COVER PHOTOGRAPHS 

1 2 3 4 

5 6 

7 8 

9 10 

11 12 13 14 

1. A sbestos ore 

2. Lead ore, Balmat mine, N . Y. 

3. Chromite-chromium ore, Washington 

4. Zinc ore, Friedensville, Pa. 

5. Banded iron-formation, Palmer, 

M ich . 

6. Ribbon asbestos ore, Quebec, Canada 

7. Manganese ore, banded 

rhodochrosite 

8. Aluminum ore, baux ite, Georgia 

9. Native copper ore, Keweenaw an 

Peninsula, Mich. 

10. Porphyry molybdenum ore, Colorado 

11 . Zinc ore, Edwards, N . Y. 

12. Manganese nodules, ocean floor 

13. Botryoidal fluorite ore, 

Poncha Springs, Colo. 

14. Tungsten ore, North Carolina 
Geology and Resources 

of Base-Metal 

Vanadate Deposits 

By R. P. FISCHER 

GEOLOGY AND 1~ESOURCES OF VANADIUM DEPOSITS 

GEOLOGICAL SlJRVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 926-A 

The general habits of base-metal vanadate deposits 

are described, the world distribution of these 

deposits is shown, and literature 

references are given 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON 1975 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

V. E. McKelvey, Director 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

Fischer, Richard Philip, 1 91 0-

Geology and resources of base-metal vanadate deposits. 

(Geology and resources of vanadium deposits) 

(Geological Survey Professional Paper 926-A) 

Bibliography: p. 

Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.16:926-A 

1. Vanadium ores. 2. Vanadates. 

I. Title. II. Series. III. Series: United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 926-A. 

TN490.V2F48 553'.462 75-619125 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 

Stock Number 024-001-02722-4 
APPRAISAL OF MINERAL RESOURCES 

Continuing appraisal of the mineral resources of the United States is conducted 

by the U.S. Geological Survey in accordance with the provisions of the Mining and 

Minerals Policy Act of 1970 (Public Law 91-631, Dec. 31, 1970). Total resources for 

purposes of these appraisal estimates includes currently minable resources 

(reserves) as well as those resources not yet discovered or not presently profitable to 

mine. 

The mining of mineral deposits, once discovered, depends on geologic, 

economic, and technologic factors; however, identification of many deposits yet to 

be discovered, owing to incomplete knowledge of their distribution in the earth's 

crust, depends greatly on geologic availability and man's ingenuity. Consequently, 

appraisal of mineral resources results in approximations, subject to constant 

change as known deposits are depleted, new deposits are found, new extractive 

technology and uses are developed, and new geologic knowledge and theories 

indicate new areas favorable for exploration. 

This Professional Paper discusses aspects of the geology of vanadium as a framework for appraising resources of this commodity in the light of today's technology, 

economics, and geologic knowledge. 

Other Geological Survey publications relating to the appraisal of resources of 

specific mineral commodities include the following: 

Professional Paper 820-"United States Mineral Resources" 

Professional Paper 907-"Geology and Resources of Copper" 

Professional Paper 933-"Geology and Resources of Fluorine in the United States" 

CONTENTS 

Page 

Abstract .............................................................................................................................................. AI 

Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 1 

Geologic habits ...................................................... ,........................................................................... 1 

Genesis and genetic problems . . . . . ... ........ .. .. . . . . .. ...... .. . ........ .. . . . ... . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .......... ......... ........ .. . . .. .. . . . . . 2 

Economic significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 

Identification of vanadate deposits and occurrences......................................................................... 8 

References cited .................................................................................................................................. 11 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

FIGURE 1. Map of the world showing distribution of vanadate deposits and regions of arid and semiarid climates ......................................... A3 

2. Map of the United States showing distribution of vanadate deposits and occurrences....................................................................... 6 

3. Map of North and South America showing distribution of vanadate deposits and occurrences, exclusive of the United States...... 8 

4. Map of Eurasia, Africa, and Australia showing distribution of vanadate deposits and occurrences.................................................. 9 

TABLES 

Page 

TABLE 1. World sources of vanadium from vanadate ores .................................................................................................................................... AS 

2. Vanadate deposits and occurrences in the United States....................................................................................................................... 8 

3. Vanadate deposits and occurrences in North and South America, exclusive of the United States ...................................................... 10 

4. Vanadate deposits and occurrences in Eurasia, Africa, and Australia ................................................................................................... 10 

v 
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GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF VANADIUM DEPOSITS 

GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF BASE-METAL VANADATE DEPOSITS 

By R. P. FISCHER 

ABSTRACT 

Almost all base-metal vanadate deposits occur in the oxidized zones of 

base-metal vein and replacement deposits. They consist of base-metal 

vanadate minerals and wulfenite, the molybdate of lead. These minerals 

replace the supergene base-metal minerals, form crusts on faces of open 

cavities, or are intergrown with residual clays in pockets. Vanadate 

deposits are largely restricted to tropical and temperate zones and regions 

of dry climate. 

Three modes of origin for the vanadate deposits have been suggested: 

(1) supergene accumulation of vanadium and molybdenum from the 

sulfide minerals of the primary base-metal deposits; (2) ground-water 

leaching of vanadium and molybdenum from the country rock, 

especially shales, and precipitation of the oxidized base-metal minerals 

in the zone of oxidation; and (3) introduction of vanadium and 

molybdenum by hypogene solutions during and after oxidation of the 

primary sulfide deposits. Most students believe that the detected amounts 

of vanadium and molybdenum in the primary sulfides are inadequate to 

be the source of these metals in the vanadate deposits. And it seems 

unlikely that the phenomenon of late hypogene mineralization would 

occur widely enough to form all of the known vanadate deposits. Therefore, an origin by ground-water leaching of country rocks seems most 

likely. 

The vanadate deposits have yielded about 35,000 short tons of 

vanadium, representing about 13 percent of the world's recorded 

production of vanadium. Future yields from these deposits probably will 

amount to only a small part of the world's vanadium supply. 

