Research, Development, and Technology

Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center

6300 Georgetown Pike

McLean, VA 22101-2296

Federal Highway Administration 

University Course on Bicycle and 

Pedestrian Transportation

Publication No. FHWA-HRT-05-133

July 2006
FOREWORD 

The transportation, urban planning, and public health professions are placing an increased emphasis on 

walking and bicycling as part of the solution to problems such as traffic congestion, suburban sprawl, and 

childhood obesity. An interdisciplinary approach from educated professionals is needed to create healthy, 

sustainable, and livable communities. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) University Course 

on Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation is one of several resources that can be used to prepare the next 

generation of professionals for the challenges ahead. 

The University Course contains modular resource material that is intended for use in university courses 

on bicycle and pedestrian transportation. The Student Workbook (this document) contains 24 lessons that 

span a wide range of topics including an introduction to bicycling and walking issues, planning and 

designing for bicycle and pedestrian facilities, and supporting elements and programs. Scripted 

slideshows for all 24 lessons are available to facilitate course development and delivery. An overview 

lecture and scripted slideshow also is provided when a one- or two-lecture overview is needed for existing 

undergraduate or graduate courses. 

Instructors are encouraged to use any or all of this material to form a curriculum that meets their needs. 

Most of the lessons are stand-alone in nature, with lessons of similar topics grouped into modules. A 

majority of the instructors using the first edition of these course materials have personalized the lessons 

for their courses by removing some lessons, adding supplemental material, reorganizing the lessons, and 

adding exercises and local activities that encourage student participation. 

Michael F. Trentacoste 

Director, Office of Safety 

 Research and Development 

Notice 

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the 

interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for the use of the information 

contained in this document. This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation. 

The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or manufacturers' names 

appear in this report only because they are considered essential to the objective of the document. 

Quality Assurance Statement 

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) provides high-quality information to serve Government, 

industry, and the public in a manner that promotes public understanding. Standards and policies are used 

to ensure and maximize the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of its information. FHWA 

periodically reviews quality issues and adjusts its programs and processes to ensure continuous quality 

improvement. 
1. Report No. 

FHWA-HRT-05-133 

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No. 

5. Report Date 

July 2006 

4. Title and Subtitle 

FHWA UNIVERSITY COURSE ON BICYCLE AND 

PEDESTRIAN TRANSPORTATION: STUDENT WORKBOOK 6. Performing Organization Code 

7. Author(s) 

Shawn Turner, Laura Sandt, Jennifer Toole, Robert Benz, and 

Robert Patten 

8. Performing Organization Report No. 

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) 

Texas Transportation Institute Toole Design Group, LLC

The Texas A&M University System 535 Main Street, Suite 211 

College Station, TX 77843-3135 Laurel, MD 20707

11. Contract or Grant No. 

DTFH61-01-C-00049 

13. Type of Report and Period Covered 

Final Report 

March 2003–July 2005

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 

Office of Safety Research and Development 

Federal Highway Administration 

6300 Georgetown Pike 

McLean, VA 22101-2296

14. Sponsoring Agency Code 

15. Supplementary Notes: 

Research performed under subcontract to the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute 

(UMTRI).Task Order Manager: Ann Do, HRDS-06 

Contracting Officer’s Technical Representative (COTR): Gabe Rousseau, HRDS-07

16. Abstract 

This Student Workbook contains 24 lessons of resource material that is intended for use in university 

courses on bicycle and pedestrian transportation. The lessons span a wide range of topics including an 

introduction to bicycling and walking issues, planning and designing for bicycle and pedestrian facilities, 

and supporting elements and programs. This is the second edition of the Student Workbook; the first 

edition was published as Report No. FHWA-RD-99-198. 

Lesson-based slideshows (scripted slideshows for all 24 lessons) and an overview lecture (a scripted 

slideshow for a one- or two-lecture overview in existing undergraduate or graduate transportation 

courses) are also available to assist in course development and delivery. 

The key learning outcomes in the course material are as follows: 

• Students should recognize the legitimacy of the bicycle and pedestrian modes in a balanced 

transportation system. 

• Students should understand how policy, planning, and engineering practices can be improved to 

create a more balanced transportation system. 

• Students should be familiar with basic policies, practices, tools, and design principles and know 

how to use them to create bicycle and pedestrian-friendly communities. 

17. Key Words 

Bicycling, walking, cyclists, pedestrians, 

bicycle facilities, pedestrian areas, planning 

and design, traffic calming 

18. Distribution Statement 

No restrictions. This document is available to the public 

through the National Technical Information Service, 

Springfield, VA 22161. 

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 

Unclassified 

20. Security Classif. (of this page) 

Unclassified 

21. No. of Pages 

 452 

22. Price 

 

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized
ii 

SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS 

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS TO SI UNITS

Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol 

LENGTH 

in inches 25.4 millimeters mm 

ft feet 0.305 meters m 

yd yards 0.914 meters m 

mi miles 1.61 kilometers km 

AREA 

in2 square inches 645.2 square millimeters mm2

ft2 square feet 0.093 square meters m2

yd2 square yard 0.836 square meters m2

ac acres 0.405 hectares ha

mi2 square miles 2.59 square kilometers km2

VOLUME 

fl oz fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters mL 

gal gallons 3.785 liters L 

ft3 cubic feet 0.028 cubic meters m3 

yd3 cubic yards 0.765 cubic meters m3 

NOTE: volumes greater than 1000 L shall be shown in m3

MASS 

oz ounces 28.35 grams g

lb pounds 0.454 kilograms kg

T short tons (2000 lb) 0.907 megagrams (or "metric ton") Mg (or "t") 

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees) o

F Fahrenheit 5 (F-32)/9 Celsius oC 

or (F-32)/1.8 

ILLUMINATION 

fc foot-candles 10.76 lux lx

fl foot-Lamberts 3.426 candela/m2 cd/m2

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS 

lbf poundforce 4.45 newtons N 

lbf/in2 poundforce per square inch 6.89 kilopascals kPa 

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS 

Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol 

LENGTH

mm millimeters 0.039 inches in 

m meters 3.28 feet ft 

m meters 1.09 yards yd 

km kilometers 0.621 miles mi 

AREA mm2

 square millimeters 0.0016 square inches in2 

m2 square meters 10.764 square feet ft2 

m2 square meters 1.195 square yards yd2 

ha hectares 2.47 acres ac

km2 square kilometers 0.386 square miles mi2 

VOLUME 

mL milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces fl oz 

L liters 0.264 gallons gal 

m3 cubic meters 35.314 cubic feet ft3 

m3 cubic meters 1.307 cubic yards yd3 

MASS 

g grams 0.035 ounces oz

kg kilograms 2.202 pounds lb

Mg (or "t") megagrams (or "metric ton") 1.103 short tons (2000 lb) T 

TEMPERATURE (exact degrees) o

C Celsius 1.8C+32 Fahrenheit oF 

ILLUMINATION 

lx lux 0.0929 foot-candles fc 

cd/m2 candela/m2 0.2919 foot-Lamberts fl

FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS 

N newtons 0.225 poundforce lbf 

kPa kilopascals 0.145 poundforce per square inch lbf/in2

*SI is the symbol for th International System of Units. Approp e riate rounding should be made to comply with Section 4 of ASTM E380. 

(Revised March 2003)
Table of Contents iii 

Table of Contents 

Page

LESSON 1: THE NEED FOR BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN MOBILITY............................................ 1

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................1

1.2 How Cities Grow: A Historical Perspective................................................................................1

1.3 Modern Suburban Travel.............................................................................................................3

1.4 Benefits of Bicycling and Walking .............................................................................................4

Transportation System Benefits ............................................................................................4

Environmental Benefits.........................................................................................................4

Economic Benefits.................................................................................................................4

Quality of Life Benefits.........................................................................................................5

Health Benefits ......................................................................................................................6

1.5 Government Commitment and Support....................................................................................... 7

Funding Sources for Bicycle and Pedestrian Projects ...........................................................8

Federal Transit Program (FTP) .............................................................................................9

Highway Safety Programs...................................................................................................10

1.6 Public Support for Bicycling and Walking................................................................................10

1.7 Transportation and Planning Trends..........................................................................................10

1.8 Student Exercises.......................................................................................................................14

Exercise A ...........................................................................................................................14

Exercise B............................................................................................................................15

Exercise C............................................................................................................................15

1.9 References and Additional Resources .......................................................................................15

LESSON 2: BICYCLING AND WALKING IN THE UNITED STATES TODAY................................19

2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................19

2.2 Current Levels of Bicycling and Walking.................................................................................20

2001 National Household Transportation Survey (NHTS) .................................................20

Other National Surveys .......................................................................................................22

2.3 Factors Influencing the Decision to Bicycle or Walk................................................................23

Initial Considerations...........................................................................................................23

Trip Barriers ........................................................................................................................24

Destination Barriers.............................................................................................................25

2.4 Potential for Increasing Bicycling and Walking........................................................................25

Public Support for Bicycling and Walking..........................................................................25

Other Considerations...........................................................................................................26

2.5 Need for Action: Pedestrians and Bicyclists at Risk .................................................................27

2.6 Student Exercises.......................................................................................................................28

Exercise A ...........................................................................................................................28

Exercise B............................................................................................................................28

Exercise C............................................................................................................................28

Exercise D ...........................................................................................................................28

2.7 References and Additional Resources .......................................................................................28

LESSON 3: PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLIST SAFETY........................................................................31

3.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................31

3.2 What Is a Crash?........................................................................................................................31

3.3 The Crash Avoidance Process ...................................................................................................32

3.4 Number of Bicycle and Pedestrian Crashes...............................................................................32
iv Table of Contents 

3.5 Summary of Bicycle and Pedestrian Crash Characteristics.......................................................34

Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Crashes ..........................................................................................34

Factors Contributing to Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Crashes ....................................................35

Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes ......................................................................................35

Factors Contributing to Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes................................................ 36

3.6 Common Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Types..........................................................................36

Pedestrian Crash Types .......................................................................................................37

Bicycle Crash Types............................................................................................................37

3.7 Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Analysis Tool (PBCAT) ............................................................46

3.8 Bicycle and Pedestrian Countermeasures..................................................................................46

3.9 Bicycle and Pedestrian Safety Goals .........................................................................................49

3.10 Geographic Information System (GIS) Crash Frequency Analysis........................................... 49

3.11 Benefit-Cost Analysis................................................................................................................49

3.12 Student Exercise ........................................................................................................................50

Part 1....................................................................................................................................50

Part 2....................................................................................................................................50

Part 3....................................................................................................................................54

3.13 References and Additional Resources .......................................................................................55

LESSON 4: BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN PLANNING......................................................................57

4.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................57

4.2 Federal Requirements for Planning ...........................................................................................57

4.3 Statewide and Regional Pedestrian and Bicycle Plans ..............................................................58

Statewide Bicycle and/or Pedestrian Plans..........................................................................58

Regional Bicycle and/or Pedestrian Plans...........................................................................59

4.4 Local Bicycle and Pedestrian Plans...........................................................................................59

Setting Priorities ..................................................................................................................60

Developing a Bicycle Network Plan ................................................................................... 61

4.5 Forecasting Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel Demand .................................................................65

4.6 Using Models to Evaluate Roadway Conditions for Bicycling and Walking ........................... 66

Bicycle LOS ........................................................................................................................67

Application ..........................................................................................................................69

4.7 Mapping.....................................................................................................................................71

Urban Bicycle Map..............................................................................................................71

Bicycle Guide ......................................................................................................................71

Other Useful Tips ................................................................................................................72

4.8 Student Exercise ........................................................................................................................72

4.9 References and Additional Resources .......................................................................................72

LESSON 5: LAND USE REGULATIONS TO ENCOURAGE NONMOTORIZED TRAVEL .............75

5.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................75

5.2 Pedestrian-Oriented Land Use...................................................................................................75

Zoning and Subdivision Regulations...................................................................................76

Community Visioning .........................................................................................................79

Development Review Process .............................................................................................79

5.3 Commercial Development Design Guidance ............................................................................80

5.4 Performance-Based Code as a Development (or Redevelopment) Tool ...................................81

5.5 Guidance on Designing Residential Communities That Encourage Walking...........................82

5.6 Student Exercise ........................................................................................................................83

5.7 References and Additional Resources .......................................................................................84
Table of Contents v 

LESSON 6: TRADITIONAL NEIGHBORHOOD DESIGN.................................................................... 85

6.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................85

6.2 The New Urbanism Debate .......................................................................................................85

6.3 “Putting Brakes on Suburban Sprawl” ......................................................................................86

6.4 Street Design for Traditional Neighborhoods............................................................................92

Basic Street Layout..............................................................................................................92

Use of Alleys .......................................................................................................................93

Street Design Speed.............................................................................................................93

Street Width.........................................................................................................................94

Curb Radii ...........................................................................................................................95

Intersection Geometry .........................................................................................................95

Street Trees and Landscaping..............................................................................................95

Street Lighting.....................................................................................................................96

Sidewalk Width and Location .............................................................................................96

Building Setbacks................................................................................................................97

Parking.................................................................................................................................97

6.5 Student Exercise ........................................................................................................................98

6.6 References and Additional Resources .......................................................................................99

LESSON 7: ADAPTING SUBURBAN COMMUNITIES FOR BICYCLE AND 

PEDESTRIAN TRAVEL .........................................................................................................................101

7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................101

7.2 History of Suburban Development ..........................................................................................101

Abandoning the Street .......................................................................................................104

7.3 Costs of Sprawl........................................................................................................................105

7.4 Present Suburban Land Uses ...................................................................................................105

7.5 Planning With the Car in Mind................................................................................................106

7.6 Strategies for Retrofitting Suburban Arterial Roadways.........................................................106

7.7 Safe Routes to School Planning...............................................................................................107

7.8 Existing Retail/Office Developments......................................................................................108

7.9 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................110

7.10 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................110

LESSON 8: PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS................................................................................ 113

8.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................113

8.2 Characteristics of Different Age Groups .................................................................................114

Young Pedestrians.............................................................................................................114

Older Pedestrians...............................................................................................................116

8.3 Other Pedestrian Types and Characteristics ............................................................................117

Mobility-Impaired Pedestrians ..........................................................................................118

8.4 Walking Speeds .......................................................................................................................118

Older Pedestrians...............................................................................................................119

Pedestrians with Disabilities..............................................................................................120

8.5 Space Requirements ................................................................................................................120

Spatial Bubbles..................................................................................................................121

Pedestrians with Disabilities..............................................................................................122

8.6 Design Requirements...............................................................................................................123

Sidewalks...........................................................................................................................123

Grades................................................................................................................................125

Street Furniture..................................................................................................................125
vi Table of Contents 

Pedestrian Pushbuttons......................................................................................................126

Curb Cuts and Wheelchair Ramps ....................................................................................127

8.7 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................132

8.8 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................133

LESSON 9: WALKWAYS, SIDEWALKS, AND PUBLIC SPACES ...................................................135

9.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................135

9.2 Sidewalk Placement.................................................................................................................135

Priority Construction of Sidewalks ...................................................................................136

9.3 Basic Sidewalk Elements.........................................................................................................136

Minimum Sidewalk Width ................................................................................................136

Desirable Sidewalk Width.................................................................................................137

Bridge Sidewalks...............................................................................................................137

Rural Sidewalks.................................................................................................................138

Border Areas and Buffers..................................................................................................138

Grade .................................................................................................................................140

Cross Slopes ......................................................................................................................140

Pavement Surfaces.............................................................................................................140

Stairs..................................................................................................................................141

Corners ..............................................................................................................................141

Corner Ramps....................................................................................................................142

Corner Storage Space ........................................................................................................142

Object Clearances and Placement of Street Furniture .......................................................143

Continuity..........................................................................................................................145

9.4 Summary of Basic Sidewalk Elements....................................................................................146

9.5 Ambience, Shade, and Other Sidewalk Enhancements ...........................................................146

Street Lighting...................................................................................................................146

Landscaping.......................................................................................................................147

Trees ..................................................................................................................................148

Paver Stones ......................................................................................................................148

Awnings.............................................................................................................................148

Kiosks................................................................................................................................149

9.6 Costs and Benefits of Sidewalks .............................................................................................149

9.7 Public Spaces...........................................................................................................................150

Outdoor Cafes....................................................................................................................150

Alleys and Narrow Streets.................................................................................................150

Play Areas and Public Art .................................................................................................151

Pedestrian Streets, Transit Streets, and Pedestrian Malls..................................................151

Pedestrian Plazas ...............................................................................................................152

9.8 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................154

Part 1..................................................................................................................................154

Part 2..................................................................................................................................154

9.9 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................155

LESSON 10: PEDESTRIAN FACILITY SIGNING AND PAVEMENT MARKINGS........................ 157

10.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................157

10.2 Background..............................................................................................................................157

10.3 Planning and Design Considerations.......................................................................................158

10.4 Regulatory Signs .....................................................................................................................159

10.5 Warning Signs .........................................................................................................................161

10.6 Directional Signs .....................................................................................................................163
Table of Contents vii 

10.7 Pavement Word and Symbol Markings...................................................................................163

10.8 Crosswalk Markings................................................................................................................164

Marked Versus Unmarked Crosswalks .............................................................................166

10.9 Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Technology ............................................................168

In-Roadway Warning Lights .............................................................................................168

Countdown Signal ............................................................................................................. 169

Animated Eyes Display .....................................................................................................170

Detection Devices..............................................................................................................171

Illuminated Pushbuttons ....................................................................................................172

10.10 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................173

10.11 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................174

LESSON 11: PEDESTRIAN DESIGN AT INTERSECTIONS .............................................................177

11.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................177

11.2 Intersection Design Principles.................................................................................................177

11.3 Crosswalks...............................................................................................................................179

Typical Concerns...............................................................................................................179

Possible Solutions..............................................................................................................179

Implementation Strategies.................................................................................................181

Resources and Scheduling.................................................................................................181

Evaluation..........................................................................................................................181

Planning and Design Considerations.................................................................................181

11.4 Curb Ramps.............................................................................................................................182

Typical Concerns...............................................................................................................182

Possible Solutions..............................................................................................................182

Implementation Strategies.................................................................................................182

Resources and Scheduling.................................................................................................184

Evaluation..........................................................................................................................184

Planning and Design Considerations.................................................................................184

11.5 Crossing and Detection Technology........................................................................................185

Typical Concerns...............................................................................................................185

Possible Solutions..............................................................................................................185

11.6 Pedestrian Signal Heads and Half-Signals ..............................................................................188

Typical Concerns...............................................................................................................188

Possible Solutions..............................................................................................................189

Implementation Strategies.................................................................................................189

Resources and Scheduling.................................................................................................190

Evaluation..........................................................................................................................190

Planning and Design Considerations.................................................................................190

11.7 Curb Extensions and Curb Radii .............................................................................................191

Typical Concerns...............................................................................................................191

Possible Solutions..............................................................................................................191

Implementation Strategies.................................................................................................193

Resources and Scheduling.................................................................................................193

Evaluation..........................................................................................................................193

Planning and Design Considerations.................................................................................193

11.8 Signal Timing and Pushbuttons...............................................................................................194

Typical Concerns...............................................................................................................194

Possible Solutions..............................................................................................................195

Implementation Strategies.................................................................................................195

Resources and Scheduling.................................................................................................195
viii Table of Contents 

Evaluation..........................................................................................................................195

Planning and Design Considerations.................................................................................196

11.9 Pedestrian Refuge Islands........................................................................................................198

Recommended Practice .....................................................................................................200

Island Design Features ......................................................................................................200

11.10 Roundabouts............................................................................................................................201

Typical Concerns...............................................................................................................201

Possible Solutions..............................................................................................................205

Planning and Design Considerations.................................................................................205

11.11 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................206

11.12 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................207

LESSON 12: MIDBLOCK CROSSINGS ...............................................................................................209

12.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................209

12.2 Background..............................................................................................................................209

12.3 Medians and Refuge Islands—Powerful Safety Tools............................................................210

12.4 Advantages of Medians ...........................................................................................................211

Medians Allow More Frequent Gaps ................................................................................211

Medians Are Less Expensive To Build .............................................................................212

Medians Are Less Expensive To Maintain........................................................................212

12.5 Design Considerations for Medians ........................................................................................213

12.6 Midblock Crossings by Roadway Classification.....................................................................213

Local Roads.......................................................................................................................213

Collector Roads .................................................................................................................214

Multilane Arterial Highways with Four Lanes..................................................................214

Multilane Arterial Highways with Six or More Lanes ......................................................214

12.7 Midblock Crossing Design ......................................................................................................215

Connect Desire Lines ........................................................................................................215

Lighting .............................................................................................................................215

12.8 Staggered Midblock Crosswalks .............................................................................................216

12.9 Midblock Crossing and Detection Technology .......................................................................217

12.10 Midblock Signals.....................................................................................................................217

12.11 Grade-Separated Crossings......................................................................................................218

12.12 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................219

12.13 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................219

LESSON 13: SELECTING BICYCLE FACILITY TYPES AND EVALUATING ROADWAYS....... 221

13.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................221

13.2 Overview of Bicycle Facility Selection...................................................................................221

13.3 AASHTO Guidance on Selecting Bicycle Facility Type ........................................................224

13.4 Overview of Evaluating Roads for Bicyclists .........................................................................225

13.5 Bicycle Compatibility Index....................................................................................................225

13.6 Bicycle Level of Service..........................................................................................................227

13.7 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................229

13.8 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................230

LESSON 14: SHARED ROADWAYS ...................................................................................................231

14.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................231

14.2 Shared Roadways ....................................................................................................................231

14.3 Wide Curb Lanes.....................................................................................................................232

14.4 Roadway Shoulders or Shoulder Bikeways.............................................................................234
Table of Contents ix 

Width Standards ................................................................................................................235

Pavement Design...............................................................................................................235

The Joint between the Shoulders and the Existing Roadway............................................236

Gravel Driveways and Approaches ...................................................................................237

14.5 Designated Bicycle Routes......................................................................................................238

14.6 Bicycle Boulevards..................................................................................................................239

Advantages of Bicycle Boulevards....................................................................................239

Disadvantages of Bicycle Boulevards ...............................................................................240

Elements of a Bicycle Boulevard ......................................................................................240

14.7 Other Design Considerations...................................................................................................242

Rumble Strips ....................................................................................................................242

Drainage Grates.................................................................................................................244

Railroad Crossings.............................................................................................................245

Sidewalk Ramps on Bridges..............................................................................................245

14.8 Practices to Avoid....................................................................................................................247

Sidewalk Bikeways ...........................................................................................................247

Extruded Curbs..................................................................................................................247

Reflectors and Raised Pavement Markers.........................................................................247

14.9 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................247

14.10 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................248

LESSON 15: BICYCLE LANES ............................................................................................................249

15.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................249

15.2 Width Standards and Cross-Section Design............................................................................249

15.3 Retrofitting Bicycle Lanes on Existing Streets........................................................................251

Reduction of Travel Lane Widths .....................................................................................252

Reduction of the Number of Travel Lanes ........................................................................252

Removal, Narrowing or Reconfiguration of Parking ........................................................254

Other Design Options........................................................................................................257

Additional Benefits from Retrofitting Bike Lanes ............................................................257

Salem, OR, Case Study .....................................................................................................257

15.4 Bicycle Lanes at Intersections and Interchanges .....................................................................258

Intersections with Right-Turn Lanes .................................................................................258

Intersections with Bus Stops .............................................................................................262

Traffic Signal Actuation....................................................................................................262

Expressway Interchanges ..................................................................................................264

15.5 Bicycle Lane Pavement Markings...........................................................................................266

15.6 Bicycle Lane Signing...............................................................................................................267

15.7 Other Design Considerations...................................................................................................269

Colored Bike Lanes ...........................................................................................................269

Contraflow Bike Lanes......................................................................................................270

Diagonal Parking...............................................................................................................271

15.8 Practices to Avoid....................................................................................................................272

Two-Way Bike Lanes........................................................................................................272

Continuous Right-Turn Lanes ...........................................................................................273

15.9 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................274

Exercise A .........................................................................................................................274

Exercise B..........................................................................................................................274

15.10 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................275
x Table of Contents 

LESSON 16: BICYCLE FACILITY MAINTENANCE.........................................................................277

16.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................277

16.2 Problem Overview...................................................................................................................277

16.3 Solution Overview...................................................................................................................277

16.4 Objectives................................................................................................................................278

16.5 Implementation Strategies .......................................................................................................279

16.6 Subtasks...................................................................................................................................280

Subtask 1—Identify Key Implementers ............................................................................280

Subtask 2—Review Existing Policies and Practices .........................................................280

Subtask 3—Review Results in the Field and Solicit Comments from Users ....................280

Subtask 4—Recommend Appropriate Changes in Policies and Practices ........................280

Subtask 5—Create an Ongoing Spot Improvement Program............................................280

Subtask 6—Evaluate Progress...........................................................................................281

16.7 Schedule and Resource Requirements.....................................................................................281

16.8 Typical Maintenance Concerns ...............................................................................................282

Surface Problems...............................................................................................................282

Encroaching Vegetation ....................................................................................................282

Signing and Marking .........................................................................................................283

16.9 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................283

16.10 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................284

LESSON 17: BICYCLE PARKING AND STORAGE........................................................................... 285

17.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................285

17.2 Overview of the Problem.........................................................................................................285

17.3 Overview of Bicycle Parking Strategies..................................................................................286

17.4 Implementing Bicycle Parking Strategies ...............................................................................287

Step 1—Identify Key Implementers..................................................................................287

Step 2—Structure the Program..........................................................................................288

Step 3—Identify Priority Locations that Need Bicycle Parking .......................................288

Step 4—Choose Appropriate Bicycle Parking Devices ....................................................290

Step 5a—Tasks for Developing Public Bicycle Parking...................................................292

Step 5b—Tasks for Developing Private Bicycle Parking..................................................293

Step 5c—Tasks for Revising Zoning Regulations ............................................................293

Step 6—Implement the Program .......................................................................................294

Step 7—Evaluate Progress ................................................................................................294

17.5 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................297

Exercise A .........................................................................................................................297

Exercise B..........................................................................................................................297

17.6 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................297

LESSON 18: BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN CONNECTIONS TO TRANSIT ..................................299

18.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................299

18.2 Interagency Cooperation..........................................................................................................300

18.3 Why Link Bicyclists With Transit Services?...........................................................................300

18.4 Bike-on-Bus Programs ............................................................................................................300

18.5 Bike-on-Rail Programs............................................................................................................303

Time Restrictions ..............................................................................................................304

Rail Car Design Constraints ..............................................................................................304

18.6 Example Transit Access Programs ..........................................................................................304

18.7 Bicycle Parking Facilities at Transit Stations..........................................................................305

18.8 Bikestation...............................................................................................................................306
Table of Contents xi 

18.9 What Are the Key Elements of Successful Programs?............................................................ 306

Demonstration Projects .....................................................................................................306

Advisory Committees........................................................................................................306

Marketing and Promotion..................................................................................................306

18.10 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................307

Exercise A .........................................................................................................................307

Exercise B..........................................................................................................................307

18.11 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................307

LESSON 19: GREENWAYS AND SHARED-USE PATHS .................................................................309

19.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................309

19.2 Shared-Use Path Definition.....................................................................................................309

19.3 Shared-Use Path Users ............................................................................................................310

19.4 User Conflict ...........................................................................................................................311

19.5 Shared-Use Path Types and Settings.......................................................................................311

19.6 Planning...................................................................................................................................313

19.7 Rail-Trails, Rails-with-Trails, and Towpaths ..........................................................................314

19.8 Greenway Paths .......................................................................................................................314

19.9 Paths Adjacent to Roadways ...................................................................................................315

19.10 Path Design..............................................................................................................................315

Accessible Path Design .....................................................................................................316

Trail Width and Striping....................................................................................................316

Trail/Roadway Intersection Design...................................................................................317

Other Design Issues...........................................................................................................319

19.11 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................322

19.12 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................322

LESSON 20: TRAFFIC CALMING .......................................................................................................325

20.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................325

20.2 Traffic-Calming Objectives.....................................................................................................326

20.3 Traffic-Calming Issues ............................................................................................................326

20.4 Traffic-Calming Devices .........................................................................................................328

Bumps, Humps, and Other Raised Pavement Areas .........................................................329

Reducing Street Area.........................................................................................................333

Street Closures...................................................................................................................340

Traffic Diversion ...............................................................................................................342

Surface Texture and Visual Devices .................................................................................349

20.5 Traffic-Calming Impacts .........................................................................................................351

Traffic Speeds....................................................................................................................351

Traffic Volumes.................................................................................................................351

Collisions...........................................................................................................................352

Other Factors .....................................................................................................................353

20.6 Putting the Design Techniques to Work: Selected Examples of Traffic Calming ..................353

The Woonerf......................................................................................................................353

Entry Treatment Across Intersections ...............................................................................356

Bicycle Boulevards............................................................................................................356

Channelization Changes ....................................................................................................357

20.7 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................358

20.8 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................358
xii Table of Contents 

LESSON 21: BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN ACCOMMODATION IN WORK ZONES.................. 361

21.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................361

21.2 Possible Solutions....................................................................................................................362

Protective Barriers.............................................................................................................362

Covered Walkways............................................................................................................363

Sidewalk Closures .............................................................................................................363

Signage ..............................................................................................................................365

Diversions and Detours .....................................................................................................365

21.3 Implementation Strategies .......................................................................................................366

Link to Construction Permits.............................................................................................366

Train In-House Work Crews .............................................................................................366

21.4 Planning and Design Considerations.......................................................................................368

Rural Highway Construction.............................................................................................368

Urban Roadway Construction ...........................................................................................368

Pedestrian Issues: Seattle Example ...................................................................................369

21.5 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................370

21.6 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................371

LESSON 22: TORT LIABILITY AND RISK MANAGEMENT...........................................................373

22.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................373

22.2 Tort Liability for Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities.................................................................373

22.3 Trends and Example Cases......................................................................................................374

Planning, Engineering, and Public Perception ..................................................................375

Governments Can Be Sued for What They Do .................................................................375

Governments Can Be Sued for What They Do Not Do ....................................................376

The Impact of These Trends..............................................................................................378

22.4 Basic Definitions .....................................................................................................................378

Tort ....................................................................................................................................378

Negligence.........................................................................................................................379

Ordinary Care ....................................................................................................................381

Sovereign Immunity ..........................................................................................................381

22.5 Cases That Lead to Quick Settlements against a Government ................................................382

22.6 Risk Assessment and Management .........................................................................................384

The General Process..........................................................................................................384

Scottsdale, Arizona Case Study.........................................................................................385

Is Ignorance Really Bliss?.................................................................................................386

Spot Maintenance and Improvement Programs.................................................................387

22.7 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................388

22.8 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................389

LESSON 23: INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN 

FACILITY DESIGN.................................................................................................................................391

23.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................391

23.2 Overview of Trends and Issues ...............................................................................................391

23.3 Pedestrian Facilities and Programs..........................................................................................393

Zebra Crossings.................................................................................................................393

Pelican Crossings ..............................................................................................................394

Toucan Crossings ..............................................................................................................396

Puffin Crossings ................................................................................................................396

Pedestrian Messages on Pavement ....................................................................................397

Pedestrian Displays for Traffic Signals.............................................................................397
Table of Contents xiii 

Animated Eyes on Pedestrian Signals ...............................................................................398

Pedestrian Zones................................................................................................................399

23.4 Bicycle Facilities and Programs ..............................................................................................400

The Netherlands ................................................................................................................400

Germany ............................................................................................................................403

The United Kingdom.........................................................................................................406

23.5 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................408

23.6 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................408

LESSON 24: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH: ENGINEERING, EDUCATION, 

ENCOURAGEMENT, ENFORCEMENT, AND EVALUATION..........................................................409

24.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................409

24.2 The Importance of Comprehensive Programs .........................................................................409

Example One .....................................................................................................................410

Example Two ....................................................................................................................411

24.3 Integrating Elements in a Comprehensive Approach ..............................................................411

Determining the Scope of a Comprehensive Program ...................................................... 412

Steps in the Process ...........................................................................................................413

24.4 Elements of an Effective Education Program..........................................................................413

Provide Instruction in Lawful, Responsible Behavior Among Bicyclists, 

Pedestrians, and Motorists................................................................................................. 413

Deliver Important Safety Messages Through Various Print and Electronic Media ..........415

24.5 Elements of an Effective Enforcement Program .....................................................................416

Improve Existing Traffic Laws, as Well as Their Enforcement........................................416

Reduce the Incidence of Serious Crimes Against Nonmotorized Travelers .....................417

Use Nonmotorized Modes to Help Accomplish Other Unrelated Departmental 

Goals..................................................................................................................................418

24.6 Elements of an Effective Encouragement Program.................................................................418

Reduce or Eliminate Disincentives for Bicycling and Walking and Incentives 

for Driving Single-Occupant Motor Vehicles ...................................................................419

Provide Ways for Nonparticipants to Receive a Casual Introduction to Bicycling 

and Walking ......................................................................................................................419

Use Electronic and Print Media to Spread Information on the Benefits of 

Nonmotorized Travel.........................................................................................................420

24.7 Evaluation of Bicycle and Pedestrian Programs......................................................................421

24.8 Student Exercise ......................................................................................................................421

Exercise A .........................................................................................................................421

Exercise B..........................................................................................................................421

Exercise C..........................................................................................................................421

24.9 References and Additional Resources .....................................................................................421 
xiv Table of Contents 

List of Figures 

Page

Figure 1-1. Photo. Wide suburban streets like this one were not built to accommodate or 

encourage walking.................................................................................................................2

Figure 1-2. Photo. Many modern developments are designed to cater to automobile travel. ..................3

Figure 1-3. Photo. There are many economic benefits to building bicycle and pedestrian 

facilities like this shared-use path..........................................................................................5

Figure 1-4. Photo. Walking can have a tremendous health benefit..........................................................6

Figure 1-5. Photo. Many State DOTs are adopting “complete streets” policies. ...................................11

Figure 1-6. Photo. Safe Routes to School programs are being implemented throughout the U.S. ........12

Figure 1-7. Photo. There are growing trends in public involvement in local transportation 

planning processes...............................................................................................................14

Figure 2-1. Photo. Sidewalks must be designed to serve people of all abilities.....................................19

Figure 2-2. Chart. Transportation mode data from the 2001 NHTS....... .............................................20

Figure 2-3. Chart. Percentage bicycling in past 30 days by gender, age, race/ethnicity........................22

Figure 2-4. Photo. Street crossings can be a significant barrier to walking. ..........................................24

Figure 3-1. Photo. Bicyclist scanning for potential hazards...................................................................32

Figure 3-2. Graph. Trends in pedestrian and bicyclist fatalities. ...........................................................33

Figure 3-3. Graph. Trends in pedestrian and bicyclist injuries. .............................................................33

Figure 3-4. Illustration. Vehicle turn/merge...........................................................................................38

Figure 3-5. Illustration. Intersection dash. .............................................................................................38

Figure 3-6. Illustration. Other intersection.............................................................................................39

Figure 3-7. Illustration. Midblock dart/dash. .........................................................................................39

Figure 3-8. Illustration. Other midblock. ...............................................................................................40

Figure 3-9. Illustration. Not in roadway/waiting to cross. .....................................................................40

Figure 3-10. Illustration. Walking along roadway. ..................................................................................41

Figure 3-11. lustration. Backing vehicle. .................................................................................................41

Figure 3-12. llustration. Ride out at stop sign. .........................................................................................42

Figure 3-13. Illustration. Drive out at stop sign. ......................................................................................42

Figure 3-14. qIllustration. Other ride out at intersection..........................................................................43

Figure 3-15. Illustration. Drive out at midblock. .....................................................................................43

Figure 3-16. Illustration. Motorist left turn, facing bicyclist....................................................................44

Figure 3-17. Illustration. Ride out at residential driveway.......................................................................44

Figure 3-18. Illustration. Bicyclist left turn in front of traffic..................................................................45

Figure 3-19. Illustration. Motorist right turn............................................................................................45
Table of Contents xv 

Figure 3-20. Photo. A crosswalk can increase the visibility of a pedestrian path...................................46

Figure 3-21. Illustration. Bicycle crash locations.....................................................................................51

Figure 3-22. Illustration. Pedestrian crash locations. ...............................................................................52

Figure 3-23. Illustration. Site location map..............................................................................................52

Figure 4-1. Photo. Group B (basic) bicyclists value designated bike facilities such as bike lanes. .......62

Figure 4-2. Photo. Several factors will determine the final design treatment used; two of the 

foremost are cost and controversy. ......................................................................................64

Figure 4-3. Photo. Streets and roadways can be analyzed to determine the relative level of 

service they provide to bicyclists and pedestrians...............................................................67

Figure 4-4. Equation. Bicycle LOS........................................................................................................68

Figure 4-5. Equation. Bicycle LOS sensitivity analysis.........................................................................70

Figure 4-6. Illustration. A bicycle route map provides bicyclists with information about street 

 characteristics by using different color codes......................................................................71

Figure 5-1. Photo. Low-density, single-use zoning creates trip distances that are too great 

to make walking a viable transportation option...................................................................76

Figure 5-2. Illustration. Cul-de-sacs can restrict pedestrian and bicycle access. ...................................77

Figure 5-3. Illustration. Loops are preferred to cul-de-sacs. ..................................................................77

Figure 5-4. Illustration. Typical alley: ordinances should be modified to allow for rear-lot access......78

Figure 5-5. Illustration. Provide pedestrian connections between parcels. ............................................81

Figure 6-1. Illustration. New urbanism allows travel from one destination to another 

without using collector roads...............................................................................................87

Figure 6-2. Photos. Mashpee Commons before and after retrofitting....................................................89

Figure 6-3. Photo. Typical suburban neighborhoods offer few route choices for trips..........................93

Figure 6-4. Photo. Neotraditional neighborhoods have narrower, tree-lined streets..............................96

Figure 6-5. Photo. Typically, suburban parking lots in retail developments are 

vast—and rarely full. ...........................................................................................................98

Figure 7-1. Photo. Inadequate maintenance of sidewalks makes a short walk difficult 

to maneuver. ......................................................................................................................103

Figure 7-2. Photo. Parked cars and a lack of sidewalks along the road’s edge create 

 unsafe conditions for bicyclists and pedestrians................................................................103

Figure 7-3. Photo. Sidewalks with a landscape strip should be installed to minimize 

exposure to vehicular traffic. .............................................................................................104

Figure 7-4. Unless required by local ordinance, many developments focus on vehicle 

access without regard to pedestrian access........................................................................106

Figure 7-5. Photo. Building entrances and storefronts should be oriented to face the street. ..............109

Figure 7-6. Photo. Medians and crosswalks should be placed at destination locations such 

 as this shopping center.......................................................................................................110

Figure 8-1. Photo. People with children often walk at slower speeds..................................................119
xvi Table of Contents 

Figure 8-2. Photo. Older pedestrians often have difficulty negotiating curbs......................................120

Figure 8-3. Illustration. Recommended pedestrian body ellipse dimensions for standing areas. ........121

Figure 8-4. Illustration. Spatial dimensions for pedestrians.................................................................121

Figure 8-5. Illustration. Forward clear space needed by pedestrians. ..................................................122

Figure 8-6. Illustration. Spatial dimensions for people who use mobility devices. .............................122

Figure 8-7. Illustration. Minimum passage width for one wheelchair and one ambulatory person.....123

Figure 8-8. Illustration. Minimum passage width for two wheelchairs. ..............................................124

Figure 8-9. Photo. Driveway slopes should not encroach into the sidewalk........................................125

Figure 8-10. Illustration. High and low forward reach limits. ..............................................................127

Figure 8-11. Illustration. High and low side reach limits.......................................................................127

Figure 8-12. Illustration. Curb ramp with sidewalk next to curb. ..........................................................128

Figure 8-13. Illustration. Measurement of curb ramp slopes and counter slope. ...................................128

Figure 8-14. Illustration. Sides of curb ramps........................................................................................129

Figure 8-15. Photo. Perpendicular curb ramp. .......................................................................................129

Figure 8-16. Photo. Parallel curb ramp. .................................................................................................130

Figure 8-17. Illustration. Curb ramps at marked crossings. ...................................................................131

Figure 8-18. Photo. A pavement grinding project left an exaggerated lip at this curb cut.....................132

Figure 9-1. Photo. An example of a pedestrian-friendly streetscape. ..................................................135

Figure 9-2. Photo. Bicyclists are often forced to use bridge sidewalks when they are not 

 accommodated in the roadway. .........................................................................................138

Figure 9-3. Illustration. The width of a natural buffer provides the essential space needed 

for situations such as protecting pedestrians from out-of-control vehicles. ......................139

Figure 9-4. Photo. Parked cars can also serve as a buffer between the sidewalk and the street. .........140

Figure 9-5. Photo. This corner features public telephones and a sitting area that does not 

encroach on the walkway. .................................................................................................142

Figure 9-6. Illustration. Example of clearances required to maintain effective walkway width..........144

Figure 9-7. Photo. Example of pedestrian-oriented street lighting. .....................................................147

Figure 9-8. Photo. Street trees provide a desirable pedestrian environment. .......................................148

Figure 9-9. Photo. Including amenities such as kiosks create pedestrian-friendly spaces. ..................149

Figure 9-10. Photo. An outdoor cafe can add color and life to a street environment.............................150

Figure 9-11. Photo. Alleys can be made attractive and can serve as access points to shops. ................151

Figure 9-12. Photo. Some European streets have been redeveloped as pedestrian malls. .....................152

Figure 9-13. Photo. Small protected spaces provide separation from noise and traffic.........................153

Figure 10-1. Photo. The sign and crosswalk markings at this midblock crossing alert 

drivers to pedestrians going to school. ..............................................................................158

Figure 10-2. Photo. Pedestrian crossing signs........................................................................................160
Table of Contents xvii 

Figure 10-3. Photo. Pedestrians are restricted from continuing straight and are encouraged 

to cross left to avoid a traffic merge lane. .........................................................................160

Figure 10-4. Photo. Variation of R10-3b regulatory crossing sign. .......................................................161

Figure 10-5. Photo. This pedestrian crossing sign is fluorescent yellow green (FYG), 

allowing it to be more visible. ...........................................................................................162

Figure 10-6. Photo. Flashing lights, school crossing signs, and a low speed limit gives 

motorists plenty of warning of the crossing area ahead.....................................................163

Figure 10-7. Photo. “Look Right” or “Look Left” is painted on the street next to the curb 

in the United Kingdom. .....................................................................................................164

Figure 10-8. Illustration. An intersection with examples of crosswalk markings..................................166

Figure 10-9. Illustration. Common crosswalk marking patterns............................................................166

Figure 10-10. Illustration. Example of in-roadway warning lights..........................................................168

Figure 10-11. Photo. Working example of in-roadway warning lights with pedestrian pushbutton 

in Austin, Texas.................................................................................................................169

Figure 10-12. Photo. Example of countdown pedestrian signal in Lauderdale-By-The-Sea, FL. ...........170

Figure 10-13. Example of animated eyes display. ...................................................................................170

Figure 10-14. Example of a microwave detector system. ........................................................................171

Figure 10-15. Illustration. Example of an infrared detector system.........................................................172

Figure 10-16. Photo. Illuminated pushbuttons. ........................................................................................172

Figure 10-17. Illustration. Example signing and marking plan for SR 8 by Fletcher Parkway 

Construction Plans, La Mesa, CA. ....................................................................................173

Figure 11-1. Photo. Reduced visibility of pedestrians behind parked cars can create conflict. .............178

Figure 11-2. Photo. Use of colored crosswalks and median refuges makes this intersection 

more pedestrian-friendly....................................................................................................180

Figure 11-3. Photo. Ramp request form used by the City of Seattle, WA, Engineering Department....184

Figure 11-4. Photo. Flag treatment used in Kirkland, WA. ...................................................................186

Figure 11-5. Photo. Fluorescent yellow-green sign treatment in Austin, TX. .......................................186

Figure 11-6. Photo. Flashing beacon treatment in Austin, TX...............................................................187

Figure 11-7. Photo. Detectable warnings treatment in Roseville, CA. ..................................................187

Figure 11-8. Photo. Staggered pedestrian crossings (Z-crossings) treatment in 

San Luis Obispo, CA.........................................................................................................188

Figure 11-9. Photo. Half-signal in Portland, OR....................................................................................189

Figure 11-10. Photos. Curb extensions reduce crossing distances for pedestrians and 

provide additional corner storage space. ...........................................................................192

Figure 11-11. Illustration. Curb extensions improve the visibility of pedestrians by motorists 

and vice versa. ...................................................................................................................192

Figure 11-12. Photo. Example of obscure pedestrian pushbuttons; pushbuttons should be 

conveniently placed and clear from obstacles. ..................................................................194
xviii Table of Contents 

Figure 11-13. Illustration. Pedestrian crossing signals should be clear and understandable 

by all users.........................................................................................................................196

Figure 11-14. Photo. Example of pedestrian pushbutton location. ..........................................................197

Figure 11-15. Photo. Streets with raised medians usually have lower pedestrian crash rates..................198

Figure 11-16. Photo. Refuge islands provide pedestrians with a resting place when crossing 

roads or intersections.........................................................................................................200

Figure 11-17. Illustration. Intersections have 16 vehicle/pedestrian conflict points...............................202

Figure 11-18. Illustration. Roundabouts have eight vehicle/pedestrian conflict points. ..........................203

Figure 11-19. Illustration. Example traffic signal plan, Superior Parkway construction plans, 

 Lawrenceville, GA. ...........................................................................................................206

Figure 12-1. Photo. Midblock crossings are easily located on low-volume, low-speed roadways 

such as short collectors through neighborhoods................................................................210

Figure 12-2. Photo. Refuge islands and visible crosswalks are essential on major arterials with 

higher traffic speeds...........................................................................................................211

Figure 12-3. Photo. A midblock crossing without median refuge requires the pedestrian to look 

for gaps in both directions at once.....................................................................................212

Figure 12-4. Photo. A midblock crossing with a median refuge allows the pedestrian to look for 

gaps in only one direction at a time...................................................................................212

Figure 12-5. Photo. Landscaping a median can block midblock access and divert pedestrians to 

adjacent intersections.........................................................................................................213

Figure 12-6. Illustration. Midblock crossing curb extensions provide better visibility 

for motorists and pedestrians.............................................................................................215

Figure 12-7. Illustration. Diagram of a staggered crossing configuration. ............................................216

Figure 12-8. Photo. Staggered crosswalk with fencing..........................................................................217

Figure 12-9. Photo. An underpass continues this shared-use bicycle path beneath a four-lane 

highway with high traffic volume. ....................................................................................218

Figure 13-1. Photo. Bicyclist on a shared roadway...............................................................................222

Figure 13-2. Photo. Bicyclists in a wide curb lane................................................................................222

Figure 13-3. Photo. Bicyclist in a bike lane. ..........................................................................................222

Figure 13-4. Photo. Bicyclists and pedestrians on a separated (shared-use) path..................................222 

Figure 13-5. Bar chart. A composite chart of numerous approaches to bicycle facility selection. ........223

Figure 13-6. Equation. Bicycle LOS......................................................................................................227

Figure 13-7. Equation. Bicycle level of service sensitivity analysis......................................................229

Figure 14-1. Illustration. Shared roadways include most existing roads and streets..............................232

Figure 14-2. Illustration. Example of a wide curb lane..........................................................................233

Figure 14-3. Photo. Motorists overtaking bicyclists in a wide curb lane...............................................233

