierra
20 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

Nevada parks, which include: (1) developing criteria for

prescribed burning; (2) determining goals (structure versus process, aesthetic versus ecological); (3) defining “natural”; (4) program evaluation; (5) applying research findings

to management; and (6) communicating goals and accomplishments.

Stephenson, Nathan L. 1999. Reference conditions for

giant sequoia restoration: structure, process, and precision. Ecological Applications. 9(4): 1253–1265.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.C.2, page 24.

Sydoriak, Charisse A.; Allen, Craig D.; Jacobs, Brian

F. 2000. Would ecological landscape restoration make

the Bandelier Wilderness more or less of a wilderness?

In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.; Borrie, William

T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a

time of change conference—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 May 23–27;

Missoula, MT. Proceedings RMRS-P-15-VOL 5. Ogden,

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station: 209–215.

Annotation: This paper lays out a number of difficult questions surrounding wilderness restoration, touching on issues of restoration goals, appropriateness of restoration

methods, and legislative mandates for (or against) wilderness restoration. The Bandelier Wilderness, where grazing

and fire suppression have altered natural processes and

contributed to soil erosion, is used as a case study. Rather

than definitively answer the questions they pose, the authors portray the complexity of the situation in this New

Mexico wilderness and discuss the possibilities of manipulating vegetation and reintroducing fire to restore natural

conditions.

Whelan, Robert J. 1995b. Fire and management. In:

Whelan, Robert J. The ecology of fire. New York: Cambridge University Press: 294–308.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 6.

C. Restoring Fire: Planning,

Implementation, and Evaluation

Fire can be reintroduced to wilderness ecosystems in

one of two ways. Especially in large wildernesses or protected areas, naturally ignited fires can be employed to restore natural conditions and processes. Formerly known as

“prescribed natural fire,” this strategy is now known as

“wildland fire use” (National Park Service and others

1998)—although much of the literature on this topic reflects the earlier terminology. The second major strategy

for restoring wilderness fire is through prescribed burning.

A number of researchers (for example, Brown 1992–1993)

advocate prescribed burning to supplement or substitute

for natural fire, particularly where wilderness areas are

small, where risks associated with escaped fires are great,

or where the frequency of naturally ignited fires has been

significantly reduced from historic levels. In some wilderness areas, such as Wyoming’s Gros Ventre Wilderness (U.S.

Department of Agriculture 1996), a combination of wildland fire use and prescribed burning is used.

The papers in the first section address wildland fire and

prescribed burning as fire restoration techniques and discuss the importance of minimal impact fire suppression

(Mangan 1985; Mohr 1994). Although fire restoration is

under way in many areas, suppression continues to play a

significant role in wilderness (Parsons 1998–1999), especially in small wilderness areas or areas close to residential development. Papers in the second part discuss the

assessment and evaluation of wilderness fire restoration

and examine how wilderness fire restoration might be improved.

1. Approaches and Options: Wildland Fire,

Prescribed Burning, and Minimum Impact

Fire Suppression

Arno, Stephen F.; Brown, James K. 1991. Overcoming

the paradox in managing wildland fire. Western Wildlands. 17(1): 40–46.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.D.2, page 14.

Arno, Stephen F.; Parsons, David J.; Keane, Robert E.

2000. Mixed-severity fire regimes in the Northern Rocky

Mountains: consequences of fire exclusion and options

for the future. In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.;

Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5:

wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999

May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 225–232.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.D.2, page 14.

Boucher, Paul F.; Moody, Ronald D. 1998. The historical role of fire and ecosystem management of fires: Gila

National Forest, New Mexico. In: Pruden, Teresa L.;

Brennan, Leonard A., eds. Fire in ecosystem management:

shifting the paradigm from suppression to prescription;

1996 May 7–10; Boise, ID. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology

Conference Proceedings, No. 20. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 374–379.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.C.2, page 22.

Brown, James K. 1992–1993. A case for management

ignitions in wilderness. Fire Management Notes. 53/54(4):

3–8.

Annotation: Brown argues that prescribed fire is an important tool for maintaining natural conditions and wilderness character. In many wilderness areas, and particularly

in those that are small, natural fire alone is insufficient or

impractical to restore fire effects. For such areas, prescribed

fire can supplement or act as a surrogate for natural fires.

Prescribed fire can reduce fuel accumulations, reintroduce

fire to areas no longer subject to natural fires, help balance

the goals of fire restoration with other constraints such as

endangered species protection, and allow burning at times

when air quality regulations can be met. Brown suggests

that prescribed fire programs be based on an understand-
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 21

ing of fire’s historical role in ecosystems, and he describes

methods for gathering fire history data and comparing historical to current fire patterns. Though our understanding

of fire as a natural disturbance and our ability to control

prescribed fire are incomplete, we nonetheless must act,

lest we face greater risks and losses in the long run.

Haase, Sally M.; Sackett, Stephen S. 1998. Effects of

prescribed fire in giant sequoia-mixed conifer stands in

Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. In: Pruden,

Teresa L.; Brennan, Leonard A., eds. Fire in ecosystem

management: shifting the paradigm from suppression to

prescription; 1996 May 7–10; Boise, ID. Tall Timbers Fire

Ecology Conference Proceedings, No. 20. Tallahassee, FL:

Tall Timbers Research Station: 236–243.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.B.2, page 8.

Hardy, Colin C.; Arno, Stephen F., eds. 1996. Proceedings: the use of fire in forest restoration: a general session at the annual meeting of the Society for Ecological

Restoration; 1995 September 14–16; Seattle, WA. Ogden,

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 86 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 6.

Johnson, E. A.; Miyanishi, K. 1995. The need for consideration of fire behavior and effects in prescribed

burning. Restoration Ecology. 3(4): 271–278.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.B.2, page 8.

Keeley, Jon E.; Stephenson, Nathan L. 2000. Restoring

natural fire regimes to the Sierra Nevada in an era of

global change. In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.;

Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5:

wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999

May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 266–269.

Annotation: This article outlines a framework for managing fire in protected areas based on the goal of restoring

and maintaining natural ecosystems. The framework involves a step-by-step process, where managers and scientists model a “natural ecosystem” for a site, compare current

ecosystems to this ideal, then plan, execute, and evaluate

restoration aimed at achieving natural conditions. The paper also places fire restoration in the context of global

changes in climate and land use patterns. Finally, Keeley

and Stephenson identify research needed to refine and improve fire restoration in parks and wilderness. The paper

deals with many current controversies in wilderness fire

management, portraying the complexities generated by our

limited ecological understanding of fire as well as philosophical and political issues in fire restoration.

Mangan, Richard J. 1985. Fire suppression for wilderness and parks: planning considerations. In: Lotan, James

E.; Kilgore, Bruce M.; Fischer, William C.; Mutch, Robert

W., eds. Proceedings—symposium and workshop on wilderness fire; 1983 November 15–18; Missoula, MT. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-182. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range

Experiment Station: 159–161.

Annotation: Even as managers of parks and wilderness

areas work to restore natural fire regimes, fire suppression

will remain a part of wilderness management, and we

should plan accordingly. Fire suppression techniques used

in nonwilderness areas may be inappropriate in wilderness,

and advance planning and prioritization is needed to minimize physical, visual, and audial impacts of suppression.

Mangan emphasizes the need for fire suppression plans that

consider the legal mandate to protect natural conditions

and minimize human impacts as well as the unique characteristics of wilderness (for example, roadlessness).

Mohr, Francis. 1994. Fire suppression commensurate

with wilderness stewardship. In: Sydoriak, Charisse, ed.

1994. Sixth national wilderness conference handbook: the

spirit lives; 1994 November 14–18; Santa Fe, NM. Los

Alamos, NM: U.S. Bureau of Land Management: 149–152.

Annotation: This brief article discusses the need to minimize impacts associated with fire suppression in wilderness. Mohr focuses on firelines, tree cutting, and helispot

construction as activities that can be used sparingly or carried out in a minimal impact manner. After fire, rehabilitation can mitigate the impacts of suppression. To ensure

effective control of fire suppression impacts, agency administrators must ensure that these impacts are considered

during the planning process.

Mutch, Robert W. 1995. Prescribed fires in wilderness:

how successful? In: Brown, James K.; Mutch, Robert, W.;

Spoon, Charles W.; Wakimoto, Ronald H., tech. coords.

Proceedings: symposium on fire in wilderness and park

management. 1993 March 30–April 1; Missoula, MT. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-GTR 320. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 38–41.

Annotation: Mutch asserts that the “perpetuation of natural ecosystems” is the objective of wilderness fire management, and that continued fire suppression cannot achieve

this goal. Although naturally ignited and naturally burning

fires are the ideal for wilderness, because they minimize

human control, wilderness size, shape, and other considerations frequently preclude this option. Management-ignited

prescribed fires therefore can be critical to restoration of

wilderness fire. After providing this conceptual groundwork, Mutch outlines key considerations in wilderness fire

management—including fire history, fire regimes, and fire

effects—that set the context for planning. The paper next

discusses criteria (often unmet in small wildernesses) that

allow reliance on natural ignitions to perpetuate fire. Finally, the author outlines an eight-step process for developing fire management plans for small wilderness areas,

recommending consideration of both prescribed natural fire

and manager-ignited prescribed fire.

National Park Service; USDA Forest Service; Bureau of

Indian Affairs; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Bureau of

Land Management. 1998. Wildland and prescribed fire

management policy: implementation procedures and reference guide. Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire Cen-
22 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

ter. 81 p. For additional information, contact: G. Thomas

Zimmerman, tom_Zimmerman@nps.gov.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.F.1, page 29.

Nickas, George. 1998–1999. Wilderness fire. Wilderness

Watcher. 10(1): 1, 4–5.

Annotation: In this paper, Nickas discusses wilderness fire

policy and asserts that manipulation of fire in wilderness

contradicts the spirit of the Wilderness Act. Both fire suppression and management-ignited prescribed fire diminish

wilderness character and impede natural processes. Nickas

outlines eight points that would support a natural role for

wilderness fire. For example, development of wilderness

fire plans on a landscape level, avoidance of fire breaks in

wilderness, and minimal impact fire suppression all play

an important role in managing a fire in a way that respects

wilderness character.

Parsons, David J. 1998–1999. The dilemma of wilderness fire. Wilderness Watcher. 10(1): 12–13.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.F.1, page 30.

Pyne, Stephen J. 2001. The perils of prescribed fire: a

reconsideration. Natural Resources Journal. 41: 1–8.

Annotation: In this paper, Pyne discusses problems with

prescribed burning programs on Federal lands. Many prescribed burns have escaped, and some have even cost

firefighters their lives. Additionally, prescribed burns

haven’t achieved management objectives, because they

often burn too hot, cold, large or small. Pyne argues that

we lack a good justification for prescribed fire. We need a

justification that acknowledges both the ecological and

human dimensions of fire, and we need improved practices for managing fire.