INTRODUCTION 

Base-metal vanadate deposits is a term commonly 

applied to occurrences of lead-, zinc-, and copper-vanadate 

minerals in the oxidized parts of base-metal deposits. 

These vanadate deposits have yielded a moderate amount 

of vanadium, they have attracted considerable mineralogic 

attention, and they present some interesting and puzzling 

genetic problems. This paper summarizes their geologic 

habits and distritiution, discusses their genetic problems, 

and reviews their economic significance. 

GEOLOGIC HABITS 

The base-metal vanadate minerals are listed below; 

those that are generally not accepted because they are 

incompletely described or are regarded as unneeded 

synonyms are shown in italic. 

Brackebuschite, Pb 2(Mn,Fe) (V04h •H20. 

Calciovolborthite, CaCuV04(0H) ............... Same as tangeite. 

Chervetite, Pb2V20 7• 

Chileite, PbCu(V,As)04(0H) ....................... Impure mouramite. 

Collieite, (Pb,Ca)5[(P,V)04hCl .................... Variety of pyromorphite. 

Cuprodescloizite, Pb(Cu,Zn)V04(0H) ........ Synonym of mottramite. 

Cuprovanadinite, (Pb,Cu)s(V0.)3Cl.. .......... Variety of vanadinite. 

Curienite, Pb(U02)2(V04)2 •SH20. 

Dechenite, PbZn(V,As)04(0H) .................... Variety of descloizite. 

Descloizite, Pb(Zn,Cu)V04(0H). 

Endlichite, Pbs[(V,As)04hCl ....................... Variety of vanadinite. 

Eosite, vanadate and molybdate of Pb. 

Eusynchite .................................................... Synonym of descloizite. 

Francevillite, (Ba,Pb) (U02)2(V04)2•5H20. 

Heyite, Pb5Fe2(V04)20 •. 

Mottramite, Pb(Cu,Zn)VO.(OH). 

Mounanaite, PbFe2(V04h(OH)2. 

Psittacinite ................................................... Synonym of mottramite. 

Pyrobelonite, PbMn V04(0H). 

Ramirite ....................................................... Synonym of cuprodescloizite. 

Sengierite, Cu(U02h(V04h •8 or 10 H20. 

Tangeite, CaCuVO.(OH) ............................ Same as calciovolborthite. 

Turanite, Cu5(V04)2(0Hk 

Uzbekite ........................................................ Probably identical with 

volborthite. 

Vanadinite, Pbs(V04)sCI. 

Vanadite ....................................................... Synonym of descloizite. 

Vesbine ......................................................... Probably identical with 

Vesignieite, Cu3Ba(V04h(OHh. 

Volborthite, Cu3(V04h•3H20. 

Wicklowite, vanadate of Pb. 

mottramite. 

Descloizite, mottramite, and vanadinite are the most 

common vanadium minerals in the vanadate deposits. 

Wulfenite, a molybdate of lead (PbMo04), is also common 

in vanadate deposits, and it has the same general habits as 

the vanadium minerals. Wulfenite may be even more 

commonly reported in oxidized base-metal deposits than 

are vanadate minenils, although wulfenite is not reported 

in the two most productive groups of vanadate deposits, 

those in the Otavi district, Namibia (formerly South-West 

Africa), and those at Broken Hill, Zambia (formerly 

Northern Rhodesia). Wulfenite was an ore mineral at the 

St. Anthony mine, Arizona (Creasey, 1950), and in some 

deposits in Mexico, Spain, Germany, Austria, and 

Yugoslavia (Newhouse, 1934, p. 216). 

Where paragenetic relations have been reported, the 

vanadates and wulfenite are virtually the latest ore 

Al 
A2 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF VANADIUM DEPOSITS 

minerals. They commonly coat and partly replace the 

supergene base-metal minerals; in part they may also 

overlap or precede the last stage of supergene mineral 

formation (Creasey, 1950, p. 80; Taylor, 1954, p. 360). The 

vanadate minerals are later than wulfenite in the St. 

Anthony deposit, Arizona (Creasey, 1950, p. 80), and in the 

Los Lamentos deposit, Mexico (Foshag, 1934 p. 342). Once 

formed, the vanadates seem to be quite stable in the 

environment of the oxidized zone; these minerals persist 

from the surface to the bottom of the oxidized zone, and 

leaching and corrosion of them are rarely reported. In the 

Broken Hill district, Zambia, Taylor (1954) reported that 

the vanadate minerals extended to the depth of oxidation, 

as much as 1,150 feet (350m), even though the water table 

was only 20 feet (6 m) below the surface when mining 

started in the district; and in the Otavi district, Namibia, 

Schwellnus (1946, p. 72) reported the occurrence of oregrade accumulations of slightly abraded vanadate 

minerals in eluvium. 

Vanadate deposits are restricted almost entirely to the 

oxidized parts of vein and replacement deposits that 

contain base-metal minerals; a few occurrences of 

vanadate minerals have been reported in rocks that 

contain sparse and disseminated base metals (Heyl and 

Bozion, 1962). The vanadate minerals mainly coat the 

surfaces of cavities and breccia fragments, partly filling the 

open spaces; they also may be mixed or intergrown with 

clay and other residual or supergene materials in leached 

cavities. They concentrate most abundantly along the 

edges of the oxidized base-metal bodies, and occasionally 

they accumulate in open ground nearby, but presumably 

only where supergene base-metal minerals have migrated. 

Characteristically, the vanadate minerals are irregularly 

distributed in any given deposit; they are richly concentrated in places and sparse to absent in other parts of 

the oxidized zone. Ore bodies, commonly with a high lead 

content, range in grade from about 1 percent V20 5 to as 

much as 10 percent; they vary greatly in size and shape. 

Only a few deposits have yielded enough vanadium-rich 

ore to justify special milling practices to mak~ a vanadium 

concentrate, but a moderate number of deposits have 

yielded small tonnages of selectively,mined or~, which has 

commonly been handpicked. 