Figure 14-4. Illustrations. Various pavement markings for shared roadways and wide curb lanes.......234

Figure 14-5. Illustration. Typical application of shared roadway pavement markings..........................234
Table of Contents xix 

Figure 14-6. Illustration. Example of a paved shoulder or shoulder bikeway. ......................................235

Figure 14-7. Illustration. Example of a saw-cut pavement joint. ...........................................................236

Figure 14-8. Illustration. Example of a feathered pavement joint..........................................................236

Figure 14-9. Illustration. Example of the use of grindings as pavement base........................................237

Figure 14-10. Illustration. A paved driveway apron reduces gravel on roadway shoulders. ...................237

Figure 14-11. Illustration. Typical signed shared route signing...............................................................238

Figure 14-12. Illustration. Typical elements of a bicycle boulevard........................................................241

Figure 14-13. Illustration. Rumble strip guidance provided by ODOT. ..................................................243

Figure 14-14. Illustration. Examples of bicycle-safe drainage grates......................................................244

Figure 14-15. Illustration. Example of curb drainage inlet. .....................................................................245

Figure 14-16. Illustration. Bike lane or shoulder crossing railroad tracks. ..............................................246

Figure 14-17. Illustration. Curb ramp provides access to sidewalk. ........................................................246

Figure 15-1. Illustrations. Typical bike lane cross sections. ..................................................................250

Figure 15-2. Illustration. Retrofitting bike lanes by reducing travel lane widths...................................252

Figure 15-3. Illustration. Reducing the number of travel lanes on a one-way street. ............................253

Figure 15-4. Illustration. Road diet: retrofitting bike lanes by reducing the number 

of travel lanes. ...................................................................................................................254

Figure 15-5. Illustration. Narrowing parking on a one-way street.........................................................255

Figure 15-6. Illustration. Parking removed on one side of a two-way street. ........................................255

Figure 15-7. Illustration. Changing from diagonal to parallel parking on a two-way street..................256

Figure 15-8. Illustration. Providing parking when there are no reasonable alternatives........................256

Figure 15-9. Illustration. Restriping for a wide curb lane. .....................................................................257

Figure 15-10. Illustration. Typical pavement markings for bike lane on two-way street. .......................259

Figure 15-11. Illustrations. Possible configurations for bike lane and right-turn lane.............................260

Figure 15-12. Illustrations. Design alternatives for a through bike lane with dual right-turn lanes.........261

Figure 15-13. Illustration. Right-turn lane shared by bicyclists and motorists. .......................................262

Figure 15-14. Illustrations. Different loop detector configurations for traffic signals.............................263

Figure 15-15. Illustration. Example of bicycle detector pavement marking............................................263

Figure 15-16. Illustration. Bike lane configuration at entrance ramp (urban design—not for 

limited access freeways)....................................................................................................265

Figure 15-17. Illustration. Bike lane configuration at exit ramp (urban design—not for 

limited access freeways)....................................................................................................266

Figure 15-18. Illustrations. Examples of optional word and symbol pavement markings 

for bike lanes. ....................................................................................................................267

Figure 15-19. Illustrations. Regulatory signs for bicycle facilities. .........................................................268

Figure 15-20. Photo. Example of blue bike lane in Portland, OR............................................................269
xx Table of Contents 

Figure 15-21. Photo. Contraflow bike lane with bicycle-specific signal in Madison, WI. ......................271

Figure 15-22. Illustration. Use of wide stripe to separate bike lane from diagonal parking. ...................272

Figure 15-23. Illustration. A wrong-way bicyclist in a two-way bike lane is not in a driver’s 

field of vision.....................................................................................................................273

Figure 15-24. Illustration. Reconfiguration of a continuous right-turn lane to be bicycle-friendly.........274

Figure 16-1. Photo. Shared-use paths and bicycle lanes may require additional maintenance..............278

Figure 16-2. Photo. Roadways with paved shoulders should reduce on-road debris.............................279

Figure 16-3. Photo. Example of spot improvement postcard used to identify roadway 

maintenance issues. ...........................................................................................................281

Figure 16-4. Photo. Example of newly striped bicycle lane with accumulation of debris next 

to curb................................................................................................................................283

Figure 17-1. Photo. Effective bicycle parking improves security and reduces theft..............................286

Figure 17-2. Illustrations and photo. Examples of common bicycle parking devices. ..........................287

Figure 17-3. Illustrations. Recommended types of bicycle racks. .........................................................291

Figure 17-4. Illustrations. Bicycle rack types that are not APBP-recommended...................................291

Figure 17-5. Illustration. APBP-recommended design dimensions for bicycle rack areas....................292

Figure 17-6. Photo. Excerpts from off-street parking ordinance in Madison, WI. ................................295

Figure 17-7. Illustration. Philadelphia’s standard for bike rack placement in business districts. .........296

Figure 18-1. Photo. The preferred style of bike rack mounts to the front of the bus. ............................301

Figure 18-2. Photo. Some transit agencies allow bicyclists to carry their bikes onto buses. ................302

Figure 18-3. Photos. Bicycle stencils on doors of Danish State railways indicate those cars 

where bikes may be brought on the train...........................................................................303

Figure 18-4. Photo. Lack of adequate bike parking is a common problem at urban subways..............305

Figure 19-1. Photo. To minimize user conflicts, adequate trail width is critical on paths 

having high volumes and diverse user mixes (Santa Barbara, CA)...................................310

Figure 19-2. Photo. Shared-use paths can be adjacent to railroad lines (Libba Cotton Trail, 

Carrboro, NC)....................................................................................................................312

Figure 19-3. Photo. Shared-use paths can be integrated into urban waterfronts and parks, 

providing direct access to central business districts (East Bay Bicycle Path, 

Providence, RI)..................................................................................................................313

Figure 19-4. Illustration. Typical cross section for multiuse trails. .......................................................317

Figure 19-5. Photo. Signs, bollards, and trail and crosswalk markings alert both motorists 

and bicyclists to this midblock trail crossing.....................................................................318

Figure 19-6. Photo. Stairway with bicycle rolling troughs (Capital Crescent Trail, 

Bethesda, MD)...................................................................................................................320

Figure 19-7. Photo. Trailheads with parking and wayfinding signs assist shared-use path users 

(Rock Creek Trail, Montgomery County, MD).................................................................321
Table of Contents xxi 

Figure 19-8. Photo. Bridges and floating sections allow paths to cross water and maintain 

continuity (Eastside Esplanade, Portland, OR)..................................................................322

Figure 20-1. Illustration. Examples of traffic-calming elements. ..........................................................325

Figure 20-2. Photos. Traffic-calming devices are used to break up long, uninterrupted street 

vistas that encourage speeding. .........................................................................................326

Figure 20-3. Illustration. Traffic calming may not be necessary if the original problem 

is corrected.........................................................................................................................327

Figure 20-4. Photo. Emergency vehicle access should always be considered when 

incorporating traffic-calming measures.............................................................................328

Figure 20-5. Photo. Speed humps can be combined with curb extensions and a winding 

street alignment. ................................................................................................................329

Figure 20-6. Photo. Where possible, cyclists should be provided with cycle slips that 

enable them to bypass speed humps. .................................................................................330

Figure 20-7. Photo. Raised crosswalks can slow traffic and give pedestrians a level surface 

at the crossing. ...................................................................................................................330

Figure 20-8. Illustration. Examples of one-lane and two-lane slow points............................................334

Figure 20-9. Photo. This median refuge island provides railing and a staggered crossing 

area to direct pedestrian views toward oncoming traffic...................................................336

Figure 20-10. Photo. A reduced radius allows for a slower, safer turn....................................................338

Figure 20-11. Illustration. When turning radii are reduced, the width of an intersection 

is reduced as well...............................................................................................................338

Figure 20-12. Photo. This traffic-calming measure uses a landscaped median to narrow 

the travel lanes...................................................................................................................339

Figure 20-13. Photo. The design of street closures should provide specific parking areas 

to discourage obstruction of bicycle and pedestrian traffic. ..............................................341

Figure 20-14. Photo. Diagonal road closures/diverters limit vehicular access but allow 

emergency vehicles to enter through removable bollards. ................................................342

Figure 20-15. Photo. Traffic circles can be designed to accommodate large vehicles and 

emergency access without undue restrictions....................................................................344

Figure 20-16. Photo. The splitter islands should be raised and landscaped to prevent 

left-turning vehicles from taking a shortcut across the island. ..........................................346

Figure 20-17. Photo. These pavement markings at a median refuge delineate the crossing 

 for motorists and provide visible cues to sighted pedestrians as to the location 

of the roadway edge...........................................................................................................349

Figure 20-18. Photo. Pavement treatments can be applied to the entire traffic-calmed area 

or limited to specific street uses. .......................................................................................350

Figure 20-19. Illustration. Model of a woonerf........................................................................................354

Figure 20-20. Photo. The distinctions between sidewalks and roadways are blurred in woonerfs..........356

Figure 20-21. Illustration. The conversion of a four-lane roadway—the elimination of one 

travel lane in each direction creates space for bicyclists. ..................................................357
xxii Table of Contents 

Figure 21-1. Utility work in bike lanes can often be accomplished without blocking the 

entire lane. .........................................................................................................................361

Figure 21-2. Illustration. Example method to create passageways for pedestrians during 

construction. ......................................................................................................................364

Figure 21-3. Illustration. Sidewalk closure and pedestrian detour example. .........................................367

Figure 21-4. Illustration. Construction sign placement..........................................................................369

Figure 21-5. Illustration. Pedestrian control...........................................................................................370

Figure 21-6. Illustration. Pedestrian control...........................................................................................370

Figure 22-1. Photo. Courts have become less sympathetic to agencies that do not consider 

the needs of pedestrians and bicyclists. .............................................................................374

Figure 22-2. Photo. Bridges are a recurring theme in many tort liability claims. ..................................377

Figure 22-3. Photo. The needs of all users, young and old, should be considered in 

transportation planning and design....................................................................................378

Figure 22-4. Photo. Example of a sidewalk ending at a bridge abutment with no warning 

or alternative path. .............................................................................................................383

Figure 22-5. Photo. An assessment of potential liability is the first step toward a 

proactive position. .............................................................................................................385

Figure 22-6. Photo. Use of signing to warn motorists and pedestrians of the potential 

hazard posed by vehicle mirrors on narrow bridge sidewalks...........................................387

Figure 22-7. Photo. Example of spot improvement postcard used to identify roadway hazards. .........388

Figure 23-1. Bar chart. Walking and bicycling shares of urban travel in North America 

and Europe, 1995...............................................................................................................392

Figure 23-2. Photo. Zebra crossing in London, U.K., with zigzag approach markings and 

Belisha beacons. ................................................................................................................394

Figure 23-3. Photo. Pedestrian pushbutton for pelican signals in the United Kingdom. .......................395

Figure 23-4. Photo. Pedestrian signal with red standing man (shown) and green walking man...........395

Figure 23-5. Photo. Toucan crossing in the United Kingdom provides separate pedestrian 

and bicyclist signal indications where trail crosses the road. ............................................396

Figure 23-6. Photo. Pedestrian messages on pavement in London, U.K. ..............................................397

Figure 23-7. Photo. Animated eyes display used in conjunction with pedestrian signal. ......................399

Figure 23-8. Photo. Pedestrian mall in Munster, Germany....................................................................400

Figure 23-9. Photo. Bicycle path in The Netherlands parallels the high-speed roadway.......................401

Figure 23-10. Typical bicycle lanes in The Netherlands have red pavement color and are 

wide enough for two bicyclists..........................................................................................401

Figure 23-11. Photo. Bicycle lane markings carried through an intersection in The Netherlands...........402

Figure 23-12. Photo. Bicycle signal used in Amsterdam, The Netherlands.............................................403

Figure 23-13. Photo. Sidewalk-based bicycle path used in Germany......................................................404

Figure 23-14. Photo. Shared bus and bicycle lane in Germany. ..............................................................404
Table of Contents xxiii 

Figure 23-15. Photo. Example of bicycle shelters located at a transit station in Germany......................405

Figure 23-16. Photo. Narrow contraflow bicycle lane in Cambridge, U.K..............................................406

Figure 23-17. Photo. Bicycle trail on an abandoned railroad right-of-way south of York, U.K..............407

Figure 23-18. Photo. The entrance to this bicycle trail is designed to restrict entry to 

motor vehicles. ..................................................................................................................407

Figure 24-1. Photo. Comprehensive bicycle and pedestrian programs include more than 

bike lanes and sidewalks....................................................................................................410

Figure 24-2. Photo. Comprehensive bicycle and pedestrian programs bring together a 

variety of stakeholders.......................................................................................................411

Figure 24-3. Photo. Safety education programs are essential for young children..................................414

Figure 24-4. Photo. Target safety messages to key audiences through various media. .........................415

Figure 24-5. Photo. The NHTSA Resource Guide can be used to improve existing traffic laws..........416

Figure 24-6. Photo. Police bicycle patrols are effective at outreach and crime prevention. ..................418

Figure 24-7. Photos. Vehicle license plates that promote sharing the road with bicyclists. ..................420
xxiv Table of Contents 

List of Tables 

Page

Table 2-1. Regional variations in modal shares for transit, walking, and bicycling...................................21

Table 3-1. Pedestrian crash types................................................................................................................37

Table 3-2. Bicycle crash types. ...................................................................................................................37

Table 3-3. Crash types and associated countermeasures. ...........................................................................47

Table 3-4. Tabulation of pedestrian crash data. ..........................................................................................53

Table 3-5. Tabulation of bicycle crash data................................................................................................53

Table 3-6. Usage data collected at major park entrances............................................................................54

Table 3-7. Summary of major roadways.....................................................................................................54

Table 4-1. Bicycle level of service categories. ...........................................................................................69

Table 5-1. Site plan checklist......................................................................................................................79

Table 5-2. Levels of illumination for sidewalks. ........................................................................................80

Table 6-1. Comparison of new urbanism versus standard street design practices......................................90

Table 8-1. Walking characteristics and abilities of different pedestrian age groups. ...............................115

Table 8-2. Characteristics of other pedestrian groups...............................................................................117

Table 8-3. Design needs of mobility-impaired pedestrians. .....................................................................118

Table 8-4. Mean walking speeds for disabled pedestrians and users of various assistive devices. ..........120

Table 9-1. Corner storage space by pedestrian volumes...........................................................................143

Table 9-2. Preemption of walkway width.................................................................................................145

Table 9-3. Minimum and desirable design features..................................................................................146

Table 10-1. Design requirements for crosswalk pavement markings. ......................................................165

Table 10-2. Recommendations for installing marked crosswalks and other needed pedestrian 

improvements at uncontrolled locations. ..........................................................................................167

Table 11-1. Intersection issues for safe pedestrian crossings. ..................................................................178

Table 11-2. Roundabout trade-off issues for pedestrians..........................................................................202

Table 13-1. Bicycle compatibility index model........................................................................................226

Table 13-2. Bicycle level of service categories. .......................................................................................228

Table 20-1. Description of bumps, humps, and other raised areas. ..........................................................331

Table 20-2. Bellevue, WA, speed hump findings. ....................................................................................332

Table 20-3. Advantages and disadvantages of slow points.......................................................................335

Table 20-4. Advantages and disadvantages of corner radius and narrowed lane treatments....................339

Table 20-5. Advantages and disadvantages of diverters...........................................................................343

Table 20-6. Comparison of roundabouts with traffic circles. ...................................................................344
Table of Contents xxv 

Table 20-7. Advantages and disadvantages of roundabouts. ....................................................................345

Table 20-8. Comparative crash rates for signalized intersections and roundabouts. ................................346

Table 20-9. Speed impacts downstream of traffic-calming measures. .....................................................351

Table 20-10. Volume impacts of traffic-calming measures......................................................................352
xxvi Course Overview 

Course Overview 

For Students: 

What is in this Student Workbook? 

This Student Workbook contains resource material that is intended for use in university courses on bicycle 

and pedestrian transportation. The Workbook consists of 24 lessons that can serve as background reading 

for students. The lessons span a wide range of topics including an introduction to bicycling and walking 

issues, planning and designing for bicycle and pedestrian facilities, supporting elements and programs, 

and international approaches to bicycle and pedestrian transportation. This is the second edition of the 

Student Workbook; the first edition was published as Report No. FHWA-RD-99-198. 

Aside from this Student Workbook, where should I start looking to find key resources on 

bicycle and pedestrian transportation? 

Bicycle and Pedestrian Program, FHWA Office of Planning, Environment, and Realty: 

Useful resources for State and local government program managers and practitioners. 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/index.htm

Pedestrian/Bicycle Safety Program, FHWA Office of Safety: Information and resources aimed to 

improving pedestrian and bicyclist safety. 

http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/programs/pedbike.htm

Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety Research, FHWA Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center: Information 

on issues and research related to improving pedestrian and bicyclist safety. 

http://www.tfhrc.gov/safety/pedbike/pedbike.htm

The Access Board: Resources for accessible pedestrian design and public rights-of-way rulemaking. 

http://www.access-board.gov/

Bicycle and Pedestrian Safety Information, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: Bicycle and 

pedestrian safety information, research, and promotion. 

http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/pedbimot/ped/pedbike.html

Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center, University of North Carolina Highway Safety Research 

Center: Clearinghouse for information about health and safety, engineering, advocacy, education, 

enforcement and access and mobility. 

http://www.pedbikeinfo.org/

National Center for Bicycling and Walking: Resources to create bicycle-friendly and walkable 

communities. 

http://www.bikewalk.org/

National Transportation Library, Bureau of Transportation Statistics: Repository of materials from 

public and private organizations around the country. 

http://ntl.bts.gov/browse.cfm
Course Overview xxvii 

For Instructors: 

Who is the audience for this course material? 

The material in this Student Workbook is oriented toward a full course at the graduate level. As such, the 

lessons span a wide range of topics including an introduction to bicycling and walking issues, planning 

and designing for bicycle and pedestrian facilities, supporting elements and programs, and international 

approaches to bicycle and pedestrian transportation. The technical material in this Workbook is primarily 

intended to support classes offered in civil engineering and urban/regional planning departments. 

Nonetheless, the first edition material (in whole or in part) has also been incorporated into classes in 

public health, public policy and administration, and environmental design. 

An overview lecture is available (at http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/pedbike/univcourse/) for instructors who 

would like a succinct overview that can be incorporated into one or two lectures of an existing 

undergraduate or graduate course. 

What other course development resources are available besides this Student Workbook? 

The Student Workbook is one of three resources produced in an effort to stimulate the development of 

bicycle and pedestrian courses in universities nationwide: 

• Student Workbook (this document): contains resource material and background reading for 

students, divided into 24 lessons. 

• Lesson-based Slideshows: contains scripted slideshows with lesson objectives (in Microsoft 

PowerPoint®) that correspond to the 24 Student Workbook lessons (available at 

http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/pedbike/univcourse/). 

• Overview Lecture: contains a scripted slideshow (in Microsoft PowerPoint®) that can be 

incorporated as a one- or two-lecture overview in existing undergraduate or graduate 

transportation courses (available at http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/pedbike/univcourse/). 

How should I use these resources to develop a bicycle and pedestrian course? 

The Student Workbook and the corresponding slideshows can be adopted in their current form, with a 

minimum level of effort, as the basis of a graduate course. Similarly, the overview lecture can be easily 

incorporated as one or two lectures in existing undergraduate courses. 

Instructors are also encouraged to use any part of this material to form a curriculum that meets their 

needs. Most of the lessons are standalone in nature, with lessons of similar topics grouped into modules. 

A majority of the instructors using the first edition of these course materials have “personalized” the 

lessons for their courses by removing some lessons, adding supplemental material, reorganizing the 

lessons, and adding exercises and local activities to encourage student participation. For these reasons, a 

detailed syllabus or course outline has not been provided. 

What are the key learning outcomes in this course material? 

At the risk of oversimplifying a significant amount of course material, there are key learning outcomes for 

all students using this bicycle and pedestrian course material. For the Student Workbook, which targets a 

full graduate course: 
xxviii Course Overview 

• Students should recognize the legitimacy of the bicycle and pedestrian modes in a balanced 

transportation system. 

• Students should understand how policy, planning, and engineering practices can be improved to 

create a more balanced transportation system. 

• Students should be familiar with basic policies, practices, tools, and design principles and know 

how to use them to create bicycle and pedestrian-friendly communities. 

The overview lecture, which targets one or two lectures in an undergraduate course, should address the 

first two learning outcomes listed above. 
The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 1 

LESSON 1: 

THE NEED FOR BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN MOBILITY 

1.1 Introduction 

This lesson explores the history of community design and its effect on bicycle and pedestrian travel. It 

explains the intricate relationship between transportation systems and land use, and how this relationship 

has evolved in the United States. This session also discusses the importance of planning for nonmotorized 

transportation modes as viable alternatives to the use of private automobiles, as it relates to quality of life, 

economic factors, health, safety, and welfare. Finally, the lesson explores the increasing level of interest 

in bicycle and pedestrian planning that has resulted from national legislation and grassroots support in 

local communities. The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 1.1 Introduction 

• 1.2 How Cities Grow: A Historical Perspective 

• 1.3 Modern Suburban Travel 

• 1.4 Benefits of Bicycling and Walking 

• 1.5 Government Commitment and Support 

• 1.6 Public Support for Bicycling and Walking 

• 1.7 Transportation and Planning Trends 

• 1.8 Student Exercise 

• 1.9 References and Additional Resources 

1.2 How Cities Grow: A Historical Perspective 

Perhaps more than any other factors, transportation modes have influenced the way cities grow and the 

forms they take. Before the advent of the automobile, cities were smaller and more compact in area and 

population. 

Travel between cities was arduous. Transport of goods and materials was generally limited to short 

distances. People walked, rode horses or burros, or traveled in animal-drawn carts. Trips for work, 

shopping, socializing, and business were limited to walking distance for most people. 

The introduction of the bicycle was a major innovation that substantially extended the range people could 

travel. Even today, the bicycle is a major mode of transportation in some countries of the world, such as 

China. It is used to haul heavy loads, pull trailers, and provide everyday transport. In these countries, the 

cost of driving is prohibitive for the average citizen. Per capita income is low, and the price of motor 

vehicle fuel and services is very high. Studies have shown that as per capita income rises, however, 

people switch to private motor vehicle ownership and the extent of walking and bicycling decreases. 

In the United States of the 20th century, urban design reflects the influence of the motor vehicle as the 

dominant transportation mode. Many cities have historic city centers and older neighborhoods that were 

designed to accommodate pedestrians. In many cities, these historic areas are preserved and showcased as 

relics of earlier times. People visit them for the unusual experience of leaving their cars behind and 

walking around. 
2 The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 

Neighborhoods and commercial areas that were designed in the post-World War II era are far less inviting 

to pedestrian travel. They typically lack sidewalks, and streets are wide and difficult to cross (see 

figure 1-1). People usually get in their cars to go to school, to work, or to buy groceries. 

Much of this behavior is just plain habit. People don’t think about walking or bicycling as being easy to 

do. Some of it, however, is a response to: 

• Cities that concentrate all commercial development in large, single-use zones and that buffer 

these uses from nearby homes in ways that may screen out the lights and noise, but that also 

prevent pedestrian access. People can walk or bike to the shopping center, but only if they travel 

far out of their way and use major arterial streets. 

• Cities with subdivision ordinances and street design standards that require wide streets and 

sometimes do not require sidewalks. The concept of multimodal or context-sensitive design—

where motor traffic within neighborhoods is slowed and put on an equal footing with 

nonmotorized street users—is often not supported by standard design practices or is reserved only 

for special projects. 

Figure 1-1. Photo. Wide suburban streets like this one 

were not built to accommodate or encourage walking. 

• Suburban streets are built for higher-speed traffic than are the streets in older parts of town. 

Therefore, speed limits are higher on the new roads. There typically is no roadway space 

allocated to bicyclists. People perceive these streets as dangerous for bicycling, and they lack the 

skills and confidence to ride on them. 

• Use of public transportation in suburban locations is often difficult. Effective public transit 

requires a higher density of users. Suburban schedules provide service at infrequent intervals. It is 

usually faster to drive than to take the bus. 
The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 3 

• Often, barriers to bikes and pedestrians are created because developers and roadway designers (as 

well as the codes and regulations they are required to follow) are mainly concerned with motor 

vehicle traffic circulation (see figure 1-2). Bikes and pedestrians are generally not allowed at 

drive-up windows for banks, restaurants, dry cleaners, and similar establishments. Parking 

garages may allow direct access into adjoining office buildings, but what if the customer wants to 

park a bicycle or walk up a ramp to the street? Construction zones may put pedestrians and 

bicyclists at risk. Snow removal routinely piles snow along the curb, forcing bicyclists to the 

middle of traffic lanes. While these conditions are improving in many cities where new policies 

have been put in place, numerous barriers remain. 

Figure 1-2. Photo. Many modern developments 

are designed to cater to automobile travel. 

Source: Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center (PBIC) 

Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(1)

1.3 Modern Suburban Travel 

Most modern suburban communities in the United States are not designed for bicycle and pedestrian 

travel. This was not always the case. In communities across the country that were built prior to 1950, 

there are remnants of walkable, bikable streets where destinations are closer to residential areas. More and 

more people are beginning to appreciate well-designed communities such as these, where bicycling is 

enjoyable and the streets are lined with trees and sidewalks (the trend toward neotraditional neighborhood 

design reflects this—see lesson 6). The following provides one view of how suburban residential design 

has changed in America: 
4 The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 

Over the last 40 years, as automobiles replaced streetcars, the need for locating houses 

close to the streetcar stop disappeared. Retail business concentrated near the residential 

subdivisions and apartment complexes, curbs and sidewalks, symbols of a pedestrian and 

streetcar-oriented world, became expensive and unnecessary features in this new, 

low-density environment. House lots became wider to accommodate garages, and houses 

themselves were set back from the street to reduce the noise and nuisance of passing 

cars.(2)

Urban design practices have come full circle as planners and engineers have begun to recognize the value 

in providing neighborhoods and commercial areas that are pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly. In many cities 

and towns, zoning ordinances and subdivision design regulations have been revised to ensure that new 

developments are designed to encourage walking and bicycling. 

1.4 Benefits of Bicycling and Walking 

Increased levels of bicycling and walking would result in significant benefits in terms of health and 

physical fitness, the environment, and transportation-related effects. Research has shown that even low to 

moderate levels of exercise, such as regular bicycling or walking, can reduce the risk of coronary heart 

disease, diabetes, stroke, and other chronic diseases; help reduce health care costs; contribute to greater 

functional independence in later years of life; and improve quality of life at every stage. A summary of 

benefits is provided below: 

Transportation System Benefits 

• According to the 2001 NHTS, nearly half of all travel trips taken in the United States are 4.8 

kilometers (km) [3 miles (mi)] or less in length; 28 percent are less than 1.6 km (1 mi).(3) By 

taking advantage of the opportunity to convert short automobile trips to bicycling and walking, 

communities can reap significant benefits from healthier air and reduced traffic congestion. 

• According to Plan B, The Comprehensive State Bicycle Plan for Minnesota, the American public 

saves from 3 to 14 cents for every automobile km (5 to 22 cents per mi) displaced by walking and 

bicycling through reduced pollution, oil import costs, and costs from congestion such as lost 

wages and time on the job.(4)

Environmental Benefits 

• Increased levels of bicycling and walking can play an important role in reducing air pollution. 

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), approximately 160 million tons of 

pollution are emitted into the air each year in the United States. A serious threat to public health, 

air pollution contributes to the deaths of 70,000 people nationwide each year, according to an 

estimate from the Harvard School of Public Health. 

• Short auto trips produce far more pollution per mile than longer trips. According to the Federal 

Highway Administration (FHWA) publication, Transportation Air Quality: Selected Facts and 

Figures, “starting the car cold generates about 16 percent more NOx and 40 percent more CO 

than starting the car when it is warm.”(5)

Economic Benefits 

• For many households, a motor vehicle is typically one of the highest expenses after housing. The 

option of bicycling can improve mobility for people who cannot afford to own and operate a 

motor vehicle, and would allow some households with autos to own one vehicle instead of two. 
The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 5 

• Pedestrian and bicycle transportation allows people to incorporate physical activity into their 

daily lives (see figure 1-3), which reduces health care costs and morbidity rates. 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 1-3. Photo. There are many economic benefits to building 

bicycle and pedestrian facilities like this shared-use path. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(1)

• Outdoor activities such as bicycling and walking are the most popular activities for people on 

vacation from work. They are more popular than visiting museums or national parks, doing beach 

and water activities, and shopping. 

• Businesses invest in locations that have a high quality of life. Corporate employers have an easier 

time attracting highly skilled workers to these locations. 

• According to the National Bicycle and Pedestrian Clearinghouse, trails and greenways can have a 

positive effect on the value of nearby properties.(6) Recent studies of the preferences of new 

homebuyers indicate that there is a demand for more livable communities and, specifically, better 

bicycle and pedestrian facilities in the vicinity. 

Quality of Life Benefits 

• Pedestrians add to the ambience and security of streets. 

• Providing a livable community is a necessary part of attracting and keeping businesses, and 

ensuring local communities remain competitive in the 21st century. 
6 The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 

Health Benefits 

• A number of research studies have shown a correlation between the built environment and the 

amount of routine physical activity, such as regular walking trips. A study published in the 

September 2003 issue of the American Journal of Health Promotion titled “Relationship between 

Urban Sprawl and Physical Activity, Obesity, and Morbidity” found that people living in 

sprawling counties “were likely to walk less, weigh more, and have greater prevalence of 

hypertension than those living in compact counties.”(7) An earlier study published in the American 

Journal of Preventive Medicine showed a direct relationship between the amount of walking and 

the age of the home in which a person lives, as a proxy for the style of urban residential 

development that is common in older versus newer communities.(8) People who lived in older 

homes were found to walk more. 

• Research conducted in 1999 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that 

“obesity and overweight are linked to the nation’s number one killer—heart disease—as well as 

diabetes and other chronic conditions.” The report also states that one reason for Americans’ 

sedentary lifestyle is that “walking and cycling have been replaced by automobile travel for all 

but the shortest distances.”(9)

• Today, there are nearly twice as many overweight children and almost three times as many 

overweight adolescents as there were in 1980. Results of the 1999 National Health and Nutrition 

Examination Survey showed that 13 percent of children and adolescents were overweight.(10)

• Numerous studies have shown tremendous benefits from even a brief amount of light but routine 

exercise each day (see figure 1-4). Bicycling or walking to the store, school, or work also 

provides a time-efficient way of attaining the U.S. Surgeon General’s recommended daily 

allowance of physical exercise. 

• Pedestrian and bicycle transportation offers more opportunities for people to socialize than 

driving alone in automobiles. 

Given these many benefits, the result of a 1991 Harris Poll is not surprising. While only 5 percent of 

respondents currently walk or bicycle as their primary means of transportation, two-and-a-half times this 

number would prefer to walk or bicycle if better facilities were available.(11)

Figure 1-4. Photo. Walking can have a tremendous health benefit. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org,(1)
The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 7 

1.5 Government Commitment and Support 

Government support at the Federal, State, and local levels is critical to ensuring that the transportation 

system accommodates bicycling and walking. Whereas individuals and private organizations can 

accomplish much in increasing public awareness, identifying needs, etc., the creation of safer and more 

appealing places to bicycle and walk is primarily a responsibility of government. This is accomplished not 

only through direct improvements to the roadway environment, but also through planning, policymaking, 

and other government activities. Support and commitment at every level of government are thus the keys 

to significant increases in bicycling and walking as modes of transportation. 

Leading the way in Federal support for bicycling and walking was the Intermodal Surface Transportation 

Efficiency Act (ISTEA). That act initiated a major policy shift in Federal funding priorities in the United 

States by making Federal funds much more accessible for State and local bicycling and walking facilities 

and programs.(12) Subsequent Federal transportation bills have strengthened the emphasis on improving 

conditions for bicycling and walking. 

Following the adoption of ISTEA, the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) published the 

National Bicycling and Walking Study (NBWS) in 1994.(13) NBWS translated the recognition of 

nonmotorized travel embodied in ISTEA into two specific goals: to double the percentage of trips made 

by foot and bicycle while simultaneously reducing the number of crashes involving bicyclists and 

pedestrians by 10 percent. 

The Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), signed into law on June 9, 1998, carried 

forward the same programs for bicycling and walking established in ISTEA and included several new and 

stronger directives. TEA-21 amended existing surface transportation legislation by including a number of 

important policy statements: 

• State and metropolitan planning organization (MPO) long-range plans are to “provide 

consideration of strategies that will increase the safety and security of the transportation system 

for motorized and nonmotorized users.” 

• Bicyclists and pedestrians shall be given “due consideration” in State and MPO plans. 

• Bicycle and pedestrian facilities are to “be considered, where appropriate, with all new 

construction and reconstruction of transportation facilities.” 

TEA-21 also amended Federal transportation law to require the Secretary of Transportation to ensure that 

bicycle and pedestrian linkages are maintained and improved, stating that: 

• “The Secretary of Transportation shall not approve any project or take any regulatory action that 

will result in the severance of an existing major route, or have an adverse impact on the safety of 

nonmotorized transportation traffic and light motorcycles, unless such project or regulatory action 

provides for a reasonable alternate route or such a route already exists.” 

• “In any case where a highway bridge deck being replaced or rehabilitated with Federal financial 

participation is located on a highway on which bicycles are permitted to operate at each end...and 

the Secretary determines that the safe accommodation of bicycles can be achieved at reasonable 

cost, the bridge shall be so replaced.” 

In February 1999, FHWA issued program guidance regarding the bicycle and pedestrian provisions of 

Federal surface transportation legislation. The program guidance and accompanying transmittal 
8 The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 

memorandum are extremely supportive of bicycling and walking and clearly establishes that these modes 

are an important component of the transportation system, stating that:(14,15)

• “To varying extents, bicyclists and pedestrians will be present on all highways and transportation 

facilities where they are permitted and it is clearly the intent of TEA-21 that all new and 

improved transportation facilities be planned, designed, and constructed with this fact in mind.” 

• “We expect every transportation agency to make accommodation for bicycling and walking a 

routine part of their planning, design, construction, operations, and maintenance activities.” 

• “Bicycling and walking ought to be accommodated, as an element of good planning, design, and 

operation, in all new transportation projects unless there are substantial safety or cost reasons for 

not doing so.” 

The program guidance also clarified the meaning of “due consideration,” stating that:(15)

• It is to be presumed that bicyclists and pedestrians will be accommodated in the design of new 

and improved transportation facilities. 

• The decision NOT to accommodate them should be the exception, not the rule. 

• Any circumstances for denying access through design or prohibition must be exceptional. 

States have responded to the challenges of the Federal legislation, and many are already ahead of its 

requirements. As mandated, bicycle and pedestrian coordinators are in place in all 50 States, and some 

State departments of transportation (DOTs) maintain programs that are staffed with several professionals 

who focus solely on bicycle and pedestrian planning and design issues. Florida DOT is one of the leaders 

in this regard, with six staff members who spend 80 percent or more of their time on pedestrian- or 

bicycle-related work, two who spend 50 percent or more in this area, and many additional staff who spend 

a smaller portion of time on pedestrian and bicycle issues. 

MPOs and individual communities have also responded to the mandates and opportunities of the Federal 

legislation. The infusion of Federal funding for bicycle and pedestrian projects has galvanized local 

commitments of funding throughout the country. FHWA has estimated that in the 18 years prior to 

ISTEA, a total of $41 million of Federal funds were spent on bicycling and walking, for an average of 

$2.3 million per year. By the year 2003, that figure had risen to $422 million per year. 

This infusion of funding has fueled a large rise in the number of new shared-use paths, bike lanes on 

urban streets, and sidewalk improvements throughout the country. More and more professionals have 

become involved in working on transportation issues related to bicycling and walking. The Association of 

Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals, founded in 1995, reported a membership of over 450 professionals 

by the year 2003. 

Funding Sources for Bicycle and Pedestrian Projects 

Bicycle and pedestrian projects are broadly eligible for funding from almost all the major Federal-aid 

highway, transit, safety, and other programs. Bicycle projects must be “principally for transportation, 

rather than recreation, purposes” and must be designed and located pursuant to the transportation plans 

required of States and MPOs. 

National Highway System funds may be used to construct bicycle transportation facilities and pedestrian 

walkways on land adjacent to any highway on the National Highway System, including Interstate 

highways. 
The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 9 

Surface Transportation Program (STP) funds may be used for either the construction of bicycle 

transportation facilities and pedestrian walkways or nonconstruction projects (such as maps, brochures, 

and public service announcements) related to safe bicycle use and walking. The modification of public 

sidewalks to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act also is eligible for STP funds. 

Ten percent of each State’s annual STP funds are set aside for Transportation Enhancement Activities 

(TEAs). The law provides a specific list of activities that are eligible TEAs and this includes “provision of 

facilities for pedestrians and bicycles, provision of safety and educational activities for pedestrians and 

bicyclists,” and the “preservation of abandoned railway corridors (including the conversion and use 

thereof for pedestrian and bicycle trails).” 

Another 10 percent of each State’s STP funds are set aside for the Hazard Elimination and 

Railway-Highway Crossing programs, which address bicycle and pedestrian safety issues. Each State is 

required to implement a Hazard Elimination Program to identify and correct locations that may constitute 

a danger to motorists, bicyclists, and pedestrians. Funds may be used for activities such as a survey of 

hazardous locations, projects on any publicly owned bicycle or pedestrian pathway or trail, or any 

safety-related traffic calming measure. Improvements to railway-highway crossings “shall take into 

account bicycle safety.” 

Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program funds may be used for either the 

construction of bicycle transportation facilities and pedestrian walkways or nonconstruction projects 

(such as maps, brochures, and public service announcements) related to safe bicycle use. Project 

applications for these funds must demonstrate an air quality benefit. 

Recreational Trails Program funds may be used for all kinds of trail projects. Of the funds apportioned to 

a State, 30 percent must be used for motorized trail uses, 30 percent for nonmotorized trail uses, and 40 

percent for diverse trail uses (any combination). 

Provisions for pedestrians and bicyclists are eligible under the various categories of the Federal Lands 

Highway Program in conjunction with roads, highways, and parkways. Priority for funding projects is 

determined by the appropriate Federal Land Agency or tribal government. 

National Scenic Byways Program funds may be used for “construction along a scenic byway of a facility 

for pedestrians and bicyclists.” 

Job Access and Reverse Commute Grants are available to support projects, including bicycle-related 

services, designed to transport welfare recipients and eligible low-income individuals to and from 

employment. 

Federal Transit Program (FTP) 

Title 49 U.S.C. (as amended by TEA-21) allows the Urbanized Area Formula Grants, Capital Investment 

Grants and Loans, and Formula Program for Other Than Urbanized Area transit funds to be used for 

improving bicycle and pedestrian access to transit facilities and vehicles. Eligible activities include 

investments in “pedestrian and bicycle access to a mass transportation facility” that establishes or 

enhances coordination between mass transportation and other transportation. 

TEA-21 also amended Title 49 to create a Transit Enhancement Activity program with a 1 percent 

set-aside of Urbanized Area Formula Grant funds designated for, among other things, pedestrian access 

and walkways, and “bicycle access, including bicycle storage facilities and installing equipment for 

transporting bicycles on mass transportation vehicles.” 
10 The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 

Highway Safety Programs 

Pedestrian and bicyclist safety remain priority areas for State and Community Highway Safety Grants 

funded by the Section 402 formula grant program. A State is eligible for these grants by submitting a 

Performance Plan (establishing goals and performance measures for improving highway safety) and a 

Highway Safety Plan (describing activities to achieve those goals). 

Research, development, demonstrations, and training to improve highway safety (including bicycle and 

pedestrian safety) are carried out under the Highway Safety Research and Development (Section 403) 

program.(16)

1.6 Public Support for Bicycling and Walking 

Regardless of the commitment of Federal, State, and local governments to bicycling and walking 

transportation, and regardless of the walkability or bikability of our cities and towns, the full potential of 

bicycling and walking as transportation modes will not be realized if the public is unable to embrace them 

as viable transportation options. Both government and the private sector can play key roles here by 

working to increase public awareness of bicycling and walking and actively promoting their use. 

Programs to increase levels of nonmotorized transportation, including innovative transportation demand 

management plans, bike-to-work activities, Safe Routes to Schools programs, and other promotional 

efforts, all can help to popularize nonmotorized transportation. 

If recent survey results are any indication, the public already strongly supports increased travel options. 

National transportation polls consistently show that adults in the United States want more opportunities to 

bicycle and walk for recreation and transportation. A 1991 Harris Poll showed that 46 percent of adults 

age 18 and older—82 million Americans—say they would sometimes commute to work by bicycle if safe 

bicycle lanes were available. Similarly, 59 percent of the respondents reported that they would walk, or 

walk more, if there were safe, secure designated paths or walkways. Respondents also indicated that they 

want their governments to enhance their opportunities to walk and bicycle.(11)

A 2002 poll conducted by the Bureau of Transportation Statistics and the National Highway Traffic 

Safety Administration (NHTSA) found that 27 percent of adults ride a bicycle at least once a month 

during the summer months, and found that respondents support the installation of more bike lanes, new 

paths, and better lighting and signals to support bicycle trips.(17) In a poll conducted by Belden Russonello 

& Stewart that same year, 53 percent of respondents supported higher levels of Federal spending on 

bicycle facilities, even if it means less funding is available for new road construction.(18)

1.7 Transportation and Planning Trends 

Thus far, this lesson has described the challenges and potential for increasing nonmotorized travel in the 

United States. Public interest and financial support for bicycling and walking has led to improvement 

projects throughout the country, from big cities to small towns and in rural areas as well. Although 

progress is slow and the problems often seem insurmountable, several trends in transportation planning 

point to a promising future for bicycling and walking. New energy, funding, and political support are 

being given to programs that reduce reliance on the private motor vehicle and encourage bicycling and 

walking. Here are a few examples of these trends: 

• DOTs at the State level are adopting policies that support nonmotorized transportation. 

When ISTEA was enacted by Congress in 1991, many State DOTs were initially reticent about 

including facilities for bicycles and pedestrians during roadway improvement projects. Today, a 
The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 11 

number of States are leading the way in establishing policies that require inclusion of pedestrian 

and bicycle accommodations in each road construction or reconstruction project. America Bikes, 

an advocacy organization established to influence national transportation policy, established the 

concept of complete streets (see figure 1-5), and defines them in the following way: 

Figure 1-5. Photo. Many State DOTs are adopting “complete streets” policies. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(1)

Complete streets provide choices to the people who live, work, and travel on them. Pedestrians 

and bicyclists are comfortable using complete streets. A network of complete streets improves the 

safety, convenience, efficiency, and accessibility of the transportation system for all users. Every 

road project should create complete streets.(19)

Examples of States with complete streets policies include California, Florida, Kentucky, Oregon, 

South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. A number of other States are in the process of 

developing new guidance in their roadway design manuals that incorporates better 

accommodations for pedestrians and bicycles, including Massachusetts, New Jersey, and 

Pennsylvania. 

The concept of complete streets includes provisions to make streets accessible for all users, 

including those with disabilities. Increasing the accessibility for users with disabilities increases 

the accessibility for all users. 

• Trends in community design and redevelopment are moving to accommodate and 

encourage walking and bicycling. 

In all parts of the country, there has been increased focus on pedestrian-oriented design. 

Once-deteriorating downtowns are being rediscovered and revitalized, often with a strong 

pedestrian emphasis. In some communities, this new focus began with the introduction of new 

urbanist developments and has then led to a more comprehensive reexamination of zoning and 

subdivision regulations that have traditionally favored automobile access. Communities in every 

State have begun the labor-intensive process of rewriting their development guidelines to either 
12 The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 

encourage or require mixed-use development and higher densities. Communities across the 

country increasingly require developers to provide sidewalks and bikeways, and decreasingly 

fewer planning boards allow exemptions from these requirements. 

Many planning processes are recognizing and addressing the need for coordination and 

cooperation with other professional disciplines as well as with citizen groups, city maintenance 

departments, police officers, school officials, and others. Creating pedestrian- and 

bicyclist-friendly cities takes cooperation and a big-picture approach backed by the power to put 

forward adoptable recommendations with policy or regulatory status. 

• There is a surge of interest in Safe Routes to Schools programs. 

Galvanized by the success of Walk-to-School Day—a national promotional event held in early 

October of each year—State and local governments across the country are initiating Safe Routes 

to School programs (see figure 1-6). These programs are typically grassroots efforts among 

concerned parents, teachers, and community planners to improve walking conditions near 

schools, educate children on safe walking and bicycling skills, and promote walking as a healthy 

alternative. 

Figure 1-6. Photo. Safe Routes to School programs 

are being implemented throughout the U.S. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(1)

A growing number of State legislatures throughout the United States have passed legislation 

aimed at supporting Safe Routes to Schools efforts. This has spurred a variety of pilot programs, 

the development of guidebooks (such as those developed for use in California, Delaware, Florida, 

and Maryland), and national legislation. The growing momentum of these programs has been 

boosted by positive results in two communities that served as national pilot programs: 

o Marin County, CA: A combination of funding was used to establish the pilot Safe Routes 

program in Marin County, including funds from the County, NHTSA, several private 

foundations, and the Bicycle Coalition. Traffic congestion was a considerable issue for this 

Safe Routes program—an estimated 21 percent of morning rush hour traffic consisted of 

parents dropping children off at schools. The program grew from an initial nine pilot schools 

and 1,600 students in 2000 to 23 schools and 12,000 students in 2003. The results were 
The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 13 

impressive: a 57 percent increase in children walking and biking, and a 29 percent decrease in 

children arriving by car. 

o Arlington, MA: This program also used a combination of funding and support from private 

corporations such as New Balance, the American Automobile Association (AAA), and the 

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Public sources included the City of Boston, Massachusetts 

Highway Department, and the National Park Service. The program began with three pilot 

schools in 2000, and expanded to several more schools in 2001–2003. At one elementary 

school, 38 percent of students walked prior to 2000. By June 2002, 56 percent of students 

walked to that school. 

• In urban and suburban areas, a network of shared-use paths and onroad bikeways for 

nonmotorized transportation is growing. 

Trail systems provide continuous, scenic, and grade-separated access to major destinations using 

canal banks, flood control channels, river corridors, parks, and greenbelts. Built to current design 

standards, these trails can serve many types of users for many different trip purposes. Cities and 

towns of all sizes have continued to add miles of shared-use paths, forming a growing network of 

trails throughout the U.S. Projects like the East Coast Greenway—a proposed urban off-road trail 

extending from Maine to Florida—have galvanized local efforts to eliminate gaps in their trail 

networks, improve trail/roadway intersections, and develop guide maps. In urban areas such as 

Portland, OR, and Washington, DC, census data show higher levels of bicycle commuting in 

census tracts that lie along trails and onroad bikeways. 

• Growing trends in roadway design toward slower operating speeds are making it less 

comfortable to operate motorized vehicles at high speeds in residential areas. 

State and local DOTs have begun to reexamine longstanding roadway design practices that have 

favored generous lane widths and faster design speeds. There is a growing recognition among 

transportation engineers that urban roadways must be designed to accommodate multiple users, 

and therefore intersections should be more compact and provide refuge areas for pedestrian 

crossings. Traffic calming principles have become mainstream in many transportation 

departments. See lesson 20 for a full explanation of the traffic calming techniques. 

