A Technical Document Supporting the 2000 

USDA Forest Service RPA Assessment

ERVIN G. SCHUSTER AND MICHAEL A. KREBS

Forest Service Programs, Authorities,

and Relationships

Forest Service Programs, Authorities, 

and Relationships

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

A Technical Document Supporting the 2000 

USDA Forest Service RPA Assessment

FOREST SERVICE

ERVIN G. SCHUSTER AND MICHAEL A. KREBS
Schuster, Ervin G.; Krebs, Michael A. 2003. Forest Service programs, authorities, and relationships: A technical document supporting the 2000 USDA Forest Service RPA Assessment.

Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-112. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Rocky Mountain Research Station. 88 p.

Abstract

The Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act (RPA) of 1974, as amended, directs 

the Forest Service to prepare and update a renewable resources assessment that would include “a 

description of Forest Service programs and responsibilities ..., their interrelationships, and the relationship of these programs and responsibilities to public and private activities.” The first description 

was part of the RPA Assessment document in 1979. The second was published as an independent 

support document in 1989. This third description is organized around major Forest Service programs 

within the National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, and Research and Development. 

Programs and responsibilities within International Programs, Law Enforcement and Investigations, 

Capital Improvement and Maintenance, along with Senior, Youth, and Volunteer Programs, are also 

discussed. Each section discusses major program areas, legal authorizations, administrative and 

organizational considerations, and relationships within the Forest Service and with outside organizations. A listing of major legislative authorities is provided.

You may order additional copies of this publication by sending your mailing information in label form through one of the following media. Please 

send the publication title and number.

Telephone (970) 498-1392

Email rschneider@fs.fed.us

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Rocky Mountain Research Station

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Fort Collins, CO 80526

This publication is also available on the web at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/main/pubs/electronic.html

Rocky Mountain Research Station

Natural Resources Research Center

2150 Centre Avenue, Building A

Fort Collins, CO 80526
Forest Service Programs, Authorities, and 

Relationships: A Technical Document Supporting 

the 2000 USDA Forest Service 

RPA Assessment

Ervin G. Schuster and Michael A. Krebs

Contents

Introduction .........................................................................................................................1

Mission and Objectives .....................................................................................................1

Management Framework ...................................................................................................2

Management Situation .......................................................................................................2

National Forest System ......................................................................................................4

Authorization .....................................................................................................................4

Ecosystem Management Coordination .............................................................................5

Vegetation and Watershed Management ..........................................................................6

Grazing Management.......................................................................................................12

Lands ...............................................................................................................................13

Minerals and Geology Management ...............................................................................16

Forest Products ...............................................................................................................18

Recreation, Wilderness, and Heritage ............................................................................21

Wildlife and Fish Habitat Management and Native Plants .............................................26

Administration and Organization .....................................................................................28

Relationships ...................................................................................................................29

State and Private Forestry ................................................................................................33

Authorization ...................................................................................................................34

Conservation Education ..................................................................................................35

Cooperative Forestry .......................................................................................................37

Urban and Community Forestry .....................................................................................40

Forest Health Management ............................................................................................42

Cooperative Fire Protection ...........................................................................................44

Fire and Aviation Management .......................................................................................46

Administration and Organization......................................................................................50

Relationships ...................................................................................................................51

Research and Development .............................................................................................52

Authorization ...................................................................................................................53

Forest Resources Inventory and Monitoring .....................................................................54

Resource Valuation and Use Research .........................................................................56

Vegetation Management and Protection Research .......................................................60

Wildlife, Fish, Watershed, and Atmospheric Sciences Research ....................................63

Administration and Organization .....................................................................................68

Relationships ................................................................................................................. 68
4 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

International Programs ................................................................................................. 72

Authorization ................................................................................................................ 73

Disaster Assistance Support ........................................................................................ 73

Technical Cooperation................................................................................................... 74

Policy Programs ............................................................................................................ 74

Administration and Organization................................................................................... 74

Relationships ................................................................................................................ 75

Law Enforcement and Investigations .......................................................................... 75

Authorization ................................................................................................................. 76

Enforcement ................................................................................................................. 76

Investigations ................................................................................................................ 76

Drug Enforcement ........................................................................................................ 77

Organization and Administration ................................................................................... 77

Relationships ................................................................................................................ 77

Senior, Youth, and Volunteer Programs ...................................................................... 78

Authorization ................................................................................................................ 78

Youth Conservation Corps ........................................................................................... 78

Job Corps...................................................................................................................... 78

Senior Community Service Employment Program ....................................................... 79

Volunteers in the National Forests ................................................................................ 79

Hosted Programs ........................................................................................................ 80

Administration and Organization................................................................................... 80

Relationships................................................................................................................. 80

Capital Improvement and Maintenance........................................................................ 81

Authorization ................................................................................................................. 81

Facilities ........................................................................................................................ 81

Roads ............................................................................................................................ 82

Trails.............................................................................................................................. 84

Administration and Organization................................................................................... 84

Relationships................................................................................................................. 84

Legislative References................................................................................................... 85

Other References............................................................................................................ 87

iii
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 1

Introduction

Nearly a century ago, President Theodore Roosevelt 

and America’s first Chief Forester, Gifford Pinchot, 

founded the USDA Forest Service and fostered the 

first strategy for managing and protecting the nation’s 

forests. A pattern of effective organization and management was set in motion under Pinchot and the Forest 

Service leaders who followed him, as the conservation 

of natural resources became a widely accepted concept 

and a national policy. Today, the tradition of land stewardship continues with renewed vigor as we enter a new 

century with its promise and challenges.

This document describes the programs and responsibilities of the USDA Forest Service, as called for in the 

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning 

Act (RPA) of 1974 as amended. The RPA directs the 

Secretary of Agriculture to periodically prepare an updated Renewable Resource Assessment, which would 

include “a description of Forest Service programs and 

responsibilities in research, cooperative programs and 

management of the National Forest System (NFS), their 

interrelationships, and the relationship of these programs 

and responsibilities to public and private activities.”

Accordingly, this document has been prepared in 

support of the latest update of the RPA Assessment. The 

research, cooperative assistance, and land management 

programs conducted by the Forest Service affect almost 

all forests and rangelands, both public and private, in 

the United States, including timberlands, woodlands, 

brushlands, grasslands, alpine areas, and the associated 

waters. These land and water areas total some 1.6 billion 

acres, or about 70 percent of the total area of the United 

States.

The Forest Service provides leadership in management, protection, and use of the nation’s forests, grasslands, and aquatic ecosystems. Through the National 

Forest System, the agency is responsible for managing more than 192 million acres of public lands in the 

United States. The State and Private Forestry organization within the Forest Service provides technical and 

cost-sharing assistance to help assure conservation and 

sound stewardship of the nation’s vast state and private 

forest lands. Within State and Private Forestry, the Fire 

and Aviation Management program protects life, property, and natural resources from wildfire hazards on the 

192 million acres of NFS lands. An additional 20 million 

acres of adjacent state and private lands are also protected through fee or reciprocal protection agreements. 

Through the Research and Development organization, 

the Forest Service provides world leadership in the 

development of scientific information to assist public 

and private landowners in management of their lands.

Mission and Objectives

The mission of the Forest Service is to sustain the 

health, diversity, and productivity of the nation’s forests 

and grasslands to meet the needs of present and future 

generations. “Caring for the Land and Serving People” 

is more than a motto—it is the foundation for everything 

the Forest Service does. In delivering its mission, the 

Forest Service is guided by the agency’s strategic plan. 

The Forest Service Strategic Plan identifies long-term 

goals, outcomes, objectives, and performance measures 

for the work of the agency. Collectively, these provide 

purpose and context for future management actions and 

investments, as well as a set of milestones for evaluating progress. Separately, annual performance plans 

address specific management actions and investments 

needed to ensure progress toward goals and objectives 

of the Forest Service’s Strategic Plan. Annual performance plans reflect local needs identified in land and 

resource management plans for the national forests and 

grasslands. Plans for research and assistance to tribal 

governments, states, and communities are also reflected 

in annual performance plans. Annual budget proposals 

seek funding needed to deliver the annual actions and 

investments identified.

The Forest Service is committed to provide the best 

possible stewardship, benefiting current and future generations of the American people. The realities of diverse 

interests, finite budgets, and environmental considerations influence the choices made in the management 

of forest and grassland resources. Delivering on this 

commitment requires understanding of the public’s 

interests through direct discussions and collaboration; 

financial support through congressional appropriations, 

volunteers, partners, and user fees; development and 

use of scientific information; and broad support for the 

agency’s long-term goals and objectives.

During the past decade, the United States has committed to sustainable resource management in response 

to an international consensus to link natural resource 

development and protection of the environment. The 

Forest Service is committed to managing the 192 million 

acres of the NFS in a sustainable manner. Forest Service 

responsibilities associated with the NFS, Research and 

Development, and State and Private Forestry programs 

hold opportunities to pursue and achieve the promise of 

sustainable resource management.
2 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Management Framework

The Forest Service must comply with legislated 

authorities and responsibilities, particularly concerning the water, air, and soils that sustain life on Earth. 

Specifically, the Forest Service must work to sustain 

the health, diversity, and productivity of the nation’s 

forests and grasslands. The agency is also required to 

conduct its business in the most effective and efficient 

manner possible, providing the best possible value for 

the American people.

Many acts of Congress define and direct Forest 

Service management actions. The Organic Act of 1897, 

Multiple Use and Sustained Yield Act of 1960, National 

Forest Management Act of 1976, Wilderness Act of 

1964, and Endangered Species Act of 1973, together, 

provide a framework within which the agency’s mission is defined. The National Environmental Policy 

Act of 1969 guides analysis of the impacts and effects 

of program actions that accomplish the mission. The 

Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 and 

the Chief Financial Officer’s Act of 1990 direct the mission to be accomplished in a business-like manner.

As the lead Federal agency in natural resource conservation, the Forest Service provides leadership in the 

protection, management, and use of the nation’s forest, 

rangeland, and aquatic ecosystems. The ecosystem approach to management integrates ecological, economic, 

and social factors to maintain and enhance environmental quality to meet current and future needs. Through 

implementation of land and resource management plans, 

the Forest Service ensures sustainable ecosystems by restoring and maintaining species diversity and ecological 

productivity that helps provide recreation, water, timber, 

minerals, fish, wildlife, wilderness, and aesthetic values 

for current and future generations of people.

Through technical and financial assistance, the Forest 

Service assists states and private landowners in practicing good stewardship, promoting rural economic development, and improving the natural environment of cities 

and communities. The agency continues to develop and 

use the best available scientific information to facilitate 

achievement of goals and objectives. Domestic and international activities are directed at developing values, 

products, and services in such a way as to maintain 

ecosystem health.

Management Situation

The management situation of the Forest Service is 

similar to that of many organizations today. Financial 

resources are finite and competition for them is strong. 

Operations are being transformed by new and emerging 

information technologies. Accountability (for monies 

spent and results achieved) is expected and closely 

monitored, from within and outside the agency. Results 

expected of the agency are as diverse as the public interests the agency serves.

The model for how the Forest Service manages its 

business has changed in response to the management 

situation and other factors. Consistent with requirements of the Government Performance and Results 

Act of 1993, the new model provides for considering 

long-term as well as near-term objectives in an adaptive 

system, while monitoring and evaluating financial performance and public perceptions, accomplishing operational objectives, and achieving long-term results. Full 

implementation of this model facilitates Forest Service 

accountability for actions taken and results realized.

The long-term goals and objectives of the Forest 

Service, outlined in the Strategic Plan, are intended to 

guide near-term agency actions. Those actions include 

decisions on programs and plans associated with the 

National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, 

Research and Development, and Business Operations, 

as well as agency budget proposals. The Strategic Plan 

identifies intended long-term outcomes and priorities. 

The importance of the Strategic Plan is directly akin to 

the importance of knowing where we want our journey 

to take us before we travel long distances. Intended outcomes guide every decision and direction adjustment 

throughout the journey. As the Strategic Plan guides 

other plans, actions, and investments, it also provides 

context and purpose that drive near-term choices essential to achieve intended long-term outcomes.

The Strategic Plan is a keystone. By itself, it means 

little. However, in association with other components of 

the Forest Service management system, the Strategic 

Plan plays an essential role just as a keystone in an 

arch provides integrity to the structure of the arch. 

The Strategic Plan outlines the purpose and context 

for everything the agency does, providing guidance for 

near-term actions and monitoring how they affect progress toward long-term outcomes.

The Forest Service has both a responsibility and an 

opportunity to be a leader in ensuring that the nation 

maintains a natural resource conservation posture that 

will meet the requirements of our people in perpetuity. 

In carrying out its responsibilities, the Forest Service 

engages in a wide array of activities that this document 

has grouped into four program areas:

• National Forest System. This entails direct administration of 192 million acres of national forests, 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 3

national grasslands, and land utilization projects, 

and the management of their resources for the use 

by people.

• State and Private Forestry. Nationwide cooperative forestry programs are conducted with state 

forestry agencies to protect and improve nearly a 

billion acres of forests, rangelands, and associated 

water resources in private and non-Federal public 

ownerships. State and Private Forestry also has responsibility for fire management programs.

• Research and Development. Comprehensive research programs are aimed at solving management 

problems concerning all types and ownerships of 

forests, rangelands, and associated waters, as well 

as the industrial, environmental, and other uses of 

these natural resources.

• Other programs. Other programs described in 

this document include those aimed at developing 

employment, education, and training opportunities 

for people with special needs, providing international cooperation and assistance, and enforcing 

laws that protect public and employee safety and 

natural resources and other property.

Other agencies also manage Federally owned forest 

and range resources, provide assistance to state and 

private owners of forests and rangelands, or conduct 

research on forest and range problems. Similarly, state, 

industrial, and conservation organizations also play an 

important role in forest land management, in forest and 

Forest Service

State and Private Forestry Research and Development

Business Operations

National Forest System

Conservation Education

Cooperative Forestry

Urban and Community Forestry

Forest Health Management

Cooperative Fire Protection

Fire and Aviation Management

Ecosystem Management Coordination

Vegetation and Watershed Management

Grazing Management

Lands

Minerals and Geology Management

Forest Products

Recreation, Wilderness, and Heritage

Wildlife and Fish Habitat Management and Native Plants

Capital Improvement and Maintenance Forest Resource Inventory and Monitoring

Senior, Youth, and Volunteer Programs

Resource Valuation and Use

Vegetation Management

and Protection

Wildlife, Fish, Watershed,

and Atmospheric Sciences

International Programs

Law Enforcement and Investigations

Major program areas within the Forest Service.

range research, and in environmental protection programs on private forests and rangelands. Cooperative 

relationships between the Forest Service and other 

resource organizations are of major importance in developing and carrying out forest and range conservation 

programs. In both the formulation of forestry policies 

and in the management of forest and associated resources, the Forest Service works in partnership with 

many agencies and organizations, and with continuing 

involvement of concerned people.

Forest Service programs and responsibilities change 

over time and descriptions vary with purpose and audience. The agency administers many programs of varying 

importance, far too many to describe in this document. 

Major program areas are organized within the administrative structure of the Forest Service. Some programs 

are administered through the principal areas of the Forest 

Service, such as the Fire and Aviation Management programs that are administered through State and Private 

Forestry. Other programs are administered directly from 

the Office of the Chief, such as International Programs. 

We begin by describing programs and responsibilities 

within the National Forest System. Additional details 

concerning Forest Service programs, administrative 

regulations, and other pertinent information may be 

found in Federal laws concerning the Forest Service 

and its activities, in the Code of Federal Regulations, in 

the Forest Service Manual and Handbooks, and in other 

materials referred to within this document.
4 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

National Forest System

The National Forest System has its roots in the last 

quarter of the 19th century. After the Civil War, forests 

were being cut rapidly. While some cutover lands were 

used for crops and pasture, other lands remained idle. 

Because of poor land management practices and frequency of uncontrolled fires, floods and erosion were 

becoming serious problems over large areas. Timber 

supplies vital to a growing population were being depleted in some regions. In the late 1800s a series of studies, articles, and other material described deterioration of 

the nation’s forests and grasslands. New organizations, 

such as the American Forestry Association, formed and 

began to build support for action. Influential members 

of the Federal government and other concerned citizens 

actively promoted the idea of “forest reservations” to 

protect part of the remaining forested public lands. 

Grasslands in the public domain also received attention 

and a call for action.

Today, the National Forest System includes over 192 

million acres of publicly accessible national forests and 

grasslands, about 15 percent of the total forest and rangelands in the United States. These lands are located in 43 

states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. They include 

155 national forests containing about 188 million acres, 

and 20 national grasslands containing about 4 million 

acres. The remaining acreage is in purchase units, land 

utilization projects, research sites, and other areas. The 

National Forest System provides a unique national legacy of clean water, abundant timber, fish, wildlife, forage 

and mineral resources, and a wide spectrum of outdoor 

recreation opportunities. It is indeed a national treasure 

to be enjoyed and sustained for all generations.

Authorization

Origins of the National Forest System date to the 

Creative Act of 1891, which authorized setting aside 

public lands as forest reserves. Six years later in the 

Organic Administration Act of 1897, Congress provided 

further direction and management authority for forest 

reserves. That law provided for establishment of forest reserves, later called national forests, “to improve 

and protect the forest within the boundaries, or for the 

purpose of securing favorable conditions of water flows, 

and to furnish a continuous supply of timber for the use 

and necessities of citizens of the United States....” The 

Organic Act also provided for an organization, initially 

the General Land Office of the Department of Interior, to 

manage the reserves. The Department was vested with 

broad authority “to regulate their occupancy and use 

and to preserve the forests thereon from destruction.” 

In 1905, Congress transferred management of the forest 

reserves to the Department of Agriculture and its Bureau 

of Forestry. The Forest Service was established on July 

1, 1905, replacing the Bureau of Forestry name, and in 

1907, forest reserves were renamed national forests.

The Weeks Act of 1911 authorized the Secretary of 

Agriculture to purchase forest lands within watersheds 

of navigable streams, “as in his judgment may be necessary to the regulation of the flow of navigable streams 

or for the production of timber.” This Act led to creation 

of national forests in the eastern United States. By 

1980, purchases and donations based on the Weeks Act 

had added over 22 million acres to the National Forest 

System.

In the Multiple-Use and Sustained-Yield Act of 

1960 (MUSY), Congress affirmed the Forest Service’s 

authority to manage national forests “for outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed, and wildlife and fish 

purposes,” and did so without limiting the agency’s broad 

discretion in determining the appropriate resource emphasis or levels of use of the lands of each national forest.

The year 1960 also saw addition of national grasslands to the National Forest System. Origin of the 

national grasslands dates to concerns over widespread 

soil erosion in the Great Plains “dustbowl” area during 

the 1930s. Under authority of the National Industrial 

Recovery Act of 1933 and the Emergency Relief 

Appropriations Act of 1935, the Federal government 

began purchasing these submarginal lands for purposes 

of controlling erosion, producing more forage, and ensuring economic stability for rural residents. Purchased 

lands were called Land Utilization (L-U) projects. The 

Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937 gave custody 

of the L-U lands to the Secretary of Agriculture. In 1954, 

the Forest Service was given management responsibility 

for the L-U lands. In 1960, a Secretary of Agriculture 

administrative order designated the remaining L-U lands 

(the majority had already been transferred to states and 

colleges) as national grasslands. The order also stated 

that national grasslands were to be administered as part 

of the National Forest System.

During the 1960s and 1970s, the general public became increasingly concerned about the condition of the 

environment throughout the United States. Congress 

responded by enacting several laws directed toward protecting or improving the natural environment, conserving natural resources to meet the needs of the American 

people in perpetuity, and providing for greater public 

involvement in agency decisionmaking. These laws 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 5

included several pieces of legislation affecting the 

National Forest System, most notably the National 

Environmental Policy Act and the Endangered Species 

Act, and later the National Forest Management Act.

Congress enacted the National Environmental Policy 

Act of 1969 (NEPA) “to promote efforts which will 

prevent or eliminate damage to the environment and 

biosphere and stimulate the health and welfare of man, 

[and] enrich the understanding of the ecological systems 

and natural resources important to the Nation.” Under 

NEPA, all Forest Service proposals for major Federal 

actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment must include detailed statements 

of environmental effects and proposal alternatives. 

Environmental effects include ecological effects “such 

as the effects on natural resources and on the components, structures, and functioning of affected ecosystems.” NEPA also requires the Forest Service to “initiate 

and utilize ecological information in the planning and 

development of resource-oriented projects.”

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) also 

bounds the otherwise broad discretion the Forest 

Service has over land and resource management. One 

of the purposes of ESA is “to provide a means whereby 

the ecosystems upon which endangered species and 

threatened species depend may be conserved .....” It 

requires Federal agencies to carry out programs for conservation of threatened and endangered species so that 

they no longer need protection under ESA, and to ensure 

agency actions are not likely to jeopardize continued existence of such species or result in destruction or adverse 

modification of designated critical habitat. ESA requires 

Federal agencies such as the Forest Service to “utilize 

their authorities in furtherance of the purposes of this 

[Act] by carrying out programs for the conservation of 

endangered species and threatened species” in consultation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the 

National Marine Fisheries Service.

The National Forest Management Act of 1976 

(NFMA) requires the Forest Service to manage 

National Forest System lands according to land and 

resource management plans that provide for multiple-use and sustained yield in accordance with the 

Multiple-Use and Sustained-Yield Act. In developing 

and maintaining these plans, NFMA calls for “integrated consideration of physical, biological, economic 

and other sciences.” Federal courts have recognized 

that NFMA and related statutes represent a congressional delegation of broad authority, allowing the 

Forest Service to address issues of sustainability using 

an integrated ecological and socio-economic framework. NFMA also requires the Secretary to promulgate 

regulations “that set out the process for the development and revision of the land management plans” for 

units of the National Forest System, and specifies certain procedures, guidelines, and goals that should be 

discussed in the regulations.

In addition to the legislation discussed above, the U.S. 

Congress enacted numerous pieces of legislation authorizing, governing, and controlling management of the 

National Forest System. Some pertain to resource management activities, others to administrative activities. In 

response to these mandates, the National Forest System 

provides a wide variety of program areas concerning 

ecosystem management coordination, forest products, 

wildlife and fish habitat management, and more.

Ecosystem Management Coordination

The Ecosystem Management Coordination (EMC) 

program is assigned overall responsibility for developing and guiding land and resource management planning 

for national forests and grasslands. In carrying out its 

responsibilities, the staff group oversees agency-wide 

implementation of NEPA and NFMA. These two important Federal laws and their implementing regulations 

guide agency actions in developing inventories, assessing natural resource conditions, making natural resource 

decisions, and monitoring results. In addition, specific 

procedures and requirements for coordination with other 

agencies, tribal governments, industry, interest groups, 

and the public are established in EMC. Activities are 

partitioned into two major areas: (1) inventory and 

monitoring and (2) planning and decisionmaking.

Inventory and monitoring

Inventory and monitoring activities include major 

information collection, storage, and analysis processes 

used to understand land and resources of the National 

Forest System and to keep track of on-the-ground results 

of natural resource stewardship decisions. Inventory and 

monitoring activities are conducted utilizing the most 

effective scientific and statistical methods. EMC’s 

Inventory and Monitoring Institute in Fort Collins, 

Colorado, provides managers with technical, scientific, 

and practical advice, counsel, and solutions to inventory 

and monitoring requirements. The Institute facilitates 

exchange of information and advice from scientists 

in other agencies, academia, and private industry and 

among Forest Service employees. Similarly, inventory 

and monitoring approaches and technology are evaluated and perfected in cooperation with the San Dimas 

Technology and Development Center.
6 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Inventories—Inventories are designed to provide 

sound, integrated information about the land and waters 

of each national forest and grassland. Besides providing 

basic information, integrated natural resource inventories provide information necessary for monitoring results 

of management activities. Inventories include physical, 

biological, and human dimensions and are supported by 

specific data standards and protocols. Inventories are often used to develop assessments or characterizations of 

ecosystems at a various scales. Many Forest Service programs depend on natural resource assessments to guide 

agency activities. For example, clean water action plans 

rely on aquatic ecological inventories and watershed assessments in the identification of potential project sites. 

Assessments provide information for a broad range of 

resource management activities, including land and resource management plan revisions and amendments.

Natural Resource Information System—Management, 

storage, and use of resource data are a significant agency investment. Developing and managing standards 

for inventory, storage, and interpretation of resource 

information decrease agency costs and enable sharing of resource information with agency partners and 

the public. The Natural Resource Information System 

(NRIS) implements national standard protocols for data 

and delivers consistent methods for storage and retrieval 

of data to field specialists. NRIS eliminates duplication 

of efforts, fosters information sharing, and equips the 

Forest Service for updating information needs. NRIS 

has six “database” modules and one “tools” module. 

NRIS Database modules include: FSVeg (historical 

and current timber stand examination data); Terra (terrestrial ecological inventories of soils, geology, climate, 

and potential vegetation); Air (air quality and visibility 

monitoring); Water (aquatic inventory data, water uses 

and rights, aquatic biota, and restoration needs); Human 

Dimensions (social and economic information from 

U.S. census data and other indices of social and economic conditions adjacent to National Forest System 

lands, recreation use patterns, and heritage and cultural 

resources); and Fauna (wildlife and rare plant data collected by Forest Service biologists and other agencies 

and organizations). The Tools module provides software 

to combine, analyze, and present information from 

database modules at multiple scales. NRIS modules 

are installed and implemented as information needs 

arise. All inventory and mapping procedures comply 

with Federal requirements and are coordinated with the 

Environmental Protection Agency and a host of other 

Federal agencies and partners.

Monitoring—Individual national forests and grasslands prepare an Annual Monitoring and Evaluation 

Report that documents monitoring results, provides 

information on effectiveness of management activities, 

and offers suggestions for cost-effective improvements. 

Forest Service regions prepare an annual “State of the 

Regional Evaluation Report,” which documents program direction and emphasis. The report is a basis for 

evaluation of regional programs.

Planning and decisionmaking

The National Forest Management Act requires each 

unit of the National Forest System to have a land and 

resource management plan (plan) that may be continuously amended, as appropriate, but is formally revised 

at least every 15 years. The plans establish a framework 

to integrate the many natural resource management programs of the Forest Service and conform to laws and 

regulations governing National Forest System management. These laws include MUSYA, NFMA, NEPA, the 

Clean Air and Clean Water Acts, the Endangered Species 

Act, and other environmental and land use statutes.

Plans are strategic in nature. They provide guidance 

and direction applicable to future site-specific projects 

and activities, but subsequent decisionmaking is necessary before an irretrievable or irreversible commitment 

of resources can occur. Plans also may restrict some activities or establish other requirements applicable to particular areas. A plan does not grant, withhold, or modify 

any contract, permit, or other legal instrument, and it 

creates no legal rights. At the national level, the Forest 

Service Strategic Plan required under the Government 

Performance and Results Act of 1993 establishes goals, 

outcomes, measures, and strategies that apply to management of the National Forest System, as well as to 

other Forest Service mission areas.

Sustainable and effective management of national 

forests and grasslands relies on scientifically credible 

information, collaboration with a broad spectrum of 

people, and effective decisionmaking by responsible 

officials. The Forest Service planning framework and 

the skillful implementation of planning and NEPA procedures facilitate identification and responsive resolution of emerging problems. Planning, done at the most 

appropriate scale, enables the Forest Service to make 

sound decisions guiding management of national forests 

and grasslands into the future.

Vegetation and Watershed Management

Maintenance and improvement of watershed conditions to protect ecological values, maintain ecological sustainability, and produce renewable resource 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 7

outputs at sustainable levels is central to successful 

implementation of the Vegetation and Watershed 

Management program. The Vegetation and Watershed 

Management program focuses on restoration and maintenance of watershed conditions (including soil, water, 

air, and forest and rangeland vegetation), by reducing 

risks associated with wildfires, noxious weeds, impaired 

air quality, drought, floods, past land use practices, wild 

horse and burro use, and insect infestation and disease.

A watershed approach provides an understanding of 

landscape capability, offering management information 

that can lead to maintenance of high quality water, sustained use of resources, healthy forests and rangelands, 

suitable habitat for fish and wildlife, and protection of 

threatened and endangered species. Watershed management is fundamental to ensuring stable ecosystems. A 

watershed management approach requires that existing 

conditions of watersheds be maintained and watersheds 

in degraded condition be restored. Watersheds are first 

delineated and assessments then conducted to define 

existing and potential conditions. This information is 

incorporated into land and resource management plans 

and management programs for maintenance and improvement of watershed conditions.

Vegetation management is critical for maintaining 

and improving watershed conditions for wildlife habitat; reducing fuels that, if left untreated, increase fire risk 

and are of particular concern in urban-wildland interface 

areas; achieving desired forest land objectives that enhance ecosystem structure, function, and condition; preparing sites for regeneration; improving water quality; 

and improving forest stands and grasslands areas. The 

Vegetation and Watershed Management program has 

six main components: (1) maintaining and improving 

watershed conditions; (2) improving rangeland vegetation; (3) improving forest land vegetation; (4) managing 

noxious weeds; (5) managing air quality; and (6) environmental compliance and protection.

Watershed conditions management

In addition to providing for resource use, national forests and grasslands are the single largest source of water 

in the Continental United States. They contain over 

9 million acres of wetlands and riparian areas. These 

lands include the headwaters of 15 percent of the 

nation’s water supply, provide a domestic water source 

for over 60 million people, and support multiple uses 

of the national forests and grasslands. Valued in the billions of dollars, water furnishes additional benefits, such 

as preserving species viability, providing water-based 

recreation, reducing treatment costs to municipal water 

suppliers, and creating jobs and tax revenues. Water use 

is expected to increase by over 150 percent in the next 

50 years. This is especially important in the arid West.

The Watershed Conditions Management program 

ensures watersheds and associated natural resources are 

managed within their capability so they can continue 

to provide stable ecosystems and sustain production 

of goods and services. This program helps supply soil, 

water and air quality, and weather information needed to 

sustain healthy ecosystems. It assures compliance with 

appropriate laws and standards; protects and maintains 

watersheds that are currently in good condition; implements treatments to improve or restore watershed conditions to a fully productive level; protects airsheds in 

National Forest System wilderness areas; and sustains 

and monitors project level treatments implemented in 

previous years.

The Watershed Conditions Management program 

facilitates and coordinates a wide range of activities to 

maintain and improve conditions in priority watersheds. 

This is done in partnership with other Federal, state, 

tribal, and local governments and nongovernmental entities. Maintenance and improvement activities include 

preventing erosion and loss of topsoil, revegetating 

flood-prone areas, improving fisheries habitat, reclaiming abandoned mine lands, rehabilitating burned areas, 

decommissioning unnecessary roads, and improving air 

quality. Because Forest Service policy and the direction of many public agencies have shifted to a regional 
8 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

scale or watershed focus, the Forest Service actively 

participates in collaborative efforts using a watershed 

approach with the public, state and local governments, 

Tribes, other Federal agencies, and the private sector.

The Watershed Conditions Management program 

supports a number of key initiatives, including: (1) the 

Unified Federal Policy for a Watershed Approach to 

Federal Land and Resource Management and (2) the 

Interdepartmental Abandoned Mine Lands Hazardous 

Substance and Watershed Cleanup Initiatives. Increased 

emphasis on watershed restoration and enhancement 

agreements and the agency’s challenge cost-share partnership program encourage direct public involvement 

in managing natural resources across land ownership 

boundaries. Fore example, watershed restoration work 

improved a municipal water source and cold water fisheries by coordinating the planting of riparian habitat, 

installing wildlife and grazing exclosures, installing 

erosion control structures and windbreaks, thinning to 

improve forest health, and increasing road maintenance 

on both private and Federal lands. Similarly in western 

Oregon, the Forest Service, three private landowners, a 

local school district, and a local community watershed 

festival worked together to improve Coho salmon habitat by fencing meadows, reducing erosion, and monitoring water quality.

The Watershed Conditions Management program 

focuses on five areas: soil resource management, watershed improvement, hydrology and water quality, water 

rights and uses, and riparian and wetlands.

Soil resource management—This program area is 

designed to ensure that soil quality is maintained at 

or above levels that occur in undisturbed soils, so as 

to sustain forest, grassland, and watershed health and 

productivity. Soil quality refers to a soil’s inherent or 

“natural” capacity. Natural capacity of soil is influenced 

by the amount of annual erosion, the ability of the soil 

to conduct air and water, and the amount of organic matter cycling through the upper soil horizons. Soil is the 

foundation of ecological processes and sustainability. 

Alterations in soil qualities can drastically change terrestrial and aquatic plant communities and their associated 

fauna. Therefore, maintaining soil quality is fundamental to protecting hydrologic function, water quality, and 

watershed productivity. Soil resource management is 

accomplished through integrated inventory, monitoring, 

development of field guides and interpretive models, 

standards and guidelines for management activities, and 

identification of improvement actions needed for implementing land and resource management plans.

Watershed improvement—For a variety of reasons, 

many watersheds are not in a healthy condition and thus 

are producing goods and services below their potential. 

Field estimates show that about one-third of National 

Forest System watersheds are in good condition, with 

about two-thirds at risk or needing improvement. As 

treatments take effect over several years, watershed 

health and function are improved. Focusing work in 

priority watersheds in partnership with other state, 

Federal, tribal, and nongovernmental partners is simply 

good business. Watershed improvement treatments are 

designed to improve or restore watershed conditions 

and maintain treatments implemented in previous years. 

They work within a watershed and ecosystem context to 

speed restoration of entire watershed systems rather than 

treating isolated symptoms. The watershed improvement 

program surveys watersheds to identify problem areas 

and maintains an inventory of these needs. Treatment 

prescriptions are designed to improve these areas with 

highest priority given to watersheds that threaten downstream life and property, impair key riparian areas and 

wetlands, or injure threatened or endangered species 

and habitats. Treatment measures include reshaping 

gullied land and revegetating denuded and flood-prone 

areas, closing and modifying roads to reduce erosion 

and runoff, preventing loss of topsoil, fertilizing and/or 

ameliorating compacted soils, restoring riparian vegetation to shade waters, and filtering out sediments and 

other harmful materials. Some measures treat hazardous 

material sites and abandoned mines to prevent release of 

toxic materials and ensure Federal facilities comply with 

Federal law and regulation, including the Comprehensive 

Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability 

Act of 1980, the Clean Water Act of 1977, and amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1977.

Hydrology and water quality—These activities focus 

on using a watershed approach and adaptive management to ensure favorable conditions of water flow from 

national forests and grasslands, provide protection 

of water quality, improve watershed conditions, and 

ensure compliance with the Clean Water Act of 1977. 

Hydrology and water quality activities promote favorable conditions of water flow from the national forests; 

provide protection of water quality consistent with the 

purposes of the national forests; ensure compliance with 

the Clean Water Act; and improve watershed conditions 

and water quality degraded by past land management 

activities. The objective of these activities is to protect 

and maintain those watersheds currently functioning in 

a sustainable condition and to improve and restore those 

watersheds determined to be functioning at risk or in a 

malfunctioning condition. This is accomplished through 

(1) assessing hydrologic conditions, (2) developing 

management standards and guidelines, (3) identifying 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 9

ways to protect or improve stream channel integrity and/

or the stability and productivity of uplands, (4) monitoring the implementation and effectiveness of practices 

and programs, and (5) prioritizing this work through 

land and resource management plans.

Water rights and uses—These activities provide 

the protection necessary to ensure sustained use of 

resources from, and on, National Forest System lands. 

Water rights and use activities contribute to maintaining 

multiple uses of National Forest System lands, ensuring 

long-term sustainability of natural resources. The Forest 

Service identifies and quantifies the amount of water 

needed for resource management, files for rights to this 

water under state law, and protects these rights in water-right adjudications and administrative proceedings 

conducted by the states. In managing requests for water 

diversion, the Forest Services is responsible to include 

terms and conditions that will minimize damage to scenic and aesthetic values, fish and wildlife habitat, other 

resources, and the environment.

Riparian and wetlands—While the Forest Service 

manages about 192 million acres of forests and grasslands, only about 5 percent of these areas are riparian 

areas or wetlands. Although limited in size, these areas 

integrate and reflect the consequences of activities occurring on contributing watersheds. Riparian areas and 

wetlands have many special capabilities, functions, and 

values: (1) they are commonly the most productive areas in the watershed; (2) they store and slowly release 

floodwaters; (3) they provide habitat for a wide range 

of plant and animal species; (4) they filter sediment and 

chemical runoff to protect water quality; and (5) they 

shade and cool streams to help fish and insects thrive. 

Livestock grazing, transportation facilities, timber harvesting, intense recreation, and mining for gold, silver, 

and gravels have heavily affected riparian areas and 

wetlands. Only about half of these areas currently meet 

standards and guidelines of land and resource management plans. Restoration of riparian areas and wetlands 

is very important, and many programs work toward that 

end. Nearly half the work in the watershed improvement 

program takes place in riparian areas and wetlands. 

Many range management activities also work to improve these areas. Much wildlife habitat improvement 

and all fisheries habitat improvement occur in riparian 

areas and wetlands. A portion of recreation management is designed to limit impacts to streambanks and 

lakeshores. Modification of road location and maintenance are decreasing impacts on these areas. The Forest 

Service works closely with the Environmental Protection 

Agency’s Wetlands Division and the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers in managing wetlands. It also has a strong 

partnership with the Bureau of Land Management, fielding a jointly staffed National Riparian Service Team.

Rangeland vegetation management

Rangeland management activities are concerned with 

healthy, diverse, and resilient rangeland ecosystems. 

They also include protection and improvement activities within riparian systems. Approximately 93 million 

acres (almost half) of National Forest System lands are 

classified as rangelands. Through their restoration and 

protection it is possible to maintain robust riparian and 

upland systems, a variety of ecological conditions, and 

associated biodiversity. Significant portions of the nonrangelands are also managed for rangeland values. In total, this represents a majority of National Forest System 

lands. Health management activities on these rangelands 

include managing for conditions prescribed in land and 

resource management plans and refined in project decisions. Rangeland vegetation management requires inventory, analysis, planning, project implementation and 

management, and monitoring. Inventories for a given 

project area gather essential information on current resource conditions. Analysis of inventory data provides 

an assessment of existing conditions compared to potential for the site. Planning determines objectives for the 

site and how to best achieve them. Finally, monitoring 

measures the success of management practices and identifies needed adjustments to management strategies.

Improving rangeland vegetation is essential to maintaining healthy, resilient, and productive rangeland 

ecosystems, including the protecting and improving 

riparian systems. Management practices include activities that physically manipulate rangelands and existing 

vegetation (e.g., grass stand improvements, prescribed 

burning, and the installation of structural and nonstructural rangeland improvements). These practices 

serve to maintain and enhance rangelands to meet desired conditions; provide continuing rangeland products and sustainable habitat for livestock and wildlife; 

maintain and improve rangeland forage conditions; and 

contribute to multiple ecological objectives such as improving soil stability and water quality, and protecting 

watersheds.

Rangeland improvement includes maintaining or 

enhancing existing understory and grassland vegetation through better livestock management and use 

of livestock grazing as tool for vegetation management. Conducting baseline inventories and analyses of 

rangeland conditions and understanding how livestock 

and wildlife use these lands is essential to proper management of rangeland resources. Monitoring use and 

improvements on rangeland, and managing associated 
10 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

data has also become a significant and time-consuming 

function. These data are used to develop management 

plans for rangelands that are approved through NEPA 

decision documents.

The National Forest System is home to large numbers 

of wild horses and burros. Wild horse and burro management is provided through territory management plans 

that prescribe desired herd population levels. These levels are determined by habitat requirements and available 

forage within the territories. Livestock grazing permits, 

wildlife, and other rangelands uses are considered in 

setting desired population levels. Managers inventory 

and monitor resource conditions in wild horse and burro 

territories, as with other rangelands. With close cooperation of the USDI Bureau of Land Management, authorized personnel remove excess animals, which become 

available for adoption.

