White-Nose Syndrome in Bats: 

An Overview of Current 

Knowledge for Land Managers

Roger W. Perry

United States Department of Agriculture

Forest Service

Research & Development

Southern Research Station

Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-184
The Author:

Roger W. Perry is a Research Wildlife 

Biologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Southern Research Station, 

Hot Springs, AR 71902.

November 2013

Southern Research Station

200 W. T. Weaver Blvd.

Asheville, NC 28804

www.srs.fs.usda.gov

Photographs

Cover: Inspecting bat’s wing for damage. 

(Photo by Ann Froschauer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) 

Facing page: White-nose syndrome fungus. 

(Photo by Al Hicks, N.Y. Department of Environmental Conservation)

Photo Credits: All photographs courtesy of the Forest Service, 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, unless otherwise noted.

Product Disclaimer

The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader 

information and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture of any product or service. 
White-Nose Syndrome in Bats: 

An Overview of Current Knowledge

for Land Managers

Roger W. Perry
Counties where white-nose syndrome has been identified from 2006 to present. (Map by Carl Butchkoski, PA Game Commission)
White-Nose Syndrome in Bats

ABSTRACT

White-nose syndrome recently emerged as a disease affecting bats that hibernate in caves and 

abandoned mines during winter. This disease is caused by the fungus Pseudogymnoascus

destructans, and has caused the death of millions of bats in the Eastern United States and 

Canada. This fungus grows in relatively cold conditions with high humidity, which makes 

many caves, abandoned mines, and other underground structures optimal growing sites for 

the disease during winter. A number of treatments for combating white-nose syndrome have 

been tested, but practical and effective treatments for the disease—for individual bats and/

or their hibernacula—have not yet been found. At present, one of the primary management 

goals is to slow the spread of the disease while researchers work to find effective tools to 

combat it. Activities that monitor and slow the spread, reduce additional stresses on bat 

populations, and educate the public are some of the few tools currently available to managers 

to address white-nose syndrome.

Keywords: Bats, caves, management, mines, Pseudogymnoascus destructans, white-nose 

syndrome.

IMPORTANCE OF BATS

Bats play an important role in ecosystems; they are a major consumer of night-flying 

insects, including mosquitos and insect pests of forests and agricultural lands. It is 

estimated that insect consumption by bats provides billions of dollars in savings each 

year to the agricultural industry (Boyles and others 2011). Although the effects of 

substantial declines in bat numbers are not fully known, the loss of millions of bats in 

the Northeast and mid-Atlantic regions since 2006 has likely had substantial ecological 

and economic impacts in those areas.

EMERGENCE OF WHITE-NOSE SYNDROME

White-nose syndrome (WNS) recently emerged as a disease in hibernating bats 

of North America. There is no evidence that humans and domestic animals are 

susceptible to WNS, but this disease has caused the death of millions of bats, and 

has affected the endangered Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) (USFWS 2012). In bat 

hibernation sites infected with WNS, up to 95 percent of susceptible bats may 

eventually die (Frick and others 2010). Because of the severity of this pathogen, 

species that were once considered secure may become endangered or regionally 

extirpated (Frick and others 2010). Since its emergence around 2006, WNS has spread 

at a rate of about 200 miles per year and is now found approximately 1,000 miles 

west of the original location where it was first detected. WNS affects bats during 

their winter hibernation period, and it currently affects only those bats that hibernate 

in caves, mines, tunnels, or similar structures. Updated maps tracking the spread of 

WNS can be found at http://whitenosesyndrome.org/resources/map.

WNS is caused by the newly discovered fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, 

which was previously classified as Geomyces destructans (Minnis and Linder 2013). 

This fungus is associated with cold temperatures. It is found in caves of Europe, 

where it occurs on bats but does not appear to cause the widespread mortality that it 

causes in North America (Puechmaille and others 2011). Although the exact origin of 

P. destructans in North America is unknown, it is believed that the fungus may have 

been introduced to a “show” cave in New York State by a tourist prior to 2006, when it 

was first documented (Blehert and others 2011).

Since its emergence around 

2006, WNS has spread at 

a rate of about 200 miles 

per year and is now found 

approximately 1,000 miles 

west of the original location 

where it was first detected.

Little brown bat with white-nose syndrome. 