• Professional associations increasingly advocate walking and bicycling. 

Associations such as the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 

(AASHTO), Transportation Research Board (TRB), the Institute of Transportation Engineers 

(ITE), and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) are putting more and more positive 

energy into support for bicycle and pedestrian transportation. 

They are working to educate their members about design planning, construction practices, and 

related issues. ITE, for example, has published manuals on traffic calming, supports traditional 

neighborhood design, and is adding new chapters on walking and bicycling solutions to its major 

handbook and other publications. AASHTO has initiated updates to the Guide for the 

Development of Bicycle Facilities and is in the process of publishing its first national pedestrian 

guideline. In addition, engineers and planners in the bicycle and pedestrian field have established 

their own professional organization—the Association of Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals 

(APBP). This organization promotes excellence in the emerging professional discipline of 

pedestrian and bicycle transportation. 

• There is a trend toward greater public involvement in transportation decisions. 

The public has become more involved in transportation planning and policy, especially on the 

local and State levels (see figure 1-7). Federal transportation legislation and a trend toward citizen 

activism are leading to the formation of bicycle and pedestrian advisory councils in many areas. 
14 The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 

Combined with existing community organizations, clubs, and advocacy networks, such councils 

play growing roles in transportation and land use decisions. 

1.8 Student Exercises 

The following ideas are suggested for student exercises. 

Exercise A 

Part 1

Take photographs of both good and bad locations to bicycle and walk in your community. 

Photographs may document conditions in several locations or within one particular development 

(commercial or residential). Your photo log should capture the overall environment (such as 

streetscape), specific barriers and/or good features, and general land use relationships to the 

transportation facility. For each photograph, prepare a short writeup explaining the problems or 

positive features you inventoried. 

Figure 1-7. Photo. There are growing trends in public involvement 

in local transportation planning processes. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(1)

Part 2

Using the specific locations you documented in part 1, conduct an evaluation of engineering issues related 

to the following facility design aspects: 

1. Need for bicycle/pedestrian facilities. How would you establish the need for facilities, whether 

the existing ones or proposed improvements? What data would you collect? What type(s) of 
The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 15 

analysis procedures or comparisons would be useful in assessing need? If you documented 

existing facilities in your photographs, how would you demonstrate effectiveness to detractors 

who call money spent on pedestrian and bicycles facilities a waste of resources? Please develop 

some proposed guidelines within the context of effective and reasonable public policy for use by 

a local agency in addressing issues related to bicycle and pedestrian facilities. 

2. Incorporation of needed facilities in new design. Describe how any deficiencies you noted in 

your photo logging exercise could have been addressed if pedestrian and/or bicycle facilities were 

included in the original design and construction. Tabulate and evaluate the associated impacts. If 

you documented existing designs, describe and quantify impacts associated with accommodating 

pedestrians and/or bicycles in the facility/facilities you photographed. 

3. Incorporation of needed facilities in retrofit design. Assuming that you documented locations 

deficient for pedestrian and bicycle travel, list and describe possible ways to rectify and retrofit 

existing facilities so that these locations can more readily accommodate pedestrian and/or bicycle 

travel modes. 

Exercise B 

Conduct an Internet search to find local land use planning procedures, and document your findings in a 

one-page report, citing your sources. Critique the organization’s pedestrian/bicycle planning procedures 

given the new Federal emphasis on pedestrian/bicycle issues. 

Exercise C 

List ten primary and secondary health and societal benefits of nonmotorized transportation. Then write a 

paragraph for each benefit that further develops each idea listed. 

1.9 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Image Library, PBIC, available online at http://www.pedbikeimages.org, accessed May 6, 2004. 

2. Untermann, Richard K., Linking Land Use and Transportation: Design Strategies to Serve 

HOVs and Pedestrians, Washington State Transportation Commission, Olympia, WA, 1991. 

3. 2001 NHTS, available online at 

http://www.bts.gov/programs/national_household_travel_survey/, accessed August 12, 2005. 

4. Plan B, The Comprehensive State Bicycle Plan for Minnesota, Minnesota Department of 

Transportation, February 1992. 

5. Transportation Air Quality: Selected Facts and Figures, FHWA. Washington, DC, January 

2002. 

6. National Center for Bicycling and Walking, available online at 

http://www.bikewalk.org/index.htm, accessed August 12, 2005. 
16 The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 

7. Ewing R., Schmid T., Killingsworth R., Zlot A. and Raudenbush S., “Relationship Between 

Urban Sprawl and Physical Activity, Obesity and Morbidity,” American Journal of Health 

Promotion, volume 18, no. 1, September 2003. 

8. Berrigan, D. and R.P. Troiano, “The Association Between Urban Form and Physical Activity in 

U.S. Adults,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, volume 23, issue 2, supplement 1, 

August 2002. 

9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA,1999. 

10. 1999 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, available online at 

http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes.htm, accessed August 12, 2005. 

11. Harris Poll Data published by Bicycling Magazine, April 1991 and by Rodale Press, 1992. 

12. Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991. 

13. National Bicycling and Walking Study, FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-PD-94-023, 

Washington, DC, 1994, available online at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/, 

accessed April 26, 2004. 

14. Transmittal of Guidance on Bicycle and Pedestrian Provisions of the Federal-aid Program, 

FHWA, Washington, DC, February 24, 1999, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/bp-guid.htm, accessed April 26, 2004. 

15. FHWA Guidance—(February 24, 1999: Bicycle and Pedestrian Provisions of Federal 

Transportation Legislation, FHWA, Washington, DC, February 24, 1999, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/rectrails/guidance.htm, accessed April 26, 2004. 

16. A Summary of Bicycle and Pedestrian Provisions of the Federal-aid Program, FHWA, 

Publication No. FHWA-PD-98-049, Washington, DC, 1998. 

17. 2002 National Survey of Pedestrian and Bicyclist Attitudes and Behaviors, Bureau of 

Transportation Statistics, available online at http://www.bts.gov/, accessed August 12, 2005. 

18. Americans’ Attitudes Toward Biking, Belden, Russonello & Stewart, April 2003, available 

online at http://www.americabikes.org/images/resource/media/summary%20of%20stats.doc, 

accessed August 12, 2005. 

19. America Bikes Web site, 2004, available online at http://www.americabikes.org/, accessed 

April 28, 2004. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Appleyard, Donald, Livable Streets, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1981. 

• Complete Streets Fact Sheet, League of American Bicyclists, Washington, DC, 2004. 

• FHWA Bicycle and Pedestrian Program, 2005, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/index.htm, accessed March 21, 2005. 

• Jacobs, Allan, Great Streets, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1993. 
The Need for Bicycle and Pedestrian Mobility 17 

• PBIC: Policy and Planning Page, 2004, available online at 

http://www.walkinginfo.org/pp/index.htm, accessed April 26, 2004. 

• Whyte, William H., City: Rediscovering the Center, Doubleday, New York, NY, 1989. 

Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 19 

LESSON 2: 

BICYCLING AND WALKING IN THE UNITED STATES TODAY 

2.1 Introduction 

It is generally acknowledged that nonmotorized travel modes are not being used as extensively as they 

could be in the United States. This lesson describes current levels of bicycle and pedestrian activity, and it 

specifically examines the reasons why bicycling and walking are not used more widely as travel modes. 

This lesson explores patterns of pedestrian and bicycle travel, particularly as they relate to design issues 

and allocation of right-of-way space. 

In order to adequately plan and design for bicycles and pedestrians, it is important to understand current 

patterns of travel as well as the desire for increased mobility. Although children, older adults, and people 

with disabilities make up a large percentage of the population (up to 37 percent of most States), their 

needs are seldom adequately considered in transportation system planning and design (see figure 2-1). 

Increasing transportation accessibility for users with disabilities increases the accessibility for all users. 

This lesson discusses these and other pertinent issues that affect bicycle and pedestrian travel in the 

United States today.(1) The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 2.1 Introduction 

• 2.2 Current Levels of Bicycling and Walking 

• 2.3 Factors Influencing the Decision to Bicycle or Walk 

• 2.4 Potential for Increasing Bicycling and Walking 

• 2.5 Need for Action: Pedestrians and Bicyclists at Risk 

• 2.6 Student Exercise 

• 2.7 References and Additional Resources 

Figure 2-1. Photo. Sidewalks must be designed to serve people of all abilities. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(2)
20 Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 

2.2 Current Levels of Bicycling and Walking 

A number of surveys confirm that bicycling and walking are activities enjoyed by increasing numbers of 

Americans of all ages: 

• According to the Travel Industry Association of America, 27 million travelers took bicycling 

vacations between 1997 and 2002 (ranks in the top three most popular outdoor vacation 

activities).(3)

• According to a National Sporting Goods Association (NSGA) survey, exercise walking drew 

79.5 million participants in 2003, making it by far the most popular recreational activity in the 

United States. Bicycling ranks seventh on the list, with 36.3 million participants in 2003.(4)

Bicycling and walking are clearly popular activities, whether for sport, recreation, exercise, or simply for 

relaxation and enjoyment of the outdoors. As the following surveys indicate, however, their potential as 

modes of transportation is just beginning to be realized. 

2001 NHTS 

The primary source of information on utilitarian as well as recreational bicycling and walking in the 

United States is the NHTS.(5) The survey is conducted approximately every 5 to 7 years, with the most 

recent survey taken in 2001. NHTS survey data are collected from a sample of U.S. households and 

expanded to provide national estimates of trips and miles by travel mode, trip purpose, and a host of 

household attributes (see figure 2-2). 

Personal vehicle, 

multiple occupant,

48.9%

Personal vehicle,

single occupant, 

37.6%

Walk, 8.6%

Other, 1.7%

School bus, 1.5%

Transit, 1.5%

Figure 2-2. Chart. Transportation mode data from the 2001 NHTS. 

Source: Highlights of the 2001 NHTS(5)

The 2001 NHTS collected travel data from a national sample of approximately 66,000 households. The 

NHTS was conducted using computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) technology. Each 

household in the sample was assigned a specific 24-hour “Travel Day” and kept diaries to record all travel 
Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 21 

by all household members for the assigned day. A 28-day travel period was assigned to collect 

longer-distance travel [over 80.5 km (50 mi) from home] for each household member and includes 

information on long commutes, airport access, and overnight stays.(5)

Results revealed that 8.6 percent of all trips were by walking and 0.9 percent by bicycling. The survey 

techniques used for the 2001 NHTS varied in their measurement of walking trips; thus, what appears to be 

an increase in walking trips from the 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS) (which 

indicated that walking trips were 5.4 percent of total trips) may in fact be due to the change in sampling 

methodologies.(6)

In 2003, the Eno Transportation Foundation profiled transportation trends in an article in the 

Transportation Quarterly titled “Socioeconomics of Urban Travel: Evidence from the 2001 NHTS.” In it, 

the authors make the following conclusions regarding walking:(7)

Walking is probably the most ignored mode of transport, both in general as well as in 

reference to its importance among the disadvantaged . . . walking accounts for 16.2 

percent of the trips by the poor, 12.6 percent of trips by blacks, and 11.8 percent of the 

trips of Hispanics. Yet in the United States, facilities for pedestrians are often 

inconvenient or nonexistent, leading to fatality rates per mile traveled 36 times higher 

than for occupants of cars and light trucks. The lack of pedestrian safety especially 

affects minorities and the poor. For example, blacks account for 20 percent of all 

pedestrian deaths, almost twice their 12 percent share of the total population. 

There are significant regional differences in amount of walking trips that occur in different geographic 

regions of the United States. As calculated by the authors of the Transportation Quarterly article, table 

2-1 shows regional variations in modal shares for transit, walking, and bicycling.(7) As expected, 

nonmotorized modes are used to a greater extent in areas of the country with more extensive public transit 

systems and in cities that are oriented to transit use. 

Table 2-1. Regional variations in modal shares for transit, walking, and bicycling. 

(percentage of trips by mode) 

Source: Highlights of the 2001 NHTS(5)

Mode of 

Transportation 

New 

England 

Middle 

Atlantic 

East 

North 

Central

West 

North 

Central

South 

Atlantic

East 

South 

Central

West 

South 

Central Mountain Pacific

Total Transit 1.8 5.8 1.3 0.6 1.6 0.4 0.7 0.8 2.2 

Bus and Light 

Rail 0.7 3.0 0.9 0.5 1.2 0.4 0.7 0.8 2.0 

Metro/Subway/ 

Heavy Rail 0.9 2.3 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 

Commuter Rail 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 

Total Nonmotorized 11.0 16.7 9.5 7.3 8.5 6.4 7.1 9.5 11.7 

Walk 10.3 15.8 8.6 6.6 7.6 6.0 6.3 8.7 10.6 

Bicycle 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.1 

Note: Values in table represent percent of total trips by mode indicated. 

As with previous federally sponsored transportation surveys, the 2001 NHTS collected data on trip 

purpose and trip length. Results show that more than half of the bicycle trips and a third of the walking 

trips are for social or recreational purposes. Family and personal business travel, along with school and 
22 Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 

church-related travel, were also significant contributors. The average length of a travel trip is 0.97 km (0.6 

mi) for walking and 3.2 km (2.0 mi) for bicycling. 

Other National Surveys 

A second source of information on utilitarian bicycling and walking is the U.S. Census “Journey to 

Work” survey.(8) The survey is conducted every 10 years and is targeted toward participants in the work 

force age 16 or older. It is important to note that the U.S. Census survey reports on travel to and from 

work only, excluding trips to school, shopping, and other frequent destinations. Data are collected for a 

one-week period during the last week in March, making it likely that bicycling and walking trips are 

underreported for many parts of the country due to cold weather. Moreover, only the predominant 

transportation mode is requested, so that occasional bicycling and walking trips as well as bicycling and 

walking trips, made to access transit or other travel modes, are not recorded. 

With these limitations in mind, in 2000, an estimated 3.8 million people (3.9 percent of all workers) 

commuted to work by walking, and just under one-half million (0.4 percent) commuted by bicycle. These 

are national averages; some cities had much higher percentages of people walking or bicycling to work. It 

should be noted, however, that the overall percentages for 1990 are down slightly from the 1980 Census 

results, which showed 5.3 percent of persons commuting by walking and 1.4 percent by bicycling. 

The 2002 National Survey of Pedestrian and Bicyclist Attitudes and Behaviors was sponsored by the 

USDOT NHTSA and Bureau of Transportation Statistics to gauge pedestrian and bicyclists trips, 

behaviors, and attitudes (see http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/survey2002.htm).(9)

According to the survey, approximately 57 million people, 27.3 percent of the population age 16 or older, 

rode a bicycle at least once during the summer of 2002. The survey breaks this down by gender, age, and 

race/ethnicity (see figure 2-3). 

* Estimates reflect total U.S. population age 16 or older in the 50 state and the District of Columbia

NonHisp

White

NonHisp

Black

NonHisp

Other

Hispanic

Figure 2-3. Chart. Percentage bicycling in past 30 days by gender, age, race/ethnicity. 

Source: 2002 National Survey of Pedestrian and Bicyclist Attitudes and Behaviors(9)
Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 23 

Comparisons between 1990 and 2000 Census data have provided some of the first evidence in the United 

States that higher levels of bicycle commuting result in areas where trails and on-road bicycle networks 

have been built. In Portland, OR and Washington, DC, local planners have used geographic information 

systems (GIS) to overlay the established trail networks with the 2000 census data to compare commute 

rates along census tracts that lie near trails and bikeways. In both cities, census tracts that lie adjacent to 

or near trails and bikeways exhibited levels of bicycle commuting that are higher than the local averages. 

2.3 Factors Influencing the Decision to Bicycle or Walk 

Many factors influence choice of travel mode and, in particular, the decision to bicycle or walk. These 

factors operate at different levels in the decision process. An analysis in the early 1990s identified a 

three-tiered hierarchy of factors categorized according to initial considerations, trip barriers, and 

destination barriers.(10)

Initial Considerations 

Many people may never seriously consider the transportation options of bicycling and walking. 

Overcoming the status quo of automatically relying on a car to travel the 4.8 km (3 mi) to work or three 

blocks to the drugstore is an important first step in broadening the base of bicyclists and walkers. 

Activities such as Bike to Work days have been successfully employed in many communities to increase 

awareness of bicycling and walking as viable means of transport. 

Either distance, or its companion factor, time, is often cited as a reason for not bicycling or walking. 

According to 2001 NHTS results, the average length of travel while shopping and taking other utilitarian 

trips are short. More importantly, nearly half of all travel trips are 4.8 km (3 mi) or less. All of these trips 

are within reasonable bicycling distance, if not within walking distance. 

Individual attitudes and values are also important in the decision to bicycle or walk. People may choose 

not to bicycle or walk because they perceive these activities as uncool, as children’s activities, or as 

socially inappropriate for those who can afford a car. Others may have quite different values, viewing 

bicycling and walking as beneficial to the environment, healthy, economical, and free from the problems 

of contending with traffic, or finding parking. These, and the many other benefits of bicycling and 

walking described previously, often influence people to begin bicycling and walking on a regular basis. 

Individual perceptions (and misconceptions) also play a role in the decision process. Safety concerns such 

as traveling at night must be addressed. Although many bicycling and walking trips may be accomplished 

at low levels of exertion, some people perceive that these activities are beyond their capabilities.(11) While 

a small portion of the population may not have the physical capabilities to walk to a destination or ride a 

bicycle, for most people, these activities are well within their abilities. Also, as stamina and skill increase, 

such activities become easier and more enjoyable. 

Finally, there are situational constraints that, while they may not totally preclude the decision to bicycle or 

walk, do require additional planning and effort. Examples include needing a car at work, having to 

transport items that are heavy or bulky, and needing to drop off children at daycare. While these situations 

may make it more difficult to bicycle or walk, they can often be overcome with advance planning. More 

analysis of these issues would be useful. If bicycling and walking are not appropriate for one particular 

trip, there are still a number of trips during the course of a day or week in which bicycling and walking 

are viable options. 
24 Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 

Trip Barriers 

Even with a favorable disposition toward bicycling and walking, reasonable trip distances, and absence of 

situational constraints, many factors can still encourage or discourage the decision to bicycle or walk. One 

of the most frequently cited reasons for not bicycling or walking is fear for safety in traffic.(11) Given the 

prevailing traffic conditions found in many urban and suburban areas—narrow travel lanes, high motor 

vehicle speeds, congestion, lack of sidewalks, pollution, etc.—many individuals who could meet their 

transportation needs by bicycling or walking do not, simply because they perceive too great a risk to their 

safety and health (see figure 2-4). 

Figure 2-4. Photo. Street crossings can be a significant barrier to walking. 

Perceptions of safety as well as actual safety problems must be addressed at the local level. Locational 

constraints such as lack of alternatives to high-speed, high motor vehicle volume roadways must be 

carefully handled. Adequate facilities can help overcome many of these safety concerns, whether they are 

sidewalks for walking, smooth shoulders, wide curb lanes, bicycle lanes, or off-road paths for the 

enjoyment of both bicyclists and walkers. Traffic calming measures are another way to enhance bicycle 

and pedestrian safety and accommodation. 

Traffic safety can also be improved through education and law enforcement activities. Training 

opportunities that help bicyclists feel more competent riding in traffic, campaigns that remind motorists to 

share the road, and efforts to cite motorists who fail to yield to pedestrians at intersections are just a few 

examples. 

Even communities with well-designed bicycling and walking facilities can still be plagued by problems 

with access and linkage. A beautifully designed and constructed off-road facility is useless to the bicyclist 

or pedestrian who cannot traverse a narrow bridge or cross a freeway to get to it. Similarly, facilities that 

do not connect neighborhoods to shopping areas or downtown businesses may never achieve their 
Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 25 

intended purpose of increased use of nonmotorized travel modes. Directness of the route and personal 

safety and security considerations are also important factors in people’s decisions to bicycle or walk. 

Environmental factors could also be considered in this category of trip barriers. Examples include hilly 

terrain, extreme temperatures, high humidity, and frequent or heavy rainfall. Like many of the other trip 

barriers cited, these are to a great extent subjective and have been dealt with by those already engaging in 

these activities, many of whom have effectively overcome these difficulties. For potential users, these 

issues must be addressed and overcome if possible. 

Destination Barriers 

Facility and infrastructure needs do not stop with arrival at the work site or other destination. Many 

bicyclists are discouraged from becoming bicycle commuters because once at work they have no place to 

safely park their bicycle and no place where they can shower and change (although if the trip is made at 

lower levels of exertion, showering, and changing clothes may not be necessary). 

Secure bicycle parking deserves special attention. The availability of parking is a prerequisite for 

automobile use; the same holds true for bicycling. Bicyclists are further burdened by the possibility of 

theft or damage to their bicycles. A Baltimore, MD, survey of bicyclists reported that 25 percent had 

suffered theft, with 20 percent of those giving up bicycling as a result. In New York City, bicycle theft 

numbers in the thousands annually. Even when parked securely, bicycles are frequently exposed to 

damage from rain and other environmental conditions. Secure parking areas for bicycles are necessary 

before bicycle use will increase. 

Destination barriers can also take a less tangible form, such as a lack of support from employers and 

co-workers. Such support can be particularly important for sustaining a long-term commitment to 

bicycling or walking. In some cases, this support may be tangible, such as a discount on insurance costs 

or reimbursed parking expenses. In other cases, it may be less tangible, but equally important, such as 

allowing a less formal dress code or establishing a policy of flextime so that employees do not have to 

commute during the heaviest traffic times or in darkness. 

To summarize, a variety of factors enter into the decision to walk or bike for utilitarian purposes. Some of 

these, such as trip distance, must be considered at the very outset of the decision and the process. It must 

be addressed if current levels of bicycling and walking are to be increased.(1)

2.4 Potential for Increasing Bicycling and Walking 

What is the potential for increasing bicycling and walking in the United States? Can the relatively high 

levels of bicycling and walking found in cities such as Davis, CA, and Madison, WI, be duplicated in 

other communities? Can U.S. cities approach the high usage levels found in some European and Asian 

cities? 

Clearly, if aggregate levels of bicycling and walking are to be increased, changes must occur to remove 

the barriers previously discussed. This section identifies a variety of factors that impact the potential of 

bicycling and walking to become viable transportation modes in the United States. 

Public Support for Bicycling and Walking 

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the public already strongly supports increased travel options. The 

1991 Harris Poll cited earlier showed that 46 percent of adults age 18 and older—82 million Americans—

had ridden a bicycle in the previous year. Of these: 
26 Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 

• Forty-six percent stated they would sometimes commute to work by bicycle if safe bicycle lanes 

were available. 

• Fifty-three percent would do so if they had safe, separate designated paths on which to ride. 

• Forty-five percent would do so if their workplace had showers, lockers, and secure bicycle 

storage. 

• Forty-seven percent would do so if their employer offered financial or other incentives.(12)

Other Considerations 

Other factors can also significantly impact the potential for bicycling and walking in the United States. Of 

particular relevance are: (1) the linkage of bicycle and pedestrian travel to transit, (2) the expansion of 

recreational bicycling and walking to more utilitarian uses, and (3) the potential impact of bicycle design 

technology. 

The transit connection. The potential for bicyclist and pedestrian integration with transit is enormous. 

According to 2001 NHTS data, more than half of all people nationwide live less than 3.2 km (2 mi) from 

the closest public transportation route. The median length of an automobile trip to access a park-and-ride 

lot for public transit is less than 4.8 km (3 mi); and for a kiss-and-ride trip in which a passenger is 

dropped off, median trip length ranges from 2.1 to 2.6 km (1.3 to 1.6 mi).(13)

Since these short-distance, cold-start motor vehicle trips generate significant pollution, improved bicyclist 

and pedestrian access to transit can also reap environmental benefits. A 1980 Chicago area transportation 

study found bike-and-ride to be by far the most cost-effective means of reducing hydrocarbon emissions. 

The conversion of only 10 percent of park-and-ride commuters to bike-and-ride could result in gasoline 

savings of more than 2.2 million gallons annually.(13)

While much potential remains unrealized, the bicycle-transit link is gaining momentum: 

• In Phoenix, AZ, the first major city to use bus bicycle racks system wide, there are an estimated 

13,000 bicyclist boardings per month. 

• In the first 3 months of the Portland, OR, Tri-Met program, more than 700 bicyclists bought 

permits to allow bicycles on buses and light rail. 

• In California, surveys show that one-third to two-thirds of bicycle locker users at park-and-ride 

lots drove alone to their final destination before switching to bike-and-ride. In San Diego, the 

average bicyclist rides 5.8 km (3.6 mi) to access a locker prior to traveling another 17.7 (11.0 mi) 

by transit. 

Recreational bicycling and walking. The popularity of bicycling and walking as both recreational 

activities and healthy forms of outdoor exercise is well documented. Over the past decade, both activities 

have enjoyed widespread and growing participation by the American public. The distinction between 

recreational bicycling and walking and utilitarian bicycling and walking is not always clear-cut. One 

approach is to classify a bicycle or walking trip as utilitarian only if it would otherwise have been made 

by an alternative mode of transport, such as a car or bus (the mode substitution test). By this definition, 

the age of the person and the nature of the facility on which the travel takes place do not enter into 

consideration. If a child rides a bicycle, even on the sidewalk, down the street to a friend’s house, this is a 

legitimate transportation trip. 
Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 27 

According to the Bicycle Federation of America (BFA), there are already an estimated 131 million 

recreational bicyclists and walkers. These people have demonstrated their ability to travel under their own 

power. They have also experienced firsthand the physical, psychological, and other benefits of bicycling 

and walking. This population will be instrumental in achieving the goal of doubling the percentage of 

utilitarian bicycling and walking. 

The primary question that remains is how to convert more of these recreational bicyclists and walkers to 

persons using these modes for utilitarian travel. The 1991 Harris Poll suggests that at least part of the 

answer lies in improving existing facilities for bicycling and walking, building sidewalks and designated 

bicycle facilities, installing secure bicycle parking at destinations, etc.(11) Other surveys support this 

conclusion.(12) However, it is uncertain to what extent a person’s professed intention to bicycle or walk (if 

certain facilities are made available) will correspond to actual changes in their travel behavior, should 

these improvements be realized. Nevertheless, recreational bicyclists and walkers represent a strong 

candidate pool of potential bicycling and walking commuters. 

Bicycle design technology. Another factor that may affect the potential for increased bicycling is the 

bicycle itself, along with the many accessories that accompany it. The resurgence of bicycling in the 

1980s may be partially credited to the development of mountain bikes. Technological innovations and 

highly functional design have made this type of bicycle user-friendly and versatile for a wide range of 

people and uses. New bicycle designs, some of which are just now appearing and are appropriate for 

transit interface, short-distance cargo carrying, and easy use, further broaden ridership. Perhaps a more 

intelligent bicycle design can contribute to a significant increase in utilitarian bicycle trips.(1)

2.5 Need for Action: Pedestrians and Bicyclists at Risk 

An increasing percentage of the U.S. population is affected if pedestrians and bicyclists are not 

accommodated in transportation facilities and programs. Children, older adults, and people with 

disabilities make up a substantial portion of the population—up to 37 percent in some States. To maintain 

independence and mobility, these people walk and ride bicycles. 

Age groups affected. More than other age groups, children and older adults (age 66+) rely on walking or 

bicycling as their primary transportation mode. They have few options in most cases. They must achieve 

mobility within the physical limitations associated with old age and with the early stages of children’s 

physical development: 

• Children have not yet acquired the skills needed for traffic safety. Their physical development in 

such things as peripheral vision and ability to discern the source of sounds is incomplete. 

• Older adults have the experience and basic skills, but often move around more slowly than they 

used to, have poor eyesight, hearing loss, and a range of other disabilities. Walking helps older 

adults to retain some degree of independence in spite of their other disabilities. 

Bicycle and pedestrian crashes. Children and older adults are highly overrepresented in bicycling and 

pedestrian crash statistics. Approximately 4,900 pedestrians and 700 bicyclists are killed each year as a 

result of collisions with motor vehicles. As a group, pedestrians and bicyclists comprise more than 

14 percent of all highway fatalities each year. Pedestrians account for as much as 40 to 50 percent of 

traffic fatalities in some large urban areas.(13)
28 Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 

2.6 Student Exercises 

The following are suggested ideas for student exercises. 

Exercise A 

List and describe several issues or limitations related to walking or cycling and how they can be 

overcome (e.g., land use, weather, facilities at the workplace, connectivity, etc.) 

Exercise B 

Search the county or city statistics on factors that effect bicycle and pedestrian usage (e.g., number of 

miles of bike facilities or sidewalks, connectivity, access by car, portage on transit). 

Exercise C 

Gather statistics on mode share for the county or city, and document the general planning and design for 

the network system. Is it a grid system, and how connected are transit, bike, and pedestrian systems, etc.? 

Exercise D 

Write an essay on how you would get around your city or town if you had only a defined amount of 

gasoline, which might vary depending on location. Keep a diary for a week, indicating method of travel 

for each type of trip, mode taken, trip distance, duration, and other important details. 

2.7 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. National Bicycling and Walking Study, FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-RD-94-023, Washington, 

DC, 1994, available online at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped.

2. Image Library, PBIC, available online at http://www.pedbikeimages.org, accessed May 6, 2004.

3. Travel Forecast Summary, Travel Industry Association of America, Bureau of Labor and 

Statistics, Department of Labor, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Department of Commerce, 

Washington, DC, 2003, available online at http://www.tia.org/Travel/forecasts.asp. 

4. Sports Participation in 2003, National Sporting Goods Association, Mt. Prospect, IL, 2003, 

available online at http://www.nsga.org. 

5. Highlights of the 2001 NHTS, USDOT, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Washington, DC, 

2003.

6. 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey, available online at 

http://npts.ornl.gov/npts/1995/doc/index.shtml, accessed August 12, 2005. 

7. Pucher, J. and J.L. Renne, “Socioeconomics of Urban Travel: Evidence from the 2001 NHTS,”

Transportation Quarterly, vol. 57, no. 3, summer 2003, pp. 49–77, available online at 

http://www.vtpi.org/TQNHTS.pdf. 
Bicycling and Walking in the United States Today 29 

8. Journey to Work 2000: Census 2000 Brief, U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 

Washington, DC, March 2004, available online at 

http://www.census.tov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-33.pdf.

9. 2002 National Survey of Pedestrian and Bicyclist Attitudes and Behaviors: Highlights Report, 

NHTSA and Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Washington, DC, 2003, available online at 

http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/survey2002.htm, accessed May 3, 2004. 

10. The National Bicycling and Walking Study Case Study No. 1: Reasons Why Bicycling and 

Walking Are Not Being Used More Extensively as Travel Modes, FHWA, Publication No. 

FHWA-PD-92-041, Washington, DC, 1992. 

11. The National Bicycling and Walking Study Case Study No. 4: Measures to Overcome 

Impediments to Bicycling and Walking, FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-PD-93-031, Washington, 

DC, August 1993. 

12. Pathways for People, Rodale Press, Inc., Emmaus, PA, June 1992.

13. The National Bicycling and Walking Study Case Study No. 9: Linking Bicycle/Pedestrian 

Facilities with Transit, FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-PD-93-012, Washington, DC, October 

1992. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety and Accommodation Course Participant Workbook, FHWA, 

Publication No. FHWA-HI-96-028, Washington, DC, 1996. 

• Robinson, F., J. Edwards, and C. Ohrn, “Strategies for Increasing Levels of Walking and 

Bicycling for Utilitarian Purposes,” Transportation Research Record 743, TRB, Washington, 

DC, 1980. 

• The National Bicycling and Walking Study Case Study No. 16: A Study of Bicycle and Pedestrian 

Programs in European Countries, FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-PD-92-037, Washington, DC,

January 1992. 

Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 31

LESSON 3: 

PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLIST SAFETY 

3.1 Introduction 

Many professionals involved in pedestrian and bicycle programs have never received training that focuses 

on crash causation. Everyone—from traffic safety specialists to traffic engineers, planners, educators, and 

law enforcement personnel—can benefit from an understanding of how crashes occur and how to avoid 

them. It should be noted, however, that in some cases, the study of bicycle and pedestrian conflicts with 

vehicles may be more useful than crash analyses. Conflict analysis may be useful because bicycle and 

pedestrian crashes may be a rare occurrence on some facilities and may not be the best measure of 

operational analysis. 

This lesson provides an understanding of crash characteristics, crash rates, exposure, crash typing, crash 

analysis, benefit-cost analysis, and associated countermeasures. The most significant crash types will be 

explained and associated with contributing factors and typical errors made. The concepts of corridor and 

site crash analysis and team problem solving will be emphasized. Discussion will include special 

conditions—especially nighttime crashes, those involving impaired drivers, pedestrians and bicyclists, 

and high-speed roadways. The major sections of the lesson are as follows: 

• 3.1 Introduction 

• 3.2 What Is a Crash? 

• 3.3 The Crash Avoidance Process 

• 3.4 Number of Bicycle and Pedestrian Crashes 

• 3.5 Summary of Bicycle and Pedestrian Crash Characteristics 

• 3.6 Common Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Types 

• 3.7 Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Analysis Tool (PBCAT) 

• 3.8 Bike and Pedestrian Countermeasures. 

• 3.9 Bike and Pedestrian Safety Goals 

• 3.10 Geographic Information System (GIS) Crash Frequency Analysis 

• 3.11 Benefit-Cost Analysis 

• 3.12 Student Exercise 

• 3.13 References and Additional Resources 

3.2 What Is a Crash? 

The word “crash” may be new to some people as a way to describe the event in which a bicyclist or 

pedestrian collides with the ground, a motor vehicle, or any other solid object in a way that can result in 

bodily harm and/or property damage. Historically, these events were called accidents. The term accident 

implies heavy doses of chance, unknown causes, and the connotation that nothing can be done to prevent 

them. 

Crashes are preventable. Bicyclist and pedestrian crashes are not random events. They fall into a pattern 

of recurring crash types and occur because the parties involved make mistakes. The mistakes can be 
32 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

identified and counteracted through a combination of education, skill development, engineering, and 

enforcement measures that can substantially reduce crash occurrences. 

3.3 The Crash Avoidance Process 

Whether you are a pedestrian, bicyclist, or motorist, you generally go through a similar sequence of 

actions leading from searching for and recognizing a potential crash situation to taking steps to avoid it. 

The steps in this sequence are described below. If either party overlooks any of these steps, a crash may 

result. 

• Step 1: Search—Both driver and bicyclist or pedestrian scan their environment for potential 

hazards (see figure 3-1). 

• Step 2: Detect—One or both parties (bicyclist, pedestrian, or motor vehicle) see the other. 

• Step 3: Evaluate—The threat of collision is recognized, along with the need for action to avoid it. 

• Step 4: Decide—Assess risk and select the actions necessary to avoid a collision. This may 

involve judging location, closing speed, direction of travel, position in traffic, likely behavior, and 

other factors. 

• Step 5: Action—This step involves the successful performance of the appropriate action(s) to 

avoid a collision. 

(This picture shows a bicyclist not wearing a helmet. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.)

Figure 3-1. Photo. Bicyclist scanning for potential hazards. 

3.4 Number of Bicycle and Pedestrian Crashes 

According to statistics from NHTSA, approximately 4,749 pedestrians and 622 bicyclists were killed in 

2003 as a result of collisions with motor vehicles (see figure 3-2).(1,2) As a group, pedestrians and 

bicyclists comprise about 13 percent of all highway fatalities each year. There were more than 70,000 

pedestrian injuries and 46,000 bicyclist injuries reported as well in 2003 (see figure 3-3). 
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 33

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Year

Fatalities

Bicyclists Pedestrians

Figure 3-2. Graph. Trends in pedestrian and bicyclist fatalities. 

Source: NHTSA Traffic Safety Facts 2003(1,2)

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

80,000

90,000

100,000

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Year

Injuries

Bicyclists Pedestrians

Figure 3-3. Graph. Trends in pedestrian and bicyclist injuries. 

Source: NHTSA Traffic Safety Facts 2003(1,2)
34 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

The reported injuries are subject to significant undercounting; many more injuries were not reported to 

record-keeping authorities. A study by Hunter, et al., indicates that less than two-thirds of bicycle-motor 

vehicle crashes serious enough to require emergency room treatment were reported on State motor vehicle 

crash files.(3) Another study of emergency room records confirmed that there are numerous pedestrian and 

bicycle injuries that are never recorded by transportation authorities.(4) This may be due, in part, to the 

fact that the crashes didn’t involve a motor vehicle (70 percent of reported bike injuries and 64 percent of 

pedestrian injuries) or that they occurred at nonroadway locations such as sidewalks, parking lots, or 

off-road trails (31 percent of bike injuries and 53 percent of pedestrian injuries). However, these crashes 

should not be overlooked or dismissed, as they still may have been caused by poor roadway facilities that 

could be improved by engineering or planning methods. 

The number of pedestrian fatalities has dropped 16 percent from the 5,649 pedestrians killed in 1993, 

showing a steady decline in pedestrian-motorist crashes each year (see figure 3-2). The number of 

bicyclists killed in 2003 was 24 percent lower than the 816 fatalities reported in 1993. From 1993 to 

2003, bicyclist fatalities per year have fluctuated, but they have not risen higher than the number reported 

in 1993 (see figure 3-2). 

Of all nonmotorist traffic fatalities recorded in 2001, 85 percent were pedestrians, 13 percent were 

bicyclists, and the remaining 2 percent were inline skaters, skateboard riders, etc. 

3.5 Summary of Bicycle and Pedestrian Crash Characteristics 

Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Crashes 

NHTSA provided the following statistics from 2003 that describe bicycle-motor vehicle crashes.(1)

Age

Sixty-two percent of bicyclists killed and 84 percent of those injured were between 5 and 44 years of age. 

In 2003, the average age of those killed was 35.8 years; the average age of those injured was 26.5 years. 

The proportion of bicyclists 25 years of age and older killed in motor vehicle crashes has risen since 

1993. In 1993, 25 to 64-year-olds made up 41 percent of all bicyclist fatalities, while in 2001, that age 

group made up 57 percent. 

At the same time, the proportion of bicyclists under age 16 involved in fatal crashes has declined since 

1993. In 1993, young bicyclists (16 and younger) accounted for 38 percent of all bicyclists killed. In 

2003, they accounted for 23 percent of all bicyclists killed and 37 percent of those injured. Twenty-three 

percent of the bicyclists killed in 2003 were between 5 and 15 years of age. 

Gender

Most of the bicyclists involved in motor vehicle crashes in 2003 were males—88 percent of those killed 

and 78 percent of those injured. The male bicyclist fatality rate was almost eight times as high as the 

female rate, and the male injury rate was more than three times higher than the rate of injury for females. 

Drug Impairment

Alcohol involvement, with either the driver or bicyclist, was reported in more than 33 percent of the fatal 

bicyclist crashes in 2003. In 32 percent of the fatal incidents, either the driver or the bicyclist was 

considered legally intoxicated (blood alcohol concentration of 0.08 grams per deciliter or greater). Lower 

alcohol levels were reported in an additional 7 percent of fatal bicycle-motor vehicle crashes. More than 
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 35

one-fourth of the bicyclists killed were intoxicated. This may be an emerging problem. Alcohol-drug 

crashes were more frequent on weekends and during hours of darkness. 

Time of Day and Year

Almost one-third (31 percent) of the fatal bicyclist crashes occurred during late afternoon and early 

evening hours between 5 p.m. and 9 p.m. Bicyclist and pedestrian activity (i.e., exposure) is likely quite 

high during these hours, and visibility can be a problem. Thirty-five percent of all bicyclist fatalities 

occurred during the months of June, July, and August, months when bicycle riding peaks and exposure is 

high. 

Location

About 69 percent of the fatal bicyclist crashes were categorized as urban, and 71 percent of the fatal 

crashes occurred at nonintersection locations. However, for nonfatal crashes, more collisions occurred at 

roadway intersections than nonintersection locations. Roads with narrower lanes, no shoulders, and higher 

speed limits were associated with more than their share of serious and fatal injuries to bicyclists. 

Factors Contributing to Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Crashes 

The 1996 FHWA investigation studied 3,000 bicycle crashes in 5 States to determine factors contributing 

to the crashes.(3) Bicyclists were judged to be at fault in about half of these crashes with motor vehicles. 

Failure to yield, riding against traffic, stop sign violations, and safe movement violations were the 

bicyclist factors most frequently cited as contributing to crashes. Bicyclists need training about how to 

ride in traffic. The likelihood of the bicyclist being responsible for the crash was greatest for younger 

bicyclists. When the bicyclist involved in the crash was older, the motor vehicle driver was more likely to 

be at fault. 

Motor vehicle drivers were judged to be solely at fault in 28 percent of the cases. Failure to yield, 

hit-and-run, and failure to see bicyclists were the driver factors most frequently cited as contributing to 

crashes. 

Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes 

NHTSA provided the following statistics that characterize pedestrian crashes:(2)

Age

Compared to their representation in the overall U.S. population, young persons (under 25 years of age) 

were overrepresented in pedestrian crashes with motor vehicles, whereas older adults (ages 50 to 69) and 

the elderly (age 70+) were underrepresented. However, elderly pedestrians who were involved in crashes 

were more likely to be killed. Older pedestrians (ages 70+) accounted for only 6 percent of pedestrians 

injured but 16 percent of pedestrians killed. Pedestrians aged 0 to 16, on the other hand, accounted for 27 

percent of all pedestrians injured in 2003, but only 9 percent of those killed. 

Gender

Sixty-nine percent of the pedestrian fatalities that occurred in 2003 were males. The male pedestrian 

fatality rate was more than double (2.27) the female pedestrian fatality rate; the pedestrian injury rate was 

considerably higher for males than females as well. 
36 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

Drug Impairment

Alcohol is often a key factor in pedestrian-motor vehicle crashes that lead to fatalities. In 2003, 46 percent 

of the traffic crashes that resulted in pedestrian fatalities involved alcohol intoxication by either the driver 

or the pedestrian. Thirty-four percent of the total number of pedestrians involved in fatal crashes were 

considered legally intoxicated, while 13 percent of the drivers involved were intoxicated. Six percent of 

the fatal crashes involved both an intoxicated driver and pedestrian. 

Time of Day and Week

Pedestrian crashes occurred most frequently during the late afternoon and early evening hours, times 

when exposure is probably highest and visibility may be a problem. Forty-four percent of the pedestrian 

fatalities under 16 years of age occurred between 3 p.m. and 7 p.m. Sixty-five percent of all pedestrian 

incidents occurred at night. Fatality counts also rose on weekends as well, with nearly one-half of all 

pedestrian fatalities occurring on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday. 

Location

About 72 percent of the crashes were categorized as urban. The elderly were overrepresented in 

commercial parking lot crashes, young adults in noncommercial parking lot crashes, and children under 

age 10 in collisions occurring in driveways, alleys, or yards. 

Seventy-nine percent of the fatal pedestrian-motor vehicle crashes occurred at nonintersection locations. 

However, for nonfatal collisions, the percentage at nonintersection locations was significantly lowered, 

and more crashes occurred at roadway intersections. Serious and fatal injuries to pedestrians were directly 

proportional to speed limit and number of lanes. 

Factors Contributing to Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes 

In a 1996 study conducted by the FHWA, 5,000 pedestrian crashes in 5 States were studied extensively in 

order to determine contributing factors associated with the crashes.(3) The report judged that pedestrians 

were solely at fault in 43 percent of the crashes. Running into the road, failure to yield, alcohol 

impairment, stepping out from between parked vehicles, and walking or running in the wrong direction 

(with traffic) were the pedestrian factors most frequently cited as contributing to crashes. Younger 

pedestrians were more likely to be at fault. 

Motor vehicle drivers were judged to be solely at fault in 35 percent of the crashes. Driver hit-and-run and 

failure to yield were the driver factors most frequently cited as contributing to crashes, followed by 

improper backing, safe movement violations, and exceeding safe speed. Only 3 percent of motor vehicle 

drivers striking pedestrians were judged to have been impaired by alcohol in the 1996 study. 

3.6 Common Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Types 

This portion of the lesson presents information specific to the types and characteristics of pedestrian and 

bicycle crashes. The information on crash types was generated from a 1996 FHWA study and a study 

conducted by the Highway Safety Research Center (HSRC) at the University of North Carolina.(3,5,6) In 

the FHWA study, 8,000 pedestrian and bicycle crashes in 5 States were studied extensively in order to 

code crash types, determine the specific factors associated with the crash types, and identify how 

countermeasures could be used to reduce the frequency of crashes. The purpose of the HSRC study was to 

update 1970s era crash data to reflect more recent crash types, paying particular attention to roadway and 
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 37

locational factors so that designers can reduce crash frequency through engineering methods and other 

interventions. 

Pedestrian Crash Types 

The FHWA study concluded that more than three-fourths of pedestrian crashes fell into one of the 

following eight crash-type categories (see table 3-1):(3) 

Table 3-1. Pedestrian crash types.

Crash-Type Category Percent of Total 

Pedestrian Crashes 

Midblock Dart/Dash 13.3 

Other Midblock 13.2 

Other Intersection 10.1 

Vehicle Turn/Merge 9.8 

Not in Roadway/Waiting to Cross 8.6 

Walking Along Roadway 7.9 

Intersection Dash 7.2 

Backing Vehicle 6.9 

Total 77.0 

Source: Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Types of the Early 1990’s(3)

These major crash-type categories varied with respect to the pedestrian, driver, location/environmental, 

and roadway factors that characterized them. It is critically important for individual States and 

communities to develop a better understanding of the particular traffic situations endangering their 

residents. Figures 3-4 through 3-11 display the eight most common pedestrian crash types. 

Bicycle Crash Types 

The FHWA study divided the bicycle-motor vehicle crashes into three general categories (see 

table 3-2):(3)

Table 3-2. Bicycle crash types.

General Crash-Type Category Percent of Total 

Bicycle Crashes 

Crossing-Path Events 57 

Parallel-Path Events 36 

Specific Circumstances 7 

Total 100 

Source: Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Types of the Early 1990’s(3)

The most frequent parallel-path crashes were motorist turn/merge into bicyclist’s path (12.2 percent), 

motorist overtaking the bicyclist (8.6 percent), and bicyclist turn/merge into motorist’s path (7.3 percent). 

The most frequent crossing-path crashes were caused by motorist failure to yield to bicyclist (21.7 

percent), bicyclist failure to yield at an intersection (16.8 percent), and bicyclist failure to yield midblock 

(11.8 percent). These six individual crash types accounted for almost 80 percent of all bicycle-motor 

vehicle crashes. Figures 3-12 through 3-19 show the eight most common bicycle crash types. 
38 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

Frequency:

Severity:

 497 cases; 9.8% of all crashes

 18% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The pedestrian and vehicle collided while the vehicle was preparing

 to turn, in the process of turning, or had just completed a turn (or merge). 

Figure 3-4. Illustration. Vehicle turn/merge. 

Source: Pedestrian Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(5)

Frequency:

Severity:

 363 cases; 7.2% of all crashes

 34% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The pedestrian was struck while running through an intersection

and/or the motorist’s view of the pedestrian was blocked before impact.

Figure 3-5. Illustration. Intersection dash. 

Source: Pedestrian Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(5) 
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 39

Frequency:

Severity:

 364 cases; 7.2% of all crashes

 42% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The crash occurred at an intersection but does not conform to any

of the specific crash types.

Figure 3-6. Illustration. Other intersection. 

Source: Pedestrian Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(5)

Frequency:

Severity:

 442 cases; 8.7% of all crashes

 37% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: At midblock location, the pedestrian was struck while running and

the motorist view of the pedestrian was not obstructed. 

