Demand and Supply of Nonfuel Minerals and 

Materials for the United States Energy 

Industry, 1975-90 A Preliminary Report

Demand for Nonfuel Minerals and Materials by the 

United States Energy Industry, 1975-90

Supply of Nonfuel Minerals and Materials for the 

United States Energy Industry, 1975-90

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1006-A, B
Demand and Supply of Nonfuel Minerals and 

Materials for the United States Energy 

Industry, 1975-90 A Preliminary Report

Demand for Nonfuel Minerals and Materials by the 

United States Energy Industry, 1975-90

By JOHN P. ALBERS, WALTER J. BAWIEC, and LAWRENCE F. ROONEY

Supply of Nonfuel Minerals and Materials for the 

United States Energy Industry, 1975-90

By GUS H. GOUDARZI, LAWRENCE F. ROONEY, and GLENN L. SHAFFER

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1006-A, B

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1976
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

THOMAS S. KLEPPE, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

V. E. McKelvey, Director

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:

Demand and supply of nonfuel minerals and materials for the United States energy industry, 1975-1990.

(Professional paper ; 1006A-B)

Includes bibliographies.

CONTENTS: Albers, J. P., Bawiec, W. J., and Rooney, L. F. Demand for nonfuel minerals and materials by the 

United States energy industry, 1975-1990. Goudarzi, G. H., Rooney, L. F., and Shaffer, G. L. Supply of nonfuel minerals and materials for the United States energy industry, 1975-1990.

1. Mines and mineral resources United States Addresses, essays, lectures. 2. Materials Addresses, essays, 

lectures. 3. Power resources United States Addresses, essays, lectures. I. Albers, John Patrick, 1919- II. 

Goudarzi, Gus Hossein, 1918- III. Series: United States. Geological Survey. Professional paper ; 1006A-B.

TN23.D4 339.4'8'553 76-608194

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402 

Stock Number 024-001-02867-1
PREFACE

The U.S. Government has announced a goal of 

energy independence within the next few decades. 

If such a goal is to be reached, major attention must 

be given to all possible sources of energy. Attention 

must also be given to the nonfuel raw materials 

needed to produce this energy for example, the 

materials needed to build a drilling platform or a 

nuclear powerplant. The basic constituents of almost 

all these materials are derived from minerals.

The U.S. Geological Survey has begun a Minerals 

for Energy Production (MEP) program to determine if increased energy production to attain 

energy independence would be constrained by an 

inadequate supply of minerals necessary to produce 

that energy. MEP has six major objectives:

1. To identify and project the quantity of basic 

nonfuel raw material needed by the energy 

industries 1975 90 to attain energy 

independence in the United States.

2. To review the domestic reserves and resources 

of those commodities identified and their geological availability abroad.

3. To evaluate U.S. demand compared to adequacy 

of domestic resources, alternative sources of 

supply, materials that might substitute, and 

other pertinent factors.

4. To determine the most-stressed materials and to 

recommend research that would lead to new 

domestic identified resources.

5. To establish a computerized data base for 

nonfuel minerals needed for energy 

production.

6. To undertake field investigations of those 

nonfuel mineral commodities likely to be 

most stressed by increased energy production.

This report is only a preliminary step in the MEP 

program to keep abreast of U.S. energy preparedness, whose vectors are rapidly changing in both 

direction and magnitude. Objectives 5 and 6 of the

MEP program, not covered in this report, deserve 

further mention here.

Establishing a computerized data base is an integral part of the MEP program and will be required 

as a continuing effort. Through a systematic search 

of all literature on each particular commodity, data 

are gathered for every deposit or mineral district 

and compiled for storage in the Geological Survey's 

Computerized Resource Information Bank (CRIB) 

for future reference by researchers.

In addition to augmentation of the CRIB data 

base and updates of the existing CRIB files on particular commodities under study, a MEP computerized data base has been established. This data base, 

when complete, will contain all available essential 

economic information such as annual and cumulative production, tenor of ores, reserves, resources, 

and production capacities for every known significant deposit of most commodities. The MEP files 

are structured to be accessible through the Geological Survey's Geologic Retrieval and Synopsis Program (GRASP).

As long as accurate files are kept up to date, fundamental information with many economic applications can be retrieved virtually instantaneously in 

numerical and (or) graphic forms for each commodity in the data base. These files, which supplement 

the more general geological files stored in CRIB, will 

endure beyond the life of MEP to serve future mineral resource projects conducted by the Survey or 

the Nation.

Perhaps the most vital part of the MEP program 

is the detailed field investigations of those resources 

whose demand by the energy industries may be 

large or whose supply may be short. At least to a 

rough approximation, this report identifies those 

commodities and suggests avenues of research. It is 

of vital interest to the Nation to pursue those avenues and whatever other avenues of research may 

help attain and maintain the Nation's energy independence.

in

CONTENTS

[The letters in parentheses preceding the titles are those used to designate the chapters]

Preface

Page

III

(A) Demand for nonfuel minerals and materials! by the United States energy 

industry, 1975-90, by John P. Albers, Walter J. Bawiec, and Lawrence P. 

Rooney ————————————————————————————————————————— Al

(B) Supply of nonfuel minerals and materials for the United States energy 

industry, 1975-90, by Gus H. Goudarzi, Lawrence P. Rooney, and Glenn 

L. Shaffer _____———___—-———————————————-————— Bl

METRIC-ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS

Metric unit English equivalent

Length

millimetre (mm) 

metre (m) 

kilometre (km)

= 0.03937 inch (in) 

= 3.28 feet (ft) 

= .62 mile (mi)

Area

square metre (m2 ) 

square kilometre (km2 ) 

hectare (ha)

= 10.76 square feet (ft2 ) 

= .386 square mile (mi2 ) 

= 2.47 acres

Volume

cubic centimetre (cm3 ) = 0.061 cubic inch (in3 ) 

litre (1) = 61.03 cubic inches 

cubic metre (m3 ) = 35.31 cubic feet (ft3 ) 

cubic metre = .00081 acre-foot (acre-ft) 

cubic hectometre (hm3 ) =810.7 acre-feet 

litre = 2.113 pints (pt) 

litre = 1.06 quarts (qt) 

litre = .26 gallon (gal) 

cubic metre = .00026 million gallons (Mgal or 

10« gal) 

cubic metre = 6.290 barrels (bbl) (1 bbl = 42 gal)

Weight

gram (g) 

gram 

tonne (t) 

tonne

= 0.035 ounce, avoirdupois (oz avdp) 

= .0022 pound, avoirdupois (Ib avdp) 

= 1.1 tons, short (2,000 Ib) 

= .98 ton, long (2,240 Ib)

Specific combinations

kilogram per square 

centimetre (kg/cm2) 

kilogram per square 

centimetre 

cubic metre per second 

(m3/s)

= 0.96 atmosphere (atm) 

= .98 bar (0.9869 atm) 

= 35.3 cubic feet per second (ft3/s)

Metric unit

Specific

litre per second (1/s) 

cubic metre per second 

per square kilometre 

[(m3/s)/km2 ]

metre per day (m/d)

metre per kilometre 

(m/km) 

kilometre per hour 

(km/h) 

metre per second (m/s) 

metre squared per day 

(m2/d)

cubic metre per second

(m3/s)

cubic metre per minute 

(m3/min)

litre per second (1/s) 

litre per second per 

metre [(l/s)/m]

kilometre per hour 

(km/h) 

metre per second (m/s) 

gram per cubic 

centimetre (g/cm3 ) 

gram per square 

centimetre (g/cm2 ) 

gram per square 

centimetre

English equivalent

combinations — Continued

= .0353 cubic foot per second

square mile [(ft3/s)/mi2 ]

conductivity) (ft/d) 

= 5.28 feet per mile (ft/mi)

= .9113 foot per second (ft/s) 

— 3.28 feet per second

= 10.764 feet squared per day (fta/d) 

(transmlssivity)

= 22.826 million gallons per day 

(Mgal/d)

= 264.2 gallons per minute (gal/min) 

= 15.85 gallons per minute

= 4.83 gallons per minute per foot 

[(gal/min) /ft]

— .62 mile per hour (mi/h)

= 2.237 miles per hour 

= 62.43 pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3 )

— .0142 pound per square inch (lb/in2 )

Temperature

degree Celsius (°C) 

degrees Celsius 

(temperature)

= 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) 

= [(1.8X°C)+32] degrees Fahrenheit

Demand for Nonfuel Minerals and Materials by 

the United States Energy Industry, 1975-90

By JOHN P. ALBERS, WALTER J. BAWIEG, and LAWRENCE F. ROONEY

DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MINERALS AND MATERIALS 

FOR THE UNITED STATES ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90- 

A PRELIMINARY REPORT

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1006-A

Minimum amounts of mineral commodities needed by the 

energy industry are tabulated according to the 

major types of energy production

CONTENTS

	Page

Abstract —_________________________ Al

Introduction _________________________ 1

Acknowledgments _____________________ 1

Projected energy supply and demand _________ 2

Estimated basic material requirements _________ 4

Energy from fossil fuels —_____________ 5

Coal mining ———————_—_________ 5

Coal transportation _______________ 6

Synthetic fuels from coal ____________ 7

Oil and gas exploration and production ___ 7

Oil shale ______________________ 8

Fossil-fueled powerplants ________._____ 9

Refineries _____________________ 9

Deep-water ports _________________ 10

Terminal for liquid natural gas ________ 10

New pipelines ___________________ 10

Total requirements ________________ 11

TABLE

Page 

Estimated basic material requirements—Continued

Geothermal energy ——————————————————— All

Hydroelectric energy _—____———___—__

Nuclear energy ———_—_—_—_—_______

Uranium mining and milling ______________

Uranium-enrichment facilities ______________

Nuclear powerplants —___———________

Total requirements to 1990 _________________

Solar energy ________________________________

Solar heating and cooling of buildings _——— 

Solar thermal conversion _________________

Wind-energy conversion systems ___________

Bioconversion to fuels —————————______

Ocean thermal-energy conversion ———______

Photovoltaic electric-power systems _________

Electric-power transmission and distribution ____ 

Summary ——————————————————————————— 

References cited __—_——_———————————————

TABLES

12

12

12

13

14

14

14

15

16

16

16

16

17

17

18

18

Page

1. Some projections of energy production in the United States, 1985-2000 ——————————————————— A2

2. Some projections of energy consumption or demand in the United States, 1980-2000 ———————————— 2

3. Some projections of generating capacities of electric powerplants in the United States, 1983-2000 _——— 3

4. Assumed percentages of minor constituent materials in mining equipment, based on total weight ———— 5

5. Estimated basic equipment for one 4.5 million-tonnes-per-year surface coal mine —________——— 6

6. Estimated equipment requirements for one 2.7 million-tonnes-per-year underground coal mine ————— 6

7. Estimated basic material requirements for modular unit coal mines and total requirements, 1975-90 —— 6

8. Estimated basic material requirements for transportation of coal via rail and water, 1975-85 ——_——— 6

9. Estimated basic material requirements for single coal gasification and liquefaction, plants of different

types, and total requirements for 30 plants, 1975-90 ——————————————————————————— 7

10. Assumed equipment and material requirements for oil and gas exploration and production, 1977-88 —— 8

11. Estimated basic material requirements for oil and gas exploration and development, 1977-88 ————— 8

12. Estimated basic material requirements for unit models of oil-shale mines, and for oil-shale mining, 1975-

90 _____________________________.______________________________ 8

13. Estimated basic material requirements for fossil-fueled powerplants, 1975-85 ———————————————— 9

14. Estimated basic material requirements for gasoline refineries, 1977-90 ———_—————_————————— 10 

15k Estimated basic material requirements for five deep-water port facilities —————————————————— 10

16. Estimated basic material requirements for one typical liquid natural-gas terminal for a tanker with a

cargo capacity of 750,000 barrels _________.————_—__————_——————————————— 10

17. Estimated basic material requirements for pipeline transportation of oil and gas from Alaska to the

United States and from Western United States to Eastern United States —____________——— 11

18. Total estimated basic material requirements for energy production from fossil fuels, 1975—85 —————— 11

19. Estimated basic material requirements for unit geothermal plants, and total requirements for 4,500 MWe

of geothermal energy in 1985 _________———.——————__—————————————————————— 11

20. Estimated basic material requirements for additional hydroelectric generating capacity of about 53,500

MWe, 1975-90 ______________________.__________________________—— 12

21. Estimated equipment requirements for mining iftf uranium ore, 1975-90 _————————————————— 13

22. Estimated basic material requirements for mining of uranium ore, 1975-90 ————————————————— 13

in
IV CONTENTS

Page

TABLE 23. Estimated basic material requirements for gaseous diffusion plants, to 1990 ———————————————— A13

24. Estimated basic material requirements for unit light-water reactor plants and for reactor plants with a

total capacty of 500,000 MWe in 1990 ________.—————————————————————————————— 14

25. Estimated basic material requirements for one liquid metal, fast-breeder reactor plant with a capacity of

1,000 MWe ________________________.————————————————————————————— 14

26. Total estimated basic material requirements for nuclear energy, 1975-90 —————————————————— 15

27. Projected production of solar energy by various technologies, 1980-2000 —————————————————— 15

28. Estimated basic material requirements for six main types of solar energy to 1990 —————————————— 15

29. Estimated basic material requirements for four bioconversion technologies, 1975-90 ——————————— 16

30. Estimated basic material requirements for electrical transmission and distribution powerlines and transformers, based on additional capacity of 759,000 MWe, by 1985 ———————————————T————— 17

31. Total estimated basic material requirements for anticipated significant energy sources, approximately

1975-90 __________________________.________—_————-————————————— 17
DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MINERALS AND MATERIALS FOR THE 

UNITED STATES ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90-A PRELIMINARY REPORT

DEMAND FOR NONFUEL MINERALS AND MATERIALS

BY THE 

UNITED STATES ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

By JOHN P. ALBERS, WALTER J. BAWIEC, and LAWRENCE F. ROONEY

ABSTRACT

Large amounts of certain nonfuel mineral raw materials 

are needed to attain U.S. energy goals 1975-90 as projected 

by the Federal Energy Administration's Project Independence 

Blueprint "business-as-usual" scenario. Estimates of nonfuel 

mineral raw-material requirements for modular units of fossil 

fuel, geothermal, hydroelectric, nuclear, and solar energy production in this report permit computation of total material 

requirements for other scenarios.

Minimum estimates of nonfuel mineral raw-material requirements for all energy types 1975-90 indicate that concrete and iron are needed in the largest tonnages, but that 

substantial quantities of other materials such as aluminum, 

barite, bentonite, manganese, and nickel must also be available if the United States is to attain energy independence by 

1990.

INTRODUCTION

As attention has focused on a goal of energy independence for the United States, the availability 

of certain nonfuel raw materials needed to produce 

energy has become of increasing concern. This report, a part of the U.S. Geological Survey's Minerals 

for Energy Production (MEP) program, seeks to 

estimate the amount of basic nonfuel materials 

needed to achieve the objectives outlined in the 

Project Independence Report (PIR) of the U.S. 

Federal Energy Administration (1974a). As used 

here, "basic material" means an element such as 

aluminum or iron, or a substance such as concrete 

that is derived from minerals. Other required materials such as wood, rubber, paint, plastics, and 

fiberglass are not included in the estimates.

In order to limit the study to manageable proportions, only materials for equipment or facilities directly used in the production and transportation of 

fuel or energy are considered. Equipment includes 

items such as drilling rigs, mine trucks, tractors,

shovels, power generating plants, pipelines, and refineries, but does not include the tools and plants 

necessary to manufacture the equipment or facilities, except that the amount of tungsten that would 

be used in cutting tools is estimated.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the following U.S. Government agencies that supplied information for this 

report: Army Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Mines, 

Bureau of Reclamation, Department of Transportation, Energy Research and Development Administration, Federal Energy Administration, Federal 

Power Commission, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 

and Tennessee Valley Authority.

Also it is a pleasure to acknowledge the friendly 

and most helpful cooperation of the private firms 

and trade associations listed alphabetically below, 

and of 15 other firms and organizations who wish 

to remain anonymous. Without their assistance the 

material in this report could not have been compiled.

Contributing companies,

Air Products &

Chemicals Co, 

Allis-Chalmers 

American Iron and

Steel Institute 

American Petroleum

Institute 

Bethlehem Steel Corp.

Bucyrus-Erie Co. 

Butler Manufacturing Co. 

Caterpillar Tractor Co. 

Crane Co. 

Dravo Corp. 

Dresser Industries, Inc. 

Electric Power Research 

Institute

institutes, and trade associations

Edison Electrical Institute 

Foster Wheeler Corp. 

General Electric Co. 

General Motors. Corp. 

Greenerd Press & Machine

Co., Inc. 

Hercules Inc. 

Ingersoll-Rand 

International Association for

Drilling Contractors 

International Harvester 

Joy Manufacturing Co. 

Keystone Electric Co., Inc. 

Lawrence Berkeley Radiation

Laboratory 

Lebloixt 

Longyear Co.

Al
A2 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

Mississippi Marine Towboat

Co. 

Motor Vehicle Manufacturers

Association of the U.S., Inc. 

0'Brian Machinery Co. 

Ortner Freight Car Co. 

Pennsylvania Crusher Corp. 

Reed Tool Co.

Rockwell International 

Rogers Engineering Co., Inc. 

Sprague & Hen wood, Inc. 

The Refractories Institute 

Westinghouse Electric Corp. 

Wiley Manufacturing 

Winsmith 

Zapata Corp.

PROJECTED ENERGY SUPPLY AND DEMAND

No one can predict with confidence the supply and 

demand of energy in its various forms in the year 

1990. Many sources of energy, .such as oil and uranium, are hidden in the Earth, and their quantities 

can only be estimated. Other sources, such as the 

Sun and oil shale, depend on technical achievements 

that themselves lie in the future, and complex and 

variable political and economic pressures can modify both supply and demand. Lead time for most 

energy production is considerable, 10 years or more, 

and some of the early projections are out of date for 

this reason alone. Nonetheless, projections must be 

made if we are to plan for the future, and many such 

projections of energy supply and demand have been 

published. Representative projections are listed in 

tables 1-3.

TABLE 1.—Some projections of energy production in the United 

States, 1985-2000

Reference 1985 1988 1990 2000

Petroleum (billions of barrels per year)

U.S. Federal Energy Admin.,

1974f, p. 3—

Business as usual 1 ...__.__ 6.5

Accelerated development ...——— 7.3 

Dupree and Corsentino, 1975, p. 63. 5.3 

Dupree and West, 1972, p. 10 a _ 4.1 

U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1975, 4.5-5.1

reply to an international agency

questionnaire on energy resource

and development prospects, unpub report, p. 6 8. 

Engineering and mining Journal, 4.3

1974, p. 76*.

McLean and Davis, 1973, p. 31 _ 5.1 

Morrison, 1974, p. 51 _________ —_—... 

National Petroleum Council, 1971, 4.0

p. 14.

6.0 

8.1

5.0 

3.7

3.7 -6.6 

9.0

Shale oil (millions of barrels per year)

U.S. Federal Energy Admin.,

1974g, p. 8—

Business as usual ——————— ... 91

Accelerated development ... __ _ 365 

Dupree and Corsentino, 1975, p. 46. 110 

Morrison, 1974, p. 53 _________ _.-- 

National Petroleum Council, 1972. 146

p. 117.

164

584

730

Natural gas (trillions of standard cubic feet per year)

U.S. Federal Energy Admin.,

1974d, p. VI-9G—

Business as usual _...———.... 17.4

Accelerated demand ___.____ 19.1 

Dupree and Corsentino, 1975, p. 18.2

65.

Dupree and West, 1972, p. 10. 2 21.7 

Engineering and Mining Journal, 18

1974, p. 78.

McLean and Davis, 1973, p. 31 __ 27 

Morrison, 1974, p. 50 ____-___ ..___. 

National Petroleum Council, 14.5

1971. p. 14. 

U.S. Dept. of Interior, 1972, p. 26.. 81

18.0

19.5

16.5

22.1

15 -25 

50

TABLE 1.—Some projections of energy production in the United 

States, 1985-2000 Continued

Reference 1985 1988 1990 2000

Pipeline gas from coal (trillions of standard cubic feet per year)

U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974i, 0.06

p. 106."

Dupree and Corsentino, 1975, p. 65. .6 

Dupree and West, 1972, p. 81 • __ 2 

National Petroleum Council, 1973, 2

p. 6.a

3.0

4.7 

5.5

Coal (millions of metric tonnes per year)

U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974b,

p. 129—

Business as usual —_—————— 998

Accelerated development —_... JJS71 

U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1975, 892 -1£90

reply to an international agency

questionnaire on energy resources

and development prospects, unpub. report, p. I.7

Morrison, 1974, p. 48 and 49 ———— ..._..._„ 

National Petroleum Council. 1971, 846

p. 14.

U79

Solar energy (10 "* Btu's per year)

U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974h,

p. 1-7—

Business as usual ......————— 0.8

Accelerated development ........ 1.4

Morrison, 1974, p. 41 ____....... small

National Academy of Sciences, .8

1974, p. 14.«

2.6 10.8

4.9 38.8

small small

1 Assumes $11 per barrel of oil in constant mid-1973 dollars. 

8 Converted from British thermal units (Btu's). 

3 Includes natural gas converted into oil equivalent.

* Its source: the National Petroleum Council.

5 Nonassociated gas in lower 48 States with a minimum acceptable 

price of $1 in constant 1973 dollars for the last thousand feet.

• Includes about 22 percent derived from oil in 1985 and about 7 percent in 2000 and is described as "demand."

7 Converted from metric tonnes of oil equivalent production potential.

8 Brookhaven base case.

TABLE 2.—Some projections of energy consumption or demand 

in the United States, 1980-2000

Reference 1980 1985 1990 2000

Petroleum (billions of barrels per year)

U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974s.

p. 30, 34, and 46—

Business as usual 1 __..___._-_ __ 6.6

Accelerated development* ____.. __ 6.5 

Clark, 1973, p. 27 ______________ __ 11.8 

Clark, 1973, p. 28 (alternative .... 8.8

projection).

Darmstadter, 1971, p. 204» _______ __ ___ __ 9.8 

Dupree and Corsentino, 1975, p. 32__ 7.4 8.3 __ 9.3 

Dupree and West, 1972, p. 7* _____ __ 8.7 .... 12.8 

Morrison, 1974, p. 51 ___________ __ __- .... 7 - 

Morrison and others, 1968, p. 128 __ __ ___ 8.9 9.6

18.1 

9.3 8.4

16

7.8

9.4

5.2

8.1

National Academy of Sciences, 1974,

p. 14.* 

National Petroleum Council, 1971, p.

14.

Adapted from National Academy of 

Sciences, 1975b, p. A/3-5.8 : 

Robert R. Nathan Associates, Inc.,

1968.

U.S. Department of Interior, 1968.. 6.1 

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1968 _____ 6.1 

Texas Eastern Transmission Corp., 6.8

1968.

Chase Manhattan Bank, 1968 ___ 6.8 

Morrison, W. E., 1970 .. 6.3 

EBASCO Services, Inc., 1970 ____ 6.6 

National Petroleum Council, 1971 ._ 8.0 

U.S. Department of Interior, 1971.. 7.9 

Schurr, S. H., Roman, P. T., 6.7

1971.

Steele, H. B., 1971 _.________ 7.8 

Gambs, G. C., 1971 ___________ 9.0 

Heydinger, E. R., 1971 _________ 7.9 ___ ____ 

Shell Oil, February 1972 _______ 8.6 10.8 ____ 

Shell Oil. March 1973 _________ 9.0 10.4 11.7 

Chase Manhattan Bank, 1972 ____ __ 10.9 .... 

National Petroleum Council, 1972—

Percent energy supplied 

domestically:

Low growth

96.5 ____________________ __ 6.6 ____

89.5 __.__..____________ __ 7.1 ....

9.8

7.6 

9.3

9.2
DEMAND A3

TABLE 2.—^Some projections of energy consumption or demand 

in the United States, 1980-2000—Continued

Reference 1980 1985 1990 2000

____Petroleum (billions of barrels per year)—Continued

Adapted from National Academy of Science, 1975b—Continued 

National Petroleum Council—Continued

Percent energy supplied domestically—Continued

80.6 „—————————————————._ —— 8.6 —— ——

78.6 _——_—_———..—. —_ 9.9 —— ——

Intermediate growth

96.6 ___-__—_—_______ __ 8.6 __ ——

89.6 ____-__—__________ __ 9.0 __ .—

80.6 „—————_——.——.—._——. __— 10.4 ——

78.6 ___—_—_—_——_ __ 11.9 __ ——

High arowih

96.6 ___—_—_—_-____ __ 9.6 __ __

89.6 ..——————————————.—. -___ 10.4 —— ——

80.6 _.—————.—-—-—————. __ 11.6 .... ——

78.6

U.S. Department of Interior, 1973.. 7.2

Morrison, W. E., 1973— 

Case A ..————-——————_ 7.0 

Case B ______—__._-_ 6.9 

Case C ______________-_ 6.4 

Case D _________________ 7.4

12.2 

8.6

8.6 

8.1 

7.6 

8.8

._ 12.1

10.2 16.6

9.8 12.1

8.6 11.2

10.0 13.0

Natural gas (trillions of cubic feet per year)

Darmstadter. 1971, p. 204 a _.......

Dupree and Corsentino, 1976, p. 32 3 ... 

Dupree and West, 1972, p. 10 _________

Engineering and Mining Journal,

1974, p. 78.* 

Morrison, 1974, p. 60 _—...._

National Petroleum Council, 1971, p.

14. 

U.S. Department of Interior, 1972,

p. 12.

Adapted from National Academy of 

Sciences, 1976b, p. A/8-9 (10M

Btu's per year5 ): 

Robert R. Nathan Associates, Inc.,

1968.

U.S. Department of Interior, 1968.. 

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1968 ————— 

Texas Eastern Transmission Corp.,

1968.

American Gas Association, 1968 __ 

Chase Manhattan Bank, 1968 .......

American Gas Association, 1969 —_ 

Stanford Research Institute, 1970 .. 

Morrison, W. E., 1970 —.......—

EBASCO Services, Inc., 1970 .._..._ 

Resources for the Future, Inc., 1971.. 

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1970 ————— 

National Petroleum Council, 1971.— 

Schurr, S. H. and Homan, P. T.,

1971. 

Steele. H. B., 1971 _......._......._

Shell Oil, March 1973 ___........

National Petroleum Council, 1972— 

Percent energy supplied

domestically: 

96.6 ___———__.._____.

89.5 ________________....

80.5 ___________________

73.6 ____________________

U.S. Department of Interior, 1978...

Chase Manhattan Bank, 1972 ...._

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1978— 

"Deregulation" ..__________

"Cost of service deregulation" ....

"Regulatory status quo" _.___._ 

Federal Power Commission, 1973— 

Case A _________.___________

Case B _________________ 

Case C_. _._._.__._._.________

Case D

19.9 19.6

29.4

35.8

46.6

19.0

38.1

21.5

38.2

28.0

36-66 

49.0

43.6

26.5

25.5

31.9

27.7

24.3

38.7

36.6

32.3

29.9

27.2

30.4

27.3

40.3 49.7 

~36~.6

41.7

36.0

36.0 47.0 

36.9-67.6

22,4

27.6

24.7

24.7

26.9

26.2

21.1

17.8

27.0

22.2

24.2 ___. 

24.8 23.0

32.8

28.1

21.9

16.6

28.4

27.1

34.0

29.9

24.2

27.0

26.4

24.3

22.6

26.2

27.8 32.4

26.7 28.9

23.8 26.7

.————————————————————— Zb.Z 27.6 ZY.t) 31.0 31.U

Coal (millions of metric tonnes per year) 6

43.0

33.9

31.4

36.5

676

663

653

730

668 837

810

Clark, 1973, p. 27 7

Clark, 1973, p. 28 (alternative

projection).

Darmstadter, 1971, p. 204 3 ___._.._.. 

Dupree and Corsentino, 1975, p. 61__ 

Dupree and West, 1972, p. 23 ________

Engineering and Mining Journal, 1974,

P. 76—

Case I ————————————_—______ __ 1424

Case n/JII .—...._________ __ 1*029

Case IV —————————————_—_ __ 911 

Morrison, 1974, p. 48-49 ________

Morrison and others, 1968, p. 128 __ ___ . _ 622 

U.S. Department of Interior, 1972, p. __ 771

12. 

Adapted from National Academy of

Sciences, 1975b«:

Robert R. Nathan Associates, Inc., 668 __ 

1968.

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1968 _____ 700 ___ ...

768

960

1,415

1,188

951-2^06

776

907

987

813

TABLE 2.—Some projections of energy consumption or demand 

in the United States, 1980-2000—Continued

Reference 1980 1985 1990 2000

Coal (millions of metric tonnes per year)6—Continued

Adapted from National Academy of Science, 

Texas Eastern Transmission Corp.,

1968.

Stanford Research Institute, 1970— 

Morrison, W. E., 1970 _____——_ 

EBASCO Services, Inc., 1970 ___ 

Schurr, S. H.. and Homan, P. T.,

1971.

National Petroleum Council, 1971... 

Schurr, S. H., and Homan, P. T.,

1971. 

Steele, H. B., 1971 __——————._....

Shell Oil, February 1972 _.__....__.

Shell Oil, March 1978 _________ 

National Petroleum Council, 1972— 

Percentage energy supplied

domestically: 

96.5 ___—..—________________

80.6 __________________

73.6 ___________________

U.S. Department of Interior, 1973_

Chase Manhattan Bank, 1972 ___

Federal Power Commission, 1973—

Case A ____.________._____

Case B __________________________

Case C __________________________

Case D __________________________

1976b—Continued 

722 838

662 ——.

649 __.

