of U.S. colleges had a past-year prevalence of 

10 percent or higher for nonmedical use of 

prescription opioids.4

An institution’s response to student drug 

abuse should be crafted to take into account 

individual campus and community circumstances. A comprehensive prevention approach 

begins with defining the nature and scope of 

the problem and then seeking to understand 

and identify the environmental factors in the 

campus community that are encouraging 

substance use. Based 

on that information, 

administrators can 

select and implement 

a host of targeted 

environmental management strategies, 

discussed below, that 

can help students 

make healthier 

decisions.

The Scope of 

the Problem

Drugs other than 

alcohol can be 

categorized as street 

drugs, club drugs, 

performanceenhancing drugs, and 

prescription drugs 

used for nonmedical 

purposes. Table 1 indicates both the pastyear and monthly 

prevalence of the 

most common illicit 

drugs used by college 

students in 2006, as 

reported by Monitoring the Future. While 

Other Drug Use and Abuse on Campus

The Scope of the Problem

For additional information

The Higher Education Center for

Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and 

Violence Prevention 

Education Development Center, Inc.

55 Chapel Street

Newton, Massachusetts 02458-1060 

Web site: http://www.higheredcenter.org

Phone: 1-800-676-1730; TDD Relay-friendly, Dial 711 

Fax: 617-928-1537

E-mail: HigherEdCtr@edc.org

Funded by the U.S. Department of Education

April 2009

by Virginia Ross, Ph.D., and William DeJong, Ph.D.

The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention 

Introduction

Of all drugs abused on college and university 

campuses, alcohol causes the greatest harm.1

 

Other drugs (the prevention field uses the term 

other drugs to distinguish them from alcohol, 

which also is a drug) also take a significant 

toll—diminishing the quality of campus life, 

undermining academic performance, compromising students’ health and safety—and 

therefore also warrant the attention of higher 

education administrators. 

Monitoring the shifting and varied patterns of 

illicit drug use and their effects presents a significant challenge to campus prevention professionals. One disturbing trend, for example, has 

been the rise of prescription drug abuse—that 

is, the use of medication without a prescription 

or contrary to a doctor’s direction. Marijuana is 

still the most frequently used drug other than 

alcohol, but the rate of prescription drug misuse 

on campus has been climbing steadily.2

 

One complication is that patterns of use 

vary by region and can shift quickly depending on availability, cost, and other factors. One 

national survey found that past-year rates of 

nonmedical stimulant use ranged from 0 to 25 

percent at individual colleges and universities.3

 

The same survey found that about one-fourth 

these data provide a useful national picture, the 

use of specific drugs does vary across institutions. Hence, campus officials need to learn 

how substance use on their campus matches or 

departs from these national trends.

Street Drugs

Excepting alcohol, marijuana is used by a 

far greater number of students than any 

other drug.5

 In 2006, close to one-third (30.2 

percent) of full-time college students annually 

(Continued on page 2)

The Monitoring the Future study reported the following levels of drug use in 

2006 among full-time college students (one to four years beyond high school)

TABLE 1. 

Annual and monthly prevalence of use for various 

types of drugs—Full-time U.S. college students, 2006

Type of Drug

Annual 

Prevalence (%)

Monthly 

Prevalence (%)

Alcohol 82.1 65.4

Any Illicit Drug 33.9 19.2

Any Illicit Drug 

Other Than Marijuana 18.1 8.2

Marijuana 30.2 16.7

Vicodin 7.6 NA

Tranquilizers 5.8 2.1

Hallucinogens 5.6 0.9

Cocaine 5.1 1.8

Ritalin 3.9 NA

Sedatives 3.4 1.3

OxyContin 3.0 NA

Ecstasy 2.6 0.6

Inhalants 1.5 0.4

Methamphetamine 1.2 NA

Ketamine 0.9 NA

Heroin 0.3 0.2

Rohypnol 0.2 NA

GHB < 0.05 NA

INFOFACTSRESOURCES
2

students.19 White students tend to abuse all 

forms of drugs more frequently than students of 

color.20 Members of fraternities and sororities are more likely to abuse drugs than their 

counterparts who have no fraternity or sorority 

affiliation.21 Use of other drugs is also more 

likely among heavy episodic drinkers.22 

Students with mental health disorders or 

intense emotional problems are more likely than 

those without these diagnoses to engage in illegal 

drug use.23 For example, students diagnosed with 

depression are more apt than other students to 

have ever abused prescription drugs (17.9 percent 

vs. 12.5 percent); to have ever used marijuana 

(42.3 percent vs. 33.3 percent); and to have 

ever used other illicit drugs (9.2 percent vs. 6.3 

percent).24 The odds of engaging in marijuana, 

cocaine, or other illegal drug use are more than 

twice as high among students who have considered suicide, as are the odds of using a combination of alcohol and illegal drugs.25 

Consequences of Other Drug Use

Illicit street drugs create special dangers for 

both individual students and the campus community. Students who buy illegal drugs run 

the risk of being arrested or becoming a victim 

of violence. Those who sell street drugs are by 

definition criminals, and their very presence on 

campus threatens the health and safety of the 

college environment.26 

The physiological effects of drugs range from 

mild dizziness, reduced response time, or diminished inhibition to death from overdose. Students 

are more likely to be careless under the influence 

of drugs, leading to risky and dangerous behaviors and additional consequences, including 

unintentional injury to self or others, unplanned 

pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease, and 

drugged driving and motor vehicle crashes.