Figure 3-7. Illustration. Midblock dart/dash. 

Source: Pedestrian Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(5)
40 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

Frequency:

Severity:

 548 cases; 10.8% of all crashes

 49% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The crash occurred at midblock, but does not conform to any of the

specific crash types. 

Figure 3-8. Illustration. Other midblock. 

Source: Pedestrian Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(5)

Frequency:

Severity:

 404 cases; 7.9% of all crashes

 28% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The pedestrian was struck when not in the roadway. Areas including

parking lots, driveways, private roads, sidewalks, service stations, yards, etc.

Figure 3-9. Illustration. Not in roadway/waiting to cross. 

Source: Pedestrian Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(5)
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 41

Frequency:

Severity:

 375 cases; 7.4% of all crashes

 37% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The pedestrian was struck while walking/running along a road

without sidewalks. The pedestrian may have been: hitchhiking (15 cases), walking 

with traffic and struck from behind (257 cases) or from the front (5 cases), 

walking against traffic and struck from behind (76 cases) or from the front 

(7 cases), walking along a road, but the details are unknown (15 cases).

Figure 3-10. Illustration. Walking along roadway. 

Source: Pedestrian Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(5)

Frequency:

Severity:

 351 cases; 6.9% of all crashes

 23% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The pedestrian was struck by a vehicle that was backing.

Figure 3-11. Illustration. Backing vehicle. 

Source: Pedestrian Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(5)
42 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

Frequency:

Severity:

 290 cases; 9.7% of all crashes

 23% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The crash occurred at an intersection at which the bicyclist was

facing a stop sign or flashing red light. 

Figure 3-12. Illustration. Ride out at stop sign. 

Source: Bicycle Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(6) 

Frequency:

Severity:

 277 cases; 9.3% of all crashes

 10% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The crash occurred at an intersection at which the motorist was

facing a stop sign. 

Figure 3-13. Illustration. Drive out at stop sign. 

Source: Bicycle Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(6) 
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 43

Frequency:

Severity:

 211 cases; 7.1% of all crashes

 16% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The crash occurred at an intersection (signalized or uncontrolled) at

which the bicyclist failed to yield.

Figure 3-14. Illustration. Other ride out at intersection. 

Source: Bicycle Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(6) 

Frequency:

Severity:

 207 cases; 6.9% of all crashes

 7% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The motorist was entering the roadway from a driveway or alley. 

Figure 3-15. Illustration. Drive out at midblock. 

Source: Bicycle Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(6) 
44 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

Frequency:

Severity:

 176 cases; 5.9% of all crashes

 24% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The motorist made a left turn while facing the approaching bicyclist.

Figure 3-16. Illustration. Motorist left turn, facing bicyclist. 

Source: Bicycle Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(6)

Frequency:

Severity:

 153 cases; 5.1% of all crashes

 24% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The bicyclist entered the roadway from a driveway or alley. 

Figure 3-17. Illustration. Ride out at residential driveway. 

Source: Bicycle Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(6) 
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 45

Frequency:

Severity:

 130 cases; 4.3% of all crashes

 28% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The bicyclist made a left turn in front of traffic traveling in the same

direction. 

Figure 3-18. Illustration. Bicyclist left turn in front of traffic. 

Source: Bicycle Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(6) 

Frequency:

Severity:

 143 cases; 4.7% of all crashes

 11% resulted in serious or fatal injuries

Description: The motorist was making a right turn and the bicyclist was riding in

either the same or opposing direction. 

Figure 3-19. Illustration. Motorist right turn. 

Source: Bicycle Crash Types: A 1990’s Informational Guide(6) 
46 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

3.7 Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Analysis Tool (PBCAT) 

FHWA, in cooperation with NHTSA, developed a Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Analysis Tool (PBCAT) 

through the University of North Carolina HSRC. PBCAT is a user-friendly analysis tool that determines 

the crash type through a series of onscreen questions about the crash. It provides tabular and graphing 

functions of various factors (such as age, sex, light conditions, etc.) associated with the crash. The system 

also recommends countermeasures and related resources and reference information. 

3.8 Bicycle and Pedestrian Countermeasures 

Sections 3.6 and 3.7 discussed common crash types and how to determine these crash types by using 

PBCAT. This section provides a list of countermeasures that might be employed to offset a specific 

pedestrian crash type (see figure 3-20). Table 3-3 lists more than the general crash types previously 

provided and was adapted from the Pedestrian Facilities Users Guide.

(7) Bike countermeasures may 

overlap with some pedestrian countermeasures. An exhaustive list of bike countermeasures can be found 

in the FHWA Bicycle Safety Tools and Technology page located on the FHWA Safety Web site. There, 

roadway countermeasures are listed for numerous types of bicyclist and motorist errors; these are 

organized by the type of entity that could implement the change. 

Figure 3-20. Photo. A crosswalk can increase the visibility of a pedestrian path. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(8)
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 47

Table 3-3. Crash types and associated countermeasures. 

Source: Pedestrian Facilities Users Guide(7)

Countermeasure 

Midblock Dart/-Dash Multiple Threat Midblock Mailbox, etc. Failure to Yield (Unsignalized) Bus-Related Turning Vehicle at an Intersection Through Vehicle at Intersection Walking Along Roadway Working/Playing in Roadway Not in Road Backing Vehicle Crossing Expressway 

1. Sidewalk/ 

Walkway • • • • •

2. Curb Ramp • • • • • 

3. Crosswalk 

Enhancements • • • • • • 

4. Transit Stop 

Treatments • • • • • • 

5. Roadway 

Lighting • • • • • • • • • • • •

6. Overpass/ 

Underpass • • • • • •

7. Street Furniture • • • 

8. Bike Lane/ 

Shoulder • • • • • • • • 

9. Road/Lane 

Narrowing • • • • • • 

10. Fewer Lanes • • • • 

11. Driveway 

Improvements • •

12. Raised Median • • • • • • 

13. One-Way Street • • 

14. Smaller Curb 

Radius • • • 

15. Right-Turn Slip 

Lane • 

16. Modern 

Roundabout • • 

17. Modified T 

Intersection • 

18. Intersection 

Median Barrier • • • • 

19. Curb Extension • • • • • • • •

20. Choker • • 

21. Pedestrian 

Crossing Island • • • • • • 

22. Chicane • • • • 

23. Minicircle • • • 

24. Speed Humps • • • • 

25. Speed Table • • • • • 

26. Raised 

Intersection • • • 

27. Raised Ped. 

Crossing • • • • • • •

28. Gateway • • • • 
48 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

Table 3-3. Crash types and associated countermeasures—Continued

Source: Pedestrian Facilities Users Guide(7)

Countermeasure 

Midblock Dart/-Dash Multiple Threat Midblock Mailbox, etc. Failure to Yield (Unsignalized) Bus-Related Turning Vehicle at an Intersection Through Vehicle at Intersection Walking Along Roadway Working/Playing in Roadway Not in Road Backing Vehicle Crossing Expressway 

29. Landscape 

Options • • •

30. Paving 

Treatments • • • 

31. Driveway Link/ 

Serpentine • • • 

32. Woonerf • • 

33. Diverter • • • • 

34. Full Street 

Closure • • • • 

35. Partial Street 

Closure • • • • 

36. Pedestrian Street • • • 

37. Traffic Signal • • • • • • 

38. Pedestrian Signal • • • • • • 

39. Pedestrian Signal 

Timing • • 

40. Signal 

Enhancement • • • 

41. RTOR Restriction • 

42. Advanced Stop 

Lines • • • • 

43. Sign 

Improvement • • • • • • • • • • •

44. School Zone 

Improvement • • • • • • • • 

45. Identify 

Neighborhood • • • • • 

46. Speed-Monitoring 

Trailer • • • • • • 

47. Park 

Enhancement • • • • • • • •

48. Ped./Driver 

Education • • • • • • • • • • • •

49. Police 

Enforcement • • • • • • • • • • •
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 49

3.9 Bicycle and Pedestrian Safety Goals 

Based on the data from the FHWA study, the following safety goals and research recommendations were 

made in 1996:(3)

1. Much of what is reported in this study seems strongly connected to basic walking, riding, and 

driving patterns—in other words, related to exposure. Future studies of pedestrians and bicyclists 

and related facilities should be planned with this need in mind. 

2. As a measure of accountability, it is recommended that local and State pedestrian-bicycle 

coordinators continually track crashes in their jurisdictions. A simplified crash typing procedure 

that coordinators can easily use should be prepared and disseminated. 

3. With the current increased interest in both bicycling and walking, crash investigators on the State 

and local levels should be urged to report completely on any bicyclist and pedestrian crashes, 

particularly for roadway-related variables. 

4. A systemwide approach will be necessary to make safety gains as well as reach the goals of the 

National Bicycling and Walking Study, namely: (1) to double the number of trips made by 

bicycling and walking, and (2) to reduce by 10 percent the number of bicyclists and pedestrians 

injured or killed in traffic collisions. Engineering, education, and enforcement approaches are 

vital to improved safety. There is a continuing need to establish the mindset that bicyclists and 

pedestrians are worthy and viable users of our transportation system. 

3.10 Geographic Information System (GIS) Crash Frequency Analysis 

Geographic information system (GIS) software turns statistical data (e.g., crashes) and geographic data 

(e.g., roads and crash locations) into meaningful information for spatial analysis and mapping. GIS is an 

invaluable tool being applied to many pedestrian and bicycle safety issues. It assists in mapping crashes to 

identify hot spots, planning the safest route to walk or bike based on roadway and traffic elements 

(sidewalk, curb lane width, crosswalk locations, traffic volume, etc.), and illustrating the relationships 

between land use, traffic patterns, and bicycle and pedestrian safety. This tool is valuable in helping 

visualize the data accumulated in crash and roadway databases. 

3.11 Benefit-Cost Analysis 

Once the crash types have been identified and the appropriate countermeasures selected, the resulting 

benefit-cost ratio can be calculated. A common formula used for this calculation is the Safety 

Improvement Index (SII), a formula developed by the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) as 

part of the Federal Hazard Elimination and Safety (HES) Program to assess the attributes of a safety 

improvement project and convert it to an index ratio by which each project can be ranked or prioritized in 

order of importance.(9,10) In its most basic form, SII is a formula that computes the ratio of the potential 

reduction in crash costs (the “benefit”) to the cost of implementing the countermeasure (the “cost”). This 

formulated value is weighted heavily on the percentage of the expected reduction in the number of 

crashes that occurred prior to the improvement. Reduction factors have been determined through previous 

studies, such as the TxDOT HES Program and a national survey of comparative crash reduction factors 

conducted by Texas Transportation Institute (TTI).(9,11) SII greater than or equal to 1.0 is considered to be 

cost effective. However, the ratio is not designed to measure the effectiveness of individual projects. 

Rather, it is a method by which many projects can be compared using the same set of criteria. By way of 

this comparison, a prioritization list of improvement projects can be formed. With this prioritized list, the 

projects can be funded beginning with the most important project, and each subsequent safety 

improvement project is then funded individually and sequentially thereafter. 
50 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

Some of the other factors included in this index are: 

• Percentage reduction factor (the potential a countermeasure has to reduce a crash type). 

• Number of fatal and/or incapacitating injury crashes (weighted average cost of these per crash is 

$232,700). 

• Number of nonincapacitating and/or possible injury crashes (weighted average cost of these per 

crash is $16,900). 

• Number of property damage only crashes (weighted average cost of these per crash is $2,220). 

• Number of years of crash data (usually 3 years is the minimum number required). 

• Projected annual average daily traffic (AADT) at the end of the project service life (a 3–5 percent 

growth rate in traffic per year is to be expected). 

• AADT during the year before the project is implemented. 

• Project service life (the useful life of the improvement). 

3.12 Student Exercise 

The following ideas are suggested for student exercises. 

Part 1 

Design a program that specifically provides countermeasures aimed at reducing one (or more) common 

bicycle and/or pedestrian crash types. Countermeasures can include physical changes to the 

bicycle/pedestrian environment (engineered and constructed solutions), or education programs aimed at a 

particular audience that may be susceptible to certain crash types. Be specific about what the program 

would include, and how it would be implemented throughout a community. Include an explanation of 

how you would propose to evaluate the effectiveness of your program. 

Part 2 

Using the data provided for the case study location, Piedmont Park in Atlanta, GA, develop some 

conclusions regarding the crash data obtained through the Georgia Department of Transportation for 

1995, 1996, and 1997 (see figures 3-21 through 3-23 and tables 3-4 through 3-7). Cross-tabulations of 

crashes by time of day, location, and causation factors are helpful in gaining insight into safety problems 

and possible countermeasures. Data available for such evaluations are often limited due to the low 

percentage of reported pedestrian and bicycle crashes. However, important information can be obtained 

by a thorough analysis of available data. 

For some general background on the case study location, the following descriptive information is 

provided: 

• Piedmont Park is a large public park located approximately 4.8 km (3 mi) north of the central 

business district in the midtown area of Atlanta. 

• The park is surrounded on all sides by densely populated residential neighborhoods. 

• Very little parking is available within the park, and most park users arrive by foot, in-line skates, 

skateboard, or bicycle. 
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 51

• The park has extensive walking, running, and bicycling trails, and these are the primary uses of 

the park. In addition, there are numerous festivals and special events. 

• Access to the park from surrounding neighborhoods is via surface streets, most of which have 

narrow 1.2- to 1.5-meters (m)-wide [4- to 5-feet (ft)-wide] sidewalks. 

• The park is bound on all sides by heavily traveled arterial roadways that commonly experience 

significant peak-hour congestion. 

• Two transit stations are located within walking distance near the park and pedestrian access to 

and from the park links with the stations. Typical sidewalk and crosswalk treatments are used 

along surface streets (10th St. and 14th St.) to connect with the transit stations. Bicycles are 

allowed on transit fixed-rail vehicles during all operational periods. 

For conducting a case study evaluation of pedestrian and bicycle conditions at Piedmont Park, the data 

provided include the following: 

• Bicycle crash locations (year and location denoted by text boxes in figure 3-21). 

• Pedestrian crash locations (year and location denoted by text boxes in figure 3-22). 

• Site location map (figure 3-23). 

• Tabulation of pedestrian crash data (table 3-4). 

• Tabulation of bicycle crash data (table 3-5). 

• Usage data collected at major park entrances (table 3-6). 

• Summary of major roadways (table 3-7). 

N

10th Street

14th Street

Piedmont

Monroe Dr.

Ave. Virginia

Peachtree St.

Ave.

Piedmont Park

12th St.

Prado Dr.

Park Dr.

Year No.

1995 5

1996 4

1997 5

Total 14

B-1996

B-1997

B-1996

B-1995

B-1995

B-1996

B-199

B

7

-1997

B-1996

B-1996

B-1997

B-1995

B-1995

B-1997

Not to

Scale

Figure 3-21. Illustration. Bicycle crash locations. 
52 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

10th Street

14th Street

Piedmont

Monroe Dr.

Ave. Virginia

Peachtree St.

Ave.

Piedmont Park

12th St.

Prado Dr.

Park Dr.

Year No.

1995 5

1996 8

1997 8

Total 21

P-1997

P-1997

P-1997

P-1995

P-1995

P-1997

P-1996

P-1996

P-1996

P-1996

P-1997

P-1996

P-1997

P-1997

P-1996

P-1995

P-1995

P-1997

P-1996

P-1995

P-1996

N

Not to

Scale

Figure 3-22. Illustration. Pedestrian crash locations. 

1

2

3

5

4

10th Street

14th Street

Piedmont

Monroe Dr.

Ave.

Virginia

Peachtree St.

Ave.

Transit

Station

Transit

Station

Mitchell

House

Botanical

Garden

Arts Center

Midtown

Commercial

District

Midtown

Residential

District

Virginia Highlands

Residential District

Piedmont Park

12th St.

Prado Dr.

Park Dr.

Charles Allen Dr.

N

Not to

Scale

Figure 3-23. Illustration. Site location map. 
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 53

Table 3-4. Tabulation of pedestrian crash data.

# 

Route/- 

Road 

Mile 

Post Time Month Day Year Severity Location Type 

Light 

Condition 

Surface 

Condition

1 10th St 1.78 23:29 06 13 1997 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Dk/Lighted Dry 

2 10th St 1.78 13:54 08 25 1997 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

3 10th St 1.87 23:01 06 19 1997 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Dk/Lighted Dry 

4 10th St 1.99 19:19 02 06 1997 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Dk/Lighted Dry 

5 10th St 1.99 17:26 07 08 1997 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

6 14th St 0.06 15:00 04 04 1997 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

7 14th St 0.06 18:00 03 03 1997 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

8 14th St 0.00 09:30 06 10 1997 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

9 Monroe 5.71 16:12 09 21 1996 Injury Road Segment Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

10 10th St 2.43 15:45 09 07 1996 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

11 10th St 1.78 19:50 07 04 1996 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

12 10th St 1.78 22:05 07 13 1996 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Dk/Lighted Dry 

13 10th St 2.01 21:30 06 29 1996 Injury Road Segment Pedestrian Dk/Lighted Dry 

14 14th St 0.00 17:10 08 05 1996 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

15 14th St 0.06 13:00 03 13 1996 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

16 Pied. 1.01 22:20 04 25 1995 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Dk/Lighted Dry 

17 Monroe 5.97 23:06 02 10 1995 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Dk/Lighted Dry 

18 10th St 1.64 18:20 01 11 1995 Injury Road Segment Pedestrian Dusk Dry 

19 10th St 1.87 17:25 02 08 1995 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Daylight Dry 

20 10th St 1.99 21:00 10 17 1995 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Dk/Lighted Dry 

21 10th St 1.99 02:23 01 21 1995 Injury Intersection Pedestrian Dk/Lighted Dry 

Table 3-5. Tabulation of bicycle crash data.

# 

Route/- 

Road 

Mile 

Post Time Month Day Year Severity Location Type 

Light 

Condition 

Surface 

Condition

1 Monroe 5.14 19:00 09 17 1997 Injury Intersection Angle 

Intersecting 

Daylight Dry 

2 10th St 1.78 12:20 03 14 1997 Injury Intersection Angle 

Intersecting 

Daylight Dry 

3 10th St 1.78 17:32 08 29 1997 Injury Intersection Angle 

Intersecting 

Daylight Dry 

4 10th St 1.87 17:43 03 11 1997 Injury Intersection Head On Daylight Dry 

5 14th St 0.00 18:10 12 17 1997 Injury Intersection Angle 

Intersecting 

Dk/Lighted Dry 

6 Monroe 4.85 01:15 05 05 1996 Injury Intersection Rear End Dk/Lighted Dry 

7 10th St 1.78 15:33 12 18 1996 PDO Intersection Sideswipe 

Same Dir 

Daylight Dry 

8 10th St 1.78 18:30 12 27 1996 PDO Intersection Angle 

Intersecting 

Dk/Lighted Dry 

9 10th St 1.87 21:45 02 09 1996 PDO Intersection Angle 

Intersecting 

Dk/Lighted Dry 

10 Monroe 5.81 17:15 09 02 1995 PDO Road 

Segment 

Angle 

Intersecting 

Daylight Dry 

11 10th St 1.78 12:22 02 23 1995 Injury Intersection Angle 

Intersecting 

Daylight Dry 

12 10th St 1.99 16:40 09 29 1995 Injury Intersection Angle 

Intersecting 

Daylight Dry 

13 10th St 1.99 17:50 08 03 1995 Injury Intersection Angle 

Intersecting 

Daylight Dry 

14 14th St 0.00 17:45 09 11 1995 Injury Intersection Rear End Daylight Dry 

Note: PDO = property damage only crash 
54 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

Table 3-6. Usage data collected at major park entrances.

Total for all interaction movements(1)

No. Entrance Location Time of Day Bicyclists In-line skaters(2) Pedestrians(3) 

Total HPT 

Activity 

1(4) Piedmont at 14th St 4:24–4:40 p.m. 3 2 22 27 

1(4) Piedmont at 14th St 5–5:15 p.m. 2 3 29 34 

2 Piedmont at 12th St 4:40–4:55 p.m. 6 4 12 22 

3 10th St at Charles Allen 5:20–5:35 p.m. 3 6 42 51 

4 Park Avenue at Elmwood 5:40–5:55 p.m. 7 5 18 33 

Notes: 

(1) Conditions were sunny and clear, temperature approximately 32 degrees Celsius (90 degrees Fahrenheit). 

Count duration was for a total of 15 minutes for each spot count location. 

(2) Count tabulations include occasional skateboarders. 

(3) Count tabulations include joggers and people with baby strollers. 

(4) Piedmont Avenue at 14th St was counted twice to evaluate peaking characteristics. 

Table 3-7. Summary of major roadways.

No. Roadway Mileposts No. of Lanes 

Speed Limit 

km/h (mi/h) 1997 ADT 

Total Length 

km (mi) 

1 Piedmont 

Section 1 

Section 2 

0.65–1.01 

1.01–1.93 

3 (one way) 

4 

56 (35) 

56 (35) 

11,700 

26,400 

2.1 (1.3) 

2 10th St 1.56–2.68 4 56 (35) 20,420 1.8 (1.1) 

3 14th St 

Section 1 

Section 2 

0.00–0.23 

0.00–0.06 

4 

4 

56 (35) 

56 (35) 

22,400 

17,500 

0.5 (0.3) 

4 Monroe 4.85–5.97 4 56 (35) 20,500 1.8 (1.1) 

Part 3 

Obtain pedestrian and bicycle crash data for an area of interest. You should obtain a minimum of three 

years of data to support your crash analysis. Although local city agencies sometimes maintain crash data, 

the State DOT is the most reliable source of available data. Most States maintain their crash data in a 

computerized database system and sorts of the data can be conducted on various field entries to list 

crashes associated with either pedestrians or bicycles. These types of crashes will only constitute a very 

small percentage of the total crashes occurring along a roadway and it may be useful to receive a full 

listing of all the crashes associated with your location of interest. DOTs may only maintain data along the 

more significant roadways and often do not include subdivision/residential streets. 

Most DOT personnel are very helpful and willing to work to get you the data you need. You should 

clearly explain your intentions, location of interest, and type of data that you would like to obtain. 

Submitting a request in writing is typically required so that your data request can be efficiently processed 

through their system. In addition to the crash data, you may need other information that will allow you to 

decode the crash data and to physically link the crash to a location on the roadway network. A crash 

investigation manual is usually available that lists all of the coded entries used in creating aggregated 

crash tabulations. Also, a roadway features log is typically available to link milepost listings to physical 

map features such as intersections, bridges, and street names. In the initial phases of conducting an 

analysis of crashes, it is seldom necessary to access the actual crash reports. It is much more useful to 

utilize aggregated crash records that are available through the crash data system. Allow ample time for 
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 55

DOT personnel to accommodate your request within their day-to-day workload. Generally, data can be 

received in two to three weeks after submitting a request. 

3.13 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Pedalcyclists, Technical Summary, Publication No. DOT-HS-809-768, 

NHTSA, Washington, DC, 2004 (see http://www.nhtsa.gov/ for most recent statistics available). 

2. Traffic Safety Facts 2003: Pedestrians, Technical Summary, Publication No. DOT-HS-809-769, 

NHTSA, Washington, DC, 2004 (see http://www.nhtsa.gov/ for most recent statistics available). 

3. Hunter, W.W., J.C. Stutts, W.E. Pein, and C.L. Cox, Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Types of the 

Early 1990’s [sic], Technical Summary, Publication No. FHWA-RD-95-163, FHWA, 

Washington, DC, June 1996. 

4. Stutts, J.C. and W.W. Hunter, Injuries to Pedestrians and Bicyclists: An Analysis Based on 

Hospital Emergency Departmental Data, Final Report, Publication No. FHWA-RD-99-078, 

FHWA, Washington, DC, November 1999. Available online at 

http://www.tfhrc.gov/safety/pedbike/research/99078/99-078.htm. 

5. Hunter, W.W., J.C. Stutts, and W.E. Pein, Pedestrian Crash Types: A 1990’s [sic] Informational 

Guide, Publication No. FHWA-RD-96-163, FHWA, Washington, DC, April 1997.

6. Hunter, W.W., J.C. Stutts, and W.E. Pein, Bicycle Crash Types: A 1990’s [sic] Informational 

Guide, Publication No. FHWA-RD-96-104, FHWA, Washington, DC, April 1997. 

7. Pedestrian Facilities Users Guide—Providing Safety and Mobility, FHWA, Publication No. 

FHWA-RD-01-102, McLean, VA, March 2002, available online at 

http://www.walkinginfo.org/pdf/peduserguide/peduserguide.pdf, accessed August 12, 2005. 

8. Image Library, PBIC, available online at http://www.pedbikeimages.org, accessed May 6, 2004. 

9. TxDOT, “Chapter 2—Hazard Elimination Program—Safety Improvement Index,” Traffic 

Operations Manual, Austin, TX, 1999. 

10. McFarland, William F. et al, “Benefit-Cost Analysis for Evaluating Safety Improvement 

Projects,” Texas Transportation Institute, Houston, TX, Unpublished Report No. 1484, 2001. 

11. “Appendix I: Summary of Accident Reduction Factors Used in Other States,” Houston East End 

Safety Study, Final Report, Center for Transportation Safety, Texas Transportation Institute, 

Houston, TX, February 2004. Available online at http://www.h-gac.com/HGAC/Departments/ 

Transportation/Safety/Safety.htm. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/bike/bike_tools.htm. Has information on bicycle safety, 

PBCAT, and a bicycle safety resource guide and database of thousands of links to bicyclist 

information and safety countermeasures. 
56 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

• http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/. Contains fact sheets, statistics, surveys, cost and ridership 

studies, and other bicyclist/ped links. 

• http://www.dot.state.tx.us/business/avgd.htm. This is the Texas Statewide Average Low Bid 

Unit Price for construction and maintenance contracts Web page. It displays the average unit 

costs based on the previous year’s competitive bid construction contracts. Bid items include 

everything from earth work to paint striping, traffic signals to landscaping. This information is 

useful in conducting SII benefit-cost calculations. 

• http://www.transtats.bts.gov/. Click on the Bike/Pedestrian mode to explore databases like the 

Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS), or the Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey 

(NPTS) that provides data on the amount and nature of pedestrian travel. 

• http://www.walkinginfo.org/. Offers a general overview of pedestrian safety, activities, design, 

etc. 

• http://www.walkinginfo.org/pedsafe/crashstats.cfm#locationtype. Provides crash statistics, 

crash type analysis, and countermeasures. 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 57 

LESSON 4: 

BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN PLANNING 

4.1 Introduction 

The rising awareness of bicycle and pedestrian issues in transportation planning has brought with it a new 

era of planning for these modes. Planning strategies range from small scale (such as a study to improve 

bicycle and pedestrian access to a neighborhood bus stop) to large scale (such as a statewide master plan 

for bicycling and walking). Additionally, bicycle and pedestrian planning includes planning provisions to 

make streets accessible for all users, including those with disabilities. Increasing the accessibility for users 

with disabilities increases the accessibility for all users. 

While there are some common elements (such as public participation) that nearly all bicycle and 

pedestrian planning projects should include, such projects otherwise can vary greatly, depending upon the 

particular situation. An effective, interconnected system of bicycle and pedestrian facilities requires 

planning at a variety of levels. This lesson provides an overview of bicycle and pedestrian planning 

issues, and it presents a variety of model master planning processes that can be used at various levels of 

government. 

• 4.1 Introduction 

• 4.2 Federal Requirements for Planning 

• 4.3 Statewide and Regional Pedestrian and Bicycle Plans 

• 4.4 Local Bicycle and Pedestrian Plans 

• 4.5 Forecasting Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel Demand 

• 4.6 Using Models to Evaluate Roadway Conditions for Bicycling and Walking 

• 4.7 Mapping 

• 4.8 Student Exercise 

• 4.9 References and Additional Resources 

4.2 Federal Requirements for Planning 

As discussed in detail in lesson 1, section 5, government commitment and support has been critical to 

improving conditions for bicycling and walking throughout the United States. Efforts to plan for bicycle 

and pedestrian mobility were given a tremendous boost by ISTEA and subsequent transportation 

legislation that has had a continuing emphasis on multimodal transportation. As a result of Federal 

legislation, States and MPOs are required to address bicycle and pedestrian needs during the 

transportation planning process. 

States and MPOs are required to incorporate appropriate provisions for bicycling and walking into the 

State transportation improvement program (STIP) and transportation improvement programs (TIPs). 

In addition, each State is required to establish a bicycle and pedestrian coordinator position in its State 

DOT. AASHTO maintains an online list of current State bicycle and pedestrian coordinators on the 

AASHTO website at http://design.transportation.org/?siteid=59&pageid=852. 
58 Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 

The FHWA and Federal Transit Administration (FTA) have issued technical guidance for bicycle and 

pedestrian planning at the State and MPO levels in order to meet Federal requirements. 

In brief, this guidance makes the following key points relevant to State and metropolitan area 

transportation planning for bicycles and pedestrians: 

• Plan elements should include goals, policy statements, and specific programs and projects 

whenever possible. 

• The plan should identify financial resources necessary for implementation. 

• Bicycle and pedestrian projects may be onroad or off-road facilities. Off-road trails that serve 

valid transportation purposes as connections between origins and destinations are considered 

eligible projects consistent with the planning process. 

• Any regionally significant bicycle or pedestrian project funded by or requiring an action by 

FHWA or FTA must be included in the metropolitan TIP. 

• Bicycle and pedestrian elements of transportation plans should include: 

o Vision and goal statements and performance criteria. 

o Assessment of current conditions and needs. 

o Identification of activities required to meet the vision and goals. 

o Implementation of the bicycle and pedestrian elements in statewide and MPO transportation 

plans and TIPs. 

o Evaluation of progress using performance measures. 

o Public involvement as required by Federal transportation legislation and FHWA/FTA 

planning regulations. 

o Transportation conformity requirements for air quality, where necessary. 

4.3 Statewide and Regional Pedestrian and Bicycle Plans 

Statewide Bicycle and/or Pedestrian Plans 

At the State level, bicycle and pedestrian plans establish policies, goals, and actions for State agencies 

(i.e., within a State DOT and transit agencies) to accommodate and improve conditions for biking and 

walking. These plans often include design standards/guidance for local and regional governments, and 

they typically address education and safety issues as well. 

The primary objective of a statewide bicycle and pedestrian access plan is to guide future transportation 

projects in the State, and to establish programs that support and encourage bicycling and walking. The 

following types of activities may be included in a statewide bicycle and pedestrian planning process: 

• Public outreach that spans all geographic and jurisdictional regions of the State, and jurisdictional 

outreach that ensures the involvement of local stakeholders. 

• Assessment of existing facilities, planning activities, programs, and policies. This may include 

extensive analysis of the current transportation system to identify deficiencies as well as an 

analysis of travel patterns and opportunities. 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 59 

• Identification of policies and legal barriers to implementing bicycle and pedestrian improvements 

(including zoning and subdivision regulations) and development of strategies to address these 

barriers. 

• Prioritization of locations needing improvements (based on existing conditions analysis and a 

relative assessment of demand), prioritization of programs, and other actions needed in order to 

support pedestrian and bicycle transportation. 

• A phased implementation plan that identifies specific recommended actions, identifies the 

jurisdictions and/or agencies responsible for each action, assigns an estimated cost to each action, 

and identifies a timeframe for implementing the plan. 

Bicycle and pedestrian assessments and recommendations are often grouped together for planning 

projects but the needs of both groups are often quite different. For this reason, bicycle and pedestrian 

plans at the statewide level should include separate and distinct recommendations for each mode. 

Regional Bicycle and/or Pedestrian Plans 

At the regional level, bicycle and pedestrian planning is usually carried out by MPOs, county 

governments, or similar regional agencies. The main objectives of these planning projects are usually to 

coordinate between jurisdictions, develop planning and design guidance for local governments, establish 

regional priorities for funding, and build a unified regional approach to land use and transportation issues. 

Issues that typically arise during the regional planning process include: 

• Ensuring that proposed trails and bikeways are continuous, despite jurisdictional boundaries 

within the region. 

• Resolving conflicting standards and philosophies among regional entities—each county or town 

may have somewhat different ideas about bicycle and pedestrian transportation and a different set 

of facility and street standards. 

• Reconciling potential conflicts between local and regional perspectives, particularly when 

funding priorities are being established. 

4.4 Local Bicycle and Pedestrian Plans 

Cities and towns with good bicycle and pedestrian plans can have a very positive impact on bicycling and 

walking conditions. Decisions at the local level often have a more direct and immediate impact on 

bicycling and walking because these two modes are affected to a great extent by localized opportunities 

and constraints. 

In order to compete successfully for Federal funding, the local entity must demonstrate a commitment to 

providing matching funds, and it should come equipped with the specifics of projects, cost-estimates, and 

other information. The city that does its homework has the best chance of securing the funds. 

It is important to recognize that there is no single, perfect formula for completing a local pedestrian and/or 

bicycle master plan. Successful planning processes are tailored to the needs and opportunities of a 

particular local area. A successful planning process for one city or town might be a failure somewhere 

else. Bicycle and pedestrian plans are inherently political and must respond to the opportunities and 

constraints of the government that develops them. Each planning process must begin with a strategic 

assessment of the critical path to success, and it should focus in on those activities, projects, and 

recommendations that are most likely to yield results. 
60 Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 

For example, if the jurisdiction is preparing to embark on a comprehensive revision of local zoning and 

subdivision regulations, a strategic approach would be to focus the work of the bicycle and pedestrian 

plan on developing very specific recommended policies that can be incorporated into the revisions. 

Despite the differences among bicycle and pedestrian plans, there are some features that many local 

bicycle and pedestrian plans have in common: 

• Public involvement among a wide variety of stakeholders. This can include neighborhood 

walkability audits, public workshops, survey questionnaires, interactive websites about the 

project, and other measures. 

• Use of geographic information systems (GIS) to document locations of existing facilities 

(including sidewalk coverage, trails and bikeways, locations of destinations) and to indicate the 

conditions for bicycling and walking on existing roadways. 

• Comprehensive review of transportation and land use policies and procedures in order to identify 

longstanding practices that make bicycling and walking difficult and specific recommendations 

for policy changes. 

• Establishment of key design procedures in order to systematically retrofit environments which 

create barriers to bicycling and walking. Examples include instituting FHWA crosswalk 

guidelines (see lesson 11), establishing standard curb ramp designs that meet FHWA guidelines, 

and establishing a process for assessing repaving schedules to determine if bike lanes can be 

incorporated during restriping. 

• Identification and prioritization of specific locations where improvements are needed, initially 

focusing on areas where bicycle and pedestrian activity is already prevalent but conditions are 

poor. The list of improvements may include: widening intersection crossings, closing gaps in the 

sidewalk or bikeway network, making small area plans for neighborhoods or specific commercial 

areas, identifying streets that are excessively wide and are candidates for road diets (narrowing 

the roadway to provide more space for bicyclists and pedestrians), and locating areas that need 

traffic calming improvements, etc. 

Setting Priorities 

One approach in setting priorities for pedestrian and bicycle improvements is to identify what would 

encourage people to walk more often and then orient efforts toward improving conditions for pedestrians 

in this direction. During the development of the bicycle and pedestrian plan for Louisiana, citizens were 

asked what could be done to make it easier to get around by foot. The responses were ranked as follows: 

1. More sidewalks 61.9 percent 

2. More off-road trails 57.8 percent 

3. Destinations close to home and work 33.9 percent 

4. Education for motorists 30.3 percent 

5. Enforcement of bicyclist/motor vehicle laws 28.4 percent 

6. More benches, water fountains, etc. 28.4 percent 

7. More crosswalks 27.1 percent 

8. Slower traffic on local roads 21.6 percent 

9. Better transit service 15.1 percent 

Of course, some projects are expensive. For instance, if there is a need for a grade-separated pedestrian 

crossing of a freeway, such a project can easily cost upwards of $300,000 to $500,000. Planning for such 

an expenditure can take several years and may involve grant applications or implementation through the 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 61 

TIP process and the use of any one of several categories of Federal funds. Meanwhile, many small but 

important changes can be made to improve conditions for bicycling and walking. 

Many local programs have found that small initial successes build momentum, allowing more ambitious 

work to follow. In one western community, for instance, installation of several test traffic circles on 

residential streets—a project that took several days of work and less than $5,000 to accomplish—helped 

build support for an ongoing program installing such circles all over town. 

Developing a Bicycle Network Plan 

The following discussion details a planning process for a bicycle network plan. Chapter 1 of the 

AASHTO Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities contains several suggestions for establishing a 

bicycle planning program. The following process is but one example. It consists of six steps:(1)

1. Establish performance criteria for the bicycle network. 

2. Inventory the existing bicycle facility and roadway system. 

3. Identify desired bicycle travel lines and corridors. 

4. Evaluate and select specific route alternatives. 

5. Select appropriate design treatments. 

6. Evaluate the finished plan against the established performance criteria. 

Establish Performance Criteria for the Bicycle Network. Performance criteria define the important 

qualitative and quantitative variables to be considered in determining the desirability and effectiveness of 

a bicycle facility network. These can include: 

• Accessibility: This is measured by the distance a bicycle facility is from a specified trip origin or 

destination, the ease by which this distance can be traveled by bicycle, and the extent to which all 

likely origins and destinations are served. Some communities (e.g., Arlington, VA) have adopted 

a criterion of having a bicycle facility within 1.61 km (1 mi) of every residence. More 

importantly, no residential area or high-priority destination (school, shopping center, business 

center, or park) should be denied reasonable access by bicycle. 

• Directness: Studies have shown that most bicyclists will not use even the best bicycle facility if it 

greatly increases the travel distance or trip time over that provided by less desirable alternatives. 

Therefore, routes should still be reasonably direct. The ratio of directness to comfort/perceived 

safety involved in this trade-off will vary depending on the characteristics of the bicycle facility 

(how desirable is it?), its more direct alternatives (how unpleasant are they?), and the typical 

user’s needs (in a hurry? is it a business or pleasure trip?). 

• Continuity: The proposed network should have as few missing links as possible. If gaps exist, 

they should not include traffic environments that are unpleasant or threatening to group B/C 

(basic and child) riders, such as high-volume or high-speed motor vehicle traffic with narrow 

outside lanes. 

• Route attractiveness: This can encompass such factors as separation from motor traffic, visual 

aesthetics, and the real or perceived threat to personal safety along the facility (see figure 4-1). 

• Low conflict: The route should present few conflicts between bicyclists and motor vehicle 

operators. 

• Cost: This would include the costs both to establish and to maintain the system. 

• Ease of implementation: The ease or difficulty in implementing proposed changes depends on 

available space and existing traffic operations and patterns. 
62 Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 

Figure 4-1. Photo. Group B (basic) bicyclists value 

designated bike facilities such as bike lanes. 

Inventory Existing System. Both the existing roadway system and any existing bicycle facilities should 

be inventoried and evaluated. The condition, location, and level of use of existing bicycle facilities should 

be recorded to determine if they warrant incorporation into the proposed new network or if they should be 

removed. If existing bicycle facilities are to be used as the nucleus of a new or expanded network, the 

inventory should note which improvements to the existing portions of the network may be required to 

bring the entire new network up to uniform design and operations standards. 

A simple inventory of the roadway system could be based on a map of the AADT counts on each road 

segment within a community or region. A more complex inventory could include factors such as the 

number of traffic lanes, the width of the outside lane, the posted speed limit or actual average operating 

speed, the pavement condition, and certain geometric and other factors (e.g., the frequency of commercial 

driveways, grades, and railroad crossings). 

Identify Bicycle Travel Corridors. Predicting bicycle travel corridors for a community is not the same 

as identifying the routes that bicyclists currently use. Instead, travel corridors can be thought of as desire 

lines connecting neighborhoods that generate bicycling trips with other zones that attract a significant 

number of bicycling trips. 

For motor vehicle traffic, most peak morning trips are made from residential neighborhoods to 

employment centers. In the evening peak hours, the reverse is true. Furthermore, in the evenings or on 

weekends, the patterns of trip generation are much more dispersed, as people travel to shopping centers, 

parks, and the homes of friends or relatives. 

Estimating these trip flows for an entire city can be a complex, time-consuming effort requiring 

significant amounts of raw data and sophisticated computer models. Fortunately, transportation planning 

for bicycles is much simpler. Unlike traditional transportation planning that attempts to predict travel 

demands between future zones on as-yet unbuilt streets and highways, bicycle planning attempts to 

provide for bicycle use based on existing land uses, assuming that the present impediments to bicycle use 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 63 

are removed. These desire lines are, in fact, well represented by the traffic flow on the existing system of 

streets and highways. 

In all of this, the underlying assumption is that people on bikes want to go to the same places as do people 

in cars (within the constraints imposed by distance), and the existing system of streets and highways 

reflects the existing travel demands of the community. Furthermore, most adults have a mental map of 

their community based on their experience as motor vehicle operators. Thus, they tend to orient 

themselves by the location of major streets and highways. 

Again, it is important to note that the resulting map may not be a representation of where bicyclists are 

now, but is instead a reflection of where bicyclists wish to go. The actual travel patterns of group B/C 

bicyclists are heavily influenced by their perception of the bicycling environment they face. 

Uncomfortable or threatening bicycling conditions will cause these bicyclists to alter route choice from 

their most preferred alignment, choose a different travel mode, or not make the trip at all. Thus, the task 

of the transportation planner for bicycling is to ask, “Where are the bicyclists now?” and “Where would 

they be if they could go where they preferred?” 

Although this use of existing traffic flows is a useful overall predictor of bicyclists’ desire lines, a few 

special situations may require adjustments to the corridor map: 

• Schools (especially colleges and universities) and military bases can generate a disproportionately 

large share of bicycle trips. This is especially true for campuses where motor vehicle parking is 

limited. 

• Parks, beaches, libraries, greenways, rivers and lakesides, scenic roads, and other recreational 

facilities attract a proportionately higher percentage of bicycle trips. 

Evaluate and Select Specific Route Alternatives. The corridor identification procedure identifies desire 

lines for bicycle travel between various locations. The next step is to select specific routes within these 

corridors that can be designed or adapted to accommodate group B/C bicyclists and provide access to and 

from these locations. The aim is to identify the routes that best meet the performance criteria established 

in the first step of this planning process. 

Typically, this step and the selection of appropriate design treatments are highly interactive processes. 

The practicality of adapting a particular route to accommodate group B/C bicyclists may vary widely 

depending upon the type of design treatment selected. For example, a less direct route may become the 

best option if comparatively few inexpensive and easily implemented design improvements are required. 

Therefore, steps 4 and 5 should be approached as an iterative loop in which both route selection and 

design treatment are considered together to achieve a network that is highly advantageous to the user, is 

affordable, has few negative impacts on neighbors and other nonusers, and can be readily implemented. 

In summary, the selection of a specific route alternative is a function of several factors, including: 

• The degree to which a specific route meets the needs of the anticipated users as opposed to other 

route options. 

• The possible cost and extent of construction required to implement the proposed bicycle facility 

treatment. 
64 Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 

• The comparative ease of implementing the proposed design treatment (see figure 4-2). For 

example, one option may entail the often unpopular decision to alter or eliminate on-street 

parking while another does not. 

• The opportunity to implement the proposed design treatment in conjunction with a planned 

highway construction or reconstruction project. 

A more inclusive list of factors to be considered in the selection of a specific route is presented in the 

AASHTO Guide.

(1) 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 4-2. Photo. Several factors will determine the final design 

treatment used; two of the foremost are cost and controversy. 

Select Appropriate Design Treatments. Guidelines for selecting an appropriate design treatment are 

presented in lesson 13 of this course. In overview, the principal variables affecting the applicability of a 

design treatment are: 

• The design bicyclist: Is the proposed route projected to be used primarily by group A (advanced) 

bicyclists, or is it intended to also serve as part of a network of routes for group B/C bicyclists? 

• The type of roadway project involved with the selected route: Is the roadway scheduled for 

construction or reconstruction, or will the incorporation of design improvements be retrofitted 

into existing geometrics or right-of-way widths? 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 65 

• Traffic operations factors: The most significant traffic operations factors for determining the 

appropriateness of various design treatments are: 

o Traffic volume. 

o Average motor vehicle operating speeds. 

o Traffic mix. 

o On-street parking. 

o Sight distance. 

o Number of intersections and entrances. 

Evaluate the Finished Plan Against the Established Performance Criteria. Will the proposed network 

meet the criteria established at the start of the planning process? If it does not meet most of these criteria, 

or it inadequately meets a few critical goals, either the proposal will require further work, or the 

performance criteria must be modified. In the latter case, the planning process as a whole should be 

reviewed to determine if previously discarded routes should be reconsidered. There may now be more 

preferred options in light of the newly modified criteria. 

This reality check is important. Many well-considered proposals fail when it is determined that the 

finished product no longer meets its established objectives.(2)

4.5 Forecasting Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel Demand 

The bicycling and walking modes have experienced decades of neglect in mainstream travel demand 

forecasting. As cities and towns begin the work of redeveloping their transportation systems to support 

bicycling and walking, the list of needed improvements far outstrips available dollars. Planners have 

begun to look for ways to set priorities—one of which is predicting demand. 

The question that planners have begun to ask is this: If we build this bikeway (or walkway, etc.), how 

many people can we expect to use it? 

Finding the answer is the fundamental aspect of predicting demand. Transportation planners have been 

asking (and answering) this question for motor vehicular travel since the late 1960s, when the first travel 

demand models were developed. By contrast, bicycle and pedestrian researchers are only just beginning 

to scratch the surface on these topics. 

For bicycles and pedestrians to have a seat around the transportation table, it is important to acknowledge 

that some level of analysis must be done for these modes. Transportation planners have a responsibility to 

ensure that public funds are being spent wisely—in locations where a larger number of people will benefit 

from new facilities. Finally, there is a growing trend to quantify the air quality benefits (and congestion 

relief) that can be expected as a result of congestion mitigation and air quality (CMAQ) projects. For bike 

and pedestrian facilities, this means coming up with some way to determine how many auto trips will be 

shifted to biking and walking trips. 

While the science of predicting bicycle and pedestrian travel demand has not yet been developed to the 

same level as motor vehicle planning, there are a number of methods that planners have developed over 

the years to help quantify which locations have higher levels of demand. When planning bicycle and/or 

pedestrian facilities, it is important to remember that current volumes usually do not reflect demand for 

two reasons: 

1. Existing conditions and gaps in the network result in fewer users—potential users are deterred by 

dangerous conditions. 
66 Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 

2. Dispersed land uses create trip distances that are perceived as being too far to make on foot or by 

bicycle. 

There are two methods of determining demand for pedestrian and bicycle facilities: the intuitive approach 

versus the use of demand forecasting models. The intuitive approach is less time consuming; however, it 

does not yield precise results. This type of planning analysis is also called a sketch plan. A sketch plan 

typically focuses on proximity between origins and destinations, since distance is a primary factor in the 

initial decision to take a walking or bicycling trip. According to the 1995 Nationwide Personal 

Transportation Survey (NPTS), the majority of pedestrian trips are 0.4 km (0.25 mi) or less, with 1.6 km 

(1 mi) generally being the limit that most people are willing to travel on foot. In other words, most people 

are willing to take a five to ten minute walk at a comfortable pace to reach a destination. The majority of 

bicycle trips are 4.8 km (3 mi) or less—or about a 15-minute bike ride.(3)

NHTS data also show that land use patterns and population density have a big impact on trip distance. 