664 747

649 __.

722 842

602

662 617

649 689

613 689 845

660 1,038

555 722

522 628

584 780

._ 818

602 678 578 845

606 693 795 878

559 642 736 81%

649 747 856 943

1 Sum of production and imports at $11 per barrel in mid-1973 dollars.

* No imports.

3 Converted from Btu's.

* Its source: The National Petroleum Council.

" Approximately equivalent to trillions of standard cubic feet per year.

* Projections have been categorized as consumption or demand in the 

references cited; however, with regard to coal, the terms appear to have 

been used almost interchangeably.

7 Converted from barrels of oil.

TABLE 3.—Some projections of generating capacities of electric powerplants in the United States, 1983-2000

[In 1,000 megawatts of electrical generating capacity (1,000 MWe )]

Reference 1983 1985

1984r1990 93 2000

Hydroelectric

U.S. Federal Energy Admin.,

1974J, p. 36. 

Dupree and Corsentino, 1975,

p. 36. 

Hittman Associates, Inc.,

1972. p. IV-16. 

U.S. Atomic Energy Comm.,

1974a, p. 14. 

U.S. Federal Power Comm.,

1971, p. 1-18-29—

Conventional ____________

Pumped storage — ———

66 79

94

69 __

97 116 __

163

89

150

82

70

Fossil fuels

U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 

1974a, p. 127— 

Business as usual: 

Coal _______.-_._ __

Oil ____________ __ 

Gas ____________ __ 

Combustion turbine —_ _ 

Total _______________

Demand Management:

Coal ____________ __ 

Oil _____________ __ 

Gas ____________ __ 

Combustion turbine __ ._ 

Total ____________

Dupree and Corsentino,

1975, p. 36. 

Hittman Associates, Inc.,

1972, p. IV-15. 

U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., _

1974a, p. 14.

U.S. Federal Power Comm., 

1971, p. 1-18-29.

327

81

48

162

618

379

64

48

171

662

603

472

569

570

824

745

780

Nuclear

U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 

1974e, p. 3.1-1 and 3.1-2— 

Business as usual ————— 

Accelerated development.. __

Dupree and Corsentino, 

1976. p. 36.

275 BOO 

400 730 

200 900
A4 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

TABLE 3.—Some projections of generating capacities of electric powerplants in the United States, 1983-2000—Continued

Reference 1983 1985

1984- 

1990 93 2000

Nuclear—Continued

Engineering and Mining 

Journal, 1974, p. 80—

High ___——————___ __ 332 602 .. 1600 

Most likely __——___ ._ 280 608 _. 1,200 

Low ______________ ._ 266 412 __ 825

Hittman Associates, Inc., — _____ 343 .. 671 

1972, p. IV-16.

Mitre Corporation, 1976, __ 96 _ __ _____ 

p. 21.

U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., __ 281 475 ._ 1090 

1974a, p. 14.

U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., 

1974b, p. 6—

Case A ———————————. .. 281 410 ._ 860 

Case B __..———____ .. 260 600 __ 1200 

Case C ——————————— ._ 276 676 ._ WOO 

Case D —————.——___ .. 260 475 .. 1090

U.S. Department of Interior, __ _____ 447 ._ 908 

1972. p. 16.

U.S. Federal Energy Admin., .. 169-242 _ .. ________

1976, Reply to an international agency questionnaire on energy resources 

and development prospects, unpub. report, p. 12,1

U.S. Federal Power Comm., „ _____ 476 __ ________

1971. p. 1-18-29._______________

____________________Geothermal______________________________

U.S. Federal Energy Admin., _. 81 101 _. ________

1974c, p. V-4. 

Dupree and Corsentino, _ 3 _ _ 10

1975. p. 36. 

Electric Power Institute, .. 6 _ .. 100

1976. oral commun. 

Adapted from U.S. Federal 

Admin., 1974c, table 9, 

p. A2-2: 

U.S. Bureau of Mines, __ 4 _ _. 40

1972. 

U.S. Department of In- __ 19 _ __ 75

terior, 1972.

National Petroleum Council, 1972:

Case I ._————————— _. 19 _ __ ________

Case IV ___—___ ._ 3.6 _ .. ________

Geothermal Energy, W. .. 182 _ __ 396

Rickel, 1972.

Rex and Howell, 1978 __ .. ___ 400 __ 

Calif. Div. of Oil & Gas, ._ _____ _ 7.6 (in Calif.)

1972 (in Stanford Re- __

search Institute. 1973). 

Stanford Research Insti- .. 11.8 _ .. 4.4 (in Calif.)

tute, 1973. 

Futures Group "Normal __ 9-11 ... .. 56-200

program," 1974. 

Futures Group "Crash ._ 27-40 _ .. 270-800

program," 1974.

Solar

U.S. Federal Energy Admin.,

1974h, p. III-A-4—

Business as usual ____ .. ————— — — 40

Accelerated develooment. . .. ———_ ... -- 80 

Dupree and West, 1972, p. _- ———_ _.. ._ insignificant

18.______________________________________________

1 Converted from metric tonnes of oil equivalent.

When the Minerals for Energy Production (MEP) 

program was begun, the most comprehensive study 

of U.S. energy needs had been summarized in the 

Project Independence Report (PIR), complemented 

by a series of task force reports for Project Independence Blueprint (PIB) on various aspects of the 

problem (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974 a-1). 

The PIR and PIB reports give low and high 

scenarios—Business as Usual (BAU) and Accelerated Development—for the energy sources that 

they consider. In this report, the BAU scenarios are 

followed; in other words, the estimates of the demand for basic materials needed to produce energy 

are based on the lower projections of energy production. In a few instances, PIB task force projections 

are supplemented by published projections from 

other qualified sources.

The use of these figures is not intended to identify 

them as the most probable of the published projections. Wherever possible the estimates of basic materials required for the production of energy are 

made in terms of modular units so that the reader 

can apply the data to other projections if he wishes.

ESTIMATED BASIC MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS

In this report the estimates of basic material requirements for energy production are tabulated 

under five major types of energy sources: fossil fuel, 

geothermal, hydroelectric, nuclear, and solar. Transportation is considered under fossil fuel because, in 

terms of massive requirements of materials, it applies mainly to coal. The requirements of electricpower transmission and distribution from the various energy sources are treated separately at the end 

of the report.

Wherever possible the estimates of basic material 

requirements are made in terms of modular units— 

such as 1,000 MWe (thousand megawatts of electrical generating capacity) nuclear plant or a 4.5 

million-tonnes-per-year coal mine—so that computations can be made more easily for various production 

mixes or scenarios, like the projections shown in 

tables 1-3. Thus, for example, the reader need only 

multiply the number of 1,000 MWe plants in a particular projection (table 3) by the number of tonnes 

of each material required to build that plant to obtain a rough approximation of the amount of basic 

materials needed to achieve that projected production. This approach is impractical for the oil and 

gas and hydroelectric industries; nor was it used for 

uranium mining because of the extreme difference 

in the sizes of mines, which range from one- or twoman "gopher hole" operations to large mines that 

produce millions of tons of ore.

In order to provide some concept of the total 

amount of materials that may be required by expanded energy production in the United States, estimates of basic materials required by the BAU 

scenario are summarized for each energy source. 

The time periods used differ, depending on usage 

in the PIB reports. Wherever possible, 1975-90 is 

used. Requirements for oil and gas production, however, are compiled for the years 1977-88, and those 

for geothermal energy, coal transportation, fossil-
DEMAND A5

fueled turbine and gas generators, and electric-power 

transmission and distribution are compiled through 

1985. These material requirements are summed in 

table 31 and projected to 1990 in table 1 of Goudarzi, 

Rooney, and Shaffer (1976), chapter B of this report.

Throughout, tonnage is reported generally in 

metric units designated as tonnes. Where short tons 

(0.907 tonnes) are used, they are so designated. 

Figures are rounded only in the summary tables.

An estimate of the basic materials presently invested annually in U.S. energy production is not 

attempted in this report. No governmental agency 

collects data that can be disaggregated to show how 

much of any one mineral commodity goes to energy 

industries. Moreover, existing industries vary greatly in size. Collection of data on a modular basis for 

future energy development, however, is both practical and informative though inexact.

Insofar as possible, the basic information for estimating future material requirements was obtained 

from PIB task force reports. However, information 

in the various PIB reports is presented in different 

ways—for example, in units of different kinds of 

machines and in weight units of metals or minerals 

that are contained in a machine or plant. It was necessary in many cases to consult representative manufacturers of various items of machinery and equipment to determine in detail the identity and quantities of basic materials needed. The data supplied by 

them has been aggregated in the tables and in some 

cases also supplemented from other sources. For 

example, because information on the amount of 

manganese in steel was rarely supplied by industry 

contributors unless it was in manganese-alloy steels, 

the average manganese content of carbon steels had 

to be estimated. Similarly, the amount of tungsten 

used in tungsten-carbide cutting tools for the manufacture of equipment was known only for a few 

items of machinery and was prorated to other machinery chiefly according to the weight of the machine.

Many of the minor metals in machinery, such as 

cadmium, boron, and vanadium, had to be estimated 

in a similar way from detailed information supplied 

by one or two manufacturers of a few representative 

machines. Table 4 gives the percentages of minor 

materials in mining equipment estimated on the 

basis of total weight.

All the tables that follow are, therefore, rough 

approximations, and this report should be considered 

no more than a general overview of the material requirements. It aspires to encourage others to evaluTABLE 4.—Assumed percentages of minor constituent materials 

in mining equipment, based on total weight

Minor material Percentage

Antimony _ 

Asbestos _ 

Boron _____ 

Chromium _ 

Cobalt _____ 

Lead ____ 

Manganese 

Molybdenum 

Nickel ___ 

Niobium 

Silver _____ 

Vanadium _ 

Zinc ____

0.1

.an

.002 

.16

.003 

.55

\8 

.1 

.08 

.003 

.001 

.003

2.005

1 Unless otherwise specified.

2 If the item of equipment has an engine.

ate more accurately the materials, and therefore the 

amount of minerals, that will be needed to expand 

energy production. Accurate and detailed data must 

exist somewhere for every component required for 

conventional energy production. When these data 

become accessible, the information provided here 

can be corrected or supplemented. Data on energy 

systems not yet generally adopted must be speculative to a large degree. As time passes, however, plans 

for those systems will become clearer, and close attention will have to be paid to their requirements 

for minerals.

ENERGY FROM FOSSIL FUELS

COAL MINING

The annual capacity of coal production during 

the next 15 years is projected to expand from 621 

million tonnes in 1975 to 1,179 million tonnes in 

1990 (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974b, p. 131- 

133). Sixty percent of the projected production in 

1990 is expected to be from surface mines and 40 

percent from underground mines (U.S. Federal 

Energy Admin., 1974b, p. 133).

For an estimate of the basic materials that would 

be required by this expansion, one 4.5 million-tonnesper-year surface mine (table 5) and one 2.7 million - 

tonnes-per-year underground mine (table 6) were 

used as modular units (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 

1974b, p. 159-175). Table 7 gives the basic materials 

for each modular unit.

To reach the projected production level, 74 additional 4.5 million-tonnes-per-year surface mines and 

82 additional 2.7 million-tonnes-per-year underground mines would be needed. Total material requirements are estimated in table 7. The mines are 

assumed to come on line and stay on line without 

any replacement. Only equipment that totals significant amounts of materials and for which industry
A6 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

TABLE 5. — Estimated basic equipment from one 4.5 milliontonnes-per-year surface coal mine

[Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974b, p. 168]

Item Quantity

Overburden drill (blast hole) ______ 2

Blast hole nickel alloy bits (6% in) __ 30,000

Cable handler _________ _ _____ 1

Walking drag line (100 yd8) _____ — l

Power shovel, coal (15 yd8 ) _______ 2

Large bulldozers —————————————— 6

Heavy roadgrader — ____________ 1

Truck (coal haulers, 75 ton) _____ __ 7

Truck (maintenance, lubrication, water, 12 

and so forth) . 

Front end loaders (10 to 15 yd8 ) ___ 2

Crane truck ________________ 2

Pickup truck ________________ 12

Shop, mechanical with tools and 1 

equipment. 

Drill rig (4,000-ft depth capacity) ___ 1

Unit train loading facility _______ _ 1

Crusher _ _ 1

High voltage cable _____ _ _ _______ 16,000 ft

Buildings ___________________ 36,000 ft2

Explosives —— _ —— __ __ _ ___ _ _ — Undetermined

TABLE 6. — Estimated equipment requirements for one 2J million-tonnes-per-year underground coal mine

[Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974b, p. 169-160]

Item Quantity

Continuous miner — _ — _ — _ — _ — _ 16

Loading machine —————————————— 17

Shuttle car ————————————————— 33

Roof bolter — — — _____ _ ___ ___— 17

Ratio feeder ———————————————— 17

Auxiliary fan ———————————————— 17

Jeep (mantrip, mechanic, personnel) —— 31 

Rock duster __ — _ — _ _ _ —— _ — 30

Supply car ————————————————— 70

36-inch rope type conveyor system ——— 36,000 ft

High voltage cable — __ — ___ _ — 16,000 ft

Rail (60 Ib) _ _ __ ______ _____ __ 102,000 ft

Fresh water pipe (1^-in diameter) —— 51,000 ft 

Scoop tractor ———————————————— 17

Front end loader (5 yd8 ) ————————— 1

Forklift ___________________ 1

Bulldozer —————————————————— 1

Pickup truck __________ — _ _ _ 4

Drilling rig (4,000 ft) __________ 1

Roof bolts ________________ — 10,000

Drill steel (3-in. diameter) _______ 1,500 ft

Core barrel __ — _____ _ _ ____ —— 2

Crusher _ _ _______ ________ 1

Unit train loading facility _______ 1

Pumps 200 ftVmin _____________ 17

Pumps 1,000 ftVmin ____________ 17

Buildings __________________ 36,000 fi?

Explosives _________________ Undetermined

supplied data was considered. Where industry did 

not provide information on small amounts of the 

more exotic materials in equipment, the materials 

were assumed to be present in the proportions shown 

in table 4, which are based on avarages of information received from manufacturers of similar equipment.

TABLE 7. — Estimated basic material requirements for modular 

unit coal mines and total requirements, 1975-90 (in metric 

tonnes)

Surface mine, Underground surface mines 

Commodity 4.6 million „ -"]?£' and 82 undertonnes-per-year ton*nes_pleV.yCar TvfcS?**

Aluminum _ 6.4 4.08 * 244,618 

Antimony __ 7.3 1.86 693 Asbestos . 1.0 .18 88

Boron ____ .36 .033 30

Cadmium _ __ .7 .064 57

Chromium _ 18.4 53.2 5,724 

Cobalt ____ .28 .054 25

Concrete ___ 1,265 1,265 194,340

Copper ___ 232.9 90.8 24,681

Iron ______ 9,687 5,209 1,143,976

Lead _____ 4.1 9.5 1,082

Manganese _ 75.0 44.6 9,207 

Molybdenum __ 7.0 1.86 671 

Nickel ____ 28.1 12.9 3,137

Niobium .28 .054 25

Silver _______ .09 .017 8

Tin ______ .034 .28 26

Vanadium __ .28 .054 25 

Zinc ____-— .68 1.1 140

1 Includes 243,813 tonnes of aluminum used in 8,346,700 tonnes of explosives in coal mining 1976-90 (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974b, p. 36).

COAL TRANSPORTATION

The four major modes of transportation of coal 

in 1985 are assumed to be railway, waterway, slurry 

pipeline, and truck. The largest impact on basic 

materials requirements will be made by increased 

waterway and railway transportation. 

The waterway projections in table 8 include both 

the replacement of barges and towboats and the 

incremental materials investment in barges and towboats according to the Federal Energy Administration (FEA) low scenario for incremental coal flow 

to census regions. Just to maintain the present coalflow capacity to 1985, 1,661 barges and 243 towboats 

must be replaced.

TABLE 8. — Estimated basic material requirements for transportation of coal via rail * and water,3 1975-85 

(in metric tonnes)

[Based on Federal Energy Administration low-scenario incremental coal 

flow to census regions]

Commodity ^ . ^J^, 4 ^ 8 Total

Aluminum __ _— _ 34 2,711 2,745 

Chromium _ ____ 3 2,042 2,045 

Copper ____ ____ 103 29,188 29,291

Iron _____ 696,477 161,629 3,062,892 3,920,999

Lead _ __ _ ___ ___ 2,008 2,008

Manganese __ 5,617 1,303 "20,793 27,714 

Nickel ____ ____ 2 805 807

Silver __ __ ___ ____ 40 40

Tin __ __ ____ ____ 134 134

1 Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., (1974k, p. IV-7, 9). 

2 Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin. (1974k, p. V-28). 

3 Includes 1,661 replacement barges. 

4 Includes 243 replacement towboats. 

5 68,000 hopper cars and 2,960 locomotives. 

6 Assumes 0.6 percent manganese in steel.
DEMAND A7

The railway projections in table 8 are based on 

the FEA low scenario for incremental coal flows to 

census regions using six-axle, 3^000 hp locomotives 

and H-100 open-hopper rail cars. This scenario 

calls for an incremental flow of coal by 1985 of 305 

million tonnes (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974k, 

p. IV-1).

Estimates indicate that a given length of track 

with a prorated number of locomotives and hopper 

cars requires approximately the same amount and 

kind of materials as the same length of slurry pipeline (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974k, p. VII-13 

to 29). Therefore, any tradeoff between railways and 

pipelines will not have a significant effect on the basic 

material requirements. Also, the basic materials required for additional truck capacity will not be significant because, according to PIB, "... there is a very 

large amount of excess coal truck capacity available 

to be used if shipments of coal via truck increase 

(for whatever reason) over the next 10 to 15 years" 

(U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974k, p. VII-40).

SYNTHETIC FUELS FROM GOAL

The synthetic fuels that can be derived from coal 

are: (1) high-Btu pipeline gas for private use; (2) 

low-Btu utility gas for power production facilities; 

and (3) liquid fuels, such as high-grade synthetic 

crude oil. Technologies available to produce each of 

these synthetic fuels are numerous. Only a few were 

selected in estimating basic material requirements 

to represent a cross section of the total industry. 

These selections are not meant to suggest which 

methods would be more successful or more efficient.

Table 9 gives estimated basic material requirements for modular unit coal gasification and liquefaction plants of five different types, and estimated 

total requirements for 30 plants of various types to 

increase production of synthetic fuels between 1975 

and 1990.

These estimates are adapted from the Data Supplement of the PIB "Synthetic Fuels from Coal" 

(U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974i, p. 9-13, 19).

The estimates incorporate a 5 percent learning 

curve but no economies of scale. The learning curve 

is included to project a rough estimate of the savings 

in materials as a result of experience gained. The 

economies-of-scale factors are not included because 

only one size of each plant is considered. A more 

complete explanation of the synthetic fuel model 

produced by Battelle Institute can be found in the 

Data Supplement of PIB "Synthetic Fuels From 

Coal."

OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION

The total amount of steel required by the oil industry 1977-88 (table 10) was determined by the 

graphical interpretation of data presented on exhibit 

VI-2 of the PIB task force report on oil (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974f, p. VI-7). The amount of 

steel in tubular goods was similarly determined by 

a graphical interpretation of exhibit VI-2, and the 

difference between total steel and tubular goods steel 

is assumed to be the amount that goes into rigs and 

platforms. It was necessary to distinguish between 

tubular goods steel and rig-and-platform steel in 

order to compute the amount of manganese (assumed to average 1.3 percent for tubular goods and 

0.8 percent for platforms and drill rigs).

The total amount of steel and other materials to 

be required by the gas industry (table 10) was determined by simply using the ratio of hole footage 

projected to be drilled for gas to the footage to be 

drilled for oil, a ratio of approximately 47 to 53. 

These footage figures were determined from the 

PIB task force report (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 

1974d, p. III-8) and from a computer printout supplied to us by the Project Independence task force.

TABLE 9.—Estimated basic material requirements for single coal gasification and liquefaction plants of different types, and total

requirements for 30 plants, 1975-90

[Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974i, Data Supplement, p. 9-13, 19]

High-Btu pipeline gas, synthane _ __ _ _____________

High-Btu pipeline gas, Lurgi process _______ __________

Low-Btu fuel gas, fixed bed, atmospheric pressure __________

Liquid fuel, gas/ oil _ — ____ — ______ _ _________________

Liquid fuel, Fischer-Tropsch process ______________________

Total for 30 synthetic fuel plants of various types ____

Capacity 

(million

cubic feet 

per day)

250

250

1,568 ^224

2 325

Aluminum

3,811

4,537

519

65,199

Commodity

Copper

318

363

45

5,368

(metric tonnes)

Iron

34,989

41,049

14,943

101,061

124,285

860,398

Manganese

282

331

120

815

1,003

6,939

1 And 38,580 barrels per day. 

8 And 19,550 barrels per day.
A8 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

TABLE 10. — Assumed equipment and material requirements for 

oil and gas exploration and production, 1977-88

Oil Gas

Total tons of steel „_„_ 47,747,000 short tons 42,342,000 short tons

Oil country tubular 17,420,000 short tons 15,448,000 short tons 

goods (steel). 

Rig and platform steel. 30,327,000 short tons 26,894,000 short tons 

Total cumulative footage 1,403,100,000ft 1,237,800,000ft 

to be drilled.

Rigs and platforms

Total cumulative 45,765 40,584 

number. 

Nickel per rig or 250 Ib 250 Ib 

platform. 

Chromium per rig or 500 Ib 500 Ib 

platform. 

Engines per rig or plat- 3 3 

form (1,000 hp). 

Copper per 1,000 hp 1,786 Ib 1,786 Ib 

engine.

Bits

Number of bits used.... 1,403,100 1,237,800 

Bit life (average) ___ 1,000ft 1,000ft

Bit weight (average) .. 130 Ib 130 Ib 

Nickel per bit 4.6 Ib 4.6 Ib 

(3.5 percent). 

Tungsten carbide per 16.2 Ib 16.2 Ib 

bit 

Tungsten in 15.2 Ib 15.2 Ib 

tungsten carbide 

(94 percent).

Drilling muds

Barite per foot _____ 19.5 Ib 19.5 Ib

Bentonite per foot ___ 8.5 Ib 8.5 Ib

Concrete per 1,000 feet 16.6shorttons 16.6shorttons 

(average).

The number of drilling bits required (table 10) 

assumes an average bit life of 1,000 feet. The average amount of barite and bentonite used per foot 

was calculated from data published by the National 

Petroleum Council (1974, p. 186-187). Such calculation assumes that the average depth of wells drilled 

in 1988 will be approximately the same as that of 

wells drilled in 1973. (In fact, the average depth 

will probably be greater.) 

The estimated basic material requirements for oil 

and gas exploration and development between 1977 

and 1988 are given in table 11. Calculations are 

based on the data in table 10. 

Concrete was calculated by averaging the tonnes 

of cement per 1,000 feet of hole to be drilled in the 

various regions covered by the PIB report (U.S.

TABLE 11. — Estimated basic material requirements for oil and 

gas exploration and development, 1977-88 (in metric tonnes)

Commodity Oil Gas Total

Barite _ ___ 12,414,111 10,951,606 23,365,717

Bentonite _ — 5,411,279 4,773,777 10,185,056

Chromium 1 _ — 10,382 9,200 19,582

Concrete ___ _ 21,135,836 18,645,811 39,781,647

Copper __ _ _ 111,256 98,662 209,918

Iron ____ _. 42,971,743 38,106,829 81,078,572 Manganese 2 425,663 377,454 803,117

Nickel 3 _ ___ 8,120 7,190 15,310

Tungsten 4 _ . 9,676 8,537 18,213

1 Assumes 500 Ib chromium per rig. 

3 Assumes average of 1.3 percent manganese for tubular goods and 0.8 

percent for platforms and drill rigs. 

3 Matrix of bit contains 3.5 percent nickel in 130-lb bits. Assumes 250 

Ib of nickel in camshaft of drill rig. 

* Assumes an average bit is between 8%- and 9%-in diameter, contains 

15.2 Ibs of tungsten, and weighs 130 Ib.

Federal Energy Admin., 1974d, p. V-39), and converting the cement to tonnes of concrete.

OIL SHALE

In estimating a production in 1990 of 450,000 barrels per day (at $7 per barrel) of oil from oil shale 

(U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974g, p. 8), the use 

of four basic types of oil shale facilities is assumed : 

a 100,000 barrels-per-day underground mine, a 

100,000 barrels-per-day surface mine, a 50,000 barrels-per-day underground mine, and a 50,000 barrelsper-day in-situ "mine." In the surface and underground mine units, the shale would be mined by 

room and pillar methods, crushed, and fed into retorts, where the hydrocarbons would be extracted by 

heat. The in-situ units considered herein would require either the injection of steam or hot water 

directly into the oil shale or underground conventional or nuclear explosions to release the hydrocarbons, which would then be drawn off by modified 

oil wells. The unit models for these facilities are 

listed in table 12. 

On the basis of these unit plants, Battelle Institute 

researchers constructed a computer model of the 

cumulative basic material requirements of the oilshale industry through the year 1990. This model

TABLE 12.—Estimated basic material requirements for unit models of oil-shale mines, and for oil-shale mining, 1975-90*

Type of mine

Capacity (barrels/day)

Commodity (metric tonnes) : 

Aluminum — _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ .

Chromium _ ____ _ _ ____ .

Copper _ _ _ ______ _ __ _.

Iron 2 . _ ____ __ _______ . Manganese _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ .

Nickel _ _ ____ _______ .

Underground

. _____ 50,000

. _____ 91

. __ ._ 1,740

. _____ 454

. ___ __ 61,401

. __ __ 515

. __ __ 773

Underground

100,000

165

3,185

817

112,424

944

1,416

Surface

1,000

165

3,234

817

114,154

958

1,437

In situ

50,000

27

9,972

318

351,973

2,955

4,432

Total 1975-90

450,000 in

644

14,146

5,114

499,306

4,191

6,287

1990

1 V.S. Federal Energy Admin. (1974g, p. 134). 

s Includes 15 percent alloy or stainless steel.
DEMAND A9

takes into consideration the types of plants constructed, State where located, economies of scale, 

construction and production schedules, and a "learning curve" that conserves materials as operating 

experience is acquired. Consequently, the totals for 

oil-shale mining 1975-90 given in table 12 do not 

represent a simple addition of materials used in the 

four-unit model.

FOSSIL-FUELED POWERPLANTS

Fossil-fueled powerplants will account for more 

than 50 percent of the total electricity generated in 

the United States at least until 1980 and, in absolute 

capacity, will remain a major power source beyond 

the turn of the century (Electrical World, 1974, p. 

55). The basic material requirements will be correspondingly large.

Table 13 is based on projections for additional 

capacities of fossil-fuel-generated electrical energy 

from the Project Independence Report (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974a, p. 70), which calls for 

an increased generating capacity by 1985 of 366,000 

MWe by coal and 189,000 MWe by combustion turbines and other fossil-fueled units 1 . Data on basic 

materials for a 900 MWe fossil-fueled, steam-turbine-generator set and a 59 MWe gas-turbine-generator set were supplied by industry. The ratio of 

transformer to generator capacity was assumed to 

be 1.1:1. The 900 MWe unit includes a 990 mega volt 

amperes (MVA) transformer, and the 59 MWe gas 

turbine unit includes a 65 MVA transformer. As the

1 It is noteworthy that these projections are much larger than those in 

Electrical World (1974, p. 55).

only data available, these units were used to calculate amounts of materials. To meet the new demands 

for fossil-fueled energy for 1985, about 406 coalfired plants of 900 MWe capacity and 166 combined 

cycle powerplants will be required. These projections 

are based on a worst-case scenario of large, standalone, conventional fossil-fuel plants with add-on 

59 MWe turbine generator sets.

REFINERIES

During the next 15 years—or at least through 

1985—oil refineries built in the United States will 

probably be designed to refine mostly crude oil from 

Alaska and Saudia Arabia. Some of the refineries 

already in use will need repair, modernization, and 

modification to process the crudes from these sources 

or to meet environmental restrictions, especially in 

the sulfur content of fuel oils and the lead content 

of gasoline (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19741, p. 

III-5).

Each refinery will be designed for particular 

crudes and markets. No one set of specifications will 

apply to all. The generalized, "typical" refinery— 

though it provides the best estimate for all refineries 

—is the least likely to be built.

In the PIB task force report on facilities two cases 

are presented, one for a gasoline refinery, and one 

for a fuel refinery. Case 1 is the Alaska crude oil/ 

gasoline type refinery (200,000 barrels per calendar 

day), which we have selected as a typical refinery 

for purposes of estimating the needs of basic materials. Table 14 lists the requirements for one such 

plant as adapted from Project Independence (U.S.

TABLE 13.—Estimated basic material requirements for fossil-</ueled powerplants, 1975-85 (in metric tonnes)

Number of units __ __ _.

Type of unit ________ .