Pyne, Stephen, J.; Andrews, Patricia L.; Laven, Richard D. 1996a. Introduction to wildland fire—second edition. NY: John Wiley and Sons. 769 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 6.

Strohmaier, David J. 2000. The ethics of prescribed fire:

a notable silence. Ecological Restoration. 18(1): 5–9.

Annotation: This brief paper asserts that ethical concerns

are not adequately considered in planning prescribed fires.

The primary goal of many prescribed fires—to restore ecosystem structure and function—exemplifies a valuing of

“ecological wholes,” and is ethically justified. However,

Strohmaier raises the concern that ecological wholes are

not the only ethical concern associated with prescribed fire,

and that harm to individuals can result from an overemphasis on wholes. The author points out that prescribed

burn plans generally consider animal mortality as nominal

from a population perspective and take few measures to

minimize harm to individual animals. If the lives of individual animals were better taken into account during the

planning process, it might be possible to reduce, if not

eliminate, harm to individuals caused by prescribed fire.

The emphasis on wholes such as populations, species, and

ecological processes should be tempered by consideration

of individuals.

Tomascak, Walt. 1991. Improving a prescribed natural

fire program: the Northern Region’s approach. Fire

Management Notes. 52(4): 6–8.

Annotation: This brief paper discusses revisions to Forest

Service management practices for prescribed natural fire

following the intense fires of 1988. Instead of requiring

fire management decisions to occur rapidly with little documentation and contingency planning, the revised approach

initiated a two-stage process involving an initial assessment and a detailed burn plan. Required components of a

burn plan included an analysis of fire growth potential in

light of weather projections, an assessment of the social

and environmental impacts of the fire, and designation of

a Maximum Allowable Perimeter for the fire. After outlining the new planning structure, Tomascak discusses the

revised program’s funding mechanisms and describes the

challenges that emerged 2 years after implementation. Although wildland fire management has undergone further

changes since this paper was written, the challenges and

lessons Tomascak discusses may offer perspective on the

evolution of fire management and insight into issues that

persist today.

Whelan, Robert J. 1995b. Fire and management. In:

Whelan, Robert J. The ecology of fire. NY: Cambridge

University Press: 294–308.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 6.

2. Monitoring and Evaluating Fire

Restoration

Boucher, Paul F.; Moody, Ronald D. 1998. The historical role of fire and ecosystem management of fires: Gila

National Forest, New Mexico. In: Pruden, Teresa L.;

Brennan, Leonard A., eds. Fire in ecosystem management:

shifting the paradigm from suppression to prescription;

1996 May 7–10; Boise, ID. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology

Conference Proceedings, No. 20. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 374–379.

Annotation: This paper discusses the history and evolution of fire management on the New Mexico’s Gila National Forest, where the Forest Service developed one of

its first prescribed natural fire (PNF) programs. The authors describe the PNF program as an effort to reverse landscape changes that resulted from fire suppression and

livestock grazing. Wilderness areas, which make up more

than 20 percent of the Forest, served as an important source

of baseline information in developing fire management

plans, because these areas suffered fewer changes from fire

suppression due to their remoteness. Boucher and Moody

outline the agency’s experience in restoring fire to the Gila,

emphasizing the importance of public education, understanding and support. The roles of environmental laws,

public response to smoke, and the fire classification system (wildfire versus PNF) are also discussed, and the program as a whole is evaluated.

Bradley, Anne F.; Arno, Stephen F. 1991. Using a fire

regime classification to evaluate the effectiveness of the

fire management program in the Selway-Bitterroot
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 23

Wilderness. In: Andrews, Patricia L.; Potts, Donald F., eds.

Proceedings of the eleventh conference on fire and forest

meteorology. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 308–312.

Annotation: This brief paper describes a method for evaluating the success of a natural fire program in the SelwayBitterroot Wilderness. Bradley and Arno describe a program

evaluation technique that compares fire regimes since program implementation to pre-1935 fire regimes, which were

unaffected by fire suppression. The approach uses aerial

photographs and managers’ recollections of past fires to

reconstruct burned acreage and fire severity. Because complete and accurate information is hard to obtain using these

methods, the authors recommend better documentation of

prescribed natural fires and include a sample form for keeping fire records.

Brown, James K.; Arno, Stephen F.; Barrett, Stephen

W.; Menakis, James P. 1994. Comparing the prescribed

natural fire program with presettlement fires in the

Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. International Journal of

Wildland Fire. 4(3): 157–168.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.C.2, page 11.

Caprio, Anthony C.; Graber, David M. 2000. Returning

fire to the mountains: can we successfully restore the ecological role of pre-European fire regimes to the Sierra

Nevada? In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.; Borrie,

William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Proceedings: Wilderness science in a time of change—Volume 5: wilderness

ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 May 23–27;

Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden, UT: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain

Research Station: 233–241.

Annotation: In this study, Caprio and Graber used two

techniques to evaluate fire management in Sequoia and

King’s Canyon National Parks. First, they reconstructed

annual burn area for the pre-European settlement era using mean and maximum fire return intervals from tree ring

analyses dating back to 1700. These estimated burn areas

then were compared to areas burned during the 20th century. Second, Caprio and Graber calculated the Fire Return Interval Departure for different vegetation types,

comparing the time since last fire to the maximum average fire return interval calculated from historical records.

Results were used to compare fire patterns during the

presettlement era, under fire suppression, and since reintroduction of fire in the late 1960s. The article discusses

strengths and weaknesses of the two evaluation methods

and identifies areas for additional research. Finally, the

authors discuss social, political, logistical, and epistemological factors that constrain restoration of fire as a natural

process.

Keifer, MaryBeth; Stephenson, Nathan L.; Manley, Jeff.

2000. Prescribed fire as the minimum tool for wilderness forest and fire regime restoration: a case study from

the Sierra Nevada, California. In: Cole, David N.;

McCool, Stephen F.; Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and

management; 1999 May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc.

RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 266–269.

Annotation: In this short paper, Keifer and others describe

monitoring following prescribed burning for fire and forest restoration in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks.

Using multiple historical data sources, targets for forest

stand structure were developed for the parks. The authors

then compared stand densities before and after prescribed

burns to these targets, in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the fire management program in restoring pre-European settlement conditions. The utility of this simple

monitoring approach is discussed, as are additional indicators such as recruitment of key tree species.

Miller, Carol; Urban, Dean L. 2000. Modeling the effects of fire management alternatives on Sierra Nevada

mixed-conifer forests. Ecological Applications.

10(1): 85–94.

Annotation: The authors used a simulation model to investigate three strategies for restoring fire to forests in the

Sierra Nevada: harvest, prescribed fire, and natural fire.

All three treatments were effective in restoring pre-suppression basal area and forest composition. However, prescribed fire and natural fire acted more slowly than harvest.

The paper may be useful to managers interested in modeling alternative fire treatments for wildland restoration.

Limitations of this model, and models generally, are also

discussed. Changes in ignition frequency and fire spread

due to increased grazing and cessation of Native American

burning, for example, may be important factors influencing fire patterns and forest structure today. However, these

variables were not included in the model.

Parsons, David J. 1990. Restoring fire to the Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest: reconciling science, policy,

and practicality. In: Hughes, H. G.; Bonnicksen, T. M.,

eds. Proceedings of the first annual meeting of the Society

for Ecological Restoration; [Date of conference unknown];

Madison, WI. University of Wisconsin, Madison: 271–279.

Annotation: This paper discusses fire restoration in mixed

conifer forests of Sequoia and Kings Canyon National

Parks, with a focus on defining goals and evaluating program success. Goals for fire management in Sequoia and

Kings Canyon embrace the broader Park Service goal of

maintaining natural ecosystems, though striving toward

“naturalness” is both conceptually ambiguous and technically challenging. Managers, however, must inevitably act

with incomplete knowledge, balancing multiple factors

such as policy, cost, and practicality. In restoring fire to

the Sierra Nevada, ecological process goals were favored

over restoring forest structure. Within the broad goal of

restoring ecological processes, specific techniques have

changed over time. When prescribed burning began in the

late 1960s, uniform, high-intensity fires were the norm.

More recently, prescribed burning has shifted to patchier,

mixed-intensity fires. To refine and improve goals and techniques over time, additional fire research is needed and

criteria for evaluating success are key.

Parsons, David J.; Botti, Stephen J. 1996. Restoration

of fire in National Parks. In: Hardy, Colin C.; Arno,
24 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

Stephen F., eds. The use of fire in forest restoration. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-341. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research

Station: 29–31.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.A, page 18.

Parsons, David J.; Landres, Peter B. 1998. Restoring

natural fire to wilderness: how are we doing? In: Pruden,

Teresa L.; Brennan, Leonard A., eds. Fire in ecosystem

management: shifting the paradigm from suppression to

prescription; 1996 May 7–10; Boise, ID. Tall Timbers Fire

Ecology Conference Proceedings No. 20. Tallahassee, FL:

Tall Timbers Research Station: 366–373.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.A, page 18.

Saveland, James M. 1986. Wilderness fire economics:

the Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness. In:

Lucas, R. C., ed. Proceedings: national wilderness research

conference: issues, state-of-knowledge, future directions;

1985 July 23–26; Fort Collins, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT220. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Intermountain Research Station: 39–48.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.D.3, page 27.

Stephenson, Nathan L. 1999. Reference conditions for

giant sequoia restoration: structure, process, and precision. Ecological Applications. 9(4): 1253–1265.

Annotation: Knowledge of reference conditions has played

a key in fire restoration to the Sierra Nevada National Parks.

However even in the well-studied sequoia forest ecosystem, we lack complete knowledge about past forest structure. Understanding of past fire regimes is somewhat better,

though still imperfect. Uncertainty about past conditions

and the interactions between forest structure and disturbance processes has sparked debate over fire restoration

methods, with some scientists (“process restorationists”)

recommending that reintroducing fire is sufficient to restore natural processes and conditions while others (“structural restorationists”) assert that mechanical thinning should

precede fire restoration. The author argues that mechanical techniques may not be necessary to restore the Sierra

Nevada sequoia groves. However, a number of caveats are

discussed, including the fact that process-based restoration may not be sufficient to restore all forest ecosystems.

Taylor, A. H. 2000. Fire regimes and forest changes in

mid and upper montane forests of southern Cascades,

Lassen Volcanic Park, California, U.S.A. Journal of Biogeography. 27: 87–104.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.C.2, page 12.

van Wagtendonk, Jan W. 1996. Use of a deterministic

fire growth model test fuel treatments. In: Sierra Nevada

Ecosystem Project: Final report to Congress, Vol. II, Assessments and scientific basis for management options.

Davis: University of California, Centers for Water and

Wildland Resources: 1155–1165.