Mental health problems can both lead to 

and be exacerbated by drug use. Often students 

who try to medicate their own depression or 

anxiety soon find that drug use itself leads to 

a downward spiral of mental and emotional 

problems.27 There is also the risk of developing 

drug dependence or addiction. 

used marijuana, while monthly use stood at 

16.7 percent. More male than female students used 

marijuana, looking at both past-year (35.8 vs. 26.6 

percent) and monthly use (21.3 vs. 13.8 percent).6

 

Past-year and monthly rates of marijuana 

use were up slightly since the early 1990s but 

remain far below what was seen in the early 

1980s. Past-year use was 29.4 percent in 1990 

and 51.2 percent in 1980, while monthly use 

was 14.6 percent in 1990 and 34.0 percent in 

1980. Rates of daily marijuana use rose more 

sharply, from 1.7 percent in 1990 to 4.3 percent 

in 2006, but stood at 7.2 percent in 1980.7 

In 2006, the rate of past-year cocaine use 

among full-time college students was 5.1 percent 

(among men at 7.3 percent and women at 3.7 

percent). Monthly use was 1.8 percent, while 

daily use was reported by only 0.1 percent. In 

1990, 5.6 percent of students used cocaine annually, while in 1980 fully 16.8 percent did so. 

Heroin has been used by relatively few college 

students. In 2006, only 0.3 percent of students 

said they had used heroin in the past year.

Even though cocaine and heroin use is relatively uncommon, future trends bear watching. 

Purified cocaine and heroin can be snorted or 

smoked, and intravenous injection is no longer 

necessary to get an intense “high.” Students 

who might have avoided these drugs to avoid 

HIV transmission or the stigma associated with 

using needles may be more tempted now to 

initiate use.8 

Club Drugs

Club drugs, including ecstasy (MDMA), methamphetamine, and hallucinogens such as lysergic 

acid diethylamide (LSD), are often found in 

dance clubs, concerts, and large all-night dances, 

or raves. These drugs are used by relatively few 

students but continue to be of concern.

Use of ecstasy peaked during 2001, when 9.2 

percent of full-time college students reported 

using it at least once in the past year. This figure 

dropped to 2.6 percent in 2006.9

 Like ecstasy, 

methamphetamine provides strong stimulant 

effects. In 2006, past-year use of methamphetamine was 1.2 percent. Past-year hallucinogen 

use was 5.6 percent, with LSD use at 1.4 percent.10 

Other club drugs were used far less often: 

gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB)—less than 

0.05 percent; ketamine—0.9 percent; and 

Rohypnol—0.2 percent. These three drugs are 

frequently cited in press accounts as “date rape 

drugs.”11 Note, however, that any drug that affects 

consciousness can be used in sexual assaults. 

Indeed, the most commonly used date rape drug 

is alcohol.12 The Drug-Induced Rape Prevention and Punishment Act, enacted by Congress 

in 1996, increased federal penalties for sexual 

crimes involving any controlled substance.13

Performance-Enhancing Drugs

The use of anabolic steroids, especially among 

athletes, is of serious concern on college campuses. In 2006, 0.8 percent of full-time college 

students reported using steroids (2.0 percent of 

males, but less than 0.05 percent of females).14

Prescription Drugs

The most frequently abused prescription drugs 

are opioids or painkillers (e.g., OxyContin, 

Percocet, Vicodin); central nervous depressants, or tranquilizers (e.g., Valium, Xanax); 

sedatives, or barbiturates (e.g., Nembutal, 

Seconal); and stimulants, including methylphenidate (Ritalin and Concerta) and 

amphetamine (Adderall and Dexedrine).15 

College students abuse several prescription 

medications. In 2006, annual rates for prescription opioid misuse among full-time college 

students stood as follows: Vicodin, 7.6 percent; 

and OxyContin, 3.0 percent. Tranquilizer 

misuse was reported by 5.8 percent and sedative 

misuse by 3.4 percent.16 

In 2006, 3.9 percent of full-time college 

students reported misuse of the stimulant Ritalin in the past year.17 Analysis of prescription 

stimulant misuse among various age groups 

reveals that this habit is most likely to begin 

in college, although anecdotal reports indicate 

increasingly early ages of initiation.18

Patterns of Other Drug Use

Male college students are somewhat more likely to 

engage in other drug abuse than female college 

 INFOFACTS 

The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention u http://www.higheredcenter.org

(Continued on page 3)
3

The short-term effects of marijuana include 

impairments of coordination, memory, comprehension, problem solving, judgment, and 

motivation.28 Marijuana use is also a risk factor 

associated with abuse of other illicit drugs. Most 

students who use other illicit drugs have previously used marijuana.29 Indeed, the proportion 

of college students who have used other illicit 

drugs before or without ever using marijuana is 

less than 5 percent.30 

Cocaine is a powerfully addictive drug that 

has been associated with seizures, heart attacks, 

and violent behavior.31 Long-term effects of 

heroin include, in addition to addiction, infection of the heart lining and valves and possible 

death.32 With a recent lack of public focus on 

heroin addiction, today’s college students may 

be prone to “generational forgetting” and precariously unaware of the dangers of the drug.33 

By themselves, club drugs have incapacitating effects, causing disorientation, impaired 

judgment, amnesia, and even coma.34 When 

mixed with alcohol, their use can lead to immediate blackout, causing sexual predators 

to employ them as date rape drugs. As noted 

previously, alcohol remains the primary drug 

implicated in date rape on college campuses.

