Children’s Bureau/ACYF/ACF/HHS

800.394.3366 | Email: info@childwelfare.gov | https://www.childwelfare.gov

WHAT’S INSIDE

Background

Federal legislation and 

initiatives

Understanding victim 

needs

Strategies for State and 

local agencies

Conclusion

Additional resources

References

BULLETIN FOR 

PROFESSIONALS

July 2017

Human Trafficking and 

Child Welfare: A Guide for 

Child Welfare Agencies

The growing awareness of human trafficking in 

the United States and abroad requires government 

and human services agencies to reevaluate old 

policies and develop new ones for identifying and 

serving victims. Due to their potentially unstable 

living situations, physical distance from friends 

and family, traumatic experiences, and emotional 

vulnerability, children involved with child welfare 

are at risk for being targeted by traffickers who 

are actively seeking children1 to exploit. Therefore, 

it is imperative that child welfare agencies be at 

the forefront of the response to and prevention of 

human trafficking. Additionally, recent Federal 

legislation established new requirements for 

child welfare agencies related to identifying and 

serving minor victims of human trafficking. 

1 For the purposes of this report, the term “children” includes youth. The term “youth” is 

used when source materials specifically reference that population.
Human Trafficking and Child Welfare: A Guide for Child Welfare Agencies https://www.childwelfare.gov

2

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information Gateway. 

This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/trafficking-agencies.

Child Welfare Information Gateway has developed 

a companion guide to this publication to assist 

child welfare caseworkers. Human Trafficking 

and Child Welfare: A Guide for Caseworkers is 

available at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/

trafficking-caseworkers.

Background

Although human trafficking is by no means a new issue, 

in recent years public agencies have strengthened 

their focus on its identification and prevention as well 

as treatment for its victims. The following provides 

information about the definitions of human trafficking, 

the scope of the problem, and the connection with child 

welfare.

Definitions

Both U.S. citizens and foreign national children can be 

victims of human trafficking within the United States. 

Federal law generally categorizes severe forms of 

trafficking in persons into either labor trafficking or sex 

trafficking.

 Labor trafficking. Per the Trafficking Victims 

Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA), which is part of the 

Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 

2000 (P.L. 106-386), labor trafficking is the recruitment, 

harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a 

person for labor or services through the use of force, 

fraud, or coercion in order to subject that person to 

involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or 

slavery. The definition of labor trafficking in the TVPA 

does not distinguish between children and adults, 

which means that children also must encounter force, 

fraud, or coercion to be victims of labor trafficking. 

Examples of labor trafficking include agricultural or 

domestic service workers and travelling sales crews 

that force children to sell legal items (e.g., magazines) 

or illegal items (e.g., drugs).

 Sex trafficking. The TVPA, as amended, defines 

sex trafficking as “the recruitment, harboring, 

transportation, provision, obtaining, patronizing or 

soliciting of a person for the purpose of commercial 

sex.” While adults must be compelled to perform 

commercial sex by force, fraud, or coercion in order 

for it to be considered a severe form of trafficking 

in persons, this is not the case for children. By law, 

children under the age of 18 who are induced to 

engage in a commercial sex act are considered victims 

of sex trafficking. In addition to a minor engaging 

in a sex act in exchange for money, examples of sex 

trafficking include a minor engaging in “survival” 

sex (i.e., the victim engages in sex in order to obtain 

basic needs such as food, shelter, or clothing, which 

are considered something of value) or participating in 

certain types of pornography.

Professionals in the child welfare and related fields 

typically use both the words “victims” and “survivors” 

to refer to individuals who have experienced or are 

experiencing human trafficking. The use of the term 

“victim” has legal implications for foreign nationals in 

terms of their eligibility for services, legal standing, and 

rights, whereas the term “survivor” is frequently used to 

connote the strength and resilience of individuals who 

were exploited through human trafficking. Although 

the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in the 

field, this bulletin uses the term “victim” while still 

acknowledging the strength and resiliency of those who 

have been trafficked. Individual victims may have their 

own preference for how they would like to be described.

This bulletin is intended for child welfare agency 

leadership and explores how child welfare agencies can 

support children who have been victimized as well as 

children that are at greater risk for future victimization. 

It provides background information about the issue, 

including its scope and relevant legislation and initiatives, 

and strategies that agencies can implement to address 

the trafficking of children. State and local policy and 

program examples also are provided.
Human Trafficking and Child Welfare: A Guide for Child Welfare Agencies https://www.childwelfare.gov

3

There are several common misperceptions about 

trafficking (Center for the Human Rights for Children & 

International Organization for Adolescents, 2011):

 Myth: Trafficking always involves transporting 

the victim across State, country, or other borders.

Reality: This is not included in the Federal definition 

of trafficking. An individual can be recruited and 

exploited for labor or commercial sex without having 

crossed any borders.

 Myth: All human trafficking victims in the United States 

are from other countries.

Reality: Trafficking victims may be U.S. citizens or 

foreign nationals.

 Myth: Individuals must be physically restrained or 

locked up to be a victim.

Reality: While some victims may be physically held by 

their trafficker, psychological means of control (e.g., 

trauma bonds, threats, coercion) are far more common.

For more information about how States classify 

human trafficking, view Information Gateway’s 

Definitions of Human Trafficking at https://www.

childwelfare.gov/topics/systemwide/laws-policies/

statutes/definitions-trafficking/.

Scope of Human Trafficking

The exact number of child victims of human trafficking 

in the United States is unknown, and trying to determine 

the number is difficult. The number of exploited children 

or children at risk for exploitation varies widely from 

source to source, often due to differences in definitions 

and methodologies (Finklea, Fernandes-Alcantara, & 

Siskin, 2015). Challenges to data collection include victims 

of trafficking not self-identifying due to factors such as 

complex trauma, trauma bonds, and normalization of 

victimization. Additionally, victims may fear talking to 

authorities, distrust service providers, or may have been 

coached by their traffickers on what to say while talking 

to others. These factors, among others, often make it 

difficult for those screening for trafficking victims or 

collecting data to recognize victims. For a more thorough 

discussion of the issues surrounding data collection, see 

Chapter 2 of Confronting Commercial Sexual Exploitation 

and Sex Trafficking of Minors in the United States, a 

product of the National Academy of Science, at https://

www.ojjdp.gov/pubs/243838.pdf#page=58. 

Nonetheless, there are various studies and organizations 

that provide a glimpse at how many children may be 

victims of human trafficking.