In the Otavi district, the copper-rich vanadate minerals, 

mottramite · and cuprodescloizite, are reported 

(Schwellnus, 1946, p. 70) to be more abundant where the 

lead-zinc deposits are rich in copper than in the copperlean lead-zinc deposits (where descloizite and vanadinite 

predominate). Schwdlnusalsonotedarelatedobservation 

of possible genetic significance, namely that vanadate 

minerals are not present in the Otavi district in oxidized 

copper deposits that are practically devoid of lead and zinc 

minerals. His suggestion that lead is essential for the 

formation of vanadate minerals may explain the absence 

or sparsity of vanadate minerals in oxidized copper 

deposits, such as those of the porphyry type. 

Country rocks for vanadate deposits and occurrences are 

varied in composition and origin; they include intrusive 

and extrusive igneous rocks, metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks, and sedimentary rocks. The nature of 

the host rocks does not seem to be significant in the 

.. formation of vanadate deposits,. although the more 

productive deposits are almost all in carbonate rocks. 

Figure 1 shows the world distribution of vanadate 

deposits, including those reported as mere mineralogic 

occurrences, such as at Breckenridge, Colo. (Lovering, 

1934), and in the Franklin area, New Jersey (Palache, 

1935 ). It also shows the general regions of arid and 

semiarid climates. The deposits and occurrences shown 

represent all locatable ones found in a modest literature 

search, except in the southern parts of New Mexico, 

Arizona, Nevada, and California, where many more spots 

could have been added if the map scale had permitted. 

Undoubtedly other deposits and occurrences are reported 

in literature that was not studied, but those shown are 

thought to be representative of their total distribution for 

the following reasons: ( 1) the vanadate minerals are 

commonly on the walls of open spaces, (2) they are 

generally intensely colored and well crystallized, and (3) 

they are easily identifiable; thus they are conspicuous and 

sought for mineral collections. Although minor 

occurrences are reported far more abundantly in countries 

where mineral collecting is commonly practiced-United 

States and European countries-the frequency of minor 

occurrences in areas of a few major occurrences is probably 

as common in other parts of the world as in the southwestern United States. And the absence of reported 

occurrences probably means a true absence or sparsity of 

occurrences and deposits. 

The high incidence of deposits and occurrences in 

tropical and temperate zones and in regions of arid and 

semiarid climates is clearly shown in figure 1. However, 

some deposits and occ;;urrences, mostly minor, plot in areas 

where the present annual precipitation is moderate. 

Whether these occurrences originated under conditions of 

moderate precipitation or under earlier more arid climates 

is not evident from most published descriptions. At 

Broken Hill, Zambia, however, as noted earlier in this 

report, oxidation is deep but the present water table is 

shallow; the climate in . the past was probably more arid 

than at present. 

GENESIS AND GENETIC PROBLEMS 

Vanadate deposits and occurrences are associated with 

the oxidized parts of base-metal deposits. The vanadate 

minerals, and wulfenite, where it accompanies the 

vanadates, are mainly later than th~ supergene base-metal 

minerals. These relations limit the possible mqdes of 
120° 

ARC11C OCEAN 

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o Nonproductive vanadate deposit or occurrence 

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120° 

ARC71C OCEAN 

INDIAN 

OCEAN 

EXPLANATION 

Less than 300 mm (ll.8 in.) mean annual precipitation 

300-500 mm (11.8-19.6 in.) mean annual precipitation 

FIGURE I.-Distribution of vanadate deposits and regions of arid and semiarid climates. 

1aoo. 

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A4 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF VANADIUM DEPOSITS 

origin to some extent, but within these restraints ideas 

differ as to the source of vanadium and its modes of 

transport and localization. 

Stahl (1926) detected small amounts of vanadium in 

some samples of sulfides from the Otavi district, Namibia, 

and suggested that the vanadate ores formed by downward 

leaching of vanadium from sulfide bodies eroded from 

above the present surface. Moritz (1933) detected 0.001 to 

0.01 percent vanadium in sulfide samples he collected 

from the same district and also concluded that the 

vanadium in the vanadate ores was leached from overlying parts of the sulfide deposits. Newhouse ( 1934) found 

O.OX to O.OOX percent vanadium and traces of 

molybdenum in some samples of pyrite, galena, and 

sphalerite, some from localities not known to have 

vanadate deposits, and he concluded that much of the 

vanadium and molybdenum in the vanadate deposits 

probably was derived from the primary sulfide minerals. 

Other students of the vanadate ores in the Otavi district 

(Clark, 1931; Schwellnus, 1946) and at Broken Hill, 

Zambia (Skerl, 1934; Taylor, 1954; Reeve, 1963), have concluded that the vanadium content of the primary sulfides 

is a quantitatively inadequate source of the vanadium in 

the vanadate deposits, and they have suggested that the 

vanadium in these deposits was derived from ground 

waters that leached it from the surrounding country 

rocks, especially from the argillaceous rocks. The 

vanadium was precipitated as base-metal vanadate 

minerals in the environment of the oxidized base-metal 

minerals. Schroll ( 1949) suggested the same origin for the 

vanadate and wulfenite occurrences in Austria. 

The St. Anthony deposit, Arizona, has yielded 2,540,842 

pounds (1,152,526 kg) V20s and 6,314,822 pounds 

(2,864,403 kg) of Mo03 (Creasey, 1950, p. 67). Peterson 

( 1938, p. 50) found no vanadium or molybdenum by 

chemical analyses of samples of base-metal sulfides. 