The psychological effects of club drugs 

include hallucination, confusion, depression, 

anxiety, and paranoia. Students also may experience physical consequences, ranging from 

nausea and dehydration to increased heart rate 

and blood pressure.35 Chronic use of ecstasy can 

lead to permanent changes in brain function.36 

Performance-enhancing drugs also involve 

negative effects that far outweigh any positive 

results users may perceive. Ephedra has been 

linked to health complications, including death. 

The consequences of using anabolic steroids 

range from drastic mood swings to increased 

risk of contracting HIV.37 

Prescription drugs also present significant 

risks, especially when they are misused or 

administered through non-prescribed methods. 

One study indicated that 40 percent of students 

who abuse prescription drugs ingest them by 

snorting.38 Snorting, which rapidly delivers a 

large dose of the drug to the bloodstream and 

brain, is particularly dangerous. Although 

prescription drugs may lack the stigma of street 

drugs, they can lead to the same types of severe 

negative consequences.39 

Poly-Drug Use

Drugs are often used in combination, which increases the potential for dangerous consequences 

resulting from their synergistic effects. Prescription opioids, for example, lead to greater toxicity 

when they interact with other drugs.40

In most cases, alcohol is the most commonly 

co-administered substance.41 Alcohol may 

disinhibit drinkers and lead them to experiment 

with or use marijuana or other illicit drugs.42 

Some students use alcohol and other drugs in 

combination to enhance their effects.43 Other 

substances are also deliberately combined. 

Heroin and cocaine are often taken together, for 

example, to moderate the drowsiness associated 

with heroin. 

Studies show that poly-drug users on campus 

are far more likely than either high-risk drinkers or users of one illicit drug to engage in other 

risk-taking behaviors.44 Moreover, individuals 

who simultaneously use alcohol and other 

drugs are more likely than others to become 

addicted to both alcohol and other drugs.45 

The list of possible consequences of the many 

other drugs used on U.S. college campuses is 

well documented in research and field experience. Sources of information about the signs, 

symptoms, and long-term effects of particular 

drugs are included in the Resources section. 

Implications for Academic Success

Both research studies and campus experience demonstrate that the use of illicit drugs 

compromises academic performance. Chronic 

use of marijuana impairs mental abilities and 

information processing.46 Negative effects of 

marijuana include poorer academic achievement and motivation, lower grade point 

averages, increased absenteeism, lower rates of 

completing college, and less educational satisfaction.47 Long-term use of opioids leads to difficulties both in conceptualizing and in solving 

problems.48 The short-term perceived academic 

improvements of misusing Ritalin or Adderall 

are more than offset by the longer-term health 

effects, which can lead to drug dependence and 

academic failure.49 

Factors Related to Drug Abuse 

Two broad sets of factors related to drug abuse 

need to be understood in order to fashion 

an effective prevention strategy: individual 

motivations for using drugs, and factors in the 

environment that promote drug use or can 

prevent it.

Why Do Students Use Drugs? 

Understanding students’ motives for using 

drugs can help inform prevention efforts.50 

Fully 46 percent of those who use drugs attribute their behavior to the need to relax, 

reduce stress, or forget about their problems.51 

Easing nervousness at social gatherings and the 

desire to “fit in” are also cited as motives. Some 

students report they are motivated by the desire 

to get intoxicated, to intensify the experience of 

partying, and to abandon inhibitions.52 

Some motives seem to be consistently associated with particular drugs. Students who use cocaine and crack, its smokable form, report that 

they long for the powerful euphoria and rush 

of energy the drug brings. Students who abuse 

heroin sometimes acknowledge that they return 

to the drug because they yearn for a predictable, 

intense euphoria.53 

Other students take performance-enhancing 

drugs to enhance their athletic performance.54 

These students may believe that steroids offer 

the quickest way to build muscle mass, or that 

ephedra will boost both concentration and 

stamina on the playing field.

Many students use stimulant drugs to sustain 

longer study sessions.55 Students report that 

stimulants such as Adderall and Ritalin help 

them stay awake and heighten their ability 

to concentrate. Females are more likely than 

males to use attention deficit hyperactivity 

disorder drugs to study.56 Because these students 

are not seeking thrills or trying to gain acceptance 

 INFOFACTS 

The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention u http://www.higheredcenter.org

(Continued on page 4)
4

 INFOFACTS 

The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention u http://www.higheredcenter.org

within a drug-using counterculture, many of 

these students do not define their behavior as 

“drug abuse.”57 

Still other students use stimulant drugs 

when trying to control their weight, based on 

the reasoning that pills, unlike alcohol, add 

no calories. The stimulants themselves, they 

believe, help them lose weight, or they substitute 

pills for alcohol so they can become intoxicated 

without consuming calories. 