(Photo by Marvin Moriarity, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service)
2 | An Overview of Current Knowledge for Land Managers

WINTER HIBERNATION BY BATS

During winter when insects are not available, many bat species hibernate in caves 

where the temperatures are cold, but above freezing [around 36–50 °F (2–10 °C)] 

(Perry 2013). During hibernation, bats survive on stored fat that was accumulated 

the previous late-summer and fall. To save energy, bats lower their metabolism and 

reduce their body temperatures close to that of their surroundings, with cold, but 

above-freezing temperatures providing the greatest energy savings (Hock 1951). 

During hibernation, bats may experience a suppressed immune system (Bouma 

and others 2010), which likely makes them more susceptible to fungal, viral, and 

bacterial infections.

P. destructans grows best at temperatures around 40–64 °F (4.4–17.8 °C) and high 

humidity (Verant and others 2012); these conditions are similar to those found in 

suitable bat hibernation sites during winter. During summer, many species of cave bats 

roost in trees or other structures. Females of some species use caves during summer, 

but usually roost in warmer caves [generally 56−86 °F (13−30 °C)] or different areas 

of the same cave where they produce their offspring. However, males of some species 

may remain in hibernation caves during summer (Hall 1962). Nevertheless, it is 

believed that the warmer temperatures of summer roost caves and tree roosts, along 

with the active status of bats (and increased immune responses) may not support 

substantial growth of P. destructans on bats during summer. The fungus may persist 

during summer in some colonies, but at lower levels (Dobony and others 2012).

EFFECT OF P. DESTRUCTANS ON BATS

The fungus grows on the skin of bats and invades their tissues (Blehert and others 

2009). The disease irritates the skin, creates holes in their wings, and may lead to 

dehydration (Cryan and others 2010). Bats with WNS awaken more frequently than 

normal from hibernation and may deplete their stored fat before insects become 

widely available in the spring (Reeder and others 2012). The fungus may also cause 

lethal damage to bat tissues during winter (Cryan and others 2010). Mortality rates 

of some bat species, such as little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) and tri-colored bats 

right: Fungus on the wing of a little brown 

bat. (Photo by Ryan von Linden, N.Y. 

Department of Environmental Conservation) 

below: Researcher inspecting bat’s wing for 

damage. (Photo by Ann Froschauer, U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service)

Bats may be infected without 

the visible signs and may 

display unusual 

behavior such as leaving 

the cave during freezing 

weather or clustering near 

cave entrances.
White-Nose Syndrome in Bats | 3

(Perimyotis subflavus), may be greater than other species (such as big brown bats, 

Eptesicus fuscus) (Turner and others 2011)—but it is currently unknown if this is 

a result of differences in behavior (temperature or humidity of sites selected for 

hibernation) or differences in physiological or immune response among different bat 

species (Cryan and others 2010).

Signs and Symptoms

Visible signs of WNS are white patches on exposed skin such as wings, forearms, ears, 

and noses; light-colored patches or holes in the wings often occur. However, bats may 

be infected without the visible signs and may display unusual behavior such as leaving 

the cave during freezing weather or clustering near cave entrances. Dead bats at cave 

entrances or nearby during winter may also be a sign of the disease. It is important to 

note that bats may be in the early stages of infection or be carrying the spores with no 

apparent symptoms. Thus, other diagnostic tools, such as skin swabs for microscopic 

analysis and culturing spores, or genetic tests that look for the fungus, may be needed 

to definitively confirm the presence of P. destructans, especially in the early stages of 

the disease.

MANAGEMENT: CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

Although research has made significant strides over a short period in our 

understanding of this new disease and its impacts on bats, information that can be 

used directly by managers to help control it is still lacking or speculative. The primary 

management goal at this time is to slow the spread of WNS to give biologists time 

to find workable solutions for this disease crisis before it spreads throughout the 

continent. Biologists also want to ensure that the actions taken to combat WNS will 

not add additional stresses to bat populations or have detrimental effects on other cave 

organisms where bats are found.

top: Scientist inspecting bat’s wings for 

damage. (Photo by Ann Froschauer, U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service) bottom: Characteristic 

white fungal growth on bat suffering from 

white-nose syndrome. (Photo by Pete 

Pattavina, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
4 | An Overview of Current Knowledge for Land Managers

Cave Closures to Slow Down Spread

Bat-to-bat contact is likely the primary way in which the fungus spreads. However, 

humans entering caves, mines, or other hibernation sites have the potential to pick 

up fungal spores and translocate them. It has been shown that equipment (including 

clothing) used in infected caves may be contaminated with the spores of the fungus. 