Capacity (MWe) _____ . Commodity :

Abestos __ — _ _ _ __ _ . Chromium ________

Cobalt ________________

Concrete __ ____________

Copper _______________

Iron __ — ___________

Magnesia — _ _ _______

Manganese ___ _ ____

Mica (scrap) _________

Molybdenum ___ _ _

Nickel _ — ____ ____

Silver — ___ _ _ _ _ _

Tungsten _ _ __ _ ___

Vanadium _ _ _ _

A

. __ 1

——— Steamturbine 1

. ____ 900

. __ 0.34

___ 21

___ 92,265

424

___ 22,184

_ _ 1.6

___ 179

___ 1.1

___ .9

___ 6.8

__ .26

B

406

Steamturbine,

type A

4 366,000

138

8,526

37,459,590

172,144

9,006,704

609

72,674

447

365

2,761

106

c

1

Gas

turbine 2

59

0.022

3.2

1.9

204.2

14.8

218.4

.096

1.8

.07

.24

3.7

.0014

.29

.036

D

1

Combined

cycle,8 1 type A,

4 type C

1,136

0.4

33.8

7.6

93,082

483

23,057

1.9

186

1.4

1.9

21.6

0.0056

1.16

.4

E

166

Combined cycle

typeD

4 189,000

66

5,611

1,2*62

15,451,612

80,178

3,827,462

315

30,876

232

315

3,586

.9

193

66

Total

572

Column B

andE

4 555,000

204

14,137

1,262

52,911,202

252,322

12,834,166

924

103,550

679

680

6,347

.9

193

172

1 Including 990 MVA transformer.

2 Including- pad and 65 MVA transformer.

3 Including pad and 1250 MVA transformer. 

*U.S. Federal Energry Admin (1974a, p. 70).
A10 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

TABLE 14.—Estimated basic material requirements for gasoline 

refineries, 1977-90 (in metric tonnes)

Commodity

Aluminum _ 

Asbestos 3 _____

Chromium ____ 

Concrete _ __

Copper ___ _

Iron _ ________

Manganese ____ 

Nickel __ _ _

1 refinery, 200,000 

barrels per day 1

4.5 

1,677

506 

6,974

1,116

82,846

674 

329

25 refineries, 

each 200,000 barrels 

per day 2

113 

41,925

12,650 

174,350

27,900

2,071,150

16,850 

8,225

1 Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin. (19741, p. 111-30).

2 Estimated from projections in U.S. Federal Energy Admin. (19741, p. 

VIII-21).

3 Short fiber for insulation.

Federal Energy Admin., 19741, p. 111-30), and for 

25 such plants as estimated from Project Independence data (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19741, p. 

VIII-21).

DEEP-WATER PORTS

Deep-water ports reduce the transportation costs 

of imported crude oil by making unloading facilities 

available to very large crude carriers, and they also 

reduce the risk of oilspills in coastal waters. Deepwater ports can be developed at existing harbors by 

dredging channels of sufficient depth to accept large 

tankers, or by providing unloading facilities in deep 

waters offshore (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19741, 

p.V-1).

The deep-water port facilities include berths for 

tankers, any necessary booster pumping facilities, 

pipelines from berth to tank farm, and the necessary 

intermediate tankage at the terminal. They do not 

include the distribution pipelines and pumping facilities from marine terminal to refineries. In table 

15 it is assumed that five deep-water ports will be 

constructed: three offshore—on the east coast, the 

gulf coast, and the west coast—and two inshore 

harbors—on the gulf coast and the west coast.

TERMINAL FOR LIQUID NATURAL GAS

"The typical liquid-natural-gas (LNG) terminal 

contains facilities to berth an LNG tanker, receive 

and store LNG, raise the pressure of the LNG to the

gas pipeline pressure, vaporize the LNG, compress 

the boil-off gases, and deliver a daily average of 500 

million cubic feet to a gas pipeline at generally not 

less than 40 °F and 1,200 psig [pounds per square 

inch gauge]" (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19741, 

p. VI-1). Table 16 gives the estimated basic material 

requirements for one typical LNG terminal.

Only one LNG terminal, probably to be located at 

Savannah, Ga., is planned for the United States over 

the next 10 years or so. It will cover about 170 acres 

and will not include any offshore area in the Savannah River.

TABLE 16.—Estimated basic material requirements for one 

typical liquid natural-gas terminal for a tanker with a cargo 

capacity of 750,000 barrels

[Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19741, p. VI-23]

Commodity Metric tonnes

Aluminum 

Chromium 

Concrete _ 

Copper — 

Iron _____ 

Manganese 

Nickel ___

145

19.6

365,208

72.6

12,759

104

8.7

NEW PIPELINES

The PIB task force report on transport of energy 

materials (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974k, part 

VI) makes a breakdown of the steel required for 

crude oil, oil-product, and natural gas pipelines and 

tanker facilities. For new crude oil the principal new 

movements are from Prudhoe Bay to the Pacific 

coast, from Seattle to Chicago, and from Los Angeles 

to Houston. The task force estimates that the steel requirements will be 5.3 million tonnes (U.S. Federal 

Energy Admin., 1974k, p. VI-8). Transportation of 

the Alaskan crude will constitute about 60 percent 

of the material requirements, and transportation of 

California crude will constitute most of the remainder.

Steel requirements for new oil-product pipelines 

are estimated at 1.9 million tonnes of steel, and indications are that, as with natural gas and crude oil, 

the petroleum products will become progressively

TABLE 15.—Estimated basic material requirements for five deep-water port facilities (in metric tonnes)

[Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19741, p. V-25 to V-40]

Commodities

Chromium _ _ _ _ _

Concrete _____ _ ___

Copper _ __ _ _ _.

Iron _ _ __ __ _ Manganese _ _ _ _ _ _

Nickel ___ ______

East coast

Offshore

1,960

118,694

163

._ — 93,511

777

. __ 871

Gulf coast

Inshore

1,960

OQ 7QQ £tO9 ( O*7

9 

73,821 

682 

871

Offshore

1,960

317,508 

318 

118,738 

980 

871

West coast

Inshore

1,960 

23,739 

9 

73,821 

682 

871

Offshore

1,960 

40,059 

118 

59,418 

479 

871

Total for 

five plants

9,800 

523,739 

617 

419,309 

3,600 

4,356
DEMAND All

more expensive as they are transported from the 

west to the east coast.

Two alternative scenarios for transporting natural gas from the Prudhoe Bay and the southern 

Alaska areas to the conterminous United States are 

offered by the PIB transportation task force. One 

envisions a pipeline from the north slope across 

Canada to Emerson, Manitoba, and to Portland, 

Oreg., from which terminals the gas would be delivered to demand regions (U.S. Federal Agency 

Admin., 1974k, p. VI-12). The other alternative 

would be the construction of a gas pipeline from 

Prudhoe Bay to Valdez, where an LNG tanker 

terminal would be located for transport of the gas 

in the form of LNG to conterminous U.S. entry 

ports. The tonnages of steel required for the Canadian pipeline route plus U.S. continental segments 

and for the Prudhoe Bay-Valdez pipeline plus LNG 

tanker are estimated to be nearly equal, about 10.5 

million tonnes of steel each (U.S. Federal Energy 

Admin., 1974k, p. VI-14 and VI-15).

The total steel required for pipeline transport of 

crude oil, oil-product, and natural gas is about 17.7 

million tonnes, as shown in table 17.

TOTAL REQUIREMENTS

The total basic material requirements for energy 

production from fossil fuel for the period 1975-85 

are summarized in table 18.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

By the year 1985, it has been estimated that geothermal powerplants will reach a generating capacity of 4,500 MWe (Vasil Roberfs,1975, written 

commun.). Of this total capacity, 50 percent is expected to be produced by flash-steam plants through 

the development of dry-steam resources, and 50 

percent by binary-cycle plants. Two major types of 

binary-cycle plants, differing basically in type of 

heat exchanger, are under development. The most 

popular heat exchanger used with brackish or sea

TABLE 17.—Estimated basic material requirements 1 for pipeline transportation of oil and gas from Alaska to the United 

States, and from Western United States to Eastern United 

States

[Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974k, p. VI-6 to VI-11]

Commodity Metric tonnes

Iron ______

Manganese 2 

Niobium 8 _ 

Vanadium *

17,443,150

247,700

885

3,540

1 Requirements for pumps and valves not included!.

2 Assumes 1.7 percent manganese in steel.

3 Assumes 0.005 percent average niobium content in steel. 

* Assumes 0.02 percent average vanadium content in steel.

TABLE 18.—Total estimated basic material requirements for 

energy production from fossil fuels, 1975-85

Commodity Metric tonnes 1

Aluminum _ _ _ ___ —— —

Antimony __ — ____ — ___

Asbestos __ ____ __ —— __

Barite _____________ .

Bentonite _ _ ___ _ _____

Boron _ ___ ——————————

Cadmium _ _ ————— _ ______

Chromium _ ____ — _ ______

Cobalt ___________ .

Concrete _ ___ __ —— _.

Copper __ — _ — _ ——— .

Iron — — _ ————————— .

Lead _ _ _ — ___ — _ — __.

Manganese _ — _ _ _ — _ . Magnesia _ — _ _ _ — _ _.

Mica — _ _ —— __ — ——— . Molybdenum _ ——— _ — _ . Nickel ____ _ ___ — _.

Niobium _ ——— __ ______

Silver ___ __ ______ . Tin — _ ________ _ .....

Tungsten _________________

Vanadium _ ____________

Zinc _ _ _ _ ____

_ _ ____ 313,000

_ — ___ 690

. _ — ___ 42,200

._— ____ 23,400,000

._ ———— _ 10,200,000

. _ —— __ 30

.— — ____ 57

. _______ 78,100

. ____ __ 1,290

._— __ ____ 94,000,000

. _______ 555,000

. _______ 120,000,000

. _______ 3,090

. _ _ ____ 1,220,000

. _______ 920

. _______ 680

. ______ 1,350

. _______ 44,500

_ _______ 910

. _______ 49

________ 160

________ 18,400

_ _______ 3,740

________ 140

1 Numbers rounded.

water is made of an alloy of 90 percent copper and 

10 percent nickel. Titanium heat exchangers are 

more resistant to corrosion but more expensive.

The basic materials required for a flash-steam 

plant and for each type of binary-cycle plant are 

given in table 19. The modular flash-steam plants 

are all considered to be one-unit stand alones with 

a capacity of 100 MWe.

The total basic material requirements for geothermal powerplants are also listed in table 19. The 

number of flash-steam plants, binary-cycle plants,

TABLE 19.—Estimated basic material requirements for unit 

geothermal plants, and total requirements for 4,500 MWe of 

geothermal energy in 1985 (in metric tonnes)

Aluminum ... _

Asbestos _ _ .

Chromium . _____

Concrete ___ _

Copper __ _ _

Iron ______ _

Magnesia

Manganese 5 __

Nickel ______ .

Titanium ___ ____

A

Flashsteam

plant,

100

MWe

capacity 1

"787

60

15,063

86

4 2,779

4,623

6

27

B

Binarycycle

plant,

&OMWe

capacity.

with

coppernickel

heat

exchangers 2

2,095

393

7~532

365

3,637

2,312

36

41

C

Binarycycle

plant,

50 MWe

capacity,

with

titanium

heat

exchangers

2,095

393

7~532

9

3,637

2,312

36

2

200

D

Total

for

4500

MWe «

(22 type A)

(23 type B)

(23 type C)

96,000

35,400

1,320

678.000

10,500

228,400

208,000

1,790

1,580

4,600

1 Assumes well requirement of 10 wells per 100 MWe, spaced at one 

well per 10 acres. Each well 4,000 feet deep, plus total of 4,000 feet 

of surface piping.

2 90 percent copper, 10 percent nickel.

3 Numbers rounded.

* Includes 247 tonnes of iron in chromium-nickel stainless steel, 1,245 

tonnes of plant carbon steel, and 1,286 tonnes of pipe and casing.

0 Assumes 0.20 percent manganese in plant carbon steel and 0.28 percent manganese in underground piping and casing.
A12 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOB U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

copper-nickel or titanium heat exchangers is not 

meant to project a probable mix of geothermal 

power plants in 1985, but simply to present a possible scenario utilizing all the types of plants that 

may be available.

HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY

According to the PIB task force report on facilities (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19741, p. 

VIII-39), the total new planned capacity for conventional and pumped storage hydroelectric power 

in the contiguous United States 1975-90 is about 

53,686 MWe. 2 This figure was determined by subtracting the 1974 capacity from the estimated 1990 

BAU capacity.

The estimated basic material requirements for 

conventional and pumped storage hydroelectric 

power to 1990 (table 20) were adapted from the

TABLE 20.—Estimated basic material requirements for additional hydroelectric generating capacity of about 53,500 

MWe, 1975-90

{Adapted mainly from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19741, p. VIII-39 

through 66]

Commodity

Aluminum ______________

Chromium _____________ _

Concrete ___________ _ _

Copper _______ ____ _ _

Iron _____________ _ ______

Manganese ____ _________

Mica

Nickel __________ ________

Metric tonnes 1

OAfT

1 3 QO

___ 114,000,000

___ 17,200

_ __ 1,990,000

___ 16,000

4,470

____ 617

1 Numbers rounded.

PIB report on facilities (U.S. Federal Energy 

Admin., 19741, p. VIII-51 to VIII-66). The materials requirements for the various regions and 

years were summed for a grand total. Chromium 

and nickel were added as constituents of stainless 

steel in percentages of 18 and 8, respectively.

Because of the variability in both the size and 

composition (concrete or earth-filled dam) of future 

hydroelectric power facilities, we were not able to 

construct ja modular unit that would be representative of any one size or type.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Greatly increased nuclear power production and 

coal production are expected to fill the gap resulting 

from decreased reliance on oil and gas during the 

next few decades. As of June 30, 1975, 55 nuclear

3 The PIB task force on water requirements (U.S. Federal Energy 

Admin., 1974J, p. 36) estimates a figure for conventional new capacity 

of about 23,700 MWe by 1»03,

plants were operable in the United States, 76 were 

being built, and 112 more were planned (Mining 

Record, 1975, p. 1). The total capacity of the operable plants was about 37,000 MWe, and the total 

capacity of all 243 plants—operable, under construction, or planned—was about 243,000 MWe. The 

Project Independence BAU projection of nuclear 

generating capacity in 1990 is 500,000 MWe. Although the industry is experiencing considerable 

delays, largely for environmental reasons, a rapid 

growth of the industry during the next few decades 

seems likely.

Demands for materials by the nuclear industry 

can be categorized under mining and milling, enrichment, and power generation.

URANIUM MINING AND MILLING

Uranium is the fuel used in largest quantities by 

the nuclear industry, although thorium is also used. 

Both elements occur generally in low-grade ores that 

may be mined by open-pit or underground methods. 

The ores required considerable beneficiation. Most 

of the uranium being produced in the United States 

today is from sedimentary rocks in the West. The 

uranium compound used to calculate reserves and 

production in U3O8.

Activity of the uranium mining industry in the 

United States will probably increase significantly 

until approximately 1988. This increase will be a 

direct result of nuclear energy growth and the expanded demand for U3O8 to fuel the additional nuclear reactors. The cumulative demand for U3O8 on 

which our basic material requirements are based is 

710,000 tonnes by 1990 (U.S. Federal Energy 

Admin., 1974e, p. 3.12-9).

Because of the extreme variation in uranium mine 

sizes, the modular mine approach was not attempted. 

The basic materials required to fulfill the U3O8 demand were estimated from the uranium mining 

equipment requirements listed in table 21. These 

equipment projections are very similar to the projections of the PIB task force on nuclear energy 

(U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974e, p. VII-27 to 

VII-32) except for small items with an insignificantmaterial content. In some cases, industry data did 

not include small amounts of the more exotic materials in various items of equipment. These were 

estimated according to the percentages in table 4.

The total basic materials impact of the uranium 

mining industry to 1990 is indicated in table 22. 

These figures are directly proportional to the numbers of items for each piece of equipment, which 

makes them only as good as the equipment estimates.
DEMAND A13

TABLE 21.— Estimated equipment requirements for mining of

uranium ore, 1975—90 

[Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974e, p. VII-27 to VII-32]

Item Quantity

Roof bolts __________________ 10,710,000

Drill steel —________________ 8,450,000 ft

Bits ———————————————______ 2,600,000

Pumps (200 gal/min) __________ 9,730

Pumps (1,000 gal/min) __________ 2,920

Hoists (100 hp) ______________ 458

Hoists (1,000 hp) _____________ 182

Slusher ____________________ 3,250

Slusher cable ________________ 287,000,000 ft

3-ton rail cars ________________ 5,700

Rail (60 Ib) _________________ 1,800,000

Loaders ————_______________ 1,560

Cars (5-ton diesel) _____________ 7,800

Jackhammers ________________ 39,000

Water pipe —________________ 9,900,000 ft

Ventilation line _______________ 9,900,000 ft

Compressor (250 ftVmin) ________ 3,640

Compressor (1,000 fWmin) _______ 1,560

Road grader ————————————_____ 1,140

Maintenance truck _____________ 1,820

75-ton truck _________________ 2,730

20-ton truck _________________ 5,460

Fork lift ___________________ 380

30-ton trucks ________________ 9,100

Pickup trucks _________________ 5,500

Small drill rig _______________ 3,250

Heavy bulldozer ______________ 3,740

Scrapers (30 yd) _____________ 1,240

Backhoes ____________________ 2,730

Power shovel (15 yd3 ) __________ 260

Generator (500 Kw) ___________ 500

Generator (1,500 Kw) __________ 240

Mechanical shop _______________ 470

Drill rig (blast hole) ___________ 2,000

Truck for small drill rig _________ 3,250

Quonset type huts _____________ 1,630

Primary crusher _______________ 85

Secondary crusher _____________ 170

Grinders (ball or rod mill) ________ 85

Steel autoclaves (10x10 ft cyl) ____ 90

Titanium clad (lead lined) autoclaves _ 170

Gear reducers _______________ 1,430

Drill mobiles ________________ 400

Continuous miners _____________ 480

Wireline hoist and %-in cable ______ 3,250

Trammer ________________ 1,140

Powerline (heavy duty) _________ 9,900,000 ft

Concrete (for buildings) _________ 1,630 

Explosives:

Dynamite _________________ 163,339 tonnes

Nitrate __________________ 37,205 tonnes

URANIUM-ENRICHMENT FACILITIES

Uranium-enrichment facilities must be developed 

at a rate equivalent to the development of U.S. 

nuclear-generation capacity because they will supply 

fuel for light-water reactors (LWR's) until about 

1988.

The grade of uranium ore is now about 0.22 percent U308 but is expected to fall to 0.075 percent by 

the late 1980's. Of uranium's two principal isotopes, 

U-235 and U-238, it is the U-235, because of its 

fissionable characteristics, that is used to fuel lightwater reactors. U-235 is only 0.7 percent of U3 08 by 

weight. To concentrate the U-235 to the level at 

which it can be used as a fuel (2 to 4 percent), it is

TABLE 22.—Estimated basic material requirements for mining 

of uranium ore, 1975-90

Commodity Metric tonnes

Aluminum __ 

Antimony _. 

Asbestos —- 

Boron ___. 

Cadmium — 

Chromium __ 

Cobalt ___. 

Concrete __. 

Copper __ 

Iron ____. 

Lead ____. 

Manganese . 

Molybdenum 

Nickel __. 

Niobium _ 

Silver __—. 

Tin ____. 

Titanium __. 

Vanadium _. 

Zinc 1 ___.

7,718

374

77

11

22

6,754

14

187,851

16,136

1,389,248

4,641

14,492

426

6,904

14

8

189

122

14

2,414

1 Assumes 1.8 oz of zinc per square foot of galvanized pipe surface 

(U.S. Steel Corp., 1970, p. 25).

first converted to uranium hexafluoride (UF6 ), 

which is then concentrated to the necessary 2 to 4 

percent U-235.

Of the two types of uranium-enrichment plants 

expected to come into production, only gaseousdiffusion plants are considered in this report because of the lack of available information on gascentrifuge plants. The estimate of basic material requirements for uranium-enrichment facilities (table 

23) is based on a unit gaseous diffusion plant with 

a capacity of 8,750 tonnes per year. Although the 

materials estimate is for an add-on plant, the requirements should be similar for a stand-alone plant 

of the .same capacity. Following the BAU scenario, 

the rate at which additional plants will come on-line 

is estimated to be one every 18 months starting in 

1983. The total basic material requirements to 1990 

are therefore estimated for five gaseous-diffusion 

plants (table 23).

TABLE 23.—Estimated basic material requirements for gaseous 

diffusion plants, to 1990

Commodity

1 plant

8,750 tonnes

per year 1

5 plants *

each 8,750

tonnes

per year

Aluminum _ 

Concrete —. 

Copper —— 

Iron _______

Manganese* 

Nickel __.

5,726

564387

4.900

145,710

661

4,791

28,630

2324,435

24,500

728,550

3305

23,955

1 Adapted from Oak Ridge National Laboratory (written eomnnm., 

April 23, 1975).

a PIB projects that, beginning in 1983, one new plant wfll be brought 

into production every 18 months (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19?4e, p. 

3.13-2).

3 Assume 0.2 percent manganese in carbon structural steel and 0.6 

percent manganese in other steel.
A14 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OP NONPUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS

Most of the nuclear powerplants projected to 1990 

will be LWR's, in a ratio of 70 percent pressurizedwater reactors and 30 percent boiling-water reactors 

(U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974e, p. III-6). 

Only about 9 percent of the nuclear plants in 1990 

are expected to be high-temperature-gas reactors, 

which are not included in this study; their exclusion 

should not introduce much error into the projection 

of basic material requirements. Although PIB states 

that only 50 percent of the additional nuclear reactor plants will be stand-alones, in this report all 

plants are assumed to be stand-alones and not additions to pre-existing facilities because we were unable to obtain data on cycling in partial plants. The 

basic material requirements for LWR's are given 

in table 24.

The first commercial fast-breeder reactor powerplant in the United States is expected to come on-line 

by 1988. The basic material requirements for this 

type of reactor are given in table 25. Within the 

time-frame covered by this report, the total basic 

material requirements for the fast-breeder type of 

reactor should not be significant.

TOTAL REQUIREMENTS TO 1990

The total estimated basic material requirements 

of the nuclear industry to 1990 are summarized in 

table 26. This table includes the mining equipment,

TABLE 25.—Estimated basic material requirements for one 

liquid metal, fast-breeder reactor plant with a capacity of 

1,000 MWe.

[Adapted from U.S. Atomic Energy Comiru, 1974c, p. 10-8]

Commodity Metric tonnes 1

Aluminum _ 

Asbestos 2 __ 

Chromium _ 

Concrete __ 

Copper —— 

Iron _____

Lead __—_ 

Magnesia __ 

Manganese 

Molybdenum 

Nickel —__ 

Silver ——— 

Tin _______

Zinc _______

18

138

410

184,775

730

35,000

50

780

410

160

480

1

2

2

1 Rounded to nearest tonne.

2 Short fiber for insulation.

5 uranium-enrichment facilities, 500 light-water reactors, and 1 liquid metal fast-breeder reactor.

Fusion reactors are not expected to become sources 

of commercial power until 2000, beyond the timeframe of this report. They are therefore not included 

in this study.

SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is the world's largest potential source 

of energy and the only renewable source that is discussed in this report. Until now only a small percentage of the country's total research budget has

TABLE 24.—Estimated basic material requirements for unit light-water reactor (LWR) plants and for reactor plants with a

total capacity of 500,000 MWe in 1990 (in metric tonnes)

Modular units of 

1,000 MWe capacity

Commodity

Aluminum __ __ ____

Asbestos 6 ______ _.

Cadmium _ ___ __ . Chromium _____ _.

Concrete ________ . Copper _ _ ___ _ _.

Indium ________ .

Iron _ _________ .

Lead — __ ______ . Magnesia — ______ . Manganese _ ____ _ . Molybdenum _ _ _ __,

Nickel _1 _ ___ ____

Niobium __ __ __

Silver _________ . Tin __________ .

Titanium _ _ __ __

Zinc __________ . Zirconium __ __ __ .

Boiling-water 

reactor (BWR) 

plant 3

K4

—— - 110

190,175

25,767

209

— _ 128

4Q

Pressurizedwater reactor 

(PWR) plant4

18

138

415 

166,349 

726

34,195 

47 

783 

7 467 

164 

484

1 

2

2

Replaceable core components 

for plants of 1,000 

MWe capacity L2

1 PWR for 

15 years 5

0.00375

.225 

6.75

.00075 

.6375 

24.375

.675 

.02625 

3.75 

.0375 

3.375 

1.875 

.0075

122.25

500 LWR's for 

15 years

0.8

50.6 

1,518.8

.17 

143.4 

5,484.4

151.9 

5.9 

843.8 

8.4 

759.4 

421.9 

1.7

27,506

Total for 150 BWR's 

and 350 PWR's, including 

replaceable core 

components for 15 years

14,401 

48,300 

51 

163,269 

86,748,400 

390,150 

144 

15,838,784 

16,450 

274,050 

194,952 

76,606 

177,594 

8 

1,040 

1,122 

2 

700 

27,506

1 Nuclear power cycle has following parameters: plant factor, 85 percent; fuel enrichment, 3.2 percent; fuel burnup, 33,000 MWd/tonne 

uranium; and tails assay, 0.200 percent. _

2 Adapted from Bryan (1975, written commun.).

3 Class BWR-6 plant with Mark III containment.

4 Adapted from Bryan and Dudley (1974, p. 5).

6 It is assumed that boiling water and pressurized water reactors require 

ssentially the same amount and kind of core materials.

6 Short fiber for insulation.

7 Assumes 1.3 percent manganese in steel.
DEMAND A15

TABLE 26.—Total estimated basic material requirements for 

nuclear energy, 1975-90 1

Commodity Metric tonnes

Aluminum __ — __ ___ _.

Antimony ___ _________

Asbestos 3 ____ _ _ .

Boron __ — __ — _ — __ __.

Cadmium _ _ ____ ___ __

Chromium ___ — ________

Cobalt ________ _ .

Concrete ________ __.

Copper ____ — _ — _ __.

Indium _ _ _ _ — __ —

Iron _ — _ — _ — _ —— __.

Lead _______ _ _ _ .

Magnesia __ _ — __ —

Manganese _ —————— -.

Molybdenum _ — ——— .

Nickel ___ — _ ————— .

Niobium _ __ _ _ _.

Silver _ __ __ ___ .

Tin _____________ _.

Titanium _ _ _ _____ .

Vanadium _ _ ___ ____ _.

Zinc ___ _ _ _ _.

Zirconium _ _ ___ ___

. —————— __ 51,000

. ——————— ___ 375

.— — _____ 48,500

. —— — _____ 11

— — — __ _ __ 73

. __________ 170,000

. __________ 14

. ______ __ 89,900,000

. __________ 432,000

— — _______ 145

. __________ 18,000,000

. __________ 21,100

.__ __ ____ 275,000

. __________ 213,000

. _____ __ 77,200

. _ ____ __ 209,000

_ __ ______ 23

. __ __ __ __ 1,050

. _______ __ 1,310

. __ __ __ 125

14

_ __ _ _ ___ 2,420

_ ___ __ _ 27,500

1 Includes 150 boiling-water and 350 pressurized-water reactors, 5 

uranium-enrichment facilities, 1 liquid-metal fast-breeder reactor, replaceable core components, and materials required to explore, develop, 

and produce uranium ore sufficient to meet their needs.

3 Numbers rounded.

3 Short fiber for insulation.

been spent on solar energy. Yet proponents tend to 

be enthusiastic, and general interest appears to be 

growing so rapidly that great advances in technology may happen quickly. The assessment here presupposes a research and development program that 

will solve successfully the economic and technologic 

problems of solar energy.

Six technologies for solar energy are considered 

in this report. The potential impact of each between

1980 and 2000 is indicated in table 27. Basic material requirements for each type to 1990, and total 

requirements for all six types, are estimated in table 

28. A brief summary of each type follows.

TABLE 27.—Projected production of solar energy by various 

technologies, 1980-2000 1

[Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974h, p. 1-7]

10 1B Btu's per year

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Heating and cooling _

Photovoltaic conversion _ 

Total U.S. demand __

0.01 

.0

.008

.06

.0

Negligible 

93

0.3 

.002

.4

.1

.03

.003 

120

0.6 

.02

1.6

.2

.1

.07 

144

1.3 

.1

2.7

.4

.4

.3 

165

2.3 

.6

4.0

.7

1.7

1.5 

180

1 Assumptions include (1) the successful completion of the recommended research and development program plan for solar energy technologies; and, (2) conventional fuel prices equivalent to $11 per barrd 

of oil.

SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING OF BUILDINGS

Solar heating and cooling of buildings is expected 

to be the most significant of all solar energy technologies. Solar heating and cooling technology could 

be used not only to heat and cool buildings, but also 

to provide hot water for agricultural applications 

such as drying crops or heating greenhouses.

The thermal energy used is derived from the Sun's 

rays incident upon some type of solar collector, most 

likely a flat-plate collector installed in the sides or 

roofs of buildings. This flat-plate collector, which 

is covered by some transparent material, absorbs 

the heat from the Sun's rays and transfers this heat 

to a working fluid percolating through the collector. 

The heated fluid, usually water or air, then either

TABLE 28.—Estimated basic material requirements for six main types of solar energy to 1990 (in 'metric tonnes)

[Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974h, p. 11-46, III-A-17, IV-C-5, V-17 to 24, VI-17 to 18, VII-A-15]

Aluminum —— . Antimony ——— .

Chromium ——

Concrete ——— .

f!/'-T-tTMvf*

r_-iflQ&

Iron —————— T -OQ/1

Manganese ____

Molybdenum — ^Tl f* K^l

Zinc _ ——— ____

Solar Wind-energy 

heating and 10 thermal- conversion 

cooling conversion systems, 

0.6 X 101B Btu's units 1 each total 

per year 100 MWe 53,515 MWe

._ 5,211,485 889 ____

38 ......

9,414,794

308,533

__ 7,107,148 113,431

9,909,296 191,525 11,870,535

79,914 1,544 3 loY,805

___ 5 _—

12

Total for 4 

bioconversion 

technologies 

(See table 29)

34

6

1

14

6,630,089

42

1,241,714

61

10,012

6

8

8

41 ocean-thermal 

conversion units, 

each 100 MWe, 

and 13 

transformers, 

each 347 MVA; 

total 4,100 

MWe

29,764

3,799,039

8,579

75,755

488

Photovoltaic Total for 

power systems 6 main types 

total 8,058 of solar 

MWe energy 3

————— 5,242,000

————— 1

———— 52

19,800,000

— __ 317,000

7,220,000

1,091,210 24,400,000

_ __ 61

8,800 209,000

- .. . 11

20

4 3,500 3,500

8

1 Includes materials for grid system, 150 MWth—megawatts (thermal) — 

central receiver boiler (cavity type), and feedwater heaters for 100 MWe 

steam turbine. Does not include turbine, generator, dry cooling tower, 

storage pressure vessels, or steel pipe.