Prescription stimulants, cocaine, or methamphetamine are sometimes used to combat the 

depressant effects of excessive alcohol consumption or to stay awake at parties or clubs. Use of 

prescription stimulants when partying seems to 

be increasing.58 One article identified that some 

men who have sex with men use methamphetamine to enhance sexual performance.59

Environmental Factors

Campus administrators need to identify factors 

in the environment that promote drug use and 

abuse. The sociocultural environment in which 

today’s students attend college is characterized 

by a decreased tolerance for pain and discomfort, heightened consumer demand for 

medications, aggressive advertising of prescription drugs, and a greater tendency to medicate 

negative emotions.60 One researcher reflected 

on the “seemingly unending capacity of pharmacological experts and amateurs to discover 

new substances with abuse potential that can 

alter mood and consciousness and of young 

people to discover the abuse potential of existing 

products.”61 

Another aspect of the normative environment 

that elevates risk for drug problems is the frequent acceptance of experimentation with drugs 

as a rite of passage. A widely held viewpoint 

considers the college years to be a time-out, 

a socially sanctioned break from otherwise 

enforceable rules of living.62 

The particular campus environment may 

also encourage drug use. For instance, the 

temptation to experiment with substance use 

may be especially seductive in the context of 

unstructured time and the absence of healthier 

options and activities. Campus policies that 

pertain specifically to other drug use may be 

nonexistent, unclear, or unknown to the student 

body, and enforcement may be inconsistent. 

The ease of obtaining drugs is another 

critical risk factor for drug abuse. The majority 

of teens who abuse prescription drugs report 

that they get the medications from a relative 

or friend by purchasing them, getting them for 

free, or stealing.63 Students in search of Ritalin 

have been known to mimic the symptoms of 

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in order 

to secure their own prescription.64 A study conducted in southwestern California found that 

half of college students with Ritalin prescriptions had been approached by other students 

wanting them to sell, share, or give away pills.65 

The Internet opens a new world to students 

tempted to use illicit drugs. The World Wide Web 

is replete with appealing but often misleading 

information about the benefits of recreational 

drugs. Moreover, through social networking Web 

sites, bulletin boards, and chat rooms, students 

can find or create their 

own drug user community and locate illicit 

drug dealers.66 

New technology also 

eases the process of 

obtaining prescription 

drugs through online 

pharmacies, dubbed 

“pharmers’ markets” 

by one critic.67 As 

nearly all college 

students use the 

Internet, they now 

have access to a 24-

hour, private, and 

convenient means 

of purchasing 

drugs.68 The year 

2006 saw a 70 

percent increase 

in the number 

of Web sites that 

advertise or sell prescription drugs; 84 percent of these sites did not require a 

prescription in order to obtain the drug.69 

Interpersonal protective factors that may help 

reduce illicit drug use on college and university 

campuses are well documented in the adolescent substance abuse literature. Continued 

involvement of parents in the lives and decisions of their college student children has been 

shown to moderate the effect of going to college 

on increased marijuana use.70 Other protective 

factors include having friends who do not use 

illicit drugs, involvement in a religious faith or 

spiritual life, and engagement in community 

service.71 

Preventing Drug Abuse on Campus

The drug problem is different on each college 

campus. Thus, it is critically important to conduct a problem analysis to determine the exact 

nature and scope of the problem in the campus 

community. Different types of drugs may 

require somewhat different approaches. Student 

motives are another factor. For example, those 

motivated to take prescription 

drugs to improve 

their grades 

will respond to 

different prevention strategies 

than those using 

the drugs for social 

reasons or simply to 

get “high.” 

Once the problem analysis has 

been completed, 

the institution can 

establish long-term 

goals and objectives 

and then develop and 

implement a strategic 

plan.72 Importantly, 

the U.S. Department of 

Education’s principles of 

effectiveness underscore 

that the strategic plan 

should include an evaluation component to assess progress and inform 

midcourse improvements. 

 The U.S. Department of Education’s Office of 

Safe and Drug-Free Schools promotes princi

ples of effectiveness for prevention programs, 

-

as codified in the No Child Left Behind Act of 

2001. A subset of the principles of effective

ness most applicable to institutions of higher 

-

education can be summarized as follows: 

•	Design programsbasedon athorough

needs assessment of objective data.

 

•	Establish asetof measurablegoalsand

objectives linked to identified needs.

•	Implementprevention activities that 	 	

research or evaluation have shown to be 

effective in preventing illicit drug use.

•	Use evaluation results torefine, improve,

and strengthen the program and refine 

goals and objectives as appropriate. 

Principles of Effectiveness for 

Prevention Programs

(Continued on page 5)
5

approach have focused primarily on preventing alcohol abuse, many of its component 

strategies can also be applied to reduce the 

attractiveness and availability of other drugs. 

The environmental management approach involves five strategies, each focused on an aspect 

of typical campus community environments. 

Each strategy encompasses several promising 

program and policy options for administrators 

to consider as part of a comprehensive strategic 

plan for preventing illicit drug use. 

1. Offer and promote social, recreational, 

extracurricular, and public service options 

that do not include alcohol and other drugs.

Students at residential colleges may have 

comparatively few concrete responsibilities 

and considerable unstructured time, with limited social and recreational options. To help 

ensure that drug use is not the more appealing choice, campus administrators can invest 

resources to initiate and promote alcohol- and 

drug-free events and activities and offer financial support to student clubs and organizations that are alcohol- and other drug-free. In 

addition, they can open or expand a student 

center, gym, or other alcohol- and drug-free 

settings and make them available late into the 

evening and on weekends. 