The Rangeland Vegetation Management program 

also improves rangeland vegetation by managing wild 

horse and burro populations. Structural or non-structural 

improvements made to or placed on rangelands are 

designed to improve watershed conditions, to enhance 

water quality, to protect soils from erosion, and to 

improve the forage base and general habitat for wildlife 

and livestock. The effectiveness of these projects is 

assessed through intensive monitoring programs established in land and resource management plans, project 

NEPA-based decisions, biological opinions, and court 

mandates. Monitoring represents a significant portion 

of the on-the-ground work performed to improve rangeland vegetation.

Forestland vegetation management

The Forestland Vegetation Management program responds to Forest Service strategic plan goals and objectives regarding ecosystem health, multiple-use benefits, 

and scientific and technical assistance. This program 

includes activities that protect and restore forests on 

National Forest System lands. Thus, this program 

provides for maintenance, enhancement, and/or restoration of National Forest System forest ecosystems to 

desired conditions. Vegetative resources are managed 

to improve wildlife habitat, reduce woody fuels (to 

diminish fire risk), recover value after natural disasters 

(while preparing sites for regeneration), and combat 

insect infestations and disease to improve forest health. 

Perpetuating forest land health also requires maintenance 

of productive soils and high water quality, and prevention and control of noxious weed invasion and spread.

Vegetative treatments and timber sales are useful 

management tools for implementing land and resource 

management plan objectives and restoring, maintaining, 

and improving forest ecosystems. Ecosystem conservation projects include timber sales designed for stewardship purposes, which enhance forest ecosystem integrity. 

Such sales are an effective management approach to 

reduce fuel accumulations, enhance wildlife habitat, 

and reduce impacts of pests and disease. Silvicultural 

prescriptions for these vegetative treatments attempt 

to approximate locally common natural disturbances, 

improve forest health and productivity, maintain soil 

productivity, and improve wildlife habitat.

Reforestation and stand improvements are directed 

toward obtaining adequate stocking on forest lands and 

maintaining a level of timber productivity sufficient for 

sustained yield management of National Forest System 

lands. They aim to increase growth rate and product 

quality of timber growing on national forests to levels 

consistent with environmental quality, multiple use objectives, and social and economic benefits and costs. The 

Forestland Vegetation Management program is financed 

with appropriated funds, Reforestation Trust funds, 

and Knutson-Vandenberg funds. Appropriated funds 

are used to reforest harvested areas, areas damaged by 

fire, insects, or disease, and unsuccessful plantations. 

These funds are also used to release planted trees from 

competing vegetation or overcrowding. Appropriated 

funds pay for seedlings purchased from Forest Service 

and private nurseries. Contracts for site preparation, 

animal damage control, fertilization, tree planting, release, precommercial thinning, and a limited amount 

of tree pruning are also financed by appropriated funds. 

Knutson-Vandenberg funds and Reforestation Trust 

funds are used to purchase seedlings for reforesting timber sale areas. Seedlings planted on all other areas, such 

as areas burned by wildfires, are purchased with funds 

from the National Forest System appropriation.

Reforestation Trust Fund—Reforestation is accomplished through planting, seeding, and site preparation 

to encourage natural regeneration. These activities are 

essential to maintaining healthy and resilient forest 

ecosystems, promoting ecosystem conservation, and 

maintaining timber productivity. Prompt reforestation guarantees that forest vegetation is regenerated 

after timber harvest or disturbances, to meet land and 

resource management plan objectives. It is highly desirable to annually reforest an amount of land equal to the 

annual amount of new lands in need of reforestation; 

this protects those lands and restores their productive 

capacity. Reforestation is financed through appropriated 

funds and the Reforestation Trust Fund. The Fund was 

established by the Recreational Boating Safety and 

Facilities Improvement Act of 1980 to reduce the 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 11

backlog of reforestation and timber stand improvement 

needs on the National Forest System

Timber stand improvement—The objective of the 

timber stand improvement is to increase timber growth 

or product quality by thinning, removing excess trees, 

removing competing vegetation, and fertilizing stands 

at desirable levels. Improvements include release treatments, precommercial thinning, pruning, and weeding, all of which promote forest health and tree vigor, 

and ensure a sustained supply of wood products from 

national forests. Release treatments remove competing vegetation to promote high levels of growth and 

vigor in the remaining stand. Precommercial thinning 

regulates stand density, reduces standing fuels, modifies 

species composition, and alters stand structure to meet 

numerous resource management objectives. Pruning 

removes fuel ladders and helps improve timber product 

quality by increasing the amount of clear, sound wood. 

Fertilization maintains or improves soil productivity and 

promotes sustained tree growth and vigor. Because most 

timber stand improvements treatments are important for 

maintaining sustainable levels of timber production, 

they are primarily applied to lands classified as suitable 

for timber production.

Forest health—Forest health programs are concerned 

with restoring and maintaining desired forest land vegetation conditions by reducing risks associated with 

wildfires, insect infestations, and disease. In addition, 

programs provide continued management of vegetation 

growing on the national forests. Management of forestland vegetation is critical for improving wildlife habitat; 

reducing fuels; achieving desired forestland objectives 

that enhance forest structure, function, and condition; 

preparing sites for regeneration; and improving forest 

stands. One way the Forest Service meets these vegetation management needs is through timber sales. Other 

methods include reforestation and timber sale improvements accomplished through service contracts or by 

Forest Service employees. Many of these activities can 

also provide wood for American consumers, jobs and 

income to local communities, and other forest products 

in demand.

Nursery and tree improvement—The purpose of the 

nursery and tree improvement program is to improve the 

genetic quality of seed planting stock used on National 

Forest System lands by producing high quality planting stock in appropriate numbers and species for timely 

reforestation. The Forest Service operates six nurseries 

for seedlings and seed extraction, which is supplemented 

by contracts with state and private nurseries. Genetic 

resource improvements make valuable contributions to 

forest health by (1) identifying and conserving important 

genetic traits that control resistance to major pests; 

(2) providing baseline genetic information for forest 

management activities using genetic test plantations and 

laboratory studies; (3) producing adequate quantities of 

improved seed to meet demand; and (4) incorporating 

genetic principles into silvicultural treatment prescriptions and forest and land management planning efforts. 

This program not only improves the genetic quality of reforestation stock, but is also used to ascertain 

the biological diversity of forest tree and native plant 

species. Seed collection zones and/or breeding zones 

have been established to ensure use of locally adapted 

seed. Intensive tree improvement programs (using tree 

selection, seed orchards, progeny testing, and selective 

breeding techniques) are maintained for targeted species, resulting in growth and yield improvements of 

5 to 10 percent.

Noxious weeds

Noxious weed are widespread in the United States 

and affect many resources both on and off of Federal 

lands. Wilderness, wildlife, forage, visual quality, reforestation, recreation opportunities, and lands values are 

all affected. The 1990 Farm Bill amended the Federal 

Noxious Weed Act of 1974. The amendment requires 

Federal agencies to establish integrated management 

systems and to complete and implement cooperative 

agreements with state agencies to control noxious 

weeds. In response, the Forest Service has cooperated 

with the U.S. Department of Agriculture in developing 

departmental and agency strategies for noxious weed 

management and has substantially strengthened noxious 

weeds management direction to field units. Priority is 

given to treatment of noxious weeds on National Forest 

System lands in conjunction with similar efforts by 

weed control districts on adjacent lands.

Air quality

These activities focus on protecting sensitive areas 

from effects of air pollution and providing mitigation 

measures for management activities. The Clean Air Act 

of 1955 specifically charges the Forest Service with 

preventing adverse effects of air pollution in 88 wilderness areas. Therefore, the Air Quality program operates 

a national monitoring network for air quality related 

values, which include visibility, aerosol sampling, lake 

and stream chemistry, deposition, vegetation damage 

plots, and meteorological conditions. This information 

provides the basis for agency responses to hundreds of 

applications annually for private sector development, 

particularly in energy related industries. The agency 
12 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

makes recommendations to State air regulators where 

further mitigation is needed to prevent adverse effects of 

air pollution in wilderness. Forest Service air resource 

managers represent the agency on regional, multistate 

planning groups and the Environmental Protection 

Agency to address regional haze and other air pollution 

effects across the country. In addition, Forest Service air 

resource managers provide expert recommendations on 

mitigation measures to reduce air pollution from agency 

actions. This involves working with fire and aviation 

managers on implementing smoke management programs to prevent air pollution problems. It also includes 

analysis of effects of oil and gas leasing, mining, road 

dust, and vehicular traffic (as in ski areas).

Climate and weather—This support function focuses 

on weather and climate data collection and distribution of this information internally to the wildland fire 

management program and cooperators, including the 

National Weather Service and state agencies. The program provides for spot weather forecasts, flash flood 

warnings, drought preparedness and mitigation, and agricultural commodities projections. Data, products, and 

expertise used for ecosystem management, watershed 

management, and fire management, especially fire suppression and presuppression activities, originate from 

the agency’s national Weather Information Management 

System. The weather program also manages the training of personnel and the weather station operation and 

maintenance, data acquisition, storage, and distribution 

of more than 600 remote, automated weather stations 

located on national forests and grasslands.

Emergency burned area rehabilitation—After wildfires, Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation (BAER) 

activities help minimize unacceptable threats to life and 

property and/or levels of erosion, loss of soil productivity, deterioration of water quality and downstream damage, changes to ecosystem structure and function, and 

degradation of critical cultural and natural resources. 

The level of BAER operations varies widely from year 

to year, depending on the severity and location of wildfires. This support function utilizes emergency funding 

authority, collaborating with the wildland fire management program in emergency watershed restoration 

planning and subsequent activities to revegetate burned 

watersheds, curtail damaging runoff, and stabilize soils 

and ecosystems damaged by wildfire.

Environmental compliance and protection

These activities focus on cleanup of hazardous 

substances and wastes at Forest Service managed 

facilities and may include some abandoned mine sites. 

Environmental Compliance and Protection activities 

focus on an increased awareness of the importance of 

environmental legal requirements and the part they play 

in maintaining national forests and grasslands. Formerly 

called the “Hazardous Materials Management” program, 

Environmental Compliance and Protection activities 

cover water and waste water facilities, compliance auditing, environmental emergencies, cleanup of hazardous substances and wastes at facilities and abandoned or 

inactive mines, including restoration of natural resources at these sites. These activities protect and enhance the 

environment with functional, safe, and environmentally 

sound systems and facilities through a comprehensive 

self-evaluation and environmental management system 

for achieving, maintaining, and monitoring compliance 

with environmental laws and regulations.

Mine land restoration activities include reclaiming abandoned mines that are causing environmental 

damages or posing health risks. This program plans, 

designs, implements, monitors, operates, and maintains rehabilitation measures at abandoned mines that 

threaten noncompliance with state water quality standards, release of hazardous materials, and safety hazards 

such as open shafts. Restoration activities support the 

Interdepartmental Abandoned Mine Lands Hazardous 

Substance and Watershed Cleanup Initiatives. This 

initiative aims to coordinate efforts of Federal land 

managers and private landowners to efficiently and 

comprehensively address priority watersheds within 

states, rather than treating individual sites scattered 

throughout the country. The initiative focuses on 

mines where owners or responsible parties cannot 

be identified, located, or are unable to pay cleanup 

costs. This program covers both coal and hard rock 

mines. Activities also involve restoration of active 

mines and coordination of an interagency team that 

focuses on all aspects of ecosystem restoration, including research, development, and technology transfer.

Grazing Management

Grazing management is one of many uses of rangelands, a use that also includes production of forage for 

wildlife and livestock. The Grazing Management program emphasizes (1) inspecting management activities 

on active allotments, (2) restoring ecosystems and watersheds affected by past livestock grazing, (3) maintaining ecosystems and watersheds in a healthy condition, 

(4) creating NEPA-based allotment management plans, 

(5) monitoring the implementation of allotment plans, 

and (6) providing expertise for sustainable rangeland 

management. Livestock grazing is also used as a tool to 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 13

implement the objectives of land and resource management plans through specific projects.

Livestock grazing is managed under permit, where 

the number of animals, type and class of animals, and 

season of use are delineated on the term grazing permit. 

Taken together, this information provides the permittee 

and the Forest Service with a measure of the amount 

of forage that is under permit. Forage under permit is 

measured in terms of amount of vegetative material a 

1,000-pound cow or its equivalent can consume in one 

month. This number is characterized as a standard animal unit month or AUM. The AUM concept also applies 

to other types of animals, such as horses, burros, bison, 

and sheep. The Forest Service produces over 8 million 

AUMs annually.

Substantial analysis and decisionmaking precedes 

issuance of grazing permits. The Forest Service plans 

for rangeland health and ecosystem conservation on 

grazing allotments through a process compliant with 

environmental laws as provided in the Rescissions 

Act of 1995. The Rescissions Act instructs the Forest 

Service to establish and implement a time schedule such 

that analyses and decisions as required by the National 

Environmental Policy Act of 1969 are completed for 

all allotments within the National Forest System. In 

response to this Act, a schedule of analyses and decisions was developed for the 15-year period starting in 

1996 and ending in 2010. Analyses and decisions have 

been made on about one-third of the nearly 7,000 grazing allotments needing environmental analyses and 

decisions. Following decisions on livestock grazing 

allotments, an allotment management plan (AMP) is 

written to implement the decision through management 

practices. Term grazing permits are issued pursuant 

to the AMP, complete with explicit annual operating 

instructions to the permittee. Adherence to these instructions is monitored on a regular basis to assure compliance with the terms and conditions of the permit, AMP, 

land and resource management plan requirements, environmental laws, and court mandates.

Grazing permits are managed to assure that allotments are administered to “standard.” This is accomplished by annually verifying that grazing activities are 

compatible with standards and guidelines found in land 

and resource management plans, allotment management 

plans, annual operating instructions, grazing permits or 

agreements, and other relevant documents (e.g., biological opinions and evaluations pursuant to the Endangered 

Species Act). A grazing allotment is deemed “administered to standard” when agency personnel document 

that activities are consistent with those standards and 

guidelines.

Lands

The Lands program deals with the rights of real 

property, which include the right to own, use, sell, 

exchange, and lease land. The role of the Lands program is to utilize these realty activities to enhance the 

National Forest System by assisting individual national 

forests and grasslands in meeting their land and resource 
14 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

management plan objectives. The Lands program consists of two major classes of activities: land acquisition 

and land ownership management.

Land acquisition

During establishment and reservation of the National 

Forest System beginning in the 1890s, national forest 

boundaries were sometimes uneven and incorporated 

blocks of non-Federal land. The resulting ownership 

pattern, involving 40 million acres of non-Federal land 

within national forest boundaries, created management 

problems, inefficiencies, and increased costs for both 

the Federal and non-Federal landowners. In some cases, 

private inholdings contain highly valuable natural resource lands, particularly water sources and streams. 

Such inholdings often create opportunities to improve 

management through consolidation of land ownership 

for both the Forest Service and the non-Federal parties 

involved.

The land acquisition program focuses on enhancing and protecting the National Forest System for 

future generations. Through this program, the Forest 

Service acquires lands or interest in lands, as additions 

to the National Forest System for outdoor recreation, 

conservation of wildlife and threatened and endangered species habitat, protection of significant cultural 

resources, acquisition of wetland and riparian areas, and 

protection of rare ecological areas that promote biological diversity. Many of the acquired lands are located in 

congressionally designated areas such as wilderness, 

national recreation areas, wild and scenic rivers, and 

national scenic trails. Acquisitions also improve forest management through consolidating boundaries and 

providing public access to existing national forest and 

grasslands.

Acquisitions are made under authorities in the Weeks 

Act of 1911, the Wilderness Act of 1964, the Department 

of Agriculture Organic Act of 1956, the Wild and Scenic 

Rivers Act of 1968, the National Trails System Act of 

1968, the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the Eastern 

Wilderness Act of 1975, and other special acts. The Land 

and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1964 (L&WCF) 

provides funding for acquisition of recreational lands 

and interests. Lands and interest in lands are acquired in 

a variety of ways.

Land purchase—This activity involves the acquisition of lands or interest in lands through direct purchase. 

Land purchase funds are used for the actual payment of 

the market value of the acquired lands. They are also 

used for making cash payments to equalize values in 

land exchanges when the lands being acquired through 

exchange would qualify for purchase using L&WCF 

dollars.

Donations—The acquisition program also includes 

the processing land donations. The Forest Service 

encourages and accepts donations of land or interests 

therein to consolidate national forests, improve resource 

management, and obtain lands needed for research or 

administrative purposes. A number of acts authorize the 

Forest Service to accept donations of land or interest in 

land. The Acceptance of Gifts Act of 1978 is the most 

commonly used authority to accept gifts of land.

Land exchanges—Many times voluntary land exchanges are the only tool that allows the Forest Service 

to obtain specific lands and values from a private owner 

who is only willing to offer the land if property is obtained in return. The land exchange program involves 

equal-value exchange of land between the National 

Forest System and other ownerships under authority 

of the General Exchange Act of 1922, the Weeks Act 

of 1911, and several special acts. The land exchange 

program complements the land acquisition program 

and focuses on reducing costs of protection and administration, and resolving claims and trespass problems. 

In the western states, many land exchanges involving 

large acreages have been transacted with state and local 

governments, railroads, timber and mining companies, 

and ranchers. The properties often involve “checkerboard” land ownership patterns resulting from earlier 

land grants. Exchanges are a means of solving problems 

caused by fragmented ownership. Many exchanges 

help communities by exchanging isolated tracts of nonFederal land for Federal land adjacent to expanding 

communities. Exchanges must be based on equal land 

values and need to demonstrate an overall public benefit 

considering factors such as fish and wildlife habitats, 

cultural resources, watersheds, wilderness and aesthetic 

values, enhancement of recreation opportunities, public 

access, and logical and efficient management.

Interchanges—Land interchanges entail the transfer 

of jurisdiction of Federal lands or interest therein between Federal agencies. The Forest Service has ongoing authority for such interchanges only with the U.S. 

Department of Defense, under the Interchange with 

Department of Defense Act of 1956. Specific legislation 

is required to authorize interchanges with other Federal 

entities. Interchanges are made to improve land ownership patterns, simplify management, reduce costs, and 

improve service to the public.

Land Sales—The agency has limited authority to sell 

or convey Federal lands. These authorities are applicable 

as means of resolving innocent encroachments and to 

make lands available to local governmental entities for 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 15

community or school purposes. These conveyances can 

be processed under the Small Tracts Act of 1983, the 

Townsite Act of 1958, and the Education Land Grant 

Act of 2000.

Rights-of-way acquisition—The Forest Service estimates that over 17 million acres, approximately 9 percent 

of all National Forest System lands, have inadequate 

public access. Securing needed public access would involve the acquisition of approximately 28,000 road and 

trail rights-of-way, covering approximately 7,500 miles. 

The Forest Service maintains an ongoing program to 

acquire public access to existing National Forest System 

lands. On average 320 rights-of-way cases are secured 

annually. The Forest Service resolves access cases by 

acquiring easements for roads and trails, consolidating 

ownership through land exchanges and purchases, and 

working with local public road authorities to validate 

existing outstanding access rights. When negotiations 

fail, the Forest Service may request the use of eminent 

domain (i.e., the power to take private property for 

public use) as a “last resort” to acquire a needed rightof-way.

Land ownership management

The 192 million acres of national forests and grasslands over which the Forest Service has responsibility is 

equal to over 12 percent of the contiguous United States. 

Protecting these lands through legally defensible land 

status and boundaries is a fundamental responsibility 

or ownership. Land ownership management includes a 

number of major activities that are important to National 

Forest System stewardship responsibilities: special uses; 

land ownership adjustment and boundary management; 

land ownership status; claims, encroachments, and trespass resolution; hydropower relicensing; and mapping.

Special uses—More than a dozen Federal statutes 

provide the Forest Service with authority to authorize 

various uses and occupancies of National Forest System 

lands in a manner that adequately protects the health 

and productivity of the land. Special uses include all 

uses and occupancies of National Forest System lands, 

except those associated with grazing, minerals, and timber. Special uses are authorized by issuance of permits, 

leases, and easements, and most users are charged a fee 

based on the fair market value of the use. More than 

46,000 “lands” special use authorizations exist throughout the National Forest System, authorizing more than 

100 different types of use or occupancy. Easements, permits, and leases encumber approximately 9 million acres 

of National Forest System land and generate annual land 

use rental fees. Uses and authorizations include those 

associated with the statutory right to use and occupy 

National Forest System lands, such as the right of access 

to non-Federal lands or interests, and the right to occupy 

National Forest System lands within certain water development facilities. Other special uses include public 

and private roads and highways, major communication 

uses, utility transmission lines (power lines, oil and gas 

pipelines), hydroelectric projects, and recreation residences. Many of these uses are essential to supplying 

goods and services to individuals and major markets, 

particularly in the western United States. Managing 

special uses involves applications, environmental 

analysis of applications, inspecting for compliance, and 

dealing with backlogs of new applications and expired 

authorizations.

Boundary management—Proper location and marking of national forest boundaries is fundamental to 

proper land stewardship. Boundary management for 

National Forest System lands involves locating and 

identifying the land or interest in land on the ground. 

It is prerequisite to any land and resource management 

activity occurring on National Forest System lands, and 

is especially critical to any activity occurring near or 

adjacent to the boundary lines of the Federal estate. The 

boundary management activity also provides needed 

technical support to the land status, title claims, and 

encroachment activities. Boundary management is done 

through: (1) perpetuating the public land survey system on National Forest System lands, (2) resurveying 

and marking boundary lines, (3) reestablishing lost or 

obliterated corners, (4) maintaining boundary lines, and 

(5) collecting spatial information in support of geospatial activities.

Land ownership status—Of the 192 million acres of 

National Forest System lands, 29 million acres have 

been acquired and the remaining 163 million were 

reserved from the public domain as provided by the 

Organic Administration Act of 1897. Ensuring the legal 

status of National Forest System lands is essential; effective land stewardship and management begins with 

protecting and maintaining the legal title. The land ownership status activity provides the foundation for other 

land conservation and special use activities, as well as 

clear ownership records and planning for acquisition of 

lands. Actively maintaining the land ownership records 

involves updating spatial and case files to note changes 

in ownership, along with posting boundary modifications, encumbrances, and use restrictions. Additionally, 

land ownership status activities monitor land use for 

compliance with reservations, outstanding rights, 

mineral withdrawals, other conditions of title, and laws 

that direct or affect land management. The program also 
16 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

deals with resolution of land title claims and planning 

for land ownership adjustments.

Claims, encroachments, and trespass—The objectives of this program are to maintain land title records and defend National Forest System lands from 

encroachments and title claims. Dispute resolution 

involves defending against title claims and Indian 

treaty claims, removing encroachments, or conveying 

land titles. There are over 55,000 known or potential 

title claim cases resulting from overlapping ownership between Forest Service and private lands; less 

than one percent of these cases are resolved each year. 

With development of geographic information system 

(GIS) capabilities, there exists significant potential for 

“electronic encroachment.” Electronic encroachment 

occurs because inaccurate or unreliable electronic land 

ownership records corrupt land ownership patterns in 

GIS applications. The Forest Service is implementing 

the “automated land project” to resolve and eliminate 

GIS-based electronic encroachments.

Hydropower—Hydroelectric power generation is a 

very specialized area of the overall special use program. 

The Forest Service has authority to place restrictions 

on licenses issued by the Federal Energy Regulatory 

Commission (FERC) to adequately protect National 

Forest System lands and resources from potential changes in the management and use of an area. The Forest 

Service works cooperatively with FERC in developing 

these restrictions when reviewing new proposals for 

development and relicensing existing projects. The 

Forest Service completes a detailed review of the proposal, including proposal alternatives and environmental 

impacts. Authorizations are not granted until the review 

process is completed and the Forest Service is satisfied 

the proposal is within the management guidelines and 

environmental impacts can be mitigated.

Mapping—The Geospatial Technical Center produces primary base series maps. These maps are essential 

in generating derivative products such as forest plan 

maps, wilderness maps, recreation maps, and habitat 

maps used by National Forest System staff. The mapping program involves National Forest System lands, 

showing the terrain, developments, and composition 

and extent of vegetation or other resources. Primary 

base maps for 7-1⁄2 minute quadrangles are prepared 

and revised periodically in cooperation with the USDI 

Geological Survey. The Forest Service prepares secondary base maps covering complete national forests for 

administrative and forest visitor uses. Project maps and 

special purpose maps are produced for use in designing 

developments such as roads, recreation areas, timber 

sale layouts, and logging plans.

Minerals and Geology Management

The Minerals and Geology Management program 

seeks to manage the vast and diverse mineral resources 

within the National Forest System in a manner that contributes to the multiple use management of mineral resources, sustainable ecosystems, and healthy watersheds. 

Commitment to sustainable development principles 

necessitates integration of environmental, economic, 

and social policies and development strategies. Mineral 

and energy resources are integral components of economic systems, provide essential input to virtually every 

economic sector, and act as the driving force for some 

local and regional economies. The program emphasizes 

inspecting and monitoring active operations; restoring 

ecosystems and watersheds affected by past mining; 

providing expertise for sustainable forest management, 

watershed health, and public safety; contributing toward 

community and economic resiliency; and managing significant geologic resources. Programs emphasize minerals management and geology management.

Minerals management

National Forest System lands are of major and increasing importance for production of a variety of metals and other minerals. These lands contain an estimated 

50 billion tons of coal and have substantial potential for 

oil, gas, geothermal, uranium, phosphate, lead, gold, silver, sand and gravel, and many other minerals. The two 

largest coal mines in the United States are located on 

National Forest System lands, and much of the nation’s 

phosphate, lead, and platinum-palladium production 

also comes from these lands. The value of energy and 

minerals from National Forest System lands exceeds $2 

billion per year, and annual revenues to the Federal government exceed $146 million depending on commodity 

prices. These revenues are derived from annual lease 

rentals, royalties on production, bonus bids for competitive leases, and mineral sales. Revenues are in turn 

distributed to the states and counties, the Reclamation 

Fund, and the General Treasury.

The Minerals program manages approximately 6 million acres leased for oil and gas, coal, and geothermal 

energy; approximately 150,000 mining claims; about 

3,000 bonded operations; and over 9,000 sales contracts 

and permits to produce mineral materials. In addition, 

over 1,000 new operations requiring NEPA analyses 

and documentation are processed each year, and about 

20,000 operations are monitored and inspected to protect the environment.

The Forest Service’s Minerals program develops 

procedures and requirements for mineral activities in 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 17

coordination with other resource values, other agencies, and the public. The program also involves authorization and administration of ancillary projects, such 

as roads and pipelines that are part of mineral development projects. Where privately owned minerals underlie the Federal surface, the Forest Service manages 

surface activities associated with the exploration and 

development of the private mineral estate.

All environmentally disturbing activities related 

to mineral and energy resources require developing 

reclamation plans, preparing and updating reclamation 

bonds, monitoring operations, and ensuring reclamation 

activities are implemented according to operating plans. 

Federal mineral and energy resources are categorized as 

leasable, locatable, and salable.

Leasable minerals—Under the Mineral Leasing Act 

of 1920, the Secretary of the Interior, through the Bureau 

of Land Management, issues permits or leases 

for prospecting and developing leasable minerals on National Forest System lands that were 

reserved from the public domain or acquired by 

certain land exchanges. These minerals include 

coal, oil, oil shale, natural gas, phosphate, sodium, asphalt, bitumen and bituminous rock, 

potassium, and sulphur. The Mineral Leasing 

Act for Acquired Lands of 1947 grants similar 

authority on acquired lands in the National 

Forest System. Regulation of surface coal 

mining operations and rehabilitation of mined 

areas are provided for in the Surface Mining 

Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. The 

Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 requires that 

geothermal leases on National Forest System 

lands be subject to conditions and approval by 

the Secretary of Agriculture to protect lands for 

the purposes for which they were withdrawn 

or acquired. The leasable minerals program 

involves: (1) processing lease applications and 

forwarding recommendations to the Bureau of 

Land Management; (2) determining terms and 

conditions to be included in plans of operation; (3) ensuring that activities comply with 

applicable laws and regulations; (4) ensuring 

coordination with surface resources and other 

land uses; (5) monitoring activities for compliance with an approved plan of operation, 

prospecting permit, and exploration license requirements; and (6) issuing and administering 

special use permits associated with leasable 

minerals.

Locatable minerals—Most National Forest 

System public domain lands are open to “location” of 

mining claims under the Mining Law of 1872. Mining 

claims may be located by citizens for all minerals that are 

not subject to disposal under leasing laws or the Mineral 

Materials Act of 1947. Locatable minerals include gold, 

silver, copper, lead, and zinc. Locatable mineral operations, such as exploration or production, are subject to 

Forest Service regulations requiring operators to obtain 

Forest Service approval of their plans of operation. On 

mining claims located after July 23, 1955, and before 

patent, the Forest Service may manage and dispose of 

vegetative resources under provisions of the Multiple 

Use Mining Act of 1955. Adequate reclamation bonding 

shall be ensured, as well as periodic reviews to make 

sure bonding levels can adequately cover the complete 

cost of reclamation. The Locatable Minerals program involves: (1) ensuring compliance with the Mining Law of 

1872; (2) ensuring coordination with surface resources 
18 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

and other land uses; (3) processing plans of operation; 

(4) monitoring mining activities for compliance with 

approved plans; (5) examining the validity of mining 

claims; and (6) evaluating the reasonableness of surface 

uses and proposed plans of operation through surface 

use determinations, when necessary.

Salable minerals—The Secretary of Agriculture has 

authority to dispose of mineral materials from National 

Forest System lands. Mineral materials include, but are 

not limited to, most occurrences of sand, stone, gravel, 

pumice, pumicite, cinders, and clay. The Secretary’s 

authority to dispose of these materials stems from the 

Mineral Materials Act of 1947, the Transfer Act of 1960, 

and other special acts. Mineral materials are sold outright, granted free of charge to qualified users, or used 

to build and maintain Forest Service road systems and 

other facilities. The salable minerals program involves: 

(1) complying with laws and regulations; (2) administering sale and free-use disposals; (3) reporting production 

and value of materials; (4) inventorying the mineral 

materials resource; (5) conducting appraisals; (6) developing and implementing mineral material management 

plans and site development plans; (7) ensuring coordination with surface resources and other land uses; and (8) 

monitoring operations, including reclamation applicable 

to all disturbing activities.

Geology management

The Forest Service has the responsibility to provide 

and interpret geologic and minerals resource information for land management planning, environmental 

protection, mined-land reclamation, and other agency or 

state cooperative management programs.

Resource geology—The Geology program: (1) provides geologic support personnel to gather, interpret, 

and present information about geologic conditions 

and mineral resources for resource evaluation and 

land management planning; (2) gathers, interprets, and 

reports geologic factors that affect the design, construction, and maintenance of Forest Service facilities; and 

(3) gathers and interprets geologic information needed 

to develop and protect such resources as ground water, 

underground spaces, minerals, and fossils.

Abandoned mine lands—The Abandoned Mine Lands 

(AML) program is directed at reclamation of abandoned 

mines that are causing damage to the environment 

and/or posing risks to public health and safety. There 

are thousands of such mines on National Forest System 

lands. Because many AML sites involve a combination 

of Federal, state, and private lands, multiple parties must 

work together on prioritizing, funding, and cleaning up 

these mines. As a result, the Forest Service has partnered 

with Federal, state, and private parties on cleanup of numerous AML sites and has supported watershed-wide 

AML cleanup efforts that address all significant AML 

problems within a watershed, regardless of ownership. 

The Forest Service is also working with other Federal 

agencies and private parties to develop consistent programs, policies, and procedures for dealing with AML 

sites.

Paleontology—Paleontological resources are physical evidence of past life on earth and include vertebrate, 

invertebrate, and plant fossils. Of national significance, 

these resources need to be preserved for the inspiration 

and benefit of the people of the United States. The objective of the Paleontological Resources program is to 

protect and manage paleontological (fossil) resources 

because they are unique and part of natural resource 

heritage. Paleontological resources have multiple use 

values: (1) as a legacy for present and future generations; (2) for scientific knowledge, education, and interpretation; and (3) for recreational opportunities and their 

aesthetic qualities. Unless otherwise prohibited through 

law, regulation, order, land-use plan, or a physical closure, a special-use permit is not required for casual collecting of invertebrate and plant fossils for personal use. 

Collecting vertebrate fossils and significant invertebrate 

and plant fossils for scientific or educational purposes 

requires a special-use permit. Collecting any type of 

fossil specimen, in whole or in part, for commercial use 

is prohibited.

Forest Products

National Forest System lands are managed to provide a sustainable level of forest goods and services to 

meet public needs. The Forest Products program provides for timber production for public use while maintaining a system of administration for timber sale and 

stewardship contracts and permits. The Forest Products 

program attempts to (1) promote ecosystem health and 

conservation using a collaborative approach to sustain 

the nation’s forests, rangelands, and watersheds and 

(2) provide a variety of uses, values, products, and services for present and future generations by managing 

within the capability of sustainable ecosystems.

Timber sales and stewardship contracts are important 

tools for accomplishing several vegetation management 

objectives on National Forest System lands. They can 

improve wildlife habitat; reduce fuels that pose unacceptable fire risk; recover timber value following natural disasters while preparing those sites for regeneration; 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 19

combat insect infestations and disease to improve forest 

health; and improve tree growth to produce desirable timber products in the future. Special forest product sales (discussed later) are included in this program component. The 

Forest Products program also provides employment opportunities for sustaining local communities and produces a 

host of special forest products desired by the public.

The project process

Forest product projects cannot occur on short notice. 

They require an orderly process that can take up to eight 

years to complete required planning, including complying with the National Environmental Policy Act and 

other laws; providing access through road construction 

or reconstruction; coordinating with the management of 

other resources; preparing on-the-ground aspects of the 

projects; preparing contracts; advertising and awarding 

projects; and administering contracts.

Where the purpose of a project is primarily to produce desired forest products, all activities for planning, 

preparing, and administering the sale, including coordination with other resources, are treated as a Forest 

Products program responsibility. However, where the 

purpose of a project is primarily related to another land 

management objective (e.g., wildlife or fire), project 

planning (to where a decision results from environmental analysis) is treated as the responsibility of the 

program proposing the work. In all cases, forest road 

engineering support is a responsibility of the Roads 

Capital Improvement and Maintenance program. Main 

project activities include the: (1) silvicultural examination, (2) project preparation, (3) harvest administration, 

and (4) postsale treatments.

Silvicultural examination—Silvicultural examinations provide periodic review and analysis of forest stand 

conditions and prescribe stand treatments to meet land 

and resource management plan objectives. Examinations 

also supply information for monitoring and certifying 

silvicultural treatments to ensure timber resources are 

managed properly. This program gathers stand-level 

data, compiles and stores these data in stand files, and 

annually prepares an analysis and written prescription for 

about 5 million acres of forest land to ensure proper treatment. The Silvicultural Examination program provides 

information needed for planning the management of 

national forest timber resources. Forest stands are 

normally examined at 10-year intervals so that land 

managers can monitor changing stand conditions and 

treatment needs.
20 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Project preparation—The process of implementing 

a vegetative treatment begins with identifying a need 

to do the work, ensuring the goals and objectives provided in the land and resource management plan can be 

accomplished in a cost-effective manner. From onthe-ground reconnaissance and other data, the Forest 

Service develops a position statement, which assesses 

the technical and economic feasibility of proceeding 

with a proposed project. A project area is tentatively 

identified and environmental analysis is started.

Project area design and planning occurs one to three 

years before the project is implemented. Intensive field 

investigation and collaboration with interested groups 

and individuals provide information used to formulate 

and analyze project alternatives. The agency collects 

and evaluates detailed information on stand conditions, 

silvicultural prescriptions, logging systems applications, 

transportation needs and road conditions, other resource 

conditions in the surrounding area, and planned treatments. Economic analyses showing economic results 

and tradeoffs are completed and rights-of-way easements are obtained. The responsible official determines 

the extent of environmental analysis and documentation 

required, conducts appropriate public involvement, 

coordinates with other agencies and organizations, and 

selects the preferred alternative.

The final project package is prepared two to three 

months before the timber sale or stewardship project 

is advertised. The contract, timber appraisal, advertisement or request for proposals, bid form, prospectus, and 

sale area or project map are completed. The bidding 

phase includes conducting an auction (sealed or oral 

bid) when determined appropriate, accepting bids, and 

determining the apparent successful bidder. The award 

phase includes reviewing bidder qualifications, obtaining equal employment opportunity clearance, completing a road option investigation and feasibility review 

(if applicable), identifying the qualified sale purchaser 

prior to award, signing the contract, and posting the sale 

information to the timber sale accounting system.

Some timber offerings are not sold. The Forest 

Service monitors unsold timber sales offered to determine if changes in project design or process are required 

to reduce the number of no-bid timber sales. No-bid 

timber sales are usually reoffered, and may be reworked 

to improve salability.

Important legislation affects project preparation. 

For example, the Organic Administration Act of 1897 

initially authorized the sale of timber “at not less than 

appraised prices.” The National Forest Management 

Act of 1976 added specific bidding requirements, 

guidelines for cutting methods, and limitations on 

allowable harvest volumes. Further authority for 

alternative methods of timber sales was included in 

the Timber Sales Bidding Act of 1978. Provisions for 

a “set aside” of certain timber sales for small business 

concerns, in a program jointly developed with the Small 

Business Administration, were included in the Small 

Business Act of 1958.

Harvest administration—Harvest operations are monitored to make sure operations proceed and environmental impacts are avoided or minimized, both in accordance 

with the timber sale contract and permit specifications. 

Harvest administration also protects the government 

from theft, waste, fraud, and abuse. Administrative tasks 

include: (1) ensuring purchasers understand contract objectives and provisions; (2) approving purchaser activities 

and monitoring them for compliance with sale objectives 

and contract provisions; (3) enforcing environmental protection laws applicable to the contracts and purchaser’s 

operations; (4) ensuring advance contract payments are 

adequate for the expected level of activity; (5) assuring 

all trees cut and removed from the sale area have been 

designated for removal; (6) measuring harvest volumes 

to determine purchaser payments; (7) monitoring and enforcing domestic manufacturing requirements for timber 

under the Forest Resource Conservation and Shortage 

Relief Act of 1990; (8) negotiating and resolving disputes concerning contract performance; and (9) preventing theft through investigation and cooperation with law 

enforcement personnel. Debarment (disqualification) and 

suspension of prospective timber purchasers are administrative actions taken to protect the public interest and 

ensure that the Forest Service solicits and considers bids 

for timber sales only from, and awards contracts only to, 

responsible businesses and individuals.

Postsale treatment—Postsale treatments include: 

(1) brush disposal, which is accomplished from 1 to 3 

years following timber harvest using separate brush-disposal funds collected under the timber sale contract; (2) 

stand regeneration, which occurs 1 to 5 years after timber harvest and may include site preparation for natural 

regeneration or planting using nursery-grown tree stock; 

(3) stand improvements, such as thinning, weeding release, and pruning, which are generally applied from 

1 to 10 years following timber harvest to improve the 

vigor and growth of the remaining stand; and (4) other 

sale area resource improvement activities approved in 

the governing environmental analysis. Stand regeneration, timber stand improvement, and other resource 

improvement activities are customarily accomplished 

within the timber sale area using Knutson-Vandenberg 

Fund deposits made from timber sale receipts, or, in 

other locations, using appropriated funds.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 21

Timber salvage sales

The timber salvage sale program is designed for 

stand improvement, providing timely salvage of insect 

infested, dead, damaged, or down timber and associated 

trees. It is an essential part of the timber sales management program. The National Forest Management Act of 

1976 established a permanent appropriation for timber 

salvage. All or a portion of receipts from timber salvage 

sales can be deposited in this account to finance future 

costs for salvage sale design, engineering and supervision of needed roads, sale preparation, and harvest 

administration. Some salvage sales are set aside for 

preferential award to business firms with 25 or fewer 

employees. The salvage sale program currently accounts 

for approximately half of timber sale volume.