Annotation: This paper reports on the effectiveness of different strategies for reducing fuels in areas affected by fire

suppression. Using simulation models, van Wagtendonk

investigated the effects of different types of fuels treatments on fire spread and intensity. Prescribed burning was

most effective in reducing rate of spread, fireline intensity,

flame length, and heat per unit area, whereas overstory

thinning increased spread rate, flame length and intensity

relative to the control. The effects of understory fuel removal depended on the nature of the treatment (cut-andscatter versus pile-and-burn). The author also examined

fuel break effectiveness, finding that fuel breaks are insufficient to control fires in the absence of other fuel treatments. This study used the model FARSITE, with a number

of simplifying assumptions. Improved site-specific information, particularly spatially accurate fuels data, would

improve modeling accuracy and better predict the consequences of different management strategies.

D. Considerations and Constraints on

Restoring Wilderness Fire

Although many ecologists and land managers recognize

fire’s pivotal role in maintaining natural ecological processes, wilderness fire restoration remains contentious, and

managers must consider numerous factors in restoration

planning. The papers in this section highlight a number of

the legal, social, political, and economic issues associated

with wilderness fire management. In the legal realm, the

Wilderness Act, the Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act,

the Endangered Species Act, and the National Historic Preservation Act all shape fire planning. The social perception

of fire and its associated risks, as well as the costs of different fire management strategies, also should be taken into

account.

1. Legal

Bryan, Dana C., ed. 1997. Conference proceedings: environmental regulation and prescribed fire: legal and

social challenges; Tampa Airport Hilton at MetroCenter,

Tampa, FL; 1995 March 14–17; Tallahassee, FL: Center

for Professional Development, Florida State University. 246

p. Available: Division of Forestry, Florida Department of

Agriculture and Consumer Services, 3125 Conner Boulevard, Tallahassee, FL 32399-1650.

Annotation: This proceedings examines the legal and social constraints on prescribed fire. Papers include assessments of numerous key environmental laws—the Clean Air

Act, Clean Water Act, Wilderness Act, Endangered Species Act, and others—in relation to management-ignited

fire. In addition, a number of authors discuss legal liability

for damage associated with prescribed fire and the implications of liability for planning and management. Finally,

social aspects of prescribed fire (for example, public acceptability) are addressed. A number of papers contained

in the proceedings are annotated below.

Bunnell, David L. 1997. Prescribed fire consideration

and the Wilderness Act. In: Bryan, Dana C., ed. Conference proceedings: environmental regulation and prescribed

fire: legal and social challenges; 1995 March 14-17; Tampa

Airport Hilton at MetroCenter, Tampa, FL. Tallahassee,
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 25

FL: Florida State University, Center for Professional Development: 64–73.

Annotation: In this paper, Bunnell discusses the contested

implications of the Wilderness Act for fire management,

discussing ambiguities in the language of the law. Additionally, numerous constraints on prescribed fire in wilderness are discussed, including those stemming from

environmental laws and from risks to recreational opportunities, structures, and endangered species. Bunnell provides an example from the Bob Marshall Wilderness,

showing how negotiation of prescribed natural fire boundaries must take multiple factors (for example, recreation,

cultural resources) into account. The author concludes that

wilderness fire management requires a holistic approach

where many considerations, including long-term effects,

play a role in decisionmaking.

Core, John E. 1997. Air quality regulations: treatment

of emissions from wildfires vs. prescribed fires. In: Bryan,

D. C., ed. Conference proceedings: environmental regulation and prescribed fire: legal and social challenges; 1995

March 14–17; Tampa Airport Hilton at MetroCenter,

Tampa, FL. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University, Center for Professional Development: 53–62.

Annotation: Restoration of wilderness fire relies on wildland fire and management-ignited prescribed fire, both of

which emit particulate and gaseous air pollutants regulated

by the Clean Air Act. This paper discusses fire-generated

emissions in the context of air quality regulations and control measures. Core identifies key issues surrounding smoke

policies, including the classification of fire-generated pollution as anthropogenic versus natural, and the integration

of wildland fire emissions into state-level air planning.

Knopp, Christopher M. 1995. Impacts of the Clean

Water Act on prescribed fire in the western United

States. In: Bryan, D. C., ed. Conference proceedings: environmental regulation and prescribed fire: legal and social challenges; 1995 March 14–17; Tampa Airport Hilton

at MetroCenter, Tampa, FL. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State

University, Center for Professional Development: 100–104.

Annotation: This short paper briefly explains the structure of the Clean Water Act (CWA) and its relevance to

prescribed fire. Prescribed fire falls under the CWA due to

increased erosion that can occur in burned areas where less

live vegetation exists to protect the soil. Because erosion

is a spatially diffuse process, it is regulated under the

nonpoint source provisions of the CWA. The paper discusses nonpoint source control regulations for waters under different levels of protection and emphasizes the

necessity of designating and monitoring Best Management

Practices to control the effects of fire on water quality.

Knudsen, Gary D. 1995. Overview of cultural resources

act requirements (overview of heritage resources and prescribed fire). In: Bryan, D. C., ed. Conference proceedings:

environmental regulation and prescribed fire: legal and social

challenges; 1995 March 14–17; Tampa Airport Hilton at

MetroCenter, Tampa, FL. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State

University, Center for Professional Development: 105–112.

Annotation: Many protected areas, particularly National

Parks and monuments, contain archaeological or historic

management activities. This paper explains how heritage

resource management can be compatible with prescribed

fire and discusses both the potential positive and negative

effects of prescribed fire on historic resources. In addition,

the author outlines the planning process under the National

Historic Preservation Act and suggests that careful fire planning can benefit both ecological and cultural resources.

LaRosa, Anne Marie; Floyd, M. Lisa. 1995. Predicting

fire effects on rare plant taxa: a management perspective. In: Brown, James K.; Mutch, Robert W.; Spoon,

Charles W.; Wakimoto, Ronald H., tech. coords. 1995. Proceedings: symposium on fire in wilderness and park management; 1993 March 30–April 1; Missoula, MT. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-320. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research

Station: 83–88.

Annotation: This paper discusses the relationship between

rare plant protection and fire management in protected areas. The Endangered Species Act obligates Federal agencies to protect threatened and endangered species. However,

in some cases this mandate may conflict with wilderness

management goals such as fire restoration. The authors

suggest that risk analyses for sensitive plant species can

assist in balancing the goals of fire management and

biodiversity protection. LaRosa and Floyd identify data and

information needs for such analyses, then provide two examples (from Colorado’s Mesa Verde National Park and

Arizona’s Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge) to show

how ecological information can help clarify risks and improve fire risk management for endangered species.

Procter, Trent. 1995. Working to make the Clean Air

Act and prescribed burning compatible. In: Weise, David

R.; Martin, Robert E., tech. coords. The Biswell symposium: fire issues and solutions in urban interface and wildland ecosystems; 1994 February 15–17; Walnut Creek, CA.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-158. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest

Research Station: 125–128.

Annotation: This short paper outlines the history of the

Clean Air Act of 1963 and describes the relationship between the 1990 amendments to the act and prescribed fire.

The authors identify four categories relevant to prescribed

fire management: particulate matter (PM10) standards, conformity with state-level plans, air toxics, and visibility.

Additionally, the paper points out six solutions to conflicts

between air quality and the use of fire to maintain ecosystem health. These solutions primarily focus on communication and coordinated planning. Although written with a

focus on California, the paper contains background and

recommendations that should be relevant to fire managers

nationwide.

White, David H. 1991. Legal implications associated with

use and control of fire as a management practice. In:

High intensity fire in wildlands: management challenges

and options; 1989 May 18–21; Tallahassee, FL. Tall Timbers Fire Conference Proceedings No. 17. Tallahassee, FL:

Tall Timbers Research Station: 375–384.

Annotation: This paper offers a brief overview of legal

issues associated with fire management, with an emphasis
26 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

on liability. Legal liability for fire today generally requires

negligence to be proved. However, some states have instituted safety laws that reverse the burden of proof. In this

case, the defendant must show that “due care” was exercised to avoid liability. In the latter part of the paper, the

author discusses the potential for a positive obligation to

use management-ignited fires to reduce fire hazard or protect endangered species. This article contains information

relevant to the management of fire at wilderness boundaries.

2. Social and Political

Beebe, Grant S.; Omi, Philip N. 1993. Wildland burning: the perception of risk. Journal of Forestry. 91(9):

19–24.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.E, page 28.

Bright, Alan D. 1995. Influencing public attitudes toward prescribed fire policies. In: Bryan, D. C., ed. Conference proceedings: environmental regulation and

prescribed fire: legal and social challenges; 1995 March

14–17; Tampa Airport Hilton at MetroCenter, Tampa, FL.

Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University, Center for Professional Development: 147–154.

Annotation: In the years following the 1988 fires in

Yellowstone National Park, a number of studies examined

changes in public attitudes toward prescribed fire. Few differences were found between surveys immediately after the fire

and those conducted 5 to 6 years later. Bright suggests that

greater shifts in public opinion might be realized through persuasive communication by land managers. A variety of factors influence the effectiveness of communication, including

audience understanding, repetition, relevance, and prior knowledge. Bright discusses these and other factors, providing specific recommendations to managers seeking to influence public

sentiment about prescribed fire.

Brown, James K.; Bradshaw, Larry S. 1994. Comparisons of particulate emissions and smoke impacts from

presettlement, full suppression, and prescribed natural

fire periods in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 4(3): 143–155.

Annotation: This study compares smoke and particulate

emissions from the Selway-Bitterrroot Wilderness under different fire management regimes. Using historical and ecological data, the authors estimated fire area, particulate

emissions, and valley smoke events in both presettlement and

recent times. Area burned annually was greater during the

presettlement period than in recent decades, and particulate

emissions were slightly higher. The study results suggest that

fires generated more smoke during the presettlement era than

in recent times. However, recent fires produced a greater

amount of smoke per hectare. The implications of these findings for wilderness fire management are briefly discussed.

Bunnell, David L. 1997. Prescribed fire consideration

and the Wilderness Act. In: Bryan, D. C., ed. Conference

proceedings: environmental regulation and prescribed fire:

legal and social challenges; 1995 March 14–17; Tampa

Airport Hilton at MetroCenter, Tampa, FL. Tallahassee,

FL: Florida State University, Center for Professional Development: 64–73.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.D.1, page 24.

Caprio, Anthony C.; Graber, David M. 2000. Returning

fire to the mountains: can we successfully restore the ecological role of pre-European fire regimes to the Sierra

Nevada? In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.; Borrie,

William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Proceedings: Wilderness science in a time of change—Volume 5: wilderness

ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 May 23–27;

Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden, UT: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain

Research Station: 233–241.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.C.2, page 23.

Manfredo, Michael J.; Fishbein, Martin; Haas, Glenn

E.; Watson, Alan E. 1990. Attitudes toward prescribed

fire policies. Journal of Forestry. 88(7): 19–23.