Considering the problems related to ecstasy 

and other club drugs, campus prevention 

professionals can create alternative events that 

simulate the club and rave atmospheres that 

appeal to some students, featuring high-energy 

music, dancing, and extended hours. These 

events should be widely advertised as alcoholand drug-free. Adequate supervision and 

security measures should be in place to ensure 

that alcohol and other drugs are not used.

Moreover, because involvement in community service has been identified as a protective 

factor against drug abuse, campuses can 

sponsor and publicize opportunities for volunteer activities or service learning. Faculty 

can be enlisted to mentor students in these 

activities. Historically black colleges and 

universities (HBCUs) are exemplary from this 

perspective; most focus strongly on character 

 INFOFACTS 

The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention u http://www.higheredcenter.org

(Continued on page 6)

Education is the cornerstone for a comprehensive prevention effort. Students need basic 

facts about drugs to counter widespread myths 

about their effects. Especially important is 

information about newer drugs of abuse, which 

students may not have heard before. Students 

also need to know about federal, state, and local 

laws and the penalties for various violations. 

Access to treatment is also vital. Faculty and 

staff should be alert to signs of distress in students and then be prepared either to approach a 

student to get help or to contact the appropriate 

campus office to express their concerns. College 

and university officials should also make treatment for drug addiction readily available or be 

able to refer students if treatment resources are 

unavailable on campus.

These education and treatment interventions, 

directed at individual students, are essential 

but insufficient. Research suggests that the 

multifaceted problem of drug abuse is best 

approached through a comprehensive approach 

that includes environmental change strategies.73

Environmental Management 

Prevention Strategies

A prevention approach called environmental 

management offers a comprehensive framework for an adaptable and effective prevention 

program.74 The focus of this approach is to 

structure the campus and community environment in ways that decrease the supply and 

demand for both alcohol and other drugs. 

Seminal reports prepared by the National 

Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism75

and the National Academies76 strongly endorsed 

environmentally focused efforts to combat 

student alcohol abuse. Subsequent research has 

confirmed the value of this approach. For example, an evaluation of the A Matter of Degree 

initiative showed that campus and community 

coalitions can work effectively to implement 

multiple environmental management strategies 

and thus bring about reductions in heavy drinking, driving after drinking, and other alcoholrelated problems.77 

While most campus administrators who 

have applied the environmental management 

development and community service, and 

studies show that these institutions have 

lower rates of drug abuse.78

2. Create a social, academic, and residential 

environment that supports health-promoting 

norms.

Communications to students from colleges 

and universities should make clear the 

institution’s expectations that students will 

not abuse drugs. From recruitment information to letters from the president and other 

administrators, these expectations should be 

clearly articulated; messages from faculty 

and staff should reinforce these policies. 

Specific tactics to help convey the institution’s 

expectations that students will focus on academics instead of recreational drugs include 

expanding the number of early morning and 

Friday classes and increasing contact between 

faculty and students.

Students generally overestimate the 

percentage of their peers who use marijuana 

or other drugs, which can in turn lead them 

to feel pressured into drug use themselves.79 

College officials can conduct a survey to determine the actual prevalence of specific drugs 

on campus. Survey results can be used in a 

social norms campaign that communicates 

accurate information about the number of 

students who actually use other drugs, thereby 

reducing the perceived pressure to fit in.

Many colleges and universities now offer a 

residence hall where all drug use is prohibited. Another option is to employ older, 

salaried resident assistants who can enforce 

the college’s rules with greater authority than 

can undergraduate resident advisers.

3. Limit the availability of other drugs both 

on and off campus.

Research has demonstrated a close link 

between the widespread availability of drugs 

and both drug abuse and addiction.80 A 

campus and community coalition, with 

active participation from law enforcement 

agencies, can help identify where and how 
6

 INFOFACTS 

The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention u http://www.higheredcenter.org

(Continued on page 7)

students are getting and using illicit drugs. 

Then the coalition can work to arrest and 

prosecute dealers, ensure consequences for 

clubs that allow drug use on the premises, 

and take action against local landlords 

whose premises are used to sell drugs. Local 

ordinances can be amended to prohibit sales 

of drug paraphernalia.

Campus health officials can tighten 

controls on prescription drugs by routinely 

reviewing students’ medical records before 

writing prescriptions and restricting prescriptions they write to a month’s supply. During 

parent orientation, health services staff can 

provide helpful information on converting 

prescriptions to a local or campus pharmacy, so that multi-month supplies ordered 

through mail-order pharmacies are not 

delivered to a student’s campus address. Access to online pharmacies can be blocked on 

campus-based computers.

4. Restrict marketing and promotion of clubs 

and raves.

Campus officials can prohibit both oncampus advertising of raves and other events 

at which club drug use may be encouraged 

or tolerated and the posting of student party 

announcements that refer to or imply illicit 

drug use. Faculty and campus housing staff 

should be encouraged to become aware of 

and report the presence of any on-campus 

marketing materials that promote illegal 

drugs or parties at which these drugs may 

be available. Campus policies should also 

prohibit sale of pro-drug paraphernalia (e.g., 

pipes, rolling papers, and bongs) on campus 

property. A local coalition can implement 

complementary strategies in the surrounding 

community.

5. Develop and enforce campus policies and 

enforce local, state, and federal laws.