Special forest products

In addition to sales of logs for sawtimber, a variety 

of special forest products (SFP) are sold each year, including posts, poles, fuel wood, cedar bolts for shingles, 

Christmas trees, mushrooms, beargrass, pinyon nuts, 

and ferns. There is a continuing public demand for these 

products, with over 100,000 permits issued for products 

valued at several million dollars. Gathering and use of 

SFP provide a variety of benefits to individuals and 

communities. Species used for SFP number in the hundreds and many have been collected and used for thousands of years. Commercial trade in products harvested 

from the wild has contributed to the economy of this 

country throughout its history. SFP support a variety of 

cottage industries in rural communities throughout the 

country. In the Pacific Northwest, ferns, tree boughs, and 

other plants have contributed to the commercial floral 

and Christmas greens industries for over 60 years. Sugar 

maple products in the Northeast are sold worldwide. 

SFP also provide critical cultural and subsistence benefits for many groups and individuals. Their nonmarket 

contributions to livelihoods include food, medicine, and 

decoratives for personal use and gift giving.

Stewardship pilots

The Forest Service launched the Stewardship Pilots 

initiative in 1996. Objectives encompass: (1) finding 

ways to implement needed vegetation treatments more 

effectively and efficiently; (2) demonstrating the role of 

vegetation management in proper resource stewardship; 

and (3) showing the role of ecosystem restoration and 

maintenance activities in helping to sustain rural communities. In FY 1999, the Omnibus Appropriations Act 

for Interior and Related Agencies provided authority to 

undertake up to 28 stewardship contracting pilot projects 

and obtained new business authorities and procedures 

that could be tested in connection with these projects. 

These new authorities included: (1) exchanging goods 

(such as timber that may be removed from a designated 

area) for services performed by a contractor (such as 

precommercial thinning or watershed, wildlife habitat, 

and recreation improvements), (2) awarding contracts 

on a “best value” basis (e.g., where a proposal would 

provide the best overall value in terms of total services 

received even though it may not have the lowest total 

bid price), (3) retaining and reinvesting receipts, and 

(4) increasing flexibility for using “designation by 

description” (e.g., where timber harvest goals are described in terms of type of tree (size, species, condition, 

etc.) to be cut or left, rather than marking individual 

trees for harvest). While all the stewardship pilots entail 

some timber harvesting, they are not traditional timber 

sales. Instead, they typically are multifaceted projects 

that encompass a broad range of resource management 

activities. More recent legislation clarified the intent of 

the original legislation and expanded the agency’s stewardship pilot authority to encompass up to 28 more projects. The agency will continue working on the original 

pilot projects and begin to implement the new ones. All 

stewardship pilot projects are monitored and evaluated 

by representatives from the Forest Service, universities, 

forest industry, and the environmental community.

Recreation, Wilderness, and Heritage

Americans cherish the national forests and grasslands 

for the values they provide: clean water, clean air, natural 

scenic beauty, spiritual renewal, important natural resources, protection of rare species, majestic forests, wilderness, a connection with their history, and opportunities for 

unparalleled outdoor adventure. Recreation visitors desire 

a great deal from the Forest Service in terms of settings, experiences, facilities, and services, and they will expect even 

more in the future. Recreation is the fastest growing use on 

the national forests and grasslands.

As one of the multiple benefits, national forests and 

grasslands contribute a significant amount to the nation’s 

economic well-being, a large share of it associated with 

outdoor recreation. Resource-based travel and tourism 

provide a window through which an increasingly urban 

society can enjoy and appreciate the natural world. The 

Forest Service has opportunity to open that window 

even wider to reflect changing demographic trends and 

visitor preferences.
22 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

To address increasing demands for recreation, the 

Forest Service developed the Recreation Agenda, which 

clarifies the role of national forests in meeting America’s 

recreational needs while protecting the long-term integrity of natural and cultural resources. The Agenda is a 

framework for defining principles, processes, and priorities for the long-term, enabling decisionmakers to 

assure accountability of resources. The Agenda reflects 

the concerns and interests of public and private stakeholders, and concentrates on five key areas:

• Improve the settings for outdoor recreation;

• Improve visitor satisfaction with our facilities and 

services;

• Improve educational opportunities for the public 

about thevalues of conservation, land stewardship, 

and responsible recreation;

• Strengthen our relationships with private entities and 

volunteer based and nonprofit organizations; and

• Establish professionally managed partnerships and 

intergovernmental cooperative efforts.

Recreation

Recreation management provides and protects natural 

resources and facilities that accommodate the public’s 

need for outdoor recreation, emphasizing opportunities 

to know and experience nature. It is also directed at 

maintaining, repairing, and restoring existing facilities 

necessary to meet demands for public outdoor recreation 

in natural settings. Private sector investments through 

concession permits, challenge cost-share projects, and 

other partnerships are used when appropriate. The 

Recreation program component includes administration 

and management of tourism and travel, partnerships, interpretive services, special uses management, congressionally designated areas, wild and scenic rivers, scenic 

byways, and scenery management.

Tourism and travel—Tourism is a valued activity on 

national forests and supplies access to National Forest 

System lands for a diverse mix of visitors. Tourism and 

recreation provide economic contributions equal to, if 

not greater than, traditional public land uses especially in 

gateway communities. Tourism differs from general recreation by offering visitors opportunities to participate 

in tours or other organized events rather than orchestrate 

their own visits. These tours are a valuable source of 

income to gateway communities. Travel and tourism 

services utilize existing networks of visitor information 

centers and state welcome centers. Services have been 

enhanced through the interagency National Recreation 

Reservation Service, which provides camping and cabin 

rentals for global users via a call center and Internet 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 23

booking service. The Forest Service also cooperates 

with state tourism offices and tourism professionals to 

develop existing and potential customers.

Partnerships—Delivering quality recreation products 

and services is based on effective capacity building. 

Capacity building means managing the recreation resource, utilizing all available tools and revenue streams 

to get the job done. Creating and nurturing partnerships 

is the cornerstone of the capacity building concept. 

Partners come from the private sector, communitybased groups, nonprofit and other nongovernment organizations, individual volunteers, and other governmental 

agencies. Declining budgets were the genesis for interest in partnerships; however, as the workforce became 

proficient navigating in the partnership community, the 

real benefits became evident. Partnerships are the foundation for productive, sustained relationships that build 

knowledgeable, supportive constituencies and allow 

for joint collaboration to reach common goals. These 

relationships also enhance the variety and quality of 

services provided to the recreating public. As the agency’s business paradigm moves away from dependence 

on appropriated funds, partnerships will play an increasingly stronger role in collaborative stewardship of the 

recreation resource.

Interpretive services—Interpretive Service programs 

provide the public with knowledge and understanding 

of conservation issues on public lands. Every year, 

about 10 million visitors use Interpretive Service programs when visiting national forests. Interpretive services play a key role in communicating with visitors, 

communities, and a variety of constituent groups. An 

overall objective of providing interpretive services is to 

enhance the public’s participation in the decisionmaking process regarding natural and cultural resources on 

public lands. Interpretive service programs manage 57 

major visitor centers, over 1,000 information centers, 

and tens of thousands of interpretive sites on National 

Forest System lands. A growing number of interpretive 

programs and facilities are now managed as interagency 

partnerships with Federal, state, and local organizations, 

including businesses. Continuing change in population 

demographics, scientific information, and patterns of 

recreational use require interpretive services to constantly upgrade its services and products. By using 

communication methods based in psychology and social 

sciences, interpretive programs forge emotional and 

intellectual connections between the visitor and natural 

heritage resources.

Special uses management—Management of recreation special uses is a major delivery system for outdoor 

recreation. The primary objectives of effective special 

uses management are to authorize uses that comply with 

forest plans, which serve the interest of the American 

people while providing protection of the natural resources, assuring compatibility with other uses, and 

ensuring fair market value is collected for the uses that 

occur on National Forest System lands. There are more 

than 24,000 recreation special use authorizations covering over 35 different types of activities that result in 

millions of dollars in annual fees to the United States. 

These concession operations and facilities include ski 

areas, lodges and resorts, and outfitter-guides, as well 

as many organization camps providing outdoor recreation experiences for millions of Americans. In many 

cases, these uses are essential to the supply of goods and 

services, not only to individuals, but to major market 

regions, particularly in the West.

In cooperation with the 135 ski area operators, national forests provide about 60 percent of downhill 

skiing opportunities in the United States to millions of 

people each year. And outfitting and guiding is a major 

tourism oriented industry, with big game hunting, white 

water river rafting, and guided trips making up the major 

portion of these permitted activities. Outfitter-guide operations account for over 5,000 permits of the more than 

8,000 commercial concession operations.

Congressionally designated areas—The Forest Service 

manages about 60 legislatively established areas (national 

recreation areas, national scenic areas, and national monuments) totaling more than 9 million acres. These are areas 

set aside within the National Forest System and managed 

according to specific guidance established by Congress. 

Designated areas include such national treasures as the 

Winding Stair National Recreation Area in Oklahoma and 

Arkansas, the Sawtooth National Recreation Area in Idaho, 

the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area in Virginia, 

and Land Between the Lakes in Kentucky and Tennessee. 

These areas are critical to regional and local tourism programs and provide a wide array of outdoor recreational 

opportunities.

Wild and scenic rivers—The Wild and Scenic Rivers 

Act of 1968 established a process for identifying and 

protecting free flowing rivers. The system now includes 

160 rivers and 11,294 miles of waterways, of which the 

Forest Service manages 97 rivers and 3,956 miles. The 

Forest Service’s goals are to identify, protect, designate, 

and manage significant free flowing rivers in the national 

forests according to standards and guidelines identified 

in forest plans. Some rivers are jointly managed with 

one or more Federal or state agencies.

Scenic byways—The National Forest System contains 136 nationally designated scenic byways in 35 

states totaling nearly 9,126 miles. These byways offer 
24 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

recreational motorists a showcase of outstanding scenic 

beauty, interpretive and educational facilities, and scenic 

vista points. Vistas include the Edge of the Wilderness 

Scenic Byway on the Chippewa National Forest in 

Minnesota, the San Juan Skyway on the San Juan 

National Forest in Colorado, and the Santiam-McKenzie 

Pass Scenic Byway in Washington. Scenic byways offer great opportunities to tie national forests to local 

communities. Sightseeing is the fifth fastest growing 

recreation activity in the United States and has the third 

largest number of participants. Rural economies benefit 

from scenic byways by providing gateway tourism services to the visitors drawn to these attractions.

Scenery management—Beautiful landscapes constitute one of the primary reasons people choose to recreate 

on or live near National Forest System lands. However, 

the dynamic nature of forest and grassland ecosystems 

and the multiple use activities that occur within them 

have the potential to negatively or positively affect 

the scenery. Forest vegetation management requires 

conjunctive scenery management planning to sustain the 

scenic values over time. Also, vegetation management 

can be used in scenery management to reveal scenic vistas or to maintain or emphasize other aesthetic aspects 

of forest landscapes, which create attractive settings for 

recreation and tourism. In addition, many uses permitted on National Forest System lands, such as roads 

and highways, electrical transmission lines, and telecommunications sites require careful site location and 

mitigation measures to retain the scenic quality of the 

landscape. Even smaller scale activities, such as wildlife 

and fisheries habitat improvements, can adversely affect 

scenic quality if they are not well planned, located, and 

designed. Scenery management activities are necessary to maintain the wildland character, which forms 

the foundation of recreation and tourism attractions on 

National Forest System lands. The goal of scenery management is to create long-term, ecologically sustainable, 

scenic landscapes.

Wilderness

The Wilderness Act of 1964 established a National 

Wilderness Preservation System. The Forest Service is 

responsible for approximately one-third of the National 

Wilderness Preservation System, nearly 35 million 

acres, and administers almost two-thirds of the designated wilderness in the lower 48 states.

The Wilderness System provides a clean environment, habitat for fish and wildlife, scenic beauty, solitude, and economic benefits to gateway communities 

through tourism and recreation. Wilderness also offers 

unique opportunities to learn about relatively pristine 

ecological systems and the benefits people derive from 

being in these places. Wilderness provides for the health 

of all ecosystems, as a gene pool for rare and endangered 

plant and animal species, as a protection of geological 

resource value, as a unique repository for cultural resource values, and as a unique and irreplaceable “living 

laboratory” for medical and scientific research. And 

very importantly, wilderness includes the headwaters of 

rivers and water systems that many cities and rural communities depend upon. Wilderness contributes to local 

and regional economic development through livestock 

grazing, mining, irrigation (where previously designated), and tourism.

There is a strong heritage for wilderness in the Forest 

Service. The actions of Bob Marshall, Aldo Leopold, 

Arthur Carhart, and other conservation leaders echo 

through the agency and challenge its future. Forest 

Service regulations and policies dating to the 1920s predated the Wilderness Act by four decades. Today’s wilderness managers face a very different world of options. 

The Forest Service, in cooperation with its partners, is 

forging new solutions to today’s wilderness management issues.

Management of and planning for the National 

Wilderness Preservation System has brought an increased recognition of the challenges, issues, and 

concerns involving stewardship of these valuable wildlands. Wilderness administrative challenges include: (1) 

managing wilderness provisions for grazing, mining, 

and mineral exploration; (2) resolving fish stocking 

and wildlife management issues; (3) ensuring adequate 

access to wilderness users and private land owners; (4) 

determining disposition of human-made improvements 

and structures; (5) addressing research needs; (6) addressing potential impacts from adjacent development; 

(7) maintaining air quality standards; (8) expanding the 

role of fire as a natural process; (9) providing opportunities for solitude as directed by Congress; and (10) 

developing a strategy to deal with resource protection 

in wilderness. 

An interagency approach to addressing wilderness 

issues and opportunities is chartered in “Wilderness 

Stewardship - A Strategic Plan.” The Forest Service 

has taken the lead in establishing the interagency 

Arthur Carhart National Wilderness Training Center to 

“foster interagency excellence in wilderness stewardship by cultivating knowledgeable, skilled and capable 

wilderness managers and by improving public understanding of wilderness philosophy, values and processes.”

The Forest Service’s wilderness agenda “Thinking 

Like a Mountain” is the agency’s approach to ensure an 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 25

enduring wilderness resource for present and future generations. The agenda is organized around six major areas: (1) education, training, and outreach; (2) wilderness 

inventory and monitoring; (3) information management; 

(4) priority resource issues; (5) program management 

and coordination; and (6) leadership.

Heritage resources

The Forest Service’s heritage program responds to 

the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, which 

directs Federal agencies to administer Federally owned 

or controlled prehistoric or historic resources in a spirit 

of stewardship. Stewardship involves survey, evaluation, and protection of the resource. As a result, the 

Forest Service is responsible for managing over 300,000 

largely unstudied, heritage resources on the 192 million 

acres of National Forest System lands – more than onefourth of all cultural resources identified nationwide. 

The heritage program also administers and implements 

policy derived from a variety of other Federal and local 

laws, regulations, standards, and guidelines. Because 

of these legal obligations, the heritage program plays a 

vital role in the mission, programs, and public service 

outputs of the Forest Service.

Professionals work to identify, conserve, and protect 

resources as diverse as historic buildings and structures, 

archaeological sites, rock art objects, and associated records and collections. The heritage program routinely:

• Assesses the value and evaluates the relative significance of heritage sites that have been identified;

• Assists over 400 Indian Tribes with sites of traditional 

uses and values;

• Inventories the National Forest System landscape for 

undiscovered resources because less than 10 percent 

of the lands have been examined;

• Oversees more than 3,000 properties in the National 

Register of Historic Places;

• Provides compliance input into about 10,000 Forest 

Service actions or projects annually regarding the potential impacts to significant heritage resources;

• Conducts public service efforts to foster involvement, 

partnerships, and education in heritage resources;

• Contributes to scientific understanding of the past 

through the analysis of archeological materials and 

features; and

• Provides environmental data from the past that contribute to ecological restoration and current issues like 

wildland fire and climate change.

Heritage resources hold clues to past ecosystems, add 

richness and depth to our landscapes, provide links to 

living traditions, and help transform a beautiful walk in 

Indigenous petroglyph from 

the southwestern United 

States.
26 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

the woods into an unforgettable encounter with history. 

Because of the intrigue of archaeology and the past, the 

heritage program has a ready and willing public constituency. As society grows more urban and complex, 

people look for unique and authentic opportunities to 

experience the natural and cultural heritage of special 

places. The loss of cultural resources to vandalism, pot 

hunting, illegal digging, and theft in many parts of the 

country is a great concern. The Forest Service has been 

investigating and prosecuting pot hunting cases since 

the mid-1970s. Since passage of the Archaeological 

Resources Protection Act of 1979, Forest Service special agents have been directly involved with many convictions in several states.

Wildlife and Fish Habitat Management and 

Native Plants

National Forest Systems lands contain globally 

significant biological resources. More than 3,000 vertebrate and invertebrate species and more than 10,000 

plant species occur on national forests and grasslands. 

Wildlife, fish, and native plants programs focus on providing healthy habitats for these species to maintain the 

diversity, viability, and productivity of plant and animal 

communities, thus providing for their survival, use, and 

enjoyment by current and future generations. This entails 

protecting and, where necessary, restoring the ecological 

integrity of biological communities and ecosystems.

This program enhances opportunities for consumptive, commercial, subsistence, and other beneficial uses 

of botanical, fish, and wildlife resources. These uses 

include hunting, fishing, and trapping. It also provides 

increased opportunities for nonconsumptive uses such 

as wildlife and wildflower viewing and photography, 

nature appreciation, and outdoor education related to the 

fish, wildlife, and botanical resources.

The National Forest System supplies important habitat for many plant, fish, and wildlife species. It is also 

key to the survival and recovery of many threatened or 

endangered species, including several orchid species, 

the grizzly bear, cutthroat trout, gray wolf, lynx, and redcockaded woodpecker. National Forest System lands are 

globally significant in contributing to biological diversity, providing habitats for more than 400 Federally-listed 

threatened or endangered plant and animal species plus 

approximately 2,900 sensitive plant and animal species 

for which viability is a concern.

The goal of wildlife, fish, and botanical resources 

management on National Forest System lands is to 

maintain and restore ecological conditions so that lands 

can (1) support healthy, self-sustaining populations 

of all existing native and desired nonnative animal 

and plant species; and (2) provide appropriate habitat 

productivity for those species highly desired by the 

public, including deer, elk, wild turkey, trout, bass, 

and salmon. This goal is primarily accomplished 

through three mechanisms: (1) land use allocations, 

management standards and guidelines, monitoring 

requirements, and other decisions adopted in land and 

resource management plans; (2) design, implement, 

and monitor multiple-use management activities that 

involve and affect the habitat of plant and animal species; and (3) capital investments such as seeding, 

planting, prescribed burning, and aquatic habitat development. Many activities are conducted in cooperation with state wildlife and fish agencies, individuals, 

conservation groups, tribal governments, and other local, state, and national organizations. Formal partnerships have been developed with many organizations. 

The Wildlife and Fish Habitat Management and Native 

Plants program contains several components including: 

fisheries and aquatic biology; wildlife habitat management; threatened, endangered, and sensitive species; and 

botanical resources.

Fisheries and aquatic biology

Aquatic biodiversity on national forests and grasslands is globally significant because a large percentage 

of America’s fish, freshwater mussels, crayfish, and 

aquatic insects live on national forest lands. National 

forests and grasslands contain over 200,000 miles of 

fishable streams, including over half the nation’s premier trout and salmon habitat, and more than 2 million acres of lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. Ecological 

restoration, enhancement, protection, and monitoring of 

habitats that harbor inland, anadromous, catadromous, 

and marine fishes, and other aquatic life, are dominant 

features of the Aquatic Biology program.

An unmistakable product of healthy watersheds is the 

type and magnitude of fisheries they support. Pacific, 

Great Lakes, and Atlantic salmon spawned and reared in 

national forest waters contribute significantly to many 

local economies. Upwards of 200 million pounds of fish 

are harvested for commercial purposes each year, and 

an additional million pounds are harvested in traditional 

subsistence fisheries. Also, recreational anglers annually 

spend more than 46 million days fishing for inland and 

anadromous fish annually on national forests, which 

further contributes a total economic output of several 

billion dollars for tourism-related and associated retail 

expenditures in local economies. In support of public 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 27

service, the Fisheries Program sponsors hundreds of 

“kids fishing days” and other aquatic education events.

Inland fish habitat—The Inland Fish Habitat program manages National Forest System inland watersheds to maintain the ecological sustainability of 

lakes and streams. This contributes to the viability of 

aquatic animal populations, including those important 

to recreational fishing. Riparian habitat is managed to 

support ecological processes that benefit inland fish 

habitat. Where needed, instream habitat improvements 

for aquatic structure include: installing artificial spawning reefs and fish shelters, creating sheltered pools in 

streams to increase fish holding capacity, and placing 

structures in streams to provide spawning and rearing 

habitat.

Anadromous fish habitat—This program operates 

anadromous watersheds in the National Forest System 

for the ecological sustainability of streams and connected lakes. This benefits the viability of aquatic animal 

populations, including salmon and steelhead populations 

important to commercial, sport, and subsistence fisheries. Riparian habitat is managed to support ecological 

processes that serve anadromous fish habitat. Projects 

associated with this program foster habitat capability for 

West Coast and Great Lakes salmon and steelhead, and 

Atlantic salmon in the East. Activities include removing 

fish barriers; providing fish passage at roads, diversions, 

or dams; installing stream habitat improvement structures; fertilizing lakes; and creating artificial spawning 

and rearing facilities.

Wildlife habitat management

National forests and grasslands support robust wildlife populations and contain over three-fourths of the 

elk, bighorn sheep, and mountain goat habitat in the 

lower 48 states. National forests and grasslands also 

contain 28 million acres of wild turkey habitat and over 

5 million acres of wetlands, including nationally and 

internationally important habitat for waterfowl. Over 

250 species of neotropical migratory songbirds utilize 

national forest and grassland habitats.

The Wildlife Habitat Management program has 

three main objectives: (1) protect, restore, and improve 

habitats to maintain healthy populations of all terrestrial 

wildlife (excluding threatened, endangered, and sensitive species, which are covered under another a separate 

program area); (2) improve habitats and provide opportunities for consumptive and commercial uses, including 

hunting and trapping; and (3) increase wildlife viewing 

Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis).
28 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

and appreciation opportunities. Habitat improvement activities comprise: prescribed burning to improve forage for 

bighorn sheep, elk, deer, and turkey; water developments 

for quail, chukars, and mourning doves; access management on existing roads to reduce habitat disturbance for 

elk, mountain goats, and black bear; placement of nesting 

structures for wood ducks; and streamside and wetland 

improvements to provide nesting and feeding areas for 

waterfowl, wading birds, and fur bearers. Enhanced user 

opportunities include: developing viewing areas and interpretive facilities; improving and acquiring hunter access; 

and supporting wildlife interpretive programs advocating 

conservation of natural resources, wildlife, and habitat.

“Get Wild” is the umbrella program for almost a 

dozen national-emphasis areas focused on partnerships; 

habitat restoration, improvement, and protection; along 

with public use and enjoyment. Hunters spend about 28 

million days hunting on National Forest System lands. 

Nature viewing is a popular outdoor activity, and implementation of Nature Watch, a program to enhance viewing and photography opportunities, contributes more 

than 50 million annual user days on national forests and 

grasslands.

Habitat restoration, public education, and other 

projects that support the wildlife habitat management 

program are largely dependent on cost-share partnership programs. Partnerships (with organizations such as 

Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, Ducks Unlimited, and 

National Wild Turkey Federation) are the key to success 

of the Get Wild program.

Threatened, endangered, and sensitive species

Over 400 listed threatened and endangered species 

use and depend on in national forest and grassland habitats, and the Forest Service has designated almost 3,000 

additional species as “sensitive” because of concerns for 

their viability. The status and trends of such species are 

widely recognized as primary indicators of ecosystem 

health. Supplying appropriate ecological conditions for 

these species is crucial to meeting the agency’s mission 

and its legal requirements to provide for plant and animal community diversity, species viability, and species 

conservation and recovery. Ecological conditions for 

“species at risk” and other focal species are managed 

to achieve recovery and conservation objectives. The 

most effective activities to accomplish these objectives 

include: (1) analysis of species management needs and 

adoption of appropriate land allocations, standards and 

guidelines, and other direction in land and resource 

management plans; (2) design of various multiple use 

management actions so that they contribute to species 

conservation, or minimize adverse impacts to habitat; 

(3) protection, restoration, and enhancement of habitat; 

and (4) monitoring and evaluation to determine the effectiveness of management direction. A wide variety of 

management activities are important to the recovery and 

conservation of threatened, endangered, and sensitive 

species on National Forest System lands. Habitat protection, prescribed burning, thinning, overstory removal, 

and other treatments are commonly needed and used.

Botanical resources

Botanical resources refer to native plants of all kinds. 

They include some sensitive and rare plants, some special purpose plants treated as special forest products, as 

well as many rangeland plant communities. In addition 

to the vital role they play in contributing to soil productivity and providing key habitat components for many 

animal species, native plants on National Forest System 

lands contribute significantly to biological diversity and 

are prized for their medicinal, genetic, aesthetic, and 

commercial value. Management of botanical resources 

entails a variety of habitat protection and restoration 

activities, including those taken to conserve threatened, 

endangered, and sensitive species of plants. Many of 

these activities are designed and implemented in partnership with other Federal and state agencies and nongovernmental organizations. “Celebrating Wildflowers” 

is a conservation education program that promotes the 

importance of conserving and managing native plants 

and their habitats while emphasizing the aesthetic, recreational, biological, medicinal, and economic values of 

wildflowers. Treatment of invasive and noxious weed 

species also is a crucial management activity on National 

Forest System lands and is increasingly recognized as essential for restoring and maintaining overall land health.

Partnerships with state agencies, nonprofit conservation and other organizations, and individuals, particularly 

through the challenge cost-share program, are essential 

to the cost-effective management of botanical resources, 

as well as enhancing the public’s use and enjoyment of 

these resources on national forests and grasslands.

Administration and Organization

At the national level, a Deputy Chief for the National 

Forest System directs National Forest System programs. 

Responsibilities of this Deputy Chief and supporting 

headquarters staff comprise: formulation and administration of national programs for the National Forest 

System; coordination with other Federal departments 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 29

and agencies, states, and other organizations; and program review and general direction of the work carried 

out at the regional offices of the Forest Service, the 

national forests, and other centers of National Forest 

System programs.

The major part of program activities is carried out 

through a decentralized field organization that includes 

nine regional offices:

Missoula, MT Region 1 Northern Region

Lakewood, CO Region 2 Rocky Mountain

 Region

Albuquerque, NM Region 3 Southwestern Region

Ogden, UT Region 4 Intermountain Region

Vallejo, CA Region 5 Pacific Southwest

 Region

Portland, OR Region 6 Pacific Northwest

 Region

Atlanta, GA Region 8 Southern Region

Milwaukee, WI Region 9 Eastern Region

Juneau, AK Region 10 Alaska Region

On-the-ground resource management is conducted 

through a system of 155 national forests and 20 national 

grasslands, which contain more than 600 ranger districts. 

Management of National Forest System resources involves complex resource, economic, and social problems. 

Coping with these problems requires the Forest Service 

to employ people trained in a wide variety of fields such 

as forestry, range management, wildlife management, 

engineering, recreation, landscape architecture, social 

sciences, accounting, and personnel management.

Relationships

As one of the largest land management organizations 

in the world, the National Forest System has an extensive 

complex of national and international relationships.

Other Forest Service programs

Within the Forest Service, the National Forest System 

is closely coordinated with related programs in State and 

Private Forestry. All regional foresters and national forest supervisors are responsible for working with State 

and Private Forestry to implement the most efficient vegetation management technology. National Forest System 

is a prime cooperator in fire protection, pest protection, 

and regional timber supply programs that involve state 

and private lands interspersed or adjacent to national 

forest lands. In addition, every regional forester and national forest supervisor represents and presents the State 

and Private Forestry program to cooperating states, local 

governments, Tribes, and private forest owners. As such, 

the National Forest System is a major means of delivering 

technical and financial assistance to state forestry agencies and/or other Federal agencies; state, tribal, and local 

governments; and private forest landowners.

All branches of the Forest Service participate in 

Research and Development to help solve natural resource problems. National Forest System and research 

personnel cooperate in studies on experimental forests 

on National Forest System and private lands. National 

Forest System staffs, in close collaboration with research scientists, promptly apply research findings (publications and other products).

Other USDA agencies

Natural Resources Conservation Service—The Forest 

Service works closely with the Natural Resources 

Conservation Service (formerly the Soil Conservation 

Service) on watershed protection and improvement 

projects. Watershed improvement work conducted on 

designated watersheds, under the Flood Control Act of 

1944 and the Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention 

Act of 1954, is closely coordinated with related activities of the Natural Resources Conservation Service on 

adjoining private or non-Federal public lands. Soil surveys performed by the Forest Service on National Forest 

System lands are similarly coordinated with the Natural 

Resources Conservation Service, which has general 

Federal leadership for soil inventory and mapping. The 

Forest Service also cooperates in Natural Resources 

Conservation Service snow surveys, a large part of which 

involves snowpack on National Forest System lands. 

Finally, the agency works with conservation districts in 

planning and carrying out soil and water conservation 

programs and range management programs in conservation districts that involve National Forest System lands.

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service—The 

Forest Service cooperates with the Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and other Federal, 

state, and county agencies in enforcing livestock quarantine and testing programs to prevent spread of contagious animal diseases. Related programs to control 

undesirable plants on National Forest System lands are 

largely handled through collaboration with state and 

county weed control organizations, as authorized in 

the Carlson-Foley Act of 1968, Federal Noxious Weed 

Control Act of 1974, and Plant Protection Act of 2000. 

The Forest Service works together with APHIS in early 

detection and eradication of new invasive plant species. 

APHIS also is responsible for Federal predator and 
30 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

animal damage control projects on National Forest System 

lands, after the Forest Service has given approval.

Bureau of Land Management

The USDI Bureau of Land Management and units 

of the National Forest System have extensive relationships, involving minerals, grazing, fire, and more. 

The complex relationship between the Forest Service 

and the Bureau of Land Management in managing 

locatable and leasable mineral resources on National 

Forest System lands varies with the statutory authority 

involved. These authorities vary not only by the commodity involved but also from location to location; the 

specific management roles of the two agencies vary 

accordingly. Regardless of the authorities involved, the 

Forest Service carries out the bulk of administrative 

work dealing with locatable and leasable mineral activities on National Forest System lands. For example, the 

Forest Service jointly administers general mining laws 

with the Bureau of Land Management on portions of the 

National Forest System lands that were formerly public 

domain lands. The Forest Service evaluates and authorizes each proposal for locatable mineral exploration, 

development, production, and site reclamation. It also 

conducts mineral examinations to determine the validity of mining claims. The Bureau of Land Management 

keeps track of land status, mining claims, and related 

mining filings, and it issues patents for qualifying mining claims.

Where ranch operators use lands administered by 

both the National Forest System and Bureau of Land 

Management, and where National Forest System grazing lands mingle with public domain and private lands, 

the Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, USDA 

Natural Resources Conservation Service and conservation districts coordinate grazing programs through 

memoranda of agreement. Such coordination involves 

seasonal use of ranges, issuance of permits, grazing practices, and related matters.

Under cooperative agreements, the Forest Service often handles fire control on Bureau of Land Management 

lands that are mingled with or lie adjacent to National 

Forest System lands. The Bureau of Land Management, 

Forest Service, and other agencies also jointly operate 

cooperative fire training and control facilities at the 

National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, ID.

The Bureau of Land Management conducts cadastral surveys to establish land lines and boundaries 

for Federal lands reserved from the public domain. It 

receives funding from the Forest Service for such work 

done on National Forest System lands. The Bureau of 

Land Management also is responsible for maintaining 

land records of all Federal public lands.

In Oregon, the Bureau of Land Management and 

the Forest Service manage intermingled section of the 

revested Oregon and California railroad grant lands, 

known as O&C lands. Under a special arrangement provided under the Oregon-California Railroad Land Grant 

Act of 1954, receipts received by the Forest Service are 

transferred to the Department of the Interior for distribution to counties.

Other Federal agencies

Geological Survey—The USDI Geological Survey 

conducts a broad program of surveys, including classification of lands in terms of their value for minerals 

and for reservoir and waterpower sites. The Geological 

Survey has also taken over services provided by the 

former U.S. Bureau of Mines. These include: supplying 

minerals production data, providing technical assistance 

in acquisition of geologic field data, and providing information on mineral industry events, trends, and issues. 

Water resource surveys conducted in cooperation with 

the Forest Service and other agencies provide data on 

quantity, quality, and use of the nation’s water resources. 

The Geological Survey also has major responsibility for 

a national program that prepares base maps showing 

topography, land development, and vegetation. Primary 

base maps for National Forest System lands are created 

and periodically revised in a coordinated program of the 

Geological Survey and the Forest Service.

Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement—

The USDI Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and 

Enforcement is responsible for developing, implementing, and enforcing surface coal mining and reclamation 

standards. It is also charged with reclaiming abandoned 

mined lands, as authorized by the Surface Mining Control 

and Reclamation Act of 1977. The Forest Service cooperates with the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation 

and Enforcement and with other government agencies 

and private interests in conducting such reclamation on 

National Forest System lands.

National Park Service—Cooperation between the 

Forest Service and the USDI National Park Service 

includes Park Service designation and marking of 

historic, cultural, and other landmarks on lands administered by the Forest Service under the National 

Historic Preservation Act of 1966, which established the 

Historic Preservation program. The Forest Service also 

works cooperatively with the National Park Service in 

protecting and managing natural and cultural resources 

that cross boundaries between National Forest System and 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 31

National Park System lands. Examples include recovery 

and conservation of threatened and endangered species, 

fire control, wilderness management, and protecting air 

quality,

Fish and Wildlife Service—The USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service’s research program provides information that aids in managing National Forest System 

lands. The Fish and Wildlife Service administers the 

Endangered Species Act of 1973 under which all Federal 

agencies must manage resources to protect endangered 

and threatened species. The Fish and Wildlife Service 

also administers grant programs with the states under 

the Pittman-Robinson Act of 1937 and the DingellJohnson Act of 1950. Certain wildlife habitat improvement work done by state fish and game commissions on 

National Forest System lands is made possible by these 

Federal grant programs.

Bureau of Reclamation—Water development projects 

of the USDI Bureau of Reclamation variously impact 

management of adjacent National Forest System lands, 

including administration of special use permits for power lines or other facilities. In certain cases, the Bureau 

and the Forest Service have developed agreements 

whereby the Forest Service is responsible for planning 

and administration of recreation facilities developed in 

connection with reclamation projects.

Federal Highway Administration—The Department 

of Transportation’s Federal Highway Administration is 

responsible, in cooperation with the Forest Service and 

state highway agencies, for planning and constructing 

forest highways. Such highways are main traffic arteries that either connect or provide access to national 

forests and are highly important to states, counties, and 

local communities. In accordance with the Federal Aid 

Highway Act of 1973, appropriations for forest highways are allotted and administered in conformity with 

regulations and plans jointly approved by the Secretaries 

of Transportation and Agriculture.

Council on Environmental Quality—Council on 

Environmental Quality (CEQ) coordinates Federal environmental efforts and works closely with agencies and other 

White House offices in developing environmental policies 

and initiatives. The National Environmental Policy Act of 

1969 (NEPA) requires preparation of an environmental 

impact statement for any “major action” (an action that 

may have a significant affect on the environment) proposed 

by Federal agencies, including such actions affecting use, 

management, and protection of National Forest System resources. CEQ oversees Federal agency implementation of 

the environmental analysis process under NEPA and acts 

as a referee when agencies disagree over the adequacy of 

such analyses or public disclosure of environmental effects 

of proposed actions.

Environmental Protection Agency—Several laws administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

influence management of National Forest System resources. Under the Clean Water Act, as amended in 1987, the 

Forest Service is responsible for preventing water pollution 

from ongoing activities and repairing existing problems, 

consistent with requirements issued by states. The objective in both cases is to meet state water quality standards. 

Prevention is accomplished through the implementation 

and monitoring of “best management practices” (BMPs). 

Application of BMPs is required to be in compliance with 

state standards established pursuant to the Clean Water Act. 

In the case of existing water quality problems, states list 

water bodies determined to be “impaired” and establish 

a total maximum daily load (TMDL) standard for each 

water body. States are responsible for establishing TMDL 

standards and EPA provides oversight. Where state-listed, 

impaired waters occur on National Forest System lands, the 

Forest Service develops a watershed restoration plan that 

complies with state guidelines, priorities, and schedules. 

Under the Clean Air Act amendments of 1977 and 1990, 

Federal agencies are required, to the same extent as any 

nongovernmental entity, to meet Federal, state, and local 

requirements for control of air pollutants that may result 

from agency activities. An example is smoke resulting 

from burning hazardous fuels on National Forest System 

lands. Under the 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act, 

the Forest Service role in protecting these areas from 

regional haze was further specified, as part of regional 

planning organizations that include relationships with 

EPA, other Federal land management agencies, states, 

and Tribes. Insect control programs on National Forest 

System lands also are planned and conducted according 

to EPA standards and requirements for use of pesticides 

under the Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act of 

1972. Under the Federal regulations (see 40 CFR (Code 

of Federal Regulations) 1500-1508.28) issued by CEQ for 

implementing the National Environmental Policy Act of 

1969, all Federal agencies file environmental impact statement (EISs), both draft and final, with the EPA at the same 

time they are made available to the public. EPA publishes 

a notice in the Federal Register each week of the EISs filed 

during the previous week and delivers a copy of each EIS 

to CEQ. Also, EPA has review responsibility for EISs under the Clean Water Act of 1977.

Corps of Engineers—Cooperative arrangements with 

the Corps of Engineers in the Department of the Army 

provide for Forest Service administration of recreation on 

certain lands in the National Forest System that are affected 

by Corps of Engineers reservoir construction projects. The 

agencies likewise cooperate on the interchange of land for 

administrative purposes around Corps water impoundment 

projects.
32 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Public Health Service—Developed recreation sites 

on National Forest System lands are subject to inspection by the Public Health Service in the Department of 

Health and Human Services. The Service may close 

such facilities where pollution abatement facilities are 

inadequate.

Small Business Administration—This Department of 

Commerce agency cooperates with the Forest Service in 

a program of “set aside” sales of national forest timber, 

under the Small Business Act of 1958, to assure that 

“small” businesses, defined as less than 500 employees, 

obtain a fair share of available sales of national forest 

timber. In addition to the Timber Sale Small Business 

“Set-Aside” program, the Forest Service supports the 

Small Business Administration’s Procurement “8(a)” 

program. At least 5 percent of the total dollar value of 

Forest Service commercial acquisitions are set aside 

for small, minority-owned businesses. Also, the Forest 

Service sets aside all of the balance of its commercial 

acquisitions for small businesses, unless it is determined 

that no small business is capable of filling the requirement.

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission—The Forest 

Service prepares terms and conditions that it files with 

the Department of Energy’s Federal Energy Regulatory 

Commission for inclusion in licenses issued by the 

Commission for hydropower projects. Those terms and 

conditions are designed to protect National Forest resources that may be affected by hydropower projects.

General Service Administration—Many administrative 

tasks of the Forest Service are handled with or through 

the General Services Administration. Tasks include the 

construction and operation of many buildings used by the 

Forest Service; procurement of supplies; use and disposal 

of property; management of transportation and communications equipment and facilities; management of automatic 

data processing facilities; management of archives and 

records centers; and publication of laws and administrative 

documents.

State natural resource agencies

Planning for and managing national forests and grasslands is coordinated with state natural resource agencies 

having management or regulatory responsibilities concerning forest and grassland resources within a given state. 

For example, management of fish and wildlife habitats on 

National Forest System land and water is closely coordinated with programs of state fish and wildlife departments, 

which have the responsibility for management of wildlife 

and fish populations, including such measures as setting 

hunting and fishing seasons and bag limits, propagating 

wildlife and fish, and licensing of hunters, trappers, and 

anglers. In addition to state fish and wildlife agencies, the 

Forest Service has strong ties and working relations with 

state forestry organizations, water and air quality agencies, 

along with fire management and control units.