2 Numbers rounded.

3 Assumes 0.9 percent manganese in steel.

4 Table 1 on page VII-A-3 of the PIB task force report on solar energy 

states that 2,700 metric tonnes of cadmium may be used as an alternative for 

silicon in 1990, but cadmium is not listed as a required commodity on the 

specifications sheet (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974h, p. VII-A-15).
A16 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

utilizes the heat immediately or is taken to some 

type of storage area, where it can be kept for short 

periods of time until needed.

According to the PIE task force report on solar 

energy (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974h, p. 

1-17), "The demand on resources for this application will be small compared to other U.S. demands 

for construction resources, and is not considered to 

be limiting."

SOLAR THERMAL CONVERSION

Solar thermal conversion systems collect the heat 

contained in the incident rays of the Sun at high 

temperatures for the generation of electricity. This 

solar heat is collected either through a field of heliostats, which are mirrors that focus the Sun's rays on 

a central boiler, or through a field of parabolic 

troughs that concentrate the Sun's thermal energy 

into some type of working fluid, which then goes to 

a central receiving point. Beyond that point, the 

solar thermal conversion plant is approximately the 

same as a conventional fossil-fueled powerplant. According to the U.S. Federal Energy Administration 

(1974h, p. HI-2), "There are no fundamental technical limitations that would prevent substantial application of solar thermal conversion systems."

WIND-ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS

Wind-energy conversion systems (WECS) will 

consist of one or more rotor devices linked to an 

electrical generator through some type of grid system. These conversion systems will range in capacity 

from 5 to 50 kilowatts for farm and rural applications and from 1 to 3 megawatts for interconnection 

with public utility grids.

Pertinent data must be studied and analyzed further, but some characteristics of wind-energy conversion systems are obvious. The utility grids would 

be located in areas where wind energy is available, 

such as along coasts, the Great Plains, and the Great 

Lakes. Also, the conversion of solar energy as wind 

directly into electrical energy is more efficient than 

conversions that require intermediate conversion to 

thermal energy.

BYCONVERSION TO FUELS

"Byconversion to Fuels (BCF) as defined in this 

solar energy program includes the production of 

plant biomass (i.e., organic matter) and the conversion of this biomass to a variety of clean fuel products and other useful clean energy forms" (U.S. 

Federal Energy Admin., 1974h, p. V-l). Four 

sources of biomass are considered here: urban solid 

waste, agricultural residues, terrestrial biomass 

farms, and marine biomass farms (table 29). 

Through biochemical and physical-chemical processes such as combustion and pyrolysis, a significant amount of methane or alcohol could be produced from these biomass sources. Prior to 1985 

urban solid waste and agricultural residues are expected to be the most significant BCF technologies, 

with the terrestrial and marine biomass farms expected to become the major BCF energy feedstock 

materials thereafter.

The estimated basic material requirements for all 

BCF facilities 1975-1990 are summed in table 29. 

These totals are also listed in table 28 in realtion to 

requirements for the other types of solar energy.

OCEAN THERMAL-ENERGY CONVERSION

Ocean thermal-energy conversion systems as now 

planned will consist of a series of semisubmersible 

hulls incorporating power-pack modules capable of 

converting ocean thermal energy into electrical

TABLE 29.—Estimated basic material requirements for four byconversion technologies, 1975-90 (in metric tonnes)

[Adapted from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974h, p. V-17, 20, 23, 24]

Source of biomass ___-_.__..

Capacity in 1990

(10 15 Btu's per year) _ .

Aluminum ___________

Antimony — __ ________

Asbestos _ _________

Chromium ______ __

Concrete _ __ __ _

Copper __ — — — ___

Iron —— ____ _ _ _____

Lead _ _ _ _ _ _ _____

Manganese __ _ _ _ _

Molybdenum ___ _

Nickel __ __ — ____

Zinc _ ___ __ __ _ _

.__. 150 urban

solid waste

plants *

.... 0.18

423,666

397,884

3,209

3

60 plants using

agricultural residues

feedstock a

0.06

180,954

1,397

12

1

Terrestrial

biomass

farms 3

0.44

34

6

1

14

42

116,664

61

941

6

8

Marine

biomass

farms *

0.2

6,025,468

725,769

5,850

4

Total

34

6

1

14

6,630,089

42

1,241,714

61

10,012

6

8

8

1 1,000 short tons of waste per day per plant. 

2 1,000 tons of residue per day per plant.

3 Estimated land requirement equals 1.6 million acres in 1990. 

* Estimated total marine space in 1990 is 800,000 acres.
DEMAND A17

energy. The energy will be obtained by an exchange 

of heat between a working fluid (such as ammonia or 

propane) operating in a closed cycle, and the ocean 

water—similar to a refrigeration cycle.

The impact of ocean thermal-energy conversion 

systems will not become apparent until the 1990's, 

when rapid growth is expected. Initially, the oceanthermal powerplants will be located relatively near 

shore and transmit their electricity to onshore areas. 

Later, chemical storage might be utilized by oceanthermal powerplants farther out to sea, where tankers would pick up the product (hydrogen) on established runs.

The total estimated basic material requirements 

for ocean thermal conversion 1975-90 are shown in 

table 28.

PHOTOVOLTAIC ELECTRIC-POWER SYSTEMS

Photovoltaic electric-power systems convert the 

light that strikes solar cells directly into electrical 

current. No intermediate step to convert the solar 

energy to thermal energy is necessary; therefore, 

these systems can operate at a relatively high efficiency.

Photovoltaic cells can supply electricity from 

either a dispersed display, such as on houses and 

other buildings, or a centralized display, which 

would be necessary to produce electricity for public 

utilities. Because of the adaptability of photovoltaic 

electric-power systems, they could be used in conjunction with most other types of solar-energy technologies.

ELECTRIC-POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Regardless of how electrical power is generated, 

it must be transmitted, in many cases for distances 

of several hundred miles, and distributed in local 

areas to the users. These transmission and distribution systems require substantial amounts of aluminum, copper, and steel in cable, transformers, and 

towers.

According to the PIB task force report on facilities the trend in transmission has been to shift from 

the 69 kV through the 138 kV class of lines to the 

230, 345, 500, and 765 kV classes of lines. "The 

development of Ultra High Voltage (UHV) (1,000 

KV and higher) transmission lines is in progress at 

several test locations. . . . Considerable development 

work is being done on Extra-High Voltage (EHV) 

underground cables, with 345 KV now approaching a 

standard design and an initial 500 KV cable in service" (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19741, p. VII211).

TABLE 30.—Estimated basic material requirements for electrical transmission and distribution powerlines and transformers, based on an additional capacity of 759,000 MWe, 

by 1985

[Data on projected capacity from U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 1974a, 

p. 70; data on materials per 1JOOO MWe from U.S. Federal Energy 

Admin., 19741, p. VII-227, 228]

Commodity Metric tonnes

Aluminum . 

Copper —. 

Iron ___ 

Manganese

8,430,000

2,130,000

13,800,000

111,000

1 Numbers rounded.

Electrical-power distribution has at the same time 

been shifting from 5 kV to 15 kV classes of circuits. 

Underground distribution facilities are also increasing in many areas at a rapid rate. Insulation systems for underground cables present a difficult technological problem.

Table 30 gives the estimated total basic material 

requirements for electric-power transmission and 

distribution of 759,000 MWe new capacity 1975-85

TABLE 31.—Total estimated basic material requirements for 

anticipated significant energy sources, approximately 1975- 90 1

Commodity

Metric 

tonnes 2

Short 

tons !

Aluminum ————________

Antimony ________——_—__

Asbestos _———___________

Barite _______-________

Bentonite ____—___—_

Boron _____ — _———— — __

Cadmium __________—__

Chromium — — — — ———— __

Cobalt _____________ 

Concrete _—_-_—_——__ 

Copper ___________________

Fluorite (aluminum and

steel production) 3 ________

Indium ____———_———_

Iron ______———_————_

Lead _________—_____.

Magnesia __————____—__

Magnesia (steel production)* 

Manganese ________________

Mica ________________

Molybdenum _________.

Nickel ___—_____—_———

Niobium ____—____—_____

Silicon ——————————.

Silicon (steel and aluminum

production) 5 _________.

Silver _____——————————.

Tin ________________. 

Titanium _———_——————. 

Tungsten 6 ______—_____

Vanadium —_———— —— —. 

Zinc ___________-_-

Zirconium _________ — __.

14,100,000

1,070

126,000

23,400,000

10,200,000

41

130

251,000

1,300

319,000,000

3,460,000

1,580,000

145

179,000,000

24,300

484,000

573,000

1,770,000

5,140

78,600

256,000

935

3,500

662,000

1,100

1,470

4,720

33,000

3,750

2,560

27,500

15,500,000

1,180

139,000

25,700,000

11,200,000

45

209

276,100

1,430

351,000,000

3,810,000

1,740,000

160

197,000,000

26,700

532,000

627,000

1,950,000

5,660

86,400

282,000

1,030

3,850

728,000

1,210

1,620

5,190

36,300

4,130

2,820

30,250

1 See text for_explanation of energy sources and periods involved and 

table 1 in Goudarizl, Rooney, and Shaffer (1976), chapter B of this report, 

for requirements extrapolated for full time period.

2 Numbers rounded.

3 Average 9 Ib of CaFa per metric tonne of steel and 132 Ib per metric 

tonne of aluminum.

* Average 7 Ib per metric tonne of steel.

5 Average 5.5 Ib per metric tonne of steel and 33 Ib per metric tonne 

of aluminum.

B Used mostly in the manufacture of machinery.
A18 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

in the Project Independence Report (U.S. Federal 

Energy Admin., 1974a, p. 70). The projections are 

based on generating units of 1,000 MWe capacity 

and are subject to the PIB assumptions (U.S. Federal Energy Admin., 19741, p. VII-221 to VII-226).

SUMMARY

All of the estimated basic material requirements 

for anticipated significant energy sources considered 

herein are summarized in table 31. Although most 

of the material requirements listed are for 1975-90, 

some of the data are for a shorter period of time 

as noted in the tables throughout the text. Thus, in 

terms of the BAU scenario from PIB, these are 

minimum figures for 1975-90. In table 1 of Goudarzi, 

Rooney, and Shaffer (1976), chapter B of this report, the totals for shorter time periods have been 

extrapolated to 15 years (1975-90) in every case as 

a straight line function.

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DEMAND A19

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— 1974h, Project Independence Blueprint Task Force Report/Solar energy—Project Independence Blueprint, final, 

task force report: Washington, D.C., U.S. Govt. Printing 

Office, [553] p.

— 1974i, Project Independence Blueprint Task Force Report, Synthetic fuels from coal—Project Independence 

Blueprint, final, task force report: Washington, D.C., 

U.S. Govt. Printing Office, [290] p.

— 1974j, Project Independence Blueprint Task Force Report/Water requirements, availabilities, constraints, and

recommended federal actions—Project Independence Blueprint, final, task force report: Washington, D.C., U.S. 

Govt. Printing Office, 121 p.

— 1974k, Project Independence Blueprint Task Force Report/Analysis of requirements and constraints on the 

transport of energy materials v. 1—Project Independence 

Blueprint, final, task force report: Washington, D.C., U.S. 

Govt. Printing Office, [370] p.

19741, Project Independence Blueprint Task Force Report/Facilities—Project Independence Blueprint, final,

task force report: Washington, D.C., variously numbered. 

U.S. Federal Power Comm., 1971, The 1970 national power

survey, pt. 1: Washington, D.C., 432 p. 

U.S. Steel Corp., 1970, Pipe pal—line pipe, Standard Pipe:

Pittsburgh, Pa., 80 p.

Supply of Nonfuel Minerals and Materials for the 

United States Energy Industry, 1975-90

By GUS H. GOUDARZI, LAWRENCE F. ROONEY, and GLENN L. SHAFFER

DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MINERALS AND MATERIALS 

FOR THE UNITED STATES ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90- 

A PRELIMINARY REPORT

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1006-B

Each mineral commodity identified in Professional 

Paper 1006-A is assessed as to adequacy of 

domestic supply

CONTENTS

Abstract ____-______-__________- 

Introduction _—__——————________.

Fundamental importance of energy production 

Demand estimates _____________.

Supply data _________.________________

Resource appraisals _———___—_______

Energy budget _____________________________

Commodity summaries _______—______

Aluminum _____________________________

Antimony ________________.

Asbestos ______________________________

Barite _____________________. 

Bentonite __________________

Boron _________________.

Cadmium ______________________________

Cement __________________. 

Chromium ___________________. 

Cobalt ______________________ 

Copper __—________________________

Fluorite _______________________________

Page

Bl

1

1

1

2

2

6

7

7

10

11

11

12

13

13

14

15

16

16

17

Commodity summaries—continued 

Indium __—————-—-___- 

Iron ______________________

Lead _____________-

Magnesia ________________

Manganese ————————- 

Mica —————————————- 

Molybdenum ————————- 

Nickel ____————_——.

Niobium (Columbium) ——- 

Silicon ____——_————. 

Silver ___——————- 

Tin _______________. 

Titanium __________________

Tungsten ___________. 

Vanadium ______________

Zinc ______________. 

Zirconium __———_——___

Conclusions ___________-.

References cited _————————--

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

B18

18

19

20

21

22

22

23

24

25

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

31

37

Page

FIGURE 1. Energy requirements for recovery of iron, titanium, and aluminum at different grades from various sources B8

2. U.S. dependency on imports in terms of percentage of total consumption in 1973 ——————————————— 33

3. Percentage of total U.S. cumulative demand for some commodities, 1975-90, that can be met by U.S.

reserves ______________________ _________________—_—————————————— 34

4. Average annual demand by energy industries for some commodities, 1975-90, as a percentage of U.S.

production in 1973 ________________.___________________________________ 35

5. Percentage of U.S. reserves needed to meet total energy demand for some commodities, 1975-90 ________ 36

TABLES

Page

TABLE 1. Minimum estimates of nonfuel mineral requirements for energy production in the United States, 1975-90,

by types of energy industries __________ ___________________________________ B3

2. U.S. supply and demand for 20 mineral commodities needed by the energy industries, 1975-90 ________ 4

3. U.S. supply and demand data for selected mineral commodities, 1975-90, for which demands by the energy

industries are undetermined __________.___________________________________ 5

4. Major sources of imports of mineral commodities by the United States in 1973 __________________ 6

5. Energy requirements for production of selected mineral commodities needed by energy industries and other

users in the United States, 1975-90 ______.___________________________________ 9

ill

DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MINERALS AND MATERIALS FOR THE 

UNITED STATES ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90-A PRELIMINARY REPORT

SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MINERALS AND MATERIALS

FOR THE 

UNITED STATES ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

By Gus H. GOUDARZI,, LAWRENCE F. ROONEY, and GLENN L. SHAFFER

ABSTRACT

Availability of large quantities of mineral raw materials and 

the capability of industry to produce them are essential in the 

development and production of energy, which is fundamental 

to virtually every aspect of industrial society. The proposed 

energy independence of the United States cannot be predicated 

on an assumed infrastructure of mineral independence. In recent years the United States has become a net importer of 

many raw materials, and the national stockpile has provided 

a significant portion of U.S. supply of a few commodities.

The United States has no reserves of chromite, cobalt, manganese, and niobium and is totally dependent on imports for 

these commodities; imports also provide a significant part of 

the supply of aluminum (bauxite), fluorite, nickel, and tungsten. Reserves of only a few commodities—barite, bentonite, 

copper, iron ore, lead, molybdenum, and zinc—are adequate to 

meet the national demand 1975-90. Significant increases in 

production above that of 1973 for commodities such as aluminum, barite, bentonite, fluorite, iron ore, and tungsten are 

needed to satisfy the demand by the energy industries.

U.S. energy production is impossible without adequate supplies of minerals to produce energy-related hardware, so research is essential to increase U.S. resources and reserves for 

many commodities discussed in this report.

INTRODUCTION

Current plans to expand the development and production of energy in the United States depend upon 

the availability of large quantities of mineral raw 

materials (Albers and others, 1976, chapter A of 

this report) and the capability of industry to produce them. In general, the U.S. mineral industry is 

believed capable of meeting demand posed by increased energy production. In recent decades, however, the-United States has become a net importer 

rather than a net exporter of minerals, and its proposed energy independence cannot be predicated 

blindly on an assumed infrastructure of mineral independence.

Domestic reserves and resources of some mineral 

commodities are unknown or poorly known, and 

those of others are inadequate to satisfy the projected or even the present demand. This report 

focuses attention on those critical or basic commodities whose supplies might be severely stressed by 

an acceleration in energy development and production.

FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY 

PRODUCTION

Of all the components of our solar system, energy 

is primary. In the strictest sense of the word, it is 

fundamental. Given unlimited cheap energy, any 

element could be refined from the oceans or rocks; 

even if the rains should cease to fall, the oceans 

could be desalted and the land irrigated. In a more 

immediate sense, our entire civilization is kinetic 

rather than static because of the energy it consumes. 

The Nation runs on energy. It follows then that, if 

the Nation chooses to maintain or increase its energy 

consumption, allocation of mineral raw materials to 

the energy-producing sector of the economy will have 

top priority. Other less fundamental uses, though 

equally critical in daily living, will share what is 

left. It is important, therefore, that the impact of 

increased energy production on the availability of 

mineral commodities be assessed.

Such assessment depends on the accuracy of two 

kinds of information: the demand for mineral commodities by the energy industries and the ability of 

U.S. producers to satisfy that demand.

DEMAND ESTIMATES

Demand for materials is difficult to determine for 

a number of reasons. First of all, it depends on the

Bl
B2 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

total demand for energy, about which there is no 

agreement (see tables 1-3 in chapter A, by Albers 

and others, 1976). Second, no systematic reporting 

of the amounts of materials needed by the energy 

industries has ever been undertaken. Chapter A of 

this study is in many instances incomplete, but it is 

at least a first attempt. Third, the energy industries 

have not reported mineral commodities that they 

need indirectly. We have gone a step in this direction 

by estimating the fluorite, magnesia, and silicon 

needed to manufacture the steel required by the 

energy industries and adding them to our tabulations of total requirements. Fourth, the production 

of raw materials and equipment for energy takes 

energy and thus reduces the net energy available 

(and therefore increases the need for basic raw 

materials), a condition that will be accentuated 

through the years by the use of leaner ores. We have 

made no allowance for this in our study, but we 

have included a discussion of this significant aspect 

of the problem under the heading, "Energy Budget." 

In chapter A (Albers and others, 1976), projections are made of the demand for nonfuel mineral 

materials by each type of energy industry, for 

various time spans between 1975 and 1990, on the 

basis of a "business-as-usual" (BAU) scenario of 

energy production outlined by the U.S. Federal 

Energy Administration in its Project Independence 

reports of 1974. Table 1 summarizes these data for 

29 commodities, projecting them all to a 1975-90 

time frame.

The total demands listed in table 1 must be considered as minimum requirements. Even so, in absolute terms, the amounts of aluminum, barite, bentonite, concrete, copper, iron, and manganese needed 

are large; and, relative to their domestic availability, 

so are the amounts of chromium, fluorite, indium, 

and tungsten. Furthermore, the list is by no means 

complete. Undoubtedly, additional mineral commodities are used by the energy industries but were not 

reported. (For example, the petroleum-refining industry used 124,000 troy ounces of platinum in 1973, 

22 percent of the total U.S. demand. At the same 

rate of consumption, the cumulative demand by the 

petroleum industry to 1990 would amount to almost 

2 million ounces.) Also, the mineral commodities 

required to build new equipment and processing or 

manufacturing plants to increase the output of commodities such as steel are not taken into account. 

Thus, the effect of increased energy production on 

the demand for minerals needed by supporting industries is not quantified, even though the demand 

may be increased more rapidly for some of these

minerals than for the minerals reported by the 

energy industries.

SUPPLY DATA

Bearing in mind the identified minimum requirements for nonfuel raw materials that a "businessas-usual" approach to energy independence would 

generate (table 1), and recognizing that other materials directly or indirectly related to energy development have not been identified, we have compiled 

available supply and demand data on 29 mineral 

commodities known to be needed for energy production to 1990 (table 2) and on 13 commodities for 

which demands by the energy industries are undetermined (table 3). The tabulations show reserves, 

identified resources, and primary production of minerals in the United States and in the world, and 

import, export, and consumption data for the United 

States. The baseline data presented are for 1973, the 

latest year for which final figures were available. 

Percentages of net imports (imports minus exports) 

relative to consumption are shown to underscore 

U.S. dependence on or independence from foreign 

sources. The major sources of imported mineral 

commodities are listed in table 4.

Assumed annual growth rates, adapted mostly 

from U.S. Bureau of Mines projections, were used 

to arrive at a 1975 postulated annual consumption, 

which in turn was^used to calculate the total cumulative demand figures 1975-90 shown on tables 

2 and 3. These cumulative total demand figures 

are assumed to include some demand for energy. 

The magnitude of that demand is not disaggregated 

in the Bureau projections but is assumed to be considerably less than the Project Independence Blueprint (PIB) projections.

RESOURCE APPRAISALS

Because energy independence is the Nation's goal, 

the ability of the United States to satisfy the demand 

for mineral commodities by the energy industries 

depends to a great degree on domestic reserves and 

resources. Definitions for such terms as reserves, 

identified resources, and undiscovered resources, 

jointly adopted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and 

the U.S. Geological Survey (1976, p. 3) are based 

on two key criteria: the extent of geologic knowledge about the resource and the economic feasibility 

of its recovery. The term reserves generally refers 

to identified deposits that can be recovered economically at present prices, and the term resources includes, in addition, deposits that cannot be recovered 

economically at present prices. Identified resources
TABLE 1.—Minimum estimates of nonfuel mineral requirements for energy production in the United States, 1975-90, by types 

[All figures are in metric tonnes (1 tonne = 2204 Ib). Adapted from Albers and others, 1976]

Fossil fuel energy

Coal 

mines 

and 

transCommodity port

Aluminum __ 248,736 

Antimony 693

Chromium __ 8,792 

Cobalt _____ 25

Copper _____ 68,618

Fluorite 1 _ __ 43,793

Iron ______ 7,025,475

Lead ______ 4,094

Magnesia * __ 22,475 

Manganese _ 50,778 

Mica ______ . _________

Molybdenum ___ 671 

Nickel _____ 4,348 

Niobium ____ 25

Silicon 1 ____ 21,384

Silver ____ _ 68

Tin _______ 227

Titanium ___ ________

Tungsten ___ 1,972

Vanadium _____ 25

Zinc ______ 140

Zirconium _ _ __ ________

Synthetic 

fuel 

from 

coal

65,199

______

5,368 

7,447

860,398

2,755 

6,939

______

3,140

Oil, 

gas, 

oil 

shale 

development 

and 

exploration

644

29,207,146

12,731,320

38,624

49,727,058 

267,512 

420,049

101,847,521

326,674 

1,008,087

25,425

256,682

32,553

Fossilfuel 

powerplants

277

19,226 

1,716 

71,959,235 

343,158 

71,850

17,454,466

57,140 

140,828 

936 

925 

8,632

43,909

262 

233

Oil 

and 

gas refineries, 

port 

facilities, 

LNG 

pipelines

266

44,860

23,356

1,075,502 

30,543 

83,157

20,091,349

64,667 

269,464

13,165 

885 

50,813

3,540

Geothermal 

powerplants

144,600

53,100

1,980

1,017,000 

15,750 

10,068

342,000

313,184 

2,685

2,370

3,027

6,900

Hydro- .

electric 

plants

805

1,380

114,000,000 

17,200 

8,232

1,988,000

6,365 

16,000 

4,470

615

5,013

Nuclear energy

Uranium 

mining Nuclear 

and fission 

procaiss- powering plants

36,348 

374 

77

11 

22 

6,754 

14 

3,012,286 

40,636 

10,898

2,117,798 

4,641 

6,782 

17,797

426 

30,859 

14 

5,874 

8 

189 

122 

5,263

14 

2,414

14,419

48,438

51 

163,679

86,933,175 

390,880 

66,483 

144 

15,873,784 

16,500 

365,866 

195,362

76,766 

178,074 

9 

40,317 

1,041 

1,124 

2

702 

27,506

Heating 

and 

thermal 

conversion

5,212,374

38

9,414,794

353,754

10,100,821

32,339 

81,458

5

12

103,453

Solar energy

Wind 

energy

308,533 

48,913

11,870,535

38,044 

107,805

29,892

Bioconversion

34 

6 

1

14

6,630,088 

42 

5,114

1,241,714 

61 

3,976 

10,012

6

8

3,125

15

8

Ocean

thermal 

con- 

version 

29,764 

3,799,039 

8,579 

2,094 

75,755 

242 

488 

636 

iFor each tonne of steel, 4 kg (9 Ib) of fiuoride, 3.2 kg (7 Ib) of magnesia, and 2.5 

kg (5.5 Ib) of silicon required in steel manufacture have been included in the totals. For 

each tonne of aluminum, 60 kg (132 Ib) of fiuorite and 15 kg (33 Ib) of silicon have also 

been included.

2 Figures have been rounded.
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r« A QIJ ra 

* 8-M.S 

s 3 

IIH

"*3 

^ 3» 

" ® 3* 

I < 

* JJ u> 

1 |s 

t si6 

^ •a 

S

^ M 

< H 

f JQg 

? «3 

|i«

|a|

PVf

« 3 

« w^ 

i i| 

i 3 » 

' ^H 

« m? 

«S ^§ 

j A t0 

* t^ 

< 00 Q 

j gfg^J

«* !5 H ds 

! 5^ 

! 5§ 

i 3 ^* 

! §5 tf> 

j an 

h "^ * 

' "*ff 

, 3 

5'2

« >^ 3 

* S"" 

§!>

^JL

& M 

5-

"3

5 Cd 

K

i»f

^ s 

1 r 

ONV S1VIH3XVKE ' 06-SI6T 
TABLE 3.—C7.S. supply and demand data for selected mineral commodities, 1975—90, for which demands by the energy industries are 

[All figures are in metric tonnes (1 tonne=2204 Ib.), unless otherwise noted; all figures are rounded; troy oz.—troy ounces (32,151 troy o

tonne); *—includes supplement from national stockpile and industry inventory; -\-—excess imports to inventory; A—excludes Communist c

E—estimate; N/A—data not available; X—excludes U.S. production. Sources; U.S. Bur. of Mines, 1970, 1975a,b; Brobst and Pratt, 1973; U

Survey, commodity specialists (oral and written communications).]

Reserves 1

Commodity

Helium 3 ____________

Platinum group 

metals (troy oz.) —

United

States

32,000 

11,800 

Small 

0 

43,500 B 

* 155,000 

760,000 B 

450,000

3,000,000 

4,536,000 

35,000 

1,000,000 

0

World

NA 

113,400 

NA 

Large 

NA 

NA 

1, 220,000 E 

5,300,000

624,000,000 

6,980,000 

168,000 A 

Large 

50,000 A

Identified resources 2

United 

States

142,000 

14,100 

NA 

9,070,000 

118,000 B 

NA 

3,200,000 B 

950,000

181,000,000 

NA 

Large 

1,400,000 

1,560

World

NA 

116,000 

NA 

Large 

330,000 B 

NA 

8,450,000 B 

7,185,000

948,000,000 

18,000,000 

Large 

Large 

59,000

Production

United 

States 

1973

NA 

NA 

0 

4,000 B 

37 

* 3,205 

3,900 E 

2,170

20,000 

18,330 

285 

None 

None

World 

1973

160 E-x 

4,000 E~x 

27 

390,000 E 

77 

* 3,337 

5,900 B 

276,200

5,174,000 

27,100 

1,360 B 

38,280 

1,040

U.S. trade

Import 

1973

59 

1,214 

5.9 

70,000 

^•1 

0 

154 

46,075

2,503,000 

1,760 

250 

14,800 

520

Export 

1973

50 

69 

NA 

7,200 

None 

B 150 

725 E 

340

628,000 

5,425 E 

120 

NA 

125

U.S. 

consumption

1973

316 * 

1,319 * 

6.2* 

72,000 E * 

30 

5 497 

3,400 E 

7 54,280 *

1,831,000 + 

14,790 

560 * 

14,800 * 

685 *

Net import 

for 

consumption 

1973 

(percent)

3

87 

95 

87 

0 

0 

0 

85

100 

0 

23 

100 

57

1 Reserves—That portion of the identified resource from which a usable mineral can be 

economically and legally extracted at the time of determination.

2 Identified resource—Specific bodies of mineral-bearing materials whose location, quality, 

and quantity are known from geologic evidence supported by engineering measurements with 

respect to the demonstrated category.

3 Million cubic feet of contained helium measured at 14.7 pounds per square inch 

absolute (Ib/in2a) at 70°F.

* Includes both high-purity and crude helium (helium in mixt

mately 70 percent helium and 30 percent nitrogen). 

5 High-purity helium. 

a 76-pound flasks of metal.