Campus officials should regularly review and 

revise their alcohol and other drug policies to 

respond to specific drugs of abuse, including 

prescription drugs. These policies should then 

be communicated clearly and frequently to 

the campus community. Consequences for 

violations should also be spelled out.

Campus police, administrators, residence 

hall staff, and other appropriate staff should 

partner with local law enforcement to uphold 

campus policies and local, state, and federal 

laws related to possession or distribution of 

illicit drugs. Advertisements or promotions 

of drug use found on the campus or in the 

community also can be investigated by law 

enforcement. 

Other tactics include developing and enforcing new policies to curb off-campus parties and developing a system whereby local 

law enforcement agencies report off-campus 

drug offenses to campus officials. The college 

or university should not be a haven where 

students think they are immune from the 

consequences of their actions, and students 

should be made aware that they will not be 

protected from legal liability.

Conclusion

Today’s college students face a range of drug 

temptations never envisioned by earlier generations of students. Campus administrators have 

a responsibility to minimize the temptation and 

opportunity for drug abuse and to help students 

navigate the new world they inhabit and an 

opportunity to guide them toward options for 

a healthier life. A comprehensive approach 

grounded in environmental management offers 

a solution to student drinking and other drug 

abuse, thereby helping protect students’ health, 

safety, and educational future. 

Virginia Ross, Ph.D., is a freelance writer 

in Acton, Mass. William DeJong, Ph.D., is a 

professor of social and behavioral sciences at 

the Boston University School of Public Health 

and a senior adviser to the Higher Education 

Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and 

Violence Prevention. 

The Drug and Alcohol Abuse Prevention Regulations (Education Department General Administrative Regulations

[EDGAR], Part 86) state that, as a condition of receiving 

funds or other forms of financial assistance under any federal 

program, institutions of higher education must employ a 

sound method for annually notifying every student and staff 

member of standards of conduct that prohibit the unlawful 

possession, use, or distribution of illicit drugs and alcohol on 

college property or as part of any college-related activities.81

“Whatever lasting success is achieved in drug abuse prevention comes from comprehensive, multidimensional programs and from collaboration across campus. This means 

that everybody with a stake in the issue is involved: student 

affairs, health services, faculty, other administrators—as 

well as public safety.”

—Steven Healy, Director of Public Safety and Chief of 

Police, Princeton University, and President, International 

Association of Campus Law Enforcement Administrators82
7

INFOFACTSRESOURCES

The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention u http://www.higheredcenter.org

18. Teter, C. J.; McCabe, S. E.; LaGrange, K; Cranford, J. A.; 

and Boyd, G. J. “Illicit Use of Specific Prescription 

Stimulants Among College Students: Prevalence, Motives, and Routes of Administration.” Pharmacology

26: 1501–1510, 2006.

19. Johnston et al., Monitoring the Future: National 

Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2006.

20. Ibid.

21. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at 

Columbia University. Wasting the Best and the Brightest: Substance Abuse at American Colleges and 

Universities (New York: 2007).

22. Gledhill-Hoyt, J.; Lee, H.; Strote, J.; and Wechsler, H. 

“Increased Use of Marijuana and Other Illicit Drugs at 

U.S. Colleges in the 1990s: Results of Three National 

Surveys.” Addiction 95: 1655–1667, 2000.

23. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse 

at Columbia University, Wasting the Best and the 

Brightest.

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid. 

26. Center for College Health and Safety, Street Drugs.

27. Leshner, A. I. Why Do Sally And Johnny Use Drugs? 

Available at http://www.drugabuse.gov/

Published_articles/Sally.html. (Accessed on February 

13, 2009.)

28. The Partnership for a Drug-Free America. 2008. 

Marijuana. Available at http://www.drugfree.org/

Portal/drug_guide/Marijuana. (Accessed on February 

13, 2009.)

29. Gfroerer et al., “Initiation of Marijuana Use: Trends, 

Patterns, and Implications.” 

30. Mackesy-Amiti, M. D.; Frendrich, M.; and Goldstein, P. 

J. “Sequence of Drug Use Among Serious Drug Users: 

Typical vs. Atypical Progression.” Drug and Alcohol 

Dependence 45: 185–196, 1997.

31. NIDA. Cocaine. Available at http://www.drugabuse.gov/ 

drugpages/cocaine.html. (Accessed on February 13, 

2009.)

32. NIDA. NIDA InfoFacts: Heroin. Available at http://

www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/heroin.html. (Accessed on 

February 18, 2009.)

33. Johnston et al., Monitoring the Future: National 

Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2006.

34. Center for College Health and Safety, Date Rape and 

Club Drugs.

35. Ibid.

36. NIDA. NIDA InfoFacts: MDMA (Ecstasy). Available 

at http://www.drugabuse.gov/Infofacts/ecstasy.html. 

(Accessed on February 13, 2009.)

37. Center for College Health and Safety. Performance 

Enhancing Drugs. Available at http://

www.campushealthandsafety.org/drugs/performance. 

(Accessed on February 18, 2009.)

References

1. Task Force of the National Advisory Council on Alcohol 

Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institute on Alcohol 

Abuse and Alcoholism. A Call to Action: Changing the 

Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges (Washington, 

D.C.: National Institutes of Health, 2002).