Higher-density communities with mixed land use patterns will have higher levels of walking because 

destinations are more likely to be located within walking distance of homes and businesses.(4)

For an intuitive (i.e., sketch plan) approach, destinations throughout the study area that would attract 

bicyclists and pedestrians are shown on a base map. Routes are selected that serve higher concentrations 

of destination points or that serve destinations that typically yield high numbers of bicyclists and 

pedestrians, such as universities, downtown areas, shopping centers, major employment centers 

(hospitals, business parks, major industries, and corporations, etc.), schools, and parks. Route selection 

and prioritization can be done via graphical representation; the intent is to identify locations that serve 

multiple destinations and higher population densities (population densities can be obtained from census 

data). This methodology can be accomplished using GIS, or it can be done by hand. 

Public involvement is important to the success of the intuitive method. It is particularly important to gain 

input from a wide variety of local citizens (representing different geographic areas) who represent all ages 

and abilities. 

The other method of estimating latent bicycle and pedestrian travel demand is to adjust conventional 

motor vehicle travel demand theory so that it applies to bicycle and pedestrian travel. By using a gravity 

model to measure latent bicycle and pedestrian travel demand, the planner can achieve results that are 

more precise than the intuitive approach. Another advantage to this approach is that it complements the 

type of analysis that is typically done for motor vehicle and transit travel simulation. This can be 

particularly important in cases where bicycle improvements are competing for similar funding 

mechanisms as other modes, since most TIPs make funding decisions based upon quantifiable results. 

Bicycle and pedestrian travel demand modeling can be done on a system-wide basis, or at the corridor 

level. Further information on more precise bicycle and pedestrian travel demand methods is provided in 

the FHWA Guidebook on Methods to Estimate Non-Motorized [sic] Travel.

(5)

4.6 Using Models to Evaluate Roadway Conditions for Bicycling and 

Walking 

Level of service (LOS) is a framework that transportation professionals use to describe existing 

conditions (or suitability) for a mode of travel in a transportation system. The traffic planning and 

engineering discipline has used LOS models for motor vehicles for several decades. Motor vehicle LOS is 

based on average speed and travel time for motorists traveling in a particular roadway corridor. In the 

1990s, new thinking and research contributed to the development of methodologies for assessing levels of 

service for other travel modes, including bicycling, walking, and transit (see figure 4-3). 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 67 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 4-3. Photo. Streets and roadways can be analyzed to determine the 

relative LOS they provide to bicyclists and pedestrians. 

Specific methodologies for bicycle LOS have been developed and used by a number of cities, counties, 

and States since the mid-1990s. There are two models that have been established and are widely used for 

evaluating bicycling conditions in the United States: one that was developed by FHWA and the other 

developed and tested by the Florida DOT. 

When considering LOS in a multimodal context, it is important to note that LOS measures for motor 

vehicles and bicycles are based on different criteria and are calculated using different inputs. Motor 

vehicle LOS is primarily a measure of speed, travel time, and intersection delay. Bicycle LOS is a more 

complex calculation that represents the level of comfort a bicyclist experiences in relation to motor 

vehicle traffic. 

Bicycle LOS 

Bicycle LOS is an evaluation of bicyclists’ perceived safety and comfort with respect to motor vehicle 

traffic while traveling in a roadway corridor. It identifies the quality of service for bicyclists or 

pedestrians that currently exists within the roadway environment. 

In order to evaluate bicycle LOS, a statistically-calibrated mathematical equation is used to estimate 

bicycling conditions in a shared roadway environment. It uses the same measurable traffic and roadway 

factors that transportation planners and engineers use for other travel modes. With statistical precision, 

this modeling procedure clearly reflects the effect on bicycling suitability or compatibility of factors such 
68 Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 

as roadway width, bike lane widths and striping combinations, traffic volume, pavement surface 

condition, motor vehicle speed and type, and on-street parking. The form of the bicycle LOS model is 

provided as shown below in figure 4-4. 

Bicycle LOS = a1ln (Vol15/Ln) + a2SPt(1+10.38HV)2 + a3(1/PR5)

2 + a4(We)2

 + C 

Figure 4-4. Equation. Bicycle LOS. 

 Vol15 = Volume of directional traffic in 15 minute time period 

 Vol15 = (ADT x D x Kd) / (4 x PHF) 

 where: 

 ADT = Average daily traffic on the segment or link 

 D = Directional factor (assumed = 0.565) 

 Kd = Peak-to-daily factor (assumed = 0.1) 

 PHF = Peak-hour factor (assumed = 1.0) 

 Ln = Total number of directional through lanes 

 SPt = Effective speed limit 

 SPt = 1.1199 ln(SPp - 20) + 0.8103 

 where: 

 SPp = Posted speed limit (a surrogate for average running speed) 

 HV = Percentage of heavy vehicles (as defined in the 1994 Highway Capacity Manual) 

 PR5 = FHWA five-point pavement surface condition rating 

 We = Average effective width of outside through lane: 

 where: 

 We = Wv − (10 ft x % OSPA) and Wl = 0 

 We = Wv + Wl (1 − 2 x % OSPA) and Wl > 0 & Wps= 0 

 We = Wv + Wl − 2 (10 x % OSPA) and Wl > 0 & Wps> 0 and a bike lane exists 

 where: 

 Wt = Total width of outside lane (and shoulder) pavement 

 OSPA = Percentage of segment with occupied on-street parking 

 Wl = Width of paving between the outside lane stripe and the edge of pavement 

 Wps = Width of pavement striped for on-street parking 

 Wv = Effective width as a function of traffic volume 

 where: 

 Wv = Wt if ADT > 4,000veh/day 

 Wv = Wt (2-0.00025 x ADT) if ADT ≤ 4,000veh/day, and if the street/road is 

undivided and unstriped 

 a1: 0.507 a2: 0.199 a3: 7.066 a4: - 0.005 C: 0.760 

 where: 

 (a1–a4) = coefficients established by the multivariate regression analysis. 

The bicycle LOS score resulting from the equation is prestratified into service categories A, B, C, D, E, 

and F (A being the best and F, the worst), according to the ranges shown in table 4-1 that reflect users’ 

perceptions of the road segments’ LOS for bicycle travel. This stratification is conducted in accordance 

with the linear scale established during the research project that identified bicycle participants’ aggregate 

responses to roadway and traffic stimuli. 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 69 

Table 4-1. Bicycle level LOS categories. 

Source: Bicycle LOS Software User’s Manual(6)

LOS Bicycle LOS Score 

A ≤ 1.5 

B > 5.5 

C > 4.5 and ≤ 5.5 

D > 3.5 and ≤ 4.5 

E > 2.5 and ≤ 3.5 

F > 1.5 and ≤ 2.5 

The model is particularly responsive to the factors that are statistically significant. An example of its 

sensitivity to various roadway and traffic conditions is shown in figure 4-5. 

Because the model represents the comfort level of a hypothetical typical bicyclist, some bicyclists may 

feel more comfortable and others may feel less comfortable than the bicycle LOS calculated for a 

roadway. A poor bicycle LOS grade does not mean that bicycles should be prohibited from using a 

roadway. 

Application 

The bicycle LOS model is used by planners, engineers, and designers throughout the United States and 

Canada in a variety of planning and design applications. Applications include: 

• Conducting a benefits comparison among proposed bikeway/roadway cross-sections. 

• Identifying roadway restriping or reconfiguration opportunities to improve bicycling conditions. 

• Prioritizing and programming roadway corridors for bicycle improvements. 

• Creating bicycle suitability maps. 

• Documenting improvements in corridor or system-wide bicycling conditions over time. 
70 Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 

Figure 4-5. Equation. Bicycle LOS sensitivity analysis. 

Source: Bicycle LOS Software User’s Manual(6)
Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 71

4.7 Mapping 

There are four basic types of bicycle maps: 

• Urban bicycle facility maps. 

• County, State, or regional bicycling guides. 

• Bicycling tour guides. 

• City or county planning maps. 

The first three are used mainly by bicycle riders; the fourth, by a wide variety of interested parties. 

Urban Bicycle Map 

Used primarily by local utilitarian bicyclists, newcomers, and visitors, this type of map is intended to help 

cyclists choose routes they feel comfortable riding and to encourage first-time riders to make trips by 

bicycle (see figure 4-6). All streets should be shown. A simple color code indicates the presence and types 

of bicycle facilities. It also warns bicyclists of roads they should use with caution. The accompanying text 

should provide information on traffic laws, safety tips, and the proper use of bikeways. 

Figure 4-6. Illustration. A bicycle route map provides bicyclists with information 

about street characteristics by using different color codes. 

Source: Broward County Bicycle Suitability Map 

Other useful information includes enlargements of difficult intersections, steep hills, weather data, 

parking facilities, bike shops, important destinations, and landmarks, etc. However, too much detail 

creates a cluttered effect; simplicity makes it easier to find needed information. 

Bicycle Guide 

The intended audience is recreational and touring riders interested in medium- to long-distance trips. The 

major concerns when choosing a route are traffic volume and roadway conditions. Color coding indicates 

bicycle LOS; a solid line indicates the presence of shoulders wide enough for bicycle travel. 
72 Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 

The map should include State highways and county roads. The level of detail is less than that on an urban 

map. Other information to be included are distances, grades, weather data (especially prevailing wind 

directions), and camping facilities. Text should be used for information on local history, landmarks, 

viewpoints, etc. 

Description of loop tours is useful to riders planning day trips. Local bicyclists should ride the loops in 

order to assess conditions. A written description of the route that lists landmarks and turns is helpful. 

Since bicycle trips often cross jurisdictional boundaries, counties are encouraged to coordinate when 

creating regional maps that cover natural geographical areas within easy reach of multiple population 

centers. 

Other Useful Tips 

Good maps are clear and simple—too many symbols and details create confusion. Only needed 

information should be included: 

• For urban maps, all city streets should be shown, as well as schools, public agencies, and other 

common destinations. But not every street needs to be labeled for bicycling purposes. Most 

residential streets and minor collectors function well as shared roadways and can be shown but 

not labeled on the map. 

• For bicycling guides, too much topographical detail obscures useful information. 

• For tour guides, inclusion of all roadways in the vicinity creates a confusing, web-like effect. 

Only the roads on the tour need to be included, along with roads that connect the route to other 

localities (for riders who wish to join or leave the route at intermediate points). Insets of urban 

areas are useful. 

It is usually better to create a new map. If available graphics capabilities don’t allow this, existing maps 

can be used by adding and deleting information. 

Other important considerations include the following: 

• Symbols and text should orient in the direction the map will be held (if possible, north at the top). 

• Descriptive text should be placed as close as possible to the relevant map segment (especially 

important for tour guides). 

4.8 Student Exercise 

Find bicycle and/or pedestrian planning guidelines for your city, county, or State. Also find plans from 

another region with comparable characteristics. What are the major elements of your local plan? From the 

plans, what can you determine is important to the area? Compare the two sets of plans and evaluate your 

plan’s strengths and weaknesses. 

4.9 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1999. 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning 73

2. Burden, D. and B. Drake, Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety and Accommodation (Participant 

Workbook), FHWA-HI-96-028, National Highway Institute, Arlington, VA, 1996. 

3. 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey, available online at 

http://npts.ornl.gov/npts/1995/doc/index.shtml, accessed August 12, 2005. 

4. NHTS, available online at http://www.bts.gov/programs/national_household_travel_survey/, 

accessed August 12, 2005. 

5. Guidebook on Methods to Estimate Non-Motorized [sic] Travel: Overview of Methods, FHWA, 

Publication No. FHWA-RD-98-166, Washington, DC, 1999. 

6. Bicycle LOS Software User’s Manual, Sprinkle Consulting, Inc., Lutz, FL, no date. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Landis, Bruce W. et al., “Real-Time Human Perceptions: Toward a Bicycle Level of Service” 

Transportation Research Record 1578, TRB, Washington, DC, 1997. 

• Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, Oregon Department of Transportation, June 1995. 

• Pinsof, S. and T. Musser, Bicycle Facility Planning, PAS 459, American Planning Association, 

Chicago, IL, 1995. 

• “Policy and Planning Page,” PBIC, Available online at http://www.bicyclinginfo.org, accessed 

April 20, 2004. 

• Toole, J., and B. Zimny, “Chapter 16—Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities,” Transportation 

Planning Handbook, ITE, Washington, DC, 1999.

Land Use Regulations to Encourage Nonmotorized Travel 75

LESSON 5: 

LAND USE REGULATIONS TO 

ENCOURAGE NONMOTORIZED TRAVEL 

5.1 Introduction 

Land use and transportation have an extremely complex interrelationship. Often, problems with the 

transportation system are blamed on faulty land use policies, and problems with sprawling land use are 

blamed on transportation policies. In fact, the problems typically do not have simple cause-and-effect 

solutions. This lesson takes a look at ways in which land use regulations can be improved to support an 

intermodal transportation system that encourages access by walking, bicycling, and transit. 

Most communities in the United States have land use regulations that primarily support automobile access 

to local destinations. Substantial changes to zoning laws and subdivision regulations will be necessary in 

many communities in order to accomplish fundamental improvements to the transportation system. In 

addition to ordinances that require bicycle parking and sidewalks, even more basic changes are needed for 

automobile parking requirements, street design standards, allowable land use densities, and 

transit-oriented developments. 

Revising regulations that have been in place for many years can be a daunting task—either for planners 

who are trying to remodel a development ordinance or for engineers who are trying to change street 

design standards to accommodate bicycle and pedestrian travel. This lesson provides some examples of 

the types of provisions that are included in new policies at the State and local levels in order to 

accommodate and encourage bicycle and pedestrian travel. The major sections of this lesson are as 

follows: 

• 5.1 Introduction 

• 5.2 Pedestrian-Oriented Land Use 

• 5.3 Commercial Development Design Guidance 

• 5.4 Performance Based Code as a Development (or Redevelopment) Tool 

• 5.5 Guidance on Designing Residential Communities That Encourage Walking 

• 5.6 Student Exercise 

• 5.7 References and Additional Resources 

5.2 Pedestrian-Oriented Land Use 

One of the most important factors in a person’s decision to walk or bike is the proximity of goods and 

services to homes and workplaces. The most conducive land use for pedestrian activity is one with a 

higher density mix of housing, offices, and retail (see figure 5-1). Studies have also shown that more 

people walk in areas that are able to achieve higher densities of either housing or employment, despite 

lower densities of other uses such as retail. One study of the Puget Sound Region in Washington State 

defines high density as 50 to 75 employees per acre or 9 to 18 residents per acre. 
76 Land Use Regulations to Encourage Nonmotorized Travel 

Zoning and Subdivision Regulations 

Pedestrian and bicycle travel is often an afterthought in the development process. The results are 

impassable barriers to pedestrian travel, both within and between developments. The examples below 

show how local zoning ordinances can be amended to require more attention to the needs of pedestrians 

and bicyclists. 

Subdivision Layout. A residential subdivision layout (including planned unit developments) should 

provide safe, convenient, and direct bicycle and pedestrian access to nearby [within 0.4 km (0.25 mi) for 

walking and 3.2 km (2 mi) for bicycling] and adjacent residential areas, bus stops, and neighborhood 

activity centers such as schools, parks, commercial and industrial areas, and office parks. 

Figure 5-1. Photo. Low-density, single-use zoning creates trip distances 

that are too great to make walking a viable transportation option. 

Cul-de-Sacs. Cul-de-sacs have proven to be effective in restricting automobile through traffic; however, 

they can also have the effect of restricting bicycle and pedestrian mobility unless public accessways are 

provided to connect the cul-de-sac with adjacent streets (see figures 5-2 and 5-3). Trail connections 

between cul-de-sacs and adjacent streets should be provided wherever possible to improve access for 

bicycles and pedestrians. 
Land Use Regulations to Encourage Nonmotorized Travel 77

Figure 5-2. Illustration. Cul-de-sacs can restrict 

pedestrian and bicycle access. 

Figure 5-3. Illustration. Loops are preferred to cul-de-sacs. 

Future Extension of Streets. During subdivisions of properties, streets, bicycle paths, and sidewalks 

should be designed to connect to adjacent properties that are also likely to be subdivided in the future, so 

that a secondary system of roads and sidewalks develops over time. When subdivisions are built with only 

one outlet to a main thoroughfare, the result is heavy traffic congestion and difficult intersections for both 

motorists and pedestrians. 

Inclusion of Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities in Piecemeal Development. This is intended to ensure 

that pedestrian and bicycle facilities are included in projects that occur in a piecemeal fashion. For 

projects in which only part of the land owned by the applicant is proposed for development, a sketch plan 

showing the tentative locations of streets, bicycle facilities, and public accessways should be submitted 

for the entirety of the land owned. Stub-outs (open connections for future development) should be 

constructed for bicycle and pedestrian facilities onsite, and the next construction phase should be 

designed to connect to this network. 

Internal Bicycle/Pedestrian Circulation for Commercial and Business Developments. Adequate 

provisions should be made for bicycle and pedestrian circulation between buildings and related uses on 

development sites. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) also contains regulations for onsite 

circulation. 
78 Land Use Regulations to Encourage Nonmotorized Travel 

Lot Coverage. Zoning codes should be amended to raise the allowable lot coverage along bus routes to 

encourage intensified and more efficient uses of land in these areas. 

Parking in High-Density Residential Developments. In some high-density residential areas, existing 

regulations require off-street parking and, at the same time, a reduced lot frontage. This results in home 

fronts that primarily consist of garage doors. Ordinances should be modified to allow for rear-lot access 

(alleyways) or other innovative solutions in these areas (see figure 5-4). 

Figure 5-4. Illustration. Typical alley: ordinances should be 

modified to allow for rear-lot access. 

Parking Reductions. Parking codes should be modified to allow a reduced parking option for 

developments that are located on bus routes and provide facilities that encourage bicycling and walking. 

In general, shopping center parking lots should not be designed to handle volumes that occur only once or 

twice per year, but rather more typical volumes. 

Compliance with Design Standards. Bicycle and pedestrian facilities should be designed to meet local 

and statewide design standards. 
Land Use Regulations to Encourage Nonmotorized Travel 79

Community Visioning 

Many communities throughout the country are conducting extensive revisions to their zoning and 

subdivision regulations in light of new planning techniques that improve transportation and community 

design. 

New rules that would allow parking reductions and higher density developments are likely to be 

controversial. Public education for citizens and elected officials is essential to gain popular support for 

these new regulations. 

The city of Portland, OR, recently conducted an extensive revision of local zoning and subdivision 

regulations by using a successful technique that encouraged involvement from citizens and local elected 

officials. The city conducted a well-publicized Visual Preference SurveyTM that allowed local citizens to 

establish a vision of their ideal community environment by comparing photographs of different styles of 

urban, suburban, and rural development. When shown side-by-side, photographs of suburban strip 

development were rated far lower than those showing more compact, mixed-use districts.(1) 

Development Review Process 

Land developers should be asked to submit a pedestrian and bicycle mobility plan early during the site 

plan review process. This plan should provide an inventory of all existing and proposed land uses 

adjacent to the site, and illustrate a logical circulation plan for pedestrians and bicycles within the 

development and between adjacent land uses. The questions in table 5-1 below can help design 

professionals create site plans that are sensitive to the needs of pedestrians. 

Table 5-1. Site plan checklist.

Overall System 

• Does the plan meet ADA standards? 

• Are utilitarian paths direct? Do they provide connections to pedestrian magnets nearby? Can pedestrians 

take advantage of shortcut paths that encourage walking instead of driving? 

• Does the pedestrian system consider the type and probable location of future development on adjacent 

or nearby parcels of land? Is there flexibility to provide direct connections to adjacent parcels, should 

that connection be desired in the future? 

• Are building entrance areas convenient to the pedestrian? Are they clearly evident through design 

features, topography, signing, or marking? 

• Are walkways along the street buffered from traffic as much as possible? 

Safety and Security 

• Are crossings of wide expanses of parking lots held to a minimum? 

• Are pathways generally visible from nearby buildings and free from dark, narrow passageways? 

• Is adequate pedestrian-scale lighting provided for nighttime security? 

• Are sight lines at intersections adequate for pedestrian visibility? Are pedestrians able to see oncoming 

traffic, given typical speeds? 

• Do pathways lead to road crossing points with the least conflict? 

• In general, are pedestrian/vehicle conflict points kept to a minimum? 

• Are pedestrians given adequate time to cross the road at intersections?
80 Land Use Regulations to Encourage Nonmotorized Travel 

5.3 Commercial Development Design Guidance 

The physical layout of a development can often make the difference in a person’s choice to walk between 

stores or to adjacent developments. Careful attention should be given to the location of buildings as well 

as the configuration of parking lots. Several provisions can ensure a better walking environment in 

commercial and office developments. 

Building Setbacks. Buildings should not automatically be separated from the street by parking lots—this 

discourages pedestrian access and primarily serves those who arrive by automobile. A maximum setback 

requirement of 4.6 to 7.6 m (15 to 25 ft) can help to encourage pedestrian activity. Parking, driving, and 

maneuvering areas should not be located between the main building entrance and the street. Parking lots 

should be located on the side and rear yards of the property whenever possible. 

For developments with multiple buildings, direct pedestrian access to public transit should be provided by 

clustering buildings near bus stops. 

Building Orientation and Facades. Main building entrances should be oriented to face the street 

designated as a bus route. Entrances and paved walkways should lead directly to a bus stop. Visual 

stimulation is very important to pedestrians—long, blank walls with no openings onto the street 

discourage walking. Building facades should maintain continuity of design elements such as windows, 

entries, storefronts, roof lines, materials, pedestrian spaces and amenities, and landscaping. Parking 

garages on streets with bus service should have ground-floor street frontage developed for office, retail, or 

other pedestrian-oriented uses. 

Onsite Walkways. For developments with multiple buildings and/or outparcels, all building entrances on 

the site should be connected by walkways to encourage walking between buildings and to provide a safe 

means of travel for pedestrians. Sidewalks between the building edge and parking lots should allow 

pedestrians safe and convenient access to building entrances without having to walk within driving aisles 

of parking lots. 

Pedestrian Access Between Adjacent Developments. To encourage walking instead of driving between 

uses on the development site, sidewalks should connect those uses to adjacent activity centers. Barriers 

such as fences or vegetation should not be placed so as to hinder access between developments. 

Lighting. Pedestrian-scale lighting should be designed to light the walkway, thereby increasing 

pedestrian safety. Pedestrian lighting should be used in addition to lighting provided for motorists’ safety. 

Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Architecture includes an excellent chapter on desirable lighting 

levels for pedestrian facilities, and table 5-2 specifies the following levels of illumination for sidewalks:(2)

Table 5-2. Levels of illumination for sidewalks.

Location of Lighting Lux (lx) Footcandles (fc) 

Sidewalks along roadsides: 

Commercial areas 

Intermediate areas 

Residential areas 

10 

6 

2 

0.9 

0.6 

0.2 

Sidewalks distant from roadsides 5 0.5 

Pedestrian tunnels 40 4.0 

Improvements Between the Building and the Street. Design elements in the area between the building 

and the street are critical to successful pedestrian spaces. The streetscape should provide visual interest 

for the pedestrian. The area should be landscaped if project budgets allow. 
Land Use Regulations to Encourage Nonmotorized Travel 81

Parking Lot Design. Parking lots with 50 or more spaces should be divided into separate areas with 

walkways and landscaped areas in between that are at least 3.0 m (10 ft) in width. Pedestrian paths should 

be designed with minimal direct contact with traffic. Where pedestrian paths cross the traffic stream, 

raised speed tables that slow cars while providing an elevated pedestrian walkway should be provided. 

Additional recommendations for pedestrian-oriented parking lots include: 

1. Location. Keep parking on one or two sides of the shopping center, away from the side that will 

generate the most pedestrian access. This pedestrian access point could be an office park, 

outparcel shopping or restaurant, or a residential area. 

2. Direct Pedestrian Paths. Provide a direct pedestrian path from parking lots and parking decks to 

the buildings they serve (see figure 5-5). Clearly delineate this path by striping, using different 

paving materials, or situating the path through the center of a series of strategically placed 

parking islands. 

Figure 5-5. Illustration. Provide pedestrian connections between parcels. 

3. Use of Landscaping. Landscaping can be used to channel and organize the traffic flow in parking 

lots as well as to provide pedestrian refuge areas. Avoid open parking lots that allow cars to move 

in any direction. 

Bicycle Parking. Provision of bicycle parking at destinations is crucial—without it, bicycling becomes 

far less convenient. Bicycle parking ordinances can help to improve the situation (see lesson 22 for a full 

description). 

5.4 Performance-Based Code as a Development (or Redevelopment) 

Tool 

Performance or form-based code is a planning technique used to establish desired aesthetics and design 

standards for a specific location—such as a street corridor that is undergoing redevelopment—to achieve 

a balanced, pedestrian-friendly environment. In Arlington, VA, form-based code has been used to 

establish design parameters for Columbia Pike, a five-lane urban arterial that is currently dominated by 
82 Land Use Regulations to Encourage Nonmotorized Travel 

motor vehicle traffic and lies within a rapidly redeveloping area. The Columbia Pike Special 

Revitalization District Form Based [sic] Code has the following purpose:(3)

The Form Based Code is a legal document that regulates land development, setting 

careful and clear controls on building form, with broad parameters on building use, to 

shape clear public space (good streets, neighborhoods, and parks) with a healthy mix of 

uses. With proper urban form, a greater integration of building uses is natural and 

comfortable. The Form Based Code uses simple and clear graphic prescriptions and 

parameters for: height, siting, and building elements to address the basic necessities for 

forming good public space. 

The Form Based Code contains the following elements: 

1. The Regulating Plan. The regulating plan is the coding key for The Columbia Pike Special 

Revitalization District Form Based Code that provides specific information on permitted 

development for each building site. The regulating plan also shows how each lot relates to public 

spaces (streets, civic greens, pedestrian pathways, etc.) and the surrounding neighborhood. There 

may be additional regulations for lots in special locations/situations identified in the regulating 

plan. 

2. The Building Envelope Standards. The building envelope standards establish basic parameters 

governing building form, including the envelope for building placement (in three dimensions) and 

certain permitted/required building elements such as balconies and street walls. The building 

envelope standards establish the boundaries within which things may be done and specific things 

that must be done. The applicable standard for a building is determined by its street frontage 

contained in the regulating plan. This produces a coherent street and allows the building greater 

latitude behind its street facade. The intent of the building envelope standards is to shape a vital 

public space (Columbia Pike and its adjoining streets) through placement and envelope controls 

on private buildings. These standards aim for the minimum level of control necessary to meet that 

goal. 

3. The Architectural and Streetscape Standards. The goal of the architectural standards is a 

coherent and pleasing architectural character that complements the best local traditions. The 

architectural standards govern a building’s architectural elements regardless of its building 

envelope standard and set the parameters for allowable materials, configurations, and 

construction techniques. Equivalent products or better (as determined by the administrative 

review team) than those specified are always encouraged and may be submitted for approval to 

the county. 

The purpose of the streetscape standards is to ensure coherent streets and to assist builders and 

owners with understanding the relationship between the public space of the pike and their own 

building. These standards set the parameters for planting trees and other amenities on or near each 

building site. 

For more information on performance-based codes, refer to the resources at the end of this lesson. 

5.5 Guidance on Designing Residential Communities That Encourage 

Walking 

Suburban neighborhood design can be modified to encourage bicycling and walking. It is not necessarily 

more expensive to build such communities; however, they require more careful design on the part of the 
Land Use Regulations to Encourage Nonmotorized Travel 83

developer. These types of pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods are worth the effort. Recent studies suggest 

that homes sell quickly in these communities. (See lesson 6 for a more complete description of traditional 

neighborhood development.) 

A pedestrian-oriented neighborhood should include the following aspects (the list below is taken from the 

ITE Journal article titled “Neo-Traditional Neighborhood Design and Its Implications for Traffic 

Engineering”):(4) 

1. Streets that are laid out in well-connected patterns on a pedestrian scale so that there are 

alternative automobile and pedestrian routes to every destination. A cul-de-sac pattern generally 

limits connectivity and is therefore discouraged. 

2. A well-designed street environment that encourages intermodal transportation. These streets 

should include pedestrian-scale lighting, trees, sidewalks, and buildings that are within close 

walking distance to the sidewalk. 

3. Residential and internal commercial streets should be relatively narrow in order to discourage 

high-speed automobile traffic. 

4. On-street parallel parking is recommended where it can be used as a buffer between pedestrians 

and motor traffic. Parked cars also serve to slow down the passing traffic, helping to balance the 

overall use of the street. 

5. Bicycles are considered an integral part of the transportation mode mix, and the design of the 

streets includes appropriate facilities for them. 

6. The buildings are generally limited in size, and building uses are often interspersed—that is, 

small houses, large houses, outbuildings, small apartment buildings, corner stores, restaurants, 

and offices are compatible in size and are placed in close proximity. 

7. In addition to streets, there are public open spaces, around which are larger shops and offices, as 

well as apartments. 

8. Larger communities should provide a neighborhood center (providing small-scale commercial 

and office uses) within a 5-minute walking distance (roughly a 0.40 m (0.25 mi) radius) for the 

majority of residents in the neighborhood. 

5.6 Student Exercise 

Zoning and subdivision regulations often pose a significant barrier to implementing the design features 

discussed in this lesson. While some land development regulations have been revised to encourage the 

construction of multimodal neighborhoods and commercial areas, unforeseen complications often get in 

the way of achieving the livable community that was envisioned. The purpose of this lesson is to learn 

more about the development process and the reasons behind final outcomes in the built environment. 

a) Select a development in your community that was built in the last 2 years. Using the principles 

described in this lesson, prepare a critique that describes how well the development supports 

walking and bicycling, as well as automobile travel. Are densities and mixes of uses sufficient to 

encourage walking trips? Are streets and pathways designed to accommodate and encourage 

walking and bicycling? Are commercial areas oriented to people arriving in automobiles, or to 

people arriving on foot? 
84 Land Use Regulations to Encourage Nonmotorized Travel 

b) Review the land development regulations that were in place when this development was built. 

Interview a local planner to find out the circumstances that led to any deficiencies in the 

design⎯often local county planners are well aware of better designs, but are unable to require 

developers to implement them. How did elected officials influence the process? 

Prepare a paper (five pages or less) that summarizes your research and provides conclusions that explain 

the reasons why desirable⎯and undesirable⎯features of the development occurred. 

A few tips: Avoid selecting a development that is not yet completed, since some pedestrian and bicycle 

features are sometimes built later in the development process (such as shared-use path networks). When 

calling the local planning department of the jurisdiction responsible for the project, ask to speak with one 

of the planners who was responsible for working with the developer. 

For extra credit, speak with the developer of the property, and ask his/her perspective about aspects of the 

development that were successful and unsuccessful in his/her opinion, particularly in accommodating 

pedestrians and bicyclists. 

5.7 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Picture This. . . The Results of Visual Preference Survey, A. Nelessen & Associates, Princeton, 

NJ, and Seattle, WA, 1993. 

2. Harris. C.W., and N.T. Dines, Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Architecture, McGraw-Hill, 

New York, NY, 1988. 

3. The Columbia Pike Special Revitalization District Form Based Code, Arlington County, VA, 

2003. Available online at http://www.arlingtonva.us/Departments/CPHD/forums/columbia/ 

current/CPHDForumsColumbiaCurrentCurrentStatus.aspx. 

4. “Neo-Traditional Neighborhood Design and its Implications for Traffic Engineering,” ITE 

Journal, vol. 62, no. 1, January 1992, pp. 17–18. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Models and Guidelines for Managing Maryland’s Growth—Modeling Future Development on the 

Design Characteristics of Maryland’s Traditional Settlements, Maryland Office of Planning, 

1994. 

• Oregon Transportation Planning Rule, American Planning Association, Washington, DC,1993. 

• Urban Planning Tools for Quality Growth—First Edition and 2002 Supplement, Envision Utah, 

2002. Available online at http://envisionutah.org/Introduction.pdf. 

• U.S. Department of Energy's Smart Communities Network, 

http://www.sustainable.doe.gov/welcome.shtml, accessed March 21, 2005. 
Traditional Neighborhood Design 85

LESSON 6: 

TRADITIONAL NEIGHBORHOOD DESIGN 

6.1 Introduction 

Traditional neighborhood design (TND) (also called new urbanism or neotraditional design) is a town 

planning principle that is gaining acceptance in recent years as part of the solution to a variety of 

problems in suburban communities throughout the country. Traditional neighborhoods are more compact 

communities designed to encourage bicycling and walking for short trips by providing destinations close 

to home and work, and by providing sidewalks and a pleasant environment for walking and biking. These 

neighborhoods are reminiscent of 18th and 19th century American and European towns, along with 

modern considerations for the automobile. 

The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 6.1 Introduction 

• 6.2 The New Urbanism Debate 

• 6.3 “Putting the Brakes on Suburban Sprawl” 

• 6.4 Street Design for Traditional Neighborhoods 

• 6.5 Student Exercise 

• 6.6 References and Additional Resources 

This lesson has been primarily derived from two sources: a 1994 article in Engineering News-Record on 

traditional neighborhood design, and the Neo-Traditional Street Design Handbook from ITE. Additional 

sources of information are listed at the end of the lesson. 

6.2 The New Urbanism Debate 

While new urbanism has been a positive influence on the field of planning and engineering, it has also 

been a source of considerable debate. Hundreds of new urbanist developments have been built throughout 

the country. Yet many have not achieved some of the more lofty goals of their founders, who hoped that 

families living in new urbanist communities would own fewer cars and make most of their daily trips on 

foot. 

New urbanist neighborhoods are often built as an alternative to the sprawling style of suburban 

development. While traditional neighborhoods offer a better alternative to the single use, monocultural 

suburban neighborhood that was ubiquitous in the past, they are sometimes built on open land on the 

urban fringes many miles from the urban center and surrounded by high-volume arterial roadways. 

Another criticism has been that housing in these new traditional neighborhoods is often beyond the price 

range of lower- to middle-income families. These neighborhoods become enclaves of good design; 

however, they do not solve transportation problems because their residents still drive to most destinations. 

New urbanism has been one of the hottest new planning theories among the modern generation of 

planners. It is appealing to start with a clean slate in a new development and build well the first time. 

However, a great deal of work lies ahead to redesign standard suburban standard suburban neighborhoods 

and streets in the United States to be more conducive for nonmotorized use. The task of retrofitting 
86 Traditional Neighborhood Design 

existing suburban and urban communities to accommodate and encourage walking and bicycling is a 

daunting challenge. 

For other perspectives in the debate on new urbanist design principles and goals, see the references at the 

end of this lesson. 

The planning profession continues to strive towards development principles that result in fewer 

automobile trips and more walking trips, and the failures of the new urbanist movement are as instructive 

as the successes. This lesson strives to address both topics, and begins with a article that appeared in the 

May 1994 edition of Engineering News-Record.

(1) It is written from an engineering perspective, and 

provides a historical backdrop of the issues that were debated during the mid 1990s, at the initial outset of 

a movement that has now reached nearly every corner of the U.S. 

6.3 “Putting Brakes on Suburban Sprawl” 

The following article, “Putting Brakes on Suburban Sprawl,” is reprinted with permission from 

Engineering News Record (ENR), May 1994. Readers should note that the terms used in this article—new 

urbanism, neotraditional design, traditional neighborhood design—are considered interchangeable, as 

they are in the rest of this lesson and this entire course. 

New urbanists are zealots. They proselytize their antidote to alienation—new old-style 

towns—with a missionary’s fervor. And after a frustrating first decade bucking an 

automobile-driven society unfriendly to their peripatetic ways, they are beginning to 

make great strides. 

With several neotraditional neighborhoods built, public planners are taking notice. Some 

are even adjusting general plans and zoning for compact walkable mixed-use towns. 

Suburban traffic engineers and public works officials are no longer simply recoiling at 

the prospect of pedestrian-friendly street patterns with narrower, gridded, and tree-lined 

streets. And market surveys are convincing skeptics that suburban residents are content 

living in a town that by design nurtures both community consciousness and the individual 

spirit. 

“Contemporary suburbanism isolates and separates [see figure 6-1],” says Paul Murrain, 

an urban planner based in Oxford, U.K. Consumers are recognizing “in their hearts” the 

better quality of life offered by new urbanism, he adds. 

Though new urbanism is also intended for cities cut to pieces by highways, it is more the 

planner’s answer to suburban sprawl and the breakdown of community caused by a 

post-World War II obsession with the automobile. Apart from nearly total dependence on 

the car, the typical suburb, with its looping or dendritic street pattern and dead-end 

cul-de-sacs, “is laid out so that it can’t grow,” says Andres Duany, partner in Andres 

Duany & Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk Architects and Planners (DPZ), Miami. “It chokes on 

itself in very short order.” 

“Suburban sprawl is riddled with flaws,” Duany continues. Unfortunately, “all of the 

professions [involved in development] have sprawl as their model.” 
Traditional Neighborhood Design 87

Figure 6-1. Illustration. New urbanism allows travel from one 

destination to another without using collector roads. 

Source: Illustration and caption by ENR, May 9, 1994(1) 

Even those who do not subscribe to new urbanism see a need for change. “We are finally 

recognizing we should plan communities, not structures,” says Carolyn Dekle, executive 

director of the South Florida Regional Planning Council, Hollywood. 

“New urbanism is a return to romantic ideas of the past and does not respond to current 

lifestyles,” says Barry Berkus, principal of two California firms, B3 Architects, Santa 

Barbara, and EBG Architects, Irvine. “But it is part of a knee-jerk, but needed, reaction to 

irresponsible planning that produced monolithic neighborhoods without character.” 

Duany, both charismatic and outspoken, and his cerebral wife Plater-Zyberk are in new 

urbanism’s high priesthood. To focus attention on their goals, DPZ and several others 

created the Congress for the New Urbanism last year. The second meeting is set for 

May 20 to 23 in Los Angeles. “We need all the converts we can get,” says Duany, 

because, “inadvertently, one thing after another prevents it.” Among these are fear of 

change and criticism that the new urbanism model is too rigid—robbing the individual 

residents of choice. 

Regardless of criticism, converts are beginning to spill out of the woodwork. “Before my 

conversion, I was a schlock developer,” confesses John A. Clark, of the Washington, DC, 

company that bears his name. “Most of my stuff was so bad it makes your teeth ache.” 
88 Traditional Neighborhood Design 

Then in 1988, after reading about neotraditional development, the movement’s original 

name, “the light bulb went off,” says Clark. He called Duany and soon enlisted DPZ in 

the campaign for Virginia’s Haymount. 

There are other tales of conversion. “We were Duanied,” says Karen Gavrilovic, 

principal planner in the Loudoun County Planning Dept., Leesburg, VA. Last year, the 

county adopted a comprehensive general plan based on new urbanism, which just won an 

American Planning Association award. 

Until new urbanism becomes mainstream, the approvals process for each community 

tends to be tortuous and therefore expensive. “The thing that must change is the cost of 

establishing new communities,” says Daniel L. Slone, a lawyer with Haymount’s 

counsel, McGuire Woods Battle & Boothe, Richmond. “It will take the cooperation and 

leadership of planners, politicians, and environmental and social activists.” 

Approvals are complicated. The approach “raises hundreds of land-use questions” that 

must be answered, says Michael A. Finchum, who as Caroline County’s director of 

planning and community development, Bowling Green, VA, is involved with Haymount. 

“Anything new is of concern,” especially to lenders and marketers, agrees Douglas J. 

Gardner, project manager for developer McGuire Thomas Partners’ Playa Vista, a new 

urbanism infill plan sited at an old airstrip in Los Angeles (ENR, 10/04/93, p. 21). But 

Gardner sees planning obstacles as surmountable and blames Playa Vista’s 5-year 

approval time on a trend toward a “more rigorous regulatory framework” for all types of 

developments. 

Fabric 

New urbanism combines aspects of 18th and 19th century American and European towns 

with modern considerations, including the car. As in Loudoun County, the model can be 

applied on any scale—to a city, a village, or even a hamlet. In West Palm Beach, FL, 

which is drafting a new urbanist downtown plan, it is superimposed on an existing urban 

fabric. Though most of the architecture so far has been traditional, any vernacular is 

possible. 

Like a bubble diagram, neighborhoods should overlap at their edges to form larger 

developed areas, interconnected by streets, public transit, and bicycle and footpaths. 

Regional mass transit and superhighways enable workers to commute to remote job 

centers. 

To make new urbanism work on a wider scale, San Francisco-based Calthorpe Associates 

promotes urban growth boundaries and future development around regional transit. But 

localities are afraid they will lose control, so most States have not authorized regional 

governance, says Peter A. Calthorpe. The result is “fractured development, no regional 

transit, and no attention to broader environmental and economic issues,” he says. 

There are many proposed new urbanism projects, but less than a dozen are built. Most, 

not yet 5 years old, have yet to reach build-out. The more well known are DPZ’s 

Kentlands in Gaithersburg, MD; architect-planner Calthorpe’s Laguna West in 

Sacramento; architect Looney [R]icks Kiss’ Harbor Town in Memphis; and DPZ’s 

Seaside, a northern Florida vacation-home town. 
Traditional Neighborhood Design 89

Retrofits are possible, but more difficult [see figure 6-2]. Subdivisions, with multiple 

landowners and streets that are nearly impossible to link, are the most troublesome. 

Office park and shopping center makeovers, such as Mashpee Commons on Cape Cod, 

are easier because the cost of a parking garage to free up surface lot space for 

development can often be financially justified, says Duany. 

Figure 6-2. Photos. Mashpee Commons before and after retrofitting. 

Source: Photos and caption by ENR, May 9, 1994(1)

The optimal new urbanism unit is 160 acres. Typically, the developer provides the 

infrastructure. The town architect establishes and oversees the plan and designs some 

structures. But other architects are also involved. Public buildings and space, including a 

community green, are located near the center, as are many commercial buildings. 

Mix 

Under new urbanism, there is often no minimum building setback. Lot widths are 

typically multiples of 4.9 m (16 ft), and are 30.5 m (100 ft) deep. There are a variety of 

residential buildings—apartment buildings, row houses, and detached houses—usually 

mixed with businesses. Finally, there are alleys lined by garages and secondary buildings, 

such as carriage houses and studios. 

All elements are planned around “the distance the average person will walk before 

thinking about getting in the car,” says Michael D. Watkins, Kentlands’ town architect in 

DPZ’s Gaithersburg [MD] office. That is a maximum 5-minute walk—a quarter mile or 

1,350 ft [0.4 km or 411 m]—from a town center to its edges. 
90 Traditional Neighborhood Design 

New urbanists maintain that a family will need fewer cars. Duany likes to point out that it 

costs an average of $5,500 per year to support each car, the equivalent of the annual 

payment on a $55,000 mortgage. 

Sidewalks are usually 1.5 m (5 ft) wide instead of 1.2 m (4 ft). Streets, designed to entice, 

not intimidate, walkers, are typically laid out in a hierarchical, modified grid pattern. The 

broadest are 11.0 m (36 ft) wide; the narrowest, 6.1 m (20 ft). On-street parking is 

encouraged and counted toward minimum requirements [see table 6-1]. Vehicle speed is 

24.1 to 32.2 kilometers per hour (km/h) [15 to 20 miles per hour (mi/h)], not 40.2 to 48.3 

km/h (25 to 30 mi/h). Curb return radii are minimized so that a pedestrian crossing is not 

daunting. Superhighways are relegated to the far outskirts of town. 

In a grid, traffic is designed to move more slowly, but it is also more evenly distributed 

so there are fewer and shorter duration jams, says Duany. In the typical suburb, broad 

commercial streets, called collectors, have become wall-to-wall traffic, while loop and 

cul-de-sac asphalt typically remains underused. 

Table 6-1. Comparison of new urbanism versus standard street design practices. 

Source: ENR, May 9, 1994(1)

Street Design Standard New Urbanism 

Basic layout Dendritic Interconnected grid 

Alleys Often discouraged Encouraged 

Design speed Typically 40–48 km/h (25–30mi/h) Typically 32 km/h (20 mi/h) 

Street width Generally wider Generally narrower 

Curb radii Selected to ensure in-lane turning Selected for pedestrian crossing 

times and vehicle types 

Intersection 

geometry 

Designed for efficiency, safety, 

vehicular speed 

Designed to discourage through 

traffic, for safety 

Trees, landscaping Strictly controlled Encouraged 

Street lights Fewer, tall, efficient luminaries More, shorter, closely spaced 

lamps 

Sidewalks 1.2 m (4 ft) minimum width, 

outside right-of-way to undulate 

1.5 m (5 ft) minimum, with 

right-of-way and parallel to 

street 

Building setbacks 4.5 m (15 ft) or more No minimum 

Parking Off-street preferred On-street encouraged 

Trip generation Developed from a sum of the users Developed from a reduced need 

for vehicular trips 

Berkus objects to the grid, except to organize the town center. The “edges should be 

organic” for those who perceive “enclaves” as safer and more secure places to live, he 

says. 

Bernardo Fort-Brescia, principal of the Miami-based Arquitectonica, also thinks the 

undulating street and cul-de-sac should be offered. “There are no absolutes,” he says. 

The firm’s plan for Meerhoven, a new town proposed for Holland, reflects many new 

urbanist concepts in a modern vernacular. “Nothing is faked to appear old,” says 

Fort-Brescia. Every element has a function based on modern lifestyles. For example, the 

town lake is sized for triathlon swimming and perimeter marathon runs. But pedestrians 

and bikers are encouraged. And mass transit will whisk commuters to jobs elsewhere. 
Traditional Neighborhood Design 91

Arquitectonica is fortunate—there are no intractable standards in the way of its plan. But 

in the United States, new urbanists say their biggest roadblocks are existing street design 

standards geared to traffic volume and efficient movement, and zoning that prohibits 

small lots and mixing building types. For example, firefighters and sanitation officials 

want to have a street wide enough for trucks to turn corners without crossing the 

centerline. 

“Public works will view your proposal with suspicion” because in new urbanism, traffic 

is no longer the driving force behind street design, says Frank Spielberg, president of 

traffic engineer SG Associates Inc., Annandale, VA. 

Spielberg, sympathetic to new urbanism, but cautious about traffic issues, says there are 

still questions: Lower expected traffic volume justifies narrow streets, but is actual traffic 

volume lower? How long would it take to convince residents they need fewer cars? Will 

traffic be retained within the project, which would relieve the developer of adjacent road 

upgrades? 

Traffic engineers have been working for 40 years to accommodate the proposals of 

architects and planners, maintains Spielberg, chairman of the Washington-based ITE’s 

5-year-old committee on traffic engineering for neotraditional development. Now that the 

approach is changing, “traffic engineers will respond,” he says. 

Reform 

“Surprisingly, traffic engineers, the most recalcitrant of all, are the first to reform,” agrees 

Duany. ITE plans to publish neotraditional street design guidelines late this year or early 

in 1995. 

In addition to ITE’s manual, which already contains residential street guidelines, there are 

AASHTO standards. They support compact projects, “but only if you already know 

where to look,” says C.E. Chellman, CEO of White Mountain Survey Co., a land 

surveyor-engineer in Ossippe, NH, and editor of ITE’s draft guidelines. 

Chellman says transportation officials often forget that ITE and AASHTO standards are 

not binding codes. Officials are reluctant to use judgment, he says. 

Some engineers simply take issue with the specifics driving new urbanism. Skokie, 

IL-based traffic engineer Paul C. Box, who wrote the existing ITE residential street 

guidelines, claims lowering the speed limit is against human nature. He says on-street 

parking is dangerous because children get hit running out between parked cars. He is 

against narrower through streets and the bicycle as transportation unless separate bike 

paths or lanes are constructed, which he says is too costly. He also thinks undulating 

sidewalks are safer than those along the street. 