Creasey (1950, p. 81) carefully selected and analyzed 

spectrographically six samples each of galena and 

sphalerite and four samples each of pyrite, chalcopyrite, 

chlorite, and quartz-specularite. No molybdenum was 

found in any of the samples; a little vanadium was found 

in the gangue minerals; 0.001-0.0001 percent vanadium 

was found in the pyrite and chalcopyrite; 0.2 percent 

vanadium was found in one galena sample, but none was 

found in the other galena and sphalerite samples. On the 

basis of these analyses, neither Peterson nor Creasey could 

imagine deriving the vanadium and molybdenum from 

the primary sulfide and associated gangue minerals. Nor 

could they picture, on the basis of geologic history, the 

presence of any country rock in the vicinity of the deposit 

that might yield large quantities of vanadium and 

molybdenum, as was suggested in the preceding 

paragraph for the Otavi and Broken Hill deposits. For 

these reasons, both Peterson and Creasey suggested that 

the vanadium and molybdenum were introduced by hypogene solutions late in the history of the deposit-of "late 

Tertiary or Recent age" (Creasey, 1950, p. 81)-a'fter 

oxidation of the primary sulfides. Heyl and Bozion ( 1962, 

p. A31) thought this hypothesis had merit for the St. 

Anthony deposit and perhaps warranted wider 

application. 

The following factors are judged significant from the 

standpoint of genesis; some of these factors present 

puzzling genetic relations. The vanadate minerals and 

wulfenite are easily recognized and their distribution, 

geologically and geographically, is well established. They 

are virtually restricted to the oxidized parts of base-metal 

vein and replacement deposits; lead is a constituent part of 

almost all of these minerals, and its presence is probably 

essential in the formation of vanadate deposits. Where 

paragenetic relations have been defined, the vanadate 

minerals and wulfenite mainly formed after the supergene (oxidized) base-metal minerals formed; the vanadate 

minerals are later than wulfenite, and although they both 

occur almost exclusively in oxidized base-metal deposits, 

both are not present in all such deposits, and in any given 

deposit the vanadium minerals and wulfenite are not 

necessarily coextensive, at least not in concentrated 

amounts. The vanadate deposits are virtually restricted to 

the tropical or temperate zones and to regions of arid or 

semiarid climates. The source of the vanadium and 

molybdenum is obscure. 

The crustal abundance of vanadium is on the order of 

100- 150 ppm (parts per million). Vanadium is one of the 

lithophile elements that occur mainly in silicate rocks, but 

it does not form an important part of any common rockforming mineral. Among the igneous rocks, vanadium is 

mostabundant(about200 ppm) in the mafic ones, where it 

occurs in the insoluble 3-valent state and substitutes for 

iron and perhaps aluminum in iron and ferromagnesian 

minerals. In magmas it does not oxidize readily to the 

soluble 5-valent state, so not much vanadium is available 

for hydrothermal transport. Therefore, only a little 

vanadium (10-100 ppm) occurs in most hydrothermal ore 

deposits (Fischer, 1959, 1973), although many titaniumbearing vein deposits and some gold-quartz veins contain 

some vanadium, commonly about 1,000 ppm; in the gold 

deposits the vanadium is in roscoelite, which occurs as a 

gangue mineral. Although gold accompanies some of the 

base-metal deposits that are host to vanadate minerals, 

roscoelite is not reported in these deposits. 

After normal weathering of igneous rocks, much of the 

vanadium in the ferromagnesian minerals goes into the 

clay minerals that are formed; however, it remains in the 3-

valent state or is oxidized to the 4-valent state, both of 

which are relatively insoluble. As these clay minerals are 

removed by erosion and transported to places where they 

accumulate as sedimentary rocks, most of the vanadium 

must stay with them; shales commonly contain about as 

much vanadium as igneous rocks (100-200 ppm), whereas 
GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF BASE-METAL VANADATE DEPOSITS AS 

sandstones contain only about 20 ppm and limestones 

about 10 ppm. Most of the vanadium in the sandstones and 

limestones is probably in the argillaceous fractions. On 

intensive oxidation, as in arid climates, the vanadium in 

clay minerals probably oxidizes to the soluble 5-valent 

state and would be available for transport in ground 

waters. 

Wulfenite is as much an intrinsic part of many of the 

vanadate deposits as are the vanadate minerals; it may or 

may not be as abundant quantitatively as are the vanadate 

minerals, but it is reported in the oxidized zones of basemetal deposits as frequently or perhaps more often than 

vanadate minerals. Molybdenum occurs in trace amounts 

in igneous rocks (about 1 ppm) and in shales (a few parts 

per million); it concentrates in hypogene deposits where 

the sulfide, molybdenite, is most common. With perhaps a 

few exceptions, molybdenite is not reported in the basemetal deposits that are host to wulfenite and the vanadate 

minerals. On the other hand, in deposits where 

molybdenite is a primary mineral, the common oxidized 

molybdenum mineral is ferrimolybdite; wulfenite is rarely 

reported. In other words, a molybdenum source other than 

molybdenite is probably required for most or all deposits 

containing wulfenite. 

Because of the wide distribution of vanadate deposits in 

dry climates and the habit of these deposits to occur in the 

restricted environment of oxidized base-metal deposits, a 

common origin and a common source of vanadium and 

molybdenum seem requisite. Most students are unable to 

imagine enough of these two metals in the primary sulfide 

deposits to form the vanadate deposits. The writer has 

equal difficulty in imagining that these metals were introduced by late hypogene solutions, in all cases 

contemporaneous with or later than meteoric oxidation of 

the primary sulfide deposits in so many parts of the world. 

Rather, it seems easier to imagine deriving these metals 

from ordinary country rocks, especially shales, under 

conditions of intensive oxidation in dry climates, with 

leaching of the metals by ground waters and transport to 

the oxidized base-metal minerals. The vanadium in the 

vanadium-uranium deposits in sandstone was probably 

also derived by leaching from country rocks and probably 

was transported by ground waters, but in the sandstone 

deposits it was precipitated as oxide and silicate minerals 

by reduction in a reducing environment (Fischer, 1973, p. 

683-684). 