Although relatively short-distance spread of the disease is likely attributed to the 

natural migrations and movements of bats (e.g., Norquay and others 2013), longerrange movements of the disease could be facilitated by humans, especially to areas of 

the Western United States where the fungus and disease are not currently known to 

occur. Therefore, many Federal and State agencies have closed caves on their lands to 

the public to slow down the spread of WNS. The scientific consensus is that clothing 

or equipment used in caves located in States where WNS is known to occur should 

not be used in currently non-affected regions. Because P. destructans could be present 

in caves or mines even though there is no visible evidence of WNS, most agencies 

require decontamination by their personnel after exit from caves or mines. Current 

decontamination procedures are available at http://whitenosesyndrome.org/topics/

decontamination.

Monitoring and Reporting

Monitoring the spread of WNS provides important information to researchers and 

other managers, and identifying WNS-positive sites that have not been previously 

reported is important information for State wildlife agencies and the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service.

right: A gated and partially flooded 

abandoned mine used as hibernacula for 

southeastern myotis (Myotis austroriparius) 

and tri-colored bats. below: Many caves 

are gated to protect the cave resource and 

prevent humans from disturbing bats.

How WNS is Spread

l Bat to Bat: The fungus 

that causes WNS is most likely 

spread during contact between 

bats.

l CAVE TO BAT: Bats entering 

infected caves or mines may 

pick up the spores.

l HUMAN TO CAVE: Humans 

may be able to transport the 

spores on clothing, boots, or 

equipment from infected caves 

to unaffected caves.

l HUMAN TO BAT: Exposing 

bats to equipment that has 

come in contact with the 

fungus, such as unsterilized 

gloves, nets, or holding 

facilities could transfer the 

spores to unaffected bats.
White-Nose Syndrome in Bats | 5

below: Solar powered acoustic monitoring 

(SPAM) device used to monitor bats. 

bottom: A biologist inspects bats in a cave.

(Photos by Ann Froschauer, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service)

Monitoring caves, abandoned mines, or other hibernacula may involve entering 

these sites. Effective monitoring of caves or mines for the presence of WNS 

typically occurs near the end of the hibernation period (February to March, 

depending on how far north the sites are) when the growth of the fungus is most 

detectable on bats and dead bats that have not survived hibernation are evident. 

Some bat species (e.g., tri-colored bats) often remain attached to cave walls after 

death, making their mortality less obvious. Monitoring that includes cave or mine 

entry should be coordinated with State wildlife agency personnel prior to initiation 

to avoid redundancy and unnecessary disturbance to bats.

During winter, bats naturally arouse from hibernation at intervals from days to 

weeks, and these arousals account for the majority of winter energy use (Thomas and 

Geiser 1997). However, people entering caves or mines during hibernation may cause 

unneeded arousals in bats (Thomas 1995), which could lead to additional use of vital 

fat stores. Therefore, frequent and unnecessary disturbances to hibernating bats may 

add additional stresses to already stressed populations.

Land managers should be familiar with all applicable Federal, State, and local laws; 

agency regulations; and safety risks prior to engaging in management activities 

that include entering caves or mines. A number of Federal and State laws may 

pertain to caves and bats, such as the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act and 

the Federal Endangered Species Act. State wildlife agencies typically have the 

statutory authority to manage bats, but the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service also has 

statutory authority for endangered bats. Thus, any monitoring should be coordinated 

with these agencies. Caves or mines that harbor endangered species may have 

additional limitations on the frequency or timing of entry as determined by the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service. Landowners and land managers may be restricted from 

disturbing endangered bats during critical times such as the maternity or hibernation 

periods, as that may be considered “take” of endangered species by the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service,1

 and entering caves or mines during these times is believed to 

“harm” those species.

Entering abandoned mines, and to a lesser extent caves, may pose dangers to 

personnel, including toxic or explosive gasses, low oxygen, collapse or trapping 

hazards, falling dangers, and steep drop-offs (Tuttle 2003); these sites should only 

be entered by experienced and trained personnel using proper personal protective 

equipment. Because of the potential dangers associated with abandoned mines, 

some agencies have specific regulations regarding personnel and qualifications of 

individuals entering abandoned mines. Further, many State and Federal agencies 

require their personnel, cooperators, and permit holders to use appropriate, 

disinfected personal protection equipment when entering caves or mines.