 The National Human Trafficking Hotline, a resource 

supported by the Administration for Children and 

Families (ACF) within the U.S. Department of Health 

and Human Services (HHS), received reports for 5,544 

potential cases of human trafficking in 2015, with 1,621 

of those cases referencing minors. For all cases, 75 

percent involved sex trafficking, 13 percent involved 

labor trafficking, and 3 percent involved both types 

(National Human Trafficking Resource Center, 2016).

 One in six of the more than 18,500 children reported 

to the National Center for Missing and Exploited 

Children (2017) as missing were the victims of child sex 

trafficking. 

It is important to remember that existing national 

data are not reliable indicators of the prevalence of 

human trafficking. The true prevalence of sex and labor 

trafficking is unknown, and most service providers believe 

that these statistics underestimate the scope of the 

problem.

There are several Federal initiatives to collect data on 

human trafficking victims. For example, HHS is sponsoring 

the Human Trafficking Data Collection Project to inform 

the development of an integrated data-collection 

platform that can be used across HHS programs and that 

will help assess service needs and victim trends. (For 

more information, visit the HHS website at https://www.

acf.hhs.gov/otip/research-policy/research-and-data.) 

Additionally, the Bureau of Justice Statistics within the 

U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) maintains the Human 

Trafficking Reporting System, which tracks investigations 

of alleged human trafficking reported by federally funded 

human trafficking task forces.

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This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/trafficking-agencies.
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4

Intersection With Child Welfare

Children in out-of-home care are at a particularly high risk 

of being trafficked. Estimating the number of trafficking 

victims who are or were involved with child welfare faces 

similar challenges to determining the overall number 

of victims, but many studies have shown a strong 

connection. A 2013 report by the HHS Administration on 

Children, Youth and Families (ACYF) cited a number of 

alarming statistics, including several studies showing that 

50 to more than 90 percent of children who were victims 

of child sex trafficking had been involved with child 

welfare services (HHS, ACF, 2013).

A background of abuse and trauma—coupled with the 

impermanence of foster care or congregate care—can 

make children in out-of-home care especially vulnerable. 

A number of research and newspaper articles have 

pointed to the fact that traffickers target children in 

foster care because of their increased vulnerability (see, 

for example, Menzel, 2013). Traffickers exploit the fact 

that children in foster care—or those who have run away 

from care—may not be having their familial, emotional, or 

basic needs met. The traffickers promise to meet those 

needs—at times employing psychological manipulation 

and financial incentives to woo them—and then use 

violence, drugs, or physical control to retain and exploit 

them (Innocence Lost Working Group, 2010).

Recent Federal legislation has established mandates for 

States to collect additional data about children involved 

with child welfare who are known or suspected victims of 

sex trafficking. 

Federal Legislation and Initiatives

The Federal Government has been highly involved in 

directing a coordinated response to human trafficking. 

Over the past 20 years, several major pieces of legislation 

have been enacted to address this area. Additionally, the 

White House and Federal departments and agencies have 

undertaken collaborative and individual efforts to support 

victims of human trafficking and bolster the Federal 

response.

Federal Legislation Regarding Human 

Trafficking

TVPA was the first comprehensive piece of Federal law 

to address human trafficking (Polaris Project, 2008). The 

TVPA and its subsequent reauthorizations in 2003, 2005, 

2008, and 2013 laid the foundation for various prevention, 

protection, and prosecution strategies regarding human 

trafficking. The following are examples of key provisions 

from the TVPA and its reauthorizations:

 The establishment of definitions of trafficking and of 

trafficking as a Federal crime

 The creation of the Office to Monitor and Combat 

Trafficking in Persons at the U.S. Department of State 

(see http://www.state.gov/j/tip/) and the Interagency 

Task Force to Monitor and Combat Trafficking (see 

http://www.state.gov/j/tip/response/usg/) 

 Restitution for victims 

 Programs to prevent trafficking and to protect and 

assist victims 

 Strengthened prosecution and punishment of 

traffickers

In 2014, additional legislation, the Preventing Sex 

Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act (P.L. 113-183), 

was enacted. It requires title IV-E agencies to develop 

policies and procedures to identify, document, and 

determine appropriate services for children under the 

placement, care, or supervision of a child welfare agency 

and who are at risk of becoming sex trafficking victims or 

who are victims of sex trafficking. The act also requires 

the following of title IV-E agencies:

 Demonstrate, by September 29, 2015, that they have 

(1) consulted with other specified agencies that 

have experience with youth at risk of becoming a 

sex trafficking victim and (2) developed policies and 

procedures to identify, document, and determine 

appropriate services for any child or youth in the 

placement, care, or supervision of the title IV-E agency 

who is at risk of becoming a sex trafficking victim or 

who is a sex trafficking victim

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5

 Develop and implement, by September 29, 2015, 

protocols to locate children missing from foster care; 

determine the factors that led to the child being 

absent from foster care, and, to the extent possible, 

address those factors in subsequent placements; 

determine the child’s experiences while absent from 

care, including whether the child is a sex trafficking 

victim; and report related information as required by 

HHS 

 Develop and implement protocols, by September 29, 

2016, to immediately (within 24 hours after receiving 

information) report children or youth described under 

the law as missing or abducted to law enforcement 

for entry into the National Crime Information Center 

database and to the National Center for Missing and 

Exploited Children 

 Report to HHS, within 3 years of the law’s enactment 

(September 29, 2017) and annually thereafter, the total 

number of children and youth who are victims of sex 

trafficking as described under the law’s definition 

Beginning within 4 years of the law’s enactment (by 

September 29, 2018), HHS must provide an annual 

report to Congress on the number of children and 

youth reported by title IV-E agencies as victims of sex 

trafficking. In January 2017, ACF published a Final Rule 

on the Adoption and Foster Care Reporting System 

(AFCARS) that implements the aforementioned datacollection requirements in addition to other updates to 

AFCARS data, such as reporting comprehensive historical 

information on children in out-of-home care.

National Convening on 

Trafficking and Child Welfare

In June 2015, the Children’s Bureau and the 

White House hosted the National Convening 

on Trafficking and Child Welfare, which brought 

together representatives from 52 States and 

jurisdictions to support their implementation 

of new mandates under the Preventing 

Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families 

Act of 2014. State teams made up of court, 

law enforcement, child welfare, and other 

professionals heard from anti-trafficking experts 

about proven strategies that could be introduced 

in their States. Over 2 days, the State teams 

worked on action plans to address the new 

anti-trafficking mandates. Information about the 

convening is available at https://www.childwelfare.

gov/topics/systemwide/trafficking/convening. 