2. Teens and Prescription Drugs: An Analysis of Recent 

Trends on the Emerging Drug Threat (Washington, 

D.C.: Office of National Drug Control Policy, 2007).

3. McCabe, S. E.; Knight, J. R.; Teter, C. J.; and Wechsler, H. 

“Nonmedical Use of Prescription Stimulants among 

U.S. College Students: Prevalence and Correlates from 

a National Survey.” Addiction 99: 96–106, 2005.

4. McCabe, S. E.; Teter, C. J.; Boyd, C. J.; Knight, J. R.; and 

Wechsler, H. “Nonmedical Use of Prescription Opioids 

among U.S. College Students: Prevalence and Correlates from a National Survey.” Addictive Behaviors

30: 789–805, 2005.

5. Gfroerer, J. C.; Wu, L.-T.; and Penne, M. A. Initiation of 

Marijuana Use: Trends, Patterns, and Implications.

Analytic Series A-17 (Rockville, Md.: Substance Abuse 

and Mental Health Services Administration, 2002). 

6. Johnston, L. D.; O’Malley, P. M.; Bachman, J. G.; and 

Schulenberg, J. E. Monitoring the Future: National 

Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2006. Volume 

II: College Students and Adults Ages 19–45 (Bethesda, 

Md.: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2007).

7. Ibid.

8. Center for College Health and Safety. Street Drugs.

Available at http://www.campushealthandsafety.org/

drugs/street-drugs. (Accessed on October 3, 2007.)

9. Johnston et al., Monitoring the Future: National 

Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2006.

10. Ibid.

11. Center for College Health and Safety. Date Rape and 

Club Drugs. Available at http://

www.campushealthandsafety.org/drugs/club-drugs. 

(Accessed on October 3, 2007.)

12. ElSohly, M., and Salamone, S. “Prevalence of Drugs 

Used in Cases of Alleged Sexual Assault.” Journal of 

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13. Drug-Induced Rape Prevention and Punishment Act of 

1996. Available at http://earthops.org/law_104-305.html. 

(Accessed on February 13, 2009.)

14. Johnston et al., Monitoring the Future: National 

Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2006.

15. Teens and Prescription Drugs: An Analysis of Recent 

Trends.

16. Johnston et al., Monitoring the Future: National 

Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2006.

17. Ibid.

38. White, B. P.; Becker-Blease, K. A.; and Brace-Bishop, K. 

“Stimulant Medication Use, Misuse, and Abuse in an 

Undergraduate and Graduate Student Sample.” Journal 

of American College Health 54: 261–268, 2006.

39. NIDA. Prescription Medications. Available at http://

www.drugabuse.gov/drugpages/prescription.html. 

(Accessed on February 13, 2009.)

40. McCabe, S. E.; Cranford, J. A.; Morales, M; and Young, 

A. “Simultaneous and Concurrent Polydrug Use of 

Alcohol and Prescription Drugs: Prevalence, Correlates, 

and Consequences.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 67: 

529–537, 2006. 

41. Barrett, S. P.; Darredeau, C.; and Pihl, R. O. “Patterns of Polysubstance Use in Drug Using University 

Students.” Human Psychopharmacology Clinical 

Experience 21: 225–263, 2006.

42. Duncan, S. C.; Duncan, T. E.; and Hops, H. “Progressions 

of Alcohol, Cigarettes, and Marijuana Use in Adolescence.” 

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43. Ibid.

44. Feigelman, W.; Gorman, B. S.; and Lee, J. A. “Binge 

Drinkers, Illicit Drug Users and Polydrug Users: An 

Epidemiological Study of American Collegians.” Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 44: 47–69, 1998.

45. Ibid.

46. NIDA. Marijuana. Available at http://

teens.drugabuse.gov/facts/facts_mj2.php. (Accessed 

February 13, 2009.) 

47. Callaghan, F. V., and Joyce, J. “Cannabis: What Makes 

University Students More or Less Likely to Use It?” 

Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research 11: 

105–113, 2006. 

48. Ibid.

49. NIDA. NIDA InfoFacts: Prescription and Over-theCounter Medications. Available at http://www.nida.

nih.gov/infofacts/PainMed.html. (Accessed February 

18, 2009.)

50. Teter et al., “Illicit Use of Specific Prescription Stimulants Among College Students.”

51. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse 

at Columbia University, Wasting the Best and the 

Brightest.

52. Ibid. 

53. NIDA, NIDA InfoFacts: Heroin. 

54. Center for College Health and Safety, Performance 

Enhancing Drugs.

55. NIDA, NIDA InfoFacts: Prescription and Over-theCounter Medications.

56. NIDA. Research Report Series—Prescription Drugs: 

Abuse and Addiction. Available at http://

www.drugabuse.gov/ResearchReports/Prescription/

prescription5.html. (Accessed February 18, 2009.)