Annotation: This study examined public attitudes and beliefs about “controlled burn” fire policies in the wake of

the 1988 fires in Yellowstone National Park. Manfredo and

others surveyed citizens from across the United States, and

analyzed survey results on national (all states but Montana

and Wyoming) and regional (Montana and Wyoming)

scales. The regional population slightly favored controlled

burning, while the national population split on the issue.

Attitudes toward controlled burning correlated with beliefs

about the consequences of prescribed burning, and those

who favored controlled burning tended to be better informed

about its ecological effects. The implications of these results for management and public education are discussed.

McCool, Stephen F.; Stankey, George H. 1986. Visitor

attitudes toward wilderness fire management policy—

1971–84. Res. Pap. INT-357. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research

Station. 7 p.

Annotation: In this study, the authors surveyed wilderness visitors’ knowledge of and attitudes toward fire and

compared survey results to the results of a similar survey

13 years earlier (in 1971). Knowledge of fire effects was

greater in 1984 than in 1971, and participants in the later

survey held more favorable views toward natural fire management than their earlier counterparts, the majority of

whom favored fire suppression. The paper also explores

justifications for survey respondents’ attitudes toward fire

and discusses the relationship between knowledge, attitudes, and public education.

Plevel, Steve R. 1997. Fire policy at the wildland-urban

interface. Journal of Forestry. 95(10): 12–17.

Annotation: Based on a literature review and three case studies, Plevel discusses policymaking for fire at the wildlandurban interface. Although the author asserts that policymaking

responsibility lies largely with local governments, he also

points out that wildland fires often cross administrative boundaries and require involvement of multiple institutions. The

article offers insight into the urban side of wildland fire management and may help Federal agencies identify opportunities to coordinate with local governments in managing the

risks posed by wilderness fire.
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 27

Procter, Trent. 1995. Working to make the Clean Air

Act and prescribed burning compatible. In: Weise, David

R.; Martin, Robert E., tech. coords. The Biswell symposium: fire issues and solutions in urban interface and wildland ecosystems; 1994 February 15–17; Walnut Creek, CA.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-158. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest

Research Station: 125–128.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.D.1, page 25.

Smith, Conrad. 1991. Yellowstone media myths: print

and television coverage of the 1988 fires. In: Nodvin,

Stephen C.; Waldrop, Thomas A., eds. Fire and the environment: ecological and cultural perspectives: proceedings

of an international symposium; 1990 March 20–24; Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-69. Asheville, NC: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern

Forest Experiment Station: 321–327.

Annotation: Smith examines the media coverage surrounding the famed “fires of ‘88” in Yellowstone National Park.

The stories in national and local newspapers, as well as on

national television networks, were analyzed and compared,

showing that coverage differed among sources and locations. Factual errors were not uncommon in reporting on

the fires, and some of these inaccuracies reinforced existing myths about fire management and fire effects. Much

of the confusion in the press surrounded the Park Service’s

natural fire policy and its role in the Yellowstone fires. The

study illustrates the challenges fire managers may face in

communicating with media and consequently, in providing accurate information to the public.

Taylor, Jonathan G.; Mutch, Robert W. 1986. Fire in

wilderness: public knowledge, acceptance, and perceptions. In: Lucas, R. C., ed. Proceedings: national wilderness research conference: issues, state-of-knowledge, future

directions; 1985 July 23–26; Fort Collins, CO. Gen. Tech.

Rep. INT-220. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 49–59.

Annotation: This article reviews a number of studies on

public knowledge and perceptions of wilderness fire. Surveys show that public acceptance of fire tends to increase

with knowledge, particularly of the beneficial effects of

fire. Additionally, public information and education materials can be effective in changing people’s understanding

of and attitudes toward fire. Taylor and Mutch point out

that public awareness of fire’s beneficial effects appears to

have increased, but in some areas (for example, animal

mortality), public knowledge is limited or inaccurate. The

authors stress that an individual’s general attitudes toward

fire (in principle) may not match with his/her personal reaction to fire (in practice), and that managers need to be

aware of this disjunction. Additionally, education should

be bi-directional, with managers informing the public but

also learning from the public through surveys and other

assessments.

3. Economic

Botti, Stephen J. 1999. The National Park Service wildland fire management program. In: Gonzalez-Caban,

Armando; Omi, Philip N., tech. coords. Proceedings of the

symposium on fire economics, planning, and policy: bottom lines; 1999 April 5–9; San Diego, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep.

PSW-GTR-173. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station:

7–14.

Annotation: This paper provides an overview of the National Park Service fire management program and its economics. Botti emphasizes the need to evaluate the cost

effectiveness of Park Service fire programs with respect to

the parks’ fire management goals. These goals emphasize

restoring and maintaining the natural role of fire while protecting against unwanted wildland fires that endanger lives,

structures, or other resources such as critical habitat for

endangered species. Because of their unique values, parks

and protected areas demand different types of economic

analyses than commodity-production lands. Botti identifies the three areas of fire management expenditures in the

Park Service—readiness and program management, fuels

management and prescribed fire, and wildland fire response—and describes the Park Service’s approach to

evaluating fire program effectiveness.

Childers, Christian A.; Piirto, Douglas D. 1991. Costeffective wilderness fire management: a case study in

southern California. In: Nodvin, Stephen C.; Waldrop,

Thomas A., eds. 1991. Fire and the environment: ecological and cultural perspectives: proceedings of an international symposium; 1990 March 20–24; Knoxville, TN. Gen.

Tech. Rep. SE-69. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeast Forest Experiment Station: 179–185.

Annotation: This paper uses an economic analysis to assess alternative strategies for managing fire in southern

California’s Dick Smith and San Rafael Wilderness Areas.

Different fire management alternatives are evaluated based

on their ability to promote a natural fire regime while minimizing costs. Results suggest that containment may be more

effective than full suppression in achieving the desired

objective. Problems in assigning economic values to wilderness are also discussed.

Saveland, James M. 1986. Wilderness fire economics:

the Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness. In:

Lucas, R. C., ed. Proceedings: National wilderness research

conference: issues, state-of-knowledge, future directions;

1985 July 23–26; Fort Collins, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT220. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Intermountain Research Station: 39–48.

Annotation: This article provides a comparative analysis

of four fire management options for the Frank Church-River

of No Return Wilderness (FCRNRW) in central Idaho. Both

economic and resource costs and benefits of fire management are considered under alternatives ranging from full

suppression to a strategy that incorporates both natural and

human-ignited prescribed fires. In this paper, the wilderness resource costs and benefits are gauged by how closely

the area burned under a particular management scheme

matches the historical fire regime. Economic cost estimates

are based on costs of fire suppression, fire monitoring, and

administration of prescribed burns from the FCRNRW and

other similar wilderness areas. After presenting the results
28 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

of his analysis, the author places the results into a

decisionmaking context that incorporates risk.

E. Managing Risk

Restoring fire to wilderness entails risks—to natural

resources, public and private property, and even human life.

The articles in this section discuss the perception and management of risks related to wildland fire. Both managers

and the public deal with fire risk, but generally from different perspectives. Beebe and Omi (1993) and Gardner

and others (1987) report on public perceptions of risk and

describe management approaches in response to public

concerns. Cortner and others (1990) examine Forest Service managers’ perceptions of risk. Other papers address

legal liabilities associated with fire (Stanton 1995; White

1991) and Geographic Information Systems approaches to

modeling and visualizing fire-related risks at landscape

scales (Miller and others 2000; Sampson and others 2000).

Beebe, Grant S.; Omi, Philip N. 1993. Wildland burning: the perception of risk. Journal of Forestry. 91(9):

19–24.

Annotation: The academic literature gives little attention

to wildland fire as a natural hazard, according to the authors, who here apply risk and natural hazard research to

fire management issues. This paper discusses the challenges

faced by managers seeking both to allow fire as a natural

process and to minimize harm to the public. Patterns in

public risk perception and response—such as the tendency

to wait for an event to occur rather than take preventative

measures—are discussed. Public perceptions of risk can

be shaped strongly by media coverage, which tends to highlight dramatic and spectacular risks rather than longer-term,

but similarly dangerous threats. Communication with the

public can play an important role in increasing awareness

and facilitating democratic participation in decisionmaking

about fire risks and their management.

Cortner, Hanna J.; Taylor, Jonathan G.; Carpenter,

Edwin H.; Cleaves, David A. 1990. Factors influencing

Forest Service fire managers’ risk behavior. Forest Science. 36(3): 531–548.

Annotation: This study used a mail survey to investigate

fire managers’ responses to different types and levels of

risk in a variety of fire scenarios. The survey separately

considered decisions relating to escaped wildfires, prescribed burning, and long-range planning for fire budgets.

Managers’ responses were complex and varied from region to region and under different conditions. Safety and

risk to timber and wildlife habitat ranked high among the

factors that managers took into consideration. Official

policy and the possibility of reprimand from a supervisor

ranked much lower. The article concludes by discussing

the survey’s implications for changing managers’ fire management behavior.

Gardner, Philip D.; Cortner, Hanna J.; Widaman, Keith.

1987. The risk perceptions and policy response toward

wildland fire hazards by urban homeowners. Landscape

and Urban Planning. 14: 163–172.

Annotation: In this study, the authors examined how

homeowners’ perceptions of fire risk related to policy preferences regarding fire. Gardner and others describe three

general possibilities for reducing property losses to fire:

(1) modifying landscape characteristics, (2) changing building design, and (3) minimizing the human exposure to fire

(for example, via residential zoning). The responses of two

southern California communities—one which recently experienced fire, and the other which was unaffected by fire—

are discussed. High initial awareness of fire risk correlated

with high later awareness, although some residents of fireaffected communities felt it unlikely that fire would return. Homeowners’ preferences for “technological fixes”

over measures such as zoning are discussed in light of their

wildland management implications.

Miller, Carol; Landres, Peter B.; Alaback, Paul B. 2000.

Evaluating risks and benefits of wildland fire at landscape scales. In: Neuenschwander, L. F.; Ryan, K. C., tech.

eds. Proceedings of crossing the millennium: integrating

spatial technologies and ecological principles for a new

age in fire management; Moscow, ID: University of Idaho:

78–87.

Annotation: In this paper, Miller and others describe a

GIS-based, landscape model for evaluating fire risks and

benefits. The model uses the probability of fire occurrence,

the expected fire severity, and the social and ecological

values associated with fire to generate maps showing fire

risks and benefits across the landscape. These maps can

assist managers in selecting and prioritizing fire management strategies based on landscape characteristics and social values. For example, in an area where risks associated

with fire are minimal and the benefits high, the use of wildland fire may be appropriate to restore natural processes.

In the opposite situation, a different tool might be used to

mitigate risks while retaining ecosystem integrity. The paper describes model outcomes for the Selway-Bitterroot

Ecosystem of Idaho and Montana and explains how model

results can be applied to management.