Until there is a body of research to support it, mainstream lenders and commercial 

interests will continue to shy away from new urbanism, says James Constantine, principal 

of Community Planning Research Inc., Princeton, NJ. In February, Constantine released 

data from a survey of “active” home-buyers [sic] attending the Home Builders 

Association of Memphis show at Harbor Town last September. Of 123, “a whopping 

two-thirds” said they’d “like” to live in a neotraditional neighborhood, he says. The only 

market resistance was to small lots and minimal setbacks, he adds. 
92 Traditional Neighborhood Design 

John H. Schleimer, president of Market Perspectives, [Roseville], CA, says even home 

buyers surveyed recently who bought elsewhere “like” the idea of community and the 

option of walking places. But many said they paid the same price for bigger homes on 

larger lots. 

Haymount’s Clark isn’t rattled: “Someone who wants to live on a mansion-size lot and 

‘commit cul-de-side’ has to go elsewhere. That’s why there is vanilla and chocolate.” 

By Nadine M. Post 

6.4 Street Design for Traditional Neighborhoods 

Traditional neighborhoods have begun to appeal to both community designers and home buyers alike. It 

is important, however, to consider that traditional street design fundamentally differs from standard 

suburban street design. In recent years, many developers have claimed that their projects are new urbanist, 

but are in fact missing critical features. This section provides more specific details on traditional street 

design, and explains how it is different from standard suburban street design. 

Basic Street Layout 

Standard suburban street design is characterized by a hierarchical, tree-like pattern that proceeds from 

cul-de-sacs and local streets to collectors to wide arterials. The organization of the network collects and 

channels trips to higher capacity facilities. The use of streets in residential areas for intercommunity and 

through traffic is minimized by limiting access by constructing few perimeter intersections, reducing 

interconnections between streets, and by using curving streets and cul-de-sacs in the development. Where 

this layout is successfully designed and constructed, automobiles are the most convenient choice for short, 

as well as long, trips. The street layout forces longer, less direct auto travel when street connections are 

missing. 

The hierarchical street layout reflects the guiding principle that streets on which residences front should 

serve the least traffic possible. At best, only vehicles traveling to or from the homes on a given street 

would ever appear on that street. There would be little or no through traffic, hence the prevalence of 

cul-de-sacs (see figure 6-3). Traffic from residential streets is quickly channeled through the street 

hierarchy to collectors and then to arterials. Only arterials, fronted primarily by stores, offices, or 

apartments, provide direct connectivity between land uses and other neighborhoods. 

By contrast, TND calls for an interconnected network of streets and sidewalks to disperse vehicular trips 

and to make human-powered modes of travel (such as walking and biking) practical, safe, and attractive 

for short trips. Motorists, pedestrians, and public officials will find the regular pattern more 

understandable. 

A TND street pattern can also have a hierarchy, with some roadways designed to carry greater traffic 

volumes. A basic assumption of new urbanist planning, however, is that neighborhood streets that serve 

local residential trips can also safely serve other neighborhood trips and some through traffic. For 

example, a street with 40 homes would need to carry about 20 vehicle trips during the peak hour. The 

effective capacity of this street could easily be 200 vehicles per hour without a significant effect on safety 

or environmental quality. By limiting the access to the street as in standard suburban design, 90 percent of 

its effective capacity is wasted. Nearby arterials must make up the difference. 
Traditional Neighborhood Design 93

Figure 6-3. Photo. Typical suburban neighborhoods offer few route choices for trips. 

By eliminating dead ends and designing all streets to be interconnected, neotraditional neighborhoods 

provide multiple route choices for trips. By using narrow streets and by constructing more of them, more, 

yet smaller, intersections are created. In concept, therefore, overall network capacity is increased, traffic 

is dispersed, and congestion is reduced in neotraditional communities. While this rationale seems 

intuitively correct, it must be carefully applied. Land use and density are not constant across a 

neotraditional community. Larger traffic generators will attract larger numbers of vehicles that may 

require multilane streets and intersections. 

Use of Alleys 

Planners discourage alleys in standard suburban residential areas. In a typical suburban development, an 

alley behind homes serves no function because garages and their driveways are accessed from the street. 

However, in TND, alleys give neighborhood planners design flexibility by permitting narrow lots with 

fewer driveways on local streets. Fewer driveways also mean more affordable, smaller home sites and 

more space for on-street parking, especially if the home-owners use the alleys for their own vehicular 

access, parking, and utilitarian activities. Alleys provide space for underground or unattractive overhead 

utilities while freeing streets for trees and other plantings. Alleys also can be used for trash storage and 

collection and emergency vehicle access. TND projects do not have alleys everywhere, but where they do, 

traffic safety may improve. Alleys eliminate residential driveways and the need for backing up onto the 

street, which would otherwise occur and is inherently unsafe. 

Street Design Speed 

Design speeds for standard suburban neighborhood streets range from a minimum of 40.2 or 48.3 km/h 

(25 or 30 mi/h) to 72.4 km/h (45 mi/h). The design speed recognizes the type of facility (local, collector, 

or arterial), and it allows for a standard 8.0 or 16.1 km/h (5 or 10 mi/h) margin of safety above the 85th 
94 Traditional Neighborhood Design 

percentile speed, which is usually the posted speed. Often, the signing of wide streets for 40.2 to 56.3 

km/h (25 to 35 mi/h) simply results in more speed violations. It is not unusual for neighbors to complain 

of speeding traffic on neighborhood streets and to request actions to slow the traffic. Stop signs, speed 

bumps, “Children at Play” signs, and the like might have to be used to slow vehicles from the original 

design speed of the street. 

New urbanism projects attempt to control vehicle speeds through careful design of streets and the 

streetscape. Minimum TND street design speeds are 24.1 to 32.2 km/h (15 to 20 mi/h). On-street parking, 

narrow street widths, and special design treatments help induce drivers to stay within the speed limits. 

T-intersections, interesting routes with lots of pedestrian activity, variable cross section designs, rotaries, 

landscaped medians, curb extensions, and other treatments may be used. 

At slower speeds, the frequency of vehicular crashes may decline, and those that do occur may be less 

severe. What is not clear is whether or not the frequency of pedestrian-vehicle crashes also decreases with 

speed. Pedestrian crash types are often associated with darting out from between parked cars, walking 

along roadways, crossing multilane intersections, crossing turn lanes, dashing across intersections, 

backing vehicles, ice cream vending trucks, and bus stops. 

For new urbanism projects, the goal is to create more active streetscapes involving more of the factors 

that slow drivers. These include parked cars; narrow street width; and eye contact between pedestrians, 

bicyclists, and drivers. The overall impact of these elements of design is enhancement of the mutual 

awareness of drivers and pedestrians. Thus, many professionals believe that in a traditional neighborhood, 

drivers are more likely to expect pedestrians and avoid them in emergency situations. 

Street Width 

In standard suburban neighborhoods, street type, width, and design speed are based on projected vehicle 

volumes and types. The larger the vehicle permitted on the street according to local regulations, the wider 

the street. The focus is on motorized vehicles, often to the exclusion of pedestrians, other transportation 

modes such as bicycles, and other considerations of the community environment. 

Ideal suburban lane widths per direction are 3.7 m (12 ft), while exclusive turn lanes may be 3.0 m (10 ft) 

or less. Depending on whether or not parking is permitted, two-lane local street widths vary from 6.7 to 

11.0 m (22 to 36 ft), while two-lane collector streets vary from 11.0 to 12.2 m (36 to 40 ft). In many 

suburban jurisdictions, the minimum street width must accommodate cars parked on both sides, an 

emergency vehicle with its outriggers, and one open travel lane. These possible uses instead of reasonably 

expected uses lead to a worst-case design scenario, an excessively wide street, and probable higher travel 

speeds. 

In contrast to standard street design, the width of TND streets is determined by the projected volumes and 

types of all the users of the street, including pedestrians. The actual users of the street and their frequency 

of use help determine street width. In addition, TND-type standards come into play. The basic residential 

TND street has two lanes, one for each direction, and space for parking on at least one side. The resulting 

minimum width may be as narrow as 8.5 to 9.1 m (28 to 30 ft). Design considerations, however, may 

preclude parking in some areas, perhaps to provide space for bicyclists. 

If traditional communities encourage narrower streets with parking, then vehicles will naturally slow and 

stop for parking maneuvers and for larger approaching or turning vehicles that may encroach on the other 

lane. The TND concept is that drivers must be more watchful (as they usually are in central business 

districts) and, once more watchful, drivers expect to and do stop more frequently. 
Traditional Neighborhood Design 95

To alert drivers to the relative change in importance between vehicles and pedestrians, they must be 

warned at entrances to the TND street pattern. This warning must be more than signs. Narrower streets, 

buildings closer to the street, parked cars, smaller signs, and the generally smaller, much greater visual 

detail of a pedestrian-scale streetscape all serve as good notice to the visitor. 

Curb Radii 

Curb radii in suburban neighborhoods match expected vehicle type, turning radius, and speed to help 

ensure in-lane turning movements if possible. In order to accommodate the right-hand turning movements 

of a tractor trailer and larger vehicles, no matter what their frequency of street use, suburban streets 

typically have minimum intersection curb radii of 7.6 to 10.7 m (25 to 35 ft). Some jurisdictions require 

15.2 m (50 ft) or more. What such large curb radii do for smaller, more predominant vehicles is to 

encourage rolling stops and higher turning speeds. These conditions increase the hazards for crossing 

pedestrians. The large curb radii effectively increase the width of the street, the pedestrian crossing time, 

and the exposure of pedestrians to vehicles. 

TND curb radii are usually in the range of 3.0 to 4.9 m (10 to 15 ft). They depend on the types of vehicles 

that most often use the street, not the largest expected vehicle. The impacts on pedestrians, parking 

spaces, and turning space for larger vehicles are also considered. The smaller the curb radii, the less 

exposure a crossing pedestrian has. Furthermore, an additional parking space or two may extend toward 

the intersection with small curb radii, or if parking is prohibited, additional room for turning vehicles is 

created. 

Intersection Geometry 

Many manuals detail standard intersection design and analysis for suburban developments.(2) Such 

intersections are designed for an environment in which the automobile is dominant. Hence, traffic 

engineers attempt to maximize intersection capacity, vehicle speed, and safety. They also aim to minimize 

vehicle delay and construction cost. As a result of the hierarchical approach to street system design, which 

carries traffic from narrow local streets to larger collectors and arterials, intersection size and complexity 

grow with the streets they serve. Drivers of these streets expect an ordered structure ,and any anomalous 

designs present safety problems. 

In TND, the concept of connected patterns of narrow, well-designed streets is intended to improve 

community access in spite of low design speeds. The numerous streets provide more route choices to 

destinations and tend to disperse traffic. In concept, the more numerous, smaller streets also mean 

smaller, more numerous, less congested intersections. Again, due to slower vehicular speeds, greater 

driver awareness, and the desire for vista terminations, some TND intersection designs are typically 

different from standard suburban designs. 

Street Trees and Landscaping 

Subdivision standards and roadway design practice strictly control the size and location of street trees and 

other plantings. Some local regulations may even prohibit trees and other plantings near the street. These 

guidelines originated with the precedent of the forgiving roadway that arose through tort actions. They 

generally place trees far from the edge of high-speed roads to reduce the chance of serious crashes if 

vehicles swerve off the road. For suburban streets with lower design speeds and space for parked cars, 

trees can be closer to the street. 

Trees and landscaping form an essential element of the streetscape in TND projects (see figure 6-4). The 

relationship of vertical height to horizontal width of the street is an important part of creating a properly 
96 Traditional Neighborhood Design 

configured space or outdoor room. On some streets that feature single family housing, the design may call 

for setting the houses back somewhat from the street. In neighborhoods and along streets such as this, the 

trees form an important part of that street. While providing shade and lowering street and sidewalk 

temperatures, they create a sense of closure in a vertical plane. Along streets that contain townhouses and 

stores with apartments above them, actual full-sized trees become less important, while smaller trees and 

landscaping remain essential elements. 

Figure 6-4. Photo. Neotraditional neighborhoods have narrower, tree-lined streets. 

Street Lighting 

Typical suburban neighborhood design calls for large, efficient luminaires on high poles spaced at 

relatively large distances. Their purpose is not only to illuminate the nighttime street for safer vehicle 

operation, but also to improve pedestrian and neighborhood security. 

Street lighting in traditional neighborhoods serves the same purposes as that in standard suburban 

neighborhoods. However, the intensity and location of the lights are on a more pedestrian scale. Smaller, 

less intense luminaires are often less obtrusive to adjacent properties and allow the nighttime sky to be 

seen. They only illuminate the streetscape as intended. 

Sidewalk Width and Location 

Sidewalks in suburban neighborhoods typically have a minimum width of 1.2 m (4 ft). While they may lie 

parallel to the street, they may also meander within the right-of-way or lie entirely outside of it. 

TND designers try to keep walking as convenient as possible, and this results in shorter distances when 

sidewalks remain parallel to the street. The focus is on a safe and pleasant walking experience. The 

typical minimum sidewalk width is 1.5 m (5 ft) because this distance allows two pedestrians to 

comfortably walk side-by-side. Walking distances should be kept as short as possible, and in traditional 
Traditional Neighborhood Design 97

neighborhoods, horizontally meandering or vertically undulating designs are avoided even though these 

features may add interest. Neither should a pedestrian route be perceived as longer than the same driving 

route, nor should it create undue mobility problems for visually impaired pedestrians or people who use 

wheelchairs. 

Building Setbacks 

Standard suburban developments feature front setbacks of 4.6 m (15 ft) or more for several reasons. 

Setbacks allow road widening without having to take a building and compensate its owner. They help 

sunlight reach buildings and air to circulate. In addition, side and rear setbacks afford access by public 

safety officials. 

Traditional designs have no minimum setback and, indeed, maximums may be specified by some 

policymakers. The goal is to integrate residential activity and street activity and, for example, to allow the 

opportunity for passers-by to greet neighbors on their front porches. Furthermore, the walls of nearby 

buildings help to vertically frame the street, an important aesthetic dimension. 

TND projects are intensely planned and closely regulated as to types and ranges of use and location. Such 

planning affords the otherwise unusual opportunity to have a good degree of understanding about the 

future traffic demands for a street and to design for those needs. Furthermore, to minimize the need for 

future widening, TND streets have adequate rights-of-way, typically not too dissimilar to standard 

requirements, and the buildings do not encroach on the right-of-way. Within the right-of-way, the typical 

TND street will have a planting strip of 1.8 m (6 ft) or so on each side, and parking lanes on both sides of 

the street (sometimes striped, sometimes not), both of which provide opportunities for some widening 

without a great deal of effort if in the future a wider street is needed. 

Parking 

The importance of parking for suburban projects cannot be overemphasized because nearly all trips are by 

car. Off-street parking is preferred; indeed, large parking lots immediately adjacent to the street give a 

certain status to retail and commercial establishments (see figure 6-5). Sometimes, suburban parking is 

allowed on the street in front of smaller stores. Because of the importance of vehicle access in suburban 

development, city ordinances typically establish minimum parking criteria. 
98 Traditional Neighborhood Design 

Figure 6-5. Photo. Typically, suburban parking lots 

in retail developments are vast—and rarely full. 

Traditional design encourages on-street parking by counting the spaces toward maximum parking space 

requirements. The parking is usually no more than one layer deep. If the adjacent development contains 

residential and other uses, parallel parking is recommended. In commercial areas, 90-degree head-in and 

diagonal parking are permitted. Parking lots are usually built behind stores. As a result, the street front is 

not interrupted by a broad parking area. 

On-street parking is a concern for some traffic engineers. The concern is that dart-out crashes (where 

pedestrians, especially children, dart out from between parked vehicles into the traffic stream) will 

increase if on-street parking is encouraged. The proponents of TND projects argue that a row of parked 

vehicles enhances pedestrian activity by creating a buffer between pedestrians and moving traffic, that the 

overall street design slows moving traffic so that any crashes that do occur are less severe, and that the 

active streetscape makes drivers more alert to pedestrians. There is also some evidence that children in 

standard neighborhoods are susceptible to driveway backing crashes. On-street parking, therefore, must 

be limited to streets where the design fosters low speeds (32 km/h (20 mi/h) or less) for moving traffic. 

6.5 Student Exercise 

If a completed traditional neighborhood or transit-oriented development is located nearby, conduct a 

thorough critique of it. Does the development adhere to the guidelines in this chapter or to others 

published on this topic (see reference list below)? Does the development include a mix of land uses? 

What types of destinations can residents walk to? Describe the successful elements of the neighborhood, 

as well as the unsuccessful elements. 
Traditional Neighborhood Design 99

6.6 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Post, Nadine M., “Putting Brakes on Suburban Sprawl,” Engineering News-Record, May 9, 1994, 

pp. 32–39. 

2. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets, 5th ed., AASHTO, Washington, DC, 

2004. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Bressi, T., Ed., The Seaside Debates: A Critique of New Urbanism, Rizzoli Publications, New 

York, NY, June 2002. 

• Congress for the New Urbanism, available online at http://www.cnu.org, accessed March 21, 

2004. 

• Gordon, P., and H.W. Richardson, “A Critique of New Urbanism,” presented at the meeting of 

the American Collegiate Schools of Planning, Pasadena, CA, November 1998. 

• “Neighborhood Street Design Guidelines: An ITE Proposed Recommended Practice,” ITE 

Journal, ITE, 2004. 

• Portland Pedestrian Design Guidelines, Office of Transportation Engineering and Development, 

Portland, OR, 1998. 

• Traditional Neighborhood Development Street Design Guidelines: Recommended Practice, ITE, 

Washington, DC, 1999. 

Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 101

LESSON 7: 

ADAPTING SUBURBAN COMMUNITIES FOR 

BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN TRAVEL 

7.1 Introduction 

Typically, suburban areas in the United States are exclusively oriented to automobile travel. Most suburbs 

do not accommodate bicyclists and pedestrians, and they rarely provide good access to transit (with a few 

exceptions). With all this in mind, however, it is necessary to expand walking and bicycling travel 

opportunities in the suburbs without eliminating the car. Suburbs were organized around automobile 

travel and, in many instances, will not function well without it. 

This session explores methods of redesigning suburban communities to better accommodate 

nonmotorized transportation. It discusses how the suburbs developed, the hierarchy of the street system, 

and appropriate modifications that can accommodate and encourage bicycling and walking. It includes a 

discussion of Safe Routes to Schools programs, and how they can be utilized to focus attention on 

pedestrian conditions within suburban neighborhoods. This session is mostly oriented toward suburban 

planning considerations—with references to other sections that focus on design issues such as traffic 

calming and walkway/bikeway design. 

The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 7.1 Introduction 

• 7.2 History of Suburban Development 

• 7.3 Costs of Sprawl 

• 7.4 Present Suburban Land Uses 

• 7.5 Planning with the Car in Mind 

• 7.6 Strategies for Retrofitting Suburban Arterial Roadways 

• 7.7 Safe Routes to School Planning 

• 7.8 Existing Retail/Office Developments 

• 7.9 Student Exercise 

• 7.10 References and Additional Resources 

7.2 History of Suburban Development 

Before the automobile became a part of most American households, city dwellers relied on walking for 

their transportation close to home and on streetcars, trolleys, or trains for longer trips. The streetcar and 

railroad lines generally ran from cities to outlying neighborhoods where houses and businesses clustered 

near major stops. People usually walked from their homes to public transportation, much as they walked 

from home to the business district to do their shopping. 

As more and more people were able to afford their own cars, dependence on streetcars, trolleys, and trains 

diminished as did the need to live near them. Since land farther away from the city was less expensive, 

people from city neighborhoods began to see the fulfillment of a dream to own a detached home with land 

around it. When developers of these homes learned that people would be willing to drive a little farther to 
102 Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 

buy even less expensive land, leapfrogging began. Leapfrogging is the practice of developing less 

expensive land farther from the city while leaving vacant more expensive land closer to the city. 

Developers of schools, businesses, and parks also sought the least expensive land. Thus, the result was 

scattered facilities and communities with no central focus. Because suburban building became so 

scattered, streetcar and rail transit were less cost-effective, ending usually at the city’s edge, and the car 

became the main means of transportation for suburban residents. 

That suburban activities require the use of a car and generate a large amount of traffic is well known. In 

suburban commercial areas, heavy traffic starts early in the morning and lasts for the entire day until 

beyond the end of evening rush hour. Traffic is heavy because of the many trips from store to store made 

by shoppers who find driving between stores easier than walking or bicycling, even though distances may 

be short enough for these activities. Because of the active, internally generated traffic, walking, and 

bicycling are not safe, pleasurable, or convenient. Consequently, before viable pedestrian improvements 

can be made, all-day peak traffic must be corrected. 

The land use changes needed to remedy these conditions include increasing density and mixing land use, 

two actions residents of suburbs often believe are inappropriate for suburban lifestyles. Many 

communities have already begun to alter land regulations to prevent suburban sprawl. Apartments and 

commercial developments are now being built along arterials and on land bypassed by leapfrogging. The 

pattern of development in many suburbs is infilling. This present pattern of infill development is 

providing more opportunities for design to accommodate pedestrians and bicyclists and to promote bus 

transportation. 

In some regions where approaches to land use are not consistent between neighboring cities or counties, 

development may be concentrated in those jurisdictions with the least strict land use control. This 

development leads to megaleapfrogging, a good reason to promote land use controls on a regional basis. 

Here, three typical pedestrian problems—safety, function, and comfort—should be addressed. Safety 

problems are real or perceived conflicts as people cross streets or walk where there are no sidewalks. 

Since suburban drivers cover longer distances and drive faster, the dangers to pedestrians become 

magnified. The absence of pedestrians on suburban streets dulls drivers’ awareness and further aggravates 

the problem of safety. Functional pedestrian problems are found wherever there is little or no walking 

space, a lack of sidewalks, parked cars along the road’s edge, wide driveways, few benches, and barriers 

(see figures 7-1 and 7-2). Beyond this, another functional problem is the lack of destinations within 

reasonable walking distance. Finally, problems that create uncomfortable environments for pedestrians 

and bicyclists are: walking next to noisy, fast moving cars; poor vistas; few rest stops; streetscapes with 

little interest to someone who is not driving; and vacant lots or large parking lots that are visually dull and 

potentially unsafe. 
Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 103

Figure 7-1. Photo. Inadequate maintenance of sidewalks 

makes a short walk difficult to maneuver. 

Figure 7-2. Photo. Parked cars and a lack of sidewalks along the road’s 

edge create unsafe conditions for bicyclists and pedestrians. 
104 Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 

Abandoning the Street 

The long driving distances necessary to serve low-density areas increase the speed and volume of 

suburban traffic, making streets dangerous and uncomfortable places (see figure 7-3). To counter this 

discomfort, an inside-out development pattern—the opposite of the prevalent urban development 

patterns—has evolved. While most urban communities focus on and utilize the street, suburban 

communities turn their backs to the street, and focus human activities on internal gardens, courtyards, and 

other private or internal, if open, spaces. Typically, car parking distances front doors from the sidewalk, 

and makes using the car seem most natural. Unfortunately, the internal spaces are seldom interconnected, 

so walking or bicycling for long distances through or between them is not often possible. 

Figure 7-3. Photo. Sidewalks with a landscape strip should be 

installed to minimize exposure to vehicular traffic. 

A shift has occurred from the urban grid pattern to a suburban road hierarchy. The grid typical of many 

cities allows free choice of routes but does not necessarily distinguish between high or low volumes of 

traffic or between streets that may or may not be good locations for raising families. With its system of 

roads, from arterials carrying high traffic volumes to cul-de-sacs with virtually no vehicular traffic, the 

suburban hierarchy changed all that. The secret of the hierarchy lay in not interconnecting streets, which 

positively directed through traffic to arterials. This made cul-de-sacs the preferred residential streets. 

Grid patterns developed when travel by foot was important. As the grid was infinitely divisible, it created 

a fine-grained network that benefited foot traffic. The hierarchy developed to accommodate the 

automobile by recognizing that cars can easily travel extra distances—as traffic disperses, certain roads 

should carry more or less traffic than others. Pedestrians, unfortunately, cannot easily travel longer 

distances, and are the losers. 

In its conceptual form, the hierarchy includes a separate and internal pedestrian system that purportedly 

ensures pedestrian access to different parts of the community. Unfortunately, these internal systems were 

not provided in most cases, and where they were, they did not lead to places people wanted to reach 

because those were located on the roads. Internal circulation spaces were often unsafe because they 
Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 105

lacked foot traffic and the varied ownership made access dependent on private property rights. 

Remedying these conditions requires a strategy of: linking internal spaces where possible and making the 

street usable for pedestrians and bicyclists will enhance suburban living for many people. 

7.3 Costs of Sprawl 

Several groups have argued that the costs of suburban sprawl are much higher than alternative 

development forms, particularly when considering all of its externalities. In recent years, planners and 

researchers have begun to quantify the costs of sprawl to the environment and health of communities. 

In the first comprehensive study on the health effects of sprawl, a team of researchers found a close 

relationship between the type of community they live in, and their level of activity, weight, and health. 

One study, titled Relationship Between Urban Sprawl and Physical Activity, Obesity, and Morbidity, 

found that “people living in counties marked by sprawling development are likely to walk less and weigh 

more than people who live in less sprawling counties. In addition, people in more sprawling counties are 

more likely to suffer from hypertension (high blood pressure). These results hold true after controlling for 

factors such as age, education, gender, and race and ethnicity.”(1)

For more information on the costs of sprawl, please see the references at the end of this lesson. 

7.4 Present Suburban Land Uses 

Suburban land uses affecting pedestrians can be divided into three categories. First, there are individual 

tract subdivisions, planned as units, with a sense of order derived from the in-road systems. Access is 

limited to one or two points. Most are single-family residential, though some warehousing, shopping, and 

medical developments exhibit the same characteristics. The distinguishing characteristics are that each 

subdivision is a recognizable unit, planned as a whole, that can be replanned to better serve the pedestrian. 

The second type of land use is the linear arterial. While the roadway portion of arterials most likely was 

engineered, land use planning may never have occurred or may have been haphazard. However, arterials 

with these activities form the backbone of most suburban communities, serving both long-distance 

driving and local business transactions. Arterial strips often convey a sense of the community’s image or 

identity. While at present this image is seldom distinguishing or pleasant, it could be improved with 

pedestrian/bicycle-related amenities. 

Arterials are obvious locations for bicycle and pedestrian improvements since these roads pass most 

community facilities and are the only direct and relatively long through roads in the suburban community. 

However, most arterials have pedestrian safety and environmental problems that must be overcome. If 

these problems are too great, it may be possible to improve a route parallel to the arterial but one block 

removed. 

The third general type of suburban land use is bypassed land, forgotten during initial development as 

entrepreneurs leapfrogged out to find cheaper land. These lands infill more slowly and more haphazardly 

than planned subdivisions and are likely to have many owners and a variety of land uses, although 

perhaps not as many as along arterials. Bypassed lands may be the easiest to adapt to pedestrian- and 

bicycle-related improvements, as they typically have the highest densities, have mixed land uses, and are 

close to a variety of services. 

The most dangerous places for pedestrians are along suburban roads without sidewalks and intersection 

treatment. These roads are usually arterials located near schools, commercial areas, or businesses. 

Intersections of residential streets and other arterials that have no sidewalks or signals also contribute to 
106 Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 

risk. Moreover, bus stops are often located where there are no sidewalks, contributing further to 

pedestrian hazards. 

7.5 Planning With the Car in Mind 

While suburbs were designed around the automobile (see figure 7-4), the car need not always be 

dominant and uncontrolled. Increased car use has constrained its own flexibility because roads have 

become more crowded and fuel costs have risen. Extending pedestrian and bicycle access within a 

community may eliminate some need for the car, allowing increased flexibility for those who have to 

drive. Walkways should be planned for physical and psychological safety from the auto, yet allow direct 

and easy access to all types of activities. Most walkways should be planned in conjunction with roads, so 

pedestrians can reach all developments that are located along the road. 

Figure 7-4. Unless required by local ordinance, many developments focus on 

vehicle access without regard to pedestrian access. 

7.6 Strategies for Retrofitting Suburban Arterial Roadways 

Suburban areas typically consist of many small residential developments, each abutting a major road. 

These major roads lead to services such as shopping, schools, and parks. Pedestrian and bicycle safety 

problems may be less of an issue inside individual suburban developments (unless they are large), but 

they increase on collectors and arterials both within and adjacent to neighborhoods. 

A variety of techniques are available to retrofit busy roadways to better accommodate bicycling and 

walking. Urban planners and design engineers have begun to apply very creative methods so that heavy 

volumes of traffic can coexist with pedestrian and bicycle activity. Examples are given in lessons 3 and 4 

of this course. The following is an overview of techniques provided: 
Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 107

1. Independent retrofit projects. Many suburban and urban arterials in the United States could 

benefit greatly from certain basic safety provisions for bicyclists and pedestrians. Examples 

include eliminating gaps in the sidewalk (providing sidewalks on both sides of the road), 

improving accessibility at intersections and driveways, using better signal technologies (such as 

pedestrian countdown signals, leading pedestrian intervals, and others), providing shorter 

crossing distances at intersections and median refuges wherever possible, improving midblock 

crossings, adding bike lanes and shared-use paths, and other types of improvements. 

2. Reevaluating the need to widen the road. As a long-term cost-saving measure, roadways are 

often widened to meet the anticipated traffic volumes two decades hence. These traffic 

projections are based on many assumptions that may not be realized and often result in very wide 

roadways built to handle far more traffic than they carry today. Communities must carefully 

consider the impact of extremely wide roads on other modes of transportation during the 

intervening years. The costs in reduced mobility may not be worth it. 

3. Road diets. Some roads have more travel lanes than necessary and are difficult to cross because 

of their width. Reducing the number of lanes on a multilane roadway can reduce crossing 

distances for pedestrians and may slow vehicle speeds. A traffic analysis should be done to 

determine whether the number of lanes on a roadway (many of which were built without such an 

analysis) is appropriate. Level-of-service analysis for intersections should not dictate the design 

for the entire length of roadway. For example, a four-lane undivided road can be converted to one 

through lane in each direction, with a center left-turn lane or raised median, and turn bays and 

bicycle lanes on both sides of the roadway. Turn bays may be needed only at specific locations. 

Depending on conditions, it may also be possible to add on-street parking while allowing 

for bicycle lanes on both sides of the street instead of a center turn lane. If no sidewalks 

exist along the roadway, these should be added. If sidewalks exist, and there is adequate 

room, a landscaped buffer is desirable to separate pedestrians from the travel lane. 

4. Form-based codes. As described in lesson 5, retrofitting busy roads to accommodate pedestrians 

and bicyclists does not stop with the roadway and sidewalks. The planner must also be concerned 

with the development that lies alongside the roadway. By establishing new codes that require new 

and redeveloped properties to be pedestrian-oriented, the street can begin to function for more 

than just automobile traffic. Form-based codes are one tool to accomplish this. For more 

information, see lesson 5. 

7.7 Safe Routes to School Planning 

A Safe Routes to School program is a way to improve the safety of children who walk or bicycle to 

school and to promote these types of transportation. During a Safe Routes to School program, parents and 

school administrators work with other community groups and agencies to build new sidewalks, improve 

pedestrian crossings, teach children safer bicycling and walking skills, and promote healthier, more active 

lifestyles. 

The America Bikes campaign described the Safe Routes to School movement in the following way: 

Safe Routes to School began as a grassroots movement to make it safe, convenient, and 

fun for children to bicycle and walk to school. ... 

A recent national survey found that while 70 percent of parents walked or bicycled to 

school as children, only 18 percent of their children walk or bike to school today. The 
108 Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 

parents listed distance, heavy traffic, fear of crime, inconvenience, as among the reasons 

their children do not walk. Many communities are no longer set up for the walk to school: 

subdivisions lack sidewalks, or are separated from school by a busy multilane arterial 

road. 

A lifestyle geared to the automobile means parents and children spend more time than 

ever in the car—more than an hour a day now for the average child in the United States. 

Millions of parents now drop the kids at school on the way to work, creating traffic jams 

in school parking lots. Meanwhile, many children are struggling with being overweight, 

and 15 percent of children are now considered obese, putting them at risk of a number of 

chronic diseases. 

Parents, public health officials, school administrators, and others who recognize the 

benefits of children walking to school have begun programs to make it safe and fun for 

children to get to school under their own power. They see walking to school as an easy 

way for kids to get essential physical activity, slowing the obesity epidemic among 

children. And they believe this simple activity can help ease the traffic jams and air 

pollution that are degrading quality of life for children and adults alike.(2)

There are three distinct phases in each Safe Routes to School program. In the first phase, participants 

generate interest and enthusiasm about the project, and identify and assemble a core group of people who 

will help with the project. Often, this effort includes participation in Walk to School Day (held each 

October), or other promotional efforts. For the second phase, a group works together and conducts 

outreach to identify the types of improvements and safety programs that are needed. The third phase is 

implementation—that is, getting projects built, putting education and encouragement programs in place, 

and any other activities identified to make the journey to school safer. 

7.8 Existing Retail/Office Developments 

Entrances to many commercial and retail centers are oriented toward automobile travel. Bicycle and 

pedestrian access to storefronts is not only difficult and awkward, but often unsafe. For the purpose of this 

discussion, a shopping center serves as an example of how to retrofit existing developments to 

accommodate pedestrians. The same principles apply to other types of developments such as office 

complexes and multifamily housing. 

A typical shopping center or strip mall is separated from the roadway by a wide parking lot that averages 

between 90 and 150 m (300 and 500 ft) in depth. Often, no pathways link store entrances to the sidewalks 

along the street, and sometimes there are no sidewalks on the street to be linked. Parking lots with 

multiple entryways allow traffic to circulate in different directions, creating hazards and confusion for 

walkers and cyclists. Drive-throughs at banks and fast-food restaurants in out-parcel developments add to 

pedestrian safety problems and encourage people to drive between different destinations on the site. 

Storefronts do little to encourage walking. They are often barren and devoid of windows and are therefore 

visually unappealing to a pedestrian (see figure 7-5). If they exist, walkways between stores are often 

narrow and uncovered, and pedestrian amenities such as benches are rare. Pedestrian connections between 

developments are not provided, encouraging shoppers to get back in their automobiles to access adjacent 

developments. 
Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 109

Figure 7-5. Photo. Building entrances and storefronts 

should be oriented to face the street. 

Although the problems with shopping centers are numerous, they can be redeveloped to better serve 

pedestrians. As older shopping centers undergo renovations, they should be redesigned to serve customers 

who arrive via transit, automobile, bicycle, and on foot. Specific methods include: 

• Maximize pedestrian and transit access to the site from adjacent land uses: 

o Provide comfortable transit stops and shelters with pedestrian connections to the main 

buildings; transit stops and pedestrian drop-offs should be located reasonably near to building 

entrances—preferably no more than 225 m (750 ft), and ideally much closer than that. 

o Provide attractive pedestrian walkways between the stores and the adjacent sites. 

o Ensure that fencing and landscaping does not create barriers to pedestrian mobility. 

• Improve the layout of buildings and parking lots: 

o Increase the density of existing sites by adding new retail buildings in the existing parking 

lots, with offices or multifamily housing around the perimeter of the site. 

o Locate parking lots on the sides and to the rear of buildings, with major retail situated closer 

to the street. 

o Rework entrances and orient buildings toward pedestrian and transit facilities instead of 

parking lots. 

o Arrange buildings onsite to reduce walking distance between each building and between the 

nearest transit facility. 

o Provide covered walkways around and between buildings if possible. 
110 Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 

• Improve onsite pedestrian circulation and safety measures: 

o Connect all buildings onsite to each other via attractive pedestrian walkways, with 

landscaping and pedestrian-scale lighting. Provide covered walkways where possible. 

o Minimize pedestrian/auto conflicts by consolidating auto entrances into parking lots. 

o Separate roads and parking lots from pedestrian pathways through the use of grade changes. 

o Implement safety measures at pedestrian crossings, warning signage, tight corner radii, and 

other measures (see figure 7-6 and see lesson 20 on traffic calming). 

Figure 7-6. Photo. Medians and crosswalks should be placed at 

destination locations such as this shopping center. 

7.9 Student Exercise 

Describe 10 to 15 ways in which you would propose to retrofit a nearby residential development (or one 

that you grew up in) to make bicycling and walking viable forms of transportation. Elaborate on each 

idea, explaining how it would work and why it would improve the livability of the community. 

7.10 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Ewing, R., Schmid, T., Killingsworth, R., Zlot, A., and Raudenbush, S., “Relationship Between 

Urban Sprawl and Physical Activity, Obesity and Morbidity,” American Journal of Health 

Promotion, September 2003. 

2. America Bikes Campaign (publication pending), 

http://www.americabikes.org/saferoutestoschool.asp. 
Adapting Suburban Communities for Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel 111

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities—A Recommended Practice of the ITE, ITE, 

Washington, DC, 1998, available online at 

http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/designsafety.pdf. 

• Maryland Safe Routes to Schools Guidebook, Maryland Department of Transportation, 2004, 

Hanover, MD, available online at 

http://fha.state.md.us/fha/cphs/chn/pdf/SR2S_Guidebook_1.pdf. 

• Oregon Transportation Rule: Recommendations for Pedestrian, Bicycle and Transit-Friendly 

Ordinances, Oregon Chapter of the American Planning Association, West Linn, OR,1993,. 

• PBIC, Engineering Treatments page, available online at http://www.walkinginfo.org, accessed 

May 2004. 

• Untermann, Richard K., Accommodating the Pedestrian, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc., 

New York, NY, 1984. 

Pedestrian Characteristics 113

LESSON 8: 

PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS 

8.1 Introduction 

A roadway that is designed to accommodate pedestrian use must take into account the wide range of 

needs and physical capabilities of different pedestrian groups. An agile, able-bodied person can frequently 

overcome design deficiencies. However, when age or functional disabilities reduce a person’s mobility, 

sight, or hearing, a good design becomes very important. 

This section provides an overview of basic pedestrian characteristics that most often come into effect 

when designing pedestrian facilities in the public right-of-way. It discusses the walking speeds and space 

requirements of these various groups and the roadway design elements required to accommodate them. 

The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 8.1 Introduction 

• 8.2 Characteristics of Different Age Groups 

• 8.3 Other Pedestrian Types and Characteristics 

• 8.4 Walking Speeds 

• 8.5 Space Requirements 

• 8.6 Design Requirements 

• 8.7 Student Exercise 

• 8.8 References and Additional Resources 

Pedestrian design currently features at least two schools of thought: traditional engineering design and the 

design of accessible rights-of-way. Traditional engineering employs designs based on minimum cost and 

maximum efficiency. This premise is decades old and consists of designing roadways for the most likely 

common user, a specific design vehicle, design hourly volume, etc. For example, a curb radius on a 

residential street is not large enough to accommodate all vehicles. Large trucks will swing wide into the 

opposing lane and use both directions on the receiving roadway. Likewise, roadways are built to 

accommodate a certain design hour traffic that is less than the greatest traffic volume, which often results 

in congestion during part of the day. The cost to accommodate all vehicles on all facilities is deemed to be 

cost-prohibitive. 

Designing accessible rights-of-way is based on the concept that no one should be discriminated or denied 

access to public facilities or services. The United States Access Board has developed minimum 

accessibility standards for certain road design features such as curb ramps and detectable warnings. These 

design elements are to be provided as a matter of law. However, there are other right-of-way design 

features for which no enforceable accessibility standards currently exist, such as pedestrian signal timing 

or roundabouts. Where no enforceable accessibility design standards exist, engineers must make decisions 

about roadway design that directly affect the users. Advocates for the disabled recommend that roads be 

designed for all users with disabilities—increasing the accessibility for users with disabilities increases 

the accessibility for all users. Until enforceable accessibility standards are developed, however, some 

public agencies will continue traditional design practices that best serve the majority of users to the 

exclusion of others. 
114 Pedestrian Characteristics 

Even with limited resources (right-of-way, environmental, time, etc.), new designs and methods will 

emerge that attempt to accommodate all users in a safe and efficient manner. This lesson will present both 

methods so that the reader can decide what is most appropriate at the time. Some of these methods will be 

addressed by law and some will be addressed by policy. 

Regardless of what finally emerges from this debate, currently, new and altered facilities must be 

designed and constructed to be accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities; existing facilities 

and programs must achieve program accessibility. Examples of alterations in rights-of-way construction 

include roadway realignment or widening, or the addition of a sidewalk along an existing right-of-way. 

Where additional right-of-way is acquired for a roadway project, it is important to consider accessible 

sidewalk construction; improved access to adjacent sites and existing facilities should also be considered. 

8.2 Characteristics of Different Age Groups 

Table 8-1 lists some common characteristics of pedestrians in different age groups. The table was adapted 

from the Florida Pedestrian Planning and Design Handbook and chapter 2 of the County of Sacramento 

Pedestrian Design Guidelines.

(1,2)

Young Pedestrians 

Child pedestrians have important characteristics that separate them from the adult pedestrian population 

and make them a particular concern for roadway designers. Until the age of about 10 years, children have 

a limited concept of rules and why they are needed. They often have problems with risk perception, 

attention, and impulsivity that make them more vulnerable pedestrians. In addition to adult supervision 

and effective education programs, careful design of the places children walk most, such as school zones 

and school walking routes, neighborhood streets, and parks, can significantly help to improve their safety. 

Children’s comprehension of safety is poorly formulated, and their understanding of critical behaviors, 

such as crossing the street, are not well developed. This is one among many reasons for the relatively high 

crash rate among young pedestrians. The following factors also appear to contribute to the child 

pedestrian problem:(3)

• Their small stature makes it difficult for them to see and evaluate the entire traffic situation 

correctly. 

• They have limited information processing in peripheral vision and poorer visual acuity until about 

the age of 10 years. 

• They have difficulty distributing their attention and are therefore easily preoccupied or distracted. 

• They have difficulty discriminating between right and left. 

• They have difficulty in correctly perceiving the direction of sound and the speed of vehicles. 

• They have a poor understanding of the use of traffic control devices and crosswalks. 

• They have difficulty in judging distances of cars and when a safe gap occurs between vehicles. 

• They tend to believe that adults will always be kind to them, so drivers will be able to stop 

instantly if they are in danger. 
Pedestrian Characteristics 115

Table 8-1. Walking characteristics and abilities of different pedestrian age groups. 

Source: Florida Pedestrian Planning and Design Handbook and the 

County of Sacramento Pedestrian Design Guidelines(1,2)

Infants and Toddlers (ages 0 to 4) 

At this age, walking skills are just being developed and the children require constant parental supervision. Infants 

and toddlers are very limited in ability and are: 

• Learning to walk. 

• Developing peripheral vision and depth perception. 

• Impulsive and unpredictable.

Young Children (ages 5 to 12) 

At a young age, children have unique abilities and needs. Since children this age vary greatly in ability, it is 

important for parents to supervise and make decisions on when their child is ready for a new independent activity. 

Children in this age range tend to be: 

• Impulsive and unpredictable. 

• Limited in their peripheral vision (a sound source is not easily located). 

• Limited in training/lacking in experience. 

• Thrilled or excited by close calls. 

• Short and hard to see by drivers. 

• Susceptible to darting or dashing out into the intersection. 

• Likely to copy the behavior of older people.

Preteens (ages 13 to 14) 

By middle school years, children have many of their physical abilities but still lack experience and training. Now 

there is greater desire to take risk. Preteens generally: 

• Lack experience. 

• Walk and bicycle more and at different times (have a higher crash exposure). 

• Ride more frequently under risky conditions (in high traffic). 

• Lack positive role models. 

• Walk across more risky roadways (collectors and above). 

• Get involved in more intersection dash collisions. 

• Have a sense of invulnerability that makes them more willing to take chances.

High School Aged (ages 15 to 18) 

By high school and college age, exposure changes and new risks are assumed. Many walk and bicycle under low 

light conditions. Other characteristics of this age group are that they: 

• Are very active, can go long distances, and visit new places. 

• Feel invincible. 

• Still lack experience and training. 

• Are capable of traveling at higher speeds. 

• Will overestimate their abilities on hills, curves, etc. 

• Attempt to use bicycles, in-line skates, etc., based on practices carried over from youth. 

• Are willing to experiment with alcohol and drugs.
116 Pedestrian Characteristics 

Table 8-1. Walking characteristics and abilities of different pedestrian age groups—Continued

Adults (19 to 40) 

These adults are highly competent in traffic and capable of perceiving and dealing with risk in most 

circumstances. Some use bicycles for commuting and utilitarian trips, while others use bicycles primarily for 

recreation. This group generally: 

• Is active and fully aware of the traffic environment. 

• Comprises only 1–4 percent of bicycling population in most communities. 

• Tends to be very vocal and interested in improving conditions. 

• Has members interested in serving as instructors or task force leaders.

Middle-Aged Adults (41 to 65) 

During this stage of life, many pedestrians experience a slowing of the reflexes necessary to observe, assess, and 

respond to traffic conditions. 

Senior Adults (65+) 

Senior adults, ages 65 and up, begin a gradual decline in physical and physiological performance, with a rapid 

decline after age 75. Many are incapable of surviving serious injuries. These changes affect their performance. 

Seniors: 

• Walk more in older years, especially for exercise/independence. 

• May have reduced income and therefore no car. 

• All experience some reduction in vision, agility, balance, speed, and strength. 

• May have further problems with hearing, extreme visual problems, and concentration. 

• Have the tendency to focus on only one object at a time. 

• Have difficulty hearing vehicles approaching from behind. 

• All have greatly reduced abilities under low light/night conditions. 

• May overestimate their abilities. 

• Have a higher fatality rate than other pedestrians involved in collisions with motor vehicles.

Older Pedestrians 

The experiences of older pedestrians are different from that of the young person. In general, they do not 

behave as irrationally as do many children and young adults. However, older pedestrians often have 

physical conditions that limit their abilities to accurately assess the traffic situation. Older people also 

tend to walk more than others because they have more free time, it is good exercise, and it is an 

inexpensive mode of travel for short trips. The elderly are more law abiding than the general population, 

and they may in fact be too trusting of traffic signals and of drivers when it comes to crossing the streets. 

They are more likely than younger pedestrians to be involved in crashes due to problems in information 

processing, judgment, and physical constraints. Following is a list of other characteristics of older 

pedestrians: 

• Vision is affected in older people by decreased acuity and visual field, loss of contrast sensitivity, 

and slower horizontal eye movement. 

• They often have difficulty with balance and postural stability, resulting in slower walking speeds 

and increased chances for tripping. 

• Selective attention mechanisms and multitasking skills become less effective with age, so older 

people may have difficulty locating task-relevant information in a complex environment. 
Pedestrian Characteristics 117

• They have difficulty in selecting safe crossing situations in continuously changing complex traffic 

situations, likely due to deficits in perception and cognitive abilities, as well as ineffectual visual 

scanning, limitations in time-sharing, and an inability to ignore irrelevant stimuli.(3)

• They have difficulty in assessing the speed of approaching vehicles, thus misjudging when it is 

safe to cross the road. 

• They have slower reaction times and decisionmaking skills. 

• Those with arthritis may have restricted head and neck mobility as well as difficulty walking. 

• There is reduced agility for those who use canes or crutches for assistance. 