In habitat improvement work on National Forest 

System lands, funding supplied by direct Federal appropriations through the Forest Service is often supplemented by state agencies using grants provided under 

the Pittman-Robinson Act of 1937 and the DingellJohnson Act of 1950. State project work financed in this 

way covers a variety of wildlife habitat improvements, 

wildlife surveys, land acquisitions, and other wildlife management activities. The Cooperative Wildlife 

Habitat Management Act of 1974 also contains provisions whereby states may charge special fees for hunting and fishing on National Forest System lands. These 

fees are then made available for wildlife and fish habitat 

management projects on National Forest System lands 

under state-Federal cooperative agreements. Forest 

Service personnel also cooperate with state, county, and 

other Federal officials in the enforcement of laws and 

regulations for protection of wildlife.

Local governments

National Forest System programs generate receipts of a 

billion dollars per year from timber sales, recreation fees, 

and other land uses. A portion of these receipts is returned 

to the U.S. Treasury, and a portion is shared with local 

governments, such as counties, parishes, and boroughs.

Under the Twenty-five Percent Fund Act of 1908, 

the Weeks Act of 1911, and the Bankhead-Jones Farm 

Tenant Act of 1937, 25 percent of monies received from 

sale of products from National Forest System lands are 

paid to the state(s) containing those lands. These payments benefit public schools and public roads of the 

county or counties in which the national forests or grasslands are located. The term “monies received” includes 

collections for sale areas betterment activities, road 

construction credits earned or allowed any purchaser of 

national forest timber, and timber salvage sale deposits. 

Special payments to certain states are provided for in 

special acts, including the Boundary Waters Canoe Area 

Act of 1978 for Minnesota and the Arizona and New 

Mexico Enabling Act of 1910. More recently, the Secure 

Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act 

of 2000 provided local governments the choice of revenue sharing based on actual annual receipts or average of 

the receipts for the highest three years during the period 

1986-1999. These several Revenue-Sharing programs 

are coordinated under the Payments in Lieu of Taxes 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 33

Act of 1976, which assures a minimum level of Federal 

payments to local governments in counties containing 

public lands.

Additional receipts are obtained from mineral leases 

on National Forest System lands under programs for 

which the Bureau of Land Management has administrative and fiscal responsibility. Receipts from disposal of 

common varieties of minerals on National Forest System 

lands and from mineral leases on acquired lands are similarly shared with states and counties under the Mineral 

Materials Act of 1947, and under the Mineral Leasing 

Act for Acquired Lands of 1947. Receipts from other 

mineral leases and related mineral disposals, for which 

the U.S. Bureau of Land Management is responsible, are 

also shared with counties of origin. The Bureau of Land 

Management makes payments from these receipts to the 

state and its counties.

General public

Growing participation of many groups and individuals 

in National Forest System planning and administration has 

far-reaching importance, at both national and local levels. 

Under the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 

large numbers of Environmental Impact Statements covering proposed Forest Service actions are widely reviewed 

not only by other Federal and state agencies but also by 

many private organizations and individuals.

The Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources 

Planning Act of 1974 (as amended by the National 

Forest Management Act of 1976) likewise requires 

public involvement in developing land and resource 

management plans for National Forest System units. 

Relationships with the public in these and related Forest 

Service activities involve public hearings and many 

meetings and correspondence with individuals and 

organizations.

State and Private Forestry

State and Private Forestry (S&PF) programs of the 

USDA Forest Service provide Federal leadership in 

technical and financial assistance to landowners and 

resource managers to help sustain the nation’s forests 

and protect communities and the environment from 

wildland fires. S&PF programs help bring forestry to all 

landowners, whether nonindustrial private, tribal, state, 

or Federal, in efficient, nonregulatory ways. Through 

coordinated efforts in management, protection, conservation education, and resource use, S&PF programs 

help facilitate sound stewardship across ownerships 

on a landscape scale, while maintaining flexibility for 

individual forest landowners to pursue their objectives. 

Two-thirds of all forested lands are privately owned, 

making S&PF programs relevant to many private landowners who need technical and financial assistance. 

Through a partnership of technical advice and focused 

financial assistance, Federal resources are dramatically 

leveraged to produce a variety of forest-based goods and 

services, including recreation, wildlife and fish, biological diversity, timber, and other products. On average, for 

every $1 of Federal investment, $10 is added from nonFederal sources to provide both economic and qualityof-life returns. Additionally, through its fire and aviation 

management programs, S&PF provides international 

leadership in all aspects of wildland fire management.

The quality and quantity of the nation’s water, as well 

as stable and fertile soils, depend on the quality and 

condition of forest cover. This cover is also the key to 

the nation’s forest-dependent wildlife populations and 

diversity in plant and animal communities. Watershed 

health, restoration, and management transcends ownership boundaries, directly affecting the costs of meeting 

society’s need for water, while providing outdoor-based 

jobs, aesthetics, recreation, a sense of well being, and 

satisfaction to both city and country dwellers.

Across the landscape, over 70 percent of the nation’s 

forests are in non-Federal ownership and represent 

80 percent of potential wood fiber production and associated wages, taxes, and economic vitality. Similarly, 

these forest ownerships provide critical watershed conditions, soils, fish and wildlife habitat, and the aesthetic 

quality so valued on the nation’s landscape. Because 

non-Federal forests represent most of the nation’s 

forests, it is especially important to keep these lands 

healthy, productive, and sustainable. With increasing 

fragmentation and development pressure, the unique 

Federal role in reinforcing the value and functions of 

these lands, from remote wilderness to urban green 

space, has never been more critical.

Insects and diseases affect trees, forests, and forested 

ecosystems across rural and urban land boundaries. 

Monitoring, evaluation, and control of major forest 

pests require coordinated actions between Federal and 

state agencies to protect forest health. The Forest Health 

Management program provides technical and financial assistance and cooperative partnerships with states, private 

landowners, and other Federal agencies for insect and disease control. This program also has responsibility for forest 

insect and disease protection on all Federal lands.

Wildland Fire Protection programs are conducted 

with the highest regard for public and firefighter safety. 
34 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Within S&PF, the Fire and Aviation Management program provides direct, on-the-ground activities, while the 

Cooperative Fire Protection program does so through 

cooperative arrangements. Cooperation among Federal 

and state agencies and volunteer fire departments in 

wildland fire protection has proven effective and valuable in protecting lives, property, and other natural resources. Coordinated initial response to wildland fires 

prevents over 90 percent of wildland fires from growing 

to major proportions. As part of the National Fire Plan, 

S&PF works with states, local communities, and other 

Federal agencies to (1) reduce wildland fire hazards 

to communities and (2) ensure wildland fire management planning and firefighter personnel, and associated resources are prepared for extreme fire conditions. 

Assistance to state forestry agencies and rural volunteer 

fire departments, through funding wildland firefighters 

training and loaning equipment, is provided through 

the Cooperative Fire Protection program. In addition, 

as part of the National Fire Plan, assistance through the 

Economic Action Program helps communities identify, 

develop, and expand economic opportunities related 

to historically underutilized tree species and wood removed during hazardous fuel reduction treatments. 

Information, demonstration, applications development, 

and training are made available to participating communities. Support is also provided for community-led 

planning and prevention to reduce fire risk.

In both rural and urban communities, natural resources ranging from individual trees to parks and expansive 

urban greenways are a key element in quality of life 

for nearly 80 percent of the nation’s population. Sound 

stewardship of urban and community forests provides 

numerous social benefits, including improving property values and aesthetics, promoting neighborhood and 

community pride, reinforcing social and cultural values, 

moderating climate and cost-of-living expenses, and 

mitigating urban sprawl. The Urban and Community 

Forestry program relates to these settings.

The nation’s need for wood and other forest resources depends on adequate stewardship of non-Federal forest lands. Over half of the nation’s supply of roundwood 

comes from nonindustrial private lands. Well-managed and protected forests provide cost-effective benefits to society and assure sustainable inputs for rural, 

resource-dependent communities. This is the domain of 

the Cooperative Forestry program. The Forest Service 

is uniquely positioned to link people and forests in order to strengthen the economic health of communities 

over the long term. Nearly 70 percent of rural counties 

are highly dependent on natural resource based earnings 

and over 75 percent of them are experiencing population 

growth and related changes. S&PF technical and financial assistance helps bring communities, groups, and 

businesses together to create diversified economic activity built on forest resources. Community-based partnerships, flexibility, and capacity building are emphasized. 

Economic action programs help communities become 

more economically self-sufficient by creating jobs, improving competitiveness through value-added manufacturing, and stimulating more diverse markets for natural 

resources. Both technical and financial assistance to 

help improve stewardship of the nation’s urban and rural forests, and assistance to communities, are provided 

through the Cooperative Forestry program.

S&PF is also a leader in conservation education. 

The Conservation Education program helps people of 

all ages understand and appreciate natural and heritage 

resources, and how to conserve those resources for future 

generations. The program is funded through various other Forest Service programs, including those in S&PF.

Authorization

As early as 1898, Gifford Pinchot proposed a Federal 

program to help forest owners manage timberlands. Shortly 

after he took office as the first Chief of the Division of 

Forestry (now the Forest Service), Circular 21, “Practical 

Assistance to Farmers, Lumbermen and Other Owners of 

Forest Land,” was issued, beginning the first of many efforts in Federal cooperative forestry.

For many years, however, assistance offered to private timberland owners and operators was very limited. 

The Weeks Act of 1911 authorized cooperation with the 

states in forest fire control on private and state lands. 

The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 provided for a cooperative 

system of assistance, including the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, state land grant colleges and universities, 

and county extension services, to extend research results 

to farmers and other rural people. The Clarke-McNary 

Act of 1924 provided further authorization for cooperative fire control and authorized Federal funding on 

a matching basis with states to aid farmers by providing 

information on management and utilization of forest 

resources. Clarke-McNary also prompted appointment 

of the first full-time professional foresters providing assistance to private timberland owners.

Cooperative forestry programs began during the 

Great Depression. The Norris-Doxey Cooperative Farm 

Forestry Act of 1937 provided for extension education, 

as well as Federal funding and direct technical assistance to farm woodland owners. During World War II, 

the Forest Service also established a forest utilization 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 35

and information service at research experiment stations to improve sawmill operations, locate timber for 

special needs, and otherwise help the war effort. The 

Cooperative Forest Management Act of 1950 greatly 

strengthened technical forestry assistance programs 

conducted by state forestry organizations and the Forest 

Service. This Act broadened those programs to include 

all private landowners, forest operators, wood processors, and public agencies, with respect to multiple-use 

management of forest lands, utilization of forest products, and urban forestry.

Rural development has long been a key program 

in State and Private Forestry. Title IV of the Rural 

Development Act of 1972 authorized a Cooperative 

Rural Community Fire Protection program to help rural 

towns and communities of less than 10,000 population 

acquire needed firefighting equipment and train firefighting personnel. The Cooperative Forestry Assistance 

Act of 1978 consolidated and expanded authority for 

Federal assistance on non-Federal forest lands. It authorized the Secretary of Agriculture to cooperate with 

State Foresters or equivalent state officials in providing 

this assistance.

Agricultural legislation has authorized much rural 

development work. The National Farm Bill of 1990 

expanded authorities for Federal assistance on nonFederal forestlands, and to rural communities, through the 

Forest Stewardship Act of 1990 and the National ForestDependent Rural Communities Economic Diversification 

Act of 1990. The Forest Stewardship Act of 1990 amended 

the Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of 1978, authorized expanded assistance to landowners, encouraged 

conservation of environmentally important forests at risk 

to conversion to nonforest uses, established the Semiarid 

Agroforestry Center, and expanded Tree Planting programs. The National Forest-Dependent Rural Communities 

Economic Diversification Act of 1990 authorized assistance to rural communities that are located near national 

forests, are economically dependent on forest resources, or 

are likely to be economically disadvantaged by land management practices. The Act aims to help communities diversify their economic base and improve the economic, 

social, and environmental well-being of rural America. 

Finally, the National Farm Bill of 1996 further amended 

the Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of 1978, expanding authorities for conservation of environmentally 

sensitive forests at risk to conversion to nonforest uses 

and extending the Forestry Incentives program.

Authorization for wildland fire management activities dates back to the creation of national forests. The 

Organic Administration Act of 1897 authorized protecting national forests against destruction by fire. The 

Wilderness Act of 1964 provided for fire control within 

designated wilderness. The National Forest Management 

Act of 1976 required guidelines for land management 

plans to ensure protection of forest resources, including management prescriptions that minimize serious 

or long-lasting effects from wildfire. The Clean Air 

Act of 1955 provided for protection and enhancement 

of the nation’s air resources and applies to application 

and management of prescribed fire. The Forest Service 

is also authorized to undertake wildfire protection activities on other Federal, state, and private lands. The 

Economy Act of 1932 provided for procurement of materials, supplies, equipment, work, or services from 

other Federal agencies. The Granger-Thye Act of 1950 

authorized expenditure of Forest Service funds to erect 

buildings, lookout towers, and other structures on land 

owned by states. The Reciprocal Fire Protection Act of 

1955 authorized reciprocal agreements with Federal, 

state, and other wildland fire protection organizations. 

The Wildfire Suppression Assistance Act of 1989 authorized the Forest Service to enter into agreements 

with fire organizations of foreign countries for assistance in wildfire protection.

State and Private Forestry sponsors a wide variety 

of programs. Some primarily serve non-Federal, state, 

and local clients, including the Conservation Education, 

Cooperative Fire Protection, Cooperative Forestry, and 

Urban and Community Forestry programs. The Forest 

Health Management program focuses on both Federal 

and non-Federal land, while the Fire and Aviation 

Management program focuses mostly on National 

Forest System lands.

Conservation Education

The Conservation Education program connects 

people to land, providing them tools needed to take 

informed actions related to sustaining natural and cultural resources. It helps people of all ages understand 

and appreciate natural and cultural resources and how to 

conserve those resources for future generations. For the 

Forest Service to meet its mission of “caring for the land 

and serving people,” the public must have knowledge to 

understand natural resource issues and skills to participate meaningfully in debates surrounding them.

Conservation education helps people develop critical 

thinking skills and obtain knowledge needed to understand the complexities of ecological issues. In addition 

to encouraging them to take personal responsibility for 

their relationship with the environment, conservation 

education encourages people to participate with the 
36 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Forest Service and other natural resource management 

agencies in sustaining natural and cultural resources. 

The ultimate measure of successful conservation education is an informed and engaged citizenry able to participate effectively in actions and decisions needed to 

sustain natural and cultural resource values for present 

and future generations.

The Conservation Education program has three 

unique niches that complement the strengths of other 

Forest Service partners:

Science-based Information and Conservation 

Education Research—Forest Service Research and 

Development provides a tremendous resource for 

conservation education materials. Research results can 

be translated into easily understood terms and concepts, 

contributing to scientifically credible educational materials and activities that represent the current state of 

natural resource knowledge.

Experiential Learning—The National Forest System 

provides outstanding opportunities for place-based 

learning, providing the equivalent of 191 million acres 

of outdoor classrooms across the country, including 

experiential learning through visitor centers, such as 

the Mount St. Helens Visitor Center in Washington, 

and Conservation Education Centers, such as the 

Cradle of Forestry in North Carolina.

Delivery Network—State and Private Forestry 

has an extensive partner network, including State 

Foresters, to deliver conservation education across 

the country. In addition, the National Forest System 

has over 30,000 employees, who together with the 

S&PF network, make up an integrated national 

delivery network for conservation education.

Conservation education is, by its very nature, a 

cooperative endeavor, and the Forest Service works 

with many partners—Federal, state, nonprofit, 

and private—whose strengths complement those 

of the agency. State Foresters, for example, are a 

major part of the Conservation Education delivery 

system. Other important partners include: other 

Federal natural resource agencies, the National 

Association of Conservation Districts, Project 

Learning Tree, Project Wet, Project Wild, Boy 

Scouts, and Girl Scouts.

The Conservation Education program focuses 

broadly on developing and delivering education, 

centered around natural resources and processes. 

The Program accomplishes this through five activities: (1) developing and providing educational 

material, (2) delivering conservation education, (3) 

supporting education research, (4) providing natural 

resource and conservation education training, and (5) 

building and using partnerships. Conservation Eduation 

programs are organized around resource-specific programs and conservation education centers.

Resource-specific programs

There are numerous national, resource-specific conservation education programs sponsored and funded 

through other Forest Service program areas that operate 

independently but in partnership with the Conservation 

Education program. Defining characteristics of these 

programs include: national in scope, resource-specific, 

long-term, and sponsored by a specific Forest Service 

program. All resource-specific programs leverage funds 

with outside partners and, in the case of Smokey Bear 

and Woodsy Owl, derive some funding from licensing 

royalties. Examples of these programs are:

Nature Watch—Sponsored and supported by the 

Wildlife, Fish, and Rare Plants program, Nature Watch 

puts people in touch with plants, fish, and birds in their 

National Forests through viewing sites, interpretive 

walks, festivals, and other activities.

Theme art for Conservation Education program.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 37

Urban Tree House—Urban Tree House is a cooperative, 

community-based, environmental research and education program, characterized by a structure placed in a 

community greenspace to help urban youth and adults 

learn about natural resources and environmental concepts.

Smokey Bear—One of the Forest Service’s oldest conservation education programs, Smokey’s message is 

“Only You Can Prevent Forest Fires.”

Passport in Time (PIT)—PIT is a volunteer program, 

allowing the public to share in the thrill of discovery 

through archaeological and historic research.

Woodsy Owl—Woodsy is a national environmental icon, 

making him an excellent vehicle for delivering conservation education messages.

Conservation education centers

Located throughout the country are many Forest 

Service visitor and education centers whose primary 

purpose is delivery of conservation education. Grey 

Towers National Historic Landmark and The Cradle of 

Forestry are prime examples of these centers.

Grey Towers National Historic Landmark—Grey 

Towers, primary home of Gifford Pinchot, first Chief of 

the Forest Service, was donated to the Forest Service in 

1963. It serves a dual purpose by (1) embracing a philosophy of preservation through use while (2) providing 

an estate open for public tours and conservation education programs. In conjunction with the Pinchot Institute 

for Conservation, a nonprofit natural resource policy research and education organization, Grey Towers serves 

as an active conference center for conservation and 

natural resource issues.

Cradle of Forestry National Historic Site—The 

Cradle of Forestry was set aside by Congress to commemorate the beginning of forestry conservation in the 

United States. It consists of a Forestry Discovery Center, 

an interactive exhibit hall, two interpretive trails, and the 

recently dedicated Carl Schenck Education wing, which 

provides the opportunity for more formal conservation 

education activities.

Cooperative Forestry

There are nearly 500 million acres of non-Federal 

forest land in the United States, comprising about 20 

percent of the nation’s land mass, and two-thirds of the 

nation’s forests. Over 50 percent of the nation’s forests 

are privately owned. Management practices on these 

lands affect everyone’s social, economic, and natural 

environment. Cooperative Forestry programs provide 

technical and financial assistance to help rural and urban 

citizens (including private landowners) care for forests 

and sustain the communities where they live, work, and 

play. Through partnerships with state forestry organizations and many others, Federal funding is leveraged to 

help produce a variety of forest-based goods and services to meet domestic and international needs

Programs within Cooperative Forestry focus on 

working in partnership with non-Federal owners to 

promote management, protection, and better use of 

forest-based goods and services. Major program areas 

include Forest Stewardship, Forest Legacy, Forest Land 

Enhancement, Economic Action programs, and Pacific 

Northwest Assistance.

Forest stewardship

The Forest Stewardship program supports the sustainable management of America’s non-Federal forests for 

the benefit of society, by enabling the nearly 10 million 

nonindustrial private forest (NIPF) landowners, who 

own 48 percent of the nation’s forests, to better manage, 

protect, and use their natural resources. In cooperation 

with state resource management agencies, the Forest 

Service (1) helps forest owners pursue sustainable 

forest management through planning and implementation of riparian restoration, wildlife habitat enhancement, 

forest stand improvement, and other aspects of forest 

management; and (2) improves supplies of high quality, genetically improved tree seed and planting stock 

for reforestation. Activities address gaps in landowner 

information and understanding and generate cumulative 

benefits to society. Technical assistance to non-Federal 

landowners, development of multiresource stewardship 

plans for non-Federal lands, and provision of high quality tree planting stock to states and private landowners 

are all programs within the Forest Stewardship program. 

All Forest Stewardship program components (stewardship plans, technical assistance, and regeneration 
38 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

nurseries and genetic resources) are coordinated with 

and/or delivered through the state forestry agencies.

Stewardship plans—This program helps private 

forest landowners develop plans for sustainable management of their forests. The program promotes management, protection, and better use of over 50 percent 

of America’s forests; responds to increasing demand 

for goods and services from these lands; and targets actions for critical riparian areas. Given that NIPF forests 

provide over 60 percent of the domestic timber supply 

and only 10 percent of those ownerships are covered 

by a forest management plan, there is an urgent need 

to furnish additional technical assistance to assure their 

sustained use.

Technical assistance— This program helps nonFederal landowners on a voluntary, nonregulatory 

basis through supplying technical information and assistance, especially in development of multiresource 

forest stewardship plans. The plans establish the basis 

for future management, protection, and better use 

practices. Forestry professionals provide site-specific, 

on-the-ground technical assistance to NIPF landowners. 

They help landowners prepare forest stewardship plans 

that assure benefits to the landowner while protecting 

forest resources such as soil and water quality, nonwood 

products, wildlife habitat, recreational opportunities, 

and downstream water quality. Plans are prepared by 

state forestry personnel or private forestry consultants, 

in conjunction with owners, to protect and sustain private forest resources while contributing to long-term national goals. A recent survey of landowners participating 

in the program indicates that over 80 percent are implementing their multiresource management plans. Both 

technical and financial assistance have been significant 

factors in their ability to do this. Landowner investments 

can be supplemented by various conservation costsharing programs, such as the Environmental Quality 

Incentives Program, the Forestry Incentives Program, 

the Conservation Reserve Program, and other incentive 

programs that may be available.

Regeneration nurseries and genetic resources—This 

program supports over 85 state forest nurseries that produce about 30 percent of the total forest seedling supply in the United States. State nurseries are the primary 

source of native species tree seedlings for reforesting 

NIPF lands and enhancing ecosystem integrity. This 

program also provides information, technology, and 

training on forest nursery management, tree improvement, tree planting methodology, seedling culture, and 

equipment development to state, private, and Federal 

nurseries. The Forest Service also operates a tree seed 

bank that provides seed to national and international 

scientists for research purposes and makes quality assessments on seed used in the United States.

Forest legacy

With increasing forest fragmentation and development pressure, the Forest Legacy program plays a 

unique role in maintaining the value and functions of 

lands across ownerships from remote wilderness to urban green space. The need for this program has never 

been greater. The average annual rate of land converted 

to development was over 3 million acres from 1992 

to 1997. This is more than twice the rate of the previous decade. Additionally, the number of private forest 

landowners has increased from 7.8 million to more than 

9.9 million since 1978. This pattern of development encroaches on large tracts of forest, coastal areas, and municipal watersheds. The Forest Legacy program works 

with state government and local entities to safeguard 

priority areas.

This program helps protect private forest lands from 

being converted to nonforest uses by emphasizing mitigation of both forest fragmentation and loss of forested 

landscapes. Its goal is effective protection and conservation of environmentally important forest areas through 

conservation easements and other mechanisms. The 

Forest Legacy program relies on the concept of “willing 

seller and willing buyer” and is completely nonregulatory 

in its approach. The use of eminent domain is not authorized for this program.

Landowner participation in the program is entirely 

voluntary, and the selection process is guided by the 

states. Only private forest lands within designated Forest 

Legacy Areas, identified through a state’s Assessment of 

Need (AON) plan, are eligible. AONs must be completed 

by participating states and territories. The AON analyzes 

the need for the Forest Legacy program and describes 

how the program will work in a state. A state joins the 

Forest Legacy program upon approval of its AON by the 

Secretary of Agriculture, thereby recognizing the national 

importance of forested areas needing protection.

With passage of the 1996 Farm Bill, the Forest 

Legacy program was expanded to allow a state grant option. Under this option, Forest Legacy acquisitions can 

vest title to the land in the state or a unit of state or local government. Most states take advantage of this state 

grant option. On average, each Federal dollar leverages 

an equal amount in non-Federal contributions to the program through donated lands or interests in lands, bargain 

sales, or additional in-kind contributions from states and 

partners including the cost of monitoring perpetual conservation easements.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 39

Forest land enhancement

Through the Forest Land Enhancement Program 

(FLEP), state forestry agencies can provide a wide 

array of services to ensure the nation’s NIPF and related resources continue providing forest products and 

safeguarding the health of water, air, and wildlife. The 

Forest Service manages the program through state forestry agencies to:

• Establish, manage, maintain, enhance, and restore 

NIPF lands;

• Enhance the productivity of timber, fish and wildlife 

habitat, soil, water, air quality, wetlands, and riparian 

buffers of these lands;

• Assist owners and managers to more actively manage 

NIPF lands and related resources;

• Reduce risk and help restore, recover, and mitigate the 

damage to forests caused by fire, insects, invasive species, disease, and damaging weather; and

• Encourage use of state, Federal, and private sector 

resource management expertise, financial assistance, 

and educational programs.

State forestry agencies can use FLEP funds to provide 

financial, educational, or technical assistance to NIPF 

owners to achieve a broad array of objectives, including 

(1) forest stewardship plan development, (2) afforestation and reforestation, (3) forest stand improvement, 

(4) agroforestry implementation, (5) water quality improvement and watershed protection, (6) fish and wildlife habitat protection, (7) forest health and protection, 

(8) invasive species control, (9) wildfire and catastrophic 

risk reduction, (10) wildfire and catastrophic event rehabilitation, and (11) special practices. Eligibility criteria 

for FLEP are broad, allowing more participation by 

Tribes, those who manage land that they rent (rather than 

own), and land under tenure systems other than outright 

ownership. FLEP allows treatment of up to 1,000 acres 

per year and variances of up to 5,000 acres if significant 

public benefits will accrue.

Economic action programs

Economic Action programs provide the opportunity for natural resource-dependent communities to 

strengthen their long-term, economic health. The Forest 

Service is uniquely positioned to link people and forests. 

Nearly 70 percent of rural counties are highly dependent 

on natural resource-based earnings, and over 75 percent 

of those counties are experiencing population growth 

and related changes. Economic Action programs bring 

communities, groups, and businesses together to create 

diversified economic activity built on forest resources. 

The programs are structured to help both rural and urban 

communities benefit. Partnerships, flexibility, and capacity building for long-term solutions are emphasized.

Economic Action programs help rural communities 

strengthen, diversify, and expand their local economies, 

improve transportation networks, and increase access 

to technology through grassroots partnerships. They 

build skills within rural communities to address social, 

environmental, and economic change through inclusive, 

community-led, collaborative processes. They also 

provide technology transfer, technical and financial assistance, and expanded networks for rural communities 

to build their capacity to utilize small diameter timber 

and underutilized species, as well as nontraditional or 

special forest products, and for integrating recreation, 

tourism, and other opportunities into sustainable strategies for change.

The delivery system for Economic Action programs 

includes State Foresters, Indian tribes, national forests 

and grasslands, communities, resource conservation 

and development councils, soil and water conservation districts, universities, businesses, and other cooperators. Economic Action programs help communities 

become more economically self-sufficient by creating 

jobs, improving competitiveness through value-added 

manufacturing, and stimulating more diverse markets 

for natural resources. Special focus includes helping 

build rural business infrastructures to utilize and market 

products from ecosystem management operations. The 

Economic Action Program includes four major program 

components: Economic Recovery, Rural Development, 

Forest Products Conservation and Recycling, and Wood 

in Transportation.

Economic recovery—This component assists eligible 

rural communities experiencing acute economic problems associated with changes in resource management 

policies and decisions. Assistance is directed toward 

communities located in or near national forest lands, 

to meet diverse economic, social, and environmental 

needs. Economic Recovery also builds relationships that 

result in actions at various scales, from individual businesses to communities to natural and heritage resource 

management issues, both in watersheds and across administrative boundaries.

Rural development—This component addresses the 

long-term health of rural areas by helping communities 

develop opportunities and enterprises through diversified uses of forest resources, including wood, recreation, 

wildlife, cultural and heritage resources, minerals, 

nontimber forest products, and scenic quality. Rural 

Development supports entrepreneurial efforts based on 

community strategies and long-term goals.
40 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Forest products conservation and recycling—The 

Forest Products Conservation and Recycling (FPC&R) 

component supports a small cadre of Federal forest 

products utilization specialists trained in logging, sawmilling, drying, processing, marketing, engineering, 

and wood technology. These specialists are part of a 

national network of state, academic, and private-sector 

specialists. They cooperate in assisting other partners, 

communities, and businesses to improve forest products 

utilization, marketing, economic benefits, and environmental and processing efficiency of forest operations. 

Demand for this type of assistance is growing faster than 

it can be supplied. FPC&R assists the wood products industry with new harvesting, processing, and marketing 

options for small-diameter thinning, as it adapts to new, 

smaller, and lower valued resources. New approaches to 

small-diameter tree utilization are being developed and 

pilot tested, creating jobs while improving watershed 

health. These approaches include log sort yards, new 

wood products, new processes and uses, eco-industrial 

parks, and utilization conferences. FPC&R provides advice, gives technical information, and connects people 

through networks to lay the groundwork for fostering 

sustainable use of forests to promote economic development and a quality environment. There is substantial 

need for utilization and marketing expertise offered 

through the FPC&R network.

Wood in transportation—Approximately 30 percent 

of the 589,000 highway bridges across the nation need 

repair or replacement. The Wood In Transportation 

(WIT) program addresses this need by stimulating and 

expanding markets for wood in transportation applications. This includes highway and pedestrian bridges, 

sound barriers, signs, and railway and water transportation structures. WIT promotes development of markets 

that provide opportunities for businesses willing to 

process low-value and/or underutilized species made 

available through ecosystem restoration and maintenance activities. It provides simultaneous benefits to 

rural communities through a flexible mechanism for upgrading and maintaining rural transportation networks. 

WIT also advances forest health interests, such as increased utilization of eastern and western hardwoods, 

small diameter lodgepole and ponderosa pine in the 

Inland West, and western juniper and pinyon pine in the 

Southwest.

Pacific Northwest assistance

Through the Pacific Northwest Assistance (PNA) 

program and Jobs-in-the-Woods program, the Forest 

Service provides funds to rural areas experiencing acute 

financial problems, enabling them to diversify their 

economies. These programs are available to areas in 

western Washington, Oregon, and northern California 

that fall within the range of the northern spotted owl. The 

National Forest System funds the Jobs-in-the-Woods 

program, while State and Private Forestry provides 

coordination. The PNA program helps communities in 

the Pacific Northwest adversely affected by reduced 

Federal timber harvests to diversify and strengthen their 

economies by developing value-added wood products 

manufacturing enterprises and adopting short-range and 

long-range economic diversification strategies.

For the most part, community assistance work in the 

Pacific Northwest is a focused delivery of the National 

Economic Action program. Exceptions are Jobs-in-theWoods and the Old Growth Diversification account. 

Jobs-in-the-Woods is designed to assist displaced woods 

workers by offering training and employment in ecosystem restoration. Partnerships provide much of the 

training and the bulk of restoration work, though not 

all of it, occurs on National Forest System lands. Old 

Growth Diversification consists of revolving loan funds 

endowed by Forest Service appropriations and administered by three affected states—Washington, Oregon, and 

California. Unlike other Forest Service rural community 

assistance funding, the Old Growth account provides 

direct funding to businesses. For example, Old Growth 

funded activities recruit light manufacturers, assist timber mill conversion from large diameter to small diameter feedstock, provide marketing assistance, and find 

value-adding opportunities for existing businesses.

Urban and Community Forestry

Urbanization is having a profound effect on natural 

resources and the quality of people’s lives and health. 

Approximately 80 percent of the U.S. population lives 

in urban areas and these people are more and more removed from the values of resource stewardship and a 

relationship with the dynamic ecosystems they live in. 

Their communities’ vitality is strongly dependent on 

the quality of their natural environments. Urban pressures and influences across the landscape are common 

problems affecting urban environments, livability of 

communities, and people within them. Managing and 

addressing these pressures requires a comprehensive 

approach to avoid continued deterioration of our natural 

resources and environments. The USDA Forest Service 

and state forestry agencies, in partnership with national 

and local organizations, cooperate to provide that comprehensive approach in caring for trees and forests 

where people live, work, and play.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 41

The Urban and Community Forestry program protects America’s natural resources by providing technical 

and financial assistance to state and local governments. 

This offers them significant opportunity to improve 

the quality of life for town and city residents. There is 

a nationwide emphasis on maintaining, restoring, and 

improving the livability of urban areas through management of natural resources. The program also links an 

array of governmental and private resources and grassroots organizations as they raise and address environmental issues at the local, regional, and national level. 

It engages people in citizen-based, grass roots volunteer 

efforts to secure in-kind and financial support for community-based activities.

 Annually, more than 10,000 communities and 7,000 

volunteer organizations receive assistance in assessing, 

retaining, and protecting their natural environment as 

they experience land use changes and economic development. Planning, demonstration projects, and technical 

assistance to maintain, restore, and improve the health 

of trees, forests, and urban parks are primary focuses of 

the Urban and Community Forestry program.

This program helps people in urban areas and community settings sustain shade trees, forest lands, and 

open spaces, and addresses stewardship of urban natural 

resources. Important connections exist between quality 

of life in metropolitan areas and land consumption associated with urban sprawl. In addition, there is a strong 

economic case for conserving green open space to guide 

growth and revitalize city centers and older suburbs. 

The Urban and Community Forestry program responds 

to these needs by maintaining, restoring, and improving the health of urban trees, forests, and greenspaces. 

Through these efforts, the program promotes creation of 

healthier, more livable urban environments across the 

nation. The program will continue expanding partnerships with nongovernmental organizations to restore 

natural resources in older, declining cities and towns.

The Urban and Community Forestry program addresses issues linked to national policy for the natural 

environment in 45,000 communities and metropolitan 

areas where most of the nation’s population live and 

work. Program outcomes help maintain and restore 

landscape character and sense of place, while also improving environmental quality, livability, and associated 

human and economic health of communities. The Urban 

and Community Forestry program enhances health and 

sustainable management of the nation’s urban forests 

and related economies through partnership with state 

and local organizations.

This program assists selected cities, towns, and communities to assess, retain, and protect their natural environment as they experience economic development and 

land use changes (urbanization). It also demonstrates 

the importance of maintaining, restoring, and improving 

tree, forest, and natural resource health in older, more 

Managed urban pine stand.
42 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

mature cities and towns. Planning, demonstration projects, and technical assistance activities assure retention 

and placement of trees, forests, urban park, greenspace, 

and related vegetation for (1) mitigating air, water, soil, 

and noise pollution; (2) reducing energy use; (3) mitigating heat island effects and stormwater flooding in builtup environments; and (4) improving air quality. These 

activities focus on maintaining and enhancing the contribution of urban forests to watershed function, stormwater flood mitigation, and water quality maintanance 

and improvement.

Social environments improve with public awareness 

of the importance of trees and forests to cities and communities. To enhance people’s physical and psychological well-being, natural resources in urban environments 

need to be managed, protected, conserved, and restored. 

This is done by building local commitment and capacity 

to develop local legislation; by planning for open space, 

greenspace, disaster mitigation, and resource budgets; 

and by creating opportunities for citizen involvement in 

community activities leading to improved human mental and physical health.

The Urban and Community Forestry program provides national leadership in demonstrating and delivering GIS-based ecological assessment technologies and 

capacity-building grants to towns and cities. The numbers of requests for Federal assistance and grants exceed the capacity of the existing program by eightfold. 

Community grants are made available on a matching 

basis. Nearly four dollars of private funds donation and 

in-kind services match every Federal dollar expended in 

the program.

Communities receiving technical and financial assistance are rated annually on their level of participation relative to urban forestry. Ratings are as follows: 

Project Level, Formative Level, Developmental Level, 

and Sustaining Level. The goal is to eventually have all 

communities achieve the highest level of participation 

(Sustaining Level) with respect to care of trees and forests. A community achieves the Sustaining Level when 

it has developed a comprehensive management plan, 

demonstrated a citizen support base, and provided budget and staff to implement their comprehensive plan.

Community experiences and relationships developed by the Urban and Community Forestry program 

are powerful ways to increase the number of citizens 

involved and informed about resource issues. Program 

expectations include:

• Continued integration with all Cooperative Forestry programs, especially those dealing with community issues, 

to assure a balance of activities in urban settings and 

continued support for work in rural communities;

• Continued integration with all State and Private 

Forestry programs, such as the National Fire Plan, 

Cooperative Fire, Conservation Education, and Forest 

Health, with a new focus on issues in the wildland 

urban interface;

• Increased outreach to urban national forests to assist 

forest supervisors in dealing with land use pressures 

from expanding urban centers and rural community 

issues;

• Improved external awareness and communication 

with partner organizations, the Congress, and urban 

constituencies to be an information conduit about forest and natural resource management; and

• Enhanced program management, program delivery, financial and technical assistance, and communication.

The Urban and Community Forestry program emphasizes: (1) maintaining and improving water and air 

quality and mitigating stormwater flooding, air pollution, and urban heat island effects; (2) conducting 

resource assessments that inform local public policy 

and decisionmaking; (3) creating awareness and engaging citizens in active volunteer work to protect, 

establish, and care for trees, forests, and greenspace, as 

with the national campaign for people to “Bring Life to 

Your Community” through planting and caring for trees; 

(4) ensuring community greening efforts are technically 

sound, sustainable, and address issues such as invasive 

plants and pest management; and (5) linking and managing the nation’s “green” infrastructure by working with 

other partners to build more sustainable communities. 

Opportunities exist, through the Urban and Community 

Forestry program, to put people to work improving their 

communities through industrial land reclamation and urban forest restoration activities. The partnerships created 

and fostered by this program have the capacity to coordinate and manage efforts that will result in more vibrant 

and healthy communities across America.

Forest Health Management

The Forest Health Management program aims to 

maintain healthy, productive forest ecosystems by preventing, detecting, and suppressing damaging insects 

and diseases. It does this by coordinating and providing 

forest health protection, including (1) insect and disease 

management, across Federal, tribal, state, and private 

lands; and (2) safe and effective pesticide use by the 

Forest Service. The Forest Health Management program 

provides coordination when both Federal and nonFederal lands are threatened, and for reporting insect, 

disease, and forest health trends across all ownerships. It 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 43

also contributes to development and application of new 

and improved technologies for use in forest insect and 

disease survey, monitoring, technical assistance, and 

prevention and suppression activities. The Forest Health 

Management program has major components on both 

Federal and cooperative lands.

Federal lands

The Federal Lands component of Forest Health 

Management is conducted in conjunction with the 

National Forest System, other Federal agencies (including the Departments of Defense and Interior), and tribal 

governments. Its goal is to maximize Federal efficiency 

in carrying out a coordinated program of forest insect 

and disease detection, monitoring, evaluation, prevention, and suppression on forest land.

Surveys and technical assistance—The Forest Health 

Management program provides professional forest 

health assistance, including forest insect and disease detection surveys and evaluations, for all Federal lands and 

tribal governments. Forest health surveys are an important component and evaluate major pest problems: gypsy moth, hemlock woolly adelgid, and other pests in the 

East; dwarf mistletoe, mountain pine beetle, Douglas-fir 

beetle, Douglas-fir tussock moth, western spruce budworm, spruce beetle, and root disease in the West; and 

southern pine beetle, annosus root disease, and fusiform 

rust in the South. The Forest Health Management program also supplies technical information, advice, and 

related material to Federal land management agencies 

and states on various techniques available to maintain 

healthy forests. Technical assistance in forest insect 

and disease management is provided to state agencies 

which, in turn, assist private landowners as part of 

the Cooperative Forestry program. The Forest Health 

Management program furnishes national leadership 

and coordination for all Federal and cooperative forest 

insect and disease management activities in cooperation 

with other Federal land management agencies, tribal 

governments, and states. This program also reports insect and disease outbreaks and trends and forest health 

conditions nationwide. Finally, it provides technical assistance and coordination in the use of pesticides by the 

Forest Service.