Although this ground-water concept seems compatible 

with many relations, it does not readily accommodate all 

relations. Ordinary ground waters, even in arid regions, 

contain only a little vanadium and molybdenum; a large 

amount of water and much time would be required to 

transport the large quantities of these metals in some of the 

vanadate deposits. The amount of molybdenum in 

ordinary rocks is about 50-100 times less than the amount 

of vanadium, and yet in general there is probably as much 

molybdenum in vanadate deposits as vanadium. In the few 

deposits where paragenetic relations have been reported, 

wulfenite is earlier than the vanadate minerals, but why 

should this sequence occur in a ground-water regime? In 

at least some deposits, the· vanadate minerals and 

wulfenite are not wholly coextensive, whereas a more 

uniform distribution might be expected from ordinary 

ground waters. And in some mining districts, vanadate 

minerals (and wulfenite) are reported as occurring in only 

a few of the oxidized deposits instead of having a more 

ubiquitous distribution. These relations by themselves 

might favor a genetic association with late hot-spring 

activity, the waters of which might contain higher concentrations of metals than ground waters and might have a 

more limited distribution in a district. 

ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE 

The world production of vanadium, from 1907 to 1971, 

as reported by the U.S. Geological Survey (1907-23) and 

the U.S. Bureau of Mines (1924-31; 1932-71) totals about 

270,000 short tons of vanadium in ores and concentrates. If 

estimates are added for sources for which quantitative 

figures were not published by the Bureau of Mines in 

recent years, the world's total production probably would 

be on the order of 300,000 short tons of vanadium. About 

35,000 tons of vanadium has come from vanadate ores, 

representing a little more than 10 percent of the world's 

total vanadium production. 

The sources of vanadate ores, compiled from various 

publications, are shown in table 1. 

Reserves and resources of vanadate ore in the Otavi 

district, Namibia, are generally reported to be moderate, 

and a moderate production of vanadium concentrates 

TABLE I.-World sources of vanadium from vanadate ores 

Country 

Namibia .............. . 

Zambia ................. . 

United States ....... . 

Mexico ................. . 

Argentina ............ . 

Angola ................. . 

Morocco ............... . 

Rhodesia .............. . 

South Africa ........ . 

Spain ................... . 

U.S.S.R ................ . 

'Partly estimated. 

Short tons V Deposits, productive period, and remarks 

27,903 Otavi district, several mines, 1920-71. 

5,755 Broken Hill area, 1920-49, 1951, 

1952, 1960-62. 1800 710 tons from the St. Anthony 

mine, Arizona, 1934-44; the rest 

from several deposits in southern 

New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, 

and California, mostly 1910-30. 

2233 Los Lamentos and San Antonio 

mines, Chihuahua, 1938-40(?). 

138 Several mines in Mendoza and San 

Luis provinces, almost every year 

1939-64. 

335 Lueca mine, 1956-59. 

Small Taouz mine. 

Small Bulawayo area. 

1 Kafferskraal 214 area, 1920 or 1923. 

Small Azuaga district. 

Small Suleiman-Sai deposit, probably in 

the 1930's. 

2Signer and Hewitt (1952, p. 461) reported "By 1940 • • • production of • • • 8,752 

tons of vanadium • • •." This probably means tons of vanadate ore. 

'Teixeira Faisca (1960) reported 940 tons (probably metric tons of vanadate ore) produced, 

1940-59. 
A6 

0 

GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF VANADIUM DEPOSITS 

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I ---- 1 : -------

w .4 s II I lV I )~ ____ l ___ -------\-- 1 G'J'oNI , ( "-...... _______ -11 \, : \ 

', / M 0 N T A N A IN 0 R T H D A K 0 T AI 

(. 08 

l5o / o1l ~ Og : t / ~ 0

10 r----------1 I l2o• rr----- \. 0...,_ ---- _, / I D A II 63 : - I II 

-- I 014 I I s 0 u T H D A K 0 T A 

r----- I I I : I ..... ______ I W y 0 M IN G ~ t- 1 ~-----1 I --------,v~ ( 

1 : I I ~ 

(

/ I '--1---- I NEBRAsKA \ 

/Ol8 I ---.L__ \ 

27~'\NEvADA / llo;9AH I l ~ "'.,. \ 2:~ I o20 I J70ol6 : -----------

<'/,.t} \, 24 o I o21 / C 0 L 0 R A D 0 / 

0 ' L__ I I 

...P.A. o28 \ 25 /o55 -------+-- I 

KANSAS 

'//' ,. ,-./ o5 --- l 

/ 29 \26p,80 57 6 I -----~ -----------

vy f~3J;.t o59 I (------. 

33 \ A R I z 0 N A : I o34 _, / N E W 0 K L A H 0 • o36 I 62 63o60 M E X I C 0 / I M A 

35 ) Oo 64 0 61 I I l7 3 66 o 6 o

5 o 1 38 1 I 

_jf! 72 67 / • 0 39 1 "-" -- 7:?4 o 68 • ]0 040 I ""'"-v 1.. 

, 6g8ttr71 I -'"-'1."'"-...-'~ ,, 76~ 75 49,5Q.V'42e41 I 

' 790 78 77 /52 ~§3,44 I 

..... , BOo 81 I o siP 46 o51 / 

,Bl_o--c{184..L sf .... --l..------ _, 

EXPLANATION 

e15 Productive vanadate deposit 

82 - :!.:!:.J ' 

o38 Nonproductive vanadate deposit or occurrence 

Numbers identify localities and bibliographic 

references listed in table 2 

'\ ..... \ 

't 

TEXAS 

FIGURE 2.-Distribution of vanadate deposits 
GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF BASE-METAL VANADATE DEPOSITS A7 

f) __ .J' -~-t. "" ... ''--

0 500 MILES 

0 500 Kl LOM ETRES ·: 

and occurrences in the United States. 
A8 GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF VANADIUM DEPOSITS 

probably will continue. Resources of vanadate ore in the 

other productive deposits listed in table 1 probably are 

negligible to small, and no significant production is 

likely. It is also unlikely that any of the unproductive 

deposits shown in figure 1, or any undiscovered deposits, 

will yield significant amounts of vanadate ore in the 

future. 

IDENTIFICATION OF VANADATE DEPOSITS 

AND OCCURRENCES 

All locatable vanadate deposits and occurrences in the 

United States that were found in a modest search of 

published and unpublished material are plotted and 

numbered in figure 2; these are identified by the numbers 

in table 2, and at least one reference is given for each 

deposit or occurrence reported in the literature studied. 