7 Includes secondary8 Data are for rare-earth oxides (REO).
B6 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

TABLE 4.—Major sources of imports of mineral commodities 

by the United States in 1973

[Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines Commodity Data Summaries, 1975]

Aluminum (bauxite) -__.Jamaica, Australia, Surinam 

Antimony ——— — ——— ____Republic of South Africa, Bolivia

Asbestos _-_-.-______...Canada 

Baxite —._--.—_-..__...Ireland, Peru, Mexico 

Bismuth _-._._.__._Peru, Mexico, Japan 

Cadmium _.___——.--.._...Canada, Australia, Japan 

Cesium ....__._-----...West Germany, Canada

Chromium _________.—Republic of South Africa, U.S.S.R. Philippines 

Cobalt —. ——— ———— — —Zaire, Belgium

Copper —_— —... — ---.-Canada, Peru, Chile, Republic of South Africa

Graphite ——————_._--—Mexico, Malagasy Republic

Indium ____—_—..--.Canada, U.S.S.R., Peru

Iron ore _____________.._Canada, Venezuela, Brazil, Australia

Lead —__—— — .._ —— —Peru, Canada, Australia 

Manganese ____________ ..-.Brazil, Gabon, Australia

Mercury —————— — — ——Canada, Algeria, Spain

Mica (sheet) ... — — —— .Brazil, India

Nickel ___—._—_.——Canada, Norway, New Caledonia

Niobium ...._————....-Brazil, Thailand

Platinum group metals .—U.S.S.R., United Kingdom, Republic of South 

_ __ __ Africa

Rutile (titanium) ...— ..-.Australia, India 

Selenium "... _---.-_-.....Canada

Silver _____..--------..---Mexico, Canada. Peru

Strontium ----_-.-._.__.-Mexico, United Kingdom, Spain

Tantalum __________-Thailand, Australia, Canada, Zaire 

Tin ________________.-..Malaysia, Thailand, Bolivia

Titanium ..__________Japan, U.S.S.R., United Kingdom 

Tungsten ..--.__-..____Canada, Bolivia, Peru

Vanadium ...__-._._..-..Republic of South Africa, Chile 

Zinc _.._-_-._---___....Canada, Australia

Zirconium _.. _ __ -_._-. -Australia

are specific bodies of mineral-bearing material whose 

location, quality, and quantity are known from geologic evidence supported by engineering measurements. Undiscovered resources are unspecified bodies 

of mineral-bearing materials surmised to exist on 

broad geologic knowledge and theory.

The quantity of usable reserves within most deposits changes with economic conditions and advanced technology, so estimates must be revised often. 

Resources that were considered marginal in the past 

may now be recoverable reserves because of these 

changes. Estimates of proved reserves commonly are 

considered to be accurate within about 20 percent. 

The errors in estimates of resources are much greater. More accurate estimates that would differentiate 

between identified and undiscovered resources are 

needed to define the supply problems and provide a 

basis for policy decisions.

Resource estimates presented in this report, although based on best available data, are provisional 

and incomplete. Continued effort is essential to 

identify resources of those mineral commodities that 

may be in short supply in the next few decades because of expanding demands and intense competition 

for sources among industrialized nations.

Some of the commodities reviewed here are not 

in short supply but play so important a role in the 

economy and in energy production that they must 

be assessed. Domestic resources of some materials, 

such as copper, lead, and zinc, are probably adequate 

to meet national needs to the end of this century, but 

factors such as production costs make a part of them

uneconomic to develop and bring into production in 

competition with imports. In our appraisal of domestic resources, economic factors and new technology have been considered but have not greatly 

affected the resource estimates. It is assumed that if 

the raw material from outside sources were unavailable, technological capability coupled with national 

demand would make possible the utilization of some 

of the presently uneconomic domestic resources.

In contrast, the domestic potential resources of 

some materials, such as bauxite (aluminum), manganese, and fluorite, are probably not sufficient to 

meet industry demand now or in the future, and the 

Nation will continue to depend on imports of these 

materials. However, use of high-alumina clays and 

alunite for the production of aluminum may be possible in the not-too-distant future, harvesting of 

manganese nodules from sea floors may become a 

reality, and substitutes, such as synthetic flux for 

fluorite, may be developed for other critical materials in short supply.

ENERGY BUDGET

A significant aspect of the non-fuel requirements 

for increased energy production is the energy budget 

or energy cycle. The term "energy budget" implies 

that the energy used to produce energy must be subtracted from the gross amount of energy available 

to obtain the energy profit. It takes energy to make 

energy; in fact, the .energy industries are one of the 

largest energy-consuming sectors of the economy.

This thermodynamic relationship is fundamental 

and becomes of greater and greater social interest 

as efficiencies in energy production and conversions 

approach their theoretical maxima under present 

technologies. Much research is being done on energy 

budgets, but the subject is so complex that the few 

results to date can be considered only tentative.

To illustrate the nature of the problem, consider 

the energy cost of producing electricity from a ton 

of coal. An obvious and large cost is the thermal 

loss within the powerplant itself. Other energy costs, 

though much smaller (Chapman and others, 1974, 

p. 231), are equally obvious: the British thermal 

units (Btu's) spent in mining, crushing, beneficiating, and transporting the coal. Other costs are less 

obvious: the Btu's that go into the manufacture of 

the mining, crushing, beneficiating, transportation, 

and powerplant equipment. And other costs, which 

might be called overhead, are even less obvious: the 

Btu's that go into the construction and maintenance 

of railroad depots and ancillary installations that 

should be charged off to coal transport; the Btu's
SUPPLY B7

needed to manufacture fertilizers, tractors, and the 

fuel for tractors (as well as the Btu's in the fuel 

itself) to produce the food for all the personnel employed in the many stages of power production; the 

Btu's needed to build transportation equipment and 

to transport workers to their jobs; the Btu's needed 

to provide the workers' clothing and homes, and to 

maintain their health. Every energy-using facet of 

society that contributes to the production of energy 

must be charged to it. Fortunately, many of these 

are probably so small that historically they could be 

ignored as long as the net energy profits were large. 

But the subject is now of such vital importance that 

it must be researched. It is possible, in fact, that the 

total energy costs of a particular power source may 

exceed its energy profits and operate on the hidden 

subsidy of another power source.

Hidden subsidies apply to all new energy industries, most clearly in the form of research, pilot 

projects, and capital construction. At the present 

time, however, the hidden subsidies and intangible 

costs are most important with respect to the nuclear 

industry. Most of the Btu's that go into the construction of a nuclear powerplant and support of personnel are from fossil fuels. And, as Chapman, Leach, 

and Slesser (1974, p. 242) have noted, the handling 

and storage of nuclear wastes will cost energy for 

many years after a nuclear plant has been dismantled. Thus, the overhead in Btu's of Imclear 

plants demands close scrutiny.

Another aspect of the energy budget that deserves 

close scrutiny is the increasing energy costs of fuels 

and materials—whether it be in mining leaner ores, 

attempting to flush more oil out of any given reservoir, or extracting oil from shale. The exponential 

nature of this increase is vividly portrayed in the 

accompanying graph (fig. 1) constructed by Page 

and Creasey (1975, p. 12). Here we are not dealing 

with the unknown or with unpredictable social or 

technological forces or even the murky realm of undiscovered mineral deposits. We are dealing with 

immutable physical laws that prescribe the ultimate 

limits of mineral-resource development.

According to preliminary data (table 5), the cost 

in Btu's 1975-90 of producing 20 of the commodities discussed in this report is large, equivalent to 

more than 18 billion barrels of oil. The amount 

needed to produce the same raw materials for energy 

production is much less, about 2.5 billion barrels, 

but this figure is unequivocally minimum. In the 15 

year period, the projected amount of energy needed 

to produce these few commodities is between 10 and 

15 percent of the total projected net energy consumption in the United States (gross energy minus 

conversion losses to electrical energy).

Some commodities, pound for pound, are obviously far more costly in energy than others—aluminum 

and magnesium, for example. Other commodities, 

such as iron and concrete, are costly because of the 

large amount consumed annually. Moreover, the cost 

in Btu's of all commodities will rise as the grade of 

ore decreases and as the depth of deposit and distance to market increase, trends that can be balanced only temporarily by increased efficiencies.

COMMODITY SUMMARIES 

ALUMINUM

Aluminum is a ductile, lightweight metal that has 

efficient electrical and thermal conductivity, is resistant to oxidation, and has high reflectivity. It is 

used in nearly all segments of the U.S. economy, 

such as the construction, electrical, packaging, consumer-durables, and equipment industries. Aluminum is essential to the production, conversion, and 

transportation of energy. It is used in machinery, 

construction, electric generators, and heavy-duty 

powerlines, to name just a few applications.

The production of aluminum is itself an energyintensive process, and the capital costs of an aluminum-producing facility—including mining, Bayer 

conversion, reduction, and milling—are high. Some 

substitutions for aluminum are possible: stainless 

steel, magnesium, and zinc can be substituted for 

aluminum in transportation uses; copper in electrical uses; and titanium, lead, plastic, and fiberglass 

in some applications.

Aluminum is made from alumina (A12 03 ), and 

this oxide is itself a manufactured product. Bauxite 

is the raw material from which most alumina is 

made, but other types of rocks such as alunite and 

nepheline syenite also are used (notably in the 

U.S.S.R.) for making alumina.

Both bauxite and alumina are used for essential 

products other than metal. About 88 percent of the 

bauxite and alumina consumed in the United States 

is used for production of aluminum, 6 percent in 

chemicals, 4 percent in refractories, and 2 percent 

in abrasives.

Bauxite is used as an ore of aluminum because it 

is rich in aluminum in a form that is extractable at 

low cost, and it occurs in large deposits. It is formed 

by the weathering of such aluminum-bearing rocks 

as nepheline syenite and basaltic lava. During 

weathering, the bauxite becomes enriched in aluminum as surface waters dissolve and remove the other
B8 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

240

Titanium in soils

Titanium in beach sands 

rich in ilmenite

Titanium in all rocks

Titanium in ferruginous rocks

Titanium in beach sands rich in rutile

Aluminum in anorthosite 

Aluminum in clays

Range of ALO, content of plagioclase

Range of AI2O3 content of clays

Aluminum in bauxite 

(from AI2O3 )

Range of AI2 O3 content of 

U.S. bauxite resources

Iron in magnetic taconite

Range of iron content 

Copper in sulfides of taconites

Range of iron content 

Iron in nonmagnetic taconite of laterites

Iron in specular hematite

Iron m hematite

10 30 40 50 

METAL CONTENT, IN WEIGHT PERCENT
SUPPLY B9

TABLE 5.—Energy requirements for production of selected mineral commodities needed by energy industries and other users in

the United States, 1975-90

[Sources: Battelle Columbus Laboratories; 1975a, 1975b; U.S. Bur. of Mines, 1975c]

Energy 

Commodity requirements 

(primary product) in 106

Btu's/tonne

Aluminum (ingot) ____________

Asbestos (fiber) ___ ________

Barite (ground) _ _ ________

Bentonite _ _ ___ ___________

Boron (boric oxide) _ _________

Cement (portland) ____________

Chromium : 

High-carbon ferrochromium _ 

Low-carbon ferrochromium _ _ 

Copper (.refined) _ __ _ ______

Fluorspar (concentrates) _ _ _

Iron: 

Gray iron castings __ ______

Steel slabs ________________

Carbon steel castings _ _ _

Lead (refined) _ __ _ ____

Magnesia (basic brick 

refractory MgO) __ _________

Magnesium (metal) _______

Manganese (ferromanganese) __ 

Mica (ground from mining ore) _ 

Molybdenum (molybdic oxide) _ 

Nickel (ferronickel) _ _ ___

Silicon (ferrosilicon 

50 percent Si) _ — __ ___

Titanium : 

Sponge _ ——— ————— _ — _

Dioxide _ _____ ___ _

Total 106 Btu's ___ _

Bbl oil equivalent 6 _ _

268.9 

7.6 

0.9 

2.2 

9.5 

8.4

67.2 

142.2 

123.5 

5.6

37.5 

26.5 

46.3 

29.8

29.8 

394.6 

54.6 

18.1 

159.8 

436.5

84.9

449.7 

94.8 

71.7

____

Total demand 

by energy 

industries 

1975-90 

(metric tonnes)

18,400,000 

147,000 

2 29,200,000 

12,700,000 

132 

81,200,000

264,000

4,690,000 

2,200,000

213,000,000

25,300 

573,000

2,447,000 

5,410 

78,800 

264,000

815,000 

7,020

3,260

Minimum energy requirements for production 

of materials to meet 

demand by the energy 

industries 1975-90 

(106 Btu's)

4,947,760,000 

1,117,200 

26,280,000 

27,940,000 

1,250 

682,080,000

3 23,878,800

579,215,000 

12,320,000

7,987,500,000

753,950 

17,075,400

133,606,200 

97,900 

12,592,250 

115,236,000

69,193,500 

3,156,900 )

233,750 

14,640,040,000 

2,524,140,000

Total demand by all 

users 1975-90 

(metric tonnes) *

171,180,000 

14,730,000 

27,320,000 

54,600,000 

8,320,000 

2,050,000,000

10,430,000

51,880,000 

31,000,000

684,975,000

27,270,000

1 13,079,000 

2,140,000 

25,880,000 

2,826,000 

827,000 

4,470,000

11,600,000

13,450,000 

30,700,000

Minimum energy requirements for production 

of materials to meet 

demand by all users 

1975-90 (10« Btu's)

46,030,300,000 

111,950,000 

24,590,000 

120,120,000 

79,040,000 

17,220,000,000

3 943,390,000

6,407,180,000 

173,600,000

25,686,560,000

812,650,000

389,750,000 

844,440,000 

1,413,050,000 

51,150,000 

132,150,000 

1,951,160,000

984,840,000

8 1,370,530,000

2,201,190,000 

106,947,640,000 

18,439,250,000

1 Based on growth rates specified in table 2.

2 The amount of barite projected for use by the energy industries exceeds the amount projected for all uses for two reasons: (1) the projected 

growth rate for energy use exceeds the projected growth rate for all uses; 

and, (2) unlike other commodities, most barite is used by the energy industries.

3 Based on assumption that 31 percent of all chromium demanded 1975-90 

is in the form of low-carbon ferrochromium, and 69 percent is in the form 

of high-carbon ferrochromium. (U.S. Bur. of Mines, 1975c, p. 280).

4 Assumes that 84 percent of all magnesia consumed 1975-90 is of 

refractory grade.

5 Based on assumption that 98 percent of all titanium demanded 1975-90 

is in the form of titanium dioxide, and 2 percent is in the form of titanium 

sponge. (U.S. Bur. of Mines, 1975c, p. 1231).

6 One barrel (bbl) of oil = 5.8X10B Btu's.

elements in the parent rock. Wet tropical climates, 

continuous rainfall, constant warm temperatures, 

and relatively good drainage during a long period of 

geological time are conducive to such natural enrichment.

Reserves of metal-grade bauxite in the United 

States are estimated at about 40 million tonnes, restricted to Arkansas. Bauxite for other uses occurs 

primarily in Alabama and Georgia as well as in 

Arkansas. The potential bauxite resources of the 

United States, estimated at about 250-300 million 

tonnes, include lateritic deposits in Hawaii, Oregon, 

and Washington; deeply buried and thin deposits in 

Arkansas; and other small scattered deposits in 

Southeastern United States. Domestic identified re-

-^ FIGURE 1.—Energy requirements for recovery of iron, titanium, and aluminum at different grades from various 

sources (from Page and Creasey, 1975, p. 12).

sources of bauxite are inadequate to fulfill the longterm demand.

The world reserves of bauxite are large, about 16 

billion tonnes, and the world resources have been 

estimated at 20 to 30 billion tonnes. The largest reserves of bauxite are in Brazil, Surinam, Guyana. 

French Guiana, Jamaica, and Haiti in the western 

hemisphere; in Australia; and in Guinea and Ghana 

in West Africa. Large unexplored areas in South 

America, Asia, Africa, and Australia are favorable 

for discovery of major new deposits. Recently, significant discoveries were reported in India, Malaysia, 

Indonesia, and the British Solomon Islands. Practically inexhaustible resources of other aluminous 

rocks exist in virtually every major country of the 

world, but the metal cannot now be recovered economically from these rocks.

In 1973 the United States produced about 2 million tonnes of bauxite and imported about 14 million
BIO DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

tonnes. More than 2 million tonnes of alumina and 

nearly 50,000 tonnes of aluminum were also 'imported for domestic consumption. Imports of bauxite 

and alumina, mainly from Jamaica, Surinam, 

Guyana, and Australia, supplied about 87 percent of 

the U.S. requirements for manufacture of aluminum 

metal and of certain refractories, abrasives, and 

chemicals. Bauxite mined in Arkansas, Georgia, and 

Alabama supplied the remaining 13 percent. Metalgrade bauxite was produced domestically only in the 

Arkansas district. Barring unforeseen developments, 

the growing requirements of the aluminum industry 

in the United States will be met by imports of increasing amounts of aluminum metal and alumina 

rather than of bauxite ore.

Incomplete data show that at least 18 million 

tonnes of aluminum metal is needed by the energy 

sector 1975-90, or an average of about 1.2 million 

tonnes annually. This is equivalent to about 30 percent of the domestic aluminum production in 1973.

High-alumina clays have long been considered to 

be the most favorable potential nonbauxite source 

of aluminum in the United States (National Materials Advisory Board, 1970, p. 13). The total resource of clays containing as much as 25 percent 

alumina is very large, but the deposits that are potential major economic sources of aluminum are 

limited and may be in the order of nearly 10 billion 

tonnes. However, the value of these clays for other 

products such as paper filler and coater, refractories, 

catalysts, and ceramics exceeds the value that can 

be assigned to a nonbauxite raw material for aluminum production.

Alunite (37 percent alumina), used as an ore of 

aluminum in the U.S.S.R., reportedly has been found 

in large quantities in Utah. Recovery of alumina 

from alunite has been successfully demonstrated in 

pilot plants. A pilot plant operated in the early 

1950's by the U.S. Bureau of Mines proved that 

alumina could also be recovered from anorthosite (23 

to 28 percent alumina). Large deposits of anorthosite, near Laramie, Wyo., have been purchased 

by an aluminum company.

Large quantities of dawsonite and nahcolite are 

present in strata associated with the rich oil-shale 

deposits in the Piceance Creek basin, northwestern 

Colorado. Alumina for production of aluminum 

metal and sodium aluminate for use in water-pollution control are potential products of this dawsonite. 

Other less promising potential resources include 

aluminous shale and slate, aluminum phosphate 

rock, nepheline syenite, saprolite, coal ash, and 

copper-leach solutions.

Geologic research is needed on the nonbauxite 

sources of aluminum in the United States. Adequate 

detailed geologic information on these potential resources is not available.

ANTIMONY

Antimony is a brittle metal that imparts strength, 

hardness, and corrosive resistance to alloys. It is 

essential as a constituent of antimonial lead for 

storage batteries, and of bearing-metal and other 

alloys. It is also used in fire-retardant chemicals, 

glass pigments, rubber, and plastics, and by the 

electronic industry.

Other substances may be substituted for antimony 

in most uses, but substitutes may be in short supply 

or may be more expensive to use. Substitution is 

restricted by the necessity of making changes in 

production techniques and factory equipment. Titanium, chromium, zirconium, tin, calcium, and lead 

are used as substitutes in various applications.

Stibnite (Sb2 S3 ) is the predominant ore of antimony; tetrahedrite (Cu8Sb2S7 ) is also important. 

Base-metal deposits containing antimony also yield 

substantial amounts of the metal.

Antimony deposits are small, discontinuous bodies. 

Simple deposits, in which the ore is principally stibnite, occur in the United States, Mexico, Bolivia, 

Peru, People's Republic of China, Republic of South 

Africa, Yugoslavia, and Algeria. Complex deposits, 

in which stibnite is associated with other minerals, 

generally are mined primarily for lead, gold, silver, 

and tungsten. Most of the antimony produced in the 

United States is from these complex deposits as a 

byproduct.

The United States has reserves of nearly 91,000 

tonnes and identified resources of nearly 118,000 

tonnes, mainly in Idaho, Nevada, Alaska, and Montana. Potential sources of antimony are lead, silver, 

and copper-zinc deposits like those from which most 

of the domestic antimony is now recovered. At least 

50 percent of known antimony resources of the 

United States is contained in complex lead-silvercopper and gold deposits, 25 percent in scattered 

simple deposits in Idaho and Alaska, and about 25 

percent in complex deposits in the Yellow Pine district of Idaho, in which a high-price antimony outvalues other metals.

Major world resources of antimony are in the 

Republic of South Africa, People's Republic of 

China, Bolivia, U.S.S.R., Thailand, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and Mexico. These countries also account for 

more than 90 percent of the total world production.
SUPPLY Bll

In 1973, the United States produced 1,160 tonnes 

of antimony, 665 tonnes of which were recovered 

from domestic lead ores. U.S. consumption was more 

than 40,000 tonnes, a figure equal to about 60 percent of the world's primary output. Sales from government stockpile accounted for nearly 10 percent, 

and secondary recovery provided a significant portion of U.S. supply. Imported ores and concentrates 

accounted for more than 90 percent of the total U.S. 

smelter output. About 50 percent of the imported 

antimony ores came from the Republic of South 

Africa, Mexico, and Bolivia. Most of the metal was 

imported from China, Yugoslavia, Japan, and Mexico.

Incomplete data received from industry show that 

about 1,100 tonnes of antimony will be required by 

the energy industries 1975-90 principally in the 

coal-transportation systems and uranium-mining 

and processing operations. This demand, equivalent 

to about 70 tonnes of antimony per year, is 6 percent 

of U.S. primary production in 1973, but is less than 

0.3 percent of the total U.S. consumption in 1973. 

It does not appear that demand by the energy sector 

will pose a supply problem. However, because 45 

percent of U.S. demand is met by imports, serious 

consideration should be given to improving the domestic sources of supply and thus the production of 

the metal.

Antimony is present in lead ores in the Tri-State 

district of Missouri, Oklahoma, and Kansas, and in 

the upper Mississippi Valley. Antimony is also a 

constitutent of some base-metal deposits in the Eastern United States. In fringe areas of some mineralized zones, as in Nevada, potential resources possibly 

exist. Areas of known base-metal, tungsten, silver, 

and gold mineralization may also be potential 

sources of antimony.

ASBESTOS

Asbestos is the common name applied to fibrous 

minerals. Chrysotile, the fibrous form of serpentine, 

accounts for more than 90 percent of world asbestos 

production. Amosite and crocidolite, fibrous varieties 

of the amphiboles, account for most of the rest. Asbestos is graded primarily on the length of its fiber.

Because asbestos fibers are inert and incombustible, they have many commercial uses. By far the 

greatest use is in asbestos cement. Most of the remainder is used in floor tile, asbestos paper, and 

friction products such as brake linings. Because asbestos fibers can be woven into cloth, about 2 percent 

of the asbestos consumed in the United States is 

used in textiles. Chrysotile low in iron is valued as

an electric cable insulator. Other materials, such as 

fiberglass and magnesia, can substitute for asbestos 

for some uses. In projected energy production asbestos will be needed mainly by the nuclear, geothermal, and refining industries.

Most chrysotile occurs as veins only a few centimetres thick in serpentines, ultramafic intrusions, 

or associated rocks. Asbestos fibers are generally 

oriented perpendicular to the length of the vein 

(cross fibers), but some are more or less parallel to 

the vein (slip fiber). Most of the recovered fiber is 

less than %-inch long.

The U.S. reserves of asbestos, estimated at 3.6 

million tonnes, are not large. Deposits of chrysotile 

asbestos are being, or have recently been, worked in 

Arizona, California, and Vermont. Anthophyllite, a 

fibrous amphibole, has been produced in North Carolina. U.S. resources of all asbestos minerals are estimated at only 72.5 million tonnes. World reserves 

are estimated at 87 million tonnes and world resources at 170 million tonnes.

Most world production of asbestos is in the 

U.S.S.R. and Canada with large production also in 

the Republic of South Africa, People's Republic of 

China, and Italy. Many other countries have some 

production.

About 800,000 tonnes of asbestos were used in 

the United States in 1973, about 82 percent of which 

was imported, mostly from Canada. Most of the 

crocidolite and amosite were imported from the 

Republic of South Africa.

The estimated total demand reported by the 

energy industries for 1975-90—147,000 tonnes— 

averages about 10,000 tonnes per year, or 1 percent 

of the 1973 consumption and 7 percent of the 1973 

domestic production. Thus, from the standpoint of 

both world production and reserves, supplies of asbestos would not appear to be critical as long as 

imports can be considered secure.

Research that may lead to the discovery of commercial deposits of asbestos in the United States 

should be accelerated. The theory of plate tectonics 

provides new perspectives as to the distribution, 

structure, and emplacement of serpentinites, the host 

rocks for most chrysotile asbestos. Detailed investigation of areas known to be geologically favorable, 

such as the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada 

and Klamath Mountains and the northern part of 

the Appalachian belt, is recommended.

BARITE

Barite (BaS04 ) is a mineral widely distributed 

mostly as veins in igneous rocks and as veins, nod-
B12 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

ules, and laminated beds in sedimentary rocks. Its 

major uses depend on its high specific gravity and 

inertness.

By far the largest use of barite is as a weighting 

component in well-drilling fluid. Other uses are for 

the manufacture of industrial chemicals, ceramics, 

and glass, and as a pigment, filler, and extender. In 

the energy industries, it is used mainly in oil and 

gas exploration and development to contain downhole pressures.

No economical substitute has been found for 

barite in its principal use. Iron ore is comparable in 

specific gravity and cost but is more abrasive and 

stains clothing.

Some small, rich barite deposits are veins and 

cavity fillings, probably of hydrothermal origin. The 

larger barite deposits, however, are residual or bedded. Most residual deposits, such as those in Missouri, result from the accumulation of barite residuum over carbonate bedrock. Bedded deposits, such 

as those in Nevada, are thin layers of dark barite 

interlayered with dark chert and siliceous shale or 

siltstone and appear to be of sedimentary origin. 

Barite_also is a common gangue mineral in some 

metal deposits.

The U.S. reserves of barite, estimated at 59 million tonnes, and identified resources, estimated at 

91 million tonnes, are mainly in Nevada, Missouri, 

and Arkansas—the sites of present-day production. 

Smaller resources occur in many other States, notably Alaska, California, Illinois, Kentucky, and Wisconsin. In 1973, of 1.4 million tonnes of barite used 

in the United States, the net imports were about 41 

percent, mostly from Ireland, Peru, and Mexico.

World jreserves of barite, estimated at 181 million tonnes, and world identified resources, estimated at 289 million tonnes, are fairly evenly distributed in more than a dozen countries. The largest 

reserves are in the United States, Yugoslavia, and 

the People's Republic of China.

The estimated demand for about 29 million tonnes of barite by the oil and gas industry 1975-90 

averages about 2 million tonnes per year, or about 

135 percent of the 1973 annual consumption and 

195 percent of the 1973 annual domestic production. 

A demand of 29 million tonnes is nearly half of 

the U.S. reserves and a large fraction of world reserves. This stress may be somewhat less severe 

than it appears, however, because of the very fact 

that more than 80 percent of the barite produced 

is used in oil and gas exploration. If exploration 

should fall off rapidly after 1990, the life of presently known reserves would be greatly extended.

On the other hand, deeper drilling after 1990 might 

require even more barite per year than is projected 

to 1990. New uses, such as shielding for fusion reactors, may place additional stress on the domestic 

supply of barite.

Efforts must be made to identify new barite resources. Some possible research programs are: reexamination of old mining districts where deposits 

of barite mixed with other gangue minerals may 

have been overlooked; study of rocks deposited in 

ancient swamp environments where bedded deposits 

might occur; and more thorough exploration of 

Alaska, the Appalachian region, salt domes, the sea 

floor, carbonatites, and layered volcanic rocks. Accelerated research on potential barite resources is 

recommended.

BENTONITE

Bentonite is the general term given to clays, principally sodium or calcium montmorillonites, with 

swelling or bonding properties that permit their use 

as a sealer or binder. Bentonitic clays are sedimentary deposits of altered volcanic ash or tuff generally only a few metres in maximum thickness. The 

largest known U.S. deposits of sodium (or swelling) bentonite are in the West, especially Wyoming.

Almost all bentonite for projected energy production is swelling bentonite used as drilling mud 

by the oil and gas industry. About 2.8 million tonnes of bentonite was used for all purposes in the 

United States in 1973, almost all of which was produced domestically. Twenty-one percent of this total, or about 580,000 tonnes, was swelling bentonite 

used as drilling mud. The estimated demand for almost 13 million tonnes of swelling bentonite by the 

energy industries during the 15 years between 1975 

and 1990 averages about 850,000 tonnes per year, 

or about 147 percent of the 1973 U.S. consumption 

by the oil and gas industry and about 30 percent of 

the 1973 total U.S. consumption (table 2).

Considerably higher estimates have been made. 

Industrial Minerals (1975) estimates that 62 million tonnes of Wyoming bentonite will be used in 

the United States 1975-90, 17.7 million tonnes of 

it in oil- and gas-well drilling. The oil and gas industry would then use an average of 1.2 million 

tonnes per year, 207 percent of its 1973 annual 

domestic consumption. A spokesman for the bentonite industry (Industrial Minerals, 1975, p. 22) 

projects a 1985 consumption by the oil and gas industry of 1.6 million tonnes per year, almost three 

times the industry's 1973 consumption. Moreover, 

about 50 percent of the total U.S. consumption of
SUPPLY B13

bentonite is by the steel and metal casting industries, which in turn supply the steel and equipment 

for the energy industries.

Although U.S. bentonite reserves are estimated 

at about 900 million tonnes and resources are large, 

the reserves of swelling bentonite suitable for drilling mud are much smaller, and quantitative estimates are not available. Both transportation and 

drying add much to production costs. If oil and gas 

drilling increases as projected, considerable pressure will be placed on the bentonite industry to meet 

the demand. Research on the composition and distribution of swelling bentonite in the United States, 

in conjunction with a mapping program, must be 

emphasized.