In 2015, the Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act (JVTA) 

(P.L. 114-22) further established Federal requirements and 

protections related to human trafficking. The following are 

key provisions of JVTA pertinent to child welfare agencies:

 Amends the TVPA to allow U.S. citizens and permanent 

residents who are victims of severe forms of trafficking 

to obtain benefits and services available to such 

victims without them needing to obtain official 

certification from HHS of their victim status

 Expands the definition of “child abuse” under the 

Victims of Child Abuse Act of 1990 to include human 

trafficking and the production of child pornography 

and authorizes grants to develop and implement 

specialized programs to identify and provide direct 

services to victims of child pornography

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6

 Requires States to assure and describe in their State 

plans for the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment 

Act that they have the following: 

○ Provisions and procedures to identify and assess

all reports involving known or suspected child sex

trafficking victims

○ Provisions and procedures for training child

protective services workers about identifying,

assessing, and providing comprehensive services

to children who are sex trafficking victims, including

efforts to coordinate with State law enforcement,

juvenile justice, and social service agencies

 Requires States to collect and report, to the maximum 

extent practicable, the number of children who are 

victims of sex trafficking as part of the National Child 

Abuse and Neglect Data System

 Requires States to consider any child who is identified 

by a State as a victim of sex trafficking or severe forms 

of trafficking as a victim of “child abuse and neglect” 

and “sexual abuse” and provides for a State option 

to apply the trafficking portion of the definition to a 

person who has not attained age 24

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7

Federal Guidance About Human Trafficking Laws

The following Program Instructions (PIs) and Information Memoranda (IMs) provide guidance from ACF about 

legislation related to human trafficking:

 ACYF-CB/FYSB-IM-14-1: Provides guidance on services for youth under age 18 who run away from foster care 

and come in contact with runaway and homeless youth programs (https://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/

resource/fysb-im1401) 

 ACYF-CB-IM-14-03: Provides basic information on the Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families 

Act, including title IV-E plan changes, new case plan requirements and definitions, additions to the Adoption 

and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System, modifications to the Family Connection grants and John H. 

Chafee Foster Care Independence Program, and reauthorization of the Adoption and Guardianship Incentive 

Program (https://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/resource/im1403)

 ACYF-CB-PI-14-06: Provides instruction on some of the changes to the title IV-E plan requirements resulting 

from the Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act that are effective as of September 29, 

2014 (http://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/resource/pi1406)

 ACYF-CB-IM-15-05: Informs States of the enactment of the JVTA and provides basic information on changes 

to the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) grants to States for child maltreatment prevention 

and treatment programs, including changes to the definition of child abuse and neglect (http://www.acf.hhs.

gov/cb/resource/im1505) 

 ACYF-CB-PI-15-07: Provides instruction on the changes to the title IV-E plan requirements as a result of the 

Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act that are effective as of September 29, 2015, and 

later (http://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/resource/pi1507) 

 ACYF-CB-PI-17-05: Provides guidance to States on actions they are required to take in order to receive their 

allotments for Federal fiscal year (FY) 2018 authorized under subparts 1 and 2 under title IV-B; section 106 

of CAPTA; and the Chaffee Foster Care Independence Program, including the Educational and Training 

Vouchers (www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/resource/pi1705)

 OTIP-FS-16-01: Outlines the process to obtain an HHS Certification Letter for an adult foreign national victim 

of trafficking (www.acf.hhs.gov/otip/resource/certificationfs)

 OTIP-FS-16-02: Explains the Interim Assistance/Eligibility Letter process to secure assistance for foreign 

national children who are victims of trafficking (www.acf.hhs.gov/otip/resource/eligibilityfs)

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8

Federal Initiatives Regarding Human 

Trafficking

The White House and other Federal offices have 

developed—both on their own and collaboratively—

initiatives, programs, and workgroups to help set the 

foundation for the Federal response to human trafficking.

White House and interagency Efforts. To increase 

efforts to combat human trafficking, Cabinet 

departments, via direction from the White House, 

strengthened their commitments, established an 

interagency task force, introduced several new initiatives, 

and emphasized partnerships (White House, 2012). 

This partnership approach is outlined in Coordination, 

Collaboration, Capacity: Federal Strategic Action Plan on 

Services for Victims of Human Trafficking in the United 

States, 2013–2017, which is available at http://www.ovc.

gov/pubs/FederalHumanTraffickingStrategicPlan.pdf. 

Since the White House prioritized an interagency 

response to human trafficking, several Federal 

partnerships to address human trafficking have emerged, 

including the following:

 President’s Interagency Task Force to Monitor and 

Combat Trafficking in Persons (PITF): Coordinates 

Federal policies that combat trafficking and address 

law enforcement, victim protection, public awareness, 

research, and international diplomacy (http://www.

state.gov/j/tip/response/usg/) 

 Senior Policy Operating Group: Seeks to ensure a 

whole-of-government approach to addressing human 

trafficking by including senior officials from PITF 

members (http://www.state.gov/j/tip/response/usg)

 Blue Campaign: Integrates various strategies to 

combat human trafficking (e.g., public awareness, 

training, victim assistance, law enforcement 

investigations) and includes Federal agencies, 

international governments, law enforcement, 

nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector 

(http://www.dhs.gov/blue-campaign)

 Innocence Lost National Initiative: Focuses on the 

domestic sex trafficking of children and includes 

the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the DOJ Child 

Exploitation and Obscenity Section, and the National 

Center for Missing and Exploited Children (https://

www.fbi.gov/investigate/violent-crime/cac)

Department of Health and Human Services. ACF, 

through its Office on Trafficking in Persons (OTIP), is the 

lead HHS agency addressing human trafficking. OTIP 

(https://www.acf.hhs.gov/otip) supports victim assistance 

grants; the Look Beneath the Surface public awareness 

campaign; the SOAR to Health and Wellness training 

(https://www.acf.hhs.gov/otip/training/soar-to-healthand-wellness-training), which focuses on educating 

health-care and social service providers to identify and 

appropriately refer potential victims of human trafficking; 

the National Human Trafficking Hotline (https://

humantraffickinghotline.org/); and the National Human 

Trafficking Training and Technical Assistance Center 

(https://www.acf.hhs.gov/otip/training/nhttac). In addition 

to OTIP’s work, other offices within ACF have programs 

designed to serve their target populations. For instance, 

in FY 2014, the Children’s Bureau awarded funding for 

nine demonstration grants to help child welfare agencies 

respond to human trafficking through infrastructure 

building and multisystem approaches. Examples of the 

grantees’ work are described throughout the Strategies 

for Agencies section of this bulletin. For a complete list 

of organizations awarded grants, visit the Children’s 

Bureau website at https://www.childwelfare.gov/topics/

systemwide/trafficking/acyf-strategy/cb-efforts/grants/

cohort1/. 