Sampson, R. Neil; Atkinson, R. Dwight; Lewis, Joe W.

2000. Mapping wildfire hazards and risks. [Co-published

simultaneously as Journal of Sustainable Forestry, volume

11, numbers 1/2 2000.] New York: Food Products Press.

328 p.

Annotation: This volume reports the results of a scientific

workshop on wildfire hazards and risks, and though the

chapters focus on Colorado ecosystems, the approaches are

broadly relevant. The book’s chapters illustrate how Geographic Information Systems can be used to analyze fire

risks from both social and biophysical perspectives. On

the biophysical side, chapters consider the risks associated

with severe and large-scale fires, postfire erosion and sedimentation, and changes in habitat for sensitive species.

Additionally, social and economic risks are considered, and

four chapters discuss the air quality risks and wildland fire.

The editors suggest that this volume can assist in strategic

planning for fire management and increase the efficiency

of fire-related spatial analyses.
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 29

Stanton, Robert. 1995. Managing liability exposures

associated with prescribed fires. Natural Areas Journal.

15: 347–352.

Annotation: This article discusses risk management for

prescribed fire in light of legal liability under the tort law.

Different types of liability and associated legal standards

are discussed, with specific examples of lawsuits related

to prescribed fire. Stanton identifies three major fire liability issues: escaped fires, smoke-related damage, and

accidents involving fire personnel. In each area, the author

outlines the potential risks and methods for managing these

risks, asserting that risk management is ecologically preferable to risk aversion, where prescribed fires are avoided

in order to prevent liability.

White, David H. 1991. Legal implications associated with

use and control of fire as a management practice. In:

High intensity fire in wildlands: management challenges

and options; 1989 May 18–21; Tallahassee, FL. Tall Timbers Fire Conference Proceedings No. 17. Tallahassee, FL:

Tall Timbers Research Station: 375–384.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.D.1, page 25.

F. Current Wilderness Fire Issues

The papers in this section touch on a number of current

issues and controversies in wilderness fire management.

Topics include fire policy, the challenges posed by fires

burning across administrative boundaries, the implications

of global climate change for fire management, and air quality issues associated with wildland fire. Because development at the wildland-urban interface increasingly affects

fire management in wilderness, we have included a section on fire at the wildland-urban interface. Also covered

is the issue of mechanical thinning to restore historic vegetation structure before reintroducing fire—a strategy that

many believe stretches the bounds of acceptable manipulation in wilderness too far.

1. Policy and Management

Cole, David N. 1996. Ecological manipulation in wilderness—an emerging management dilemma. International Journal of Wilderness. 2(1): 15–19.

Annotation: Cole discusses three different management

goals put forth in Wilderness Act: (1) to preserve lands in

“natural condition”; (2) to protect lands from human manipulation; and (3) to provide public benefits. The author

argues that wilderness management entails “[optimizing]

trade-offs between these three goals.” In the management

of fire, conflicts arise between preserving lands (goal 1)

and protecting them from human intervention (goal 2). Do

we intervene (for example, utilize management-ignited

fires) to preserve “naturalness”? Cole suggests that the best

solution may be a compromise between two extremes, and

argues that we need to differentiate acceptable from unacceptable restorations in wilderness. Potential criteria for

appropriate restoration are discussed.

Czech, Brian. 1996. Challenges to establishing and

implementing sound natural fire policy. Renewable Resources Journal. 14(2): 14–19.

Annotation: Czech argues that we should abandon major fire

suppression efforts and restore natural fire regimes, based on

ecological, practical, and fiscal considerations. The article then

places this argument in a policy context, outlining the history

of fire management by the U.S. Forest Service, National Park

Service, Bureau of Land Management, and U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service. Finally, 11 impediments to natural fire regimes are discussed, ranging from political barriers to risks to

human health and property.

Kilgore, Bruce M. 1986. The role of fire in wilderness:

a state-of-the-knowledge review. In: Lucas, R. C., ed.

Proceedings: national wilderness research conference: issues, state-of-knowledge, future directions; 1985 July 23–

26; Fort Collins, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-220. Ogden,

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 70–103.

Annotation: See annotation in section I.A, page 6.

National Park Service; USDA Forest Service; Bureau

of Indian Affairs; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Bureau of Land Management. 1998. Wildland and prescribed fire management policy: implementation

procedures and reference guide. Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire Center. 81 p. For additional information, contact: G. Thomas Zimmerman, tom_Zimmerman@nps.gov.

Annotation: This guide outlines procedures for fire management under the 1995 Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy and Program Review. It describes changes in

terminology associated with the 1995 policy and details

the three stages of a Wildland Fire Implementation Plan

(WFIP). Additionally, the guide explains the planning process for prescribed fire. An appendix provides blank forms

for documenting the WFIP process and for assessing the

wildland fire situation. Throughout the document, flowcharts, tables, and timelines assist in identifying key points

for wildland fire management.

Parsons, David J. 2000. The challenge of restoring natural fire to wilderness. In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen

F.; Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume

5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999

May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5.

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 276–282.

Annotation: This paper outlines the history of fire management in parks and wilderness from the early 20th century until the present. Fire suppression dominated until the

late 1960s, when Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks

and others began to reintroduce fire. However, the trend

toward fire restoration reversed after the fires of 1988, in

the wake of a national fire policy review. Parsons discusses

the role of natural and management-ignited fires since 1988

and presents choices for wilderness fire management in

the future.
30 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

Parsons, David J. 1998–1999. The dilemma of wilderness fire. Wilderness Watcher. 10(1): 12–13.

Annotation: This short article asserts that fire is crucial to

wilderness preservation. However, fire suppression has

dominated and continues to dominate wilderness fire management. After briefly outlining fire management in the

National Park Service, Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife

Service, and Bureau of Land Management, the author discusses the consequences of continued suppression and identifies various options for managing wilderness fire.

U.S. Department of the Interior; U.S. Department of

Agriculture; Department of Energy; Department of

Defense; Department of Commerce; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; Federal Emergency Management

Agency; National Association of State Foresters. 2001.

Review and update of the 1995 Federal Wildland Fire

Management Policy. Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire

Center. Available: National Interagency Fire Center, Attn:

External Affairs Office, 3833 South Development Avenue,

Boise, ID 83705-5354, (208) 387-5457 and http://

www.nifc.gov/fire_policy/index.html. 78 p.

Annotation: This document replaces the 1995 Federal

Wildland Fire Policy and provides the foundation for fire

management on Federal public lands. The Review and

Update generally affirms the 1995 policy, but identifies a

few deficiencies in the original plan as well as problems

with its implementation. The policy recommends better

integration of fire management with existing land management plans, greater coordination among agencies with

fire management responsibilities, increased attention to fire

hazards at the wildland-urban interface, and better communication with the public about the natural role of fire.

The document aims to provide a shared philosophical and

political foundation for wildland fire management across

the United States and to complement the National Fire Plan,

which focuses more on tactics and implementation.

Zimmerman, G. Thomas; Bunnell, David L. 2000. The

Federal Wildland Fire Policy: opportunities for wilderness fire management. In: Cole, David N.; McCool,

Stephen F.; Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer,

comps. Proceedings: wilderness science in a time of

change—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and

management; 1999 May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc.

RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 288–298.

Annotation: This paper summarizes and discusses the 1995

Federal fire policy and its implications for wilderness fire

management. The authors suggest that the 1995 policy

enables more integrated planning, provides greater flexibility in funding, and offers more opportunities for the

use of prescribed fire in Forest Service Wilderness areas.

Based on an evaluation of the management of 1998 fires in

the Northern Rocky Mountains, it appears that the 1995

policy is positively affecting the number of fires managed

for resource benefits. The authors suggest that the new fire

classification system, where all wildland fires are “appropriately managed,” facilitates the use of a range of actions

and no longer dichotomously classifies fires as either “wildfire” (to be suppressed) or “prescribed natural fire” (allowed to burn within specific bounds). The paper identifies a range of strategies for managing wildland fire and

discusses the general conditions under which each is appropriate. Finally, future needs, which include proactive

management, accommodation of uncertainty, and better

documentation of management actions and their results,

are identified.

2. Administrative Boundaries

Bunnell, David L.; Zimmerman, G. Thomas. 1998. Fire

management in the North Fork of the Flathead River,

Montana: an example of a fully integrated interagency

fire management program. In: Pruden, Teresa L.;

Brennan, Leonard A., eds. Fire in ecosystem management:

shifting the paradigm from suppression to prescription;

1996 May 7–10; Boise, ID. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology

Conference Proceedings, No. 20. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 274–279.

Annotation: This paper describes how three resource management agencies, the National Park Service, U.S. Forest

Service, and Montana Department of State Lands, are working together to manage fire in and around Glacier National

Park. Despite differences in land management objectives,

the agencies developed coordinated fire response plans that

utilize multiple strategies: control, containment, confinement, prescribed burning, and prescribed natural fire. The

authors illustrate the results of this integrated management

program using the 1994 fire season as an example.

Desmond, Jim. 1994. Interagency wilderness fire management. In: Weise, David R.; Martin, Robert E., tech.

coords. 1995. The Biswell symposium: fire issues and solutions in urban interface and wildland ecosystems; 1994

February 15–17; Walnut Creek, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSWGTR-158. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station:

51–54.

Annotation: This brief paper discusses coordination in

managing wilderness fire across agency boundaries, emphasizing communication as a central factor in success.

The process used to coordinate fire planning between National Parks and Forest Service wilderness areas in the Sierra Nevada is described.

Landres, Peter B.; Marsh, Susan; Merigliano, Linda;

Ritter, Dan; Norman, Andy. 1998b. Boundary effects on

wilderness and other natural areas. In: Knight, Richard

L; Landres, Peter B., eds. Stewardship across boundaries.

Washington, DC: Island Press: 117–140.

Annotation: This chapter discusses the ecological and social effects of boundaries on wilderness and natural areas

and uses fire management as an example to illustrate how

boundaries can alter ecological flows into and out of wilderness areas. Landres and others discuss the problems

caused by incongruities between ecological and administrative boundaries and the consequences of boundaries for

planning and management in wilderness. The chapter outlines two different models used in Federal wilderness management: the “wilderness separate” and the “wilderness

similar” approaches. In the first case, wilderness is treated
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 31

as a discrete and different area and planning occurs separately for wilderness and adjacent Federal lands. In the

latter case, wilderness is viewed on a continuum with other

lands and planning is integrated on a broader scale. The

benefits and drawbacks of each approach are discussed.

Little, Ronda L.; Schonewald-Cox, Christine. 1990. Fire

management policy and boundary effects on parks:

Lassen Volcanic National Park—a case study. In: van

Ripper, C.; Stohlgren, T. J.; Veirs, S. D.; Hillyer, S. C.,

eds. Examples of resource inventory and monitoring in

National Parks of California, Proceedings of the third biennial conference on research in California’s National

Parks. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior,

National Park Service: 249–256.