BORON

Boron is a light nonmetallic element that occurs 

in nature only as a compound. Its major uses are 

in glass, vitreous enamels, soaps and cleansers, and 

fertilizer. It has many minor uses, such as in metallurgical fluxes, dehydrating agents, fire retardants, 

and thermal insulators. For many of its uses, boron 

has no satisfactory substitutes. Soda ash and detergents can substitute in cleansers.

In the energy sector, boron was reported as a 

component in machinery used by the coal and uranium industries. It is also used for nuclear control 

elements and radiation shields and a coating material in solar batteries.

Boron is a common constituent of volcanic gasses, 

which are believed to have been the source of boron 

materials precipitated in playas, lakes, or fans from 

springs or vents associated with volcanoes. Because 

the most abundant boron minerals are highly soluble, they are largely limited to Tertiary or younger 

rocks and to arid parts of the world. Most boron is 

produced from Tertiary or Quaternary lake deposits 

or lake brines. The most common minerals in boron 

deposits are borax and kernite (hydrated sodium 

borates) and colemanite (hydrated calcium borate). 

Tourmaline (a complex silicate containing boron 

and fluorine) is a common mineral in igneous rocks 

but is not a potential source of domestic boron in 

the foreseeable future.

The United States, the world's largest producer 

of boron minerals, produced 188,000 tonnes of boron 

in 1973, entirely from southern California. Turkey 

is the world's second largest producer. U.S. reserves, mainly in southern California, are estimated 

at 28 million tonnes, and U.S. resources are thought 

to be large. Most of the world reserves, estimated

at 76 million tonnes, and resources are in the United 

States, Turkey, and the U.S.S.R.

The demand for 41 tonnes of boron by the energy 

industries 1975-90 averages 3 tonnes per year, less 

than 0.002 percent of the 1973 U.S. production. Accelerated production of energy should not in itself 

strain U.S. production capacity; other expanded demands for boron may be far more severe. Boron, 

like potash, is one of those commodities that are 

highly concentrated in a few geological environments. It is amenable to rapid and cheap production, therefore to rapid expansion of uses, and ultimately to rapid exhaustion. The reserves and identified resources are large, however, and are sufficient to last centuries at the present rate of use.

CADMIUM

Cadmium is a malleable, ductile, toxic element 

that occurs as an impurity in zinc-bearing minerals. 

Cadmium is used mainly in electroplating of fabricated steel products to obtain superior corrosion 

resistance and in nickel-cadmium batteries. It is 

also used in the manufacture of pigments, plastics, 

and television picture tubes, and in alloys. Some 

observers suggest that cadmium is an essential 

element in the utilization of solar energy.

Nickel-cadmium batteries presently account for 

about 20 percent of the cadmium market, and pigments for about 25 percent. Growth in these two 

areas more than makes up for the decline in cadmium's primary usage, electroplating, which has 

hitherto consumed nearly 60 percent of the domestic supply.

In some applications zinc can substitute for cadmium. Some industry observers claim that the performance of zinc in electroplating is at least equal 

to, and in some instances better than, that of cadmium.

The chief source of commercial cadmium is 

sphalerite, the cadmium content of which ranges 

from 0.1 to 1 percent. Most of the deposits containing cadmium are the massive-sulfide and stratabound zinc deposits. Because cadmium is recovered 

as a byproduct of zinc extraction and purification, 

its production is a function of zinc production.

Domestic reserves of about 300,000 tonnes and 

resources of about 1.8 million tonnes of cadmium 

are sufficient to meet U.S. demands to the end of 

the century and beyond. However, because of the 

shortages of zinc smelting and refining capacity, the 

country depends on imports of cadmium to meet its 

demand and will continue to do so as long as zinc
B14 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

mining, smelting, and refining capacity are not increased.

Recoverable identified resources of the United 

States are in the Mississippi Valley, Appalachian, 

Rocky Mountain, and Pacific coast regions.

World reserves of cadmium are estimated at 

about 1.3 million tonnes, and world resources at 

nearly 17 million tonnes. These identified resources 

are principally contained in zinc ores in Canada, 

Mexico, Australia, People's Republic of China, Peru, 

Morocco, southwest Africa, Poland, Yugoslavia, 

and the U.S.S.R.

In the United States, primary production provides 

about 46 percent of the domestic consumption. The 

rest is imported as metal, flue dust, or zinc concentrates from Mexico, Peru, Canada, and Japan. In 

recent years the combined industry stocks and U.S. 

stockpile release have provided nearly 10 percent of 

U.S. supply of the metal.

The new zinc smelter in Clarksville, Tenn., which 

is expected to come on line in 1977, will also produce cadmium. However, the amount produced will 

depend on the cadmium content of the ores used. 

Some industry spokesmen point out that much of 

the new zinc production capacity will be from mines 

whose ores contain relatively little cadmium.

Industry reports show that a total of about 130 

tonnes of cadmium is required by the energy sector 1975-90, or an average annual demand of about 

9 tonnes. This demand by the energy sector, less 

than 1 percent of the total U.S. primary production, does not pose a supply problem. However, the 

Nation is dependent on imported metal, ores, and 

concentrates to meet its requirements. Increased 

zinc production and smelting and refining capacities 

will decrease U.S. dependency on imports of cadmium.

One potential source of cadmium is byproduct 

zinc (sphalerite) from coals in the Illinois basin. 

(See discussion on "Zinc.") Another potential source 

is byproduct zinc from marine phosphorites mined 

for use as fertilizers.

CEMENT

Unlike the other materials described in this report, portland cement is neither an element nor a 

mineral. It is a complex alumino-silicate compound 

produced by heating to about 1,400 °C raw materials 

that contain calcium carbonate, silica, alumina, iron 

oxides, and hydrated calcium sulfate. When combined with water, portland cement sets to a rocklike 

solid.

The raw materials needed for the manufacture of 

portland cement are limestone, shale or clay, sand 

or silt and gypsum. All of these materials are abundant nationally—although low-magnesium limestone, the principal and most critical ingredient, is 

in short supply in some parts of the country. The 

availability of portland cement, therefore, depends 

mainly on the availability of cement production 

capacity rather than raw materials.

The major use of portland cement is as the binder 

in concrete. Concrete is a rocklike mixture of cement and aggregate (sand and gravel, crushed 

stone, or slag) in a ratio of 1 part cement to a 

range of from 2.5 to 4 parts aggregate by weight, 

depending on the strength of concrete desired. Although aggregate may be in short supply in some 

localities, it is not likely to be in critically short 

supply in the rural or suburban areas where it will 

be needed most by the energy industries. An adequate supply of cement is less assured.

The amount of concrete projected to be needed by 

the energy industries 1975-90 is large, much larger 

than the amount of any other material needed 

(table 1). Most of this concrete would be used in 

hydroelectric installations and nuclear plants. The 

projected total maximum demand for all cement 

needed for concrete by the energy industries 1975- 

90 is about 81 million tonnes. Over this period the 

projected demand averages approximately 5.4 million tonnes per year—about 7 percent of the 1973 

U.S. production—but the annual demand would 

probably be erratic depending on the timing of dam 

and powerplant construction.

If the cement industry expands at approximately 

the same rate as that at which it has expanded during the past 20 years and as planned for the near 

future (McCord, 1975, p. 14; Ames, 1975, p. 150), 

its annual capacity in 1990 will be about 150 million 

tonnes, of which an estimated 16 million tonnes, or 

approximately 11 percent, will be needed by the 

energy industries. The projected demand does seem 

within the ability of the industry to satisfy. In recent years, however, the cement industry has been 

operating at more than 90 percent of capacity and 

imports have risen from 619,000 tonnes in 1964 to 

6,027,000 tonnes in 1973, an increase of almost 

1,000 percent. Low profit and environmental restrictions have been suggested as major reasons that 

the industry has not expanded capacity to meet the 

growing demand. The high cost of energy and the 

shortage of oil and natural gas may also inhibit expansion. These factors will certainly drive up prices
SUPPLY B15

and may well pose the greatest problems for the industry in the next decade.

CHROMIUM

Chromium is a hard, brittle, silvery metal that 

provides brilliance to steel, hardens and toughens it, 

and increases its resistance to corrosion, especially 

at high temperatures. Its principal uses are in 

transportation, construction, machinery and equipment, refractories, and plating. In metallic form 

chromium is used in varying percentages for production of iron castings and all types of steel alloys. 

In the form of chromite it is used for metallurgical, 

refractory, and chemical applications.

Chromium is an essential element in the production of energy. It is required in nuclear-fission 

powerplants, in oil and gas exploration and development, in refineries, in coal-mine transportation 

systems, and in fossil-fuel powerplants.

Aluminum, nickel, zinc, and plastics can be substituted for chromium for corrosive-resistance purposes; nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, and vanadium 

can be substituted for chromium in some alloys. 

Titanium can be used as an alternate for many 

stainless steels, but the lower performance and 

higher costs preclude this application. It should be 

pointed out that, with the exception of molybdenum, 

the United States is dependent on imports for most 

other materials that can be substituted for chromium.

The types of refined chromium used in making 

steel include ferrochromium, high- and low-carbon 

ferrochromium, and ferrochromium silicon. Ferrochromium is used in making stainless steel, heatresistant steels, and high-temperature alloys for 

tools, die material, structural steel, and special alloy steels. In the energy sector, for example, steel 

that is 17 percent chromium is used for nuclear reactors where heat and pressure are considerable.

The mineral chromite is the only commercial 

source of chromium. It contains between 15 and 64 

percent Cr2O3 and varying amounts of iron and 

aluminum. The ores, which are a mixture of chromite and associated minerals, range from about 33 

to 55 percent Cr2O3 .

High-chromium ores are used in metallurgy, highaluminum chromium ores mostly in refractories, 

and high-iron chromium ores as the only source of 

chromium chemicals. These ores, which are used interchangeably to some extent, are referred to as 

metallurgical grade, refractory grade, and chemical 

grade ores.

Primary chromite deposits occur only in certain 

kinds of ultramafic or closely related anorthositic 

rocks and are of two major geologic types: stratiform (layered) and pod-shaped. The stratiform deposits have great lateral extent and contain more 

than 98 percent of the chromite resources of the 

world. The podiform deposits are lenticular or 

roughly tabular and range in size from a few 

pounds to several million tons.

The United States has no chromite deposits that 

can now be worked economically, and the domestic 

resources of chromite are very limited. The largest 

known domestic resource of chromite is in the Stillwater Complex, Mont., which has an estimated resource potential of about 7 million tonnes of chromite (Page and Dohrenwend, 1973, p. 4) ; this 

amount is only about 5 to 10 years of domestic demand and constitutes 85 percent of the U.S. identified resources. Other small resources are in Oregon, 

California, Alaska, Wyoming, and Washington.

The largest known world reserves of chromite are 

in the Republic of South Africa, Rhodesia, and the 

U.S.S.R. Other countries with substantial reserves 

include the Philippines, India, Brazil, Turkey, 

Greece, Albania, Malagasy Republic, Iran, and Finland.

The United States imports all of its chromite, but 

in recent years about 20 percent of the domestic requirements have been provided from the government stockpile. Rhodesia, the Republic of South Africa, Turkey, and the U.S.S.R. have been major suppliers of chromium to the United States. The Philippines may supply more in the future.

Because of the 1967 embargo on Rhodesian chromite the production of ferrochromium in the United 

States has declined. During the embargo, without 

the assurance of a stable ore supply and because of 

the enactment of pollution control laws, many companies were unwilling to spend money to modernize 

plants. In 1972 Rhodesian ore became available to 

the United States again, but these companies were 

unable to begin producing ferrochromium. After 

the embargo was lifted, countries with chromite-ore 

supply, including Rhodesia, began to export ferrochromium rather than raw chromite; thus it was 

cheaper for the United States to buy ferrochromium than to produce it domestically. In 1973, the 

United States imported 100,000 tonnes of chromium 

in alloys for consumption.

The cumulative demand for chromium 1975-90 

for energy production has been estimated at 264,000 

tonnes of chromium, equivalent to about 18,000 tonnes per year or 3 percent of the 1973 annual con-
B16 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

sumption. Because the United States is totally dependent on imported chromium, it is apparent that 

an increase in demand for chromium would pose 

supply and other economic strains.

The likelihood of finding large, high-grade, 

domestic chromite resources is extremely small and 

the eventual utilization of low-grade resources will 

depend on the availability of large quantities of 

energy and (or) new recovery techniques. Although 

many podiform deposits must occur in serpentine 

along the Appalachian Mountains and the Pacific 

coast, most would probably be too small to mine at 

depths of 30 metres or more, even if means were 

available to locate them. The possibilities of mining low-grade materials in known districts have not 

been investigated adequately.

COBALT

Cobalt, a strongly magnetic, refractory metal, is 

widely used in machine tools, carbides, high-strength 

permanent magnets, alloys, and high-temperature 

superalloys. More than 80 percent of cobalt used is 

in some form of metal; the rest is used as oxides in 

chemicals, as catalysts in the chemical and petroleum industries, and in other applications. Some 

energy-related end uses of cobalt are in electrical 

and transportation equipment, paints, ceramics, and 

glass. Nickel can substitute for cobalt in many applications.

Cobalt occurs in varying amounts in many minerals. It is found in economically recoverable concentrations in mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks, 

and in contact-metamorphic, massive-sulfide, stratabound, and hydrothermal deposits. It is also found 

in manganese nodules on the deep-sea floors.

Only in Morocco is cobalt produced as a major 

product from vein deposits. Elsewhere, it is a byproduct of the mining and processing of copper, 

nickel, silver, and iron ores.

The United States has no reserves of cobalt. Its 

identified resources are about 762,000 tonnes, not 

including the cobalt contained in nickel-copper deposits in the Duluth Complex at Ely, Minn. Mixed 

sulfide ores of the Mississippi Valley type are the 

largest resources of cobalt in the United States.

The world reserves of cobalt are estimated at 

about 2.5 million tonnes and the world's identified 

resources at 4.5 million tonnes. Additional large resources are in lateritic iron-nickel deposits of the 

tropical regions of Southeast Asia, Australia, the 

Philippines and Latin America, and in the deep-sea 

nodules.

U.S. production of about 200 tons of cobalt is 

derived from recycled scrap and from pyrite as a 

byproduct of iron mining in Pennsylvania. Cobalt 

has been produced from the Gap nickel mine in 

Pennsylvania and the lead districts of southeast 

Missouri. U.S. annual demand of nearly 8,500 tonnes, equivalent to about one-third of the world's 

production, is met by imports from Zaire, Belgium, 

Finland, Norway, and Canada.

Cumulative demand for cobalt by the energy sector, 1975-90, has been reported to be about 1,760 

tonnes of metal, an average of nearly 120 tonnes 

per year. This amount is a little more than 1 percent of the annual domestic consumption in 1973. 

Since the United States is importing nearly all its 

cobalt from foreign sources, the demand by the 

energy industry is considered significant.

Cobalt resources in the newly developed Viburnum district of Missouri need to be evaluated. In 

addition to the nickel-copper deposits near Ely, 

Minn., the Precambrian rocks of the Lake Superior 

region are likely to contain massive sulfide deposits, 

some of which may contain cobalt and nickel. The 

Appalachian Mountains of the Eastern United 

States are also a vast target for new cobalt resources.

COPPER

Copper is a very ductile metal that has high electrical and thermal conductivities, good corrosion resistance, and high strength. Copper and its alloys 

have innumerable applications in the electrical, 

construction, industrial-machinery, transportation, 

ordnance, and other industries.

In some applications copper is almost irreplaceable; however, in many uses requiring the conduction of heat and electrical energy, aluminum has 

been substituted for copper. Steel, plastics, glass, 

and other materials have displaced copper in other 

applications.

Copper ores are commonly distinguished as oxide 

ores or sulfide ores. Associated with the ores are 

minor amounts of gold and silver and in places lead 

and zinc. Molybdenum is recovered from several 

porphyry copper deposits, and minor amounts of 

platinum and selenium may be extracted in refining 

copper. Rhenium is recovered from byproduct molybdenum produced from some of the porphyry copper deposits. Cobalt is associated with some copper 

deposits, particularly in central Africa.

The principal types of copper deposits are: porphyry, replacement and vein, massive sulfide, and 

sedimentary deposits. Deposits of copper are widely
SUPPLY BIT

distributed both geographically and geologically. 

Geologically, most copper-ore bodies are associated 

both in time and location with igneous activity, but 

some large deposits are found in sedimentary rocks 

without any known associated igneous activity.

Copper occurs in three major areas in the United 

States: the Appalachian province, the Keweenaw 

Peninsula in northern Michigan, and the Cordilleran province of the Western United States. The 

greatest concentration of copper is in the Southwestern United States, principally in Arizona and New 

Mexico as bodies of disseminated sulfide—the "porphyry copper" deposits—but large disseminated deposits are also found in Utah, Montana, and Nevada. Northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Alaska 

may provide a large portion of the domestic supply 

of copper in the future.

U.S. reserves of more than 82 million tonnes of 

copper (21 percent of the world's known reserves) 

are sufficient to satisfy the total cumulative demand 

of the Nation through 1990. The cumulative demand 

to the year 2000, however, will exceed U.S. reserves 

by nearly 20 million tonnes. U.S. resources of copper are more than 190 million tonnes, about 33 percent of the total known world resources excluding 

the copper contained in ocean nodules. (See discussion of nodules under "Manganese.")

The world reserves of copper are estimated at 

about 390 million tonnes, and the world resources 

are estimated at 586 million tonnes. Important copper-producing regions of the world other than the 

United States are: (1) central and western Canada; 

(2) the western slopes of the Andes in Chile and 

Peru; (3) the central Africa copper belt in Northern Rhodesia, Zaire, and Zambia; and (4) the Ural 

Mountains of the Kazakhstan regions of the 

U.S.S.R. Large copper provinces of the future will 

include the Oceania belt of Indonesia and New 

Guinea, the Philippines, Australia, Eastern Siberia, 

Mexico, and Iran,

Production from developed copper deposits in the 

United States is nearly sufficient to sustain the Nation's domestic industry. In 1973, the United States 

consumed about 31 percent of the world's output of 

primary copper and produced about 88 percent (including secondary) of its own requirements. Principal sources of imports were Canada, Peru, Chile, 

and the Republic of South Africa.

The cumulative demand for energy needs 1975- 

90 is estimated at about 4.7 million tonnes of copper, equivalent to about 313,000 tonnes of copper 

annually, 14 percent of the 1973 U.S. consumption 

and about 20 percent of the 1973 primary production. Thus the demand for copper by the energy industries may place a strain on the domestic copper industry.

The rocks of the Belt basin of western Montana 

contain stratabound copper deposits in sedimentary 

rocks similar to those rocks bearing important copper resources in central Africa. Reconnaissance 

geologic mapping has identified a series of previously unmapped thrust sheets, relatively rich in 

copper anomalies, that provide a new place to 

search for stratabound copper deposits.

FLUORITE

Fluorite (CaF2 ), a relatively common glassy 

mineral, is the major ore of fluorine. Fluorine is also 

a common minor constituent of many other minerals, such as the apatite group. The major uses of 

fluorite are for hydrofluoric acid (used mainly in 

the aluminum and fluorocarbon industries), as a flux 

in the manufacture of steel, and as a component of 

glasses and enamels.

Fluorite concentrates, commonly known as fluorspar, are marketed as acid, ceramic, or metallurgical grades depending primarily but not entirely 

on the CaF2 content. Acid grade contains more than 

97 percent CaF2 , ceramic grade 85 to 97 percent 

CaF2 , and metallurgical grade more than 60 percent 

effective CaF2 . ("Effective" refers to the fluorite 

content above that needed to flux the silica contained in the fluorspar itself.)

A large quantity of fluorite will be required to 

produce the steel and aluminum needed by the 

energy industries (table 1). Some fluorite is also 

used directly by the energy industries, but such use 

is not reported in chapter A (Albers and others, 

1976) of this report.

Fluorite deposits are of many types but most can 

be grouped as either veins and cavity fillings in all 

types of rocks or as replacement bodies in carbonate rocks. Much current interest is in disseminated 

fluorite in lake sediments. The total amount of 

fluorine in phosphate deposits is large, but fluorine 

can be produced from them only as a byproduct.

The world's major producer is Mexico. Fluorite 

has also been produced in large amounts from many 

other countries, notably the People's Republic of 

China, France, Italy, Republic of South Africa, 

Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the U.S.S.R. In 

the United States, fluorite deposits of commercial 

interest have been identified in Alaska, Arizona, 

California, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Kentucky, 

Montana, Neveda, New Mexico, Oregon, Tennessee, 

Texas, and Utah. The Illinois-Kentucky district is
B18 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

the largest in terms of both production and reserves.

U.S. reserves and resources are estimated respectively at about 5 million tonnes and 34 million tonnes of CaF2 . In 1973, about 90 percent of all grades 

of fluorite consumed in the United States was imported, most of it from Mexico, but significant 

quantities also from Spain and Italy.

World reserves are estimated at 95 million tonnes, and world resources at almost 190 million tonnes. If the fluorine contained in phosphate rock 

were included, world resources of CaF2 equivalent 

might be 10 times larger. Higher reserve estimates 

have been published. Grogan and Montgomery 

(1975, p. 668) estimate "proved and probable" U.S. 

reserves of CaF2 at 10.5 million tonnes and "proved 

and probable" world reserves at 118 million tonnes.

The amount of fluorite equivalent required for 

manufacture of steel and aluminum for the energy 

industries 1975-90 is almost 2 million tonnes. The 

average annual consumption would be about 58 percent of the 1973 U.S. production and 11 percent of 

the 1973 U.S. consumption. Such a large percentage 

would put considerable stress on fluorite supply, but 

not all of the fluorite equivalent would be supplied 

by fluorite. Fluorite compounds as a byproduct of 

the phosphate fertilizer industry accounted for 15 

percent of the fluorspar equivalent used by the aluminum industry in 1972 (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 

1974, p. 541), and their use can be expected to increase. Nevertheless, there is no sign that U.S. dependence on imports, mostly from one country, for 

85 to 90 percent of this essential raw material will 

change greatly in the next few years.

Research to improve prospecting techniques is 

needed. Fluorine is a constituent of many minerals 

that are not potential ores, so that pathfinder elements associated with fluorite deposits need to be 

identified. Fluorite itself is fairly resistant, so 

placers may lead to bedrock deposits. The separation of fine-grained fluorite from lake sediments 

needs to be investigated. Perhaps the most promising source of large amounts of domestic fluorine is 

the phosphate industry.

INDIUM

Indium is a ductile metal that is softer than lead 

and has a high density. Its principal applications 

are in transistors, diodes, and rectifiers used in 

basic electronic computing equipment and in communications and control systems. It is also used in 

low-melting alloys, in sealant for glass-to-metal and 

glass-to-glass joints, and in silverware alloys to 

keep the metal bright. About 25 percent of indium

used in the United States is used in research laboratories. Its reported use by the energy industries is 

in nuclear reactors.

Substitutes for indium are high-purity silicon in 

transistors, selenium and tellurium in rectifiers, and 

gallium in sealing glass joints.

Indium is a dispersed element that does not tend 

to form distinct minerals. It is found in notable concentrations in sulfide ores, especially sphalerite (ore 

mineral of zinc). It is also associated with some 

copper-bearing minerals.

The United States has estimated reserves of 10 

million troy ounces1 (311 tonnes) of indium that 

may be recoverable from lead-zinc ores. The estimated total world reserves are 49 million troy 

ounces (1,525 tonnes). The U.S. resources of indium that may be contained in the recoverable identified zinc resources are about 58 million troy ounces 

(1,800 tonnes), and the world resources are about 

109 million troy ounces (3,390 tonnes).

Indium produced in the United States is recovered 

entirely as a byproduct of processing and smelting 

domestic and imported zinc ores and concentrates. 

In 1973, the United States consumed about 1.1 million troy ounces (34 tonnes) of indium, of which 

about 811,000 troy ounces (25 tonnes) were imported, mostly from Canada and Japan. The leading world producers of indium are Canada, the 

United States, Australia, Peru, Mexico, and Japan.

The total demand for indium by the energy industries 1975-90 is estimated at 4.6 million troy 

ounces (143 tonnes), equal to about 309,000 troy 

ounces (9.6 tonnes) per year. This demand is about 

28 percent of the total 1973 domestic consumption. 

About 50 percent of U.S. indium production is a byproduct of smelting imported zinc ores and concentrates ; thus additional demand by the energy industries will place supply and other economic strains 

on the U.S. zinc industry.

Investigations to improve processing methods and 

recovery of indium are recommended.

IRON

Iron, a relatively hard metal, is predominantly 

used in its metallic form and in steel, an alloy consisting of iron and a small amount of carbon and 

manganese. Alloy steels are iron-based materials 

that contain appreciable quantities of other elements, such as chromium, nickel, manganese, silicon, vanadium, and molybdenum. Aluminum, plastics, concrete, wood, and glass are among many 

materials that could be substituted for steel in some

One tonne= 32,151 troy ounces.
SUPPLY B19

applications. In many instances steel is used instead 

because of its high strength and relatively lower 

cost.

The principal iron-ore minerals are the oxides of 

iron; iron sulfides and iron-carbonate minerals are 

also utilized. Many iron-ore deposits are known 

throughout the world. They have been classified as:

(1) bedded sedimentary and bedded oolitic deposits,

(2) massive deposits associated with igneous and 

metamorphic rocks, (3) residual deposits, and (4) 

miscellaneous deposits.

U.S. iron-ore resources are widely distributed, but 

the largest quantities of identified iron-ore resources are in the Lake Superior region. Other significant iron-ore resources are in the northeastern, 

southeastern, central gulf, central western, and 

western regions.

U.S. iron-ore reserves total about 9 billion tonnes 

and identified resources about 97 billion tonnes. 

These resources are sufficient to satisfy domestic 

needs for many decades. However, because highergrade foreign ores are available at competitive 

prices, the United States is importing nearly 30 

percent of its iron-ore supply. Canada, Venezuela, 

Brazil, Liberia, and, more recently, Australia have 

been substantial suppliers of iron ore to the United 

States.

The world has more than 250 billion tonnes of 

iron-ore reserves distributed in six continents. Australia, Brazil, Canada, Venezuela, France, India, 

Liberia, and Sweden account for nearly 40 percent 

of the total reserves, and the U.S.S.R. for 40 percent. The estimated world resources are 780 billion tonnes.

Iron and steel are used in almost every energy 

sector. The total iron requirements for 1975-90 

have been estimated at about 213 million tonnes of 

metal, the equivalent of about 850 million tonnes of 

ore (U.S. grade, 25 to 30 percent Fe). This is almost one-tenth of the total present-day reserves of 

iron ore in the United States. The average annual 

demand by the energy industries 1975-90 is about 

14 million tonnes of metal, equal to nearly 23 million tonnes of shipping-grade (60 to 65 percent Fe) 

ore; this demand by the energy sector is equivalent 

to 26 percent of U.S. production in 1973. Because 

the Nation is presently importing about 30 percent 

of its iron-ore supply and nearly 10 to 20 percent 

of its steel, such an additional demand might pose 

a strain on the iron and steel industry.

Much of the iron ore classified as reserves in the 

United States is low grade. Thus, from about 9 billion tonnes of crude ore only about 4 billion tonnes

of shipping-grade ore can be obtained. Magnetic 

taconites, which constitute the major part of ironore reserves of the United States, yield one tonne of 

concentrate (or shipping-grade ore) for each three 

tonnes of crude taconite. Technology to treat lowgrade nonmagnetic taconites has been developed recently; thus vast quantities of this resource will be 

available to the iron and steel industry in the near 

future. However, reserves are determined by economic factors and thus are related to existing and 

planned capabilities of the industry as well as to 

the availability of raw material. For example, the 

iron-formation in the Pike's Peak area, Arizona, 

occupies a distinctive stratigraphic zone but is concealed by an extensive cover in much of the area. 

The persistence of this zone is indicated by the discovery of an exposure of massive iron-formation 

precisely on strike 16 km to the northeast of Pike's 

Peak. This deposit constitutes a large undeveloped 

iron resource that lies at the edge of the Phoenix 

metropolitan area and thus has important economic 

and environmental implications.

LEAD

Lead is valuable because of its relatively common 

occurrence, simplicity of treatment, high density, 

low fusibility, softness and malleability, corrosion 

resistance, and the brilliance and opaqueness of its 

compounds. For most uses it is alloyed with other 

metals, principally antimony and tin.

Major uses of lead are in the transportation 

(storage batteries and gasoline additive), electrical, 

construction, paint, and ammunition industries. 

Large quantities of lead are used in nuclear-fission 

powerplants, in uranium mining and processing, 

and in coal-transportation systems.

Cadmium, nickel, mercury, silver, and zinc can 

be substituted for lead to provide stored electrical 

energy; plastics, galvanized steel, copper, and aluminum can replace lead in construction and other 

applications. Barite has been proposed as an alternate for lead in radiation shielding, and the development of new materials continues to offer substitutes for lead.

Lead occurs in nature principally in the form of 

galena, which in most places is associated with silica 

and zinc, though it may also be associated with gold 

and copper. In fact, an important part of the lead 

supply comes from the mining and processing of 

zinc, copper, silver, and gold. Lead deposits, which 

are mined in more than 40 countries, are classified 

as (1) stratiform and stratabound deposits, (2)
B20 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

vein and replacement deposits, and (3) contact 

pyrometasomatic deposits.

Most of the lead districts in the United States are 

in: (1) the Basin and Range region of Nevada, 

western Utah, southeastern California, southern 

Arizona, and southern New Mexico; (2) the Rocky 

Mountain Cordillera, extending from the Canadian 

to the Mexican borders; (3) the Mississippi Valley; and (4) the Appalachian Cordillera. About 80 

percent of the United States lead production comes 

from Missouri, northern Idaho, and northern Utah. 