Department of Homeland Security (DHS). DHS 

investigates human trafficking, arrests traffickers, and 

protects victims. DHS also processes immigration relief 

by issuing Continued Presence, T visas, and U visas 

to victims of human trafficking and other designated 

crimes. More information about these visa types and 

DHS resources for victims of trafficking and other crimes 

is available at http://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/

victims-human-trafficking-other-crimes. 

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9

For more information about Federal resources 

addressing human trafficking, visit Information 

Gateway at https://www.childwelfare.gov/topics/

systemwide/trafficking/pir/federal/resources/. 

Department of Justice. DOJ is significantly involved 

in combating human trafficking and raising public 

awareness. It supports anti-trafficking task forces whose 

members work together to investigate and prosecute 

trafficking cases and provide comprehensive services 

for victims. The Office for Victims of Crime webpage on 

human trafficking provides information for victims, service 

providers, law enforcement, and allied professionals. It is 

available at http://ovc.ncjrs.gov/humantrafficking/index.

html.

Department of State. The U.S. Department of State is 

especially concerned with trafficking overseas and across 

borders and runs the Office to Monitor and Combat 

Trafficking in Persons, which is responsible for diplomacy, 

targeted foreign assistance, and public engagement. It 

partners with foreign governments and the civil sector 

to develop and implement effective counter-trafficking 

strategies. Every year, this office releases the Trafficking 

in Persons (TIP) report, which rates every country in the 

world—including the United States—on its efforts to 

prevent and combat trafficking. See the TIP reports at 

http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/index.htm.

Understanding Victim Needs

Children who have been victims of trafficking have 

many needs similar to those of children who enter the 

child welfare system through other circumstances. For 

instance, children who have been trafficked need health 

care, mental health services, a safe place to live, help 

with education, and facilitated reconnections with family 

members. These are discussed below, along with some of 

the aspects that distinguish trafficking victims’ needs from 

those of other children receiving child welfare services.

Physical health. Children who have been trafficked often 

have experienced physical abuse, neglect (including 

medical and dental neglect), emotional abuse, and sexual 

abuse. Associated with this abuse, they may suffer from 

broken bones and other untreated internal and external 

injuries; sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV; 

and malnutrition. Their overall health may show the 

consequences of long periods of poor or no medical 

or dental care. Child welfare professionals can help by 

ensuring that victims have access to medical screenings 

and treatment to address both immediate and long-term 

concerns. Connecting with a competent health-care 

provider who has experience with victims of trafficking 

may also provide reassurance to victims who may be 

reluctant to seek care.

Behavioral health. Children who have been trafficked 

often have an array of complex behavioral health needs. 

Victims may have experienced regular beatings, sexual 

assault, and other acts of violence. Most children who 

have been trafficked have a need for long-term, intensive 

behavioral health services that can help them move 

forward into a new, healthier life. Studies have identified 

a number of mental health symptoms associated with 

trafficking, including posttraumatic stress disorder, panic 

attacks, obsessive-compulsive disorder, generalized 

anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, dissociative 

disorders, and substance use (Williamson, Dutch, & 

Clawson, 2010). Screening by qualified behavioral health 

providers who have experience with youth who have been 

trafficked can be the first step to getting help. Screening 

can help determine the type of therapy that might be 

most useful, and child welfare workers can facilitate 

access to treatment providers. 

Housing. Children who have been trafficked and come 

into the care of child welfare almost always have an 

immediate need for a safe place to live. Their background 

may make them especially vulnerable in a traditional 

foster care setting, and many foster families are 

unprepared to care for a child who has been trafficked. 

Some shelters and group homes may develop programs 

specifically for children who have been trafficked. These 

congregate care settings are prepared to address the 

trauma experienced by children who have been trafficked. 

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10

Education. Children who have been trafficked may 

require educational screening and may also require 

remedial services. While some children may feel 

comfortable in a traditional school, others may prefer 

more nontraditional education options. Child welfare 

workers can help by collecting records, exploring 

education options, and facilitating enrollment.

Employment. Youth who have been trafficked may need 

assistance obtaining employment, especially if they lack 

legal work experience or have not acquired a high school 

diploma or GED. They also may have been arrested for 

crimes committed while being trafficked, which could 

prevent them from passing background checks required 

for employment. Additionally, victims of sex trafficking 

may have had the experience of making a large amount of 

money in a short time period and may not view the pay in 

an entry-level position as a viable option (Lutnick, 2016). 

Caseworkers can seek out programs in their communities 

that connect youth with job training, job skills and 

application support, internships or externships, or other 

supports.

Legal services. There are a number of circumstances 

that might require the child who has been trafficked to 

hire or otherwise secure legal assistance. Children may 

need lawyers if they are charged with crimes that are a 

result of their victimization. (For information about vacatur 

laws, which may allow certain crimes to be expunged or 

vacated, see the State Agency and Policy section of this 

bulletin.) They may also need legal counsel to protect 

themselves from their pimps or traffickers or to establish 

their legal identity. Some children involved with the justice 

system may require an attorney for victim advocacy, while 

those who are not citizens may require an immigration 

attorney. 

Other needs. Youth who have been trafficked will often 

need help with basic life skills (e.g., opening a bank 

account, keeping medical records) as well as training for 

a job and basic job skills. For many, having a mentor or 

someone who is willing and available to provide guidance 

over the long term is often essential to ensure that the 

youth is able to pursue a life away from trafficking.

Strategies for State and Local 

Agencies

States and other jurisdictions, taking their lead from the 

Federal Government, have undertaken their own efforts 

to prevent and respond to human trafficking. They have 

enacted policies and practices; sought out partners in 

other fields and within the community; helped build 

awareness among their own staff, related professionals, 

and the general public; developed and utilized screening 

and assessment tools; and designed service programs 

that specifically address the needs of children who are 

trafficking victims. This section describes these strategies 

and provides examples from State and local agencies 

across the country, which were gathered through 

interviews with project staff.