Annotation: This short paper uses the 1987 Snag Fire in

Lassen Volcanic National Park to examine the effects of

administrative boundaries on fire management. When spot

fires moved too close to the park’s perimeter, fire fighting

began in order to protect timber on the adjacent Lassen

National Forest. The authors used this information to delineate regions in the park where the Park Service has significant control over fire management versus those where

fire management is heavily influenced by surrounding

lands. They conclude that fire is allowed to burn naturally,

without suppression, in only a small portion of the park.

Plevel, Steve R. 1997. Fire policy at the wildland-urban

interface. Journal of Forestry. 95(10): 12–17.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.D.2, page 26.

3. Wildland-Urban Interface

Feary, Karen M.; Neuenschwander, Leon F. 1998. Predicting fire behavior in the wildland-urban interface.

In: Pruden, Teresa L.; Brennan, Leonard A., eds. Fire in

ecosystem management: shifting the paradigm from suppression to prescription; 1996 May 7–10; Boise, ID. Tall

Timbers Fire Ecology Conference Proceedings, No. 20.

Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 44–48.

Annotation: Although we typically associate wilderness

with remoteness from urban influences or human habitation, wilderness management is increasingly influenced by

home development at the edge of wildlands and wilderness fire policies may be substantially affected by wildland-urban interface issues. This brief article provides an

overview of fire risk issues at the wildland-urban interface

and suggests that GIS-based models can be used to map

hazard areas, facilitating risk management. Barriers to

managing fire risk are also discussed: challenges include

zoning regulations, social attitudes, and insurance systems.

A map-based modeling approach might help overcome

some of these barriers by visually illustrating risks and facilitating landscape-scale planning. The paper’s literature

cited section includes a number of additional recent articles on fire at the urban-wildland interface, an issue that

wilderness managers increasingly face as more people occupy lands adjacent to protected areas.

Fischer, William C.; Arno, Stephen F., comps. 1988. Protecting people and homes from wildfire in the Interior

West: proceedings of the symposium and workshop;

1987 October 6–8; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT251. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Intermountain Research Station. 213 p.

Annotation: In the West, developments at the edge of wildlands have begun to have a substantial affect on fire management on Federal lands, including wilderness. This

symposium focuses on fire at the wildland/urban interface

in the Western United States, though many of the papers

provide information and ideas that should be relevant to

other regions as well. A number of contributions emphasize communication strategies among homeowners, developers, politicians, land managers, and the media. Other

papers discuss how to integrate wildland fire management

at the national, state, and local levels. Additionally, the

proceedings includes discussions of land use planning,

building design, landscaping and other techniques to control fire in residential areas in and near wildlands.

Plevel, Steve R. 1997. Fire policy at the wildland-urban

interface. Journal of Forestry. 95(10): 12–17.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.D.2, page 26.

Weise, David R.; Martin, Robert E., tech. coords. 1995.

The Biswell symposium: fire issues and solutions in urban interface and wildland ecosystems; 1994 February

15–17; Walnut Creek, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR158. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 199 p.

Annotation: Although wilderness fire management did not

play a central role in the discussions at this symposium,

many of the topics are relevant to fire management in wilderness areas that are small or abut private lands. This fire

management symposium centers on wildland-urban interface issues. A discussion of the California’s 1991 OaklandBerkeley Hills fire, in which both lives and property were

lost, leads off and serves as a focal point for the symposium, although the papers range widely. The symposium

includes articles on barriers to prescribed fire and fuel

management, agency objectives in relation to wildland fire

management, urban interface strategies and policies, and

other topics relating to the resolution of conflicts posed by

the natural process of fire and human needs for safety, clean

air, and places to live.

4. Large Fires and High-Intensity Fires

Heinselman, Miron L. 1985. Fire regimes and management options in ecosystems with large high-intensity

fires. In: Lotan, James E.; Kilgore, Bruce M.; Fischer,

William C.; Mutch, Robert W., eds. Proceedings—symposium and workshop on wilderness fire; 1983 November

15–18; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-182. Ogden,

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 81–86.

Annotation: In this paper, Heinselman describes patterns

of large and high-intensity fires in a number of different

wilderness ecosystems: the boreal forest, the Great-LakesAcadian ecosystem, the Rocky Mountains, and the Douglas-fir region of the Pacific Northwest. After explaining
32 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

regional differences, the author examines the relationships

between fuels, stand age, and time since last fire. These

relationships vary from region to region, therefore local

fire histories and an understanding of local fire regimes

play an important role in wilderness fire planning. The last

section of the paper focuses on management options for

large and high-intensity fires, emphasizing the importance

of safety, identifying factors that affect wilderness managers’ freedom to allow large fires to burn, and evaluating

the roles of natural fire, prescribed burning, and fire suppression in wilderness.

Turner, Monica G.; Hargrove, William W.; Gardner,

Robert H.; Romme, William H. 1994. Effects of fire on

landscape heterogeneity in Yellowstone National Park,

Wyoming. Journal of Vegetation Science. 5:731–742.

Annotation: This study examined the patterns of fire intensity and the isolation of burned areas created by the

large fires of 1988 in Yellowstone National Park. Even in

areas with large fires, the authors found that burn intensity

varied, and most crown fires were less than 200 m from an

unburned “green edge.” These results suggest that even

large patches of burned forest are within range of seed

sources for regeneration. Management implications are

discussed.

van Wagtendonk, Jan W. 1995. Large fires in wilderness areas. In: Brown, James K.; Mutch, Robert W.; Spoon,

Charles W.; Wakimoto, Ronald H., tech. coords. 1995. Proceedings: symposium on fire in wilderness and park management; 1993 March 30–April 1; Missoula, MT. Gen.

Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-320. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research

Station: 113–116.

Annotation: In this paper, van Wagtendonk discusses considerations for prescribed natural fire in wilderness and

protected areas, using Yosemite National Park as an example. In addition to understanding the “natural” role of

fire in a particular ecosystem, managers need to take into

account the risk of fire spread beyond areas boundaries,

smoke and air quality concerns, safety, and the availability

of fire fighting personnel. After appropriate fire management plans are developed and implemented, fire patterns

can be compared to historic fire regimes to evaluate program success.

5. Mechanical Thinning

Heinlein, Thomas A.; Covington, W. Wallace; Fule, Peter Z.; Moore, Margaret M.; Smith, Hiram B. 2000.

Development of ecological restoration experiments in

Grand Canyon National Park. In: Cole, David N.;

McCool, Stephen F.; Borrie, William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5: wilderness ecosystems, threats, and

management; 1999 May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc.

RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 249–254.

Annotation: “Process restoration”— using prescribed burning and appropriately managing natural fires—has been

used to reintroduce fire to many U.S. protected areas. However, the authors assert that in certain forest types, “structural restoration,” involving mechanical thinning, may be

more effective than process restoration in restoring forest

structure, preventing adverse ecological effects, and enabling the return of fire as a natural process. In the Grand

Canyon, for example, prescribed fires may burn intensely

due to fuel buildups under fire suppression, with consequences that differ from historic fire effects and potentially

impact native species. Heinlein and others suggest that mechanical thinning may circumvent such undesired consequences, though they acknowledge the controversy

surrounding the use of such interventions in protected areas. The authors argue that careful research can help elucidate the advantages and disadvantages of different

restoration techniques, and they describe an experimental

study on the North and South Rims of the Grand Canyon

examining four different restoration treatments (including

prescribed fire, thinning, and a combination of these techniques) and their effects on forest structure and species

composition.

Miller, Carol; Urban, Dean L. 2000. Modeling the effects of fire management alternatives on Sierra Nevada

mixed-conifer forests. Ecological Applications. 10(1):

85–94.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.C.2, page 23.

Stephenson, Nathan L. 1999. Reference conditions for

giant sequoia restoration: structure, process, and precision. Ecological Applications. 9(4): 1253–1265.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.C.2, page 24.

van Wagtendonk, Jan W. 1996. Use of a deterministic

fire growth model test fuel treatments. In: Sierra Nevada

Ecosystem Project: final report to Congress, Vol. II, Assessments and scientific basis for management options.

Davis, CA: University of California, Centers for Water and

Wildland Resources: 1155–1165.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.C.2, page 24.

6. Fire and Climate

Grissino-Mayer, Henri D.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 2000.

Century-scale climate forcing of fire regimes in the

American Southwest. The Holocene. 10(2): 213–220.

Annotation: In this paper, Grissino-Mayer and Swetnam

report the results of a 1,000-year reconstruction of fire and

precipitation in northwestern New Mexico. The authors

found significant changes in fire frequency, fire spread,

and fire seasonality on century scales as well as changes in

the relationship between precipitation and fire. Data suggest that climate and fire are interrelated in complex ways:

for example, above average rainfall may increase fuel accumulation and increase fires in dry years. The authors

conclude that climate changes will likely alter global fire

regimes. However the nature of the changes will depend

on patterns of temperature and precipitation and their interaction with the biotic environment.
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 33

Kipfmueller, Kurt F.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 2000. Fireclimate interactions in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness Area. In: Cole, David N.; McCool, Stephen F.; Borrie,

William T.; O’Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. Wilderness science in a time of change conference—Volume 5: Wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management; 1999 May

23–27; Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-15-VOL-5. Ogden,

UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station: 270–275.

Annotation: This study shows a relationship between climate and fire in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. The

authors found that fire years occurred when summers were

significantly drier than average, and fires tended to follow

a wet year 4 years previous. The authors suggest that the

relationships between climate and fire could be further elucidated if individual forest types were studied and compared.

Millar, Constance I.; Woolfenden, Wallace B. 1999. The

role of climate change in interpreting historical variability. Ecological Applications. 9(4): 1207–1216.

Annotation: Without considering changes in climate, historical variability may be misinterpreted and misapplied

in ecological restoration, Millar and Woolfenden assert in

this paper. The authors describe how climate has shifted

from the Middle Ages to today and discuss the interrelationships between climate, vegetation, and ecological processes. Implications of climate changes for ecosystem

management are then discussed in the context of two case

studies, one from California’s Mono Lake, and the other

from a forested roadless area in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Millar and Woolfenden conclude with a number of

considerations for management, including the admonition

that attempting to reconstruct the past may be both inappropriate and infeasible in light of differences between

present and past climates.

Ryan, Kevin C. 1991. Vegetation and wildland fire: implications of global climate change. Environment International. 17: 169–178.

Annotation: In this paper, Ryan outlines the causes and

potential consequences of global climate change in relation to wildland fire. Although substantial uncertainty remains in our understanding of global climate change on

planetary, regional, and local scales, models suggest that

with a doubling of carbon dioxide, mean global temperature will rise 4 °C and precipitation at mid-latitudes will

decrease, while precipitation and low and high latitudes

will increase. In temperate forests, global climate change

may increase the frequency and severity of fire. The complex interactions between vegetation, fire, and climate are

discussed, and Ryan outlines important social and philosophical issues related to the management of fire in light

of global change. Ryan specifically identifies a number of

questions relevant to wilderness fire management under a

changing climate.