57. Ibid.

(Continued on page 8)
8

INFOFACTSRESOURCES

The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention u http://www.higheredcenter.org

Resources

Office of Safe and Drug-Free 

Schools (OSDFS) 

U.S. Department of Education

http://www.ed.gov/osdfs; 202-245-7896

The U.S. Department of Education’s Higher Education Center 

for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse 

and Violence Prevention

http://www.higheredcenter.org; 1-800-676-1730; 

TDD Relay-friendly, Dial 711

Center for Substance Abuse 

Prevention (CSAP)

Department of Health and Human Services

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration

http://prevention.samhsa.gov; 240-276-2420

The Core Institute

Southern Illinois University Carbondale

http://www.siu.edu/~coreinst; 618-453-4420

National Clearinghouse for Alcohol 

and Drug Information (NCADI)

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration

http://ncadi.samhsa.gov; 1-800-729-6686; 

TDD: 1-800-487-4889

National Institute on Drug Abuse 

(NIDA)

National Institutes of Health

http://www.nida.nih.gov/NIDAHome.html; 

301-443-1124

The Network Addressing Collegiate 

Alcohol and Other Drug Issues

http://www.thenetwork.ws; see Web site for 

telephone contacts by region

Office of National Drug Control 

Policy (ONDCP)

http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov; 

1-800-666–3332

58. White et al., “Stimulant Medication Use, Misuse, and 

Abuse.”

59. Semple, S. “Motivations Associated with Methamphetamine Use Among HIV Men Who Have Sex with Men.” 

Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 22: 149–156, 

2002.

60. Quintero, G.; Peterson, J.; and Young, B. “An Exploratory Study of Socio-cultural Factors Contributing to 

Prescription Drug Misuse among College Students.” 

Journal of Drug Issues 22: 903–926, 2006.

61. Johnston et al., Monitoring the Future: National 

Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2006.

62. Quintero et al., “An Exploratory Study of Sociocultural Factors.”

63. Teens and Prescription Drugs: An Analysis of Recent 

Trends.

64. Shillington, A. M.; Reed, M. B.; Lang J. E.; Clapp, J. D.; 

and Henry, S. “College Undergraduate Ritalin Abusers 

in Southwestern California: Protective and Risk Factors.” Journal of Drug Issues 100–114, 2006.

65. Ibid.

66. Wax, P. M. “Just a Click Away: Recreational Drug Sites 

on the Internet.” Pediatrics 109: 1–4, 2007. 

67. Quintero et al., “An Exploratory Study of Sociocultural Factors.”

68.. Ibid.

69. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at 

Columbia University. You’ve Got Drugs! IV: Prescription Drug Pushers on the Internet (New York, 2007).

70. White, H. R.; McMorris, B. J.; Catalano, R. F.; Fleming, 

C. G.; Haggerty, K. P.; and Abbott, R. D. “Increases in 

Alcohol and Marijuana Use During the Transition Out 

of High School into Emerging Adulthood: The Effects 

of Leaving Home, Going to College, and High School 

Protective Factors.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 67: 

810–822, 2006.

71. Ibid.

72. Langford, L., and DeJong W. Strategic Planning for 

Prevention Professionals on Campus (Washington, D.C.: 

U.S. Department of Education, Higher Education Center for 

Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention, 

2008). Available at http://www.higheredcenter.org.

This publication was funded by the Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools at the U.S. Department of Education 

under contract number ED-04-CO-0137 with Education Development Center, Inc. The contracting officer’s 

representatives were Richard Lucey, Jr., and Tara Hill. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect 

the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Education, nor does the mention of trade names, commercial 

products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. government. This publication also contains hyperlinks and URLs for 

information created and maintained by private organizations. This information is provided for the reader’s convenience. The 

U.S. Department of Education is not responsible for controlling or guaranteeing the accuracy, relevance, timeliness, or completeness of this outside information. Further, the inclusion of information or a hyperlink or URL does not reflect the importance 

of the organization, nor is it intended to endorse any views expressed, or products or services offered.

73. Larimer, M. E., and Cronce, J. M. “Identification, 

Prevention, and Treatment: A Review of IndividualFocused Strategies to Reduce Problematic Alcohol 

Consumption by College Students.” Journal of Studies 

on Alcohol, supplement no. 14:148–163, 2002.

74. For more information about environmental management strategies for drug abuse prevention, see the 

Higher Education Center’s publication, Environmental Management: A Comprehensive Strategy for 

Reducing Alcohol and Other Drug Use on College 

Campuses (1998). Available at http://

www.higheredcenter.org/services/publications/

environmental-management-comprehensive-strategyreducing-alcohol-and-other-dru.

75. Task Force [NIAAA], A Call to Action.

76. Bonnie, R. J., and O’Connell, M. E. (eds.) Reducing 

Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility

(Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 

Institute of Medicine, 2003).

77. Weitzman E. R.; Nelson, T. F.; Lee, H.; and Wechsler, H. “Reducing Drinking and Related Harms in College: Evaluation 

of the ‘A Matter of Degree’ Program.” American Journal of 

Preventive Medicine 27: 187–196, 2004.

78. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at 

Columbia University, Wasting the Best and the Brightest.

79. Perkins, H. W.; Meilman, P.; Leichliter, J. S.; Cashin, 

J. R.; and Presley, C. “Misperceptions of the Norms 

for the Frequency of Alcohol and Other Drug Use on 

College Campuses.” Journal of American College 

Health 47: 253–258, 1999.

80. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at 

Columbia University, You’ve Got Drugs.

81. DeRicco, B. Complying With the Drug-Free Schools 

and Campuses Regulations [EDGAR Part 86]: A 

Guide for University and College Administrators

(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 

Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug 

Abuse and Violence Prevention, 2006). Available at 

http://www.higheredcenter.org.

82. Steven Healy. Telephone interview with author, August 

21, 2007.