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11

State and Agency Policy

The policies that State and local child welfare agencies 

develop, as well as State legislation, can have wide-reaching 

effects on casework practice. Agency policy can dictate how 

victims of human trafficking are identified, how they can be 

screened into the system, and how they can be supported. 

Even just the presence of a policy regarding human 

trafficking may indicate to staff that it is a priority issue. Due 

to the complex needs of victims of human trafficking, as well 

as the fact that their needs and responses may differ from 

other children involved with the child welfare system, it is 

critical for agencies to develop policies that guide casework 

practice and the agency’s interactions with other agencies 

and organizations on this issue.

Although enacting State legislation can be a long and 

complex effort, it can often achieve the most sweeping and 

long-lasting results for addressing human trafficking. A 

growing number of States are enacting “safe harbor” laws 

that decriminalize the acts of children who are exploited for 

commercial sex, while providing them important legal 

protections and access to services. Safe harbor laws 

generally attempt to treat children as victims rather than 

criminals, to divert them from the justice system to the child 

welfare or other system where they can receive services, and 

to punish traffickers and those who seek out children for sex. 

Safe harbor legislation and its protections vary widely 

across States. As of 2015, 34 States had passed such 

legislation (Polaris, 2015a). 

Some States have also enacted vacatur laws, which allow 

victims to petition the court to vacate or expunge criminal 

convictions that resulted from their trafficking situations or, 

in some cases, that occurred while they were trafficked (U.S. 

Department of State, 2016). These laws can help victims, 

including minors, because having a conviction on their record 

could affect employment, immigration status, obtaining loans, 

and eligibility for certain programs. As of December 2016, at 

least 27 States had vacatur laws available to human trafficking 

victims (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2016). 

For more information about safe harbor and vacatur laws, 

refer to the Polaris Project at https://polarisproject.org/

state-laws-issue-briefs and the National Conference of State 

Legislatures at http://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-andcriminal-justice/human-trafficking.aspx. 

Trafficking Prevention

The prevention of human trafficking requires a 

comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach that 

is coordinated at the local, State, national, and 

international levels. The child welfare field should 

be a key partner in any efforts, and it is especially 

suited to take the lead in efforts to curtail the 

victimization of children in or formerly in foster 

care, particularly those who run away from foster 

care. As discussed in the Intersection With Child 

Welfare section, a large percentage of children 

who are trafficking victims had been involved 

with child welfare. Child welfare agencies can 

help children in foster care and congregate care 

recognize situations and factors that increase 

their risk of being trafficked and also help them 

understand that they are safe in their placements, 

especially if they are victims who have escaped 

their traffickers. Traffickers may attempt to recruit 

children in foster care or group care settings 

(HHS, ACF, Family and Youth Services Bureau, 

2017), and children who have been trafficked 

may attempt to maintain connections with 

the traffickers due to a trauma bond, which is 

sometimes referred to as Stockholm syndrome 

(West & Loeffler, 2015). 

For more information about youth who run away 

from foster care, refer to the Children’s Bureau’s 

Child Welfare Capacity Building Center for States’ 

At Risk for Sex Trafficking: Youth Who Run Away 

From Foster Care at http://go.usa.gov/x9Zrx. 

UNICEF offers a guide for developing effective 

prevention efforts. Although the guide is 

intended for European professionals, it is 

applicable to U.S. efforts as well. For more 

information, see Reference Guide on Protecting 

the Rights of Child Victims of Trafficking in Europe 

at https://www.unicef.org/ceecis/UNICEF_Child_

Trafficking34-43.pdf.

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12

Examples From the Field: Policy

Minnesota enacted its Safe Harbor law in 2011—

with full implementation in 2014—to ensure that 

sexually exploited youth are treated as victims 

rather than as criminals by the justice system. The 

State also allocated funds for training law 

enforcement on trafficking of youth, funded 

housing for victims, and created regional 

coordinators of services for commercially sexually 

exploited youth (Minnesota Department of 

Health, n.d.). A guidebook from Minnesota’s 

Department of Public Safety Office of Justice 

Programs provides information on this emerging 

approach to working with victims of trafficking. 

No Wrong Door: A Comprehensive Approach to 

Safe Harbor for Minnesota’s Sexually Exploited 

Youth is available at https://dps.mn.gov/divisions/

ojp/forms-documents/Documents/!2012%20

Safe%20Harbor%20Report%20%28FINAL%29.pdf.

In instances when trafficking is perpetrated by an 

individual other than a parent or caretaker, there 

is the potential that the case may not come to the 

attention of the appropriate child welfare agency. 

To address this issue, Massachusetts enacted a 

law in 2011 requiring all cases of suspected sex 

trafficking to be reported to child protective 

services. The law requires coordination between 

the Massachusetts Department of Children and 

Families (DCF), the Department of Mental Health, 

and other State agencies. It also stipulates that 

DCF will report any cases of sex trafficking to the 

district attorney and local law enforcement and 

that an advocate or multidisciplinary service team 

member will accompany the child to all court 

appearances. On the Federal level, the JVTA of 

2015 amended CAPTA to require child protective 

services to identify and assess all reports 

involving children known or suspected to be sex 

trafficking victims.

Collaboration

Preventing, identifying, and responding to human 

trafficking requires a multidisciplinary, community-wide 

approach. It is beyond the scope of a child welfare agency 

to serve all the needs victims of human trafficking may 

have. Any group or professional that comes into contact 

with children is a potential partner, but common partners 

in collaborations addressing the trafficking of children 

include law enforcement, district attorneys’ offices, 

juvenile justice agencies, court personnel, guardians 

ad litem, educators, health-care and behavioral health 

providers, policymakers, nonprofit agencies, foundations, 

and community members, as well as survivors of 

human trafficking. Collaboration can help communities 

develop supports and services to address unmet needs, 

coordinate strategies, develop a common language, 

identify trends, reduce duplication, and bring attention 

to human trafficking as a public health issue. It also can 

help create a more accessible service array for victims and 

possibly reduce the number of interviews during which 

they need to retell their experiences. 