Swetnam, Thomas W. 1993. Fire history and climate

change in giant sequoia groves. Science. 262: 885–889.

Annotation: In this paper, Swetnam discusses the results

of a 2,000-year reconstruction of fire history and climate

for five giant sequoia groves in California. Fire occurrence

in the five groves was more synchronous than would be

expected if fires were controlled by local factors; Swetnam

argues therefore that regional climatic conditions may exert some control over fire occurrence. Additionally, fire

occurrence was related to precipitation at annual time

scales, and to temperature at decadal and century scales.

Swetnam discusses the interaction of factors at multiple

scales in controlling fire regimes, and suggests that

nonequilibrium conditions influence fire, whose patterns

change constantly over time in response to climate and

other factors.

Torn, Margaret S.; Fried, Jeremy S. 1992. Predicting

the impacts of global warming on wildland fire. Climatic

Change. 21: 257–274.

Annotation: This paper presents the results of a modeling

study focused on the interactions between climate change

and fire. Because climate predictions are uncertain, and

fire behavior models focus at different spatial and temporal scales than the general circulation models used to simulate climate change, little is known about how fire and

climate interact. In this study, Torn and Fried used an integrated model to examine fire and climate processes in northern California, finding that increases in both temperature

and wind resulted in greater fire intensity, more escaped

fires, and a larger area burned. The authors discuss the implications of their results for understanding fire and climate more generally and identify gaps in data needed for

modeling. Although wilderness fire managers are unlikely

to have any direct control over factors affecting climate

change, understanding the potential implications of such

change may assist managers in planning fire programs for

the future.

Wotton, B. M.; Flannigan, M. D. 1993. Length of the

fire season in a changing climate. The Forestry Chronicle.

69(2): 187–192.

Annotation: This study used global circulation models to

examine potential changes in fire season length under increased carbon dioxide conditions and associated global

climate change. In all regions of Canada, the model predicted an earlier start date and a later end date to the fire

season, with an average predicted increase of 22 percent

in the fire season length for Canada as a whole. Although

these results may not be directly applicable to the United

States—particularly for southern regions—they highlight

a potential effect of climate change on fire regimes and the

study utilizes a methodology that may be useful elsewhere.

7. Air Pollution From Wildland Fires

Brown, James K.; Bradshaw, Larry S. 1994. Comparisons of particulate emissions and smoke impacts from

presettlement, full suppression, and prescribed natural

fire periods in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 4(3): 143–155.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.D.2, page 26.

Core, John E. 1997. Air quality regulations: treatment

of emissions from wildfires vs. prescribed fires. In: Bryan,

D. C., ed. Conference proceedings: environmental regula-
34 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

tion and prescribed fire: legal and social challenges; 1995

March 14-17; Tampa Airport Hilton at MetroCenter, Tampa,

FL. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University, Center for

Professional Development: 53–62.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.D.1, page 25.

Leenhouts, Bill. 1997. Presettlement fire and emission

production estimates: a framework for understanding

potential system change. In: Bryan, D. C., ed. Conference proceedings—environmental regulation and prescribed fire: legal and social challenges. Tallahassee, FL:

Florida State University, Center for Professional Development: 236–241.

Annotation: Though very brief, this article estimates and

compares current and historical atmospheric emissions from

wildland fires across the United States. According to

Leenhout’s estimates, contemporary emissions from wildland fire are at approximately one-tenth of their

presettlement levels. Leenhouts suggests that these and

similar estimates can be used as a baseline in understanding fire’s current role in ecosystems as compared to their

historic effects.

McMahon, Charles K. 1999. Forest fires and smoke—

impacts on air quality and human health in the U.S.A.

Proceedings, TAPPI International Environmental Conference; 1999 April 18–21; Nashville, TN. Nashville, TN:

TAPPI Press: 443–453. Available: http://www.srs.fs.fed.us/

pubs/ja/ja_mcmahon001.pdf [2001, June 5].

Annotation: This article traces the evolution of national

air quality regulations and their relation to wildland fires.

The paper outlines the structure of current Clean Air Act

regulations and discusses the EPA’s 1998 interim air quality policy on wildland and prescribed fires. The need for

interagency collaboration, public education, and integrated

Smoke Management Plans for wildland fires is discussed.

The references section contains links to the EPA fire working group and the Western States Air Resource Council

Web sites.

Procter, Trent. 1995. Working to make the Clean Air

Act and prescribed burning compatible. In: Weise, David

R.; Martin, Robert E., tech. coords. The Biswell symposium: fire issues and solutions in urban interface and wildland ecosystems; 1994 February 15-17; Walnut Creek, CA.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-158. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest

Research Station: 125–128.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.D.1, page 25.

Sampson, R. Neil; Atkinson, R. Dwight; Lewis, Joe W.

2000. Mapping wildfire hazards and risks. [Co-published

simultaneously as Journal of Sustainable Forestry, volume

11, numbers 1/2 2000.] New York: Food Products Press.

328 p.

Annotation: See annotation in section II.E, page 28.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Interim

air quality policy on wildland and prescribed fires,

[Online]. Available: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/oarpg/t1/

memoranda/firefnl.pdf [2001, June 5].

Annotation: This document outlines Federal policy on air

quality and wildland fire. The requirements for Clean Air

Act compliance are discussed, emphasizing the role of

Smoke Management Plans. The need for collaboration

among Federal land managers, Indian land managers, private land owners, air quality managers, and state and local

governments is stressed, and roles for each of these groups

are outlined. The policy addresses air quality compliance

in the context of Federal wildland fire policy and recognizes the importance of wildland fire use as well as the

need to protect airsheds for health and aesthetic reasons.

Western States Air Resource Council (WESTAR),

[Online]. Available: http://www.westar.org/ [2001, June 5].

Annotation: This Website is the homepage of WESTAR,

a cooperative air quality organization composed of 15 states

and a number of Federal partners. WESTAR aims to “promote the exchange of information related to the control of

air pollution for use in state and Federal activities as authorized by air quality statutes and regulations” and to work

with Federal land managers and the EPA to develop strategies for maintaining air quality and protecting the environment. The site contains information on WESTAR air

quality training sessions and work groups, as well as links

to air quality programs in member states and to Federal air

quality-related sites.
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 35

A. Fire Management Plans

Because many wilderness fire plans were under revision at the time this reading list was compiled, we were

unable to include sample fire management plans representing a diverse set of regions and agencies. However, we

have included two Forest Service wilderness fire management plans that illustrate the types of issues, considerations,

and management guidelines that fire plans can address.

Fire plans will vary across agencies and administrative units

depending on particular management directives and ecological and social characteristics. Additionally, the plans

listed here will undergo revision as policies and conditions

change.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Bitterroot, Clearwater, Lolo and Nez Perce National Forests.

1997. Selway-Bitterroot fire management guidebook.

Annotation: This guidebook serves as the fire management plan for the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness (SBW).

The SBW has one of the longest running natural fire management programs in the country. The guidebook begins

with a discussion of wilderness and general fire management objectives described in the Forest Service Manual.

The document next describes the SBW and the characteristics of specific management units, then explains in detail

procedures for conducting an initial decision analysis, developing a burn plan, and assessing ongoing fires. Additionally, annual monitoring and long-term program

evaluation are discussed. Appendices focus on risk management, research natural areas, site and structure evaluation and protection, a public information plan, and skills

and qualifications for fire management.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Bridger Teton National Forest. 1996.

Gros Ventre fire program: background and fire management plan. 72 p.

Annotation: This fire plan describes the context and management direction for fire in the Bridger Teton National

Forest’s Gros Ventre Wilderness. The Gros Ventre fire program aims “to maintain or restore fire to its natural role in

the wilderness ecosystem and maintain a natural regime

that operates with minimal human interference.” The fire

management plan provides background on the area’s climate, weather, vegetation, and vegetation responses to fire.

Additionally, fire history, fuel characteristics, and fire regimes are described. The plan delineates three management zones and identifies the responsibilities of line,

wilderness, and fire management officers with regard to

wilderness fire. Procedures for managing prescribed natural fires, management ignitions, and wildfires are outlined

in detail, and the plan pays particular attention to minimizing fire suppression impacts in wilderness.

B. Online Resources

This section lists a number of Web sites and online documents relevant to fire ecology and management. The U.S.

Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, National Park

Service, and Fish and Wildlife Service all maintain firerelated Web sites, which are included here. Additionally a

number of online bibliographies and databases are cited:

the most comprehensive of these are the fire ecology database maintained by Tall Timbers Research Station and the

Fire Effects Information System developed by the U.S.

Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station. Finally,

we provide links for policy documents, such as the 1995

Federal Wildland Fire Policy and the Environmental Protection Agency’s Interim Policy on Wildland and Prescribed

Fires, that bear on wilderness fire management and restoration. Brief annotations for these sites highlight the information most relevant to wilderness fire restoration; for some

sites, longer annotations in sections I and II of the reading

list are cited. Each citation in this section is followed by

the date we last accessed the homepage.

III. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
36 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, [Online].

Available: http://www.wilderness.net/leopold [2001, June

5].

Annotation: This site is the homepage of the Leopold Institute, a Federal interagency research group that provides

scientific leadership to sustain wilderness. The Leopold

Institute has identified natural disturbances, including wilderness fire, as one of its three priority research issues.

This reading list as well others in the Linking Wilderness

Research and Management Series are available online.

Bibliography of Fire Effects and Related Literature—

Applicable to the Ecosystems and Species of Wisconsin,

[Online]. Available: http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/

literatr/firebibl/firebibl.htm [2001, June 1].

Annotation: This downloadable bibliography contains

more than 800 citations on fire effects in the Midwestern

United States.

Bureau of Land Management National Office of Fire

and Aviation, [Online]. Available: http://www.fire.blm.gov/

[2001, June 1].

Annotation: This site contains current fire information for

BLM lands, fire policy documents, fire statistics, links to

fire research, and links to other relevant agency sites, such

as the National Interagency Fire Center.

Fire Information Cache: Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks, [Online]. Available: http://www.nps.gov.seki/

fire/indxfire.htm [2001, May 31].

Annotation: This site houses the fire management plan

for Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks, National

Park Service fire policy information, online fire research

papers, research project information, and a fire bibliography (available: http://www.nps.gov/seki/fire/fire_bib.htm),

divided into three sections: General Literature, Technical

and Scientific Literature, and Historic and Background

Literature. The bibliography emphasizes literature relevant

to the Sierra Nevada region.

Fire Information Systems Online, [Online]. Available:

http://www.fire.org [2001, June 1].