Some evidence for the presence of WNS can be obtained without entering hibernation 

sites, such as noting the presence of dead bats at the entrance, or bats flying around the 

entrance during cold winter periods. Additional information can be collected using 

ultrasonic bat recorders at cave or mine entrances during winter to determine if bats 

are exhibiting unusual behavior such as exiting during cold periods. Non-wildlife 

professionals should not handle bats (alive, sick, or dead) because of the potential risk 

of rabies infection; anyone handling bats must have been vaccinated for rabies and 

have current, sufficient titers.

1

The term “take” means to “harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or to 

attempt to engage in any such conduct” (16 USC § 1538 and 1532).
6 | An Overview of Current Knowledge for Land Managers

Managing Infected Caves

Currently, there are no practical treatments for hibernation sites or bats infected with 

P. destructans. Once a cave is infected with P. destructans, the cave may harbor the 

fungus in cave sediments, but it is unknown for how long (Lorch and others 2013). The 

ability of the fungus to be transferred in the air of a cave is unknown, but preliminary 

research suggests this may be limited (Lorch and others 2011). Cave environments are 

complex ecosystems, containing diverse arrays of fungi, bacteria, invertebrates, and 

other organisms, many of which have not been identified by scientists. Furthermore, 

many caves harbor Federally endangered species (such as fish and crayfish) that might 

be impacted by broadcast spraying of fungicides or other chemicals, which further 

limits treatment and management options. Because many hibernation sites are large 

and complex cave systems, widespread treatments may also be impractical. Infected 

bats entering the cave may reintroduce spores of this fungus and could re-infect a cave 

soon after it is disinfected.

Treating only the spots where bats hibernate in the cave with fungicide will not 

likely affect fungal growth if one individual bat carrying the spores enters the 

cave and clusters with other bats, as they often do in midwinter. Experiments are 

currently under way that are evaluating alternative hibernation structures such as 

decommissioned military bunkers or artificial caves that have controlled temperatures 

and that can be more easily disinfected (e.g., Brunkhurst and others 2011).

Treating infected individuals with anti-fungal agents is being tested, but the results 

of those studies are thus far inconclusive. Moreover, some antifungal agents 

and medications have been shown to be toxic to bats (Robbins and others 2012). 

Treatments using other chemicals (e.g., vinegar) have been examined but their 

effectiveness has not shown promise (Meteyer and others 2011). Currently, multiple 

studies are being conducted that are examining different native fungal and bacterial 

species that could potentially be used as biocontrol agents. Possible vaccines against 

the disease are also being studied (Osorio and others 2012). However, it is unknown 

if some individual bats within a species may be more immune to WNS due to their 

genes or their specific behaviors, and treating individuals could reduce the passing of 

resistant genes or behaviors to future generations.

Public Education

A key goal of WNS management is educating the public about the importance 

of bats and the potential for spread of this disease by transferring fungal spores, 

especially across long distances. In areas where caves are closed to the public, it may 

be beneficial to post signs around cave entrances explaining the reasons for these 

closures. Communicating the clinical signs of WNS to animal control professionals, 

caving groups, and the public—as well as what to do if they suspect WNS—may 

also help monitor the spread of the disease. A brochure on WNS suitable for public 

dissemination is available at http://static.whitenosesyndrome.org/sites/default/files/

resource/battle_for_bats_update-7-30.pdf.

A biologist taping her boot in preparation for 

conducting a WNS survey in a mine.

(Photo by Gary Peeples, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service)

Importance of bats

l Bats are the second most 

diverse group of mammals 

(behind rodents), with over 

1200 species. Simmons 

(2005).

l A single insectivorous bat 

may consume thousands of 

insects each night, resulting 

in billions of dollars in 

savings to the agriculture 

industry each year. 

l Bat droppings serve as 

the basis of the food chain 

in many cave ecosystems. 

Harris (1970).

l In the desert Southwestern 

U.S., bats are major 

pollinators of cacti and 

agaves. Cole and Wilson 

(2006).
White-Nose Syndrome in Bats | 7

Habitat Management to Reduce Additional Stresses to Populations

Locations of many sites used by bats for hibernation, including many caves and 

abandoned mines, are unknown. Thus, identifying and protecting these sites may 

provide additional secure hibernation habitats. Protecting known bat hibernacula via 

gating may also reduce unnecessary disturbance to bats. It may also be important to 

identify and protect caves that currently do not support bats because we do not yet 

understand how climate change may affect those cave microclimates in the future. 