One method of building relationships with other agencies 

and engaging communities, as well as developing or 

strengthening supports for victims of human trafficking, 

is to establish a task force. As of 2015, at least 20 States 

had statutes requiring or encouraging task forces, and 

many additional States and localities have established 

task forces without legislative action (Polaris Project, 

2015b). Task forces can have a variety of objectives, 

including assessing current approaches used in the field, 

coordinating law enforcement activities or the provision 

of social services, collecting and analyzing data, or even 

investigating possible cases of human trafficking. For 

more information about forming and operating a task 

force, visit the Human Trafficking Task Force E-Guide at 

https://www.ovcttac.gov/taskforceguide/eguide/. 

For additional information about the importance of 

collaboration, refer to the Capacity Building Center for 

States’ Collaborating With Youth-Serving Agencies to 

Respond to and Prevent Sex Trafficking of Youth at http://

go.usa.gov/x92eW. 

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13

Examples From the Field: Collaboration 

Collaborations that have been created or strengthened by the Miami CARES project, which is coordinated by 

Our Kids of Miami-Dade/Monroe (www.ourkids.us/), have resulted in two key anti-trafficking strategies: the 

Human Trafficking Child Plan and Recovery Task Force and the formalization of G.R.A.C.E. (Growth Renewed 

through Acceptance, Change and Empowerment) Court. The Miami State Attorney’s task force, in partnership 

with the Miami CARES project, uses monthly meetings to bring together a wide array of stakeholders to 

develop a strategic plan to find and recover children that are missing and for whom there is evidence of human 

trafficking. Attendees include case managers, guardians ad litem, law enforcement professionals, clinicians, 

members of the State Attorney’s Human Trafficking Unit, and others. From March 2016, when the meetings 

began, until December 2016, the group’s work had resulted in the recovery of five children.

The Miami CARES project also helped with the formalization of G.R.A.C.E. Court to address the needs of 

human trafficking victims in the legal system. Judge Sampedro Iglesias in the Miami-Dade court system had 

shown special interest in assisting victims and requested that cases be sent to her division, but the process was 

informal. The now-formalized process allows other judges to submit a referral form to Miami CARES when a child 

involved in a case may be a victim of human trafficking. The project conducts a meeting with multidisciplinary 

staff and, if it determines there is a connection to human trafficking, coordinates appropriate clinical 

interventions and supports and transfers the case to G.R.A.C.E. Court. The G.R.A.C.E. Court judge handles all 

the dependency and delinquency cases for the child as well as any cases related to Florida’s Marchman Act, 

which, in part, provides for drug court programs. During G.R.A.C.E. Court hearings, the entire team working 

on behalf of the child (e.g., case manager, guardian ad litem, therapist, life coach) is given the opportunity to 

provide updates on the child’s progress. The court also provides training on human trafficking to other judges in 

the Miami-Dade court system.

For additional information about the Miami CARES project, listen to “Interagency Collaboration to Address 

Human Trafficking,” a webinar hosted by the Children’s Bureau, at https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/resource/

child-welfare-podcast-interagency-collaboration. 

Training for Agency Staff and Partners

In 2014, Casey Family Programs conducted a study of 29 

States, 13 counties, New York City, Puerto Rico, and the 

District of Columbia about their responses to child sex 

trafficking (Casey Family Programs, 2014). Nearly twothirds (64 percent) of respondents indicated their agency’s 

staff had received training specific to child sex trafficking. 

Since victims of human trafficking often come into contact 

with several agencies, it is critical for training efforts to 

include both child welfare and related professionals, 

which will help establish a broad network of support that 

understands and recognizes the complexities of human 

trafficking and uses a common language. Proper training 

also will assist professionals in identifying possible signs 

of human trafficking and ensure victims receive necessary 

services. Training can help professionals understand that 

survivors of human trafficking are victims rather than 

criminals, which can influence the system response.

DOJ’s Office for Victims of Crime Training and 

Technical Assistance Center offers a variety of 

trainings on its website at https://www.ovcttac.

gov.

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14

Examples From the Field: Training

Several of the Children’s Bureau’s human trafficking grants focus on improving training for child welfare and related 

professionals on how to better respond to human trafficking. 

 The King County (WA) project developed a statewide train-the-trainer program to establish a unified approach to 

human trafficking across the State. By training individuals from a variety of fields (e.g., child welfare, law enforcement, 

attorneys), the project hopes to establish a common foundation for knowledge, language, and practice regarding 

human trafficking. A nationally recognized expert had been used to conduct all the trainings, but the project realized it 

was overwhelming for one individual to conduct the number of trainings required. The project partnered with that 

expert to develop a 3-day program titled Responding to the Sexual Exploitation and Trafficking of Youth—Train the 

Trainer. Trainees attend for free in exchange for an agreement to present the Responding to the Sexual Exploitation 

and Trafficking of Youth training three times per year within their communities. Another benefit of this training is that it 

allows for the attendees to tailor the trainings they provide in turn to be relevant to their communities. For example, an 

attendee from a rural Tribe could structure a training that is responsive to the needs and issues affecting that 

community, which may be different than what is affecting a more urban, non-Tribal area. For more information about 

King County’s efforts to address human trafficking, visit the King County Commercially Sexually Exploited Children 

Task Force webpage at http://www.kingcounty.gov/courts/superior-court/juvenile/csec.aspx. 

 The Maryland project worked with the Healthy Teen Network (http://www.healthyteennetwork.org/) to develop a 

human trafficking training for child welfare professionals that applies the concept of gamification (i.e., including 

elements of games to promote participation). Rather than responding to a static scenario that is given in full at the 

beginning, the board game approach allows a small team of attendees to work as a group to address a scenario that 

includes various wrinkles, just like a real case. For example, as the team is working toward a solution, they may receive a 

game card that states the trafficking victim has developed a trauma bond with the trafficker, which will affect how they 

proceed. 

 The Massachusetts project developed a two-phase training to build a statewide response system to address human 

trafficking. These trainings were designed to meet the unique needs of counties. The project is a partnership between 

My Life My Choice (MLMC) (http://www.fightingexploitation.org/), a program of the Justice Resource Institute; the 

SEEN (Support to End Exploitation Now) program (http://www.suffolkcac.org/programs/seen), which is part of the 

Children’s Advocacy Center of Suffolk County; and the Massachusetts DCF (http://www.mass.gov/eohhs/gov/

departments/dcf/). Phase 1 includes 4 1⁄2 days of trainings for each county. The first session—Understanding and 

Responding to Victims of Commercial Sexual Exploitation—is a full-day training provided by MLMC. It helps attendees 

understand how and where commercial sexual exploitation can occur, identify who is vulnerable and what the red flags 

are, and apply the Stages of Change model to help response workers recognize the significant challenges victims face 

in recovery. The subsequent trainings are provided by SEEN and focus on building a multidisciplinary approach and 

developing a child trafficking response protocol. It is provided to a cross-section of child welfare and juvenile justice 

professionals. The project typically conducts the MLMC and SEEN trainings back to back in order to build and sustain 

the momentum within each county. 