The locatable deposits and occurrences in North and 

South America, exclusive of the United States, are plotted 

and identified in figure 3 and table 3, and those in Eurasia, 

Africa, and Australia are in figure 4 and table 4. 

TABLE 2.-Vanadate deposits and occurrences in the United States 

[Locality numbers are shown in figure 2) 

I. Massachusetts .......... . 

2. New York ................ . 

3. New Jersey .............. . 

4. Pennsylvania ........... . 

5. Virginia ................... . 

6. Do ..................... . 

7. Michigan ................. . 

8. Montana .................. . 9. Do ..................... . 

10. Do ..................... . 

II. Idaho ....................... . 12. Do ..................... . 

13. Do ..................... . 

14. Do ..................... . 

15. Oregon .................... . 16. Colorado .................. . 

17. Do ..................... . 

18. Utah ........................ . 

19. Do ..................... . 

20. Do ..................... . 

21. Do ...................... . 

22. Nevada ..................... . 

23. Do ..................... . 

24. Do ..................... . 

25. Do ..................... . 

26. Do ..................... . 

27. California ................ . 

28. Do ..................... . 

29. Do ..................... . 30. Do ..................... . 

31. Do ..................... . 

Southampton area: Heyl and Bozion (1962). 

Ossining area: Heyl and Bozion (1962). 

Franklin area: Palache (1935). 

Phoenixville area: Heyl and Bozion (1962). 

United States mine: Pardee and Park (1948). 

Moss mine: Pardee and Park (1948). 

Skanee area: Fischer (1914). 

Elkhorn mine: Weed (1901). 

Silver Star district: Heyl and Bozion (1962). 

Bald Mountain district: Heyl and Bozion 

(1962). 

Buckskin mine: Ballard (1924, p. 38). 

Texas (Gilmore) district: Heyl and Bozion 

(1962). 

Iron Mask mine: Stearns (1923). 

Mineral Hill (Haley) district: Heyl and 

Bozion ( 1962). 

Little Baby prospect: Lindgren (1901). 

Breckenridge district: Lovering (1934). 

Leadville district: Emmons, Irving, and 

Loughlin (1927). 

New Baltimore mine: Nolan (1935). 

Tintic district: Heyl and Bozion (1962). 

Harrington-Hickory mine, Star district: 

Butler, Loughlin, Heikes, and others 

(1920). 

Escalante mine: Butler, Loughlin, Heikes, 

and others (1920). 

Cave Valley mine, Patterson district: 

Schrader (1931). 

Prince mine, Pioche district: Westgate and 

Knopf (1932). 

Republic mine, Chief district: Callaghan 

(1936). 

Goodsprings district (Ninety-nine, Pauline, 

Contact, Prairie Flower, Yellow Pine, 

Alice, Belle, Fredrickson, Mobile, Bill 

Nye, Whale, and Hoodoo mines): Hewett 

(1931); Albritton, Richards, Brokaw, and 

Reinemund (1954). 

Searchlight district. 

Coleville area: Gary (1940, p. 106). 

Darwin district (Darwin and Emperor 

mines): Hall and MacKevett (1962). 

Shadow Mountain area: Hewett (1956). 

lvanpah Mountain area: Hewett (1956). 

Columbia mine, Providence area: Hewett 

(1956). 

ATLANTIC 

OCEAN 

EXPLANATION 

• 27 Productive vanadate deposit 

o 17 Nonproductive van~date deposit or occurrence 

Numbers identify localities and bibliographic 

references listed in table 3 

FIGURE 3.-Distribution of vanadate deposits and occurrences in North 

and South America, exclusive of the United States. 

TABLE 2.-Continued 

32. Do ..................... . 33. Do ..................... . 

34. Do ..................... . 

35. Do ..................... . 

36. Do ..................... . 

37. Do ..................... . 

38. New Mexico ............ . 

39. Do ..................... . 

40. Do ..................... . 

Leiser Ray mine: Hewett (1956). 

Louisiana-California mine, Signal district: 

Tucker and Sampson (1940, p. 70). 

Gold Park district: Tucker and Sampson 

(1931, p. 369). 

Eldorado mine: Brown (1923). 

Black Eagle mine, Eagle Mountains: 

Tucker and Sampson (1940, p. 47). 

Pala Chief mine: Schaller (1911, p. 162). 

North Magdalena district: Lasky (1932). 

Socorro Peak district (Torrence and Merritt 

mines): Lasky (1932). 

Hansonburg district: Lasky and Wootton 

(1933). 
41. Do ..................... . 

42. Do ..................... . 

43. Do ..................... . 

44. Do ..................... . 

45. Do ..................... . 

46. Do ..................... . 

47. Do ..................... . 

48. Do ..................... . 

49. Do ..................... . 

50. Do ..................... . 

51. Do ..................... . 

52. Do ..................... . 

53. Do ..................... . 

54. Do ..................... . 

55. Arizona .................... . 

GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF BASE-METAL VANADATE DEPOSITS A9 

ARCT1C OCEAN 

INDIAN 

OCEAN 

EXPLANATION 

.33 Productive vanadate deposit 

o2 Nonproductive vanadate deposit or occurrence 

Numbers identify localities and bibliographic 

references listed in table 4 

PACIFIC 

OCEAN 

~·-

FIGURE 4.-Distribution of vanadate deposits and occurrences in Eurasia, Africa, and Australia. 

TABLE 2.-Continued 

Palomas Gap area: Kelley and Silver (1952). 

Hall mine, Hillsboro district: Lindgren, 

Graton and Gordon (1910). 

Hillsboro district: Anderson (1957). 

Macy mine, Hillsboro district: Lindgren, 

Graton, and Gordon (1910). 

Lake Valley district: Lasky and Wootton 

(1933). 

Macho district: Harley (1934). 

Georgetown district: Lasky and Wootton 

(1933). 