Lead is commonly associated with zinc, and in most 

districts, except in southeast Missouri, is subordinate to zinc in total tonnage. The deposits of the 

Mississippi Valley have dominated the domestic 

lead-mining industry during most of the last century, and mine development and exploration in the 

region will continue to increase U.S. lead reserves 

substantially in the future. Much favorable ground 

remains untested in other parts of the Mississippi 

Valley and in the Basin and Range province.

The total reserves of lead in the United States 

are currently about 53.5 million tonnes, or about 37 

percent of the world total. The total lead resources 

of the United States are about 81 million tonnes; 

world resources are large.

The reserves of lead in the United States, Canada, 

Mexico, and Australia total nearly 90 million tonnes, or about two-thirds of the world reserves, and 

in 1973 these four countries produced about 40 percent of the total world output. Other major leadproducing nations are Peru, the U.S.S.R., Yugoslavia, Poland, Bulgaria, and the People's Republic of 

China.

Production from the developed lead deposits in 

the United States is nearly sufficient to satisfy 

domestic needs. In 1973, the United States consumed about 1.4 million tonnes of lead, 40 percent 

of which was from primary sources. U.S. primary 

production was about 16 percent of the world's total 

output of lead, but in 1973 the United States produced only 39 percent of its own requirements. Imports were mainly from Canada, Peru, Australia, 

and Mexico.

Incomplete data obtained from industry suggest 

that only about 25,000 tonnes of lead will be required by the energy sector 1975-90. No consideration was given to wide use of battery-powered automobiles or battery storage for wind-generated 

power. The average annual requirement of fewer 

than 2,000 tonnes is less than 1 percent of the U.S. 

annual production. The data on hand suggest that

no strain will be placed on the lead industry to 

provide sufficient lead for energy development.

Although this study has not taken into account 

the material requirements for fusion power, it is of 

interest to note that in 1973 Fraas (cited in Rose, 

1975, p. 77) estimated that 10 million tonnes of 

lead will be required for 1 million MWe capacity. 

The quantity of lead required for this capacity 

(fusion) is 20 times greater than the 1973 U.S. 

production of lead and about 2^ times greater 

than the total 1973 world production.

MAGNESIA

Magnesia (MgO) is a chemical compound derived mainly from seawater, surface and subsurface 

brines, and magnesite. The two major types are refractory and caustic-calcined magnesia. Refractory 

magnesia is the product of firing the raw material 

to temperatures above 1,450°C for enough time to 

produce a stable refractory. Caustic-calcined magnesia is the product of firing the raw material only 

to a temperature high enough so that less than 10 

percent ignition loss remains and the product shows 

adsorptive capacity (Wicken and Duncan, 1975, p. 

806).

About 80 percent of the magnesia consumed in 

the United States is used as a refractory by the 

steel industry—approximately 3 kilograms (7 Ib) 

per tonne of steel.2 Almost half the remainder is 

used as a refractory by other industries, and the 

rest is used in chemical processing, manufacturing, 

and metallurgy. Much is used in the production of 

aluminum. All magnesia reported to be needed by 

the energy industries 1975-90 is caustic-calcined 

magnesia to be used in insulation. The amount of 

refractory magnesia needed by the steel industry 

has been added into the total energy requirements 

listed m tables 1 and 2.

Worldwide, but not in the United States, magnesite is a major source of magnesia. Most magnesite is interbedded with sedimentary rocks and is 

probably altered dolomite. Some magnesite is altered serpentine. The major producing countries 

are the U.S.S.R., JNorth Korea, People's Republic 

of China, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria, and 

Greece. Since 1938, the production of magnesia 

from seawater, brines, and other sources has steadily increased. (Magnesium hydroxide is precipitated

2 Assuming that 75 percent of the refractory magnesia used in the 

United States is used by the steel industry (Wicken and Duncan, 1975, p. 

816), in 1972 approximately 7.8 Ib of magnesia were used per short 

ton of steel. As a result of technological innovations, the amount or 

magnesia needed is being reduced to less than 5 Ib per short ton in 

some plants (Wicken and Duncan, 1975, p. 816). Thus, for 1975- 

90, a ratio of 3 kg (7 Ib) of magnesia per metric tonne of steel is 

estimated.
SUPPLY B21

from seawater or other brine by the addition of lime 

followed by evaporation. The hydroxide is then calcined.)

In the United States, the largest reserves of 

magnesite are in Nevada and Washington. Only the 

deposits in Nevada are being worked. Most U.S. 

production and 90 percent of capacity are from seawater and brines. In 1973, the United States imported a net 97,000 tonnes of refractory magnesia, 

13 percent of its supply, mostly from Greece, Ireland, and Japan.

The total demand for magnesia by the energy industries 1975-90 is projected to be 1,310,000 tonnes, of which 588,000 tonnes is calcined magnesia 

(about 40,000 tonnes per year or about 28 percent 

of the U.S. consumption of calcined magnesia in 

1973) and 722,000 tonnes is refractory magnesia 

needed by the steel industry (48,000 tonnes per 

year or about 7 percent of U.S. consumption of refractory magnesia in 1973). On balance, increased 

energy production should not place great stress on 

the magnesia industries. The oceans can be considered an inexhaustible source of magnesia available to the United States and many other countries, 

and U.S. production 1975-90 will probably be 

limited primarily by world competition. Production 

of caustic-calcined magnesia will have to be increased greatly if the United States is to avoid 

heavy dependence on imports.

MANGANESE

Manganese, a hard, brittle metal, is rarely seen 

in elemental form. About 95 percent of manganese 

consumption is for ferromanganese, spiegeleisen, 

silicomanganese, and manganese metal for making 

steel and other alloys; the balance goes into manufacture of dry batteries and chemicals. Approximately 7 kilograms (about 15 Ib) of manganese is required to make one tonne of steel.

Manganese minerals—oxides, silicates, and carbonates—are widely distributed throughout the 

world. Literally thousands of deposits have yielded 

commercial-grade ore or concentrate; however, very 

few of these have produced large quantities of manganese ore, and many have been depleted.

The more important deposits of manganese are 

very large bodies of sedimentary origin. Many important high-grade oxide-ore bodies are formed by 

superficial weathering and oxidation of manganesecarbonate sediments. Much less important, although 

more common, are deposits formed by hot waters 

as vein and replacement deposits.

The United States has virtually no reserves of 

manganese ore containing at least 35 percent manganese. Large but extremely low grade deposits 

totalling nearly 1 billion tonnes are known, principally at Chamberlin, S. Dak.; in the Cuyuna 

Range, Minn.; in Aroostook County, Maine; and in 

the Molango district, New Mexico.

World reserves of manganese are very large and 

are concentrated in West Africa, the Republic of 

South Africa, India, Mexico, and Australia. The 

U.S.S.R. probably contains the largest known reserves, and the People's Republic of China is believed to contain large resources.

There is no production of manganese ore containing more than 35 percent manganese in the 

United States. Production is limited to very small 

amounts of ferruginous manganese ores and concentrates produced in New Mexico and the Cuyuna 

Range in Minnesota. The Nation is totally dependent on imports of manganese ore and ferromanganese alloys, and on the national strategic stockpile. In 1973, the United States imported about 

350,000 tonnes of ferromanganese and 1.4 million 

tonnes of manganese ore, together equivalent to 

nearly 1.4 million tonnes of manganese metal. Brazil, Gabon, Zaire, and Australia supplied most of 

the manganese ore, while the Republic of South 

Africa, France,and India were the major sources of 

ferromanganese for the U.S. steel industry. Some 

manganese metal was imported from France. More 

than 90 percent of all manganese consumed in the 

United States is used by the steel industry, so the 

demand for manganese will continue to be closely 

related to steel output.

Steel is required to develop and produce energy 

from every source. Manganese has no satisfactory 

substitutes in steel production and therefore is an 

essential and basic material for energy production 

and development. The total demand for manganese 

1975-90 for increased energy development, estimated at 2 million tonnes, averages about 139,000 

tonnes per year, about 10 percent of the 1973 U.S. 

annual consumption. Because the United States is 

importing all its manganese supply, the demand by 

the energy industries may pose a strain on the 

manganese industry.

The principal hopes of finding domestic reserves 

or resources of manganese are: (1) Examination 

of the manganese potentials of southern California 

where the Pacific rise interesects the rift zone of 

the Gulf of California. Manganese deposits occur 

along the rift zone in Mexico, and manganese occurs in brines of the Salton Sea. (2) Study of the
B22 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

geographic and stratigraphic distribution of manganese in miogeosynclinal terranes, particularly in 

limestone terranes of the Appalachian, Ouachita, 

and Rocky Mountain miogeosynclines. (3) Study of 

eugeosynclinal belts of the North American shield 

areas where manganese-carbonate deposits might 

be found without the oxidized capping. (4) Evaluation of manganese resources on the deep-sea floor. 

Extensive areas of the ocean floor have concentrations of nodules, the populations and metallic 

content of which differ from place to place. Details 

on which resource estimates can be based are not 

publicly available, but the resources of manganese 

in these nodules, at depths between 2,500 and 6,000 

metres, are known to be vast. It is understood that 

a few areas, each of 2,600 square kilometres or 

more, have been located in which the nodules 

average more than 25 percent manganese, 1.0 percent copper, 1.0 percent nickel, and 0.25 percent 

cobalt (Dorr and others 1973, p. 391). The resources of the seabed will undoubtedly have a great 

impact on the supply of manganese and also on the 

supply of other metals. The technology for mining 

and extracting the valuable elements from ocean 

nodules is nearly perfected. The principal block to 

commercial exploration is the present uncertainty 

as to the legal ownership of deposits on the sea 

floor. Until this has been settled, the very large investment needed to industrialize this potential resource cannot be made.

MICA

Mica is the general name given to a group of 

minerals that can be split into thin, more-or-less 

flexible sheets. The major mica of commercial value 

is muscovite, a complex hydrous potassium-aluminum silicate common in igneous, metamorphic, and 

sedimentary rocks. Phlogopite, a complex hydrous 

magnesium-aluminum silicate, also has commercial 

importance. Most commercial mica in the United 

States is a byproduct of feldspar production from 

pegmatites and of kaolin from clay deposits.

Commercially, mica is classified into two major 

groups, sheet mica and scrap mica, the latter of 

which includes flake mica. To be classified as sheet 

mica, the sheets must meet minimum specifications 

as to the area. Smaller sizes are scrap, but scrap and 

synthetic mica can be built up or reconstituted into 

a form of mica suitable for some of the same uses 

as sheet mica. The major uses of sheet mica are in 

electrical components such as vacuum tubes and in 

electrical insulation. Scrap mica is used principally 

as an inert component of joint cement, paint, and 

roofing.

The United States imports almost all its natural 

sheet mica from India and Brazil. It produces almost all its scrap mica in North Carolina and six 

other States. Annual U.S. consumption of sheet 

mica has declined in the past 25 years from about 

6,000 tonnes in the early 1950's to about 2,700 tonnes in the early 1970's. Annual U.S. consumption of 

scrap mica during the same period has increased 

from about 68,000 tonnes to about 120,000 tonnes.

Sheet mica is a critical commodity in that U.S. 

production and reserves are small. Although changing technology has reduced the need for sheet mica 

drastically, some is still .stockpiled. In 1973, exports 

of sheet mica from the stockpile exceeded imports. 

The present study revealed no substantial demand 

for sheet mica by the energy industries.

The major use of scrap mica by the energy industries is for insulation. The estimated demand for 

about 5,400 tonnes of scrap mica by the energy industries 1975-90 is about 360 tonnes per year, only 

0.2 percent of 1973 production. Both reserves and 

resources are so large that they cannot be quantified. Increased energy, production should place no 

undue stress on the scrap-mica industry.

MOLYBDENUM

Molybdenum, a refractory metal, is an important 

alloying metal in the iron and steel industry, and is 

important also in chemicals, catalysts, lubricants, 

pigments, and agriculture. In the energy field, because of its hardening and strengthening properties, molybdenum finds its application in oil and gas 

pipelines and drilling equipment, abrasive-resistant 

castings for the mining industry, and powerplant 

equipment. It is used in catalysts to remove sulfur 

from high-sulfur crude.

Molybdenum can generally be replaced by graphite as a refractory material in electric furnaces. 

Chromium, tungsten, and tantalum can be substituted for molybdenum in some applications, but at 

higher cost. Boron can replace molydbenum in some 

steels where hardening is the only desired effect.

Molybdenite (MoS2 ), the ore mineral of molybdenum, is extremely widespread and occurs in almost every country of the world. Deposits of commercial significance, however, are restricted to 

relatively narrow, well-defined tectonic belts and are 

associated with zones of volcanic activity.

Molybdenite occurs alone or intimately associated 

with quartz and pyrite in granitic or monzonitic 

rocks, as at Climax and Urad-Henderson in Colorado and at Questa, N. Mex. This type of occurrence 

accounts for the bulk of the world's molybdenum
SUPPLY B23

reserves. Much more commonly, however, molybdenite occurs in small amounts with copper sulfides in 

the typical porphyry copper deposits of the Western 

Cordillera of North and South America. Molybdenum-bearing copper ores have provided a significant portion of the world output of molybdenum as 

a byproduct. Rhenium, recovered as a secondary byproduct from molybdenum, is a high-temperature 

metal and is attracting growing interest as a catalyst and alloying metal.

Three-fourths of the world's reserves of molybdenum are in the Western Cordillera of North and 

South America, extending from British Columbia 

in the north to Argentina in the south. These reserves are in large, low-grade, disseminated deposits that occur in clusters throughout the length 

of the Cordillera. Of the remaining one-fourth of the 

world's reserves, half are in the U.S.S.R., and the 

rest are in parts of Europe and southwest Asia, 

Southeast Asia including the People's Republic of 

China, the islands of the South Pacific, and Australia. The bulk of the molybdenum resources, estimated at more than 28 million tonnes, is divided 

among the United States, Canada, Chile, and the 

U.S.S.R.

The United States, a net exporter of molybdenum, 

produced about 64 percent of the world production 

in 1973. Production outside the United States was 

principally in Canada, the People's Republic of 

China, Chile, and Peru.

The total amount of molybdenum reported to be 

required by the U.S. energy industries 1975-90 is 

nearly 80,000 tonnes, for an annual average of about 

5,300 tonnes. This amount is about 10 percent of 

the 1973 U.S. production and 16 percent of the 1973 

U.S. consumption. In addition, it is estimated that 

nearly 18 million tonnes of high-quality steel will be 

needed to build some of the major oil and gas pipeline projects now planned, and about 2.5 kilograms 

(S 1/^ Ib) of molybdenum is needed for each tonne 

of high-quality steel. About 45,000 tonnes of molybdenum will be required for this purpose alone.

The U.S. reserves of molybdenum are sufficient to 

satisfy the overall needs of the Nation to the end 

of this century and beyond, and its resources are 

large. Additional demand by the energy sector is not 

likely to pose any strain on the supply or the production of molybdenum in the foreseeable future.

NICKEL

Nickel, a ductile and partially magnetic metal, belongs to the iron-colbalt family. An important alloy

in steel, it adds strength and corrosion resistance 

over a wide range of temperatures.

Manufacturers of chemicals and petroleum refineries are the principal users of nickel. Major 

uses are in stainless steel, high-nickel alloys, nickel 

plating, copper alloys, and catalysts. In the energy 

field, nickel is used in nuclear-fission powerplants, 

oil and gas industries, uranium mining and processing, fossil-fuel powerplants, and storage batteries.

Possible substitutes for nickel are chromiummanganese alloys in stainless steel; niobium, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium in some steel alloys; and colbalt-chromium and niobium-based materials in superalloys. Plastics and titanium can replace high-nickel alloys in some applications.

Nickel-iron sulfide (pentlandite), the principal 

nickel mineral in economic ores, is usually associated 

with chalcopyrite and pyrite. Nickel also occurs associated with pyrrhotite and pyrite, particularly 

where these minerals are in mafic and ultramafic 

rocks. Nickel-magnesium hydrosilicate (garnierite), 

usually referred to as nickel-oxide ore, is the economically important ore mineral in lateritic nickel 

deposits, which are found in mantles formed by 

weathering of mafic and ultramafic rocks in many 

tropical and subtropical regions of the world. (Garnierite is actually a mixture of nickeliferous serpentine, nickeliferous talc, and possibly other silicates.)

Massive and disseminated sulfide, lateritic, and 

vein deposits are the three major types of nickel deposits. Sulfide deposits are the most important, in 

both quantity of nickel and the number of deposits; 

however, lateritic deposits are becoming more and 

more important because large accessible tonnages 

are near the surface and can be mined by open-pit 

methods. Colbalt is also recovered from lateritic deposits as a coproduct or byproduct. Vein deposits 

are of relatively minor importance as sources of 

nickel. In some places, nickel is produced as a coproduct of copper mining.

In the United States, nickel was once produced 

from sulfide deposits at the ^Jap mine in Pennsylvania, but now is produced only from lateritic deposits at Nickel Mountain, Riddle, Oreg. Large low-grade 

resources of nickel are contained in sulfide deposits 

in Minnesota, Montana, Missouri, Maine, and the 

Brady Glacier region, Alaska. Smaller sulfide deposits occur in California, Colorado, Nevada, Pennsylvania, and Washington. Large nickeliferous lateritic depisits exist in Oregon, California, Washington, jind North Carolina^

The U.S. reserves of nickel are estimated at about 

181,000 tonnes of contained nickel, and low-grade
B24 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

resources contain more than 15 million tonnes. The 

world's reserves of nickel are estimated at nearly 45 

million tonnes, and the world resources are conservatively estimated at about 70 million tonnes.

Canadian reserves of mineable sulfide ores are the 

largest in the world; Australia, the Republic of 

South Africa, Burma, Yugoslavia, and the U.S.S.R. 

are among the other countries with large reserves of 

this type. Large lateritic deposits of nickel exist in 

the Philippines, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Australia, 

the Solomon Islands, Cuba, Guatemala, Venezuela^ 

Colombia, Puerto Rico, Brazil, and Greece. Manganese nodules in the Pacific Ocean contain about 1 

percent nickel and are a large source of nickel for 

the future.

The United States has annual primary production of about 16,000 tonnes of nickel and consumes 

more than 200,000 tonnes annually, almost one-third 

of the world's total production. Nickel is imported 

mostly from Canada and Norway; small amounts 

are imported from other countries. Canada produced 

about 35 percent of the world's production in 1973; 

other large producers were New Caledonia, Greece, 

Yugoslavia, and Cuba.

The total U.S. requirements of nickel for energy 

development and production 1975-90 are estimated 

at about 264,000 tonnes. The average annual requirement of nearly 18,000 tonnes is about 8 percent of 

the U.S. 1973 consumption but exceeds the U.S. annual production. Furthermore, the Nation's available reserves of about 180,000 tonnes are only about 

69 percent of the total cumulative demand by the 

energy sector.

Several new deposits of nickel are being developed 

throughout the world and will come into production 

by 1980. Thus, the world supply of nickel seems adequate to meet the U.S. demand. However, because 

the United States is importing nearly 85 percent of 

its annual requirements of primary nickel or about 

73 percent of all the nickel it uses, it is apparent 

that increased demand by the energy sector will pose 

a serious economic problem.

Vast quantities of nickel would become available 

to the Nation's industry if techniques were developed for economical mining and processing of lowgrade resources in the United States. The very large 

low-grade resources in the Duluth Complex, near 

Ely, Minn., deserve much attention. These resources 

promise to be the largest in the United States, but 

much study is needed to determine their extent, tonnage, and grade as well as to develop exploration 

models to aid in examining the rest of the Complex 

for similar deposits.

NIOBIUM (COLUMBIUM)

Niobium is a relatively soft ductile metal whose 

principal ore minerals, pyrochlore and columbite, 

are mostly associated with alkalic or granitic rocks. 

Pyrochlore is a complex oxide of niobium, sodium, 

calcium, and other elements, and columbite is a complex oxide of niobium and tantalum. Many pyrochlore deposits are found in carbonatites; columbite 

deposits are commonly in pegmatites. Some niobium 

is produced as a byproduct of tin mining. Because 

of their high specific gravity, pyrochlore and columbite are also concentrated in placers.

The major use of niobium is as an alloy in specialty steels, including stainless steel and high-strength, 

low-alloy steel used in many construction materials. 

In the energy industry the largest amounts reported 

would be used in oil and gas pipelines.

A few metals can substitute for niobium in various degrees in various alloys. Vanadium can substitute to a large degree, and tantalum, chromium, 

molybdenum, and tin to a lesser degree. For some 

uses, ceramics and glass-reinforced plastics are possible substitutes. Nevertheless, industry's reliance 

on niobium for alloys has depended on desirability 

as well as cost. For some potential uses, such as 

superconductors to contain magnetic fields in fusion 

reactors, niobium may be essential.

Most of the world's niobium resources lie outside 

the United States, and the United States can expect 

to remain dependent on imports in the foreseeable 

future, largely from Brazil, Canada, and Nigeria. 

The United States does have low-grade reserves in 

Colorado and Idaho estimated at 68,500 tonnes and 

resources estimated at about 110,000 tonnes. The 

"reserves," however, are so marginal that the deposits cannot be mined except under government 

subsidy and have not been worked since 1958. Resources may be increased substantially by the recent 

discovery of niobium associated with a large titanium deposit in southwestern Colorado (Wall Street 

Journal, 1976, p. 6). About 2,745 tonnes of niobium 

were used by all U.S. industry in 1973, all of which 

was from imports and shipments from government 

and industry stocks. Most imports were from Brazil.

The estimated demand for 915 tonnes by the 

energy industries 1975-90 averages about 61 tonnes 

per year or about 2 percent of the 1975 U.S. consumption, a figure that appears to be far too low. In 

1975, about 494 tonnes were used by the oil and gas 

industries, 20 percent of U.S. consumption in that 

year.

In order to stimulate exploration for new or additional deposits of niobium, intensive investigations
SUPPLY 625

using geological, geochemical, and geophysical techniques should be conducted in areas of known deposits and in potentially mineralized areas. Basic 

geologic research in the geochemistry of niobium and 

tantalum to understand the genesis and distribution 

of these elements in rocks and ores should lead directly to the targeting and modeling of deposits and 

possibly to the discovery of new types of deposits.

SILICON

Silicon is a lightweight, brittle metalloid whose 

principal uses are as silicon, ferrosilicon, and other 

silicon compounds in the metallurgy of steel and 

aluminum. Its largest potential use reported by the 

energy industries is in photovoltaic cells. Its use in 

photovoltaic cells, as in the electric industry in general, depends on its property as a semiconductor and 

requires a high degree of purity.

As a deoxidizer in the production of iron and steel, 

silicon could be replaced by other deoxidizers, such 

as aluminum, manganese, and zirconium. As an alloy 

with aluminum, it could be replaced by a metal such 

as copper. As a semi-conductor it could be replaced, 

within limits, by germanium. All substitutes are 

more expensive than silicon.

Silicon does not occur in elemental form in nature. 

It is produced from quartz, one of the most abundant minerals in the Earth's crust. The U.S. and 

world deposits of quartz are so vast that the supply 

of silicon can be considered limited only by demand.

The preparation of ferrosilicon and the separation of silicon from quartz do require large amounts 

of electrical energy, which accounts in part for the 

geography of its imports. In 1973, the United States 

imported about 64,000 tonnes of silicon, 11 percent 

of its requirements, from Norway, Sweden, France, 

Canada, and other countries. In 1968, the United 

States imported only 2 percent of its requirements; 

in fact, the United States was a net exporter.

Only 3,500 tonnes of silicon were reported needed 

by the energy industries 1975-90, about 0.7 percent 

of the 1973 U.S. production and 0.6 percent of the 

1973 U.S. demand. Much more silicon would be used 

to produce the steel and aluminum needed by the 

energy industries 1975-90, so that the total requirement would be closer to 815,000 tonnes or an average of 54,000 tonnes per year, 10 percent of the 1973 

U.S. production.

Neither the United States nor the world need ever 

be concerned about the supply of raw materials to 

produce silicon and ferrosilicon. The critical factor 

in producing silicon is the cost of energy to separate 

it from its oxide. The United States will probably

continue to increase its reliance on foreign imports 

as long as cheaper energy is available abroad.

SILVER

Silver has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of all metals; it is exceptionally ductile and 

malleable and is stable in air and water. Silver is 

the key to excellent performance in photography, 

which application accounts for about 30 percent of 

total U.S. consumption. Silver is used also in electrical switching, brazing and soldering, batteries, 

bearings, catalysts, electronic components, sterling 

and plated ware, coins, jewelry, and in other applications.

Incomplete data from industry suggest that a 

major use of silver by the energy sector is in nuclear-fission powerplants. Not reported but necessary to consider are its uses in development of mirrors for utilization of solar energy, in magnetic 

equipment, in lead storage batteries, and in corrosion-resistant, long-lasting anodes for protection of 

offshore drilling rigs. As an example, industry estimates (Metals Week, 1975, p. 6) indicate that about 

1 tonne (32,151 troy ounces) of silver would be required to silverback about 260 hectares (1 square 

mile) of an array of mirrors in a solar energy system to supply 100,000 people. Aluminum, though not 

as efficient, could be a substitute for mirror backing. 

, Stainless steel, aluminum, rhodium, and tantalum 

may be substituted for silver in some applications; 

but the total substitution if made will be very small 

compared to the total U.S. consumption.

Minerals in which silver occurs are numerous; 

they can be roughly classified as native silver, carbonates, sulfides, halides, oxides, and sulfates. Deposits of silver are of two types: (1) mineral deposits in which silver is recovered as a byproduct 

and coproduct, and (2) deposits in which silver is 

the major constitutent. The principal sources of 

silver are copper, lead, zinc, and nickel ores, from 

which it is recovered as a byproduct.

Porphyry copper deposits as a group are the major sources of silver in the United States, accounting for nearly 20 percent of domestic production. 

Although the percentage of silver in the copper ores 

is low, the amount of silver recovered is large because vast tonnages of ore are mined; however, with 

the introduction of in-situ leaching and recovery of 

copper from low-grade porphyry deposits, some of 

the silver recovered by conventional mining and processing may not be recovered in the future.

Silver is also a byproduct of lead and zinc, but the 

lead and zinc industry is increasingly dependent on
B26 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OP NONPUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

eastern ores that are low in silver. Future silver 

production in the United States will thus depend 

principally on copper-silver deposits of several types 

and upon such ores in which silver is the main product.

The leading silver-producing areas in the United 

States are Idaho, Arizona, Utah, Montana, .Colorado, 

Missouri, and Michigan. The Coeur d'Alene district 

of Idaho, the leading single producing area, is one 

of the few active mining districts in the world where 

significant amounts of ore are mined for their silver 

content. Canada, Peru, and Mexico are the largest 

producers of silver in the Western Hemisphere.

U.S. reserves of silver are estimated to be 1,500 

million troy ounces (46,650 tonnes), and the identified resources are nearly 2,300 million troy ounces 

(71,500 tonnes). The world reserves are estimated 

at 6,000 million troy ounces (186,600 tonnes).

The United States produced about 38 million troy 

ounces (1,180 tonnes) of silver in 1973, and the 

world production was about 306 million troy ounces 

(9,500 tonnes). The U.S. consumption of primary 

metal was about 162 million troy ounces (5,000 tonnes) , more than half of the world's primary production. Imports of about 131 million troy ounces (4,000 

tonnes) of silver from Canada, Mexico, Peru, Honduras, Ireland, Australia, and other areas provided 

nearly 61 percent of the total U.S. supply. Secondary 

recovery of silver accounted for a significant portion 

of U.S. supply.

The total reported requirement by the energy sector is about 36 million troy ounces (1,120 tonnes) of 

silver 1975-90. The average annual requirement of 

2.4 million troy ounces (75 tonnes) of silver is small, 

only about 1.2 percent of U.S. annual consumption.

Resources of silver in the United States will be 

increased substantially when economic conditions 

will justify exploration and mining of large lowgrade deposits. The stratabound copper deposits may 

be one of the world's largest potential sources of 

silver. Possible economic concentrations of coppersilver in the Precambrian rocks (Belt Supergroup) 

of Montana and Idaho have been recognized only recently. Perhaps one of the greatest silver anomalies 

in the United States is in southeast Missouri and the 

Appalachian Mountain belt; large areas in Alaska 

are favorable targets, and the Western United 

States is still considered prime prospecting ground.

TIN

Tin is a nontoxic metal that melts easily and is 

extremely fluid in its molten state. It has many applications in construction and in communication

systems. Tin plating accounts for more than 40 percent of all tin consumed and soldering for about 25 

percent. It is also used in printed circuit boards for 

the electronic industry, in bronze, in casting alloys, 

and in bearings.

In the energy field, use of tin is reported in nuclear-fission powerplants, in uranium mining and 

processing, and in coal transportation systems. An 

alloy of tin and niobium has been developed as a 

superior superconductor for possible use in thermonuclear fusion power generation.

With the exception of soldering, where no satisfactory replacement for tin has been found, several 

materials may substitute for tin in various applications: plastics, glass, aluminum, and paper in tin 

plating for cans; copper, aluminum, and zinc products in construction; low-tin aluminum-, copper- or 

lead-base roller bearings and ball bearings for babbitt metal; other chemicals in insecticides and similar applications.

Practically all the tin of commerce comes from 

the mineral cassiterite (Sn02 ), which is heavy and 

chemically resistant. Some tin sulfide minerals such 

as stannite are produced along with cassiterite in 

the Bolivian mines. Tungsten is the most important 

coproduct or byproduct of tin mining.

Tin displays a well-marked geologic association 

with specific rock types. All the large tin deposits 

except those in Bolivia are related to acidic granitic 

rocks or rhyolites that are chemically equivalent. In 

Bolivia the tin deposits are associated with dacites 

and rhyodacites.