In Phase 2, the project provides additional support and technical assistance to each county in developing and 

implementing its protocol. The project offers targeted assistance onsite to each county, provides additional trainings 

(e.g., a residential program leadership training to build service capacity in the community), and brings multiple counties 

together to discuss challenges and share best practices. 

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15

Screening and Assessment Tools

In order for victims of human trafficking to receive the 

services and supports they need, child welfare and related 

professionals must be able to identify them. Receiving 

training about human trafficking is an important step 

toward improved identification, but professionals also 

need to have access to tools for screening and assessing 

victims and potential victims. Agencies may want to 

consider formally incorporating the use of these tools into 

their policies and practices. This could be done by using 

or adapting existing tools specifically designed to identify 

victims of human trafficking and their needs, creating 

new screening and assessment tools for trafficking, or by 

integrating trafficking indicators into tools intended to 

address broad child welfare-related issues. 

The Loyola University Center for the Human Rights 

of Children and the International Organization for 

Adolescents developed a series of tools and checklists 

to help child welfare professionals identify potential 

child victims of both sex and labor trafficking. To view 

these resources, including the Rapid Screening Tool and 

the Comprehensive Screening and Safety Tool for Child 

Trafficking, refer to Building Child Welfare Response to 

Child Trafficking at http://www.luc.edu/media/lucedu/

chrc/pdfs/BCWRHandbook2011.pdf. To view additional 

screening and assessment tools for sex trafficking, refer 

to the Children’s Bureau’s Child Welfare Capacity Building 

Collaborative’s Identifying Minors and Young People 

Exploited Through Sex Trafficking: A Resource for Child 

Welfare Agencies at http://go.usa.gov/x92Md.

Example From the Field: 

Screening and Assessment Tools

Since it can be difficult to document if a child is 

a victim of sex trafficking unless there is prior law 

enforcement involvement or self-identification, the 

Maryland Department of Human Resources (DHR) 

wanted to improve its identification process. 

DHR uses the Child and Adolescent Needs and 

Strengths (CANS) tool to assess children involved 

with its child welfare system. A supplemental 

CANS tool exists for assessing whether children 

are at risk for commercial sexual exploitation, but 

DHR did not want to add another assessment 

to the many others that caseworkers already 

conduct. Through a Children’s Bureau grant, 

the University of Maryland, Baltimore (UMB) has 

helped DHR screen for potential victims of sex 

trafficking by using data already gathered in the 

CANS. UMB identified which items on the CANS 

showed increased risk for sex trafficking and 

developed an algorithm that is used to generate a 

monthly report of children at risk of sex trafficking. 

The caseworker then receives a notification so that 

she can conduct additional screening and help the 

child obtain services. The validity of the system 

was tested by using data regarding youth in the 

child welfare system who were already known to 

have been trafficked. As of December 2016, the 

project was piloting the system in two jurisdictions 

(Baltimore City and Baltimore County).

For more information about CANS, which is a free, 

public domain tool, visit the Praed Foundation at 

http://praedfoundation.org/tools/the-child-andadolescent-needs-and-strengths-cans/. 

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16

Designing Service Programs

As described in the Understanding Victim Needs section, 

victims of human trafficking require service programs 

offering many of the same supports as the general child 

welfare population, such as permanent families and 

mental health care. These children, however, also may 

have needs that are unique to trafficking victims, and 

they require service systems that acknowledge and are 

responsive to their circumstances and experiences. For 

example, trafficking victims may be in the United States 

without any family, or they may be eligible for Federal 

programs or services that are specific to trafficking. 

When developing service programs, or finding community 

organizations as referral sources, child welfare agencies 

should ensure they are victim centered and trauma 

focused. Children who have been trafficked may be 

perceived as criminals themselves, and it is important for 

the child welfare and related systems to recognize that 

these children are victims. Unfortunately, the evidence 

base about how to serve this population is scant (HHS, 

ACYF, 2013; Institute of Medicine & National Research 

Council, 2013). Because of this, agencies and service 

providers may need to assess interventions intended 

for populations that may have similar characteristics 

or service needs to trafficking victims (e.g., runaway 

and homeless youth, sexually abused children) and 

adapt them to meet the needs of this population (HHS, 

ACYF, 2013). When using strategies intended for other 

populations, however, providers should ensure the 

strategies are flexible enough to meet the unique needs 

of children who have been trafficked. For example, a 

treatment for sexually abused children may be relevant 

to a child who is the victim of commercial sexual 

exploitation, but the provider would need to adapt it 

since there may be different issues and goals for a child 

abused by a single family member and a child who was 

sexually exploited by multiple nonfamily perpetrators 

(Fong & Cardoso, 2010). 

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17

Examples From the Field: Designing Service Programs

The Children’s Bureau’s human trafficking grantees have developed a variety of service programs to address the 

needs of child victims of human trafficking:

 After recognizing that there was a lack of foster homes that were able to meet the needs of trafficking victims, 

the King County project designed a program to establish specialized foster homes for this population. 

In partnership with YouthCare, the YMCA, Casey Family Programs, the Washington State Children’s 

Administration, and the courts, the project developed a curriculum for foster parents and potential foster 

parents about providing placements that suit the needs of victims of human trafficking. The curriculum also 

addresses issues for which this population may be at higher risk, such as running away. 

 The Miami CARES project enabled OurKids to expand the number of slots available for victims in its 

CHANCE (Citrus Helping Adolescents Negatively impacted by Commercial Exploitation) program, which 

includes specialized therapeutic foster homes and wraparound services. Foster parents participating in 

the therapeutic program receive training on supporting children who are victims of commercial sexual 

exploitation, and the children receive additional services from a therapist, life coach, and targeted 

caseworker. The number of slots for this component increased from 8 to 15, and victims who are not placed in 

a therapeutic home are still eligible to receive wraparound services (e.g., therapy, life coaching, targeted case 

management) regardless of where they are placed. The number of wraparound slots was increased from 19 

to 47. The project also convenes a multidisciplinary meeting to discuss the progress of children involved with 

either the therapeutic homes or wraparound services. For more information about the CHANCE program, 

visit http://www.citrushealth.org/CHANCE. 