Lucky Bill mine, Cenu;al district: Lasky 

and Wootton (1933). 

Central district (Lion No. 2 and Groundhog mines): Lasky (1936). 

Lone Mountain district: Lindgren, Graton, 

and Gordon (1910). 

Organ Mountains. 

Lordsburg district: Lasky (1938). 

Wasp mine, Eureka district: Lasky (1947). 

Silver Trail mine, Sylvanite district: Lasky 

(1947). 

Grand Gulch mine, Bentley district: Galbraith (1941). 

56. 

57. 

58. 

59. 

60. 

61. 

62. 

63. 

64. 

65. 

66. 

67. 

68. 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

TABLE 2.-Continued 

Bridal Veil claim: Allen and Butler (1921, 

p. 11). 

Gold Basin district (El Dorado and Climax 

mines): Galbraith (1941). 

Gold Bug district: Schrader (1909). 

Aurora mine, Wallapai district: Dings 

(1951). 

Lincoln claim, Bigbug district: Lindgren 

(1926). 

Payson district (Ox Bow and Zulu mines): 

Galbraith· ( 1941 ). 

Wickenburg district (Cochran and Doyle 

properties). 

White Picacho district: Jahns (1952). 

Maricopa mine, Cave Creek district: 

Wilson, Cunningham, and Butler (1934). 

Hieroglyphic Mountains area: Galbraith 

(1941). 

Vulture mine, Vulture Mountains: Ross 

(1923). 

Globe-Miami district (Defiance, Irene, and 

Albert Lea mines): Peterson (1950). 

Belmont mine, Superior area: Wilson 

(1950). 
AlO GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF VANADIUM DEPOSITS 

TABLE 2.-Continued 

69. 

70. 

71. 

72. 

73. 

74. 

75. 

76. 

77. 

78. 

79. 

80. 

81. 

82. 

83. 

84. 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Ray district. 

C and B group, Banner district: Ross ( 1925 ). 

Banner district (Cowboy, Premier, and 

Seventy Nine mines): Ross (1925). 

Diana claim, Castle Dome district: Wilson 

(l95la). 

Chocolate Mountains area: Galbraith 

(1941). 

Silver district (Silver Clip, Geronimo, 

Princess, Red Cloud, Cash Entry, and 

Papago mines and claims): Wilson 

(1933, I95lc). 

Bluebird mine, Bunker Hill district: Kuhn 

(1951). 

St. Anthony mine, Mammoth district: 

Peterson (1938); Creasey (1950). 

Table Mountain mine, Galiuro Mountains: 

Galbraith (1941). 

Lucky Strike claim, Redington district. 

Old Yuma mine, Tucson Mountains: 

Jenkins and Wilson (1920). 

Total Wreck mine, Empire district: Wilson 

(195lb). 

Tombstone district (Lucky Cuss, Tribute, 

Toughnut, and Tombstone Extension 

mines): Butler, Wilson, and Rasor (1938). 

Charleston area, Tombstone district: 

Galbraith ( 1941 ). 

Mowry mine, Patagonia district: Schrader 

(1915). 

Bisbee district: Galbraith (1941 ). 

TABLE 3.-Vanadate deposits and occurrences in North and South 

America, exclusive of the United States 

[Locality numbers are shown in figure 3] 

I. Mexico ..................... . 

2. Do ..................... . 

3. Do ..................... . 

4. Do ..................... . 

5. Do ..................... . 

6. Do ..................... . 

7. Do ..................... . 

8. Do ..................... . 

9. Do ..................... . 

10. Do ..................... . 

II. Do ..................... . 

12. Do ..................... . 

13. Do ..................... . 

14. Do ..................... . 

15. Bolivia ..................... . 

16. Do ..................... . 

17. Brazil ....................... . 

18. Do ..................... . 

19. Do ..................... . 

20. Argentina ................ . 

21. Do ..................... . 

Los Lamentos district, Chihuahua: Foshag 

(1934); Gonzalez Reyna (l956a, 1956b). 

Oruro mine, Cuchillo Parada disuict, 

Chihuahua: Gonzalez Reyna ( l956a). 

San Carlos mine, Chihuahua: Gonzalez 

Reyna (1956a). 

Santo Domingo mine, Chihuahua: 

Gonzalez Reyna (l956a). 

San Antonio mine, Santa Eulalia district, 

Chihuahua: Hewitt (1943); Signer and 

Hewitt (1952). 

Cigarrero mine, Jimenez district, Chihuahua. 

La Aurora mine, Sinalo: Gonzalez Reyna 

(l956a). 

Catorce mine, San Luis Potosi: Gonzalez 

Reyna (l956a). 

Venado mine, San Luis Potosi: Gonzalez 

Reyna (l956a). 

Guadalcazar district (several mines), San 

Luis Potosi. 

Bilboa mine, Ojo Caliente district, 

Zacatecas. 

Pozos district (several mines), San Luis 

Potosi. 

Zimapan area (several mines). Hidalgo. 

Cardona! mine, Hidalgo: Gonzalez Reyna 

(l956a). 

Vanadio mine, Tana area, La Paz: Dittler 

and Hueber (1931 ); Ahlfeld (1954). 

Torotoro deposit, Potosi: Ahlfeld (1954). 

ltacarambi area (several mines), Minas 

Gerais: Guimaraes (1961); Fr6es Abreu 

(1962). 

Sete Legoas area, Minas Gerais: Rabello 

(1942). 

Iporanga area, Sao Paulo: Fr6es Abreu 

(1962). 

Guaico district (several mines), Cordoba: 

Wright ( 1940); Angelelli and others ( 1970). 

Cerro Blanco mine, San Luis: Angelelli 

(1950) 

TABLE 3.-Continued 

22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

Do ..................... . 

La Nelly mine, San Luis: Fester and Feira 

(1949); Gonzalez (1957). 

LaSala mine, San Luis: Gonzalez (1957). 

Santa Elena mine, Mendoza: Wright (1940); 

Fester and Feira (1949). 