Prevention and suppression—The Forest Health 

Management program promotes prevention and suppression of forest insects and diseases on all Federal 

Japanese ladybird beetle used for biological 

control of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar).

Forest insecticide spot treatment applied to 

prevent outbreaks of southern pine beetle 

(Dendroctonus frontalis) in a southeastern 

forest.
44 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

and tribal lands. Prevention and suppression strategies and 

projects are coordinated with state forestry, agriculture, and 

environmental protection agencies, along with the USDA 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service relative to 

eradication of introduced forest pests. Prevention and suppression projects protect trees and timber, watershed functions, wildlife habitat, and recreation values, and directly 

reduce wildfire risks associated with the buildup of hazardous woody fuel that occur without prevention and suppression activities. Forest Health Management also develops, 

improves, and demonstrates new technologies, materials, 

methods, and strategies to improve effectiveness and efficiency of forest pest management.

Cooperative lands

Forest Health Management sponsors a cooperative 

program with states and territorities to maximize Federal 

and state efficiency in accomplishing a coordinated program of forest insect and disease detection, monitoring, 

evaluation, prevention, and suppression on forest land. 

This program focuses on land owned by states, local 

governments, private organizations, and individuals.

Surveys and technical assistance—In cooperation 

with states, Forest Health Management surveys and 

evaluates insects and diseases. It also provides states 

and private landowners with technical assistance, training, and information needed to manage forest insects 

and diseases and maintain healthy forests. The program 

also collects information from state and private lands to 

report insect and disease outbreaks and trends, assess the 

health of all the nation’s forests, and to plan coordinated 

joint Federal and state pest management activities across 

mixed ownerships. Forest Health Management also 

furnishes Federal financial assistance to all 50 states, the 

District of Columbia, and current or former U.S. Trust 

Territories. Non-Federal forest acreage in a state is the 

primary basis for determining allocation of funds. The 

required minimum cost-share toward Federal funds is 

50 percent, but states actually contribute an average of 

$1.25 for each Federal dollar expended.

Prevention and suppression—The Forest Health 

Management program provides prevention and suppression for forest insects and diseases, as well as gypsy 

moth eradication on state and private lands. Prevention 

and suppression projects protect trees and timber, watershed functions, wildlife habitat, and recreation values, 

and directly reduce wildfire risks associated with buildup of hazardous woody fuel. This program also supplies 

financial assistance to state agencies for prevention and 

suppression on state and private lands based on the 

following cost-share rates: 25 percent on non-Federal 

public lands; 33 1/3 percent on private land holdings 

greater than 500 acres in size; and 50 percent on private 

land holding less than 500 acres in size. Finally, Forest 

Health Management supports production and distribution of GYPCHEK, the gypsy moth biological control 

virus used in environmentally sensitive areas.

Cooperative Fire Protection

The Cooperative Fire Protection program provides 

technical and financial assistance to state and local fire 

agencies to promote efficient wildland fire protection. 

Program activities focus on nationally important issues, 

such as protecting homes in the wildland/urban interface 

and reducing Federal wildfire suppression costs. The 

program aims to improve efficiency and effectiveness 

of wildland fire protection by providing assistance to 

states. Types of assistance include: training, information 

gathering and dissemination, technical expertise, coordination and equipment, and financial support for hazard 

mitigation. The program also offers assistance to states 

for emergency fire suppression when life and property are threatened during an extreme fire emergency. 

Activities in the Cooperative Fire Protection program 

are organized under state fire assistance and volunteer 

fire assistance.

State fire assistance

State Fire Assistance provides most of the funding to 

administer and carry out the Cooperative Fire Protection 

program. It also supplies financial assistance to states for 

accomplishing tasks agreed to in regional plans as being 

in the national interest.

The State Fire Assistance program provides baseline 

technical and financial assistance to states. Over a billion acres of state and private lands are under protection 

of state and local fire agencies. Much of this land is 

adjacent to Federal lands and part of the wildland/urban 

interface. Efforts supported through Cooperative Fire 

Protection have reduced the average annual acreage 

burned on state and private lands to about 3 million acres 

per year in the last half of the 20th Century, compared to 

an annual average of 36.5 million acres during the first 

half. The Forest Service cost-shares at a rate of at least 

50 percent of the state’s contribution. On average, each 

Federal dollar leverages significantly more than two dollars in state funds.

The State Fire Assistance program provides financial 

assistance, technical training, and equipment to ensure 

Federal, state, and local agencies can deliver a uniform and 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 45

coordinated suppression response to wildfire. This is an 

important goal of the Federal Wildland Fire Management 

Policy and Program Review, conducted to ensure Federal 

policies are uniform and programs are cooperative and 

consistent across the landscape. The Policy and Program 

Review emphasizes fire planning and training in wildland fire suppression tactics, and the “incident command system” used for all emergency response actions 

nationally. In addition, the State Fire Assistance program 

furnishes funds to the states for community-based mitigation activities. These activities include hazardous fuels 

mitigation, community hazard mitigation, and education 

programs, including FIREWISE and prevention topics.

Federal excess personal property—The Federal 

Excess Personal Property program enables the Forest 

Service to acquire and loan fire suppression equipment 

to state and local fire agencies at no cost to the state. This 

program recycles excess Federal equipment obtained 

from the military and other Federal agencies, including the Forest Service. Items are loaned to state forestry 

agencies for use in rural and wildland fire programs. 

States either use them directly or redistribute them to 

rural fire departments. Loaned items remain the property of the Federal government with the Forest Service 

retaining title. Some items may be usable as is, while others may require extensive reconditioning or modification. 

Conversion of an excess military truck chassis for use as a 

fire truck is typical. Since the program was implemented 

state and local fire agencies have received Federal excess 

personal property valued at over a billion dollars.

Federal disaster assistance—This program provides 

assistance to the states for emergency fire suppression 

when life and property are threatened during an extreme 

fire emergency. The program is administered and funded by the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency (FEMA). Usually, 

Cooperative Fire Protection personnel, acting 

as principal advisors, serve in a technical, advisory capacity to FEMA during emergency 

situations.

Smokey Bear—This program serves the 

needs of Federal, state, and local governments 

engaged in wildland fire prevention. It is a 

public awareness program with a simple message appealing to a broad audience — “Only 

You Can Prevent Forest Fires.” The message 

may take many forms often aimed at youth.

Wildland/urban interface fire protection 

initiative—Beginning early in 1986, the 

Forest Service forged a partnership with other 

Federal agencies, the National Fire Protection 

Association, and the National Association of 

State Foresters to tackle the growing wildfire threat in 

the wildland/urban interface. The intent is to reduce the 

potential fire hazard associated with increasing numbers 

of homes in areas where forest and homes intermingle. 

As population and the desire to live in natural settings 

have increased, so has fire threat. The program seeks 

to educate the public about the problem, stimulate 

state and local governments to implement mitigation 

measures, and provide professional expertise, helping 

create a more fire-safe environment. An example is 

FIREWISE, a tool that assists communities, planners, 

insurance agencies, and others to mitigate losses to a 

community from wildland fire. Through presentations 

and workshop tools, such as fire mapping and wildfire simulations, about 1,000 community leaders and 

professionals, from 45 states and over 500 communities, have learned firsthand the complexities involved in 

building communities and citizens that are prepared for 

the effects of unwanted wildland fire.

Fire prevention—The Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention program provides a nationwide fire prevention 

program. Activities include public service advertising, 

educational and special prevention activities, licensing 

awards, corporate partnerships, and cooperation with 

other organizations to deliver the wildland fire prevention message. Both the Smokey Bear program and the 

Wildland/Urban Interface Fire Protection Initiative are 

major components of fire prevention, by helping to prevent fire starts in all areas of the forest and wildlands. 

Little can be done to reduce natural causes such as lightning ignitions; however, most fires are person caused, 

and a large part of them are arson related. Efforts are 

directed at identifying causes and developing efforts to 
46 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

reduce person-caused fires. All the described programs 

aim to improve the states’ ability to manage their fire 

problems. Fire protection on state and private land is 

basically a state or local responsibility. However, when 

state or local protection is inadequate, the Federal government is frequently called to assist. A Federal role is 

often necessary to efficiently transfer the latest technology, coordinate and encourage interstate cooperation, 

assess national trends, and disseminate information 

efficiently. It is also in the Federal government’s best 

interest to have reliable firefighting forces available for 

extreme situations where Federal forces are not adequate. This is necessary because of the variability in fire 

seasons. It is efficient for all emergency organizations to 

plan for the norm, but to rely on outside cooperation and 

assistance when circumstances dictate.

Volunteer fire assistance

The Volunteer Fire Assistance program provides 

technical and financial assistance through states, to local 

firefighting organizations for protecting over a billion 

acres of state and private lands. The program targets 

volunteer fire departments that protect communities 

with populations of less than 10,000.

Local fire agencies are often the first line of defense 

in meeting expanded protection needs for wildland/

urban interface areas threatened by wildfire. Of more 

than 35,000 local fire agencies nationwide, three-fourths 

are volunteer organizations. These volunteer fire departments protect almost half the United States population. 

The value of the service provided by volunteer firefighting organizations is estimated to exceed $36 billion 

annually.

The Volunteer Fire Assistance program supports local fire suppression efforts by providing grants, training 

programs, and technical assistance. On average, nearly 

2,500 volunteer fire departments receive assistance 

through the program each year. The Forest Service 

grants funds to states, which cost-share with communities to leverage the value of the Federal investment and 

multiply results. The Volunteer Fire Assistance program 

promotes safe and effective initial attack by volunteer 

fire departments in wildland/urban interface areas. 

Assistance focuses on training, equipping, and organizing volunteer fire departments.

Fire and Aviation Management

The Fire and Aviation Management program protects 

life, property, and natural resources on 192 million 

acres of National Forest System lands. An additional 20 

million acres of adjacent state, private, and other Federal 

lands are protected through fees or reciprocal protection agreements. Wildland fire management activities 

are conducted with the highest regard for firefighter and 

public safety. The Fire and Aviation Management program includes:

• Wildland fire preparedness activities on National 

Forest System and cooperative lands;

• Emergency wildland fire suppression on or adjacent to 

National Forest System lands or other lands under fire 

protection agreement;

• Hazardous fuel treatment;

• Support to Federal emergency response; and

• Emergency rehabilitation of burned-over National 

Forest System lands and affected water.

This program is guided by the principles and policies 

of the 1995 Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy 

and Program Review, updated in 2001. Ten principles are 

fundamental to the success of wildland fire management:

• The role of wildland fire as an essential ecological 

process and natural change agent will be incorporated 

into the land planning process.

• Fire management programs, plans, and activities support land and resource management plans and their 

implementation.

• Sound risk management is a foundation for all fire 

management activities.

• Firefighter and public safety is the first priority in every fire management activity.

• Fire management programs are economically viable, 

based upon values to be protected, costs, and land and 

resource management objectives.

• Fire management organizational needs are based on 

formal economic analysis of historical fire occurrence 

and workload to meet local protection needs.

• Fire management plans and activities are based upon 

the best available science.

• Fire management plans and activities incorporate public health and environmental quality considerations.

• Federal, state, tribal, and local interagency coordination and cooperation are essential.

• Standardization of policies and procedures among 

Federal agencies is an ongoing objective.

Fire and Aviation Management personnel have a 

large and complicated cooperative assistance role in the 

wildland fire suppression program. At every administrative level in the Forest Service, cooperative agreements 

exist that allow mutual and reciprocal assistance during 

wildland fire incidents. Agencies with wildland fire 

suppression responsibility realize that no agency, alone, 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 47

can respond adequately to all of the problems associated 

with wildland fire occurrence. As a result, agencies have 

developed cooperative assistance agreements and organized into centralized coordination centers that move 

firefighters and equipment where needed. These centers 

are situated locally, regionally (geographic area coordination centers), and nationally (the National Interagency 

Fire Center in Boise, ID). The principal mission of these 

coordination centers is cost effective and timely coordination of land management agency emergency response 

to wildland fire and other emergencies.

Five Federal land management agencies (Forest 

Service, USDI Bureau of Land Management, USDI 

National Park Service, USDI Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

and USDI Fish and Wildlife Service) and all 50 states 

have adopted common terminology, procedures, and 

practices that allow rapid and coordinated response 

to emergency situations. There are also agreements in 

place with the Department of Defense, National Guard 

units, Canada, and Mexico to cover other cooperative 

assistance and emergency situations affecting them. 

The National Wildfire Coordination Group, consisting 

of representatives of all Federal and state fire agencies, 

is responsible for developing and maintaining the wildland fire qualifications system, the incident command 

system, and training systems. The National Advanced 

Resource Technology Center, in Marana, Arizona, is an 

interagency center devoted to ensuring that all agencies 

receive consistent and high quality training in advanced 

wildland fire management.

The explosive nature of forest fires in recent years 

is a national concern. In August 2000, the President 

asked the Secretaries of the Departments of Agriculture 

and Interior to prepare a report recommending how to 

respond to severe ongoing fire activity, reduce impacts 

of fires on rural communities and the environment, and 

ensure sufficient firefighting resources in the future. The 

report, officially titled Managing the Impacts of Wildfire 

on Communities and the Environment: A Report to the 

President in Response to the Wildfires of 2000, became 

known as the National Fire Plan (NFP). The NFP laid the 

foundation for a long-term program of work to reduce 

fire risk and consequences of severe wildland fires, and 

restore healthy fire-adapted ecosystems in the nation’s 

forests and rangelands. The NFP recognizes the need to 

invest in long-term solutions to the buildup of excessive 

hazardous fuels (combustible vegetation) that threaten 

lives, property, and resources. Agencies also recognize 

the need to restore ecosystems and return fire to its 

natural role in the environment, keep firefighters and the 

public safe, and protect critical natural resources. NFP 

accomplishments are measured in terms of additional 

firefighters hired and additional firefighting resources 

made available, additional fire-related research, hazardous fuels reduction, and rehabilitation and restoration 

projects completed.

Within this backdrop of policies and priorities, Fire 

and Aviation Management is organized around two 

broad program areas—Fire Preparedness and Fire 

Operations.

Fire preparedness

Fire Preparedness activities provide capability for 

the fire management organization to prevent, detect, 

and take prompt, effective initial attack suppression 

action on wildland fires. Preparedness activities include 

those associated with planning, prevention, detection, 

information and education, pre-incident training, equipment and supply purchase and replacement, and other 

preparedness activities. The Forest Service also helps 

other Federal agencies and states through cooperative 

agreements that provide for exchange of personnel 

and equipment during emergencies, training programs, 

planning assistance, joint use equipment contracts, and 

operation of interagency fire coordination centers. Fire 

Preparedness activities range from fire planning, to fire 

prevention and detection, to initial attack on wildfires, 

and include aviation management and allocation of national resources.

Fire management planning—The size and composition of the Fire Preparedness organizations on national 

forests are identified through an economics-based planning tool. The National Fire Management Analysis 

System (NFMAS) is an analytical tool used to identify 

the most economically efficient fire management organization. Building on the knowledge that fire suppression 
48 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

costs are influenced by prevention, detection, and initial 

attack capabilities, NFMAS identifies the most efficient 

initial attack organization by projecting estimated fire 

suppression costs and changes in natural resource values for a range of organizations associated with different funding levels. Changes in resource values reflect 

damages incurred as a result of wildfires and the benefits 

of the residual forest, such as improved wildlife habitat. 

Analysis is based on historic data and economic efficiency principles. The NFMAS model helps develop 

the most efficient level of funding for the national fire 

management organization. The resulting appropriated 

budget is then allocated strategically among national, regional, and local units, using a benefit-cost optimization 

process. The preparedness allocation also funds national 

resources, such as the air tanker fleet and interagency 

hotshot crews. These resources are primarily used to 

support large escaped wildland fires.

Fire prevention—The fire prevention program seeks 

to minimize occurrence of human-caused wildland 

fire. Major elements within this program are public 

education (the Smokey Bear program and public service messages), law enforcement (industrial equipment 

operations schedules and inspections), and cooperative 

relationships (National Association of State Foresters 

and FIREWISE). Prevention activities also include 

restricting forest access in times of critical fire danger, 

limiting prescribed fires, restricting use of logging or 

other equipment, law enforcement, distributing educational literature, and personal contacts with visitors to 

National Forest System lands.

As more people choose to build homes, operate businesses, and recreate in areas where wildlands border 

urban areas, the threat to private property from wildland 

fire increases. Creating “defensible” or “survivable” 

space around structures can make the difference between returning to an intact home or a smoldering pile 

of ashes if a wildfire moves through the area.

Neither wildland firefighting agencies nor local fire 

departments can adequately protect the growing number 

of structures in interface areas. It is critical that private 

landowners take their own steps to protect their property. Many resources are now available to assist property 

owners, including a number of Web sites with excellent 

information on fire-resistant building materials, landscaping techniques, evacuation procedures, and so forth.

Fire detection—Fire detection comes from many different sources. The Forest Service maintains a network 

of fixed fire lookouts, contracts for aerial observation 

planes, and relies upon forest workers and visitors to 

locate newly occurring wildland fires. Early detection is 

a key element in controlling fire suppression expenses.

Initial attack—Initial attack refers to first response to 

a wildland fire occurrence. The Forest Service maintains 

an initial attack force of personnel and equipment, ready 

to deal with human- and lightning-caused wildland fire. 

The firefighter’s primary job is to safely manage the occurrence of wildland fire. They use the principles in local 

land management and fire management plans to develop 

suppression strategies and tactics. These strategies and 

tactics range from aggressive attack to monitoring an 

occurrence that is providing ecological benefits.

Firefighting forces are mobilized in many configurations. Some firefighters are part of a hand crew or engine 

crew, some are assigned as part of a helicopter crew, and 

others are delivered from the air as smokejumpers or helicopter rappellers. While the primary mission of these 

firefighters is aimed at local wildland fire occurrence, 

they can also be called upon to support large mobilizations of personnel and equipment to fires anywhere in 

the country that have escaped initial attack, are threatening public safety and health, or are destructive to natural 

resources.

If they are not engaged in suppression activities, 

firefighters perform many tasks that contribute to the 

agency program. These tasks include recreation trail 

construction and maintenance, hazardous fuel reduction, building maintenance, and other forest management work.

Aviation management—The USDA Forest Service 

uses aircraft for a wide variety of missions, including 

operational personnel transport, research, forest rehabilitation, law enforcement support, aerial photography, 

infrared detection, and fire prevention and suppression. 

As of 2002, the Forest Service owns and operates 44 

aircraft and annually contracts over 800 aircraft, fixed 

wing and helicopter. Aviation Management’s primary 

mission is to support the ground firefighter through a variety of means, including safe delivery of smokejumpers 

and rappellers, air attack, firefighter and cargo transport, 

surveillance, aerial reconnaissance and fire intelligence 

gathering, and aerial delivery of fire retardant and water. 

Other specialized tasks are performed using airplanes 

and helicopters. Aircraft are used to locate and map 

fires, both ocularly and with infrared sensors, transporting cargo and personnel, and directing fire operation.

National resources—Some wildland suppression personnel and equipment are maintained and positioned as 

a supplement to local initial attack forces and as support 

to suppression of large fires. These resources are designated “national resources.” As of 2002, national resources include a set of suppression equipment warehouses, 

a contract fleet of 44 retardant airtankers, 7 helicopters, 

65 interagency suppression crews, 277 smokejumpers 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 49

with support aircraft, and 2 aircraft with infrared sensor 

capability.

Fire operations

Fire Operations provide resources to (1) efficiently 

suppress wildland fires on or threatening National Forest 

System lands or other lands under a fire protection 

agreement, (2) rehabilitate burned-over National Forest 

System lands, and (3) reduce hazardous fuels. Some 

wildfires are “used” or managed to achieve resource 

benefits, depending on local planning and conditions.

Suppression operations—The suppression element 

within the Fire Operations program provides the direct 

support required to efficiently suppress wildland fires 

on or threatening National Forest System lands or other 

lands under a fire protection agreement. Suppression 

operations are also called extended attack, meaning 

suppression actions on fires that have escaped initial 

attack. Fire suppression activities are conducted with 

the highest regard for firefighter and public safety. Nonfire emergency management activities are conducted in 

support of the Federal Emergency Management Agency 

through Forest Service participation in the Federal 

Response Plan and other activities authorized by the 

Stafford Act of 1998 (P.L. 93-288 as amended).

Suppression of wildland fires burning on, or threatening, National Forest System land is a major hazardous 

program that varies in size from year to year. Fires are 

suppressed by ground and air attack. Ground attack 

includes use of hand crews, engines, and other mechanized equipment. Air attack includes smokejumpers, 

helicopters, air tankers, and other specialized aircraft for 

detection, surveillance, and transportation. Because of 

variability in fire conditions and firefighting costs from 

year to year, suppression expenditures above the appropriated level are financed by supplemental appropriations. Specialized tasks are performed using airplanes 

and helicopters. Aircraft locate and map fires visually 

and through infrared sensors, transport cargo and personnel, direct fire operation, and apply fire retardant.

Wildland fire respects neither political nor social boundaries. To mitigate the effects of this, Fire 

Operations leaders have developed a comprehensive 

system of interagency cooperation. A series of 11 interagency geographic area coordination centers and one 

national center are staffed throughout the year. Their 

mission is the cost effective and timely coordination of 

land management agency emergency response to wildland fire and other emergencies. By agreement, agencies share personnel and equipment during emergency 

response so that response actions are accomplished in a 

timely, efficient, and cost-effective manner.

Burned area emergency rehabilitation—Wildland fires 

often create situations that endanger natural resources, 

life, and property. Burned area emergency rehabilitation 

(BAER) projects may be needed to prevent or minimize 

threats to life and property, erosion and loss of soil productivity, deterioration of water quality, downstream 

damage, changes to ecosystem structure and function 

Log grid constructed for soil erosion control in burned area emergency rehabilitatioin (BAER) project.
50 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

(establishment of nonnative invasive species), or degradation of critical cultural and natural resources. Action 

must be quickly taken to minimize the consequences of 

a severe wildland fire. Trained specialists are assigned 

to large burns to survey, plan, implement, monitor, and 

maintain rehabilitation treatments. BAER project treatment options include seeding grasses, planting trees, and 

installing contour-felled logs. Rehabilitation measures 

can be expensive but constitute only about 5 percent of 

total suppression cost. Nonemergency replacement of 

fire damaged facilities and resources are programmed 

and budgeted through normal procedures.

Hazardous fuels reduction—Fire occurrence, fire behavior, damage from fire, and fire suppression costs can 

often be significantly influenced by managing natural 

fuels. The hazardous fuels program reduces the potential for large, destructive wildland fires by efficiently 

decreasing the volume of hazardous woody fuels in the 

forest and wildland-urban interface. Program activities 

plan, implement, and support fuel management, including inventory of hazardous fuels, analysis of treatment 

alternatives, determination and application of appropriate fuel treatment methods, and monitoring and evaluation of fuel treatment accomplishments.

Periodic applications of fire to landscapes, using 

wildland or prescribed fire, play a key role in restoring 

and maintaining fire-adapted ecosystems. The prolonged absence of fire and success of wildland fire 

suppression efforts have changed the characteristics 

of natural fire regimes in many ecosystems. Most notable are increased intervals between natural fires and 

an associated increase in fire behavior due to accumulation of fuels. These fuel accumulations, coupled with 

periods of drought and damage from insects and diseases, have created the conditions and potential for 

catastrophic wildfires in many areas across the country. 

Catastrophic wildfires compromise forest health and 

sustainable natural resource outputs. They also create a 

high risk to firefighters and public safety and health, as 

well as property loss and reduction in resource values.

Fuel treatment methods include prescribed fire, wildland fire managed for resource benefits, mechanical 

treatment, and chemical treatment. Program activities 

focus on high priority areas of fire-adapted ecosystems 

where risk of wildland fire and long-term damage to natural resources can be reduced through fuel treatment. The 

principal objectives of hazardous fuel treatment are to:

• Develop and implement a program of mechanical 

fuel reduction, wildland fire, and prescribed fire applications that reduce fuel loads and fire intensities. 

Reducing fuel loads will result in increased firefighter 

and public safety, improved property protection, 

lower suppression costs, reduced impacts of smoke 

production, and increased forest and range health.

• Manage wildland fires, under specific planned conditions, to achieve land and resource management 

objectives.

• Conduct the fuels reduction program in a manner consistent with legal authorities and land management 

objectives.

• Integrate hazardous fuels activities with the Cooperative 

Fire Protection program, particularly with respect to 

hazards in the wildland-urban interface area.

• Additional program objectives include increased use 

of excess woody material for fiber and energy production, improved water quality and yield, increased productivity of reforestation sites, improved recreation 

opportunities, increased grazing opportunities, and 

restoration and maintenance of fire-adapted ecosystems.

Fire use—Fire use is a major program element of 

Fire and Aviation Management. The program includes 

a combination of wildland fire use opportunities and 

prescribed fire applications to meet natural resource 

objectives. For centuries lightning-caused fires have 

created plant diversity, such as a mixture of wildlife 

habitats, while eliminating heavy fuel accumulation. 

Wildland fires are a fact of life and a natural component 

of ecosystems. Wildland fire use means http://

www.fs.fed.us/fire/fire_new/fireuse/wildland_fire_use/

use_index.html managing naturally ignited wildland fires to accomplish specific, prestated resource 

management objectives in predefined geographic areas, as outlined in fire management plans. Wildland 

fire use can manage fires so they burn in a natural way, 

providing benefits to other resources, and burning until fall rain or snow put them out. Prescribed fires 

http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/fire_new/fireuse/rxfire/rx_

index.html are fires ignited by management actions 

to meet specific objectives. A written, line-officer-approved prescribed burn plan must exist, and National 

Environmental Protection Act requirements must be 

satisfied prior to prescribed fire ignition.

Administration and Organization

The Deputy Chief for State and Private Forestry 

is responsible for formulating and administrating cooperative programs at the national level. The Deputy 

Chief also coordinates with other agencies in the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, states, tribes, and other 

agencies and organizations.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 51

State and Private Forestry field programs are administered through the director of Northeastern Area State 

and Private Forestry located in Newtown Square, PA; the 

director of the International Institute of Tropical Forestry 

located in Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico; and regional foresters 

located at Forest Service regional offices in Juneau, AK; 

Missoula, MT; Vallejo, CA; Lakewood, CO; Portland, OR; 

Albuquerque, NM; Atlanta, GA; and Ogden, UT.

Relationships

More than any other area of the Forest Service, State 

and Private Forestry requires relationships with other 

units to accomplish its mission. In some cases, the relationship is a critical means to accomplish an end, as 

with agencies sharing firefighting resources. In other 

cases, the relationship is the end, as with coordination 

and liaison roles.

Other Forest Service programs

State and Private Forestry programs are closely integrated with Forest Service Research and Development, 

serving as an important link with state and Federal 

forestry agencies, industry, and nonindustrial private 

forest landowners in the transfer of technology from researchers to users of new knowledge. State and Private 

Forestry personnel participate with research scientists and user groups in selection of research projects, 

planning research, and inventorying and monitoring forest resources. Fire and Aviation Management also has 

a close relationship with the research function of the 

Forest Service. Each year, scientists undertake numerous research and development projects with a direct tie 

to Fire and Aviation Management concerns. In recent 

years, Congress has appropriated funds for the Joint 

Fire Sciences Program. Under this program, managers from the Department of the Interior, Forest Service, 

and research community select research and development projects with a direct benefit to Fire and Aviation 

Management. There are also two fire research labs that 

focus entirely on fire management—Riverside, CA, and 

Missoula, MT.

State and Private Forestry programs similarly have 

direct impacts on the protection and management of 

national forests and grasslands that are typically interspersed with or adjacent to private or other non-Federal 

lands. Cooperative Fire Protection programs are essential to protecting many lands, including National Forest 

System lands through reciprocal wildland fire protection agreements and close working relationships. Forest 

Health Protection programs help protect National Forest 

System lands from damaging forest insects, diseases, 

and noxious weeds. Through economic assistance programs, State and Private Forestry works closely with the 

National Forest System to enhance economic well-being of forest-dependant rural communities. Finally, Fire 

and Aviation Management helps support technology and 

development centers located at Missoula, MT, and San 

Dimas, CA. The Director of Engineering administers 

the centers. Center managers study and enhance existing 

equipment and systems and develop new equipment for 

wildland fire suppression.

State and Private Forestry programs are integrated 

into International Forestry programs where they cooperate 

to develop strategies to prevent introduction of exotic pests 

posing threats to the nation’s rural and urban forests.

Other Federal agencies

Excess property—The Forest Service coordinates the 

Federal Excess Personal Property Program through the 

Director of Fire and Aviation Management. This program 

allows the Forest Service to acquire excess property from 

other Federal agencies and loan it to states needing equipment to support wildland fire suppression operations. For 

example, an excess truck might become a piece of firefighting equipment. This equipment remains Federal property 

and is subject to periodic inventory review.

Federal response plan—Fire and Aviation Management coordinates Forest Service participation in the 

Federal Response Plan. When needed, the Federal 

government furnishes state and local governments with 

necessary personnel, technical assistance, equipment, 

and other resources to provide effective disaster response. 

Over two-dozen Federal departments and agencies, along 

with the Red Cross, work through the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency to provide necessary support, recovery programs, and mitigation assistance.

National Fire Protection Administration—

Representatives from Fire and Aviation Management 

participate on National Fire Protection Administration 

(NFPA) committees that work to reduce the burden of 

fire and other hazards on quality of life. The committees provide scientifically based codes and standards, 

research, training, and education to meet NFPA goals.

Aircraft Services— The USDI Office of Aircraft 

Services (OAS) is chartered to raise safety standards, 

increase aircraft efficiency, and promote economical 

operation of aircraft. OAS works with other Federal 

and state entities to meet these goals. The Forest Service 

partners with OAS to create a coordinated and nonconflicting aviation management program.
52 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service—State 

and Private Forestry cooperates with the USDA Animal 

and Plant Health Inspection Service in the early detection, quarantine, and eradication of nonnative pests, 

such as the Asian long-horned beetle and gypsy moth, 

that pose a threat to the health of the nation’s forests.

Department of Defense—State and Private Forestry 

provides technical and financial assistance to help protect Department of Defense facilities in the states from 

forest insects and diseases. Assistance is also provided 

to the Army Corps of Engineers.

Department of the Interior—State and Private 

Forestry provides technical and financial assistance to 

help protect lands administered by the Department of 

the Interior, including the National Park Service, the 

Bureau of Land Management, and tribal lands through 

the Bureau of Indian Affairs. This assistance helps 

protect lands from forest insects and diseases that pose 

significant threats to forest resources. In addition, State 

and Private Forestry works closely with various agencies in the Department of the Interior to protect all lands 

from wildland fires.

Others—State and Private Forestry coordinates with 

various Federal agencies on numerous programs aimed 

at improving conservation of the nation’s natural resources. These programs focus on forestry incentives, 

environmental quality incentives, small watersheds, 

conservation reserves, resource conservation and 

development, wetland reserves, wildlife habitat incentives, agroforestry, and pesticide-use management and 

coordination.

Other programs

State forestry agencies and other non-Federal partners—State Foresters, or equivalent state officials, are 

the primary partners for State and Private Forestry 

programs. The National Association of State Foresters 

and Forest Service work together to protect the nation’s 

forests from harmful insects, diseases, and wildland fire. 

Through technical advice, focused financial assistance, 

and conservation education, Federal resources are partnered to help bring forestry to all land managers, whether 

small woodlot owners, urban and community foresters, 

tribal foresters, state agencies, or Federal managers, in 

efficient and nonregulatory ways. Special partnerships 

with other agencies, nongovernmental organizations, 

and others help improve sustainability of the nation’s rural and urban forests, as well as livability and economic 

well-being of communities and cities.

Fire prevention—Wildland fire prevention is a key 

part of the Federal and State Fire Management program. 

The Forest Service works with many agencies and 

organizations to promote the fire prevention message. 

Smokey Bear is a universally recognized symbol, and 

his message protected by a coalition of Federal and state 

agencies. These agencies work with the Ad Council to 

produce public service announcements related to wildland fire prevention. Another successful prevention 

program is FIREWISE. This program helps educate 

homeowners and business operators about fire-safe 

practices when living and working in the wildland-urban 

interface. FIREWISE members include Federal, state, 

and local fire professionals as well as representatives 

from retail, banking, insurance, chamber of commerce, 

civic, and other community organizations.

Research and Development

Forest Service Research and Development (R&D) 

is one of the world’s leading forestry research organizations, conducting and sponsoring basic and applied 

scientific research. This research provides both credible 

and relevant knowledge about forests and rangelands 

and exciting new technologies that can be used to sustain the health, productivity, and diversity of private and 

public lands to meet the needs of present and future 

generations.

The mission of Forest Service R&D focuses on the 

contribution of knowledge needed for the sustainable 

management of the nation’s forests and rangelands. 

Scientific information and new technologies increase 

the basic biological and physical knowledge of the 

composition, structure, and function of forest, rangeland, and aquatic ecosystems. Forest Service R&D is 

Federally mandated to provide new knowledge and 

technologies that will ensure sustainable natural resources for healthy watersheds, forest products, wildlife 

protection, recreation opportunities, and other benefits. 

In addition, Forest Service R&D is authorized to carry 

out research on an emergency basis when insects or 

disease-causing organisms impact conservation or environmental programs. The scope of the programs extends 

across all U.S. states and territories to Federal and nonFederal lands.

In order to meet the needs of public and private land 

managers, Forest Service R&D establishes priorities 

with input from Research Stations, National Forests, 

Congress, the Administration, and more. Research is 

prioritized according to (1) the nature and magnitude 

of current and anticipated problems and (2) information 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 53

required by managers for effective national resources 

management now and into the future. The scale of 

the problems and management needs differs between 

and among local, state, regional, national and even 

global levels. Research priorities are based on the Forest 

Service’s mission to provide leadership in management of natural resources, mandates from Congress, 

Executive Branch priorities, and comments and suggestions from customers and peers.

Authorization

Public research in forestry began 127 years ago, 

when an amendment was attached to the free-seed 

clause of the Appropriations Act of 1876. The amendment provided $2,000 in funding for a person with “approved attainment, who is practically well acquainted 

with methods of statistical inquery [sic], and who has 

evinced an intimate acquaintance with [forestry matters]...” This was the first Federal appropriation devoted to forestry.

Dr. Franklin B. Hough received a congressional appointment to undertake a study encompassing forest 

consumption, importation and exportation, national 

wants, probable supply for the future, the means of 

preservation and renewal, the influence of forests on 

climates, and forestry methods used in other countries. 

Thus, a new governmental “organization” was formed 

that consisted solely of Hough, the organization’s first 

forestry agent, and later its chief.

In 1883, Nathaniel H. Egleston replaced Hough 

and served until 1886, when Dr. Bernhard E. Fernow 

replaced him. As Chief of the Division of Forestry, 

Fernow set up scientific research programs and initiated 

cooperative forestry projects with the States, including 

the planting of trees in the Great Plains. In 1886, the 

Division of Forestry was given permanent status as part 

of the Department of Agriculture. Fernow continued as 

Chief until 1898, when Gifford Pinchot replaced him.

Pinchot established a Section of Special Investigations 

(Research). By 1902, it was an agency division directed 

by Raphael Zon with 55 employees and accounting for 

one-third of the $185,000 agency budget. Zon proposed 

creation of forest experiment stations to decentralize 

research. The first experiment station was established 

in 1908 at Fort Valley on the Coconino National Forest, 

then part of the Arizona Territory. The Forest Products 

Laboratory was set up in 1910 in cooperation with the 

University of Wisconsin. Research’s importance to forest management was formalized in 1915 with the creation of a Branch of Research in the Forester’s Office 

(national headquarters), headed by Earle Clapp.

By the 1920s, the Forest Service had 12 regional research stations. Two notable pieces of legislation were 

passed in the 1920s. The Clarke-McNary Act of 1924 

included specific authorization for studies of problems 

in forest taxation and insurance of standing timber. The 

McSweeney-McNary Research Act of 1928 legitimized 

experiment stations, authorized broad-scale forest research, and provided appropriations. This act:

“Authorized and directed to conduct a comprehensive program of investigations to determine, 

demonstrate, and promulgate the best methods 

of reforestation and of growing, managing, and 

utilizing timber, forage, and other forest products, 

of maintaining favorable conditions of water flow 

and the prevention of erosion, of protecting timber 

and other forest growth from fire, insects, disease, 

or other harmful agencies, of obtaining the fullest 

and most effective use of forestlands, and to determine and promulgate the economic considerations 

which should underlie the establishment of sound 

policies for the management of forest lands and the 

utilization of forest products....”

The McSweeney-McNary Act also authorized a 

system of regional forest experiment stations, for 

cooperation with public and private agencies in the 

United States and abroad, and for receipt of cooperative contributions.

Further congressional direction of Forest Service 

research was incorporated in the Forest and Rangeland 

Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974, which 

provided for periodic assessments of all the renewable 

resources on America’s forests and rangelands, together 

with development of program alternatives for the conservation and development of these resources. Amending 

the 1974 Act, the National Forest Management Act of 

1976 contained further direction for studies related to 

forest and rangeland resources by including provisions 

for reports on opportunities for increasing use of fiber 

and wood wastes on National Forest lands. Several other 

acts provide authorities for Forest Service R&D:

Department of Agriculture Organic Act of 1944—

Section 703 provides authority to erect, alter, and repair 

buildings necessary to carry out authorized work.

Granger-Thye Act of April 24, 1950—provides authority for advancing funds to cooperators for cooperative research.

Research Grants Act of 1958—provides authority to 

make grants to nonprofit institutions and organizations, 

with title to equipment purchased with such grants being 

vested with the nonprofit organization or institution.
54 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

McIntire-Stennis Act of 1962—authorizes the Secretary 

of Agriculture to cooperate and assist State colleges and 

universities in forestry research and to update facilities 

and equipment, on a matching fund basis.

Research Facilities Act of 1963—authorizes support 

of agricultural research (including forestry) at eligible 

institutions through Federal grant funds, on a matching 

funds basis, to help finance physical facilities and equipment as required for the effective conduct of agricultural 

research and related academic programs.

Agricultural Grants and Powers Act of 1965—provides authority to erect buildings and structures on nonFederal land, if a long-term lease on the land is obtained, 

and to make competitive grants to eligible institutions, 

including grants for facility renovation and refurbishment.

Food and Agriculture Act of 1977—provides authority for increased cooperation and coordination with state 

and other user groups; authorizes international research 

and extension; designates the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture as the lead agency for agricultural research, 

extension, and teaching; and eliminates some restrictions on the cooperative agreements and cost reimbursable agreements.

International Forestry Cooperation Act of 1990—authorizes support for international forestry and related 

natural resource activities outside the United States and 

its territories and possessions with a focus on countries 

that could have a substantial impact on emissions of 

greenhouse gasses related to global warming.

Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 

1990—provides six authorities, including establishment 

of a Semiarid Agroforestry Research, Development, and 

Demonstration Center; an International Forest Products 

Trade Institute; an International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry; and an Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry.

In 1978, the Forest and Rangeland Renewable 

Resources Research Act replaced the McSweeneyMcNary Act of 1928 with a broader charter for research 

on forest and rangeland renewable resources in rural, 

suburban, and urban areas. The Act also incorporated related legislation applying to research grants and funding, 

provided guidance for the conduct of research programs, 

removed limitations on research appropriations, and authorized cooperative research in other countries. The 

1978 Act directs the Forest Service to conduct, support, 

and cooperate in investigations, experiments, tests, and 

other activities necessary to obtain, analyze, develop, 

demonstrate, and disseminate scientific information 

about establishing, protecting, managing, and utilizing 

forest and rangeland resources in rural, suburban, and urban areas. Research must include, but not be limited to:

• Protection research related to protecting forest and 

rangeland resources, threatened and endangered flora 

and fauna, and wood products from fires, insects, diseases, noxious plants, animals, and air pollutants.