Detailed information on gating of caves and mines can be found at http://www.mcrcc.

osmre.gov/MCR/Resources/bats/pdf/Bat_Gate_Design.pdf and http://www.batcon.

org/pdfs/sws/AgencyGuideCaveMineGating2009.pdf.

Reducing disturbance at maternity sites may reduce stresses on populations. For 

species that use caves or mines during summer to raise their offspring, protecting 

those sites is also important. For species that produce their offspring in forests, it 

may be beneficial to reduce activities that may disturb bats (such as timber harvest or 

burning) near maternity sites during the summer reproductive periods.

Bats that have greater fat accumulation at the onset of hibernation could have better 

survival. Consequently, abundant optimal habitats during summer and fall may help 

maximize the fat accumulations of bats and could potentially reduce mortality from 

WNS. Although regions differ in forest type and bat species present, reviews on forest 

management for bats in different areas can be found in Hayes (2003), Fisher and 

Wilkinson (2005), Hayes and Loeb (2007), and Perry (2012).

In areas containing endangered species such as Indiana bats, guidance on forest 

management surrounding hibernation and maternity sites is provided by the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service and may be obtained from their field offices. Many national 

forests have guidelines in their forest plans concerning activities and timing of those 

activities in areas where endangered bats occur. On these lands, buffer zones may 

be established around caves used by endangered bat species where activities such as 

logging and burning may be restricted. Consultation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service may be required before certain activities can be conducted by federal agencies 

in these zones. There may also be guidelines on summer activities in areas where 

endangered bats occur. For example, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recommends 

limiting the cutting of trees and prescribed fire to between December 1 and April 15 to 

minimize the risk of “take” during summer within the range of the Indiana bat.

CONCLUSIONS

Although ongoing research has shed light on the causes, spread, and effects of WNS 

on bats, management recommendations to combat the disease are still in their infancy. 

In light of these limitations, biologists hope to slow the spread of the disease long 

enough to come up with effective treatments and management before the disease 

spreads across the continent. Additional information, including the national response 

plan, state response plans, and the latest updates on the disease can be found at http://

whitenosesyndrome.org/.

An abandoned mine gated for public safety 

and to protect hibernating bats.

Some bats species that were 

once relatively abundant are 

declining quickly due to 

WNS and may soon be added 

to the Federal endangered 

species list.
8 | An Overview of Current Knowledge for Land Managers

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks go to Paul M. Cryan, W. Mark Ford, Dennis L. Krusac, Susan C. Loeb, Erin 

H. Leone, and Mike Armstrong for providing comments on earlier drafts.

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Geomyces destructans, the fungus that causes bat white-nose syndrome. Plos One. 

7(9): e46280.

Little brown bat with white-nose syndrome.

(Photo by Jonathan Mays, Maine Department 

of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife)

What can managers 

do now?

l Protect and reduce 

disturbances at winter 

hibernation and summer roost 

sites used by bats.

l Follow the national WNS 

decontamination protocols 

@http://whitenosesyndrome.

org/topics/decontamination 

to disinfect clothing, 

footwear, and equipment 

when entering caves or 

mines.

l Provide optimal foraging 

and summer roosting habitat 

in forests for bats.

l Monitor bats, and report 

bats showing symptoms of 

WNS to your State wildlife 

agency.

l Help educate the public 

about WNS—its signs 

and symptoms—and the 

importance of bats.

Perry, Roger W. 2013. White-nose syndrome in bats: an overview of 

current knowledge for land managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-184. 

Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, 

Southern Research Station. 9 p. 

White-nose syndrome recently emerged as a disease affecting bats that 

hibernate in caves and abandoned mines during winter. This disease is 

caused by the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, and has caused 

the death of millions of bats in the Eastern United States and Canada. 

This fungus grows in relatively cold conditions with high humidity, 

which makes many caves, abandoned mines, and other underground 

structures optimal growing sites for the disease during winter. A number 

of treatments for combating white-nose syndrome have been tested, 

but practical and effective treatments for the disease—for individual 

bats and/or their hibernacula—have not yet been found. At present, one 

of the primary management goals is to slow the spread of the disease 

while researchers work to find effective tools to combat it. Activities 

that monitor and slow the spread, reduce additional stresses on bat 

populations, and educate the public are some of the few tools currently 

available to managers to address white-nose syndrome. 

Keywords: Bats, caves, management, mines, Pseudogymnoascus 

destructans, white-nose syndrome.

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