8.3 Other Pedestrian Types and Characteristics 

Table 8-2 lists some other types of pedestrians that can be grouped by their walking characteristics. 

Table 8-2. Characteristics of other pedestrian groups. 

Source: Adapted from Florida Pedestrian Planning and Design Handbook(1)

Impaired 

For those of us fortunate to live to an older age, 85 percent will have a permanent disability that limits our range 

of mobility. Disabilities are common through all ages, and the permanently disabled constitute at least 15 percent 

of our population. Those with permanent physical disabilities, often kept away from society in the past, are now 

walking and bicycling on a regular basis. Many others have temporary conditions, including pregnancy, and 

broken or sprained limbs that may restrict their mobility. The disabled group includes: 

• Those who are visually impaired, hearing impaired, mobility impaired, mentally/emotionally impaired, 

or other. 

• Many older adults who have reduced abilities. 

• People who were previously institutionalized and are not trained to walk the streets. 

• Those dependent on alcohol or drugs who may be hard to recognize.

Inexperienced 

Adults who have not walked and bicycled regularly as children, and who have not received training are not 

prepared to take on the challenges of an unfriendly urban environment. This group presents a particular challenge 

because: 

• Ninety-five percent of adults are novice bicyclists. 

• Many are unskilled in urban walking. 

• Drinking can influence their abilities. 

• Many assume they have higher skills and abilities than they actually have. 

• Most carry over sloppy habits from childhood. 

• Many new immigrants are unprepared for urban auto traffic.

Ethnic/Cultural Diversity/Tourism 

America is rapidly becoming a nation with no clear majority population. All groups need access and mobility in 

order to fully participate in society. Transportation officials must pay close attention to communication, the 

creation of ethnic villages, and subcultural needs and practices. Most of these people depend heavily on walking 

and transit to get around. Some newly arriving groups lack urban experience, and many are used to different 

motorist behavior. 

Transportation Disadvantaged 

In most States, 30 to 40 percent of the population does not own a car because they are not able to drive, they 

choose not to drive, or they cannot afford to purchase or operate a car. Even though this group typically does not 

have special needs, these men, women, and children are highly dependent on walking, transit, and bicycling for 

their basic freedom, access, and mobility. 
118 Pedestrian Characteristics 

Mobility-Impaired Pedestrians

Mobility-impaired pedestrians include those with wheelchairs, crutches, canes, walkers, guide dogs, 

prosthetic limbs, orthotics, or other assistive devices. Some may not require these devices but still have a 

disability that limits their range or speed of motion. Table 8-3 contains a list of design features that help 

accommodate mobility-impaired pedestrians.(2)

Table 8-3. Design needs of mobility-impaired pedestrians. 

Source: Adapted from County of Sacramento Pedestrian Design Guidelines (2)

Wheelchair Users 

• Wider path and larger maneuvering space. 

• Surfaces with low cross slopes, low grades, smooth surfaces, and level terrains. 

• Firm, stable surfaces and structures such as ramps or beveled edges to negotiate changes in level. 

• Gradual rate of change of cross slope in such places as driveways and aprons. 

Walking-Aid Users 

• No grates and cracks which could catch or hinder the walking-aid. 

• Longer pedestrian signal cycles at intersections and the presence of passing spaces to allow others to travel 

around them. 

• No rapid change in cross slope that could cause people with walkers to stumble. 

Prosthesis Users 

• Extended signal timing at wide intersections. 

• Low grades and cross slopes. 

People with Visual Impairments 

• Detectable warnings (surfaces that can be detected underfoot and by a person using a cane through texture, 

color, and resilience). 

• Wayfinding information that provides orientation information to the user. 

• Visual cues, tactile surfaces, or audible pedestrian signals that can make information about traffic flow and 

street crossings more accessible. 

People with Hearing Impairments 

• Areas with long sight distances relatively free of visual obstructions such as landscaping. 

People with Cognitive Impairments 

• Signs that use pictures, universal symbols, and colors rather than words to convey meaning to a broad range 

of people. 

8.4 Walking Speeds 

Pedestrians have a wide range of needs and abilities. The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for 

Streets and Highways (MUTCD) recommends a speed of 1.2 meter/second (m/s) [4.0 feet/second (ft/s)] 

for calculating pedestrian clearance intervals for traffic signals.(4) It also includes a comment that where 

pedestrians who walk slower than normal, or pedestrians who use wheelchairs, routinely use the 

crosswalk, a walking speed of less than 1.2 m/s (4.0 ft/s) should be considered in determining the 

pedestrian clearance times. Other studies have identified pedestrian walking speeds ranging from 0.6 to 

1.3 m/s (2.0 to 4.3 ft/s). The ITE publication, Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities, even cited 

walking speeds up to 2.4 m/s (8 ft/s).(5)

By definition, about half of all pedestrians travel at a slower pace than the average walking speed. These 

slower walking pedestrians include older pedestrians, people with disabilities, and people pushing a baby 
Pedestrian Characteristics 119

stroller and/or paying attention to younger children walking alongside (see figure 8-1). Therefore, the 

slower walking speeds of these groups should be considered when designing pedestrian facilities such as 

crossing times at intersections. 

Figure 8-1. Photo. People with children often walk at slower speeds. 

Older Pedestrians 

Guidelines and Recommendations to Accommodate Older Drivers and Pedestrians recommends an 

assumed walking speed of 0.9 m/s (2.8 ft/s) for less capable older pedestrians because of their shorter 

stride, slower gait, difficulty negotiating curbs, difficulty judging speeds of oncoming vehicles, and 

exaggerated startup time before leaving the curb (see figure 8-2).(6) Mean startup time (from the start of 

the Walk signal to the moment the pedestrian steps off the curb and starts to cross) was 2.5 seconds for 

older pedestrians, compared to 1.9 seconds for younger ones.(3) A study in Sweden found that pedestrians 

aged 70 or older, when asked to cross an intersection very fast, fast, or at normal speed, considered fast to 

be less than 1.3 m/s (4.3 ft/s).(7) The comfortable speed for 15 percent of the group was 0.7 m/s (2.2 ft/s), 

well below the standard often used. 
120 Pedestrian Characteristics 

Figure 8-2. Photo. Older pedestrians often have difficulty negotiating curbs. 

Pedestrians with Disabilities 

According to a study done in the United Kingdom in the 1980s, about 14 percent of adults over 15 years 

of age had physical, sensory, or mental disabilities.(8) This population has become much more mobile in 

recent decades, and increasing efforts have been made to meet their transportation needs. As expected, the 

walking speeds for pedestrians with disabilities are lower than the average walking speed assumed for the 

design of pedestrian facilities.(3) Table 8-4 shows some average walking speeds for various disabilities 

and assistive devices. 

Table 8-4. Mean walking speeds for disabled pedestrians 

and users of various assistive devices. 

Source: Human Factors in Traffic Safety(3)

Disability or Assistive Device 

Mean Walking Speed, 

m/s (ft/s) 

Cane or crutch 0.8 (2.62) 

Walker 0.6 (2.07) 

Wheelchair 1.1 (3.55) 

Immobilized knee 1.1 (3.50) 

Below-knee amputee 0.7 (2.46) 

Above-knee amputee 0.6 (1.97) 

Hip arthritis 0.7 to 1.1 (2.24 to 3.66) 

Rheumatoid arthritis (knee) 0.7 (2.46) 

8.5 Space Requirements 

A recent study of pedestrian characteristics recommends for standing area design a simplified body ellipse 

of 50 centimeters (cm) by 59.9 cm [19.7 inches (in) by 23.6 in] for standing areas, with a total area of 0.3 

square meters (m2

) (3.2 square feet (ft2)), or roughly 108 percent of the ellipse suggested by Fruin’s 1971 

study (see figure 8-3).(9,10) This study also recommends a body buffer zone of 0.8 m2 (8.6 ft2

) for walking. 

Georgia’s Pedestrian Facilities Guidebook states that two people walking side by side or passing each 

other while traveling in opposite directions take up an average space of 1.4 m (4.7 ft) with adequate buffer 
Pedestrian Characteristics 121

areas on either side (see figure 8-4).(11) The minimum width that best serves two pedestrians walking 

together or passing each other is 1.8 m (6 ft). More space may be required, such as 2.7–3.9 m (8.7–12.7 

ft), to accommodate situations where three or more people are walking abreast. 

50 cm (19.7 in)

Body Depth

60 cm (23.6 in)

Shoulder Breadth

Figure 8-3. Illustration. Recommended pedestrian 

body ellipse dimensions for standing areas. 

Source: Literature review for the Highway Capacity Manual(9)

1.4 m (4.7 ft)

2.6 m (8.7 ft)

3.9 m (12.7 ft)

Figure 8-4. Illustration. Spatial dimensions for pedestrians. 

Source: Pedestrian Facilities Guidebook(11)

Spatial Bubbles 

A spatial bubble is the preferred distance of unobstructed forward vision one experiences while walking 

under various circumstances.(11) Figure 8-5 illustrates the spatial bubbles that are comfortable for the 

average pedestrian while attending a public event, shopping, walking under normal conditions, and 

walking for pleasure.
122 Pedestrian Characteristics 

Public Event

Shopping

Normal Walk

Pleasure Walk

1.8 m (6 ft)

2.7-3.6 m (9-12 ft)

4.5-5.5 m (15-18 ft)

10.6+ m (35+ ft)

Figure 8-5. Illustration. Forward clear space needed by pedestrians. 

Source: Pedestrian Facilities Guidebook(11)

Pedestrians with Disabilities 

Space requirements for pedestrians with disabilities vary considerably depending on the assistive device 

used. Spaces designed to accommodate wheelchair users are generally considered to be functional and 

advantageous for most people. Figure 8-6 illustrates the spatial dimensions needed for a wheelchair user, 

a person on crutches, and a sight-impaired person using the cane technique. 

1 in = 2.54 cm

Figure 8-6. Illustration. Spatial dimensions for people who use mobility devices. 

Source: Pedestrian Facilities Guidebook(11)
Pedestrian Characteristics 123

8.6 Design Requirements 

Roadways, sidewalks, and intersections that are designed to meet the needs of disabled pedestrians 

generally benefit all pedestrian movement. Below are some criteria for designing pedestrian facilities to 

accommodate all types of users. 

Sidewalks 

Two people walking side-by-side or passing one another generally require almost 1.5 m (5 ft) of space, 

while wheelchair and scooter users need more space in order to pass one another.(2) However, the ADA 

states that 1.2 m (4 ft) is the “minimum width needed for an ambulatory person to pass a nonambulatory 

person.”(12) A clear width of at least 1.5 m (5 ft) is preferred, especially if the area has a high volume of 

pedestrians with disabilities (see figures 8-7 and 8-8). If the width of the sidewalk is less than 1.5 m (5 ft), 

two wheelchair users will not be able to pass each other and will have to find a wider place for passing. 

Passing spaces must be located at reasonable intervals not to exceed 61 m (200 ft). ADA requirements 

“specify a minimum space of 1.5 m (5 ft) in diameter or a 1.5 m (5 ft) by 1.5 m (5 ft) T-shaped space for a 

pivoting 180-degree turn of a wheelchair.”(12) A T-intersection of two corridors or walks is an acceptable 

passing place. 

1.2 m (48 in)

Figure 8-7. Illustration. Minimum passage width for 

one wheelchair and one ambulatory person. 

Source: ADAAG, 

http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/html/adaag.htm(12)
124 Pedestrian Characteristics 

1.5 m (60 in)

Figure 8-8. Illustration. Minimum passage width for two wheelchairs. 

Source: ADAAG, http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/html/adaag.htm(12)

Sidewalks should be built and maintained in urban areas along all major arterial streets, in commercial 

areas where the public is invited, and at all transit stops and public areas. They should be paved with a 

smooth, durable material. It is desirable to have paved sidewalks on both sides of all streets in urban and 

suburban areas to provide mobility for disabled (as well as nondisabled) pedestrians. A planting strip, 

which serves as a buffer between on-street vehicles and pedestrians on the sidewalk, can be especially 

beneficial to visually impaired pedestrians on the sidewalk and to wheelchair users. Sidewalks should be 

kept in good condition, free from debris, cracks, and rough surfaces. 

There should be enough sidewalk cross slope to allow for adequate drainage. The maximum cross slope 

should be no more than 2 percent (1:50) to comply with ADA requirements. A person using crutches or a 

wheelchair has to exert significantly more effort to maintain a straight course on a sloped surface than on 

a level surface. Driveway slopes should not encroach into the sidewalk. A 1.8 m (6 ft) setback will 

generally prevent this encroachment (see figure 8-9). 

Several driveway design options are available to maintain the desired cross slope. Placing the sidewalk 

behind the driveway ramp or using curb ramps and aprons are two methods typically used. A minimum 

sidewalk width of four feet needs to be maintained regardless of right-of-way constraints. Ramp slopes 

also need to be adhered to when accommodating driveway crossings. 
Pedestrian Characteristics 125

Figure 8-9. Photo. Driveway slopes should not encroach into the sidewalk. 

Where the sidewalk is located adjacent to the street, it should be rerouted sufficiently away from the street 

(to the back of the right-of-way or on an easement, if necessary), out of the driveway slope. 

Grades 

Longitudinal grades on sidewalks should be limited to 5 percent. If a sidewalk is adjacent to a roadway 

with a grade exceeding 5 percent, the sidewalk grade must be less than or equal to the grade of the 

roadway. A pedestrian facility that is not along a roadway should have less than 5 percent grade but may 

be a maximum of 1:12 (8.3 percent), if hand rails and landings are provided.(13) Long, steep grades should 

have level areas at intermittent distances (every 9.1 m (30 ft)), since traversing a steep slope with 

crutches, artificial limbs, or in a wheelchair is difficult and level areas are needed for the pedestrian to 

stop and rest. If there are areas where it is impossible to avoid steep grades, an alternative route (such as 

an elevator in a nearby building) should be provided. However, ADA does not require accommodations in 

all locations where natural terrain prevents treatment. 

Where grades exceed 5 percent, special textures and handrails may be required. Handrails are used by 

persons in wheelchairs to help pull themselves up and are used by other persons for support. 

Informational signs, indicating alternative routes or facilities, can be placed at the base of the grade or in a 

guidebook for the area. Arrangements may be made with the local transit authorities to transport persons 

with disabilities at a reduced (or no) fare where steep grades or other obstacles prohibit or severely 

impede access. 

Street Furniture 

Street furniture, such as benches and bus shelters, should be out of the normal travel path to the extent 

possible. For greater conspicuity, high-contrast colors, such as red, yellow, and black, are preferable. The 

following guidelines should be considered in the positioning of street furniture: 
126 Pedestrian Characteristics 

• Street furniture (such as awnings, hanging plants, hanging signs, or tree branches) should not 

hang lower than 2.0 m (6.7 ft) over a walking area. 

• No freestanding object or object mounted on a wall or post should have a clear open area under it 

higher than 0.7 m (2.3 ft) off the ground in order to allow full detection of obstacles by visually 

impaired cane users. 

• No object higher than 0.7 m (2.3 ft) attached to a wall should protrude from that wall more than 

0.3 cm (1 ft.). 

• No protruding object should reduce the clear width of a sidewalk or walkway path to less than 

0.9 m (3 ft). 

Another common problem for wheelchair users is the placement of street furniture next to on-street 

parking, which can make exiting a car or lift-equipped vehicle difficult. One remedy is to relocate the 

street furniture toward the end of the parking space instead of the center, or at the back of the sidewalk 

furthest from the curb. At least 1.5 m (5 ft) of clear space width along the sidewalk is needed to allow for 

exiting a vehicle. Other objects, such as streetlight poles, may be more difficult to move, so consideration 

may be given to relocating the accessible parking space or reserving extra accessible parking spaces. 

Pedestrian Pushbuttons 

Some individuals may have difficulty operating pedestrian pushbuttons. In some instances, there may be a 

need to install a larger pushbutton or to change the placement of the pushbutton. Pedestrian pushbuttons 

should always be easily accessible to individuals in wheelchairs and should be no more than 1.2 m (4 ft) 

above the sidewalk (see figures 8-10 and 8-11) to be within the reach limits of wheelchair users. The 

force required to activate the pushbutton should be no greater than 2.3 kilograms (kg) (5 pounds (lb)). 

Pedestrian pushbuttons should be located next to the sidewalk landing, the top of the ramp, and adjacent 

to the appropriate crosswalk ramp. If there are two pushbuttons at a corner (one for each crosswalk), the 

pushbuttons should, ideally, be located on separate poles and adjacent to their respective ramps to avoid 

user confusion. 
Pedestrian Characteristics 127

122 cm (48 in)

122 cm (48 in)

38 cm

(15 in)

137 cm (54 in)

23 cm

(9 in)

76 cm (30 in)

Figure 8-10. Illustration. 

High and low forward reach limits. 

Source: ADAAG, 

http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/html/ 

adaag.htm(12)

Figure 8-11. Illustration. 

High and low side reach limits. 

Source: ADAAG, 

http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/html/ 

adaag.htm(12)

Curb Cuts and Wheelchair Ramps 

The single most important design consideration for persons in wheelchairs is to provide curb cuts. New 

and rebuilt streets with sidewalks should always have curb cuts at all crosswalks. A roll curb (i.e., one 

with a sloped rather than a vertical curb face) is a barrier and will not allow for wheelchair access. Curb 

cuts should be at least 1.2 m (4 ft) wide at the base, exclusive of flared sides (see figures 8-12 and 8-13). 

The flared sides should not exceed a slope of 1:10 (see figures 8-12 and 8-14) or 1:12 if the sidewalk 

width in front of the curb ramp is less than 1.2 m (4 ft) wide (see figures 8-14 and 8-15). The least 

possible slope should be used for the ramp, but the maximum slope of the ramp is 1:12 (see figure 8-13). 

However, sometimes there is a constrained right-of-way and not enough space to construct a ramp with 

these dimensions perpendicular to the roadway. In such cases, a ramp should be built from the roadway 

surface to a midpoint landing that is as flat as possible, and then the rest of the ramp can be constructed 

from the landing to the sidewalk parallel to the roadway (see figure 8-16). While this method is not the 

ideal design choice, it is a workable solution in situations with narrow sidewalk space and a limited 

right-of-way. 
128 Pedestrian Characteristics 

1.2 m

(4 ft)

10%

10%

Sidewalk

Flare

600 mm (24 in)

Detectable

Warning

M

8.33%

ax.

Sidewalk

Figure 8-12. Illustration. Curb ramp with sidewalk next to curb. 

Source: Adapted from American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (13)

8.33% Max. 5% Max. Landing

Sidewalk

Change angle must be flush

without a lip, raised joint, or gap

Provide 600 mm (24 in)

level strip if algebraic

difference exceeds 11%

1.2 m

(4 ft)

10%

10%

Flare

Flare

Buffer

Area

Buffer

Area

Figure 8-13. Illustration. Measurement of curb ramp slopes and counter slope. 

Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (13)
Pedestrian Characteristics 129

Sidewalk

Landing

1.2 m

(4 ft)

Sidewalk

1.5 m

(5 ft)

1.5 m (5 ft)

600 mm (24 in)

Detectable

Warning

M

8.33%

ax.

10%

10%

Flare

Flare

Figure 8-14. Illustration. Sides of curb ramps. 

Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (13)

Figure 8-15. Photo. Perpendicular curb ramp. 
130 Pedestrian Characteristics 

Figure 8-16. Photo. Parallel curb ramp. 

It is desirable to provide two curb cuts per corner. Single ramps located in the center of a corner are less 

desirable than a separate ramp for each crosswalk to accommodate pedestrians with disabilities and 

should not be built for newly constructed or reconstructed sidewalks. Separate ramps provide greater 

information to visually impaired pedestrians in street crossings, especially if the ramp is designed to be 

parallel to the crosswalk. Diagrams (a) and (b) in figure 8-17 have two curb cuts and ramps per corner, 

both leading the ramp to the center of the marked crosswalk. Diagrams (c) and (d) have only one cut per 

corner, which leads the ramp to the center of the intersection and would require a ramp user to turn at the 

bottom of the ramp in order to face the marked crosswalk. For visually impaired pedestrians, it is 

beneficial to have a ramp leading directly to the crosswalk, rather than the intersection, to help orient 

them in the proper crossing direction. These also benefit others with mobility limitations such as elderly 

pedestrians and persons pushing strollers, carts, etc. 

Crosswalk markings should be located so that a pedestrian in a wheelchair should not have to leave the 

crosswalk to enter or exit the street. In some cases, a wider ramp may be used to accommodate 

pedestrians in wheelchairs. 

1:50 slope from 

street to landing 
Pedestrian Characteristics 131

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Segment of

straight curb

Segment of

straight curb

1.2 m (48 in)

1.2 m (48 in)

Well-defined edge

Figure 8-17. Illustration. Curb ramps at marked crossings. 

Source: ADAAG, http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/html/adaag.htm(12)
132 Pedestrian Characteristics 

The ramps should be flared smooth into the street surface (see figure 8-18). Ramps should be checked 

periodically to make sure large gaps do not develop between the gutter and street surface. There may be a 

need to remove accumulations of asphalt at the edge of the curb radius. 

Figure 8-18. Photo. A pavement grinding project 

left an exaggerated lip at this curb cut. 

Ramps or cut-through islands should be provided for marked or unmarked crosswalks at median (or 

frontage road) islands. Cut-throughs should be designed to provide proper drainage and to avoid ponding. 

Drainage is important. Standing water can obscure a dropoff or pothole at the base of a ramp and makes 

the crossing messy. Storm drain inlets should be clear of the crosswalk. If this is not possible, the 

openings in the grate should be no larger than 1.3 cm (0.5 in) in width. 

8.7 Student Exercise 

To help you recognize how challenging visual and mobility impairments can be, shadow a pedestrian with 

a disability to or from home or work, or travel in a wheelchair and then as a blindfolded pedestrian. 

For safety, the following rules apply to this activity: 

• Document both good and bad design elements and explain how you might improve the facility to 

accommodate all pedestrians better. 

• Always have your protector (partner) with you. 

• Only travel in the area designated for this activity. 

• Always lean backwards when going down a ramp (wheelchair). 

• Always lean forward when going up a ramp (wheelchair). 
Pedestrian Characteristics 133

• The protector should be in front of the wheelchair when going downhill and behind the 

wheelchair when going uphill. 

• Do not hold onto the blind person or push the wheelchair. 

• Talk to the blind person to let them know you are there and only warn of dangers (do not direct). 

8.8 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Florida Pedestrian Planning and Design Handbook, Florida Department of Transportation, 

Tallahassee, FL, April 1999, available online at http://www.dot.state.fl.us/Safety/ped_bike/ 

handbooks_and_research/PEDHBTOC.PDF, accessed April 14, 2003. 

2. Sacramento County Pedestrian Design Guidelines, chapter 2, draft version, Sacramento, CA, 

Department of Transportation, April 2003, 2005 draft available online at http:// 

www.sacdot.com/projects/atp_pmp/documents/SacCtyDraftPedestrianDesignGuidelines.pdf. 

3. Dewar, R., chapter 18: “Pedestrians and Bicyclists,” Human Factors in Traffic Safety, Lawyers 

& Judges Publishing Company, Tucson, AZ, 2002. 

4. MUTCD, USDOT, FHWA, 2003, available online at http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/, accessed 

March 21, 2003. 

5. Zegeer, C., Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities—A Recommended Practice of the ITE, 

ITE, Washington, DC, March 1998, available online at 

http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/designsafety.pdf. 

6. Staplin, L., K. Lococo, S. Byington, and D. Harkey, Guidelines and Recommendations to 

Accommodate Older Drivers and Pedestrians, Publication No. FHWA-RD-01-051, FHWA, 

McLean, VA, May 2001, available online at http://www.tfhrc.gov/humanfac/01105/01-051.pdf. 

7. Dahlstedt, S., Walking Speeds and Walking Habits of Elderly People, National Swedish Road 

and Traffic Research Institute, Stockholm, no date. 

8. Safety of Vulnerable Road Users, Scientific Expert Group on the Safety of Vulnerable Road 

Users (RS7), The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Final Report, 

Publication No. DTSI/DOT/RTR/RS7(98)1/Final, Paris, France, 1998, available online at 

http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/24/4/2103492.pdf. 

9. Rouphail, N., J. Hummer, J. Milazzo II, and P. Allen, “Literature Synthesis for Chapter 13,

Pedestrians” of the Highway Capacity Manual, FHWA, Washington, DC, February 1998. 

10. Fruin, John J., Pedestrian Planning and Design, Metropolitan Association of Urban Designers 

and Environmental Planners, Inc., New York, NY, 1971. 
134 Pedestrian Characteristics 

11. “About Pedestrians,” Pedestrian Facilities Design Guide, draft version, Georgia Department of 

Transportation, Atlanta, GA, available online at 

http://www.dot.state.ga.us/dot/plan-prog/planning/projects/bicycle/ped_facilities_guide/ 

about_pedestrians.pdf. 

12. ADAAG, United States Access Board, 2002, available online at 

http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/html/adaag.htm, accessed January 29, 2004. 

13. AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities, AASHTO, 

Washington, DC, July 2004. 

14. Kockelman, K., L. Heard, Y-J. Kweon, and T.W. Rioux, “Sidewalk Cross-Slope Design: 

Analysis of Accessibility for Persons with Disabilities,” Transportation Research Record, TRB, 

January 2002. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Information and guidelines on accessible design for pedestrian facilities can be obtained from 

United States Access Board, http://www.access-board.gov/. 
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 135

LESSON 9: 

WALKWAYS, SIDEWALKS, AND PUBLIC SPACES 

9.1 Introduction 

No single design feature can ensure that a streetscape will be attractive to pedestrians. Rather, the best 

places for walking combine many design elements to create streets that feel right to people on foot (see 

figure 9-1). Street trees, separation from traffic, seating areas, pavement design, lighting, and many other 

factors should be considered in locations where pedestrian travel is accommodated and encouraged. This 

lesson provides an overview of these design elements with examples of successful streetscapes 

throughout the United States. The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 9.1 Introduction. 

• 9.2 Sidewalk Placement. 

• 9.3 Basic Sidewalk Elements. 

• 9.4 Summary of Basic Sidewalk Elements. 

• 9.5 Ambience, Shade, and Other Sidewalk Enhancements. 

• 9.6 Costs and Benefits of Sidewalk. 

• 9.7 Public Spaces. 

• 9.8 Student Exercise. 

• 9.9 References and Additional Resources. 

Figure 9-1. Photo. An example of a pedestrian-friendly streetscape. 

9.2 Sidewalk Placement 

Sidewalks are recommended on both sides of all urban arterial, collector, and most local roadways. 

Although local codes vary, AASHTO and other national publications insist that separation of the 

pedestrian from motorized traffic is an essential design feature of a safe and functional roadway. 
136 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 

The AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (also called the Green Book) does 

not fully address the issue of sidewalk placement, but in lightly developed areas, the Green Book

recommends that rights-of-way be preserved on all arterial and collector roadways.(1) While AASHTO 

and many other organizations suggest that some short sections of local streets can have sidewalks on one 

side only, the designer should consider that single-side sidewalks can create unwanted motorist/pedestrian 

conflicts. 

Priority Construction of Sidewalks 

Many communities, such as Tallahassee, FL, have small ($250,000), but significant, sidewalk 

construction funds set aside for community development and pedestrian safety. When prioritizing missing 

sidewalks, it is important to provide sidewalks to fill gaps on arterials and collectors at the following 

locations: 

• Schools within 0.4 km (0.25 mi). 

• All transit stop locations. 

• Parks and sports arenas. 

• Shopping districts or commercial areas. 

• Recreational corridors. 

• Retirement homes. 

• Medical complexes/hospitals. 

• All public buildings. 

9.3 Basic Sidewalk Elements 

All sidewalks require the following basic ingredients for success: 

• Adequate sidewalk width. 

• Curbing. 

• Border areas and buffers from the travel lane. 

• Gentle grades. 

• Level cross slopes. 

• Well-maintained pavement surfaces. 

• Properly designed stairs (if required). 

• Adequate corners. 

• Clearance distances to walls, street furniture, and other structures. 

• Adequate sight distances around corners and at driveways. 

• Continuity of the sidewalk system. 

Minimum Sidewalk Width 

Sidewalks require a minimum width of 1.2 m (4.0 ft) clear width from the back of curb (see lesson 8, 

section 8.6, for more on design requirements). Sidewalks with less than 1.5m (5ft) in width should have 

passing spaces at reasonable intervals.(2) Walking is a social activity. For any two people to walk together, 

1.5 m (5.0 ft) of space is the bare minimum. In some areas, such as near schools, sporting complexes, 

some parks, and many shopping districts, the minimum width for a sidewalk is 2.4 m (8.0 ft). Thus, any 

existing 1.2 m (4.0 ft) wide sidewalks (permitted as an AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design, and 

Operation of Pedestrian Facilities (AASHTO Pedestrian Guide) minimum) may force pedestrians into the 

roadway in order to pass other pedestrians. Even children walking to school find that a 1.2 m (4.0 ft) 

width is not adequate. 
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 137

Desirable Sidewalk Width 

The desirable width for a sidewalk is often much greater than that required. Some shopping districts 

require 3.7, 6.1, 9.1, and even 12.2 m (12, 20, 30, and 40 ft) of width to handle the volumes of pedestrian 

traffic they encounter. Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. has 9.1 m (30 ft) sidewalk sections to 

handle tour bus operations, K Street in Washington, D.C. has 6.1 m (20 ft) sections to handle transit 

offloading and commercial activity, and the commercially successful boulevard in Barcelona, Spain, the 

Paseo de Gracia, has 11.0–14.6 m (36–48 ft) sidewalks in most sections. 

Designers must pay close attention to minimums and only use variances below these levels for short 

sections. On the other side of the width equation, overly ample sidewalk widths are rarely justified. It is 

essential to work out the peak volumes of transit discharge, the likely commercial appeal of an area, and 

the influence of large tour buses and other factors when designing public spaces. Chapter 11 of the 

FHWA Highway Capacity Manual, 2000 edition, covers the topics of sidewalk width and pedestrian 

LOS.(3)

Designers should also consider the commercial need for outdoor cafes, kiosks, corner gathering spots, and 

other social uses on sidewalks. Sidewalk widths have not been given sufficient attention by most 

designers. When working in a commercial area, designers should always consult property owners, 

chambers of commerce, and landscape architects to make certain that the desired width is realistic. Corner 

or midblock curb extensions can be used for creating both pedestrian storage space for roadway crossings 

and social space. 

Bridge Sidewalks 

Bridge crossings are essential to pedestrians and bicyclists. Whenever possible, the sidewalks should be 

continued with their full width. 

Sidewalks on bridges should be placed to eliminate the possibility of falling into the roadway or over the 

bridge itself (see figure 9-2). Railings, fences, or some other barrier should be at least 1.1 m (42 in) high 

to prevent a pedestrian or bicyclist from being able to fall over the edge.(4) 
138 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 

(This picture shows a bicyclist not wearing a helmet. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 9-2. Photo. Bicyclists are often forced to use bridge 

sidewalks when they are not accommodated in the roadway. 

Sidewalks should be placed on both sides of bridges. Under extreme conditions, sidewalks can be used on 

one side only, but this should only be done when safe crossings can be provided on both ends of the 

bridge. When sidewalks are placed on only one side, they should be wider in order to accommodate larger 

volumes of pedestrian traffic. 

Rural Sidewalks 

Sidewalks along rural roadway sections should be provided as near the right-of-way line as is practicable. 

If a swale is used, the sidewalk should be placed at the back of the swale. If a guardrail is used, the 

sidewalk must be at the back of the guardrail. There will be times in near-urban spaces where the 

placement of sidewalks is not affordable or feasible. Wide paved shoulders on both sides of the roadway 

will be an appropriate substitute in some cases. However, the potential for growth in near-urban areas 

requires that rights-of-way be preserved. When sidewalks are placed at the back of the right-of-way, it 

may be necessary to bring the walkways forward at intersections in order to provide a roadway crossing 

where it will be anticipated by motorists. Security issues are also important on rural area sidewalks, so 

street lighting should be given full consideration. This lighting can act as part of the transitional area 

alerting higher-speed motorists that they are arriving at an urban area. 

Border Areas and Buffers 

A border area should be provided along streets for safety as well as aesthetic reasons. The border area 

between the roadway and the right-of-way line should be wide enough to serve several purposes, 

including the provision of a buffer space between pedestrians and vehicular traffic, sidewalk space, snow 

storage, an area for placement of underground utilities, and an area for maintainable aesthetic features 

such as grass or other landscaping (see figure 9-3). The border width may be a minimum of 1.5 m (5 ft), 

but desirably, it should be 3 m (10 ft) or wider. Wherever practical, an additional obstacle-free buffer 

width of 3.7 m (12 ft) or more should be provided between the curb and the sidewalk for safety and 
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 139

environmental enhancement. In residential areas, wider building setback controls can be used to attain 

these features.(1)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

1.5 m

(5 ft)

1.5 m

(5 ft)

3.0 m

(10 ft)

3.0 m

(10 ft)

2.1 m

(7 ft)

Striped

Parking

Vehicle Vehicle

3:1 Max

16.0 m (53 ft) R.O.W.

0.5 m

(1.7 ft) 0.3 m

(1. ft)

0.3 m

(1. ft)

Note:

Deciduous shade trees

require 12 m (40 ft) spacing

 Desired: Planted between

 curb and sidewalk.

 (coordinate utility

 placement in road, under

 sidewalk and/or in

 3.0 m (10 ft) easement 

 behind right of way

 Acceptable: Planted

 immediately behind 

 

right

 of way

Sidewalk Sidewalk

1.5 m (5 ft) green strip

required between curb and

sidewalk. 3.0 m (10 ft) Min

green strip when residential

units front onto collector

street

Striped parking on one or

both sides of street

0.5 m

(1.7 ft)

1.8 m (6 ft) sidewalk required

on both sides of road

Proposed Collector Street

R.O.W. = Right-of-way 

Figure 9-3. Illustration. The width of a natural buffer provides the essential space needed 

for situations such as protecting pedestrians from out-of-control vehicles. 

The preferred minimum width for a planting strip is 1.5–2.1 m (5–7 ft). A planting strip this wide 

provides ample storage room for many utilities. The width provides: 

• An essential buffer between an out-of-control motorist and a pedestrian. 

• Improved sight distances at driveways. 

• Adequate width for landscaping and street trees. 

A tree setback from the roadway of 1.2 m (4.0 ft) meets minimum AASHTO standards for fixed objects 

when a barrier curb is used and motor vehicle speeds are 48 km/h (30 mi/h) or less, and is adequate for 

most species. The area is ample for most snow storage. When this preferred minimum cannot be 

achieved, any width, down to 1.2 m (4.0 ft) or even 0.6 m (2.0 ft), is still beneficial. 

Planting strips, especially in downtown areas, may be a good location to use paver stones for easy and 

affordable access to underground utilities. In downtown areas, planting strips are also a convenient 

location for the swing-width of a door, for placement of parking meters, hydrants, lampposts, and other 

furniture. 

Another way to achieve border width and the needed buffer from traffic is to provide bike lanes. This 

1.5 m (5 ft) space creates a minimal safe width to the sidewalk, even when the sidewalk is located at the 

back of the curb; reduces the effects of noise and splashing; and provides a higher level of general 

comfort to the pedestrian. 

Onstreet parking (see figure 9-4) has two distinct advantages for the pedestrian. First, it creates the needed 

physical separation from the motorist. Second, onstreet parking has been shown to reduce motorist travel 

speeds. This creates an environment for safer street crossings. 
140 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 

Figure 9-4. Photo. Parked cars can also serve as a buffer 

between the sidewalk and the street. 

Source: PBIC 

Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(5)

On the backside of sidewalks, a minimum width buffer of 0.3 to 0.9 m (1 to 3 ft) is essential, and up to 

1.5 m (5 ft) is desired. Without such a buffer, vegetation, walls, buildings, and other objects located on 

private property encroach on the usable sidewalk space. With just several months of growth, many shrubs 

will dominate a sidewalk space. This setback is essential, not only to the walking comfort of a pedestrian, 

but to ensure essential sight lines at each residential and commercial driveway. 

Grade 

If possible, grades should be limited to no more than 5 percent, and in steeper terrain, grades greater than 

8 percent should be avoided. When this is not possible, railings and other aids can be considered to help 

older adults or those with walking difficulty. The ADA does not require designers to change topography, 

but only to work within its limitations and constraints. Do not construct any grade that exceeds 8 percent. 

Sidewalks must be graded and placed in areas where water will not pond or where large quantities of 

water will not sheet across. They should also be designed such that level surfaces are maintained across 

driveways. 

Cross Slopes 

Cross slopes should be kept to a minimum as well. Lesson 8, section 8.6, describes the cross-slope 

requirements for sidewalks, ramps, and curb ramps. 

Pavement Surfaces 

The pavement surface should be well maintained and free from cracks, pooled water, and debris. 

Although most sidewalks are made of concrete, asphalt can provide a useful surface in some instances. 
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 141

On trails, joggers and others may prefer asphalt. As a general rule, however, the long life of concrete and 

the distinct pattern and lighter color are preferred. Paver stones can also be used, and in some 

applications, they have distinct advantages (see section 9.5 in this lesson). Contrasting colors of pavement 

surfaces defines the space for pedestrians and motor vehicles. 

Stairs 

Since falls are common with poorly designed stairs, every effort should be made to create a slip-free, 

easily detected, well-constructed set of stairs. The following principles apply: Stairs require railings on at 

least both side, and they need to extend 30.5 cm (12 in) beyond the top and bottom stair. When an 

especially wide set of stairs is created, such as at transit stations, consider rails on both sides and one or 

two in midstair areas. Avoid open risers, and use a uniform grade with a constant tread to rise along the 

stairway length. All steps need to be obvious. Stairs should be lit at night. A minimum stairway width is 

106.7 cm (42 in) (to allow two people to pass), but maintaining the sidewalk width is always best. The 

forward slope should be one percent in order to drain water. Stairs in high nightlife pedestrian centers can 

be lit both above and at the side. Other alternatives to stairs such as ramps or alternate routes are advisable 

so that the facility is fully accessible to all pedestrians. 

Corners 

Management of land on the corner is essential to the successful commercial street. This small public 

space is used to enhance the corner sight triangle; to permit underground piping of drainage so that street 

water can be captured on both sides of the crossing; to provide a resting place and telephone; to store 

pedestrians waiting to cross the roadway; and to provide other pedestrian amenities. Well-designed 

corners, especially in a downtown or other village-like shopping district can become a focal point for the 

area. Benches, telephones, newspaper racks, mailboxes, bike racks, and other features help enliven this 

area (see figure 9-5). Corners are often one of the most secure places on a street. An unbuilt corner, in 

contrast, erodes the aesthetics of the street and is often a magnet for litter. 

Caution should be exercised when adding amenities to corners. Too many amenities or improperly placed 

ones could reduce sight distances and cause either clutter or driver distraction. 
142 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 

Figure 9-5. Photo. This corner features public telephones 

and a sitting area that does not encroach on the walkway. 

Corner Ramps 

Ramps are essential amenities of corners. To access more information on required ramp dimensions and 

design, go to lesson 8, section 8.6. 

Corner Storage Space 

Sidewalks also require sufficient storage space at corners so that the predicted volume of pedestrians can 

gain access to and depart from signalized intersections in an orderly and efficient manner. Table 9-1, 

adapted from Fruin, provides the amount of space appropriate in a queuing area to the LOS (volume of 

pedestrians) predicted.(6)
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 143

Table 9-1. Corner storage space by pedestrian volumes. 

Source: Pedestrian Planning and Design(6)

LOS Average Space per 

Pedestrian Description Volume 

A > 1.2 m2 (13 ft2) Standing and free circulation through the queuing area is 

possible without disturbing others within the queue. 

B > 0.9 to 1.2 m2

(10 to 13 ft2

) 

Standing and partially restricted circulation to avoid 

disturbing others in the queue is possible. 

C > 0.6 to 0.9 m2

(6 to 10 ft2

) 

Standing and restricted circulation through the queuing 

area by disturbing others in the queue range is possible; 

this density is within the range of personal comfort. 

D > 0.3 to 0.6 m2

(3 to 6 ft2

) 

Standing without touching is possible; circulation is 

severely restricted within the queue and forward 

movement is only possible as a group; long-term waiting 

at this density is uncomfortable. 

E > 0.2 to 0.3 m2

(2 to 3 ft2

) 

Standing in physical contact with others is unavoidable; 

circulation in the queue is not possible; queuing can only 

be sustained for a short period of time without serious 

discomfort. 

F ≤ 0.2 m2

(2 ft2

) 

Virtually all persons within the queue are standing in 

direct physical contact with others; this density is 

extremely uncomfortable; no movement is possible in the 

queue; there is potential for panic in large crowds at this 

density. 

Object Clearances and Placement of Street Furniture 

Pedestrians feel more comfortable with a clearance from fixed objects such as walls, fences, shrubs, 

buildings, parked cars, and other features. The desired clearance between the curb and a pedestrian is 0.5 

to 0.6 m (1.5 to 2.0 ft), depending on the vegetation planted (see figure 9-6). Allow for this clearance in 

determining the functional width of a sidewalk. From a wall or fence, the clearance is 0.5 m (1.5 ft), and a 

building face adds an extra 15.2 cm (6 in) of space required.(3)

Note that attractive windows in shopping districts create momentary stoppage of curious pedestrians. This 

is a desired element of a successful street. These window watchers take up about 48.2 to 61.0 cm (19 to 

24 in) of space (see lesson 8, section 8.5 for pedestrian space requirements). The remaining sidewalk 

width will be constrained. This is often desirable on sidewalks not at capacity. But if this stoppage forces 

pedestrians into the roadway, the sidewalk is too narrow. There should be 0.9 m (3 ft) of clearance 

provided for building faces with window front displays (see figure 9-6). 
144 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces Total walkway width, W T

WT = Total walkway width WE = Effective walkway width

Curb

0.9 m

(3.0 ft)

0.45 m

(1.5 ft)

0.15 m (0.5 ft)

0.15 m (0.5 ft)

W E

0.6 m

(2.0 ft)

0.3 m (1.0 ft)

Object line Building face

(wall/fence)

Building face window display

0.45 m

(1.5 ft)

Figure 9-6. Illustration. Example of clearances required 

to maintain effective walkway width. 

Source: Highway Capacity Manual(3)

Newspaper racks, mailboxes, and other street furniture should not encroach into the walking space. Each 

of these obstacles takes up a different amount of space in the walkway as shown in table 9-2, adapted 

from Pushkarev and Zupan.(7) Either place these items in the planting strip, or create a separate storage 

area behind the sidewalk or in a corner or midblock curb extension. These items must be bolted in place. 

Parking meters on a narrow sidewalk create high levels of discomfort. In a retrofit situation, place meters 

at the back of the walk, or use electronic parking meters every 15.2 or 30.5 m (50 or 100 ft). 

Parking garages on commercial district walks are ideally placed away from popular walking streets. If this 

cannot be done, keep the entrance driveways and their curb radii tight to maximize safety and to minimize 

the discomfort to pedestrians. 
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 145

Table 9-2. Preemption of walkway width. 

Source: Urban Space for Pedestrians(7)

Obstacle Approximate Width Preempted m (ft)* 

Street furniture: 

Light pole 

Traffic signal poles and boxes 

Fire alarm boxes 

Fire hydrants 

Traffic signs 

Parking meters 

Mailboxes 0.5 by 0.5 m (1.7 ft by 1.7 ft) 

Telephone booths 0.8 by 0.8 m (2.7 ft by 2.7 ft) 

Wastebaskets 

0.8-1.1 (2.5-3.5) 

0.9-1.2 (3.0-4.0) 

0.8-1.1 (2.5-3.5) 

0.8-0.9 (2.5-3.0) 

0.6-0.8 (2.0-2.5) 

0.6 (2.0) 

1.0-1.1 (3.2-3.7) 

1.2 (4.0) 

0.9 (3.0) 

Public underground access: 

Subway stairs 

Subway ventilation gratings (raised) 

Transformer vault ventilation gratings (raised)

1.7–2.1 (5.5–7.0) 

1.8+ (6.0+) 

1.5+ (5.0+) 

Landscaping: 

Trees 

Planter boxes

0.6–1.2 (2.0–4.0) 

1.5 (5.0) 

Commercial uses: 

Newsstands 

Vending stands 

Advertising displays 

Store displays 

Sidewalk cafes (two rows of tables)

1.2–4.0 (4.0–13.0) 

variable 

variable 

variable 

2.1 (7.0) 

Building protrusions: 

Columns 

Stoops 

Cellar doors 

Standpipe connections 

Awning poles 

Truck docks (trucks protruding) 

Garage entrance/exit 

Driveways

0.8–0.9 (2.5–3.0) 

0.6–1.8 (2.0–6.0) 

1.5–2.1 (5.0–7.0) 

0.3 (1.0) 

0.8 (2.5) 

variable 

variable 

variable 

*Note: To account for the avoidance of distance between pedestrians and obstacles, 0.3–0.5 m (1.0–1.5 ft) 

must be added to the preemption width for individual obstacles. Widths are from curb to edge of object, or 

building face to edge of object.

Continuity 

Sidewalks should be regarded as a transportation system, not unlike roadways and railways, which is 

connected and continuous. They should not be sporadically placed where convenient, but instead should 

be provided consistently between all major attractions, trip generators, and other locations where people 

often walk. When planning and designing sidewalks, gaps in the existing network should be identified 

and accounted for so that continuity can be established. 
146 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 

9.4 Summary of Basic Sidewalk Elements 

Section 9.3 presented many of the basic factors that go into designing a pedestrian-friendly streetscape. 

Table 9-3 presents a summary of the minimum and desired measurements for some of the design features 

included in this lesson. 

Table 9-3. Minimum and desirable design features.

Design Feature Minimum Design Desired Design 

Sidewalk width 1.2 m (4 ft) (AASHTO) 

1.5 m (5 ft) (ADA) 

1.8 m (6 ft) (if at curb face) 

2.4, 3.7, or 6.1 m (8,12, or 20 ft), 

depending on pedestrian traffic 

volumes 

Bridge sidewalks On one side only (with safe 

crossings on both sides of the 

bridge) with full width 

On both sides, full width or greater 

Rural sidewalks Wide, paved shoulder where 

sidewalk not feasible 

Sidewalk behind swale and/or 

guardrail, nearest to right-of-way 

line, well lit 

Border areas and buffers 1.5 to 2.1 m (5 to 7 ft) between 

traffic lanes; 

0.3 to 0.9 m (1 to 3 ft) between 

private or commercial property 

3.0 m (10 ft) or wider between 

traffic lanes; 1.5 m (5 ft) between 

private or commercial property 

Grade Normally no more than 5 percent, up 

to 8 percent by exception 

As flat as possible to still allow for 

drainage 

Cross slope 2 percent or less for public 

rights-of-way, 3 percent or less for 

outdoor recreation access routes 

No more than 2 percent 

Pavement surfaces Usually concrete Concrete, asphalt, or paver stones 

Stairs 106.7 cm (42 in) wide, railings on 

one side (that extend 45.7 cm (18 in) 

beyond top and bottom stair) 

Uniform grade, well lit (from both 

the side and above), 1 percent slope, 

handrails on both sides 

Corners Have 0.9 m (3 ft) wide ramps with 

landings 

Have ramps, queuing space, 

benches, telephones, and other 

enlivening features 

Clearances and placement of street 

furniture 

None 0.6 m (2 ft) from object 

Continuity None Interconnected network of sidewalks 

free from gaps 

9.5 Ambience, Shade, and Other Sidewalk Enhancements 

The above discussion provides a basis for meeting the most basic needs of a pedestrian. In many parts of a 

city, much more is essential to create highly successful walking corridors. The following elements are 

often found to be desirable to achieve robust commercial activity and to encourage added walking versus 

single-occupant motor vehicle trips. One or two very attractive features create a highly successful block, 

and one or two highly offending or unsafe conditions can leave one side of the street nearly vacant. 

