National Center for Injury Prevention and Control

Division of Violence Prevention

CS221239A

The Social-Ecological Model: 

A Framework for Violence Prevention

The ultimate goal of the work of violence prevention is to stop violence before it begins. CDC uses a four-level 

social-ecological model (SEM) to better understand and prevent violence.1 Violence is complicated and results from 

a combination of multiple influences on behavior. It is about how individuals relate to those around them and to 

their broader environment. The SEM allows us to address the factors that put people at risk for or protect them from 

experiencing or perpetrating violence (risk and protective factors) and the prevention strategies that can be used at 

each level to address these factors. 

A Closer Look at Each Level of the SEM

Individual

Identifies biological and personal history factors; such as age, education, income, 

substance use, or history of abuse, that increase the likelihood of becoming a victim 

or perpetrator of violence. 

Relationship

Examines close relationships that may increase the risk of experiencing violence as 

a victim or perpetrator. A person’s closest social circle-peers, partners and family 

members-influences their behavior and contributes to their range of experience. 

Community

Explores the settings, such as schools, workplaces, and neighborhoods, in which 

social relationships occur and seeks to identify the characteristics of these settings 

that are associated with becoming victims or perpetrators of violence. 

Societal

Looks at the broad societal factors, such as health, economic, educational and social 

policies, that help create a climate in which violence is encouraged or inhibited and 

help to maintain economic or social inequalities between groups in society. 

How does the SEM inform prevention practice?

Each level in the social ecological model can be thought of as a level of influence and also as a key point for 

prevention. It offers a framework for program planners to determine how to focus prevention activities. In order 

to prevent violence, it is important to implement programs and policies that can reduce risk factors and increase 

protective factors at each of the different levels in the model.

Are your prevention activities addressing multiple levels of the SEM?

Using the matrix on the back as a guide, map your prevention program activities onto the SEM. Use this framework to 

answer the following questions: Where do you want to make the most impact? Where are the gaps? What activities 

can fill those gaps?

SEM Map of Program Activities

What is the issue you are working to prevent?

Level of SEM Activity or strategy 

currently being 

implemented?

What risk factors does 

this strategy reduce? 

What protective factors does this 

strategy increase?

Example Issue: Youth 

Violence

Example SEM Level: 

Community

A series of after-school youth 

programs are established in 

local middle schools through 

collaborations with local youth 

serving organizations.

Limited or no monitoring and 

supervision, as well as a lack of 

social connectedness are risk 

factors for youth violence.

The availability of after school programs in 

the community offer a layer of supervision 

and monitoring, increase recreational 

opportunities for youth and increase their 

level of social connectedness.

Individual

Relationship

Community

Societal

Societal Community Relationship Individual
Level of SEM

Examples of Factors that 

Potentially Increase Risk 

(Risk Factors)

Examples of Strategies By Level of Influence2

Individual

• Personal characteristics

• Biological factors

• Behavior

• Personal experience

• Age / gender

• Lower levels of education

Belief supporting use of violence

• Anger or hostility toward others

• Having few friends or being 

isolated from others

• Being unemployed

• Substance use

• History of engaging in violence

• School-based programs that help students develop social, 

emotional and behavioral skills to build positive relationships

• In-home programs that teach parents skills for age-appropriate 

infant and toddler care

• An after-school program that provides tutoring to increase 

academic performance

• Group sessions that increase knowledge and understanding of 

healthy dating relationships

• Classroom based health curriculums that teach ways to cope with 

loss and disappointment, and learn warning signs for depression

Relationship

• Interaction between 

two or more people

• Fights, tension, or struggles 

among family members

• Marital instability, divorces or 

separations

• Poor communication between 

parents

• Poor supervision or monitoring of 

children

• Association with aggressive or 

delinquent peers

• Emotionally unsupportive family 

• Education and family support to promote positive child 

development offered within child-parent centers

• A mentoring program that pairs youth with caring adults

• A peer program that teaches youth how they can promote 

positive norms for dating in their circle of friends

• Relationship workshops where couples work with other couples 

on respectful communication strategies

• An art program that increases emotional support to children by 

pairing elders from a senior center with children from a preschool 

program

Community

• Settings or institutions 

in which social 

relationships take 

place

• Level of residents’ social 

connectedness

• Income level of neighborhood

• Rate of residents moving in and 

out of a neighborhood

• Lack of neighborhood 

organization

• Limited economic opportunities

• Lack of recreational opportunities

• Poor physical layout of a 

neighborhood

• Residents organize and make physical improvements to their 

neighborhoods

• A city develops safe recreational areas for residents

• Community associations work with the mayor’s office to develop 

a series of after-school programs for youth

• A school district creates, implements, monitors, and evaluates a 

policy to prevent bullying behavior

• A city establishes a business improvement district to increase 

community employment opportunities and make other 

improvements in the community

• A citywide policy that changes the planning procedures for the 

layout of new communities 

Societal

• Societal factors 

that either create a 

level of acceptance 

or intolerance for 

violence. Also 

included are factors 

that can create and 

sustain gaps between 

different segments 

of society.

• Social norm that it is acceptable 

to use violence to resolve conflict 

and that consequences are 

minimal

• Cultural norms

• Health policies

• Economic policies

• Educational policies

• Legislation to encourage employers to offer family-leave options 

and flexible schedules to both men and women

• A national media campaign including TV, radio, newspaper, and 

Internet methods of communication to create awareness and 

change the way people think about violence

• A state sponsors a media campaign designed to reduce the 

stigma associated with self-directed violence being considered 

only a mental health problem

• Statewide legislation that provides tax incentives to businesses 

that partner with school districts to provide learning-based 

technology and other academic resources in disadvantaged 

communities 

1. Dahlberg LL, Krug EG. Violence-a global public health problem. In: Krug E, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, Zwi AB, Lozano R, eds. World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, Switzerland: World 

Health Organization; 2002:1-56.

2. The examples given for each level of the social-ecological model are meant to illustrate the concept of an individual-level strategy, relationship-level strategy, etc. and are not necessarily 

evidence-based. Information about evidence-based strategies at each level can be found at registries for evidence-based practice such as The Community Guide to Prevention Services - 

http://www.thecommunityguide.org/about/methods.html or Blueprints for Violence Prevention - http://www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/.