• Analysis and assessment research to develop and apply scientific knowledge to make and keep current a 

comprehensive survey and analysis of the present and 

prospective requirements for renewable resources of 

forests and rangelands and the supplies of such renewable resources.

• Management research related to managing, reproducing, planting, and growing vegetation on forests and 

rangelands for timber, forage, water, fish and wildlife, 

aesthetics, recreation, wilderness, and energy production and conservation.

• Environmental research related to (1) understanding 

and managing surface and subsurface water flow; 

(2) preventing and controlling erosion; restoring damaged or disturbed soils; (3) maintaining and improving wildlife and fish habitats; managing vegetation to 

reduce air and water pollution; and (4) understanding, 

predicting, and modifying weather, climate, and other 

environmental conditions affecting protection and 

management of forest and rangelands.

• Utilization research related to harvesting, transporting, processing, marketing, and distributing wood 

and other materials derived from forest and rangeland 

renewable resources, including recycling and utilizing 

wood fiber, and testing forest products.

The 1978 Act was amended several times to authorize energy production and conservation research, 

international natural resource cooperation, and recycling research.

Within this substantial backdrop of legal and administrative authorizations, Forest Service Research and 

Development is organized nationally under four broad 

program areas:

• Forest Resources Inventory and Monitoring

• Resource Valuation and Use Research

• Vegetation Management and Protection Research

• Wildlife, Fish, Watershed, and Air Research

Forest Resources Inventory and Monitoring

Forest ecosystem inventory and monitoring is critical to maintaining the ecological, economic, and social 

sustainability of America’s forests. In absence of reliable 

information regarding forest status and trends, efforts to 

improve forest management and policy will be based on 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 55

guesswork, perceptions, and rhetoric. This area of research and development collects and analyzes data on 

the status, conditions, and trends of forest resources on 

both public and private lands, and provides results that 

characterize past, current, and future conditions to public 

and private land managers and other interested parties. 

Forest inventory and monitoring information is strongly desired by all parties with interests in forests: Federal 

and state lawmakers, land management officials, forestbased industries, environmental organizations, academic 

institutions and other research organizations, the media 

serving all of these interests, and the public. Everyone 

wants good information about forests.

The Forest Resources Inventory and Monitoring 

program supports these information needs through an 

integrated research program with three major components. Forest Inventory and Analysis reports on 

status and trends in the nation’s forested resources. 

Forest Health Monitoring conducts related research on 

forest health. Monitoring and Methods Research provides more basic research, developing new indicators 

and measures for forest assessment and linking those 

measures to responses observed through other agency 

monitoring programs.

Forest inventory and analysis

The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program 

provides the only continuous inventory that periodically 

quantifies the status of forest ecosystems, including 

timber and nontimber information, across all land ownerships in the United States. The FIA program is the 

nation’s forest census, reporting on forest ecosystem 

attributes including location, area, composition, and 

structure of forests; growth, mortality, and removals of 

trees; structure and distribution of nontree vegetation 

and woody debris; amount and types of wood products 

produced; and land ownership.

The FIA program is undergoing major changes required by the Agriculture Research, Extension, and 

Education Reform Act of 1998. These changes increased 

emphasis on state-Federal partnerships and cost sharing 

in order to deliver the full range of services called for 

in the legislation. Other changes include annualized 

inventory in all states; a five-year reporting of resource 

information in each state; development of nationally 

consistent data collection procedures for reliable multistate analysis; and development of enhanced remote 

sensing capabilities for improved spatial analysis.

The FIA program depends on internal and external 

partnerships. Internally, both National Forest System 

(NFS) and State and Private Forestry (S&PF) provide 

funds and staff to implement the program. NFS contributes resources to support implementation of FIA on all 

National Forest lands. S&PF contributes funds to support forest health related data collection and analysis. 

States and other external stakeholders have a strong 

self-interest in helping to fully implement the new legislative mandate. Some partners make direct contributions 

of funds or staff to collaborate in program implementation; other partners provide a range of in-kind services 

that facilitate or add value to program outputs.

Key customers of the FIA program include state 

and Federal forest policymakers, State Foresters, forest industry and consultants, environmental organizations, state and Federal land managers, researchers, 

journalists and media interests, and a large portion of the 

public who care about the status of America’s forests. 

All of these users rely in varying degrees on access to 

up- to-date, accurate data describing the current state 

of forested resources and their change over the past 

100 years. FIA is expanding the scope of data elements 

collected by incorporating measurements of soil, understory vegetation, woody debris, crown conditions, and 

lichen communities. These measures were developed by 

the Forest Health Monitoring program (see below) and 

are now being collected on a subsample of FIA plots. 

FIA is also entering into a partnership with the USDI 

Geological Survey to incorporate satellite imagery into 

our sample system, increase sampling efficiency, and 

develop new products.

Forest health monitoring

The Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) program is 

designed to report on status and trends in forest health. 

It consists of three phases: (1) a detection monitoring 

component comprised of ground and aerial sampling 

designed to detect changes in forest health; (2) an evaluation component designed to assess causes of changes in 

forest health and provide guidance for appropriate management activities; and (3) an intensive site monitoring 

component designed to develop quantitative linkages 

between observed changes in forest health parameters 

and the likely long term effects on forest health.

FHM is a partnership between Forest Service R&D 

and State and Private Forestry. R&D contributes primarily to the intensive site component of FHM, conducting 

research on development of new indicators and on the 

establishment of linkages between indicators and observed effects in forests. The FHM program formerly 

included a field plot program component, also funded in 

part by R&D; this component has now been merged into 

the FIA program. State and Private Forestry contributes 
56 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

almost $8 million and expertise in evaluation, monitoring, and forest health survey to the partnership.

Monitoring and methods research

Monitoring methods and applications research is 

needed to develop and test new techniques for understanding the role of biotic and abiotic agents and the 

impact of their interactions on forest ecosystems. New 

technology constantly provides new opportunities 

to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of forest 

monitoring programs. New questions posed by society 

constantly add to the list of information requirements, 

which we ask our Inventory and Monitoring programs to 

address. Land managers need to know how to interpret 

the results of monitoring activities and how to incorporate this information into their management practices.

Monitoring and Methods Research (MMR) addresses 

some of these needs. MMR consists of a wide array of 

small-scale research projects aimed at answering specific 

questions or developing techniques to address a specific 

monitoring need. These methods and technologies frequently require long-term studies where considerable 

research is needed to identify and correlate indicators 

that can assist in measuring the health, productivity, and 

sustainability of forest ecosystems. Examples of supported research include the application of high resolution satellite imagery for detecting outbreaks of insects, 

diseases, or invasive plants; development of habitat 

indicators needed to protect rare or threatened species; 

and development of air quality gradient models linked 

to lichen species community composition for monitoring 

changes in forest health. This research area also includes 

syntheses, through scientific conferences or publications, 

of existing state-of-the-art knowledge for monitoring 

forested ecosystems in order to make information more 

accessible to managers and other forestry practitioners.

Resource Valuation and Use Research

Meeting the needs of the nation’s increasing and 

diverse population requires better understanding of 

social and economic tradeoffs of various resource 

management use and policy options and the role of 

technology in changing these tradeoffs. Objective, 

science-based information and technology will:

• Provide comprehensive analysis of present and anticipated uses of, demand for, and supply of the renewable resources of the nation, with consideration of the 

international situation.

• Develop new information on the benefits of community and urban ecosystems, as well as information 

to improve protection of these ecosystems from fire, 

insect, and disease.

• Integrate social, economic, and biological factors to help 

examine the sustainability of the nation’s resources.

• Promote sustainability and conservation of forest 

resources through improved processing, design and 

treatment of products for durability, and recycling to 

reduce demand on natural resources.

• Develop environmentally and economically acceptable utilization systems for a range of biobased products, including bioenergy.

• Provide new data and information on recreation and 

cultural heritage.

Resource valuation and use research includes six 

areas of research, ranging from renewable resources 

economics research to forest products research and wilderness research.

Renewable resources economics

Efficient land use and management depend on knowledge of values associated with management inputs, 

resources, and outputs. To provide this knowledge, the 

Renewable Resources Economics Research program 

monitors markets for forest products, analyzes the economic efficiency of alternative management actions, 

and assesses the status and trends of the national and 

international renewable resource situation. Available 

markets for timber products often determine management options.

Current research emphasis areas include: (1) modeling timber supply and demand, taking into account 

international trade flows and situations; (2) evaluating 

the economic potential for the management of southern 

forests; (3) providing economic and social guidelines 

for multiple-use management of forests and rangelands 

for production of water, recreation, livestock, fish and 

wildlife, aesthetics, and timber; (4) analyzing alternative government policies and programs for improving 

management of forests, rangelands, and related resources, and (5) evaluating the economic and social costs and 

benefits of the preceding policies and programs, including the responses of private landowners, industry, and 

the public to them. For example, the RPA Assessment 

uses models of timber markets developed by this research program to develop projections of future market conditions.

Urban forestry

Urban and community forests serve many ecological 

and aesthetic functions while providing many benefits 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 57

to the more than 200 million people in the United States 

that live and work in cities, towns, and villages. Recent 

analysis found that metropolitan areas (urban counties) 

cover one-fourth of the 48 coterminous states and contain about 75 billion trees that cover one-third of the 

land. This average tree canopy-cover in urban and metropolitan areas is close to that for the overall United 

States (32.8 percent), demonstrating that urban areas 

have significant tree canopy.

Urban forestry research and development has 

evolved to include study of the urban forest ecosystems and wildlands at the urban-rural interface, as well 

as social and economic aspects of the population’s use 

of, and impact on, this land area. Metropolitan population trends and characteristics and their natural resource 

needs must also be tracked and understood by urban land managers. Forest Service R&D evaluates the 

causes of urban sprawl and how vital urban ecosystems 

can be sustained.

Urban centers are now often the location for major new discoveries of invasive insect and vegetative 

disease outbreaks. As international trade and travel become more common, these threats become more acute 

in our urban forest ecosystems. Research will develop 

improved methodologies for conducting forest inventories and forest health monitoring in metropolitan areas, 

as required by existing legislation.

The Urban Forestry Research program will continue to develop more accurate measures of urban forest 

ecosystem benefits, such as (1) shade to reduce summer heat island effects and related energy costs; (2) 

improved human health potential through understanding of ultraviolet radiation; (3) improved air quality and 

carbon sequestration; (4) mitigation and control of rainfall runoff and flooding; (5) improved wildlife habitat; 

and (6) enhanced landscapes for recreation in the cities and communities. Urban forestry research will also 

continue to develop information on urban-wildland 

hydrologic processes in rapidly growing population 

centers, especially where dependence on high quality 

water often means dependence on water from National 

Forest System lands. Also, Forest Service R&D will 

continue to be a major participant in the National 

Science Foundation’s Long Term Ecological Research 

in Baltimore and the Chesapeake Bay watershed.

Urban-wildland forest vegetation poses an increasing fire threat to the expanding populations in these 

land areas. Research will emphasize development of 

better ways to assess fire risk with new remote and 

on-the-ground technologies, and development of better 

information on how to educate the public on fire risk and 

management.

Wilderness

Increasing use of wilderness areas and development pressures outside of wilderness create stresses 

that threaten the biological and societal benefits derived 

from these unique areas. Forest Service wilderness researchers provide managers and policymakers with 

research results that improve understanding of the 

structure, function, and composition of wilderness ecosystems; the biological and social impacts of human 

activities on wilderness; the role of wilderness in larger social systems; and impacts of different policy and 

management alternatives on wilderness. Two Forest 

Service research units conduct wilderness-related research: the Southern Research Station’s unit in Georgia 

and the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute in 

Montana.

The Southern Station’s Recreation, Wilderness, 

Urban Forest, & Demographic Trends research unit 

assesses wilderness supply and demand, including values and uses associated with wilderness management 

as they relate to nearby urban and rural communities. 

However, wilderness-related research is a small portion 

of the unit’s larger research agenda on social trends. 

Scientists conduct studies designed to maintain current statistics on sustainable management of wilderness 

areas, including national and local surveys. Priority research areas include:

• Survey of American households to characterize wilderness use, awareness, and attitudes towards protection alternatives

• Public perceptions of the importance and values associated with wilderness areas

• Role of wilderness in the lifestyles, quality of life, and 

economic livelihoods of residents near wilderness areas

• Theory, data, and methods for segmenting the 

American public to enhance outreach, education, and 

involvement with wilderness areas

• Sampling approaches for estimating recreation use of 

wilderness

• Indicators for monitoring the use and status of wilderness areas

• Methods and tools for delivering findings from research on wilderness.

The Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute 

is the primary Federal research unit dedicated to developing knowledge needed to improve management 

of wilderness and other natural areas, both nationally and internationally. Formally established in 1993, 

the Leopold Institute operates under an interagency 
58 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

agreement among the four wilderness management agencies (the Forest Service along with the USDI National 

Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, and Fish 

and Wildlife Service) and the Biological Resources 

Division of the USDI Geological Survey. Although the 

Forest Service’s Rocky Mountain Research Station administers the Leopold Institute, managers and scientists 

from all five agencies play an active role in developing 

Institute programs and priorities. The primary goals of 

the Leopold Institute are to:

• Develop knowledge needed to protect and preserve 

wilderness and the ecological and social values derived from wilderness.

• Communicate and apply this knowledge to the 

wilderness management agencies and other user 

groups.

Current research includes: (1) use-density management in wilderness areas; (2) personal, societal, and 

ecological values of wilderness; (3) restoration of natural fire to wilderness areas; (4) development of a 

national wilderness preservation system database; and 

(5) use of natural variability concepts in managing ecological systems.

Recreation, social, and cultural

Social sciences address the human dimensions of 

natural resource protection and management. The disciplines and specialties of Forest Service research social 

scientists are many, including: economics, geography, 

sociology, social and environmental psychology, anthropology, archaeology, human ecology, political science, 

and landscape architecture. A broad range of research 

specialties are pursued, but can be broadly categorized 

as economic (described above under “Renewable 

Resources Economics”), recreation, social, and cultural 

heritage research.

Social scientists conducting recreation research assess changing patterns of recreation supply and demand, 

values, attitudes, behaviors, and satisfaction levels to 

help Forest Service managers and partners meet the 

growing demand for recreation products and services. 

Current outdoor recreation research addresses issues 

facing forest managers with studies that provide:

• Assessments of national and regional recreation demand, use, and supply trends.

• Models, methods, and technologies for accommodating increasing demands for recreation resources.

• Understanding recreation needs and perceptions of an 

ethnically diverse clientele.

• Knowledge, perceptions, and impacts of recreation 

fees on visitors.

• Understanding psychological factors affecting the 

recreation experience.

These and other studies give managers information 

needed to develop new recreation management strategies and adapt current recreation facilities and services 

to meet needs of visitors and partners.

Social science research also meets a broader information need about people and their relationship to forests 

and grasslands. This research assesses: (1) impacts of 

forest activities on communities; (2) the nature of collaboration and how communities and national forests 

can interact successfully; (3) how demographic patterns 

and changing ethnic, cultural, and social values affect 

forest management options; and (4) regional and local 

socio-economic conditions within which national forest 

decisions are made.

Research scientists within the social science program 

also conduct cultural heritage research. This research 

examines historic and contemporary societies’ use 

of natural resources to help resolve current resource 

use conflicts, enhance heritage tourism opportunities, 

and achieve sustainable forest management. Current 

research includes: (1) economic, social, and cultural 

contributions of public lands grazing; (2) relationships 

between climate change, history, and sustainability; 

and (3) temporal and spatial modeling of anthropogenic 

landscapes.

Forest products utilization and processing

Forest products utilization and processing research 

provides science and technology needed to conserve the 

nation’s forest resources as consumer demand for wood 

products increases. This work is done at the Forest 

Products Laboratory in Madison, WI, and a network 

of utilization research units in the Pacific Northwest, 

Northeast, and South. Forest products utilization research produces information and technology to help 

manufacturers, mills, and small business operators 

become more efficient and friendly to the environment. 

Since the beginning of the last century, research to improve technology has increased industrial wood productivity by 40 percent.

Utilization and processing research responds to the 

national goal of tripling the use of emerging biobased 

products and bioenergy by the year 2010, as well as 

specific issues of national significance: (1) use of wood 

frame construction in 90 percent of single-family houses; (2) annual per-capita consumption of 770 pounds 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 59

of paper and 880 pounds of lumber and composites; 

(3) millions of acres of western forests that are at risk 

for wildfire, disease, and insect attack due to overstocking with small diameter trees; and (4) the need to 

conserve forests, provide jobs, reduce landfill space, and 

reduce conflict over competing resources through wood 

fiber recycling.

Forest Service research will enhance the benefits of 

biobased products and bioenergy at all stages of development. Research will: (1) develop technology for 

increasing our nation’s paper recycling rate; (2) develop 

innovative, recycled uses for renewable, wood-based 

materials; (3) develop biopulping and nonchlorine 

bleaching technologies to reduce carbon emissions and 

effluents; (4) develop nondestructive methods for determining defects in wood; and (5) identify utilization 

options for small diameter timber such as development 

of value-added products and bioenergy.

Examples of current research include:

• Pulp molded materials. Technology has been developed to produce three-dimensional wood fiber pulp 

molded material for use in structural and some lightduty, structural applications.

• Utilizing small diameter timber. A vast resource exists on millions of acres of overcrowded forest lands 

in the form of small diameter and low-valued timber. 

To reduce fire danger and improve forest health, 

Federal land management agencies are looking for 

markets for this material to offset the cost of thinning and removal. Engineered applications are being 

developed for this round timber, including innovative 

mechanical connection designs that maximize the 

engineering properties of this low-value material for 

use in high-value building construction applications.

Forest products use for human safety and health

People live, work, and play in virtual constant contact with wood products. They trust wood to hold up their 

floors and roofs, protect their personal hygiene, provide 

safe habitats and leisure products for their families, and 

provide safe food additives. This line of forest products 

research: (1) ensures that wood products can be properly designed, manufactured, treated, tested, and used; 

(2) provides a credible source of unbiased information to 

ensure safety of wood-based products in nonresidential construction through development of performance information 

for national consensus standards and codes; (3) improves 

designs for wood construction to ensure safety under hazardous conditions such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and fire; 

(4) improves durability and performance under conditions 

favorable to deterioration; (5) mitigates the environmental 

impacts of processing, use, and disposal of wood preservatives and adhesives; and (6) develops technologies to 

recycle salvaged wood decking and fencing into a variety of decay-resistant board products, thereby avoiding the 

need to landfill it.

The Forest Products Laboratory Center for Advanced 

Housing Technology conducts high priority research 

in coordination with industry, universities, and other 

Federal agencies. This research evaluates technology 

needed for both new and existing housing and will encompass all types of residential structures in which 

wood and/or wood-based products are used as primary 

or secondary building components. Emphasis is on the 

improved use of traditional wood products; use of recycled and engineered wood composite materials; energy 

and sound efficiency; indoor air quality and improved 

living environment; and natural disaster resistance. 

The Center focuses research not only on the housing 

structure, but also on the latest theories and ideas in 

landscape design; options for water conservation and 

recovery; and improved surrounding environment to 

make housing more livable.

Examples of current research include:

• Grading standards for lumber reclaimed from building deconstruction. According to the EPA, over 

200,000 buildings in the United States are torn down 

and landfilled every year, most of them wood-frame 

buildings. There is great potential to salvage this solid 

wood lumber and use it again for home construction; 

however, no standards exist for regrading and reuse. 

The Forest Products Laboratory is working cooperatively with several wood industry partners to develop 

these standards. This research will save millions of 

board feet of usable lumber from being landfilled, 

while helping conserve our nation’s natural resources 

and easing harvesting pressure on our existing forest 

resource.

• Creosote modification or replacement. Creosote is 

still an important and useful preservative treatment 

for some wood applications, but it can present severe 

handling problems due to surface deposits, vapor 

emissions, and skin irritations. A novel, highly stable 

creosote emulsion is being tested for treatment efficacy as a new environmental friendly yet effective 

preservative treatment for these wood products. In 

addition, new ways to bioprocess wood treated with 

copper-based preservatives (45% of all preservative 

formulations) is being developed and tested. If successful, this will provide a breakthrough in naturally 

recycling treated wood that has ended its service life.
60 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Vegetation Management and Protection 

Research

Vegetation Management and Protection Research 

(VMPR) primarily addresses understanding and managing terrestrial ecosystem processes and interactions—nutrient cycles, energy flows, vegetation, and soil dynamics. 

This research focuses on enhancing forest and rangeland 

productivity and health; restoring degraded ecosystems; 

and predicting and managing disturbances. Major program areas include vegetation management; silviculture; 

carbon inventory; genetics; biotechnology; soils; forest 

and rangeland production; fire and other disturbances; 

native and nonnative insects; pathogens; plants; microbes; 

climate change; and forest operations. Associated program 

components shared with, but managed through other 

research and development programs, include water and 

water quality, riparian management, wildlife and wildlife 

habitat, threatened and endangered species, inventory and 

monitoring, economics, and forest products.

The mission of VMPR is to conserve, restore, and 

maintain natural resources in a sustainable manner and 

produce results that yield multiple benefits for people 

within our ecosystems. VMPR, therefore, recognizes its 

responsibility to provide the knowledge, range of options, and practical technologies to forest and rangeland 

owners, communities, and managers to help meet the 

changing demands on the resource base, while maintaining sustainable lands. VMPR develops knowledge and 

tools to better understand the dynamics, structure, and 

productivity of forest and rangeland systems. Studies 

are conducted under the following areas.

Forest and rangeland management

Scientific and technical information is critical for 

understanding how to manage and protect forest and 

rangeland vegetation, and for producing an array of 

products and services, while maintaining health, productivity, and environmental values. VMPR provides 

the technical knowledge base, essential tools, techniques and guidelines, and models to maintain and 

restore ecological function, diversity, and productivity 

of the nation’s forests and rangelands. This requires an 

understanding of vegetation dynamics (in the context 

of our chemical, physical, and social environment) 

and how management practices affect the productivity, 

sustainability, biodiversity, and character of forest and 

rangeland ecosystems.

Areas of emphasis include:

• The role of natural and human-induced disturbance 

in sustaining healthy and productive ecosystems, focusing 

on recurring and ongoing disturbances such as fire, 

nonnative invasive species, insect and disease, 

drought, wind events, floods, and effects of animals.

• How ecological processes govern the structure, function, health, and productivity in forests and rangelands, 

and how global climate change, the environment, and 

social systems affect the frequency and amplitude of 

disturbance.

• Returning degraded ecosystems to properly functioning systems by restoring essential components 

responsible for ecosystem structure, composition, and 

function.

• Vegetation dynamics, long-term recovery potential, 

and ways of accelerating the recovery potential.

• The interaction and aggregate effects of landscape 

processes, events, and changes within longer temporal 

and larger spatial scales.

• Prevention and mitigation of nonnative species invasions associated with disturbances, including models 

to measure, predict, monitor, and mitigate disturbances to decrease response and recovery costs.

• Introducing disturbance events to increase productivity, sustainability, and environmental quality, including 

the effect of human activities on patterns and profiles 

of disturbance events.

Fundamental plant science

To sustain healthy, diverse, and productive forests 

and rangelands, scientists and managers must understand the basic biological and ecological processes 

governing these systems. For this reason, a significant 

portion of the VMPR Research and Development program focuses on ecology, genetics, biotechnology, and 

plant physiology. This effort measures, analyzes, and 

models the interactions of environmental, biochemical, 

genetic, physiological, biological, and ecological factors regulating the composition, structure, function, and 

growth of forest and rangeland vegetation. These factors 

include water and nutrient relationships, carbon allocations and storage patterns, and physiological processes 

regulating plant defense mechanisms for resistance to 

various biotic and abiotic factors, such as heat, drought, 

cold, insects and diseases, fire, and pollutants.

Priority research areas focus on: (1) the role of belowground processes in the health of forest and rangeland 

ecosystems; (2) detecting pollutants in remote forest 

locations; and (3) how plants and soils hold carbon and 

nitrogen, and how much can be held in forest and rangeland ecosystems before they leak these compounds.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 61

Silvicultural applications

Silvicultural research and development provides the 

primary applied ecology knowledge base for forest 

management by defining the effects of management 

practices on vegetation composition, reproduction, 

growth, dynamics, and forest health. Silvicultural practices are needed to maintain and enhance production 

of fiber and other forest products, biological diversity, 

wildlife habitat, fuels management, carbon storage, and 

watershed protection. For example, tree seeding and 

planting is used to restore degraded lands, manage sites 

after extreme natural disturbance events, and adjust to 

human impacts.

Silvicultural research and development addresses 

ongoing needs for improved regeneration and restoration of forest vegetation, and improving the economic 

and environmental effectiveness of fuels treatments, 

harvesting, and wildlife habitat improvements. Ongoing 

research addresses concerns about the effects of silvicultural practices on biodiversity, and soil, air, and water 

quality. Priority research areas include:

• Biology and culture of growth and development of 

conifer and hardwood tree species.

• Quantitative relationships of tree growth, stand structure, 

and silvicultural practices to ecosystem productivity, 

including quality and quantity of wood and abundance and diversity of other biota in forest stands and 

landscapes.

• Silvicultural systems to meet diverse management 

goals.

Forest operations and engineering

Forest operations provide access, regeneration, cultural treatments, harvesting, and utilization as part of 

active forest management. Managers of both public 

and private forests need cost-effective techniques and 

technology to provide a full array of values and services, while protecting and enhancing the health and 

productivity of forest resources. Improved science and 

technology includes:

• Landscape scale planning and visualization;

• Technologies that are light-on-the-land and protect 

soil and water resources;

• Science-based “best management practices” and techniques that ensure sustainability;

• Management and utilization systems that are economical in small-diameter stands; and

• Cost effective ways to apply forest management practices at all levels and forest types.

Cost effective, environmentally acceptable operations are critical to the U.S. to meet the needs for future 

generations and to remain internationally competitive. 

The science and technology developed from forest operations and engineering research make it possible for 

landowners and forest managers to engage in active forest management that is acceptable to the public.

Research technicians obtain tree age through an increment core.

Scientists can reconstruct the history of fire in forests by dating patterns of fire scars in cross-sections of trees.
62 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Invasive insects, diseases, and plants

Native and nonnative invasive insects, diseases, and 

plants can cause serious damage to forest and rangeland 

health and productivity. Forest pests and pathogens, 

such as white pine blister rust, root diseases, gypsy 

moth, and bark beetles, are a major cause of tree mortality in many regions of the United States. Nonnative 

invasive species, in particular, are a rapidly escalating 

problem due to increasing introductions through global 

trade and travel. Losses due to nonnative invasive species include reduced property values, altered fire cycles, 

decreased water yield, increased soil erosion, impacts 

on commodity and noncommodity resources, potential 

shifts in forest types, and damage to structures.

Invasive species research and development uses both 

long-term ecological studies and short-term applied research to develop knowledge and tools that are essential 

for preventing and mitigating severe impacts to the nation’s forests and rangelands and for restoring degraded 

ecosystems. Past accomplishments include:

• Tools for slowing the spread of gypsy moth;

• Rapid identification of Asian gypsy moth that allowed quick detection and eradication;

• Improved survey and control guidelines for Asian 

longhorned beetle based on pesticide efficacy testing 

and study of host plant susceptibility;

• Evaluation of impacts and development of control 

options for cheatgrass, Miconia, and other invasive 

plants; and

• Implementation of an integrated research program for 

rapid detection and control of the Sudden Oak Death 

pathogen.

The current research program focuses on studies that 

can increase our understanding of how both native and 

non-native species affect forest and rangeland health, 

and, conversely, how forest and rangeland conditions, 

management actions, and environmental stresses influence insects, diseases, and plant damage trends. 

Research includes:

• Weed ecology studies in high elevation and grasslands, with emphasis on biologically based controls;

• Ecological studies to support restoration of sites after 

treatment of weeds;

• Monitoring protocols for invasive plants;

• Integrated control strategies and technologies for invasive insects and pathogens threatening forest and 

rangeland health; and

• Knowledge and technology that support pest risk assessments.

Quantitative analysis

Forest and rangelands are complex systems that 

are functionally integrated across spatial and temporal scales. Natural resource policy and management 

must be based on scientific understanding of how 

the resources function and respond to change. The 

Quantitative Analysis program promotes integration 

of disciplines to design experiments, analyze results, 

and synthesize and make predictions about complex 

systems across spatial and temporal scales. Research 

emphasis areas include:

• Quantifying forest and rangeland system processes at 

multiple scales;

• Integrating our understanding of forest and rangeland 

system function and process at multiple scales;

• Developing management strategies based on this integrated understanding; and

• Developing prediction systems of forest and rangeland response to treatment alternatives.

Specific research focuses on: (1) measurement, analysis, 

and modeling of forest ecosystems in a changing environment; (2) quantitative methods for modeling ecosystem response; (3) integrating social and biophysical sciences for 

natural resource management; (4) management of natural 

disturbance regimes; (5) the effects of environment and 

management on forest ecosystem processes; (6) sustaining 

alpine and forest ecosystems under atmospheric and terrestrial disturbances; and (7) the biological foundations of 

southern forest productivity and sustainability.

Fire sciences

Fire has been a periodic disturbance in most natural ecosystems for millennia. These ecosystems have 

evolved with fire and often depend on fire for regeneration and rejuvenation. But fire is also a destructive force 

that can cause serious and costly damage to resources, 

life, and property. Fire suppression and other activities 

since European settlement have disrupted historic fire 

cycles and have led to declines in forest health, susceptibility to insects and disease, and unnatural fuel buildups 

in many areas. The National Fire Plan recognizes the 

need to modify our fire management systems to restore 

ecosystem health, assure long-term productivity, and 

minimize resource damage and effects on life, property, 

and society. The Fire Sciences Research program helps 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 63

provide the scientific basis for fire management needed 

to support the National Fire Plan.

Fire research and development focus on:

• Knowledge and tools to make these changes and to 

evaluate their effects;

• Models and decision support systems to enhance firefighting capacity and preparedness;

• Strategies for postfire rehabilitation and restoration 

treatments, and management of invasive species to 

help restore ecosystem health;

• Improved approaches for assessing and monitoring fuels and fire risk, for fuel modification, and for economically viable utilization of small diameter materials;

• Social and economic dimensions of fire and fuel management;

• Ecosystem responses to alternate fire management 

treatments (including emissions, air and water quality, 

wildlife, site productivity, and health);

• Improved models of effects of weather and other factors on fire behavior and smoke impacts; and

• Methods for protecting wildland-urban interface communities.

Research results are not only utilized by Forest 

Service fire management programs, but by a wide array 

of other local, national, and international fire management agencies.

Global change

Relationships between climate changes and forests 

and rangelands can have tremendous social and economic 

implications. Understanding these relationships enables managers to manipulate forest 

and rangeland systems to enhance beneficial 

changes and to mitigate detrimental regional 

and global impacts. The Global Change research program is a broad, multidisciplinary, 

collaborative approach that integrates other 

research programs. For example, biomass 

increases of U.S. forest lands over the last 40 

years added millions of metric tons of carbon, 

enough to offset 25 percent of U.S. emissions 

for that period, and account for a significant 

portion of the missing carbon in the global 

carbon cycle. Similarly, increased amounts of 

carbon in harvested wood and large reforestation programs may have a substantial effect 

on the rate of carbon sequestration.

Studies focus on:

• United States’ carbon budget and the rate of 

carbon sequestration;

• Energy efficiency in the forest products sector, while 

reducing carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels and 

sequestering carbon in long lasting forest products;

• Fires and air quality (greenhouse gas emissions which 

increase global warming), using aircraft remote sensing and other sophisticated monitoring technology;

• Role of global change in modifying the frequency and 

severity of ecosystem disturbances such as fires and 

insect and disease outbreaks; and

• Changes in forest growth and composition due to 

global changes and their impacts on habitats of threatened and endangered species.

Wildlife, Fish, Watershed, and 

Atmospheric Sciences Research

The diversity and viability of fish and wildlife populations and communities, the purity or quality of water 

and air, and the productivity and quality of soils are 

key indicators of the health and sustainability of forest, rangeland, and aquatic ecosystems. These attributes 

also serve as important indicators of the effects of management and other human activities on ecosystems and 

their component processes and species. Research and 

development in this area enhances understanding of organisms, populations, ecosystems, and ecological processes. Research provides results and knowledge that 

are essential in managing forests and rangelands to sustain air, water, and soil quality and biological diversity. 

Using rainfall simulation equipment, scientists compare postfire emergency rehabilitation treatments.
64 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Information provided by this research is crucial to the 

Forest Service’s ability to comply with requirements of 

key environmental statutes, including the National 

Forest Management Act of 1976, Endangered Species 

Act of 1973, Clean Water Act of 1977, and Clean Air 

Act of 1955.

 Scientists conducting research in this area work 

closely with resource managers to synthesize research 

results; provide knowledge and technology in support of management; develop information required to 

enhance forest and rangeland noncommodity resource 

values; and develop, adapt, and evaluate management 

approaches. Priority areas of research include wildlife 

and fish habitats, with strong emphasis on threatened, 

endangered, and sensitive (TES) species; watershed processes including water quality and quantity; atmospheric 

science; and soils.

Wildlife and fish habitat

Wildlife and fish habitat research focuses on conservation of species and ecosystems, and on maintaining 

species viability, through protecting, restoring, and 

managing habitats in managed landscapes. The research 

goal is to provide land managers with guidelines for integrating species conservation and protection of wildlife 

and fish habitat with other forest management activities. 

Information developed by research has played a critical 

role in forest land management decisions in the past few 

decades, allowing land managers to reverse population 

declines of threatened and endangered species, such as 

the Puerto Rican parrot, red-cockaded woodpecker, and 

several inland fishes. Research information has also been 

instrumental in developing conservation plans for sensitive species, such as the California spotted owl, northern 

goshawk, and the Rio Grande cutthroat trout, providing 

effective protection without the need for formal listing. 

Avoiding listing contributes to species conservation, 

preserves management flexibility, and keeps the forest 

open for many other uses.

There are high costs associated with management of 

TES species. Most land management appeals and litigation result from managers not having adequate information to develop conservation plans. Time-consuming 

appeals and litigation not only increase the cost of land 

management, but also limit opportunities for managing 

forest resources and uses. Long-term research goals are 

to develop the scientific knowledge base for effective 

management of wildlife and fish habitats, for maintaining diverse and viable populations of animal and plant 

species, for reducing the need for species listings, for 

reducing the number and complexity of appeals and 

litigation, and for preserving greater latitude in and 

reduced costs of land management. Research focuses 

on enhancing knowledge of the habitat and ecosystem 

requirements of wildlife and fish species, with special 

emphasis on TES species; on developing and furnishing 

technical support for agency approaches to population 

viability analyses; and on supplying the technical basis 

for developing recovery plans for endangered species 

and conservation plans for sensitive species.

Wildlife habitat—Over 1,100 species of animals and 

plants are Federally listed as threatened or endangered. 

Approximately 360 of these species are associated with 

national forests and grasslands. Another 2,500 species 

are categorized as sensitive, meaning a species for which 

continued population viability is a concern. National 

forest managers are seriously challenged to maintain 

diverse and viable populations of plants and animals 

and to comply with provisions of the National Forest 

Management Act of 1976 and the Endangered Species 

Act of 1973. Forest Service R&D provides managers 

with technical information needed to select appropriate 

sensitive and keystone species for focus and to sustain 

Northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) perched in a 

western redcedar (Thuja plicata). 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 65

plant and animal populations by protecting, managing, 

and restoring high quality habitat. Special emphasis is 

placed on threatened and endangered species, and on 

declining or vulnerable species and communities such 

as neotropical migratory birds, old-growth forests, and 

riparian areas. Managers use information generated 

by Forest Service R&D to develop recovery plans for 

endangered species and conservation plans for sensitive species, so listing will not be required. A unique 

aspect of Forest Service wildlife habitat research is an 

emphasis on integrating wildlife habitat management 

with other forest uses.

Aquatic habitat—The American Fisheries Society 

estimates that populations of over 300 freshwater native 

fishes and over 200 anadromous fish stocks are at risk. 

As fish populations decline, commercial and subsistence 

fish harvests will similarly decline and people will be 

denied highly valued recreational opportunities. Forest 

Service R&D plays a key role in sustaining our nation’s 

fisheries. For some native fishes, national forests provide 50 percent or more of the aquatic habitats that sustain naturally reproducing populations. Forest Service 

R&D is the only research program in the country with 

a primary focus on protecting, managing, and restoring 

fish habitat. Research objectives include: (1) defining 

habitat and ecosystem requirements; (2) identifying 

factors limiting populations; (3) developing methods to 

protect, improve and restore habitats; and (4) developing 

cost-effective methods to monitor and evaluate habitats 

and populations. Additionally, Forest Service fisheries 

research supports national management initiatives such 

as “Rise to the Future” and “Bring Back the Natives.” 

Research scientists have provided the technical foundation for developing management strategies with 

comprehensive habitat conservation assessments for 

the bull trout and inland cutthroat trout. Scientists were 

also instrumental in developing PACFISH, the national 

strategy for restoring anadromous fish habitats in Pacific 

Coast watersheds.

Forest Service research will continue to focus on 

providing new information on watershed and habitat requirements of aquatic species and ecosystems. Specific 

R&D efforts are focused on salmonids and related anadromous species in the Pacific Northwest, and on native 

fishes and aquatic invertebrates (e.g., mollusks, crayfish) 

in all forested regions of the country. A large number and 

variety of these species are TES species.

Watershed

Forest Service watershed research is primarily oriented toward understanding, protecting, and restoring 

watershed and riparian functions. Basic and applied 

research on the effects of land management and other 

These instruments measure streamflow and precipitation.
66 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

human and natural disturbances on functioning of these 

landscape elements include: (1) research to develop and 

test the effectiveness of Best Management Practices and 

(2) studies of the effects of fire, grazing, logging, roads, 

and atmospheric deposition on watershed and riparian 

ecosystems. This research program area emphasizes 

public drinking water sources, erosion, in-stream flows, 

effects of roads and management, and linkages between 

cycles of water and key nutrients, such as nitrogen, 

carbon, and sulfur. Additionally, scientists working 

in this program area cooperate extensively with the 

National Science Foundation’s Long Term Ecological 

Research Program.

Forest management practices and other human activities directly affect the quality and quantity of water 

that enters streams, rivers, lakes, and ground water. 

Understanding these impacts is important because 

people value and depend upon reliable sources of clean 

water. They depend on safe sources of drinking water to 

protect public health. They enjoy recreation that occurs 

on or near healthy and attractive water bodies. They value fish and wildlife that depend on high quality habitats 

in streams, rivers, or lakes. In response to these public 

benefits, Forest Service R&D has maintained a longstanding research program focused on understanding 

effects of forest and rangeland management and related 

human and natural disturbances on the quality of water 

and watersheds.

Research on watershed processes is necessary to 

assure the public that providing benefits of clean and 

reliable sources of water is an integral part of managing 

forests and grasslands. Protecting water quality requires 

sustaining properly functioning and resilient watershed 

ecosystems. Scientific understanding is needed to distinguish healthy from degraded watersheds and to furnish 

the technical basis for restoring degraded watersheds to 

a functioning, healthy, and sustainable condition. Longterm experimental watershed studies are key to understanding how healthy watersheds function. Knowing 

how watersheds function provides the technical basis 

for understanding what processes enhance or impair 

the quantity and quality of water coming from forests. 

Research results provide the basis for developing techniques to assess, protect, manage, and restore forested 

watersheds. Results also are essential to sustaining clean 

drinking water for human consumption, high quality 

waters for recreation, and critical habitat for fish and 

aquatic and riparian wildlife. Understanding watershed 

processes is fundamental to (1) protecting vulnerable areas such as floodplains, human drinking water sources, 

and riparian areas; (2) reducing erosion and landslides; 

(3) maintaining the quantity and timing of streamflows, 

water quality, and aquatic biodiversity; (4) understanding and managing the transport of nutrients and toxic 

substances in the environment; and (4) managing forest 

roads.