Annotation: This is a central site for accessing and downloading fire behavior simulation models. Contains direct

links to the Fire Effects Information System (FEIS), the

Citation Retrieval System (a searchable database of all

sources used to create the FEIS), and Fire Management

Tools Online. Links to U.S. Forest Service fire information and other related sites are also included.

The International Fire Information Network, [Online].

Available: http://www.csu.edu.au/firenet/ [2001, June 1].

Annotation: This site is a “Special Interest Network dedicated to all aspects of fire science and management.” It

includes a virtual library, as well as information on “fire

behaviour, fire weather...plant and animal responses to fire

and all aspects of fire effects.”

Kirby, Ronald E.; Lewis, Stephen J.; Sexson, Terry N.

(1998, April). Fire in North American wetland ecosystems and fire-wildlife relations: an annotated bibliography, [Online]. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 88(1). Available: http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/

resource/literatr/firewild/firewild.htm [2001, May 31].

Annotation: This searchable bibliography contains more

than 300 citations related to fire effects on wildlife in wetland ecosystems.

National Interagency Fire Center, [Online]. Available:

http://www.nifc.gov [2001, May 31].

Annotation: This site offers current wildland fire information, national interagency coordination center reports,

fire prevention and education information, science and technology information related to fire, National Fire Plan information, a link to the 2001 Review and Update of the

1995 Federal Wildland Fire Policy, and links to individual

agency fire sites.

National Park Service FireNet, [Online]. Available: http:/

/www.nps.gov/fire [2001, May 31].

Annotation: This site provides fire policy, science, planning, safety and employment information for the National

Park Service. It includes information on wildland fire, including relevant science; the National Park Service Implementation Strategy for the National Fire Plan; fire at the

wildland-urban interface; fire prevention and education;

and current fire information.

National Wildfire Coordinating Group, [Online]. Available: http://www.nwcg.gov/teams/wfewt/NWCGBib/

fireecology.html [2001, May 31].

Annotation: This site lists a variety of Web sites with fire

ecology information.

Tall Timbers Research Station E. V. Komarek Fire Ecology Database, [Online]. Available: http://

www.talltimbers.org/feco.html [2001, May 31].

Annotation: An extensive, keyword-searchable database

with over 10,800 publications related to fire ecology. The

bibliography emphasizes the United States, and particularly the Southeastern United States. However, international

papers are included as well. The bibliography is updated

frequently and is easy to use.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory

(2001, May). Fire Effects Information System, [Online].

Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2001,

June 1].

Annotation: This searchable database provides synopses

of fire effects on individual plant and animal species. The

database also includes summaries of fire effects on plant

communities of North America (by Kuchler vegetation

type). For each species or community type, a bibliography

lists full citations of source material.

U.S. Department of the Interior; U.S. Department of

Agriculture. 1995. Federal wildland fire management

policy and program review, [Online]. Available: http://

www.fs.fed.us/land/wdfirex.htm [2001, June 5].

Annotation: This policy document was updated with the

2001 Review and Update of the 1995 Federal Wildland

Fire Management Policy (see annotation in section II.F.1,
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 37

page 30); however, the 2001 review affirms that the policy’s

principles remain central guideposts for wildland fire management.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Interim

air quality policy on wildland and prescribed fires

[Online]. Available: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/oarpg/t1/

memoranda/firefnl.pdf [2001, June 5].

Annotation: See annotation in section II.F.7, page 34.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Fire Management,

[Online]. Available: http://fire.r9.fws.gov [2001,

May 31].

Annotation: A repository of information on U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service fire policy and guidance, prescribed fire,

and wildland fire monitoring. Contains links to interagency

fire research, the USFWS Fire Management Handbook (requires password for access), and daily fire situation reports.

U.S. Forest Service Fire Page, [Online]. Available: http:/

/www.fs.fed.us/land/#fire [2001, May 31].

Annotation: Contains links to fire systems and data, fire

news and publications, fire research centers, and fire policy

documents.

U.S. Forest Service Fire and Aviation Site, [Online].

Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/ [2001,

May 31].

Annotation: Contains U.S. Forest Service fire policy, science, planning, safety, and employment information. Includes links to the Forest Service National Fire Plan, policy

information, agency fire research, and the publication Fire

Management Today (formerly Fire Management Notes).

Western States Air Resource Council (WESTAR)

[Online]. Available: http://www.westar.org/ [2001, June 5].

Annotation: See annotation in section II.F.7, page 34.

www.fire.org. (2000, July 10—last update). Available:

http://www.fire.org [2001, June 1].

Annotation: This site offers links to downloadable fire

simulation models and other online resources. See annotation in section I.B1, page 7.
38 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001
USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001 39

AUTHOR INDEX

Multiple page number listings result from works cited

in more than one section of the document. For articles that

appear more than once, an * marks the page containing the

annotation.

Agee 1993. pages 5*, 8, 11

Agee 2000. pages 5*, 17

Agee and Huff 1986. page 18

Albright and Meisner 1999. page 7

Arno 1985. page 13

Arno and Brown 1991. pages 14*, 20

Arno and others 2000. pages 14*, 20

Baker 1992. pages 9, 10*, 11

Baker 1993. pages 9, 11, 14*

Baker 1994. pages 11*, 14

Barrett 1999. page 18

Barrett and Arno 1982. pages 11, 13*

Beebe and Omi 1993. pages 26, 28*

Bonnicksen and Stone 1985. page 18

Botti 1999. page 27

Boucher and Moody 1998. pages 15, 20, 22*

Boyd 1999. page 13

Bradley and Arno 1991. page 22

Bright 1995. page 26

Brown 1992–1993. page 20

Brown and Bradshaw 1994. pages 11, 26*, 33

Brown and Smith 2000. page 8

Brown and others 1994. pages 11*, 15, 23

Brown and others 1995. pages 5*, 17, 19

Bryan 1997. page 24

Bunnell 1997. pages 24*, 26

Bunnell and Zimmerman. 1998. page 30

Caprio and Graber 2000. pages 11, 23*, 26

Childers and Piirto 1991. page 27

Christensen 1988. page 10

Christensen 1989. page 10

Christensen 1991. page 17

Christensen 1995. page 17

Cole 1996. page 29

Core 1997. pages 25*, 33

Cortner and others 1990. page 28

Czech 1996. page 29

D’Antonio 2000. page 15

DeBano and others 1998. pages 6*, 8

Desmond 1994. page 30

Feary and Neuenschwander 1998. page 31

Fischer and Arno 1988. page 31

Fule and Covington 1999. pages 11*, 15

Fule and others 2000. pages 12*, 15

Gardner and others 1987. page 28

Gresswell 1999. page 8

Grissino-Mayer and Swetnam 2000. page 32

Haase and Sackett 1998. pages 8*, 21

Hardy and Arno 1996. pages 6*, 21

Heinlein and others 2000. page 32

Heinselman 1985. page 31

Hobbs and Huenneke 1992. page 15

Johnson and Miyanishi 1995. pages 7, 8*, 21

Keeley and Stephenson 2000. page 21

Keeley and others 1999. page 15

Keifer and others 2000. page 23

Kilgore 1985. page 19

Kilgore 1986. pages 6*, 29

Kipfmueller and Swetnam 2000. page 33

Knopp 1995. page 25

Knudsen 1995. page 25

Landres and others 1998a. page 19

Landres and others 1998b. page 30

Landres and others 1999. page 11

Landres and others 2000. page 19

LaRosa and Floyd 1995. page 25

Leenhouts 1997. pages 8, 34*

Lertzmann and Fall 1998. pages 9*, 11

Lewis 1985. page 13

Little and Schonewald-Cox 1990. page 31

Madany and West 1983. page 15

Manfredo and others 1990. page 26

Mangan 1985. page 21

Maruoka and Agee 1994. page 12

McCool and Stankey 1986. page 26

McCullough and others 1998. page 15

McLoughlin 1998. pages 8*, 12

McMahon 1999. page 34

Millar and Woolfenden 1999. page 33

Miller and Urban 2000. pages 23*, 32

Miller and others 2000. page 28

Mohr 1994. page 21

Mooney and others 1981. pages 9, 12*

Moore and others 1999. page 12

Mutch 1995. page 21

National Park Service and others 1998. pages 21, 29*

Neary and others 1999. page 9

Nickas 1998–1999. page 22

Nodvin and Waldrop 1991. page 6

Parsons 1990. pages 19, 23*

Parsons 1998–1999. pages 22, 30*

Parsons 2000. page 29

Parsons and Botti 1996. pages 18*, 23

Parsons and Landres 1998. pages 18*, 24

Parsons and van Wagtendonk 1996. page 19

Parsons and others 1986. page 19

Plevel 1997. pages 26*, 31

Procter 1995. pages 25*, 27, 34

Pyne 2001. page 22

Pyne and others 1996a. pages 6*, 12, 22

Pyne and others 1996b. page 7
40 USDA Forest Service RMRS GTR-79-vol. 1. 2001

Russell and others 1999. page 9

Ryan 1991. page 33

Sampson and others 2000. pages 10, 28*, 34

Saveland 1986. pages 24, 27*

Smith, C. 1991. page 27

Smith, J. 2000. page 9

Stanton 1995. page 29

Stephenson 1999. pages 20, 24*, 32

Strohmaier 2000. page 22

Swetnam 1993. pages 12, 33*

Swetnam and others 1999. page 12

Sydoriak and others 2000. page 20

Tall Timbers Research Station E.V. Komarek Fire

Ecology Database. Ongoing. page 6

Taylor 2000. pages 12*, 24

Taylor and Mutch 1986. page 27

Tomascak 1991. page 22

Torn and Fried 1992. page 33

Turner and Romme 1994. pages 7*, 10

Turner and others 1994. pages 10, 32*

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Bitterroot, Clearwater, Lolo and Nez Perce National

Forests 1997. page 35

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Intermountain Region and Bridger Teton National

Forest. 1996. page 35

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Labo

ratory 2001. page 9

U.S. Department of the Interior and others 2001.

page 30

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1998. page 34

Vale 1998. page 14

van Wagtendonk 1995. page 32

van Wagtendonk 1996. pages 24*, 32

Weise and Martin 1995. page 31

Western States Air Resource Council (WESTAR).

Ongoing. page 34

Whelan 1995a. pages 6*, 9

Whelan 1995b. pages 6*, 20, 22

White 1991. pages 25*, 29

Williams 1994. page 14

Wotton and Flannigan 1993. page 33

www.fire.org. Ongoing. page 7

Zimmerman and Bunnell 2000. page 30
Rocky Mountain Research Station

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The Rocky Mountain Research Station develops scientific

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Studies accelerate solutions to problems involving ecosystems, range, forests, water, recreation, fire, resource inventory, land reclamation, community sustainability, forest engineering technology, multiple use economics, wildlife and fish

habitat, and forest insects and diseases. Studies are conducted cooperatively, and applications may be found worldwide.

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