In gerneral, three types of tin deposits—lode, pegmatite, and placers—are mined commercially for tin.

Because of cassiterite's weight, chemical inertness, and tendency to occur disseminated widely 

in granitic rocks, placer deposits of great size have 

formed. Subsequent leaching and weathering tend 

to remove the sulfide minerals from these placer 

deposits leaving a residue of cassiterite and other 

chemically inert minerals such as monazite, columbite, tantalite, ilmenite, and in a few places small 

amounts of gold. Hence, cassiterite ores derived 

from placer deposits are easily concentrated and 

yield other valuable minerals. However, concentrates rich in sulfides, as in Bolivia, require further 

treatment in hydrometallurgical or other plants.

Proved tin reserves of about 40,000 tonnes in the 

United States are the equivalent of only 60 percent 

of U.S. annual consumption of the metal. New resources of some magnitude were discovered recently 

by drilling near the Lost River area, Alaska. However, in these deposits production of tin will depend
SUPPLY B27

upon a commercially viable byproduct such as fluorite, tungsten, or beryllium. Continuing work in the 

Seward Peninsula, Alaska, has led to discovery of 

nearly 60,000 tonnes of lode tin. However, the total 

identified reserves and resources of the United 

States are less than 3 year's supply at the 1973 level 

of annual consumption.

Most of the world's reserves of tin are in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia. Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Nigeria, Zaire, the U.S.S.R., and the People's 

Republic of China also have significant reserves of 

the metal. Of great interest is recent exploration 

activity in Brazil, Australia, and Cornwall, England, 

with significant production from those countries 

possible in the near future.

Although large resources of tin are available in 

Bolivia and Brazil, most resources are in Southeast 

Asia and Australia, and possibly the People's Republic of China and the U.S.S.R. Large resources 

are likely to be developed in Burma.

The U.S. annual production of tin has been estimated at less than 100 tonnes and is principally the 

byproduct of molybdenum mining and processing in 

Colorado and the coproduct of placer gold operations 

in Alaska. The United States is therefore almost 

totally dependent on imports from Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and other countries. Secondary recovery accounts for a significant portion of U.S. 

supply. The United States consumed about 67,000 

tonnes of tin in 1973, of which more than 51,000 

tonnes were imports. The remainder was provided 

by secondary recovery and by sales of surplus inventories of tin from the national stockpile.

Incomplete data reported by industry indicate 

that about 1,500 tonnes of tin will be required by 

the energy sector 1975-90, or about 100 tonnes of 

tin annually. However, Rose (1975) suggested that 

80,000 tonnes of tin will be required to develop 1 

million MWe capacity in nuclear fusion reactors. 

This amount is greater than the total 1973 U.S. annual consumption of tin.

North America generally lacks tin deposits; however, recent geological investigations in Alaska indicate a new belt of previously unmapped granitic 

rocks which has potential for tin. Recent discoveries 

of numerous occurrences of tin in central Idaho suggest that potential tin resources may have been overlooked and that this area should be the subject of 

intense geological investigations. The presence of 

tin sulfide minerals in several old lead-silver mines 

in Idaho suggests a similarity to the Bolivian tinsilver deposits; early mining efforts might have overlooked this potential. Tin occurrences associated

with acidic volcanic rocks in the Southwestern 

United States, which resemble tin occurrences in 

similar rocks in Mexico and elsewhere in the world, 

warrant geological investigations.

TITANIUM

Titanium is a lightweight metal that has high 

strength and resistance to corrosion. Although discovered in 1790, it was not produced commercially 

until the 1950's. The two most abundant titanium 

minerals are ilmenite (FeTiO3 ) and rutile (TiO2 ). 

Rutile is the major ore of titanium metal because 

extraction of titanium from rutile costs less and 

produces less waste than extraction from ilmenite. 

Ilmenite is primarily a source of titanium oxide.

About 85 percent of all titanium metal is used in 

the structural components of aircraft and space vehicles, where a high strength-to-weight ratio is desired. Most titanium oxide is used as a pigment 

because of its whiteness, high refractive index, and 

inertness. The major projected use of titanium metal 

reported by the energy industries 1975-90 is as a 

heat exchanger. (The amount of paint, which contains much titanium oxide, needed by the energy 

industries was not included in this study.).

Rutile is a widespread accessory mineral in metamorphic and igneous rocks. Because of its high 

specific gravity, rutile is concentrated with other 

heavy minerals such as magnetite and zircon in 

placers. Ilmenite is found in commercial quantities 

almost entirely in anorthositic or gabbroic rocks, 

generally associated with magnetite, hematite, or 

rutile, and in placers. Ilmenite is also found in carbonatites and metamorphic rocks.

About 585,000 tonnes of titanium, of which 27,000 

tonnes was metal, was used for all purposes in the 

United States in 1973. Imports, mostly from Australia, amounted to 95 percent of the U.S. supply of 

rutile, the major ore of titanium. Taking into consideration the imports of titanium metal from Japan 

and the U.S.S.R., the United States was directly or 

indirectly almost 100-percent dependent on imports 

for titanium metal.

The domestic reserves of rutile are only about 

450,000 tonnes. The identified domestic resources are 

also small, about 3 million tonnes, mostly in ancient 

beach deposits scattered along the southeast coast. 

The Trail Ridge deposits in Florida and Georgia 

have been the major sources for domestic production. Some rutile has been produced from bedrock 

deposits in Virginia.

The domestic reserves of ilmenite are about 91 

million tonnes. The identified domestic resources are
B28 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

also large, about 508 million tonnes. The major lodedeposits are titaniferous magnetite bodies in the 

Sanford Lake District, N.Y., from which more than 

10 million tonnes of ilmenite have been recovered 

since the early 1960's. Ilmenite is also recovered 

from sands in Florida, Georgia, and New Jersey. 

Substantial resources of ilmenite are in Arkansas, 

California, North Carolina, Virginia, and Wyoming. 

A deposit recently discovered in Colorado (Wall St. 

Journal, 1976) may contain about 27 million tonnes 

of titanium. Smaller deposits are found in other 

States.

World reserves of rutile are about 8 million tonnes, and identified world resources (including a 

closely related mineral, anatase) are about 38 million tonnes. The largest deposits are in Brazil, Australia, the United States, Mexico, and Sierra Leone. 

The world reserves of ilmenite are about 410 million 

tonnes and world resources about 3.3 billion tonnes. 

Major deposits are found in Australia, Brazil, Canada (Quebec), Mexico, Norway, and many other 

countries.

Some 7,000 tonnes or 98 percent of all the titanium 

projected to be used by the energy industries is in 

geothermal powerplants. This amount averages 470 

tonnes per year 1975-90, less than 0.5 percent of the 

1973 U.S. consumption.

Though the demand for titanium for energy-related uses is small, any demand is severe because 

the titanium industry relies almost entirely on imports. The basic problem is technological. Titanium 

metal can be produced from ilmenite, the reserves of 

which are large, but at higher cost in both terms of 

dollars and damage to the environment. For the 

long run, then, chemical and metallurgical research 

on the recovery of titanium from ilmenite offers 

the most promise for decreased dependence on imports. An appraisal of the resource potential of 

titanium in ultramafic rocks, such as the Duluth 

gabbro, is also recommended. For the short run, 

while the titanium industry depends on rutile imports, geologic exploration for new deposits of rutile 

is urgently needed. Aeroradioactivity coverage of 

much of the outer Atlantic Coastal Plain would aid 

in the search for placer deposits.

TUNGSTEN

Tungsten, a hard and heavy metal, has unique 

physical and mechanical properties. It is best known 

as a base metal for tungsten-carbide tool bits and 

as an alloying ingredient in steel. The uniqueness of 

tungsten is based on two physical characteristics— 

it has a very high density, exceeded only by noble

metals, and it has exceptionally strong cohesion between its atoms. It imparts to its alloys and compounds extreme hardness, high tensile strength, 

adequate conductivity, high wear-resistance, and the 

ability to retain hardness and strength at elevated 

temperatures.

Principal uses of tungsten are in carbides, highspeed tools, filaments for electric lamps, high-temperature alloys, space crafts, and powder metallurgy. In 

the energy field, tungsten is used in equipment for 

oil and gas exploration and development, uranium 

mining and processing, coal-transportation systems, 

and fossil-fuel powerplants. Tungsten is frequently 

the selected metal for structural parts requiring 

good radiation-shielding properties.

Molybdenum can replace tungsten in some uses; 

so can tantalum, but at higher costs, Titanium, 

tantalum, and zirconium carbides can be substituted 

for tungsten carbides, although the unique properties of tungsten in carbides restrict such substitution.

Of the dozen or more minerals that are known to 

contain tungsten, only those of the wolframite group 

(ferberite, wolframite, and huebnerite) and scheelite are of economic importance. Tungsten is found 

in a wide variety of occurrences, but almost all the 

world resources are associated with areas of granitic 

intrusive rocks or their related porphyries. The 

principal types of tungsten deposits are vein, contact metamorphic (tactite), replacement, stockwork, and placer. Some hot springs associated with 

deep-seated magmatic activity discharge appreciable 

tungsten, and in a few instances this tungsten has 

been deposited in sufficient concentrations that it has 

been economically exploited. At least in one instance, 

at Searles Lake, Calif., hot springs have supplied 

tungsten, boron, and other materials to the lake 

waters, which have been further concentrated by 

evaporation into brines that are a potential tungsten 

resource.

Worldwide, vein deposits have been the most productive and probably contain the largest world resources, but in the United States contact metamorphic deposits account for nearly 75 percent of total 

domestic production. The economic recovery of 

tungsten in many deposits is materially assisted by 

the value of associated metals, including molybdenum, tin, copper, silver, and gold.

The United States has reserves of about 118,000 

tonnes of tungsten and total identified resources of 

300,000 tonnes. Except for the tungsten deposits 

near Henderson, N.C., all known tungsten deposits 

in the United States are located in the Western
SUPPLY B29

States. Tungsten is produced from several localities 

in Arizona, Colorado, Montana, Utah, and Nevada, 

but the two largest deposits, near Bishop, Calif., and 

near Leadville, Colo., account for 75 percent of domestic production. A significant amount of tungsten 

is produced at Climax, Colo., as a coproduct or byproduct of molybdenum mining and processing operations.

The most important tungsten region of the world 

outside of the United States is in the People's Republic of China, which produced nearly 20 percent of 

the 1973 world output. Other major tungsten regions are the U.S.S.R., the Republic of Korea, North 

Korea, Thailand, Burma, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, 

and Australia.

In 1973 the United States produced about 3,400 

tonnes of tungsten and consumed nearly 7,000 tonnes. About 5,000 tonnes were imported and nearly 

680 tonnes were released as surplus inventory from 

the national stockpile. Some of this material was 

added to industry stocks; the net imports supplied 

nearly 70 percent of the total U.S. demand.

The total cumulative domestic demand for tungsten 1975-90 has been estimated at nearly 215,000 

tonnes, exceeding the total reserves of the United 

States. The total demand by the energy industries 

1975-90 is estimated at about 40,100 tonnes or an 

average annual requirement of nearly 2,700 tonnes 

of tungsten. This demand by the energy sector is 

about 78 percent of the 1973 U.S. annual production, 

and thus will pose supply and other economic strains.

Tungsten will continue to be an important commodity for which only limited substitution can be 

projected, and thus exploitation of lower grade deposits and discovery of new resources are essential. 

The brines of Searles Lake, in addition to known 

deposits at Mineral Ridge, Idaho; Redlick, Nev., 

Wah Wah district, Utah; Canyon Creek, Mont.; and 

other scattered areas in Colorado and Arizona, are 

potential sources of tungsten. Of great interest is 

recent exploration of two new large tungsten deposits in Nevada that may improve the U.S. resource position. On the basis of available geological 

information and the distribution of known tungsten deposits in the United States, the most promising, regions for the discovery of new tungsten districts or extension of known districts are in the 

Basin and Range provinces of Nevada and adjoining 

States and in central Idaho and Montana.

VANADIUM

Vanadium is a metal used mainly to toughen, 

strengthen, and control grain size in ferrous and

nonferrous alloys. Its major use is in specialty steels, 

including high-strength, low-alloy steel for such 

products as bridges, high-pressure pipe, and storage 

tanks. Large percentages of the total consumption 

go into full-alloy, carbon, and tool steels. Its major 

identified uses by the energy industries are in oil 

and gas pipelines and fossil-fueled powerplants.

A few metals can substitute for vanadium in various degrees in various alloys. Among them, niobium can substitute to a large degree and molybdenum and tungsten to a lesser degree. Nickel-bearing steels can substitute for chromium-vanadium 

steels. Except for molybdenum, these substitutes are 

in short domestic supply.

In the United States vanadium is presently recovered mainly from altered sedimentary and igneous rocks along the boundary of an alkalic intrusive 

in Arkansas and as a coproduct from western 

uranium ores and phosphate rock. Like uranium, 

vanadium is most soluble in its most highly oxidized 

state and therefore is transported by water until it 

is precipitated in a reducing environment; thus it 

tends to be concentrated in such deposits as phosphorites and oil shales. In igneous rocks, its highest 

concentrations are generally in mafic rocks. It is 

also concentrated in natural asphalts and in wastes 

recovered from refining or burning of some crude 

oil.

U.S. reserves of vanadium are estimated at about 

100,000 tonnes and world reserves at about 10 million tonnes, but U.S. and world resources are large. 

Most of the vanadium that can be recovered economically in the near future is in deposits of magnetite; in fact, the major world reserves are in the 

titaniferous magnetites of the Republic of South 

Africa. Potential vanadiferous magnetite deposits 

have been identified in Alaska, Wyoming, and New 

York. Magnetite deposits in Canada and many other 

countries also show promise. Vast quantities of 

vanadium are disseminated in black shales and phosphorites, although the vanadium cannot be extracted 

economically in the foreseeable future, except as a 

byproduct.

About 7,750 tonnes of vanadium were used by all 

U.S. industry in 1973, of which 43 percent was from 

net imports and shipments from government and 

industry stockpiles. Most of the imports were from 

the Republic of South Africa and Chile. The estimated demand for 3,810 tonnes of vanadium by the 

energy industries 1975-90 averages about 250 tonnes per year or 3 percent of the 1973 U.S. consumption and 6 percent of the 1973 domestic production.
B30 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

Thus, in terms of future energy production alone, 

the amount of vanadium needed is small. In terms 

of all U.S. needs, however, the supply picture is not 

favorable. Consumption has outpaced production so 

that within the past decade the United States has 

changed from a net exporter to a net importer of 

vanadium. In fact, imports or shipments from stocks 

supply almost half of the U.S. demand. Moreover, 

present production is largely as a coproduct from 

uranium-bearing sandstones, and the reserves of 

vanadium in this type of deposit are small. Other 

production, as that from western phosphorites, flue 

dust, and some iron slags, is as a byproduct—thus 

dependent on demand for the major product.

Because of the rapid increase in use of vanadium 

that has led the United States into dependency on 

imports, the vanadiferous magnetites in the United 

States should be identified, mapped, and sampled in 

considerable detail so that in an emergency the 

United States could greatly increase domestic production.

ZINC

Zinc is chemically active and alloys readily with 

other metals. It is used principally in metallic form 

in castings and rolled zinc, as a major alloying ingredient in brass, as a protective coating for iron 

and steel, and in chemical compounds in paints and 

rubber. In the energy field, zinc has been reported to 

be needed in uranium mining and processing, in nuclear-fission powerplants, and in coal-transportation 

systems.

No substitute for zinc in large anti-corrosion 

claddings has been developed. However, in some applications, the following can substitute for zinc: 

aluminum, plastics, and high-strength alloy steel in 

electrical goods, transportation, and construction; 

zinc-coated, galvanized iron and steel in corrosionresistance applications; aluminum and plastics in 

castings and moldings; and aluminum and magnesium in die castings.

Sphalerite, the zinc sulfide, is the most important 

ore mineral of zinc; though some deposits are composed of zinc oxides, silicates, and carbonates. In 

most deposits zinc is intimately associated with lead. 

In the United States the ores range from the zincrich ores of the Eastern United States to the complex lead-zinc ores of the Western United States. 

Cadmium, silver, germanium, gallium, indium, and 

thallium are recovered as smelting .byproducts of 

some zinc ores and concentrates.

Zinc deposits occur most frequently in veins cutting igneous rocks or sedimentary strata or as replacements in limestone and dolomite. The resource

potential of zinc is dominated by massive sulfide 

ores in metamorphic rocks, in which zinc occurs 

chiefly with copper and lead, and by stratabound and 

stratiform deposits in carbonate rocks, in which lead 

is an essential product and cadmium is a byproduct. 

Contact-metamorphic, vein, and residual deposits 

also contribute significantly to the potential resources of zinc.

In the United States, zinc deposits are widely 

distributed. Tennessee has the largest reserves, and 

New York, New Jersey, and Virginia have significant reserves. U.S. reserves of zinc are estimated to 

be about 45 million tonnes of metal, about 20 percent of the total world reserves of about 250 million 

tonnes. U.S. resources of 120 million tonnes are 

about 10 percent of the total world resources of 

about 1,300 million tonnes. In addition to identified 

resources, vast potential resources exist in Arizona, 

Montana, Nevada, Washington, Virginia, and Illinois. 

The world zinc reserves of nearly 250 million tonnes are distributed in about 50 countries. The United 

States, Mexico, and Canada account for 40 percent 

of the total. The major known zinc deposits outside 

of North America are in Australia, People's Republic of China, Peru, Morocco, southwest Africa, 

Ireland, Poland, Yugoslavia, and the U.S.S.R.

Most U.S. production comes from States east of 

the Mississippi River. In 1973, the United States 

consumed about 1.5 million tonnes of zinc, of which 

435,000 tonnes were from domestic primary production, about 8 percent of total world output. Secondary recovery provided about 6 percent of the domestic needs and was supplemented by release from 

the national stockpile and imports from Canada, 

Mexico, Peru, Australia, and Japan.

Incomplete data indicate that at least 3,300 tonnes 

of zinc will be required by the energy sector 1975- 

90, equal to an average annual demand of about 220 

tonnes of metal. This amount is less than 1 percent 

of the total 1973 U.S. consumption.

The U.S. reserves of zinc are sufficient to meet the 

total cumulative demand of the Nation for conventional and increased energy uses during this century. However, because of inadequate production 

and processing capacity, the Nation will necessarily 

depend on imports to supply about 50 percent of its 

requirements. It is also important to note that the 

source of all cadmium—possibly an essential metal 

for solar energy utilization (but not reported by the 

industry)—is sphalerite, the chief ore mineral of 

zinc.

Although the resource potentials of zinc suggest 

several hundred million tonnes of contained zinc
SUPPLY B31

metal in known mining districts, the increasing dependence on imports makes the discovery of new 

large resources of zinc imperative. Research should 

be undertaken in a number of areas: exploration for 

deposits in platform carbonate rocks such as the 

Mississippi Valley type and in dolomitic evaporites 

and related deposits; improved technology for beneficiation of zinc-bearing pyrite.

In some coal deposits, particularly in the Illinois 

basin, zinc occurs in anomalously high amounts. The 

occurrence of zinc as sphalerite in coal in the Illinois 

basin may be characteristic of other coals in the 

midcontinent region. In one four-county area in 

Illinois, it is estimated that 10,000 tonnes of sphalerite (approximately 4,250 tonnes of zinc) are lost 

annually in coal production. Considering the total 

amount of coal being produced in the basin, a tremendous amount of zinc that could be recovered as 

a byproduct of coal is wasted. Studies should be 

made to determine how this zinc can be recovered. 

Removal of sphalerite (a sulfide) from coal will reduce the amount of sulfur emitted by coal-fired 

powerplants.

ZIRCONIUM

Zircon (ZrSi04 ), a hard, heavy mineral that resembles diamond in luster, is the source of most 

zirconium and zirconium compounds. Other important zirconium minerals are baddeleyite (Zr02 ), and 

eudialyte, a complex silicate. Zirconium minerals are 

inert and have high melting points; zirconium metal 

has a low neutron-absorption cross section.

Zirconium minerals are associated geologically 

with alkalic rocks but rarely in a concentration high 

enough for exploitation. Because they have a high 

specific gravity and are chemically resistant, however, they are concentrated in placers.

More than 80 percent of commerical zirconium is 

used directly as mineral concentrates in foundry 

sands, refractories, and ceramics. Zirconium and 

zirconium compounds have many other industrial 

uses. A major use of zirconium metal is as a structural material in nuclear reactors, the only use reported by the energy industries.

Zircon and zirconium compounds have many substitutes: chromite and other materials in molds; 

titanium in ceramic glazes; titanium, tantalum, 

stainless steel, and other metal alloys for other uses. 

Where zirconium is the most desirable material, its 

availability and moderate cost do not warrant substitution.

The U.S. reserves of zirconium are estimated at 

about 5 million tonnes and the identified resources

at 6 million tonnes, mostly in placer concentrations 

along with rutile, ilmenite, magnetite, and other 

heavy minerals. About 50 percent of the identified 

resources are in Florida; most of the remainder are 

in California, New Jersey, and South Carolina. In 

1973, the United States consumed about 68,000 tonnes of zirconium and imported about 45,000 tonnes, 

almost all from Australia.

The world identified resources of zirconium are 

estimated roughly at 18 million tonnes (other estimates are as high as 21 million tonnes), mostly in 

placer deposits in the United States, Australia, the 

U.S.S.R., and India. Australia is by far the largest 

producer.

The projected demand of about 27,500 tonnes of 

zirconium 1975-90 by the nuclear-energy industry 

averages about 1,800 tonnes per year, less than 3 

percent of both the 1973 U.S. consumption and production of zirconium in all forms. (No estimate was 

made as to the quantity of zirconium that would be 

consumed in the manufacture of steel and aluminum 

used by energy industries.) In 1973, of about 55,000 

tonnes of zirconium materials produced in the 

United States, 1,900 tonnes were used in nuclear 

reactors.

A critical factor in assessing the availabilty of 

zirconium is that almost all production is a byproduct of the mining of rutile, ilmenite, and magnetite. Exploration for zirconium has not been necessary because more zirconium can be produced than 

the market demands. The continued supply of zirconium thus depends on the continued exploitation 

of heavy-mineral placer deposits, an availability that 

may be diminished by environmental restrictions.

In the next few decades, while zirconium reserves 

are adequate, favorably located sand and gravel deposits worked now only for aggregate and specialty 

sands, offshore sand deposits, and sandstones that 

might contain ancient placer deposits should be investigated for concentrations of zirconium minerals. 

The tailings of some beneficiated ores, such as Florida phosphate deposits, contain potentially economic 

concentrations of zircon and should be assessed. 

Finally, research must be undertaken to find primary 

deposits of zirconium minerals in igneous rocks.

CONCLUSIONS

With due allowances for expected discoveries and 

developments that would increase U.S. reserves and 

identified resources of the mineral commodities we 

have discussed, the question must be asked: To what 

degree will increased energy production strain mineral supply ? Only a qualitative answer can be given.
B32 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

Energy is fundamental, and energy production 

must have first call on materials. Because energy 

independence is the Nation's goal, the total demand 

for energy-related materials must be judged in terms 

of domestic supply. If the energy industries consume 

a large portion of a commodity in short supply, 

other parts of the economy may suffer. At this time, 

no one knows how the economy could adjust to shortages induced by accelerated consumption by the 

energy industries. Certainly consumption of 100 

percent of the annual production of any commodity 

by the energy industries is highly improbable. Consumption of 1 percent would seem to offer no problem in supply. Somewhere in between, however, lies 

a maximum percentage of additional demand that 

could be placed on production of any given commodity by energy-related uses without cause for 

grave concern. In figures 2-5, we endeavor to evaluate this relationship between domestic supply of 

minerals and energy demand in the light of our general knowledge of the commodities but without absolute, quantitative guidelines. Until better information is available on both demand and supply, we feel 

a qualitative interpretation most closely approximates reality.

The United States is self-sufficient in bentonite, 

copper, and molybdenum (figs. 2, 3); boron, magnesium metal, scrap mica, and silicon (table 2); and 

beryllium, hafnium, helium, lithium, and rare earths, 

for which the needs of the energy industries have 

not been determined (table 3). Reserves are also 

considered adequate to meet the national demand 

1975-90 for barite, iron ore, lead, and zinc (fig. 3).

The United States has no reserves of chromite, 

cobalt, manganese, and niobium and is totally dependent for these commodities on imports, supplemented by industry inventories and release from 

government stockpile, which in 1973 also supplied 

a significant part of the domestic supply of lead, 

sheet mica, tin, tungsten, vanadium, and zinc. Imports provide more than two-thirds of the supply 

of aluminum (bauxite), fluorite, nickel, and tungsten, for which the 1975-90 energy demand will be 

large, and of asbestos and tin, for which the demand 

will be much less critical.

Some commodities for which we are dependent on 

imports for one-third to two-thirds of our supply 

are expected to pose no supply problems as long as 

imports are secure; these include antimony, cadmium, silver, and titanium. Others—barite, zinc, 

and zirconium—are available in large quantities domestically (fig. 3); future supply problems will be 

those posed by production capacities that are inadequate to meet the national demand. The indium supply is closely related to zinc production, and expanded demand for indium by the energy industries 

may therefore put additional strain on the zinc industry. Industry expansion is likewise the only major 

problem posed by demand for cement.

Expanded energy development and production 

1975-90 will necessitate a significant increase in domestic production above that of 1973 for most materials. Averaged over 15 years, the quantities of 

some materials needed for energy will be a large percentage of 1973 production (fig. 4) : for example, 

aluminum (30 percent), barite (100 percent), bentonite (30 percent), fluorite (58 percent), shippinggrade iron ore (26 percent), and tungsten (78 percent) . Figure 5 graphs the data in terms of the percentage of U.S. reserves needed to meet the total 

energy demand, 1975-90.

A minimum of about 2.5 billion barrels of oilequivalent (1 bbl = 5.8X106 Btu's) may be required 

to produce 20 selected mineral commodities (see 

table 5) needed by the energy industries 1975-90, 

and 18.5 billion barrels of oil-equivalent to produce 

sufficient supply to meet the overall domestic demand for those minerals during the same period. 

This amount of energy, equal to more than half of 

the known U.S. recoverable petroleum reserves, is 

only a fraction of the energy required to produce 

the 90 or more mineral commodities used in the 

total economy. Thus, imports of mineral raw materials (see table 2) and semifabricated or processed 

material also constitute energy imports. Substitution of domestically produced materials for imports 

will further stress domestic energy production.

Adequacy of mineral supplies for a sustained 

economy should be a matter of deep concern, particularly in view of the large quantities of minerals 

and materials required for energy production and 

the serious consequences in the event of deficiencies. 

As was evident in the 1973 oil embargo, political and 

economic changes and mineral shortages can occur 

swiftly. Our mineral inventory developed and ready 

for immediate extraction is nil in the case of some 

commodities, and in many cases is not equivalent to 

projected requirements for a decade of U.S. consumption.

Basic geologic research—including mapping rock 

units and determining their geologic interrelationships, geochemistry, geometry, and global distribution—is essential in assessing the geologic availability of mineral resources. Such basic research, 

often overlooked as the foundation on which exploration projects are planned, must be accelerated and
SUPPLY B33

Aluminum 1

Antimony

Asbestos

Barite

Bentonite

Chromite2

Cobalt

Copper

Fluorite

Iron ore

Lead

Manganese ore2

Molybdenum

Nickel

Niobium 2

Silver

Tin 2

Titanium

Tungsten

Vanadium

Zinc

Zirconium

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

PERCENT

70 80 90 100

^Supplemented by stockpile 

1 Includes bauxite and alumina 

2 No or negligible U.S. production 

FIGURE 2.—U.S. dependency on imports in terms of percentage of total consumption in 1973.
B34 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

Aluminum ore 

(bauxite)

Antimony

Asbestos

Barite

Bentonite

Chromite

Cobalt

Copper

Fluorite

Iron ore

Lead

Manganese ore —————————— no reserves

Molybdenum

Nickel

Niobium

Silver

Tin

Titanium

Tungsten

Vanadium

Zinc

Zirconium

100

PERCENT

FIGURE 3.—Percentage of total U.S. cumulative demand for some commodities, 1975-90, that can be

met by U.S. reserves.
SUPPLY B35

no production 

negligible production

10 20 30 40 50 60 

PERCENT

70 90 100

FIGURE 4.—Average annual demand by energy industries for some commodities, 1975-90, as a percentage of U.S. production in 1973.
B36 DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF NONFUEL MATERIALS FOR U.S. ENERGY INDUSTRY, 1975-90

Aluminum ore 

(bauxite)

Antimony

Asbestos 

Barite 

Bentonite 

Chromium 

Cobalt 

Copper 

Fluorite 

Iron ore

Lead 

Manganese ore 

Molybdenum 

Nickel 

Niobium 

Silver

Tin

Titanium 

Tungsten 

Vanadium

Zinc

Zirconium 

C

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1

m

i

i

1 IV 1 C?*?^! V^"J

B

•

in

I

1

1 

II i II

•m^

) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

180

147

PERCENT

FIGURE 5.—Percentage of U.S. reserves needed to meet total energy demand for some commodities, 1975-90.
SUPPLY B37

continued into the future as long as industrial society survives. Any delay reduces the Nation's flexibility to cope with mineral-supply problems, which 

are inevitable. Because of the lead-time required, as 

much as 20 years, crash programs are no substitute. 

The United States will not become self-sufficient 

in all minerals, but for most the Nation can become 

nearly self-sufficient through development of new 

resources. For commodities for which domestic resources are not available, adequate supplies may be 

assured by developing alternate sources of imports.

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1370 p.

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1383 p.

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St. Jour., Feb. 24, p. 6.

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