 The Connecticut DCF project strengthened its partnership with Love146, which coordinates the Survivor Care 

program in the State for children who are identified as high-risk or confirmed victims. This program has two 

components:

○ Rapid response: The program provides one-time interventions to provide urgent services, including safety

planning and resource referrals. The worker also provides the child with a survivor backpack that includes

resource and hotline information, a blanket, a journal, hygiene supplies, a teddy bear, an emergency

phone, and more. After the meeting, the Love146 worker sends DCF a summary of the meeting, including

which referrals the child may need.

○ Long-term care: A specialized licensed social worker meets twice per week with children and is able to

meet them wherever they are in the State.

For more information about the Survivor Care program, visit the Love146 website at https://love146.org/

programs/u-s-survivor-care/.

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18

Building Community Awareness

Building community awareness can have a twofold effect on anti-trafficking efforts. First, it can help with the 

identification of victims of sex and labor trafficking. Awareness efforts may help victims recognize their situation, selfidentify, and seek assistance. These efforts also can alert the general public to the signs of human trafficking, which 

may spur additional leads about and reports of human trafficking in the community. Second, awareness efforts can help 

prevent trafficking. Public awareness campaigns can help inform potential victims about how to recognize circumstances 

that could potentially be recruitment strategies by traffickers and how to request help if needed. They also have the 

potential to raise awareness of the issue among individuals who may solicit the services of trafficked children or engage 

with businesses that exploit them. 

Examples From the Field: Building Community Awareness

Project NO REST (North Carolina Organizing and Responding to the Exploitation and Sexual Trafficking of 

Children) of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill partnered with FOX 50 of the Capitol Broadcasting 

Company to develop a public awareness campaign about human trafficking. The effort is funded both through 

the Children’s Bureau grant and funds from the Governor’s Crime Commission, which disburses funds from 

the Victims of Crime Act (VOCA). The campaign is focused on reaching out to victims of human trafficking and 

features multiple components. 

 FOX 50 is airing public service announcements (PSAs) on its station, and the project is using VOCA funds 

to purchase air time in other areas of the State. The contact information for assistance on the PSAs will lead 

viewers to the Polaris hotline (phone and text), which can connect them to local services and assistance.

 FOX 50 also helped create an additional Project NO REST website (www.projectnorest.org). The goal of this 

site is to help link individuals to needed assistance and heighten awareness of human trafficking. It is less 

academic than the main website and is more approachable to a wide range of audiences. It will include links 

to service providers across the State. 

 Project NO REST also is using web-based search advertising to reach new audiences. With search 

advertising, web users may encounter advertising for the project on various websites based on the search 

terms they have used elsewhere (e.g., Google) that are related to human trafficking. For example, targeted 

advertising may appear if users have searched for terms indicating they are seeking help for a human 

trafficking situation or if they appear to be soliciting services for which a trafficked child may be exploited. 

The project also is expanding its web presence by posting on Twitter and Facebook.

The project has been in communication with service providers about the campaign so they are ready for a 

possible influx of contacts and referrals. 

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19

Conclusion

Human trafficking is a complex problem that requires a 

multifaceted, collaborative response. With their close 

connection to vulnerable children who are at high risk for 

exploitation or who may already be victims, child welfare 

agencies can be central partners in this effort. Child 

welfare agency leadership should be aware of the unique 

circumstances faced by victims of trafficking and ensure 

their agencies are fully prepared to serve this population. 

This may include incorporating protocols for working with 

victims of trafficking, including a screening process, into 

agency policy and ensuring staff receive training about 

the risk and signs of trafficking as well as the availability 

of services and supports in the community that are wellinformed about the needs of trafficking victims. Agencies 

also can participate in data-collection efforts regarding 

the incidence of human trafficking in their communities 

and the needs of victims. This can help child welfare and 

partner agencies determine the scope of trafficking in their 

areas and develop strategies to prevent and address it.

Additional Resources

 Human Trafficking (Child Welfare Information Gateway)

https://www.childwelfare.gov/topics/systemwide/

trafficking/

 Federal Government Efforts to Combat Human 

Trafficking (OTIP)

https://www.acf.hhs.gov/otip/resource/federalgovernment-efforts-to-combat-human-trafficking

 Polaris 

https://polarisproject.org/

 National Center for Missing and Exploited Children 

http://www.missingkids.com

 Human Trafficking Awareness Month (National Child 

Traumatic Stress Network) 

http://www.nctsn.org/resources/public-awareness/

human-trafficking

 Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children and 

Adolescents: Services for Victims (California EvidenceBased Clearinghouse for Child Welfare)

http://www.cebc4cw.org/topic/commercial-sexualexploitation-of-children-and-adolescents-services-forvictims/

References

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trafficking from a child welfare perspective. Retrieved 

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Center for the Human Rights for Children, & International 

Organization for Adolescents. (2011). Building child 

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This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information Gateway. 

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Human Trafficking and Child Welfare: A Guide for Child Welfare Agencies https://www.childwelfare.gov

 

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Act (TVPA) – Fact sheet. Retrieved from http://

humantrafficking.ohio.gov/links/TVPA%20Fact%20

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harbor. Retrieved from https://polarisproject.org/sites/

default/files/2015%20Safe%20Harbor%20Issue%20

Brief.pdf

Polaris Project. (2015b). Human trafficking issue brief: Task 

forces. Retrieved from https://polarisproject.org/sites/

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Administration for Children and Families, Family 

and Youth Services Bureau. (2017). Bought and sold: 

Recognizing and assisting youth victims of domestic 

sex trafficking. Retrieved from https://ncfy.acf.hhs.

gov/publications/bought-and-sold-recognizing-andassisting-youth-victims-domestic-sex-trafficking

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 

Administration for Children, Youth and Families. (2013). 

Guidance to States and services on addressing human 

trafficking of children and youth in the United States. 

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report: June 2016. Retrieved from https://www.state.

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West, A., & Loeffler, D. N. (2015). Understanding 

victim resistance: An exploratory study of the 

experiences of service providers working with 

victims of child trafficking. Journal of Applied 

Research on Children: Informing Policy for 

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Suggested Citation: 

Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2017). Human 

trafficking and child welfare: A guide for child welfare 

agencies. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health 

and Human Services, Children’s Bureau.