Research focuses on processes that regulate the 

quantity, quality, and timing of water flowing through 

and from forests, as well as their interactions with 

other physical, chemical, and biological processes 

(e.g., erosion and transport of pollutants). Long-term research results provide the basis for:

• Analyzing watersheds to restore salmon in the Pacific 

Northwest;

• Assessing the effects of management on watersheds 

and aquatic ecosystems;

• Defining in-stream flow needs of aquatic species and 

communities;

• Evaluating the effectiveness of burned area rehabilitation practices;

• Assessing the impacts of acidic deposition on water 

quality and fish populations;

• Understanding linkages between the cycles of water 

and nutrients;

• Establishing guidelines to protect public drinking 

water sources;

• Evaluating the effects of forest roads on streamflow 

and erosion and developing the scientific basis for 

roads policy;

• Developing and evaluating effectiveness of Best 

Management Practices in controlling nonpoint source 

pollution from forest watersheds; and

• Understanding and mitigating water resource impacts 

of hydropower operations.

Research also develops the technical basis for 

guidelines and Best Management Practices for use in 

managing and restoring riparian areas and in mitigating 

wetland decline.

Collaborating with the National Science Foundation 

and numerous university partners in the nationwide 

Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) Network, six 

Forest Service experimental watersheds are the focus of 

integrated watershed and ecosystem studies that make 

major contributions to the basic understanding of how 

land use and health contribute to the condition of watersheds and aquatic ecosystems. No other Federal agency 

maintains as many intensive LTER research sites as does 

the Forest Service.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 67

Atmospheric sciences

Forest Service atmospheric sciences research addresses how ecosystems respond to atmospheric factors 

such as temperature, precipitation, and chemical composition, as well as smoke from forest fires and other 

biomass burning. Burning is a national issue because 

of increased concerns over fuels buildup and use of 

prescribed fire in ecosystem management. Exposure of 

firefighters and citizens to smoke from forest fires, 

changes in visibility and haze, and smoke contributions to 

regional and local air pollution are all of concern. Forest 

Service R&D conducts research on effects of smoke on 

human health, relationships between onsite meteorology and smoke dispersion, and impacts of smoke on air 

quality and visibility. Atmospheric sciences research also 

provides information to state air regulatory programs, 

and supports the Environmental Protection Agency’s 

efforts to develop air quality standards and protect air 

quality and related values in wilderness areas.

Forests are strongly dependent on the quality of air 

and on variability in weather and climate. Ozone and 

other atmospheric contaminants can impair growth 

of trees and forests. Air pollution and rainwater contamination can also change the biological structure of 

forests and rangelands. Solar radiation, modified as it 

passes through the atmosphere, can cause either benefit or potential harm (e.g., increases in ultraviolet radiation). Forest Service atmospheric sciences research 

strives to understand effects of air pollution, weather, 

and climate on ecosystem function and productivity 

on public lands. Forest Service R&D has improved 

understanding of how weather affects forest fires and 

smoke, thereby protecting forest resources and the 

public. It has increased understanding of impacts of air 

pollution and acidic deposition on forested watersheds 

and aquatic ecosystems throughout the country. Forest 

Service research methods for assessing forest air pollution are also being used in other countries, including 

the Czech Republic, Mexico, and Bulgaria. Forest 

Service R&D has also provided new information on 

restoring and maintaining forest and rangeland productivity during periods of short-term climate variability 

and episodes of extreme weather (e.g., forest blowdown, drought). Forest Service atmospheric sciences 

research works effectively and cooperatively with 

partners such as state agencies, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Park Service, 

and Environmental Protection Agency, often supplementing their programs with critical information on 

air issues on public lands. Atmospheric sciences research interfaces with other agency research on climate 

change, fire effects, forest health, watersheds, soils, and 

wildlife and fisheries.

 Forest Service atmospheric sciences research is developing new tools to mitigate effects of weather on fire 

occurrence and fire spread while managing impacts of 

forest fire smoke on air quality. Additionally, research is 

evaluating the extent to which air pollutants (e.g., ozone, 

atmospheric deposition) damage forest and rangeland 

health and productivity. This will allow managers to 

work with states to reduce emissions. Also, research 

is continuing on understanding and mitigating impacts 

of short-term climate variability (such as El Niña and 

La Niño) on vegetation and water resources. Additional 

research is focused on understanding the influence of 

climate variability and extreme events on forest and 

rangeland health, productivity, and carbon storage.

Forest Service R&D is developing an atlas displaying atmospheric disturbance climatology to assess 

potential climate impacts on natural resources in the 

North-Central and Northeastern United States. This 

also includes work on solar radiation, climatology, and 

measurements, including ultraviolet radiation, and the 

potential for ecosystem effects. In a related area, Forest 

Service R&D is developing procedures and models for 

situating weather stations to diagnose threatening fire or 

weather conditions. These same predictive tools are used 

to aid in assessing fire weather to better understand fire 

behavior and risks. In the area of smoke management, 

research is developing systems to predict the atmospheric capacity to disperse forest fire smoke and to select 

the best times for using prescribed fires—times when 

smoke will rapidly disperse and not lead to violations of 

air quality standards. In relation to air quality measurements, Forest Service R&D is developing standards for 

characterizing and measuring effects of pollutants such 

as ozone, nitrogen, sulfur, and photochemicals deposited 

from the atmosphere on wild and planted forest lands, 

and for monitoring how ecosystems may be affected by 

changes in concentrations of pollutants over time.

Soil science

Forest Service soil science research encompasses a 

wide array of subjects related to biological conditions 

and processes below ground. Research emphasizes 

processes regulating the cycles of nutrients (particularly carbon and nitrogen), rooting and plant growth 

relations, microbiological functions and effects, and 

soil physical conditions. One special national program 

emphasis is the Long-Term Soil Productivity program. 

In this coordinated research effort, soil scientists 

from Forest Service R&D and professionals from the 
68 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

National Forest System work together in a cooperative 

national study to find answers to questions concerning 

management impacts to long-term soil productivity. 

Findings from this research are providing new information on how changes in soil organic matter and porosity 

affect fundamental processes controlling forest health, 

productivity, and sustainability. Results also enable a 

more thorough understanding of the basic functions of 

forest soils. This knowledge is being applied to restore 

ecosystem health, maintain and enhance long-term 

forest productivity, incorporate improved monitoring 

techniques, and improve sustainable forest management practices.

Administration and Organization

The Forest Service Research program is directed 

at the national level by a Deputy Chief of the Forest 

Service for Research and Development. The Deputy 

Chief leads a headquarters staff of 65 senior scientists 

and support staff, organized into four broad program 

areas.

The Forest Service R&D program is carried out 

through the system of six regional research stations and 

a national laboratory. They are headquartered at:

Asheville, NC Southern Research Station

Albany, CA Pacific Southwest Research

 Station

Fort Collins, CO Rocky Mountain Research

 Station

Madison, WI Forest Products Laboratory

Newtown Square, PA Northeastern Research Station

Portland, OR Pacific Northwest Research

 Station

St. Paul, MN North Central Research Station

In addition, the International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry, located at Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, has research as one of its three major functions.

Research and development activities are accomplished by research personnel assigned to research 

work units. Units have a subject matter orientation and 

may have a geographic orientation, such as “fire behavior” or “the ecology and culture of Lake States forests.” 

Each station and the Forest Products Laboratory consist 

of 15 to 20 research work units. Some work units are 

located at station headquarters and others are scattered 

across the station territory. Some are located on university campuses while others are located in one-of-a-kind 

laboratory facilities. All together, research and development activities are conducted at 65 different locations 

across the United States. Nearly all the work units have 

ongoing cooperative relationships with partners, including state forestry agencies, universities, firms, and 

other nongovernmental organizations. The combination 

of Federal, state, and private collaboration creates significant synergy, yielding benefits for the United States 

as a whole that far exceed the benefits that any single 

sector could generate alone.

Forest Service R&D administers a network of 83 

experimental forests, watersheds, and ranges, a key 

component of the research infrastructure. These facilities are used for ecological field studies. They are invaluable assets because they are strategically located in 

areas representative of all the major ecosystems in the 

nation. Further, the fact that these sites are dedicated to 

research makes them especially valuable because they 

enable long-term research to be followed over many decades. Research on some sites extends back more than 

70 years. These sites are also highly valued by research 

cooperators as places where they can install studies 

that complement work underway by Forest Service 

researchers.

Research is also conducted at over 300 research natural areas (RNAs) and on numerous experimental sites 

on the lands of public, industrial, or other cooperators. 

The number of RNAs has more than doubled over the 

past decade. This resulted from a thorough biological 

reconnaissance of potential sites on national forests and 

grasslands. Current policy restricts research on RNAs 

to nondestructive sampling and monitoring activities. 

In the future, RNAs are expected to become increasingly valuable to researchers, both inside and outside 

the agency, as places where baseline conditions can be 

monitored in the absence of direct human intervention 

in the ecosystems.

 Several state forest products laboratories also 

supplement the work of the Forest Service’s Forest 

Products Laboratory in Madison, WI, the national center for research on wood and wood products.

Relationships

In order to accomplish its mission, Forest Service 

R&D has become involved with a wide variety of organizations, some within the Forest Service and many 

outside. In some cases, Forest Service R&D conducts 

the research; in other cases, it sponsors research; in other 

cases, it cooperates.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 69

Other Forest Service programs

Within the Forest Service, the research program is 

closely coordinated with related programs for management 

of the National Forest System and Cooperative Forestry 

programs with states and private forest operators, administered by State and Private Forestry. All branches of the 

Forest Service participate in research to help solve forestry 

and rangeland problems. Research scientists and National 

Forest System personnel often cooperate in the installation 

of studies on experimental forests or other National Forest 

System and private lands. Pilot tests and field application 

of new technology by State and Private Forestry personnel 

also supplement the work of research staffs.

New technology and other research findings are transferred through issuance of a wide variety of research 

publications and other devices, such as symposia and 

field demonstrations on specific problems and subjects. 

Close association of researchers with National Forest 

System staffs, state forestry agencies, forest industries, 

and conservation organizations facilitates prompt application of research findings. Research activities also are 

linked with other major programs of the Forest Service 

through the process of long-range strategic planning and 

program budget development.

Cooperative research and memoranda of understanding are of considerable importance in correlating the 

research work of the Forest Service with that of other 

organizations, particularly state universities and other 

United States Department of Agriculture agencies. The 

Forest Service provides cooperative grants and contracts 

for research by other Federal, state, or private organizations in cases where special skills can be enlisted to help 

solve forestry problems. During a typical year, agreements will total millions of dollars and involve hundreds 

of organizations, the vast majority being colleges and 

universities. Conversely, a significant amount of Forest 

Service research is conducted under agreements with 

funding from other agencies, such as the Environmental 

Protection Agency, the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, the Department of Energy, and private 

organizations.

State agricultural and forestry institutions

Although the Forest Service has long been responsible for a major portion of publicly financed forestry 

and associated rangeland research in the United States, 

other Federal, state, and private organizations also 

conduct or support research in forest and rangeland 

management and utilization, or closely related fields. Of 

particular importance, in this respect, is the coordinated 

Federal-state program of research involving state 

agricultural experiment stations and forestry schools 

operated by the USDA Cooperative State Research, 

Education, and Extension Service (CSREES). For 

over a century, state agricultural experiment stations 

and forestry schools have conducted agricultural and 

forestry research with Federal funding authorized 

in the Agricultural Experiment Station Act of 1887, 

commonly known as the Hatch Act. This program has 

included many studies related to forest and rangeland 

management and use, although limited funds have been 

allocated for specific forestry projects.

McIntire-Stennis—The Cooperative Forestry Research 

Program Act of 1962, commonly known as the McIntireStennis Act, provided the legislative basis for expanded 

Federal funding of state institutions for research specifically related to forestry and associated rangeland 

problems. Under this Act, Federal funds are made 

available through CSREES to help carry out programs 

of forestry research at (1) land grant colleges or agricultural experiment stations, and (2) other state-supported 

colleges and universities offering graduate training in 

sciences basic to forestry and having a forestry school. 

The McIntire-Stennis allotments now support research 

at 61 state agricultural experiment stations and forestry 

schools, and amount to tens of millions of dollars.

Smith-Lever—Funding for extension activities has 

helped transfer new technology to farm, ranch, and 

forest landowners through the Smith-Lever Act. Of 

the $276 million appropriated for extension activities 

in FY 2001, roughly 7-10 percent was spent on natural 

resources extension activities; about half of that was for 

forestry extension purposes.

Competitive grants—Statistics from the Current 

Research Information System (CRIS), which tracks 

grant activity across all Federal agencies, show that 

$41 million in grants were issued for natural resources 

research in FY 2000. CSREES administers the main 

USDA competitive grants program, the National 

Research Initiative (NRI). The NRI was funded at 

$105.7 million in FY 2001. Approximately 20 percent 

of this total is awarded to proposals that focus on some 

aspect of natural resources (forestry, range, wildlife and 

fisheries habitat, and outdoor recreation). Of the NRI 

funds awarded in FY 2001, $5.3 million was specifically 

identified as forestry research in CRIS.

Agricultural Research Service

The comprehensive research program of the USDA 

Agricultural Research Service deals with complex problems such as photosynthesis, plant genetics, and plant 
70 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

physiology. This research provides knowledge that can 

be applied more or less directly to forestry and rangeland problems. Other related investigations include: 

(1) investigations to improve rangeland forage; (2) research relating to the culture of trees and shrubs for ornamental purposes, the culture and genetic improvement 

of lawn and street trees, the culture of farmstead windbreaks, and studies to evaluate environmental impacts of 

“field” shelterbelts; and (3) research on soil and water 

management, largely oriented to agricultural watersheds 

but also including investigations related to forests and 

associated lands. Among these are studies of strip mine 

reclamation, including effects of using fertilizers and 

industrial wastes.

Natural Resources Conservation Service

The Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act of 

1977 authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture through the 

Natural Resources Conservation Service to conduct periodic appraisals of the soil, water, and related resources 

of the nation, and to evaluate and develop resource 

conservation programs. The Act is a companion measure to the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resource 

Planning Act of 1974, administered by the Forest 

Service. These two laws direct the U.S. Department 

of Agriculture to make a total assessment of America’s 

renewable natural resources and to develop programs 

that will protect and improve these resources. A joint 

Natural Resources Conservation Service/Forest Service 

liaison committee has been established to coordinate 

the basic assumptions and data used in the appraisal 

and assessment.

Resource surveys, assessments, and watershed 

investigations conducted by the Natural Resources 

Conservation Service are closely related to the forest 

surveys and renewable resource assessments conducted 

by the Forest Service. The Forest Service cooperates 

with the Natural Resources Conservation Service in 

these programs. The National Resource Inventory provides a nationwide inventory of land/cover use, soil 

erosion, potential cropland, conservation needs, water 

bodies and streams, flood prone areas, riparian vegetation, rangeland condition, and other vegetation data. At 

the same time, the Forest Service conducts rangeland 

inventories on the National Forest System. The Forest 

Service and Natural Resources Conservation Service 

coordinate resource inventories, jointly determine data 

needs and procedures, avoid duplication, and assure 

that data collected are mutually usable. The Natural 

Resources Conservation Service also has national leadership for the National Cooperative Soil Survey, which 

provides data on soils in each county, but works in 

cooperation with the Forest Service for soil surveys on 

National Forest System lands. Finally, much of the work 

on river basin surveys and investigations is conducted 

under the Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention 

Act of 1954. This Act provided for cooperative surveys 

and investigations of river basins to serve as a guide for 

rural development programs. Forest Service cooperation with the Natural Resources Conservation Service 

includes responsibility for the “forestry aspects” of river 

basin planning, for planning related to rangelands, for 

analyses and projections of economic activity relating 

to multiple uses and production from forest lands, for 

appraisals of the capability of forest lands to meet future 

demands for goods and services, and for estimates of 

amounts and costs of forest conservation practices.

Other USDA agencies

Other agencies in the U.S. Department of Agriculture 

also conduct research or investigations that are closely 

related to the research program of the Forest Service. 

These activities are coordinated by formal memoranda 

of agreement, joint budget analyses and planning, project reviews, and a variety of informal working arrangements among scientists.

Economic Research Service—This agency conducts 

investigations dealing with the conservation and development of natural resources and their contribution to 

local, regional, and national economic growth. It also 

has responsibility for research in rangeland economics 

and other agricultural economics research. Cooperation 

with the Forest Service includes analyses of demand for 

livestock and grazing uses used in preparing renewable 

resource assessments. Studies are also conducted in 

coordination with the Natural Resources Conservation 

Service and the Forest Service in river basin and related 

water investigations, and in other intradepartmental 

studies such as pesticide impact evaluations.

National Agricultural Statistics Service—The National 

Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) cooperates with 

state agencies in reporting prices of timber and timber 

products. Price reports help the Forest Service monitor 

the economic health of the timber industry and serve as 

input data for models of timber markets. These models 

help the Forest Service project harvest rates and regeneration needs, which provide signals about needed 

nursery seedling production and cost-sharing and technical assistance programs provided by State and Private 

Forestry. NASS statisticians also consult with Forest 

Service researchers regarding statistical design of research projects and landowner surveys.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 71

Other Federal agencies

The Forest Service has long cooperated with other 

Federal agencies, particularly agencies in the Department 

of the Interior, to help assure coverage by Forest Service 

research scientists of problems that are of concern to 

these other agencies. A portion of this Forest Service 

research effort, conducted for the most part at western 

research stations, has been financed by these cooperating 

agencies.

In addition to financial relations with other Federal 

agencies, Forest Service R&D units also participate in 

cooperative, multiagency research organizations. For 

example, in the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research 

Institute, Forest Service scientists collaborate and are 

co-located with scientists from several Department 

of the Interior agencies, such as the U.S. Geological 

Survey. Similarly, a series of Cooperative Ecosystem 

Studies Units are located on university campuses 

throughout the country. Forest Service scientists are assigned to these units, as are scientists from universities 

and other Federal agencies.

Bureau of Land Management—The USDI Bureau 

of Land Management supports a limited program of 

research and development related to forests and rangelands, as authorized in the Federal Land Policy and 

Management Act of 1976. Studies are largely conducted 

through cooperative agreements with universities and 

Federal research agencies, including the Forest Service. 

These studies mostly involve problems encountered in 

the management of Federal lands relating to watershed 

protection, timber production, rangeland forage production, wildlife habitat improvement, and rehabilitation of 

lands damaged by fire. Inventories of range, timber, and 

other resources on lands under the administration of the 

Bureau of Land Management also are conducted by the 

agency as a basis for management programs. As with 

other land management agencies, many environmental 

analyses are prepared for “major” activities, as required 

by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969.

National Park Service—The USDI National Park 

Service conducts studies concerning the development 

and management of outdoor recreation and the associated land and water resources. These supplement Forest 

Service work and contribute to the management of outdoor recreation and the Forest Service preparation of 

renewable resource assessments and programs. Forest 

Service R&D cooperates with the National Park Service 

and other agencies to create Cooperative Ecosystem 

Study Units (CESU’s). Each CESU is a consortium of 

Federal agencies and a university, aimed at helping the 

Federal agencies solve pressing natural resource issues. 

The Forest Service is a charter member of several of the 

CESU’s in regions with significant amounts of National 

Forest System lands. Additionally, the Forest Inventory 

and Analysis program conducts inventory and forest 

health monitoring activities in national parks, under 

memoranda of understanding with individual national 

parks. Finally, The Forest Service and National Park 

Service cooperate extensively in research on air quality 

and on impacts of air pollution on forests, streams, and 

wilderness areas.

Fish and Wildlife Service—The USDI Fish and 

Wildlife Service conducts biological and economic research on fish and wildlife problems. Cooperation with 

Forest Service research is provided for in cooperative 

agreements under which the Fish and Wildlife Service 

emphasizes the animal phases of problems while the 

Forest Service emphasizes the vegetation and land use 

or habitat phases. Scientists from both agencies also 

conduct cooperative studies of wildlife and habitat 

problems.

Geological Survey—The USDI Geological Survey 

administers a cooperative program of contracts and 

grants with University Water Resources Research 

Institutes, under the Water Resources Research Act of 

1964. The Geological Survey has related responsibilities 

to transfer technology relating to water resources. The 

Forest Service is developing cooperative relationships 

with the Geological Survey’s water programs, where the 

Survey’s experts provide data and analyses on the nation’s water situation, including research on watersheds, 

hydrology, and water quality. Forest Service R&D is 

also cooperating with the Geological Survey and other 

agencies to create Cooperative Ecosystem Study Units, 

aimed at helping Federal agencies solve pressing natural 

resource issues. Because many research scientists in the 

Department of the Interior have been incorporated into 

the Geological Survey’s Biological Resources Division, 

existing cooperative research relationships have been 

transferred along with the agency researchers to the 

Geological Survey

Environmental Protection Agency—The Environmental 

Protection Agency finances a substantial program of cooperative research, including studies by the Forest Service. 

Environmental Protection Agency sponsored research in 

the Forest Service includes studies concerning the effects 

of ultraviolet radiation on growth and development of forest trees, the impact of air pollutants on forests, problems 

of water quality and reclamation of strip-mined areas, assessments of technology for determining water pollution 

from forested watersheds, and the development of management guides for minimizing nonpoint source pollution 

in forested areas.
72 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Other agencies—The National Science Foundation 

provides some grants for research projects, which relate 

to forestry and rangeland problems. The Foundation and 

Forest Service R&D collaborate directly in ongoing 

research through the Long-Term Ecological Research 

Program. The Tennessee Valley Authority conducts 

studies of regional problems of forest management 

and utilization. The National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration has financed both university and Forest 

Service research to improve methods for remote sensing 

of natural and artificial resources. The Department of 

Housing and Urban Development has allotted funds to 

the Forest Service for housing research. The Department 

of Energy has funded Forest Service studies of forest 

residues and opportunities for production of energy 

from wood material.

Industrial research agencies

Research by the forest industries, particularly the pulp 

and paper industry, directly complements the Federalstate forest research programs, chiefly in investigations 

concerning the processing, marketing, and consumer use 

of wood products. Forest Service R&D also has a particularly strong relationship with the National Council 

of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement 

and its Forestry Environmental program. Extensive 

research collaboration between the two organizations 

occurs in areas related to air and water quality, wildlife 

populations and habitat, and forest productivity. Other 

industries, such as the chemical and machinery industries, also conduct research that is beneficial in solving 

certain forestry or rangeland problems. Much of the industrial research is related to product development and 

is proprietary.

Industry usually looks to public research organizations 

such as the Forest Products Laboratory and universities 

for more basic investigations. It also cooperates with the 

Forest Service in many research areas such as forest protection, tree improvement, and forest productivity.

General public

The Forest Service and other research agencies and 

organizations achieve public involvement in their forestry and rangeland research programs, in part, by using 

advisory committees. Thus, the Food and Agriculture 

Act of 1977 directed the Secretary of Agriculture to 

establish the Joint Council on Food and Agricultural 

Sciences to foster coordination of agricultural research, 

extension, and teaching activities of the Federal government and other institutions. This Act also provided for 

a National Agricultural Research and Extension Users 

Advisory Board to review policy, plans, and goals of 

programs for agricultural research and extension, and to 

provide recommendations regarding program responsibilities and funding.

The Forest Research Advisory Committee Act of 

1981 originally created the Forest Research Advisory 

Committee (FRAC). This committee reviews plans 

and goals of research supported by the Forest Service 

and CSREES, and makes annual recommendations 

to the Secretary of Agriculture on research priorities. 

FRAC consists of 20 members representing government 

agencies, forest industries, forestry schools, volunteer 

groups, and the environmental community. FRAC is 

a committee, formally chartered under provisions of 

the Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA) of 1972. 

FACA affects Forest Service research by limiting the 

number of committees, boards, councils, and similar 

groups to those formally established and managed according to FACA-specified standards. FACA specifies 

the purpose of and how advisory committees are established, procedures used, fiscal and administrative provisions, and termination.

Research work units at the regional stations are normally chartered for five years. As part of the rechartering process, representatives from the station leadership 

team and Washington Office staff experts commonly 

conduct a public meeting to receive comments on the 

importance and usefulness of the research accomplished 

the past five years and ascertain public sentiment regarding problem areas and projects to work on in the next 

five years. The public comments are weighed heavily in 

decisions about future program directions or termination 

of ongoing work. Panels of industry representatives are 

consulted periodically to review and help coordinate 

planned research at utilization research centers. Special 

committees of experts and concerned organizations are 

sometimes formed to coordinate research by different 

agencies on such problems as use of pesticides, rangeland brush control, or other problems of land management. Use of committees, panels, and groups represents 

a part of a general effort by the Forest Service to obtain 

broad public involvement to guide the formulation and 

conduct of forestry and related resource programs.

International Programs

International Programs coordinates expertise of Forest 

Service land managers, scientists, and policymakers 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 73

with overseas assignments in the areas of disaster response coordination, technical cooperation, and policy 

assistance. The focus is on key natural resource problems and issues in countries with significant forest 

resources and important forest-related trade with the 

United States. Through International Programs, the 

Forest Service provides leadership and cooperation 

with forestry organizations and scientists throughout 

the world. Along with universities and other United 

States research organizations, the Forest Service 

cooperates in various joint research projects with foreign 

members of the International Union of Forest Research 

Organizations. Participation in the work of the North 

American Forestry Commission, organized by the Food 

and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 

similarly involves studies and interchange of information on a wide range of forestry problems.

The Forest Service also cooperates with the U.S. 

Agency for International Development (USAID) and 

the USDA Foreign Agriculture Service, Office of 

International Cooperation and Development. Together, 

they help developing countries with technical aspects 

of forest, range, and watershed projects, and coordinate 

disaster response and relief efforts.

Authorization

The Forest Service has been involved in international 

activities since 1903 with the founding of the Luquillo 

Forest, now the Caribbean National Forest in Puerto 

Rico. The Forest Products Lab in Madison, Wisconsin, 

began a program of tropical wood research in 1910, 

and the McSweeney-McNary Act of 1928 authorized 

the establishment of a forest experiment station, now 

the International Institute for Tropical Forestry, in Rio 

Piedras, Puerto Rico.

In 1950, President Truman announced bilateral assistance to newly independent countries and to other developing nations. Over the next two decades the Forest 

Service furnished over 150 professionals for long- and 

short-term technical assistance assignments overseas, 

and over 2,500 foreign nationals participated in Forest 

Service training programs.

In 1958, the Foreign Forestry Service was established 

in the Office of the Deputy Chief for Research. In 1980, 

USAID established the Forest Resource Management 

Project, which led to the Forestry Support program 

under the Research and Development branch of the 

Forest Service, as well as a joint USAID-Peace Corps 

Initiative. In 1985, in collaboration with the USAID’s 

Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance, the Disaster 

Assistance Support program of the Forest Service was 

established.

In 1990, Congress directed the Forest Service to 

assume a greater role in international environmental 

affairs through the International Forestry Cooperation 

Act of 1990 and the Global Climate Change Prevention 

Act of 1990. In 1991, the Forest Service established 

the International Forestry program to carry out this 

work. In 1997, due to reorganization and budget cuts, 

International Forestry was reorganized and renamed 

the Office of International Programs and includes work 

focused on Technical Cooperation, Policy, as well as the 

Disaster Assistance Support program.

Disaster Assistance Support

Since 1985, the Disaster Assistance Support Program 

(DASP) and its Disaster Assistance Response Teams 

(DART) have provided support personnel and humanitarian relief for international disasters, both natural and 

human-caused, including fires, floods, drought, famine, 

earthquakes, and civil strife. Working with the USAID’s 

Bureau for Humanitarian Response and the Office of 

Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), DASP taps Forest 

Service expertise to provide assistance in disaster prevention, preparedness, and emergency response. DARTs 

use the incident command system adopted by the Forest 

Service to respond efficiently to emergency requests for 

mobilizing personnel, equipment, and supplies.

Since its inception, DASP has provided relief 

teams to many countries, including Angola, Namibia, 

Somalia, Rwanda, Sudan, and South Africa, as well 

as Peru, Turkey, Yugoslavia, El Salvador, and Mexico. 

In the early 1990s, the Forest Service through DASP 

developed the DART structure within OFDA. To date, 

over 240 employees from the Forest Service and the 

Department of the Interior have participated in training 

to prepare for work in the OFDA operations center or 

for overseas assignments. The 32-hour DART training 

course focuses on: interagency roles and relationships; 

OFDA disaster response options and procedures; health, 

safety, and overseas security; cross-cultural awareness; 

and DART functions and organization. In 1999 alone, 

70 Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management personnel from National Forests, Regional Offices, and the 

National Interagency Fire Center participated in OFDA 

assignments. The humanitarian assistance provided by 

DASP and OFDA helps reduce the economic, social, 

and political impacts of disasters in this increasingly 

networked world, lessening long-term impacts of the 

disasters and hastening recovery time.
74 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Technical Cooperation

The Technical Cooperation unit of International 

Programs works with a wide range of partners in specific 

countries and regions of the world with significant forest 

resources. The program focuses resources on key issues 

of interest and importance to the people of the United 

States. Technical Cooperation targets five major areas 

within sustainable forest management: invasive species, 

migratory species, trade and economic aspects of forest 

management, fire and fire ecology, and protected areas 

management.

Invasive species—Invasive species introduced from 

foreign countries have degraded habitats and threatened forest health in many areas of the United States. 

Researchers currently estimate that over 20 destructive 

forest pests are likely to enter the United States in the 

coming decade. International Programs works with 

other Forest Service units, international research agencies, and universities to emphasize control strategies for 

pests already in the United States and prevent further 

introductions.

Migratory species—Habitat critical for many migratory species is diminishing worldwide, threatening their 

survival. Approximately 40 percent of the United States 

population participates in outdoor recreation activities 

related to fish and wildlife—generating over $100 billion annually for American businesses and communities. 

Much of this activity centers on species that migrate every year to countries outside the United States, where 

riparian and wetland areas may not be adequately protected. International Programs focuses on restoring and 

maintaining these critical habitat areas for the protection 

of migratory species.

Trade and economic aspects of forest management—

As one of the world’s largest international traders in 

forest products, the United States depends on the longterm viability of forests everywhere. United States competitiveness suffers when the prices in other producer 

countries do not reflect the cost of regeneration and environmental protection. Under-priced timber sold on the 

world market adversely affects the United States timber 

industry. Therefore, International Programs promotes 

sustainable management of forests in other countries 

through improving forest management policy, introducing reduced impact logging techniques, promoting 

regeneration, and addressing the socioeconomic issues 

underlying unsustainable management practices.

Fire and fire ecology—Recent devastating wildfires 

in Mexico and the United States serve as a reminder of 

the impact of wildfires as they affect air quality, public 

health, and the economy on both sides of the border. 

Collaboration between Forest Service researchers and 

counterparts overseas increases understanding of fire 

chemistry and meteorology, the interrelationships between 

fire behavior and climate, fire mitigation strategies, the 

influence of fire on forest management, and techniques 

for rehabilitation of burned areas.

Protected areas management—Designations such 

as wild and scenic rivers and wilderness areas connote various levels of protection for natural areas 

of the United States. Internationally, these designations fall under the umbrella term, protected 

areas. International Programs supports activities 

that address management and policy issues of protected forest areas due to their importance both 

economically and ecologically. While there is broad 

agreement that protected forest areas are beneficial, 

particularly because they foster biodiversity, including migratory and endangered species, there is need 

for consistent information about the status of these 

areas, successful management strategies, and the 

most effective tools for policymaking and funding.

Policy Programs

The Policy unit of International Programs: (1) advances U.S. policies and priorities regarding natural 

resource issues in multilateral fora such as the United 

Nations Forum on Forests, the Montreal Process for 

the Conservation and Sustainable Management of 

Temperate and Boreal Forests, and the Convention 

on International Trade of Endangered Species; (2) 

facilitates understanding and domestic implementation of actions negotiated in international fora; and 

(3) engages in bilateral policy development on a 

wide range of issues, including building capacity in 

monitoring and assessing forest trends, developing 

national level forest policies and plans, and addressing illegal logging.

Administration and Organization

International Programs reports directly to the Chief 

of the Forest Service. A director and three assistant 

directors, one each for Disaster Assistance Support, 

Technical Cooperation, and Policy Programs, manage 

International Programs. Within Technical Cooperation 

there are coordinators for Mexico and Brazil, Latin 

America, Asia, Africa, and Russia and associated newly 

independent states. International Programs also includes 

an Outreach and Partnerships Team. Within Policy 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 75

Programs, staff members are responsible for maintaining relationships with specific international organizations and developing or clarifying policies aimed at 

sustainable forest management. The Disaster Assistance 

Support program provides guidance and training to 

Forest Service employees recruited for disaster response 

assignments both at the Washington, DC, office and operations center, and overseas.

Relationships

With other Forest Service programs—International 

Programs works closely with several Forest Service 

units, including Research and Development, National 

Forest System, and State and Private Forestry, using 

expertise of the Forest Service to help international 

partners. International Programs also works with the 

International Institute for Tropical Forestry (Rio Piedras, 

Puerto Rico), Pacific Northwest Research Station 

(Portland, Oregon), Institute for Pacific Islands Forestry 

(Oahu, Hawaii), Forest Health Technology Enterprise 

Team (Morgantown, West Virginia), and Forest Service 

Inventory and Monitoring Institute (Fort Collins, 

Colorado).

Other programs—International Programs has had a 

close association with USAID, specifically the Forestry 

Team within USAID’s Economic Growth Agriculture 

& Trade Bureau and the Office of Foreign Disaster 

Assistance. The Technical Cooperation staff often work 

directly with individual USAID missions or regional offices engaged in natural resource management. All DASP 

activities are funded through USAID/OFDA. In addition, 

International Programs works closely with the USDA 

Foreign Agriculture Service, Office of International 

Cooperation and Development, to manage technical 

assistance contracts with non-U.S. based organizations 

or consultants, or to arrange for natural resource practitioners from other countries to attend training 

sessions. International Programs also participates in several key research and policy organizations, including the International Tropical 

Timber Organization, the Central African 

Regional Program for the Environment, the 

North American Forestry Commission, and 

the Sustainability Roundtable. International 

Programs also works closely with a number 

of nonprofit conservation organizations, including partnerships with Ducks Unlimited, 

Partners in Flight, The Nature Conservancy, 

and the Jewish National Fund.

General public—International Programs responds 

to requests from the public for internally produced 

publications. In addition, the International Programs 

Web site provides 24-hours-a-day information on our 

international activities and partnerships. This extensive database identifies individuals and organizations 

involved in natural resource management worldwide, 

serves as a mailing list for our newsletter, and provides 

a resource for technical assistance.

Law Enforcement and 

Investigations

The Law Enforcement and Investigations (LEI) program protects safety of the public and Forest Service 

employees on National Forest System lands, and protects natural resources and other property under the 

agency’s jurisdiction. LEI cooperates with Federal, 

state, and local law enforcement agencies, and other 

Forest Service programs to achieve these goals. LEI 

has the following primary responsibilities:

• Provide a highly visible patrol presence and prompt 

response to public and employee safety incidents and 

violations of law and regulation;

• Conduct criminal and civil investigations;

• Maintain strong relationships with cooperating law 

enforcement agencies; and

• Reduce production of domestic cannabis and other 

controlled substances on, and smuggling of illegal 

drugs through, National Forest System lands.

Increased forest visitation, urban encroachment, and 

increasingly urbanized users impact National Forest 

System lands, thus increasing health and safety risks 

to the public and employees and threatening resource 
76 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

viability. Consequently, the demands on agency law enforcement personnel continue to increase.

Authorization

Beginning with the Organic Act of 1897, a number 

of laws and regulations provide the Forest Service 

with authority to establish regulations and rules for 

administration and protection of the National Forest 

System and civil and criminal jurisdiction over 

those lands. However, several significant authorities directly affect LEI. The Arrest for Violations of 

Laws and Regulations Act of 1905 authorizes “all 

Forest Officers (persons employed by the Forest 

Service) to make arrests for the violations of laws 

and regulations relating to the National Forests.” 

However, Forest Service policy limits this authority 

to employees who have been specially trained and 

are authorized by the Chief of the Forest Service or 

the Director of LEI to carry such authority, including 

law enforcement officers and criminal investigators 

(special agents).

There are two additional, important LEI authorizations. First, the Cooperation by Secretary of 

Agriculture with States and Political Subdivisions in 

Law Enforcement Act of 1971 authorizes the Forest 

Service to enter into cooperative law enforcement 

agreements with either state or local law enforcement 

agencies for purpose of reimbursing extraordinary expenses incurred while enforcing state laws on National 

Forest System lands. Second, the National Forest 

System Drug Control Act of 1986 authorizes Forest 

Service law enforcement officers and special agents to 

carry firearms, make arrests, serve warrants and other 

processes, conduct searches, seize evidence, and investigate violations. That Act also authorized enforcement of the Federal drug laws under the Controlled 

Substance Act of 1970 and other violations relating to 

controlled substances either on or affecting National 

Forest System lands. Within this authorizing framework LEI has three main program areas: enforcement 

activities, investigative activities, and drug enforcement activities.

Enforcement

Uniformed law enforcement officers are responsible to:

• Conduct patrols on National Forest System lands to 

prevent and detect crime and to provide assistance and 

information to the public;

• Provide timely and effective response to accidents, 

investigations, crimes in progress (domestic disputes in 

campgrounds, assaults, gang activity, resource damage, 

theft of government property, etc.), search and rescue, 

medical and emergency assistance, hazardous materials spills, and other first-responder incidents;

• Facilitate cooperative crime prevention efforts in local 

communities, with other agency programs, communities, partners, and other law enforcement agencies;

• Respond to unplanned incidents, including citizen 

protests, threats to employees or government property, large group or commercial events, drug parties, 

fire emergencies, and acts of ecoterrorism;

• Adjudicate misdemeanor violations by issuing warnings or citations;

• Conduct preliminary investigations of felonies and 

serious misdemeanors to obtain adequate information 

for adjudication or further investigation;

• Provide reimbursement, through cooperative law 

enforcement agreements, to state and local law enforcement agencies for extraordinary patrol and drug 

enforcement expenses incurred while enforcing state 

law on National Forest System lands; and

• Provide support to Forest Service efforts in preventing 

and responding to workplace violence, and ensuring 

employee and facility safety and security.

Investigations

LEI has seven primary investigative priorities:

(1) assaults and threats to agency employees and 

facilities;(2) timber and other forest product theft; 

(3) wildland fire; (4) archeological resource theft 

and damage; (5) illegal drug production, hazardous material dumping, and cross-border smuggling; 

(6) domestic terrorism; and (7) recovery of financial 

damages to the Federal government. LEI investigations have resulted in significant convictions in all 

the above areas. LEI personnel are recognized experts in timber theft and wildland fire investigation 

and have been asked to assist foreign countries and 

other domestic agencies in these areas.

Criminal investigators are responsible for:

• Conducting criminal and civil investigations related to National Forest System lands and agency 

interests, while complying with guidelines set forth 

in the President’s Council on Integrity and Efficiency, 

“Quality Standards for Investigations”;
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 77

• Conducting internal and USDA Office of Inspector 

General hotline complaint, criminal misconduct investigations of agency employees and government 

programs; and

• Developing, improving, and demonstrating new technologies, materials, methods, and strategies to advance 

the effectiveness and efficiency of agency enforcement 

and investigative activities.