Malargue district (several deposits), Mendoza: Angelelli (1956); Yrigoyen (1958). 

El Peseno mine, Mendoza: Angelelli (1950). 

Gonzalito mine, Rio Negro: Fester and 

Mazzola (1961). 

Rio Negro Province (several mines): Kittl 

(1957); Kittl and Villarroel (1965). 

TABLE 4.-Vanadate deposits and occurrences in Eurasia, Africa, and 

Australia 

[Locality numbers are shown in figure 4] 

l. lT.S.S.R .................... . 

2. Do ..................... . 

3. Do ..................... . 

4. Do ..................... . 

5. Do ..................... . 

6. Do ..................... . 

7. Iran .......................... . 

8. East Germany .......... . 

9. West Germany ......... . 

10. Yugoslavia ............... . 

ll. Austria ..................... . 

12. Do ..................... . 

13. France ...................... . 

14. United Kingdom ..... . 

15. Do ..................... . 

16. Do ..................... . 

17. Italy ......................... . 

18. Spain ....................... . 

19. Do ..................... . 

20. Do ..................... . 

21. Do ..................... . 

22. Tunisia .................... . 

23. Do ..................... . 

24. Algeria ..................... . 

25. Morocco ................... . 

26. Do ..................... -

27. Do ..................... . 

28. Do ..................... . 

29. Do ..................... . 

30. Congo Republic ...... . 

31. Do ..................... . 

32. Angola ..................... . 

33. Namibia (formerly 

South-West Africa) 

Eastern Transbaikal, Siberia: Zuev (1959). 

Kutnetskom Ala-Tau area, south-central 

U.S.S.R.: Mikhaylova (1958). 

Bashkiria area, southern Ural region: 

Vakhrushev (1940). 

Central Kazakhstan (Kyzyl-Espe, Gul'shad, 

Kaskaigyr, and Perum deposits): Anosov 

and Chukhrov (1948). 

Suleiman-Sai deposit, Kazakhstan: 

Smol'yaninov (1928); Smirnov (1928); 

Yanishevskiy (1934); Sobolev (1933). 

Sidzhak area, Uzbekistan: DuninBarkovskaya and Tronenok (1972). 

Anarak area (several mines): Bariand: 

(1963). 

Friedrichrode area: Guillemin (1955). 

Bad Lauterberg area, Harz Mountains: 

Koritnig (1968). 

Mezica (Mies) deposit: Grafenauer, 

Ottemann, and Strmole (1968). 

Bleiberg area (several mines), Carinthia: 

Holler (1935); Schroll (1949, 1953). 

Ehrwald area (several deposits). Tirol: 

Schneider and Wolf (1969). 

Vosges Mountains area: Longchambon and 

Longchambon (1932); Durand (1958). 

Leadhills area, Scotland: Collie (1889). 

Caldbeck area, Cumberlain: Kingsbury and 

Hartley (1956). 

Mottram area, Cheshire: Roscoe (1877). 

Ozieri area, Sardinia: Lovisato (1904). 

Oria area, Almeria: Marin (1942). 

Granada area: Moreno Martl'n (1932). 

Azuaga district (several deposits), Badajoz: 

Marin (1942). 

Santa Marta district, Badajoz: Marin (1942). 

Djebba mine: Sainfeld (1952); Solignac 

(1935). 

Djebel el Agab: Sainfeld (1952). 

Saida area: Lacroix (1908). 

Oujda district (several mines); Barthoux 

(1922); Agard and Permingeat (1952). 

Oued Tissof mine: Agard and Permingeat 

(1952). 

Miclelt area (several mines): Barthoux 

(1924); Agard and Permingeat (1952). 

Haouanit mine, Bouarfa area: Agard and 

Permingeat (1952). 

Taouz mine: Eyssautier (1952). 

Niari Basin (River) area: Lebedeff and 

Choubert (1934). 

M'Passa mine: Picot, Scolari, and Troly 

(}963). 

Lueca mine: Teixeira Fa1sca ( 1960); Millman 

(1960); Pauly (1962). 

Otavi district (several mines): Biirg (1942); 

Clark (1931); Du Toit (1953); Moritz 

(1933); Schneiderhohn (1919, 1929, 1931, 

1959); Schwellnus ( 1946); Stahl (1926); 

Verwoerd (1957); Willemse, Schwellnus, 

Brandt, Russell, and van Rooyen (1944). 
GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF BASE-METAL VANADATE DEPOSITS All 

TABLE 4.-Continued 

34. Zambia (formerly 

Northern Rhodesia) 

35. Do .................... .. 

36. Do .................... .. 

37. Rhodesia (formerly 

Southern Rhodesia) 

38. South Africa ............ . 

39. Do .................... .. 

40. Do ..................... . 

41. Do .................... .. 

42. Do .................... .. 

43. Australia .................. . 

44. Do .................... .. 

Camarnor deposit: Reeve (1963). 

Broken Hill district: Bancroft (1961 ); 

Deans (1942); Heath (1961); Reeve (1963); 

Schneiderhohn (1931); Skerl (1934); 

Taylor (1954). 

Lusaka district: Deans (1942). 

Bulawayo area: Amm (1940). 

Nooitgedacht 155, Transvaal: Willemse, 

Schwellnus, Brandt, Russeii, and van Rooyen (1944). 

Kafferskraal 214, Transvaal: Willemse, 

Schwellnus, Brandt, Russell, and van 

Rooyen ( 1944). 

Doornhoek mine, Transvaal: Wagner and 

Marchand (1921); Kupferberger (1928); 

Willemse, Schwellnus, Brandt, Russell, 

and van Rooyen (1944). 

Roodekrans 203, Transvaal: Willemse, 

Schwellnus, Brandt, Russell and van 

Rooyen (1944). 

Dwarsfontein 21, Transvaal: Willemse, 

Schwellnus, Brandt, Russell, and van 

Rooyen (1944). 

Broken Hill area, New South Wales: 

Hodge-Smith (1934). 

Braes ide area, Western Australia: Blatchford 

(1925). 

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