Drug Enforcement

The rise of drug-related crime and violence is a 

worrisome trend now surfacing on National Forest 

System lands, and is probably one of the most dangerous. Illegal drug activity directly affects the administration of national forests and grasslands, creates a 

significant safety risk for the public and agency employees, and has serious detrimental effects on natural 

resources. The National Forest System Drug Control 

Act of 1986, along with memoranda of understanding with the USDJ Drug Enforcement Administration, 

makes the Forest Service primarily responsibility for 

enforcement of Federal drug laws on National Forest 

System lands. Drug enforcement on national forests and grasslands often requires unique skills and 

abilities, such as those gained by LEI officers while 

performing law enforcement duties in a wildland environment. Three primary drug enforcement issues 

affect National Forest System lands: (1) marijuana 

cultivation, (2) methamphetamine production and 

dumpsites, and (3) smuggling illegal drugs across international borders. Nearly every national forest can report 

some type of illicit drug activity. Marijuana cultivation 

and methamphetamine production utilize numerous 

toxic chemicals, fertilizers, and other hazardous agents 

that invade natural environments and can have negative 

effects on soils, watersheds, vegetation, and wildlife. 

Also, drug producers poached game, as evidenced by 

bear and dear carcasses found near drug sites.

Organization and Administration

LEI operates with a centralized reporting structure that 

provides investigative independence, as required by budget 

appropriation language in 1994. Field personnel report upward through supervisory channels to the Director of LEI, 

who reports directly to the Chief of the Forest Service. This 

organization structure ensures that supervision and oversight of the law enforcement program and its staff are carried out by appropriate LEI personnel (not National Forest 

System personnel). This structure affords the highest possible integrity of operations and investigations as well as 

reducing liability to the agency and individual officers. 

This type of organization also allows LEI personnel to 

rapidly respond to emergency incidents nationwide. The 

LEI organizational structure is similar in structure to the 

NFS regional and forest organization, thus allowing local 

decisionmaking and a high level of coordination with other 

Forest Service programs and the public.

Relationships

LEI accomplishes its mission by maintaining strong 

cooperative relationships with the public and with 

Federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies. 

County sheriff’s departments are a vital part of the 

LEI program. They provide dispatch services, backup 

to LEI officers, and assistance in investigations and 

patrol activities. In some cases, state police or fish and 

game agencies also perform these activities. In return, 

LEI provides often-critical support to these agencies in 

remote working areas.

LEI is dedicated to eliminating the drug threat on 

National Forest System lands. This necessitates participating in task forces and creating partnerships with 

Federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies. LEI 

relies on state national guard units, the active and reserve 

military, and the Civil Air Patrol for many of its counterdrug missions. The resources they provide, mostly in 

aviation assets, are critical to the overall effectiveness 

of drug detection and eradication on National Forest 

System lands. LEI is an associate with the White House 

Office of National Drug Control Policy and its High 

Intensity Drug Trafficking Area (HIDTA) program. The 

HIDTA program allows the Forest Service to leverage 

and share resources and intelligence with other agencies 

combating illegal drugs.

LEI personnel work extensively with personnel 

from other Federal agencies to handle a variety of 

crimes that occur on National Forest System lands. 

Other agencies include the USDJ Federal Bureau of 

Investigation and Drug Enforcement Administration; 

the USDT Customs Service and Bureau of Alcohol, 

Tobacco, and Firearms; the U.S. Border Patrol; 

the USDA Office of Inspector General; and the 

USDI National Park Service and Bureau of Land 

Management. LEI also works closely with other 

program areas of the Forest Service, such as recreation, wilderness, timber, range, wildlife, and fire 

management to accomplish the Agency mission 

– “Caring for the Land and Serving People.”
78 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Senior, Youth, and Volunteer 

Programs

The Senior, Youth, and Volunteer Programs (SYVP) 

provides work, training, and education for the unemployed, underemployed, elderly, young, and others 

with special needs. Programs administered by SYVP 

include: Youth Conservation Corps, Job Corps, Senior 

Community Service Employment Program, Volunteers 

in the National Forests, and Hosted Programs. The Job 

Corps and the Senior Community Service Employment 

Program are funded by the Department of Labor; other 

programs are financed through Forest Service funds.

Authorization

The Forest Service participates in cooperative employment and training programs, such as those authorized by:

• Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1970—established 

the Youth Conservation Corps as a pilot program. 

The Act was amended in 1974, to expand the Youth 

Conservation Corps program and make it permanent.

• Workforce Investment Act of 1998—continued the 

authority for the establishment of the Job Corps program for economically disadvantaged young men and 

women, ages 16-24 to be provided basic education 

and job training. The Act also included seven new responsibilities to be carried out by center program staff 

in cooperation with contractors.

• Older Americans Act of 1965—established the Senior 

Community Service Employment Program. The Older 

American Act was reauthorized in 2000.

• Volunteers in the National Forest Act of 1972, as 

amended—formalized Forest Service authority to 

accept services of individuals as Volunteers without 

incurring a wage liability. It also gave the agency authority to cover volunteers under the Tort Claims Act 

of 1948 and the Federal Employees Compensation Act 

of 1966 for injuries and reimbursement of incidental 

expenses.

Hosted Programs use many authorities to enter 

agreements with state, county, and local governments, 

including the Workforce Investment Act of 1998, the 

Cooperative Funds and Deposit Act of 1975, and the 

National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993.

Youth Conservation Corps

The Youth Conservation Corps (YCC) was established in 1971 and is jointly administered by the Forest 

Service, the USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, and the 

USDI National Park Service. The YCC is a summer 

employment program for young men and women, ages 

15-18, from all segments of society. Enrollees work, 

learn, and earn together by accomplishing projects that 

further the development and conservation of the natural 

resources of the United States. The three objectives of 

the program are:

• To accomplish needed conservation work on public 

lands;

• To provide gainful employment for 15-18 year olds 

regardless of gender, social, economic, ethnic, and 

racial classifications; and

• To develop in participating youth an understanding 

and appreciation of the nation’s natural environment 

and heritage.

Conservation work-learn projects vary, depending 

on geographical location of the National Forest System 

lands. YCC activities include projects such as recreation 

facility construction and maintenance, range and wildlife 

habitat improvement work, timber stand improvement, 

trail construction and maintenance, visitor information services, and soil and water conservation projects. 

Youths are selected randomly for YCC programs within 

a reasonable commuting distance from their residence. 

The goal is to achieve a diverse, 50 percent male/female 

participation. YCC participants are usually employed 

in a nonresidential setting for 8 weeks and receive the 

Federal or state minimum wage (whichever is higher) 

for 40 hours a week.

Job Corps

Job Corps is the nation’s largest residential training 

program for young women and men between ages 16 

and 24, who are U.S. citizens or legal residents. Since 

1964, the Job Corps has trained generations of young 

adults through intensive education, vocational training, 

work experience, and counseling. The Job Corps program has prepared millions of young adults for meaningful work. The program is administered and funded 

by the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL). Through an 

agreement with the DOL, the Forest Service operates 

18 residential, coeducational, Job Corps civilian conservation centers in 5 regions on 15 national forests in 

12 states.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 79

The Job Corps’ mission is to create a safe, secure, 

supportive, and clean environment for participating 

youths that is conducive to their developing the maximum academic, vocational, social, and employability 

skills. This will enable them to obtain the tools necessary to be employable, earn living wages now and in 

the future, and become productive and responsible 

members of society. Job Corps students receive room, 

board, health care, clothing, counseling, and a monthly 

allowance instead of wages.

Job Corps centers emphasize employment-skills 

training and job placement. Centers offer a wide range 

of vocational training, but differ in the specific training 

offered. Options include auto mechanics, basic forestry, 

brick masonry, business and clerical skills, basic nursing, 

carpentry, painting, urban forestry, dispensing optician, 

welding, plastering, painting, culinary arts, computer 

aided design, electrical repair, building and apartment 

maintenance, and others. On graduation, placement 

counselors assist students find employment. Students 

from Forest Service centers lead the nation with the 

highest average starting wage for Job Corps graduates. 

The students also receive a readjustment allowance to 

help them make a smooth transition into the world of 

work. The program provides benefits to business, communities, the Forest Service (through work accomplishment and firefighting on National Forest System lands), 

and, most importantly, disadvantaged young adults.

Senior Community Service Employment 

Program

The Forest Service, in cooperation with the U.S. 

Department of Labor (DOL), sponsors the Senior 

Community Service Employment Program (SCSEP), 

as authorized under the Older Americans Act of 1965, 

as amended. SCSEP is funded annually by the DOL. 

The states, nine national nonprofit organizations, and 

the Forest Service (the only Federal agency) administer 

SCSEP on behalf of the DOL. The Forest Service has 

operated a SCSEP program since 1972 through an interagency agreement with DOL.

SCSEP is designed to provide disadvantaged persons, 

age 55 and older, with part-time employment, supplemental income, work experience, training, and transition 

to public and private sector labor markets. Seniors are 

provided with a variety of training programs to prepare 

them for community service assignments or employment 

in the private sector. Programs include on-the-job-training, classroom training, and work experience. Training 

opportunities are available in computer literacy, office 

administration, English as a second language, accounting, warehousing, and much more. SCSEP participants 

also assist the Forest Service by accomplishing conservation work. In addition to the age requirement, SCSEP 

participants must meet income and poverty guidelines, 

and reside in the state where the Forest Service SCSEP 

projects are located.

Placement is an important program element. The 

national SCSEP unsubsidized placement goal is 20 percent. The Forest Service goal is to exceed the 20 percent 

placement target annually.

Volunteers in the National Forests

The Volunteers in the National Forests (VIF) program 

offers participants the opportunity to contribute their 

talents and services to assist in managing the nation’s 

natural resources. Participants may include individuals 

and sponsored groups/organizations from all walks of 

life. Objectives of the VIF program are to:

• Recruit, train, and use the services of volunteers to 

complement regular Forest Service staff in interpretive functions, visitor services, conservation measures, and development, or other related activities in 

or related to areas administered by the Secretary of 

Agriculture through the Forest Service;

• Provide the volunteer with experience that is personally rewarding and challenging; and

• Maintain and improve the level and quality of services 

to the public.

The VIF program has provided assistance in natural 

resource protection and management programs at nominal costs since 1972. Volunteers may assist in all Forest 

Service programs or activities except law enforcement. 

The work accomplished by the volunteers enables the 

Forest Service to meet higher standards of service and 

to accomplish work that might not be done otherwise. In 

the history of the program, more than 1.5 million volunteers have participated in recreation, resource protection 

and management, cooperative and international forestry, 

research, and wildlife projects.

VIF is not an employment program and volunteers 

need not be citizens of the United States. In fact, there 

is an international component to the VIF program that 

hosts participants from numerous countries. The Forest 

Service sometimes provides the volunteer’s incidental 

expenses, such as transportation, uniforms, lodging, and 

subsistence.

The Forest Service is also involved in other volunteer 

efforts. The Touch America Program (TAP) includes 
80 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

special emphasis on participation by persons aged 14 to 

17 years. TAP provides greater opportunities for youth 

to gain work experience and environmental awareness 

while working on public lands. TAP is a partnership of 

private sector organizations sponsoring teenage young 

people to do conservation work. In another volunteer 

effort, the Forest Service is a lead agency in the nineagency Federal Interagency Team on Volunteerism. 

The Team’s vision is to establish a productive partnership that shares and enhances volunteer resources and 

services focused on accomplishing agencies’ missions. 

During the annual National Volunteers Week in April, 

volunteer service awards are presented to individuals, 

sponsors, corporations, retirees, international visitors, 

youth, campground hosts, Forest Service employees, 

and Forest Service units for their contributions.

Hosted Programs

The Forest Service serves as a host agency by providing work opportunities for programs administered 

by other governmental agencies and nonprofit organizations. For example, the Forest Service serves as 

a host agency for the Cooperative Minimum-Security 

Inmates Work program within the USDJ Federal Bureau 

of Prisons. The Forest Service also has partnerships with 

the Student Conservation Association and many state and 

local conservation corps who are members of National 

Association of Service and Conservation Corps.

Under a hosted program, the sponsoring organization 

provides funding and supervision for people to work 

for the Forest Service. The Forest Service provides 

conservation training, work opportunities on national 

forests, and monitors results. Programs are administered 

through written agreements delineating responsibilities, 

enrollee status, wages, supervision, and operational 

details. Hosted agreements can be with individuals; 

state, county, and other Federal agencies; private and 

nonprofit organizations; Indian tribes; and for-profit 

organizations.

Administration and Organization

Programs administered through SYVP involve some 

unusual funding arrangements. For example, funding 

for the operations of the Senior Community Service 

Employment Program and the Job Corps program primarily comes from the U.S. Department of Labor. These 

programs are administered through grants/agreements 

with the Department of Labor. However, funding for 

the Youth Conservation Corps, Hosted Programs, and 

Volunteers comes from monies appropriated to the 

Forest Service.

The mission of SYVP is to provide human and natural 

resource benefits by administering and hosting programs 

in work training and education for the unemployed, underemployed, elderly, young, and others with special 

needs. Except for the Job Corps, a staff of program 

managers located at the Washington Office work with 

regional and station coordinators, who in turn work with 

staff at the national forest, district, and research unit levels that identify and implement work assignments and/or 

projects to accomplish the specific program objectives. 

SYVP program managers work under the administrative 

guidance of the staff director for the overall SYVP.

For the Job Corps program, oversight and direction 

are given from the WO-SYVP staff director and staff to 

the field office director. The field office director and a 

staff of program managers located in Golden, Colorado, 

work with U.S. Department of Labor national and regional offices, contractors, 18 Job Corps center directors and staff to administer the centers, ensure polices 

and procedures are followed, and provide a safe and 

secure environment for the students. Local forest supervisors’ offices and the Forest Service’s Region 2 

headquarters office provide basic administrative support for the centers and the program through negotiated 

agreements.

The Youth Conservation Corps program continues to 

be authorized, though funding is awkward. Since 1980, 

the program has operated without appropriated separate 

funding. Annual appropriations acts have directed the 

Forest Service, USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, and 

USDI National Park Service to utilize not less than 

some specified amount of agency funds for high priority 

projects to be carried out by the YCC program.

Relationships

With other Forest Service programs—The SYVP programs are closely related and integrated with other Forest 

Service programs. SYVP is one of the most diverse staffs 

in the agency with over 900 employees. SYVP contributes 

the agency’s goals of equal opportunity and the Continuous 

Improvement Process (CIP), and accomplishes needed 

conservation work on NFS lands. SYVP performs work 

in nine major resource categories, with the majority of the 

work being accomplished in recreation areas. Job Corps 

students and staff assist in firefighting efforts. The SYVP 

staff serves on various task force and committees, including corporate training, partnership councils, recruitment 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 81

councils, CIP, Civil Rights, and others. Many programs’ 

graduates become employees of the Forest Service.

Other programs—SYVP programs are also administered in other natural resource agencies by other national 

sponsors, local communities, and national and state profit and nonprofit organizations. There are 119 Job Corps 

centers nationwide that are funded by the Department 

of Labor and administered by the USDI National Park 

Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bureau of 

Reclamation, and private national contractors.

General public—The SYVP staff and enrollees participate in many other programs on the local and national 

levels. This includes involvement with community relations’ councils, local community workforce investment 

boards, town hall meetings, Points of Light Foundation, 

Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, volunteer organizations, 

national minority organizations, Make a Difference Day, 

colleges and universities, and Rotary Clubs. The SYVP 

has partnered with the armed services, youth and senior 

organizations, one stop centers, unemployment offices, 

educational institutions, and others to assist us in meeting the needs of our participants.

Capital Improvement and 

Maintenance

The Forest Service owns an extensive infrastructure 

of physical assets, including ranger stations, research 

laboratories, lookouts, roads and bridges, and so on. The 

Capital Improvement and Maintenance Program supports this infrastructure for (1) safe and efficient public 

and administrative uses, and (2) quality recreation experiences with minimal impact to the ecosystem stability 

and condition.

The Capital Improvement and Maintenance Program, 

formerly called “Reconstruction and Maintenance,” includes three major program areas: Facilities, Roads, and 

Trails. Each program area includes maintenance, capital 

improvement, and operations. Planning, survey, design, 

contract preparation, and contract administration are 

included in this program, along with the acquisition and 

maintenance costs of real property assets.

Maintenance is the act of keeping fixed assets in acceptable condition. It includes preventive maintenance, 

normal repairs, replacement of parts and structural components, and other activities so that the asset continues 

to provide acceptable service and achieves its expected 

life. Maintenance does not include activities aimed at 

expanding the capacity or upgrading the asset to serve 

needs significantly different from those originally intended. Maintenance includes work needed to meet 

laws, regulations, codes, and other legal direction as 

long as the original intent or purpose of the fixed asset 

is not changed.

Capital improvement includes the construction, installation, or assembly of a new fixed asset, or the significant alteration, expansion, or extension of an existing 

fixed asset to accommodate a change of purpose.

Operation includes activities related to the normal 

performance of the functions for which a fixed asset or 

component is intended to be used. Costs such as utilities 

(electricity, water, sewage), fuel, janitorial services, window cleaning, rodent and pest control, upkeep of grounds, 

vehicle rentals, waste management, and personnel costs for 

operating staff are generally included within the scope of 

operations and are not considered maintenance costs.

Authorization

The Capital Improvement and Maintenance program 

is authorized by general provisions of the Organic Act 

of 1897, the Granger-Thye Act of 1950, the National 

Forest Roads and Trails Act of 1964, the National 

Trails System Act of 1968, the Forest and Rangelands 

Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974, as amended, the National Forest Management Act of 1976, 

the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources 

Research Act of 1978, and other legislation. These laws 

establish the National Forest System and provide for the 

management of that system by the Forest Service. An 

infrastructure of buildings, roads, recreation facilities, 

and other constructed assets is required for the proper 

management of the National Forest System. The Forest 

Service is also required to meet local building codes, 

traffic safety standards, and various rules established 

for management and use all of Federal lands. Capital 

Improvement and Maintenance is organized around three 

broad program areas: facilities, roads, and trails.

Facilities

The Facilities program provides for the capital improvement, maintenance, and program operations of 

the multi-billion dollar infrastructure related to recreation, research, fire, administrative, and other facilities, 

including site components such as roads and utilities. 

This program includes acquisition of buildings and 

other facilities necessary to carry out the mission of the 

Forest Service, as well as disposing of deteriorated or 
82 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

otherwise unneeded facilities. The Facilities program 

includes two basic activities: maintenance and capital 

improvements.

Facilities maintenance—The facilities maintenance 

program provides for the routine and cyclical repair and 

maintenance of over 25,000 (non-recreation) buildings 

and other facilities. Annual maintenance funding needs 

have been increasing due to the aging of facilities and 

the critically low level of building replacements. A total 

of $280 million is needed annually to keep the current 

deferred maintenance and capital improvement backlog 

from growing. The research program supports the needs 

of scientists and staff for facilities and equipment that 

are adequate, safe, and commensurate with the type of 

research being performed, and promotes increased quality and productivity of research. Additionally, routine 

and cyclical repair of the national recreation facilities is 

a growing concern within the Forest Service. Recreation 

facilities have the capacity of nearly 2.1 million people 

at one time. There are 23,000 developed recreation facilities. Over one-half have exceeded their design life, 

and more than one-quarter are now over 40 years old.

Facilities capital improvement—This program includes capital improvement projects that emphasize 

the replacement of existing facilities to help address the 

facility maintenance and capital improvement backlog, 

and the construction of mission-critical facilities. This 

program also includes capital improvement projects that 

emphasize the reconstruction and rehabilitation of high 

priority recreation facilities. Additionally, this program 

provides for the reconstruction and rehabilitation of 

facilities that support special events such as the 2002 

Winter Olympics and the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial. 

Finally, this program supports the needs of scientists 

and staff for facilities and equipment that are adequate, 

safe, and commensurate with the type of research being 

performed, and promotes increased quality and productivity of research.

Roads

The National Forest System Roads program provides 

for the maintenance, capital improvement, and operation of over 380,000 miles of roads on National Forest 

System lands. Of this, 20 percent are open to passenger car traffic, 58 percent open to pickups and other 

high-clearance vehicles, and 22 percent are closed. A 

portion of the program’s funds is spent on decommissioning unneeded roads.

The distinction between “roads” and “trails” is not 

always clear. For purposes of this document, a road is 

a motor vehicle travelway over 50 inches wide, unless 

designated and managed as a trail. Thus, travelways 

such as “jeep trails” are discussed in the trails section 

following this section on roads.

The National Forest Road System is an integral 

part of the rural transportation network. It extends the 

limited private road systems operated by the states and 

counties within the National Forest System. It is operated and maintained to provide safe access for all forest 

users and to provide access for resource program activities. All Resource Protection and Utilization programs 

depend upon the system for access. Over 90 percent 

of road system use is by recreationists who make over 

800 million visits annually to recreation opportunities 

accessed by the road system.

The road system is in poor condition and continuing 

to deteriorate. The deterioration affects road users, resource programs, and the resources themselves. Road 

repair and maintenance can significantly improve water quality in the National Forest System.

A science-based road analysis is used to advise decisionmakers regarding decisions to construct, maintain, 

and decommission roads. One outcome of roads analysis 

is reconciliation of the existing open road system with 

the available road maintenance budget. Appropriations 

in the 1990s were much less than what was necessary 

to sustain the current mileage of open roads at current 

service levels without unacceptable consequences. 

By going through roads analysis, opportunities are 

identified to invest in roads to reduce future maintenance needs. More significantly, actions are identified to 

reduce the number of open roads and the service levels 

of roads remaining open to what can be sustained in 

an environmentally acceptable manner with available 

maintenance funding. While implementation of these 

actions increases user costs and decreases ease of public access, it is the only long-term way to assure compliance with safety and environmental protection laws 

and regulations at current funding levels.

Another outcome of roads analysis is “road management objectives” (RMO’s). Each national forest road 

exists for at least one specifically identified purpose, 

which is documented in its RMO. RMO’s are implementation documents for the access and travel management 

needs and objectives set forth in forest plans. Roads 

are only constructed, operated, and maintained to standards necessary to meet RMO’s. When no forest plan 

implementation purpose is identified for a road, it is 

identified as a road to be decommissioned. Performing 

roads analysis usually identifies roads that no longer 

serve any purpose whatsoever. Decommissioning unneeded roads improves forest ecosystems and reduces 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 83

future maintenance needs. Priorities for expenditures 

of limited road funds are to (1) address emergency and 

critical health and safety needs; (2) address resource 

protection and mission accomplishment needs; and 

(3) keep roads analysis current.

Road maintenance—This part of the Roads program is divided into four primary areas: annual 

road maintenance, deferred road maintenance, road 

operations, and decommissioning. Annual and deferred 

maintenance includes: (1) improving drainage to assure that water drains from the road surfaces, thus protecting the environment and investments from damage; 

(2) surfacing and maintaining roadway pavement on 

over 9,000 miles of paved road and surface maintenance 

on 370,000 miles of gravel and native surface road; 

(3) clearing vegetation from hazardous roadside trees 

and brushing roadsides to keep road slopes stable; 

(4) rehabilitating or replacing bridges and other structures identified as deficient; (5) signing and controlling traffic, including traffic engineering work to 

assure roads are safe for their intended uses as well as 

maintaining road signs, gates, guardrails, and related 

facilities; and (6) making investments necessary to 

bring roads into compliance with laws, regulations, 

and standards that came into effect after roads were 

constructed.

Road capital improvements—This part of the program contributes to safe, efficient, and environmentally 

sound access for the multiple uses of the NFS. Capital 

improvements include the construction of new roads, 

alteration or expansion of existing roads to provide for 

different uses (e.g., changing a logging road to a recreation road), or adding capacity (e.g., changing a single 

lane bridge to a two lane bridge). It includes purchasing 

road rights-of-ways on roads across private property to 

NFS lands where there is currently no public access. 

Road capital improvement funds are also used for engineering support for roads to be constructed on timber 

sales, including surveys, designs, reviews, and contract 

administration.

Road operations—Road operations activities include 

management and oversight of commercial hauling; 

management of cooperative road agreements with 

counties and other partners; development and operation 

of traffic management strategies; and providing current information such as signs, maps, road restriction 

status, and commercial use requirements to road users. Decommissioning terminates a facility’s function 

as a road. Roads to be decommissioned include both 

NFS roads that are no longer needed for NFS management, and unclassified roads that exist on NFS lands. 

Unclassified roads are (1) roads that are not managed 

as part of the forest transportation system, such as unplanned roads, abandoned travelways, and off-road vehicle tracks, and (2) roads that were once under permit 

or other authorization and not decommissioned upon 

the termination of the authorization. There are over 

60,000 miles of unclassified roads within national forests and about 2,500 miles are being decommissioned 

per year. The agency actively seeks public involvement 

in road decommissioning and in the issue of accessing 

public lands.

Trail bridge accessing wilderness.
84 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

Trails

The Trails program provides for the operation, maintenance, rehabilitation, and improvement of trails. The 

NFS contains about 133,000 miles of trails, accounting 

for over half of the nation’s inventoried trail system. 

Almost 100,000 miles of trails occur outside wilderness areas and about 33,000 are inside of wilderness 

areas. The trail system accommodates about 55 million recreation visitor days of hiking, horseback riding, 

cross-country skiing, mountain biking, and off-highway 

vehicle use a year. The trail program helps support private sector annual outdoor product sales of $10 billion 

that include such items as footwear, backpacks, camping gear, mountain bikes, winter sports equipment, and 

outdoor accessories.

Trails serve a wide constituency at a relatively low 

cost. Some trails are available for mechanized uses like 

bicycling, motorcycling, snowmobiling, and riding allterrain vehicles. Trails provide important transportation 

routes for forest firefighters, law enforcement, and other 

administrative personnel, as well as recreation service 

partners and outfitters-guides operating on National 

Forest System lands. Trail maintenance funding is 

used to protect the capital investment by keeping trails 

open for access and protecting vegetation, soil, and 

water quality. Work includes clearing the pathway of 

encroaching vegetation and fallen trees, and repairing 

or improving trail signs, treadways, drainage facilities, 

and bridges.

The Trails program includes three basic activities: 

maintenance, capital improvements, and operations. 

Maintenance of trails includes annual maintenance and 

deferred maintenance. Capital improvement includes 

new trail construction. This program includes survey, 

design, contract preparation, and contract administration. Trails operations activities include the managing 

and oversight of trail planning and use; coordinating 

with counties and other partners; developing and operating management strategies; and providing current 

information such as signs, maps, status, and commercial 

use restrictions to users.

Administration and Organization

The Deputy Chief for the National Forest System, 

supported by the Director of Engineering and the 

Director of Recreation, directs the Capital Improvement 

and Maintenance Program at the national level. The 

Deputy Chief and supporting headquarters staffs have 

multiple responsibilities. They are responsible for the 

formulation and administration of this program for the 

Forest Service; coordination with other federal departments and agencies, states, and other organizations; 

and program review and general direction of the capital 

improvement and maintenance work carried out at the 

regional offices, research stations, national forests, and 

other centers of NFS programs.

The major part of program activities is carried 

out through a decentralized field organization that 

includes nine regional offices and eight research stations. On-the-ground management within the NFS is 

conducted through 156 National Forests and 20 National 

Grasslands.

Relationships

With other Forest Service programs—The facilities and transportation system provided by the Capital 

Improvement and Maintenance program serves all 

functions, staffs, and programs in the Forest Service. 

Offices, warehouses, visitor centers, laboratories, etc., 

are the workspace of the many disciplines represented 

in the Forest Service. The transportation system of roads 

and trails provides access to NFS lands for all resource 

programs, fire protection, and management activities of 

the Forest Service. Because roads, trails, and facilities 

are so important to the mission of the Forest Service, 

and because they can have significant impacts on the resources, coordination with other programs is essential in 

providing this important part of the infrastructure.

Other programs—In order to provide an efficient 

and seamless transportation system of roads and trails, 

close coordination is carried out with other federal 

land management agencies, states, counties, and transportation and recreation planning organizations. The 

Forest Service works closely with various regulatory 

and oversight agencies such as the Federal Highway 

Administration, the Environmental Protection Agency, 

and the General Services Administration. Together, they 

develop rules and standard processes that provide a safe 

and efficient infrastructure, and minimize adverse impacts on the environment.

General public—The facilities and transportation 

system provided by the Capital Improvement and 

Maintenance program provides for public access and 

use of the NFS. Each year the recreation facilities 

funded by this program provide the public with over 

200 million persons-at-one-time days of developed 

facility capacity. The growing participation of many 

groups and individuals in NFS planning and administration of resource programs has become of far reaching 
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 85

importance at both national and local levels. Under the 

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, large numbers of Environmental Impact Statements for “major” 

Forest Service actions are widely reviewed not only by 

federal and state agencies, but also by many private organizations and individuals. The Forest and Rangeland 

Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 and the 

National Forest Management Act of 1976 likewise require public involvement in the development of resource 

assessments, land management plans for each unit of the 

NFS, and the formulation of Forest Service programs. 

Relationships with the public in these and related Forest 

Service activities involve public hearings, many meetings, and correspondence with individuals and organizations.

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86 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 

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4341-4346, 4346a-b, 4347.

National Farm Bill of 1990 (Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade 

Act of 1990). Act of November 28, 1990. P.L. 101-624, Title XV, 

Chapter 5, 104 Stat. 3632; 7 U.S.C. 936b, 946(note), 950aaa-4, 

1691(note), 1927(a)(3), 1932(f), 6601, 6601(note), 6611- 6617, 

2001a, 2001a(note), 2007(note), 2204d, 2661(note), 2662, 

2662(note), 3125b, 6702-10; 13 U.S.C. 141(note), 142(note).

National Farm Bill of 1996 (Federal Agriculture Improvement and 

Reform Act of 1996). Act of April 4, 1996. P.L. 104-127, 110 

Stat. 888-1197; 7 U.S.C. 7201(note).

National Forest-Dependent Rural Communities Economic 

Diversification Act of 1990. Act of November 28, 1990. P.L. 

101-624, Title XIII, subtitle 6, Ch. 2, 2372-2379, 104 Stat. 4046-

4049; 7 U.S.C. 611 et seq., as amended by P.L. 106-113, Div. B, 

1000(a)(3) (Title III, 395), November 29, 1999. 113 Stat. 1535, 

150a-203.

National Forest Management Act of 1976. Act of October 22, 1976. 

P.L. 94-588, 90 Stat. 2949, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 472a, 476, 476 

(note), 500, 513-516, 518, 521b, 528(note), 576b, 594-2(note), 

1600(note), 1601(note), 1600-1602, 1604, 1606, 1608-1614.

National Forest Roads and Trails Act of 1964. Act of October 13, 

1964. P.L. 88-657, 78 Stat. 1089, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 532-538.

National Forest System Drug Control Act of 1986. Act of October 

27, 1986. P.L. 99-570, Title XV, 100 Stat. 3207-191, as amended; 

16 U.S.C. 559b(note), 559b-559g.

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. Act of October 15, 

1966. P.L. 89-665, 80 Stat. 915, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 470, 470-

1, 470a, 470f, 470h, 470h-1, 470h-2, 470i, 470j, 470v, 470w-3.

National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933. Act of June 16, 1933. P.L. 

73-67, Ch. 90, 48 Stat. 195; 40 U.S.C. 401, 403(a), 408.

National Trails System Act of 1968. Act of October 2, 1968. 

P.L. 90-543, 82 Stat. 919, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 1241(note), 

1241-1251.

Norris-Doxey Cooperative Farm Forestry Act of 1937. Act of May 

18, 1937. P.L. 75-95, 50 Stat. 188. Repealed by P.L. 81-729, Ch. 

781, 64 Stat. 473; 16 U.S.C. 568b.

Older Americans Act of 1965. Act of July 14, 1965. P.L. 89-73, 79 

Stat. 218; 42 U.S.C. 3058, 7058a.

Omnibus Appropriations Act for Interior and Related Agencies of 1999. 

Act of October 21, 1998. P.L. 105-277, 112 Stat. 2681 et seq.

Oregon-California Land Grant Act of 1954. Act of June 24, 1954. 

P.L. 83-426, 68 Stat. 271; 43 U.S.C. 1181 f-g.

Organic Administration Act of 1897. Act of June 4, 1897. Ch. 2, 30 

Stat. 11, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 473-475, 477-482, 551.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003 87

Payments in Lieu of Taxes Act of 1976. Act of October 20, 1976. 

P.L. 94-565, 90 Stat. 2662; 31 U.S.C. 1601-1607.

Plant Protection Act of 2000. Act of June 20, 2000. P.L. 106-224, 

114 Stat. 358; 7 U.S.C. 411.

Pittman-Robinson (Wildlife Restoration) Act of 1937. Act of 

September 2, 1937. P.L. 75- 415, 50 Stat. 917; 16 U.S.C. 

669-669j.

Reciprocal Fire Protection Act of 1955. Act of May 27, 1955. P.L. 

84-46, 69 Stat. 66; 42 U.S.C. 1856a.

Recreational Boating Safety and Facilities Improvement Act of 

1980. Act of October 14, 1980. P.L. 96-451, Title III, 94 Stat. 

1983 as amended; 26 U.S.C. various sections, 16 U.S.C. 1606a.

Rescissions Act of 1995. Act of July 27, 1995. P.L. 104-19, 109 Stat. 

194.

Research Facilities Act of 1963. Act of July 22, 1963. P.L. 88-74, 77 

Stat. 90; 7 U.S.C. 390 et seq.

Research Grants Act of 1958. Act of September 6, 1958. P.L. 85-

934, 72 Stat. 1793; 42 U.S.C. 1891-1893.

Rural Development Act of 1972. Act of August 30, 1972. P.L. 92-

419, 86 Stat. 657; 7 U.S.C. 2669.

Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1977. Act of November 

16, 1977. P.L. 95-190, 91 Stat. 1397; 42 U.S.C. 300f, 300j-6, 

300j-8, et seq.

Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act of 

2000. Act of October 30, 2000. P.L. 106-393, 114 Stat. 1607; 16 

U.S.C. 500(note).

Small Business Act of 1953. Act of July 30, 1953. P.L. 83-167, Ch. 

282, Title II, Sec. 201-223, 67 Stat. 232, as amended, 15 U.S.C. 

631-632, 637b, 644, 651.

Small Tracts Act of 1983. Act of January 12, 1983. P.L. 97-465, 96 

Stat. 2535; 16 U.S.C. 521c-521i.

Smith-Lever Act of 1914. Act of May 8, 1914. P.L. 63-95, 38 Stat. 

372; 7 U.S.C. 341 et seq.

Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act of 1977. Act of 

November 18, 1977. P.L. 95- 192, 91 Stat. 1407; 16 U.S.C. 

2001(note), 2001-2009.

Stafford Act of 1974. Act of May 22, 1974. P.L. 93-288, 88 Stat. 

143; 42 U.S.C. 5121- 5205.

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. Act of 

August 3, 1977. P.L. 95-87, 91 Stat. 445; 30 U.S.C. 1201, 

1201(note), 1236, 1272, 1305.

Timber Sales Bidding Act of 1978. Act of February 20, 1978. P.L. 

95-233, 92 Stat. 32 as amended; 16 U.S.C. 472a(e).

Tort Claims Procedure Act of 1948. Act June 25, 1948. P.L. 80-773, 

Ch. 646, 62 Stat. 983, as amended; 28 U.S.C. 2671 et seq.

Townsite Act of 1958. Act of July 31, 1958. P.L. 85-569, 72 Stat. 

438, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 478a.

Transfer Act of 1960 (Functions Transfer (Interior to Agriculture)). 

Act of June 11, 1960. P.L. 86-509, 74 Stat. 205; 7 U.S.C. 

2201(note).

Twenty-five Percent Fund Act of 1908. Act of May 23, 1908. P.L. 

60-136, Ch. 192, 35 Stat. 260, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 500, 553, 

556d.

Volunteers in the National Forest Act of 1972. Act of May 18, 1972. 

P.L. 92-300, 88 Stat. 147, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 558a(note), 

558a-558d.

Water Resources Research Act of 1964. Act of July 16, 1964. 

P.L. 88-379, 78 Stat. 329 as amended; 42 U.S.C. 1961 et seq. 

Repealed by P.L. 95-467, 92 Stat. 13.

Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of 1954. Act of 

August 4, 1954. P.L. 83- 566, 68 Stat. 666, as amended; 16 

U.S.C. 1001(note), 1001-1003, 1003a, 1004-1006, 1006a-b, 

1008, 1010; 33 U.S.C. 701b(note).

Weeks Act of 1911. Act of March 1, 1911. P.L. 61-435, Ch. 186, 36 

Stat. 961, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 480, 500, 515, 516, 517, 517a, 

518, 519, 521, 552, 563.

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. Act of October 2, 1968. 

P.L. 90-542, 82 Stat. 906, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 1271(note), 

1271-1287.

Wilderness Act of 1964. Act of September 3, 1964. P.L. 88-577, 78 

Stat. 890, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 1131(note), 1131-1136.

Wildfire Suppression Assistance Act of 1989. Act of September 9, 

1988. P.L. 100-428, 102 Stat. 1615; 42 U.S.C. 1856m-1856o.

Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998. Act of August 7, 1998. 

P.L. 105-220, 112 Stat. 936; 29 U.S.C. 794d.

Youth Conservation Corps Act of 1970. Act of August 13, 1970. 

P.L. 91-378, 84 Stat. 794, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 1701-1706.

Other References

Abandoned Mine Lands Watershed Cleanup Initiative. (2002, 

September 25—last update). USGS [Homepage of Abandoned 

Mine Lands Watershed Cleanup Initiative], [Online]. Available: 

http://www.usgs.gov/themes/factsheet/095-99/ [2002, December 

23].

Federal Response Plan. (2002, November 18—last update). FRP

[Homepage of Federal Emergency Management Agency: Federal 

Response Plan]. [Online]. Available: http://www.fema.gov/rrr/

frp/ [2002, December 23].

Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy and Program Review. 

(1996, September 6—last update). [Homepage of Federal 

Wildland Fire Management Policy and Program Review 

Implementation Action Plan Report], [Online]. Available: http:

//www.fs.fed.us/land/wdiap.htm [2002, December 23].

Joint Fire Sciences Program. (2002, December 12-last update). 

[Homepage of the Joint Fire Sciences Program], [Online]. 

Available: http://www.nifc.gov/joint_fire_sci [2002, December 

23].

National Fire Plan: Managing the Impacts of Wildfire on the 

Communities and the Environment. (2002, December 23—last 

update). [Homepage of the National Fire Plan], [Online]. 

Available: http://www.fireplan.gov [2002, December 23].

National Research Initiative. (2002, October 7—last update). 

[Homepage of the National Research Initiative], [Online]. 

Available: http://www.reeusda.gov/nri/ [2002, December 23].

NSF Long Term Ecological Research Program. (2002). [Homepage 

of NSF Long Term Ecological Research Program], [Online]. 

Available: http://lternet.edu/ [2002, December 23].

Recreation Agenda. (2000, December). [Homepage of USDA 

Forest Service Recreation Agenda], [Online]. Available: http:

//www.fs.fed.us/recreation/programs/strategy/rec_agenda_

ht.html [2002, December 23].

RPA Assessment and Supporting Publications. (2002, September 

18 – last update) [Homepage of The RPA Assessment 

and Supporting Publications], [Online]. Available: http://

www.fs.fed.us/pl/rpa/list.htm [2003, January 3].

Unified Federal Policy for a Watershed Approach to Federal 

Land and Resource Management. (2001, May 7—last update). 

[Homepage of cleanwater.gov: Unified Federal Policy 
88 USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-112. 2003

for a Watershed Approach to Federal Land and Resource 

Management], [Online]. Available: http://www.cleanwater.gov/

ufp/ [2002, December 23].

USDA Forest Service Strategic Plan (2000 Revision). (2002, 

November 27—last update). [Homepage of the USDA Forest 

Service Strategic Plan (2000 Revision)], [Online]. Available: 

http://fsweb.wo.fs.fed.us/rpa/ [2002, December 23].

Wilderness Stewardship—A Strategic Plan. (1995). [Homepage 

of 1995 Interagency Wilderness Strategic Plan], [Online]. 

Available: http://planning.nps.gov/wilderness/document/I-21.pdf 

[2002, December 23].
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FOREST SERVICE

ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT RMRS-GTR-112

SEPTEMBER 2003