Street Lighting 

For both safety and security reasons, most sidewalks require street lighting. Lighting is needed for both 

lateral movement of pedestrians and for detection by motorists when the pedestrian crosses the roadway. 

As a general rule, the normal placement of street luminaires, such as cobra heads, provides sufficient 

lighting to ensure pedestrian movement. In commercial districts, however, it is often important to improve 
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 147

the level of lighting, especially near ground level. Successful retail centers often use low street lamps in 

addition to or in lieu of high-angle lamps. Some designs permit both the high-angle highway lamp and the 

low-angle street lamp on the same pole. 

Pedestrians on a pedestrian-oriented street design (shopping district) benefit from three sources of lighting 

(see figure 9-7). The first is the overall street lighting, the second is the low placement of lamps (usually 

tungsten) that reach between and below most trees, and the third is the light emitted from stores that line 

the street. The potential to be victimized keeps many pedestrians from traveling through an area at night. 

The omission of any one of these lights can result in an undesirable effect and can reduce the desire to 

walk or shop at night. 

Figure 9-7. Photo. Example of pedestrian-oriented street lighting. 

Lights are beneficial in all areas having crosswalks or raised channel islands. Lighting can either be direct 

or be placed to create a silhouette effect. Either treatment aids the motorist in detecting the pedestrian. 

Thus, lighting from shops, street lamps, and highway luminaires is essential to the success of a 

commercial district. Even one dark spot along a block may force some pedestrians to the opposite side of 

the street. 

Landscaping 

According to the 2001 edition of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets:

(1)

Landscaping should be provided for esthetic and erosion control purposes in keeping with 

the character of the street and its environment. Landscaping should be arranged to permit 

sufficiently wide, clear, and safe pedestrian walkways. Combinations of turf, shrubs, and 

trees are desirable in border areas along the roadway. However, care should be exercised 

to ensure that guidelines for sight distances and clearance to obstructions are observed, 

especially at intersections. 

Landscaping can also be used to partially or fully control crossing points of pedestrians. Low shrubs in 

commercial areas and near schools are often desirable to channel pedestrians into crosswalks or crossing 

areas. 
148 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 

Trees 

It is hard to imagine any successful walking corridor fully void of trees. The richness of a young or 

mature canopy of trees cannot be matched by any amount of pavers, colorful walls or other fine 

architecture, or other features. Although on higher-speed roads (64.4 km/h (40 mi/h) and above), trees are 

often set at the back of the sidewalk, the most charming streets are those with trees gracing both sides of a 

walkway. This canopy effect has a quality that brings pedestrians back again and again. If only one side 

can be achieved, then on low-speed roadways, the trees are best suited when placed between the walkway 

and the curb. A 1.2-m (4-ft) setback from the curb is required. 

In older, pre-WW II neighborhoods, trees were often placed every 7.6, 9.1, or 10.7 m (25, 30, or 35 ft) 

apart (see figure 9-8). It is essential to keep trees back far enough from the intersection to leave an open 

view of traffic. The use of curb extensions can often allow trees near the corner. 

Figure 9-8. Photo. Street trees provide a desirable pedestrian environment. 

Paver Stones 

Colorful brick, stone, and even tile ceramics are often used to define corners, to create a mood for a block 

or commercial district, or to provide information to those with visual impairments. These bricks or pavers 

need to be set on a concrete pad for maximum life and stability. A stable, slip-resistant, and consistent 

surface is beneficial to all pedestrians. 

Paver stones can also be used successfully in neighborhoods. Denmark is one of many European countries 

that use concrete 1-m2

 (10.8-ft2) paver stones as sidewalks. These stones are placed directly over 

compressed earth. When it is time to place new utilities or make repairs, the paver stones are simply 

lifted, stacked, and replaced when the work is complete. 

Awnings 

Retail shops should be encouraged to provide protective awnings to create shade, protection from rain and 

snow, and to otherwise add color and attractiveness to the street. Awnings are especially important in hot 

climates on the sunny side of the street. 
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 149

Kiosks 

Small tourist centers, navigational kiosks, and attractive outlets for other information can be handled 

through small-scale or large-scale kiosks. Well-positioned interpretive kiosks, plaques, and other 

instructional or historic place markers are beneficial to visitors (see figure 9-9). These areas can serve as 

safe places for people to meet and can generally help with navigation. However, they should not interrupt 

the flow of pedestrian traffic. 

Figure 9-9. Photo. Including amenities such as kiosks 

create pedestrian-friendly spaces. 

Source: PBIC 

Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(5)

9.6 Costs and Benefits of Sidewalks 

A typical neighborhood lot sidewalk of 1.5 m (5 ft) and two street border trees raise the cost of an 

undeveloped lot by one to three percent. In comparison, developed residential lots with sidewalks and 

trees often show an increased property value of $3,000 to $5,000. 
150 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 

The Pedestrian Facilities Users Guide states that “the cost for concrete curbs and sidewalks is 

approximately $49 per linear meter ($15 per linear foot) and $118 per m2

 ($11 per ft2) for walkways.”(8)

This means that, for a general design assuming a 61.0 m (200 ft) block and a 2.4-m-wide (8-ft-wide) 

walkway, the cost for the sidewalk would be about $20,600. This may seem expensive, but sidewalks 

have a long lifespan and a limited cost for maintenance, and they increase the value of adjacent properties 

for long periods of time. 

9.7 Public Spaces 

In this lesson, the term public spaces refers to the area around a sidewalk that creates part of the greater 

streetscape environment. Public spaces should be taken into consideration as important design elements of 

successful streetscapes. 

Outdoor Cafes 

There are many commercial actions that can help bring back life to a street. Careful regulation of street 

vendors, outdoor cafes, and other commercial activity, including street entertainers, help enliven a place. 

The more activity, the better. One successful outdoor cafe helps create more activity and, in time, an 

entire evening shopping district can be brought to life (see figure 9-10). When outdoor cafes are offered, 

it is essential to maintain a reasonable walking passageway. The elimination of two or three parking 

spaces in the street and the addition of a curb extension can often provide the necessary extra space when 

cafe seating is needed. 

Figure 9-10. Photo. An outdoor cafe can add color 

and life to a street environment. 

Alleys and Narrow Streets 

Alleys can be cleaned up and made attractive for walking. When properly lit and planned, they can be 

secure and inviting. Some alleys can be covered over and made into access points for a number of shops. 

The Bussy Place in Boston was an inhospitable alley between buildings. Now with a roof overhead and a 

colorful interior with escalators, this alley is the grand entry to a number of successful downtown shops. 

Other alleys become attractive places for outdoor cafes, kiosks, and small shops (see figure 9-11). 
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 151

Figure 9-11. Photo. Alleys can be made attractive 

and can serve as access points to shops. 

Victoria, on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, has more than 30 alleys that channel a major portion of 

its pedestrian traffic between colorful buildings and quaint shops. Some alleys that were originally 

hardwood cobbles are now polished and provide a true walk through history. 

The expansion of a midblock set of crossings can help make these alleyways a prime commercial route 

and can lessen some of the pedestrian activity on surrounding main roads. 

Play Areas and Public Art 

Public play areas and interactive art can help enliven a corner or central plaza. One especially creative 

linear space in Norway provided a fence and a 12.2-m-long (40-ft-long) jumping box. Children were 

invited to see how far they could jump, and compare their jump with record holders, kangaroos, 

grasshoppers, dogs, and other critters. 

Pedestrian Streets, Transit Streets, and Pedestrian Malls 

A number of European cities are reclaiming streets (see figure 9-12). Cars still have access to many of 

these streets before 10 a.m. and after midnight. Other streets in the U.S. East and West are being 

converted to transit and pedestrian streets (e.g., the 15th Street Mall in Denver, CO). These conversions 

must be made with a master plan so that traffic flow and pedestrian movements are fully accommodated. 

There are many streets in America, however, that have been temporarily converted to pedestrian streets 

and later, following a lack of use, were then converted back to traffic. In many instances, it has not proven 

possible to generate enough pedestrian traffic to keep a street alive. Under these conditions, the presence 

of onstreet auto traffic creates a sense of security for the pedestrian. 
152 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 

Figure 9-12. Photo. Some European streets have 

been redeveloped as pedestrian malls. 

Pedestrian Plazas 

Many plazas constructed in the recent past have been too large and uncomfortable for pedestrians, serving 

more to enhance the image of the building on the lot. Some of these are products of zoning laws that 

encouraged plaza construction in exchange for increased building height. However, bonus systems have 

not ensured that the public space will actually be a public benefit. Decisions have been based on inches 

and feet instead of on activity, use, or orientation. The result has been a number of plazas with problems: 

some are windswept; others are on the shady side of buildings; still others break the continuity of 

shopping streets, or are inaccessible because of grade changes. Most are without benches, planters, cover, 

shops, or other pedestrian comforts. To be comfortable, large spaces should be divided into smaller ones. 

Landscaping, benches, and wind and rain protection should be provided, and shopping and eating should 

be made accessible. 

The appearance of a crowd in a pedestrian mall provides a sense of interest. It is usually better to be a bit 

crowded than to be too open and to provide many smaller spaces instead of a few large ones (see figure 

9-13). It is better to have places to sit, planters, and other conveniences for pedestrians than to have a 

clean, simple, and architectural space. It is better to have windows for browsing and stores adjacent to the 

plaza space, with cross-circulation between different uses than to have the plaza serve one use. Having 

retailers border the plaza is better than offices. And, finally, the plaza should be a part of the sidewalk 

instead of separated from the sidewalk by walls. 
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 153

Figure 9-13. Photo. Small protected spaces 

provide separation from noise and traffic. 

Where is the best place for a plaza? Plazas ideally should be located in places with good sun and little 

wind exposure, in places that are protected from traffic noise, and in areas that are easily accessible from 

streets and shops. A plaza should have a center as well as several subcenters. 

The planner should inventory for spaces that can be used for plazas, especially small ones. Appropriate 

spaces include: space where buildings may be demolished and new ones constructed, vacant land, or 

streets that may be closed to traffic or may connect to parking. 

New stores can sometimes be set back 2.4–3.0 m (8–10 ft) from the street to allow plaza space in 

exchange for increased density. 

Some suggestions for planners and developers of plazas include the following: 

• Limit plaza size to create small, human-scaled spaces. A maximum size of 232.3 m2

 (2,500 ft2) is 

appropriate, with several small plazas being better than one large one. 

• Enclose a plaza on one or two sides. 

• Plan for at least 20 percent of the plaza to be landscaped. 

• Provide seating in the sun and make it readily accessible to the public. 

• Also provide seating in the shade and make it accessible to the public. 

• Consider providing rain shelters. 
154 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 

• Develop shops and stores along the plazas, excluding large banks, travel agents, and offices that 

attract few pedestrians. 

• Do not use large expanses of blank wall. 

• Plan for prevailing sun angles and climatic conditions, using as a rule of thumb a minimum of 20 

percent of daily sunshine hours on March 21. 

• Encourage the use of bandstands, public display areas, outdoor dining space, skating rinks, and 

other features which attract crowds. In cold or rainy areas, a covered galleria would benefit 

pedestrians more than an open plaza. 

• Integrate indoor and outdoor space to make it more useful. Plan spaces to be small and informal 

in character and quality so as to be inviting, comfortable, and not oppressive. 

• Avoid sunken plazas, since access is difficult and people feel uncomfortable in them. Keep them 

level or just slightly below sidewalk grade. For instance, at Rockefeller Center in New York City, 

NY the lower level originally had shops. These failed and were converted to the now famous ice 

skating rink. Most people view the rink from above, while only users go below. 

• Avoid architectural and geometrical bench arrangements. Instead, consider where and how most 

people prefer to sit. One reason so-called undesirables frequent many plazas is that benches are 

not used by pedestrians. Movable chairs, heavy enough not to be stolen, but light enough to 

move, are recommended so that people can choose where they want to sit and what arrangement 

they prefer. 

9.8 Student Exercise 

Part 1 

Choose an existing public space that currently does not encourage walking and redesign it to better 

accommodate pedestrians. Your plan should be developed at a conceptual level. You should prepare a 

plan view drawing with enough information to identify major existing features, proposed improvements, 

and impacts. Profile and cross-section view drawings are also helpful in presenting particular details 

required to construct your proposed improvements. Aerial photographs and U.S. Geological Survey 

topographic maps often provide a good background for overlaying proposed improvements. 

Part 2 

Conduct a pedestrian capacity analysis for the Piedmont Park case study location (as described in the 

student exercise in lesson 3, section 3.12) using procedures described in the Highway Capacity Manual.

(3)

The four major park entrances, as indicated on the Site Location Map, should be evaluated to determine 

the pedestrian LOS. In order to conduct this evaluation, the following should be assumed: 

• Expand 15-minute pedestrian counts included in the park usage data to represent hourly volumes. 

• All of the pedestrian volumes at each of the four entrances access the park on existing 1.5-m-wide 

(5-ft-wide) sidewalks. 

Establish and document other assumptions as necessary in order to conduct the LOS analysis. Be sure to 

evaluate the sensitivity of values related to your assumptions. 
Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 155

Determine the existing LOS for pedestrians at the four major park entrances. Do the sidewalks need to be 

widened? In addition, evaluate pedestrian LOS under the following scenarios: 

• Average weekday pedestrian traffic is anticipated to double in 5 years. Will 1.5-m-wide 

(5-ft-wide) sidewalks be adequate? 

• Special events will generate pedestrian volumes five times those measured for an average 

weekday. 

9.9 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 5th ed., AASHTO, Washington, DC, 

2004.

2. AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities, AASHTO, 

Washington, DC, July 2004. 

3. Highway Capacity Manual, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 2000.

4. Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1999.

5. Image Library, PBIC, available online at http://www.pedbikeimages.org, accessed May 6, 2004.

6. Fruin, J., Pedestrian Planning and Design, Metropolitan Association of Urban Designers and 

Environmental Planners, New York, NY, 1971.

7. Pushkarev, B., Urban Space for Pedestrians, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1976.

8. Zegeer, C.V., C. Seiderman, P. Lagerwey, M. Cynecki, M. Ronkin, and R. Schneider, Pedestrian 

Facilities Users Guide—Providing Safety and Mobility, Publication No. FHWA-RD-01-102, 

FHWA, McLean, VA, March 2002.

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities—A Recommended Practice of the ITE, ITE, 1998, 

available online at http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/designsafety.pdf. 

• Designing Sidewalks and Trails for Access: Review of Existing Guidelines and Practices, FHWA, 

Washington, DC, July 1999, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/sidewalks/index.htm. 

• Designing Sidewalks and Trails for Access: Review of Existing Guidelines and Best Practices,

Design Guide FHWA, Washington, DC, September 2001, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/sidewalk2/index.htm. 

• Florida Pedestrian Planning and Design Handbook, Florida Department of Transportation, 

Tallahassee, FL, 1997, available online at http://www.dot.state.fl.us/Safety/ped_bike/ 

handbooks_and_research/PEDHBTOC.PDF, accessed April 14, 2003. 
156 Walkways, Sidewalks, and Public Spaces 

• Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, Oregon Department of Transportation, Salem, OR, June 

1995. 

• Untermann, Richard K., Accommodating the Pedestrian, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc., 

New York, NY, 1984. 
Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 157

LESSON 10: 

PEDESTRIAN FACILITY SIGNING AND PAVEMENT MARKINGS 

10.1 Introduction 

Traffic engineers use a wide variety of road signs and pavement markings. Some are used to alert 

motorists to pedestrian activity and to direct pedestrians to defined crossings. Problems are created, 

however, when pedestrians assume that signs and paint will protect them from cars. Drivers, on the other 

hand, often ignore pedestrian signs and markings because they seldom see many pedestrians. As a result, 

signs and paint may lull pedestrians into a false sense of security. 

This lesson provides an overall philosophy for the use of signs and pavement markings, as well as details 

on how these traffic control measures should be employed. Crosswalk markings at intersections are 

covered in more detail in lesson 11. The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 10.1 Introduction. 

• 10.2 Background. 

• 10.3 Planning and Design Considerations. 

• 10.4 Regulatory Signs. 

• 10.5 Warning Signs. 

• 10.6 Directional Signs. 

• 10.7 Pavement Word and Symbol Markings. 

• 10.8 Crosswalk Markings. 

• 10.9 ITS Technology. 

• 10.10 Student Exercise. 

• 10.11 References and Additional Resources. 

10.2 Background 

Signing is governed by the FHWA’s MUTCD, which provides specifications on the design and placement 

of traffic control signs installed within public rights-of-way.(1) The MUTCD encourages a conservative 

use of signs (sections 2A-1, 2A-6, 2B-1, and 2C-1). Signs should only be installed when they fulfill a 

need based on an engineering study or engineering judgment (see figure 10-1). The prevailing thinking 

among traffic engineers is that overuse of traffic control signs leads to disrespect of signs. 
158 Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 

Figure 10-1. Photo. The sign and crosswalk markings at this 

midblock crossing alert drivers to pedestrians going to school. 

Source: PBIC 

Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(2) 

Used judiciously and located with consistency, signs and markings can be effective. Jurisdictions should 

develop clear guidelines for use and should avoid excessive reliance on signs and paint to control motorist 

behavior. This may mean altering and/or relocating existing signs and markings. It may be best to 

eliminate markings and signs that have proven to be ineffective or harmful to pedestrian safety. There is 

ongoing debate and studies are in progress to determine whether markings (especially written messages) 

improve pedestrian safety, whether crosswalks are useful at midblock locations, and whether signs 

contribute to visual overload for motorists and breed disrespect for messages. 

10.3 Planning and Design Considerations 

MUTCD outlines guidelines governing signs and pavement markings. At the same time, it does not 

prohibit creative regulatory design. 

MUTCD does not define criteria for crosswalk location or striping options. “Crosswalks should be 

marked at all intersections where there is substantial conflict between vehicular and pedestrian 

movements.” Much is left to engineering judgment to determine what is “substantial.” As a result, there is 

leeway in adapting guidelines to specific signing and marking policy needs. 

Colors for signs and markings must conform to the color schedule recommended by MUTCD to promote 

uniformity and understanding from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. For the background color of signs, use: 

• YELLOW—General warning. 

• RED—Stop or prohibition. 
Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 159

• BLUE—Service guidance. 

• GREEN—Indicates movement permitted or directional guidance. 

• BROWN—Public recreation and scenic guidance. 

• ORANGE—Construction and maintenance warning. 

• BLACK—Regulation. 

• WHITE—Regulation. 

For pavement markings, use: 

• YELLOW—Centerline stripes which delineate opposing directions of traffic. 

• WHITE—All other pavement stripes and markings, including edge stripes, lane markings, and 

crosswalks. 

10.4 Regulatory Signs 

These signs are used to inform motorists or pedestrians of a legal requirement and should only be used 

when the legal requirement is not otherwise apparent. They are generally rectangular in shape, usually 

consisting of a black legend on a white background, and shall be reflectorized or illuminated. Many 

motorist signs, including stop signs, yield signs, turn restrictions, and speed limits, have a direct or 

indirect impact on pedestrians. 

The NO TURN ON RED (R10-11a) sign may be used in some instances to facilitate pedestrian 

movements. MUTCD lists six conditions when no turn on red may be considered, three of which are 

directly related to pedestrians or signal timing for pedestrians. Considerable controversy has arisen 

regarding pedestrian safety implications and right-turn-on-red operations, ranging from a study by Zador, 

which indicated a significant increase in pedestrian crashes where right-turn-on-red movements are 

allowed, to studies by AASHTO and McGee, which concluded that right-turn-on-red movements do not 

create a pedestrian safety problem.(3,4,5)

The use of NO TURN ON RED signs at an intersection should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Less 

restrictive alternatives should be considered in lieu of NO TURN ON RED. Also, supplementary signs, 

such as WHEN PEDESTRIANS ARE PRESENT or WHEN CHILDREN ARE PRESENT may be placed 

below the NO TURN ON RED sign. 

There are occasions when no-turn-on-red restrictions are beneficial, and specific recommendations 

relating to pedestrians include: 

• Part-time restrictions should be discouraged; however, they are preferable to full-time 

prohibitions when the need only occurs for a short period of time. 

• Universal prohibitions at school crossings should not be made, but rather restrictions should be 

sensitive to special problems of pedestrian conflicts, such as the unpredictable behavior of 

children and problems of the elderly and persons with disabilities. Pedestrian volume, as such, 

should not be the only criterion for prohibiting right-turn-on-red movements. 

There are a number of regulatory signs directed at pedestrians, which include: 

• Pedestrians prohibited signs (R5-10a, R5-10b, R5-10c, and R9-3a) to prohibit pedestrian entry at 

freeway ramps. 
160 Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 

• Pedestrian crossing signs (R9-2, R9-3a, and R9-3b), which restrict crossings at less safe locations 

and divert pedestrians to optimal crossing locations at signalized intersections (see figure 10-2). 

Various alternatives include the USE CROSSWALK (with supplemental arrow) sign, which may 

be used at signalized intersection legs with high conflicting turning movements or at midblock 

locations directing pedestrians to use an adjacent signal or crosswalk (see figure 10-3). The signs 

have most applicability in front of schools or other buildings that generate significant pedestrian 

volumes. 

Figure 10-2. Photo. Pedestrian crossing signs. 

Source: MUTCD(1)

Figure 10-3. Photo. Pedestrians are restricted from 

continuing straight and are encouraged to cross left 

to avoid a traffic merge lane. 
Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 161

• Traffic signal signs (R10-1 through R10-4), which include the pedestrian pushbutton signs or 

other signs at signals directing pedestrians to cross only on the green light or WALK signal. 

Pedestrian pushbutton signs should be used at all pedestrian-actuated signals. It is helpful to 

provide guidance to indicate which street the button is for (either with arrows or street names). 

The signs should be located adjacent to the pushbutton and the pushbuttons should be accessible 

to pedestrians with disabilities. 

Other signs may be used for pedestrians at traffic signals to define the meaning of the WALK, DON’T 

WALK, and flashing DON’T WALK signal indications (see figure 10-4). In MUTCD, the signs R10-3a, 

b, c, and d help define crossing signal indications. The top section shows a walking person symbol, 

labeled STEADY, or the word WALK to the left of the words START CROSSING. The next section 

shows an orange caution symbol of an upraised hand with the palm facing the viewer, labeled 

FLASHING, or the words DON’T WALK to the left of the text “DON'T START FINISH CROSSING 

IF STARTED” on three lines. The third section shows an orange caution symbol of an upraised hand with 

the palm facing the viewer, labeled STEADY, to the left of the words DON'T CROSS or PEDESTRIANS 

SHOULD NOT BE IN CROSSWALK. These signs are generally located near the pushbuttons used to 

activate the crosswalk signal. 

Figure 10-4. Photo. Variation of R10-3b regulatory crossing sign. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(2)

The decision to use these signs (or alternatively, stickers mounted directly on the signal pole) is strictly an 

engineering judgment and is primarily for educational purposes. As such, their use may be more helpful 

near schools and areas with concentrations of elderly pedestrians—two high-risk areas. This information 

may also be effectively converted into brochures for distribution and ongoing educational purposes. 

10.5 Warning Signs 

Warning signs are used to inform unfamiliar motorists/pedestrians of unusual or unexpected conditions. 

Warning signs predominantly fall under the permissive category (“may” condition), and when used, 

should be placed to provide adequate response times. Warning signs are generally diamond-shaped with 

black letters or drawings on a yellow background and shall be reflectorized or illuminated. Overuse of 

warning signs breeds disrespect and should be avoided. 

The warning sign predominantly used to warn motorists of possible pedestrian conflicts is the Pedestrian 

Crossing sign (W11-2) (see figure 10-5). This sign should be installed in advance of midblock crosswalks 
162 Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 

or other locations where pedestrians may not be expected to cross. This significantly minimizes their use 

at most urban intersections since pedestrian crossings are an expected occurrence. This sign may also be 

selectively used in advance of high-volume pedestrian crossing locations to add emphasis to the 

crosswalk. The advance pedestrian crossing sign provides more advance warning to motorists than 

crosswalk markings, and on some occasions, may be used when crosswalk markings do not exist. Where 

there are multiple crossing locations that cannot be concentrated to a single location, a supplemental 

distance plate may be used (NEXT XX FEET). The advance pedestrian crossing signs should not be 

mounted with another warning sign (except for a supplemental distance sign or an advisory speed plate) 

or regulatory sign (except for NO PARKING signs) to avoid information overload and to allow for an 

improved driver response. When placing signs, care should be taken in relation to other signs to avoid 

sign clutter and to allow adequate motorist response. The MUTCD specifies a 76- by 76-cm 

(30- by 30-in) sign size. However, it may be helpful to use a larger [91- by 91-cm (36- by 36-in)] sign on 

higher speed or wider arterial streets. 

Figure 10-5. Photo. This pedestrian crossing sign is fluorescent 

yellow green (FYG), allowing it to be more visible. 

At the actual location of the pedestrian crossing, the pedestrian crossing sign (W11-2) is used but 

supplemented with a black-on-yellow diagonally downward pointing arrow plaque (W16-7p). This 

combination of pedestrian crossing sign and supplemental arrow plaque is intended to indicate the 

pedestrian crossing location. 

The Playground sign (W15-1) may be used in advance of a designated children’s play area to warn 

motorists of a potentially high concentration of young children. This sign should generally not be needed 

on local or residential streets where children are expected. Furthermore, play areas should not be located 

adjacent to high-speed major or arterial streets, or if so, should be fenced off to prevent children from 

darting into the street. 

According to the ITE publication, Traffic Control Devices Handbook, CAUTION—CHILDREN AT 

PLAY or SLOW CHILDREN signs should not be used since they may encourage children to play in the 

street and may encourage parents to be less vigilant.(6) Such signs also provide no guidance to motorists as 

to a safe speed, and the sign has no legal basis for determining what a motorist should do. Furthermore, 

motorists should expect children to be at play in all residential areas, and the lack of signing on some 
Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 163

streets may indicate otherwise. The signs are unenforceable and act as another roadside obstacle to 

pedestrians and errant motorists. Use of these nonstandard signs may also imply that the involved 

jurisdiction approves of streets as playgrounds, which may result in the jurisdiction being vulnerable to 

tort liability. 

School Warning signs include the advance school crossing signs (S1-1), the school crossing sign (S2-1), 

SCHOOL BUS STOP AHEAD (S3-1) sign, and others. School-related traffic control devices are 

discussed in detail in part VII (“Traffic Controls for School Areas”) of MUTCD.(1) A reduced speed limit 

sign with flashing lights can be installed ahead of the actual crossing (see figure 10-6). The lights are set 

to flash during school hours, alerting drivers that a lower speed limit is in effect when the flashers are 

operating. Another sign and light combination is SCHOOL SPEED LIMIT XX, where the speed limit is 

illuminated during school hours. 

Figure 10-6. Photo. Flashing lights, school crossing signs, and a low speed 

limit gives motorists plenty of warning of the crossing area ahead. 

MUTCD allows for the development of other specialty warning signs based on engineering judgment for 

unique conditions. These signs can be designed to alert unfamiliar motorists or pedestrians of unexpected 

conditions and should follow the general criteria for the design of warning signs. Their use should be 

minimized to retain effectiveness and should be based on engineering judgment. 

10.6 Directional Signs 

Directional signs for pedestrians are intended to assist people who are new to the area or to assist 

residents who may not know the most direct route to a destination by foot. Use distances meaningful to 

pedestrians, such as the number of blocks or average walking time. 

10.7 Pavement Word and Symbol Markings 

MUTCD allows for the use of pavement word and symbol markings such as SCHOOL XING or PED 

XING, as motorist warning devices (MUTCD, Section 3B-20). These may be helpful on high-volume or 

high-speed streets with unusual geometrics (such as vertical or horizontal curves) in advance of a 
164 Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 

pedestrian crossing area. Markings should be white and placed to provide an adequate motorist response. 

Their use should be kept to a minimum to retain effectiveness. Consideration should be given to snow 

conditions that may obliterate the markings during portions of the year in some regions of the country and 

also to the agency’s ability to maintain these pavement markings. If used, the word or symbol markings 

should generally be used in each approach lane (except for the SCHOOL message). 

Some agencies have also attempted to communicate with pedestrians by using pavement word markings 

such as LOOK BOTH WAYS or other symbols to encourage pedestrians to look for vehicles and to enter 

the road cautiously (see figure 10-7). 

Figure 10-7. Photo. “Look Right” or “Look Left” is painted 

on the street next to the curb in the United Kingdom. 

All pavement word and symbol markings require periodic maintenance and replacement after resurfacing. 

If such markings are used, it is advisable to maintain an inventory of stencils for periodic checking and 

refurbishment. 

10.8 Crosswalk Markings 

Here is an excerpt from MUTCD regarding the use of crosswalk markings:(1)

Crosswalk markings provide guidance for pedestrians who are crossing roadways by 

defining and delineating paths on approaches to and within signalized intersections, and 

on approaches to other intersections where traffic stops. Crosswalk markings also serve 

to alert road users of a pedestrian crossing point across roadways not controlled by 

highway traffic signals or STOP signs. At nonintersection locations, crosswalk markings 

legally establish the crosswalk. 

Table 10-1 presents some minimum and maximum design requirements for crosswalk pavement 

markings. Below are some additional MUTCD guidelines for crosswalk installation: 

• Crosswalk lines, if used on both sides of the crosswalk, should extend across the full width of 

pavement or to the edge of the intersecting crosswalk to discourage diagonal walking between 

crosswalks. 
Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 165

• Crosswalks should be marked at all intersections where there is substantial conflict between 

vehicular and pedestrian movements. 

• Marked crosswalks also should be provided at other appropriate points of pedestrian 

concentration, such as at loading islands, midblock pedestrian crossings, or where pedestrians 

could not otherwise recognize the proper place to cross. 

• Crosswalk lines should not be used indiscriminately. An engineering study should be performed 

before they are installed at locations away from highway traffic signals or STOP signs. 

• Because nonintersection pedestrian crossings are generally unexpected by the road user, warning 

signs should be installed and adequate visibility should be provided by parking prohibitions. 

• For added visibility, the area of the crosswalk may be marked with white diagonal lines at a 

45-degree angle to the line of the crosswalk or with white longitudinal lines parallel to traffic 

flow. 

• When diagonal or longitudinal lines are used to mark a crosswalk, the transverse crosswalk lines 

may be omitted. This type of marking may be used at locations where substantial numbers of 

pedestrians cross without any other traffic control device, at locations where physical conditions 

are such that added visibility of the crosswalk is desired, or at places where a pedestrian 

crosswalk might not be expected. 

• The marking design should avoid the wheel paths. 

Table 10-1. Design requirements for crosswalk pavement markings.

Treatment Minimum Design Requirements Maximum Design Requirements 

Solid white transverse 

crosswalk lines 

15.0-cm (6-in) line width 

1.8-m (6-ft) gap between lines (crosswalk 

width) 

61.0-cm (24-in) line width 

No maximum crosswalk width 

Diagonal or longitudinal 

lines without transverse 

lines 

1.8-m (6-ft) crosswalk width 

30.5-cm (12-in) line width 

30.5-cm (12-in) spacing of lines 

No maximum crosswalk width 

61.0-cm (24-in) line width 

1.5-m (5-ft) spacing of lines (not to 

exceed 2.5 times the line width) 

Three styles of crosswalk markings are shown at a roadway intersection in figure 10-8: two parallel solid 

white lines (transverse lines) at the top of the figure, solid white diagonal lines between two parallel solid 

white lines on the left side, and a series of closely spaced solid white lines (longitudinal lines) placed at 

the intersection parallel to the direction of travel on the bottom side of the figure. Figure 10-9 shows 

examples of these and other marking patterns typically used and the common names they go by. 
166 Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 

Figure 10-8. Illustration. An intersection with examples of crosswalk markings. 

Source: MUTCD(1)

Figure 10-9. Illustration. Common crosswalk marking patterns. 

Source: Safety Effects of Marked versus Unmarked Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Locations(7)

Marked Versus Unmarked Crosswalks 

In the United States, there has been considerable controversy concerning marked crosswalks and whether 

they increase or decrease pedestrian safety at uncontrolled crossing locations (i.e., intersections or 

midblock locations with no traffic signals or stop signs on the main road approach). Some believe that 

marked crosswalks enhance the visibility, safety, and mobility of pedestrians, while others think that they 

generate overly confident feelings of safety which may cause pedestrians to be more vulnerable to 

collisions with motor vehicles. 

Zegeer, et al., performed a study to determine which types of uncontrolled locations merited a marked 

crosswalk and which ones would require more treatment in order to provide a safe crossing for 

pedestrians.(7) The study revealed that “under no condition was the presence of a marked crosswalk alone 

at an uncontrolled location associated with a significantly lower pedestrian crash rate compared to an 

unmarked crosswalk,” and at some locations, especially those with volumes greater than 12,000 vehicles 

per day, having a marked crosswalk was associated with a higher pedestrian crash experience compared 

to an unmarked crossing. Table 10-2 below provides a summary of the study’s recommendations for 

where marked crosswalks should be provided at uncontrolled locations. 
Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 167

Table 10-2. Recommendations for installing marked crosswalks and 

other needed pedestrian improvements at uncontrolled locations.* 

Source: Safety Effects of Marked versus Unmarked Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Locations(7)

Vehicle Average 

Daily Traffic (ADT) 

≤ 9,000 

Vehicle ADT 

>9,000 to 12,000 

Vehicle ADT 

>12,000 to 15,000 

Vehicle ADT 

> 15,000 

Speed Limit** 

Roadway 

Type 

(Number 

of travel 

lanes and 

median 

type) 

≤ 48 km/h 

(≤ 30 

mi/h) 

56 

km/h 

(35 

mi/h) 

64 

km/h 

 (40 

mi/h) 

≤ 48 

km/h 

(≤ 30 

mi/h) 

56 

km/h 

(35 

mi/h) 

64 

km/h 

 (40 

mi/h) 

≤ 48 

km/h 

(≤ 30 

mi/h) 

56 

km/h 

(35 

mi/h) 

64 

km/h 

 (40 

mi/h) 

≤ 48 

km/h 

(≤ 30 

mi/h) 

56 

km/h 

(35 

mi/h) 

64 

km/h 

 (40 

mi/h) 

2 Lanes C C P C C P C C N C P N 

3 Lanes C C P C P P P P N P N N 

Multilane 

(4 or more 

lanes) with 

raised 

median*** 

C C P C P N P P N N N N 

Multilane 

(4 or more 

lanes) 

without 

raised 

median 

C P N P P N N N N N N N 

Notes: 

*These guidelines include intersection and midblock locations with no traffic signals or stop signs on the approach to 

the crossing. They do not apply to school crossings. A two-way center turn lane is not considered a median. 

Crosswalks should not be installed at locations that could present an increased safety risk to pedestrians, such as 

where there is poor sight distance, complex or confusing designs, a substantial volume of heavy trucks, or other 

dangers, without first providing adequate design features and/or traffic control devices. Adding crosswalks alone will 

not make crossings safer, nor will they necessarily result in more vehicles stopping for pedestrians. Whether or not 

marked crosswalks are installed, it is important to consider other pedestrian facility enhancements (e.g., raised 

median, traffic signal, roadway narrowing, enhanced overhead lighting, traffic calming measures, curb extensions), 

as needed, to improve the safety of the crossing. These are general recommendations; good engineering judgment 

should be used in individual cases for deciding where to install crosswalks. 

** Where the speed limit exceeds 64 km/h (40 mi/h), marked crosswalks alone should not be used at unsignalized 

locations. 

*** The raised median or crossing island must be at least 1.2 m (4 ft) wide and 1.8 m (6 ft) long to adequately serve 

as a refuge area for pedestrians in accordance with MUTCD and AASHTO guidelines. 

C = Candidate sites for marked crosswalks. Marked crosswalks must be installed carefully and selectively after an 

engineering study is performed. 

P = Possible increase in pedestrian crash risk may occur if crosswalks are added without other pedestrian facility 

enhancements. These locations should be closely monitored and enhanced with other pedestrian crossing 

improvements, if necessary, before adding a marked crosswalk. 

N = Marked crosswalks alone are insufficient, since pedestrian crash risk may be increased due to providing marked 

crosswalks alone. Consider using other treatments, such as traffic calming treatments, traffic signals with pedestrian 

signals where warranted, or other substantial crossing improvement to improve crossing safety for pedestrians. 
168 Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 

10.9 ITS Technology 

The information and images in the following ITS section have been taken directly from the PedSmart 

website maintained by PBIC with funding from the USDOT and the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention.(8) 

In-Roadway Warning Lights 

In-roadway warning lights are being used at crosswalks to alert motorists to the presence of a pedestrian 

crossing or preparing to cross the street (see figures 10-10 and 10-11). Since the lights only flash when 

activated by the pedestrian, the motorist receives real-time information indicating that a pedestrian is in 

the vicinity of the crosswalk. The amber lights are embedded in the pavement on both sides of the 

crosswalk and oriented to face oncoming traffic. When the pedestrian activates the system, either by using 

a pushbutton or through detection from an automated device, the lights begin to flash at a constant rate, 

warning the motorist that a pedestrian is in the vicinity of the crosswalk ahead. 

Figure 10-10. Illustration. Example of in-roadway warning lights. 

Source: PBIC, http://www.walkinginfo.org/pedsmart/devcmain.htm(8)
Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 169

Figure 10-11. Photo. Working example of in-roadway warning 

lights with pedestrian pushbutton in Austin, Texas. 

The amber light-emitting diode (LED) lights flash in unison at a rate designed for maximum motorist 

recognition and are visible during the daylight as well as at night. The flashing lights are only activated 

when a pedestrian wants to cross and are automatically shut off after a set period of time, i.e., the time 

required for a pedestrian to safely cross the street. If installed in conjunction with the means to detect the 

presence of pedestrians while in the crosswalk, the crossing interval can be extended, in which case the 

lights would continue to flash and allow slower pedestrians to safely cross. 

A study by Huang, et al., in 1999 found that the “flashing crosswalk had small positive effects on 

reducing vehicle speeds, increasing vehicle yielding to pedestrians, and reducing pedestrian-motor vehicle 

conflicts,” but it was less effective in channelizing pedestrians.(9)

Countdown Signal 

Countdown signals are used in conjunction with conventional pedestrian signals to provide information to 

the pedestrian regarding the amount of time remaining to safely cross the street (see figure 10-12). It is 

hypothesized that pedestrians will use this information to make better decisions about when to enter the 

crosswalk. Depending on user preference, the countdown timer starts either when the WALK or Walking 

Person indication appears or when the flashing DON’T WALK or Hand indication appears. The timer 

continues counting down through the flashing DON’T WALK (Hand) clearance interval. When the steady 

DON’T WALK or Hand appears, the countdown signal will be at zero. 
170 Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 

Figure 10-12. Photo. Example of countdown pedestrian 

signal in Lauderdale-By-The-Sea, FL. 

Animated Eyes Display 

Animated eyes are intended for use at pedestrian crosswalks as an alternative to conventional pedestrian 

signals (see figure 10-13). Animated eyes displays are expected to encourage pedestrians to look for 

turning vehicles traveling on an intersecting path by including a prompt as part of the pedestrian signal. 

The prompt is a pair of animated eyes that scan from side to side at the start of the WALK indication. 

Depending on user preference, the animated eyes can be illuminated separately from the standard 

pedestrian symbol (walking person) for the beginning of the WALK phase or illuminated concurrently 

with the standard symbol. 

Figure 10-13. Example of animated eyes display. 

Source: http://www.walkinginfo.org/pedsmart/devcmain.htm(8)
Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 171

The animated eyes display uses an LED pedestrian signal head and adds animated eyes that scan from 

side to side. The device uses narrow (8-degree) field of view blue (460 nanometers (nm)) LEDs on a 

black background. The display is highly visible to pedestrians while restricting signal visibility to 

motorists. The eyes, which appear to scan left and right at the rate of one cycle per second, are 13 cm 

(5 in) wide, 6.9 cm (2.7 in) high, and 5.7 cm (2.25 in) apart. The WALK portion of the display is a 

28.4-cm-high (11.2-in-high) outline of a walking person (a standard pedestrian symbol) constructed from 

blue LEDs. The DON’T WALK display is a 28.4-cm-high (11.2-in-high) upraised hand constructed from 

Portland orange (6.15 nm) LEDs. 

Detection Devices 

Microwave Detector

The microwave pedestrian detector provides the means to automatically detect the presence of pedestrians 

in the targeted curbside area and/or while moving in a designated crosswalk area. In figure 10-14, 

pedestrians in the curbside microwave detection zone (shown in red) will activate the call feature, while 

slower pedestrians detected within the onstreet detection zones (shown in blue) receive more time to cross 

the street. 

Figure 10-14. Example of a microwave detector system. 

Source: http://www.walkinginfo.org/pedsmart/devcmain.htm(8)

When used at the curbside area, it may either replace or augment the standard pushbutton used to activate 

the pedestrian call feature. When used to detect pedestrians in the crosswalk, its function is to detect the 

presence of individuals requiring additional time to cross, appropriately extend the clearance interval, and 

provide more time to cross. 

Infrared Detector

The passive infrared detector provides the capability to automatically detect the presence of pedestrians in 

the targeted curbside area or within the crosswalk. In figure 10-15, pedestrians entering the curbside 

infrared detection zone (shown in red) will activate the pedestrian call feature, while those detected in the 

crosswalk (shown in blue) will extend the clearance interval. When used to detect pedestrians in the 

crosswalk, its function is to detect the presence of individuals requiring additional time to cross, 

appropriately extend the clearance interval, and provide more time to cross. 
172 Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 

Both these types of detectors function by sensing changes in thermal radiation caused by pedestrian 

movement within the targeted areas. These detectors may be used either to supplement or to replace the 

standard pushbutton used to activate the pedestrian call feature. 

Figure 10-15. Illustration. Example of an infrared detector system. 

Source: http://www.walkinginfo.org/pedsmart/devcmain.htm(8)

Illuminated Pushbuttons 

The illuminated pushbutton is simple technology designed to provide immediate feedback to the 

pedestrian that the button is working and that the signal will change (see figure 10-16). Use of the 

illuminated button may reduce the number of pedestrians who cross against the signal because they have 

no indication that a standard pushbutton is working. Because of an immediate response from the light, the 

illuminated button may also result in fewer pedestrians pushing the button multiple times. This can result 

in longer life for the pushbutton itself. 

Figure 10-16. Photo. Illuminated pushbuttons. 

Source: Polara Engineering, http://www.polara.com/BD_Features.htm 
Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 173

10.10 Student Exercise 

The need to develop and detail pedestrian signs and pavement markings in a manner in which these 

provisions can be constructed within the normal field of highway construction is an extremely important 

issue. Signs and pavement markings for a proposed roadway project are specified through a detailed 

system of standard drawings, specifications, and bid item numbers. An example plan view drawing 

demonstrating this method for highway-related signs and pavement markings using California 

Department of Transportation (Caltrans) specifications is provided for reference in figure 10-17. 

1 in = 2.54 cm 

Figure 10-17. Illustration. Example signing and marking plan for SR 8 by 

Fletcher Parkway Construction Plans, La Mesa, CA. 
174 Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 

Engineers use such standards to ensure uniform construction; contractors use them to develop 

construction cost estimates for their bids. The use of these procedures in developing designs is a critical 

link in the continuum of planning, designing, and constructing transportation facilities. Construction of 

pedestrian and bicycle facilities should make full use of this well-established system. Most State DOTs 

have a variety of specifications that pertain to pedestrian and bicycle facilities. 

Using the summary of standard drawings for bicycle and pedestrian facility construction provided below 

(taken from the Caltrans Standard Plans document), develop a plan to install pedestrian signs and 

pavement markings that uses nomenclature and reference standards from your State DOT. Estimate the 

quantity of each construction item needed and develop an engineer’s construction cost estimate. You will 

need to utilize the following resources: 

• Standard drawings (periodically published document). 

• Standard specifications (periodically published document). 

• Bid item numbers (typically a published list). 

• Statewide average bid summary (typically assembled several times a year). 

10.11 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. MUTCD, FHWA, McLean, VA, 2003 edition, available online at 

http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/HTM/2003/html-index.htm, accessed February 25, 2004. 

2. Image Library, PBIC, available online at http://www.pedbikeimages.org, accessed May 6, 2004.

3. Zador, P., J. Moshman, and L. Marcus, “Adoption of right turn on red: effects on crashes at 

signalized intersections,” Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 14, no.3, Elsevier Ltd., June 

1982, available online at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00014575. 

4. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, Washington DC, 2001. 

5. McGee, H.W., “Accident Experience with Right-Turn-on-Red,” Transportation Research 

Record 644, TRB, Washington, DC, 1976, pp. 66–75.

6. Pline, J.L, Ed., Traffic Control Devices Handbook, ITE, Washington, DC, 2001. 

7. Zegeer, C.V., J.R. Stewart, H.H. Huang, P.A. Lagerwey, Safety Effects of Marked versus 

Unmarked Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Locations: Executive Summary and Recommended 

Guidelines, FHWA, FHWA-RD-01-075, McLean, VA, March 2001, available online at 

http://www.walkinginfo.org/pdf/r&d/crosswalk_021302.pdf, accessed February 26, 2004. 

8. ITS Technologies, PedSmart website, FHWA, Washington, DC, 1999, available online at 

http://www.walkinginfo.org/pedsmart/devcmain.htm, accessed February 25, 2004. 

9. Huang, H.H., R. Hughes, C.V. Zegeer, and M. Nitzburg, An Evaluation of the LightGuardTM 

Pedestrian Crosswalk Warning System, Florida Department of Transportation, Tallahassee, FL, 

June 1999, available online at 

http://www.dot.state.fl.us/safety/ped_bike/brochures/pdf/lgresrch.pdf, accessed May 18, 2004. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 
Pedestrian Facility Signing and Pavement Markings 175

• “Accessible Pedestrian Signals: Synthesis and Guide to Best Practice,” National Cooperative 

Highway Research Program Research Results Digest, number 278, 2003, available online at 

http://trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?ID=1705. 

• Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities—A Recommended Practice of ITE, ITE, Washington, 

DC, 1998. 

• Florida Pedestrian Planning and Design Handbook, Florida Department of Transportation, 1999, 

available online at http://www.dot.state.fl.us/safety/ped_bike/ 

ped_bike_standards.htm#Florida%20Ped%20Handbook . 

• Implementing Pedestrian Improvements at the Local Level, FHWA, FHWA-98-138, 1998, 

available online at http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/localpedguide.pdf. 

• Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, Oregon Department of Transportation, 1995. 

• Van Houten, R.; R.A. Retting, C.M. Farmer, and J. Van Houten, “Field evaluation of a leading 

pedestrian interval signal phase at three urban intersections,” Transportation Research Record, 

TRB, Washington, DC, in press. 

Pedestrian Design at Intersections 177 

LESSON 11: 

PEDESTRIAN DESIGN AT INTERSECTIONS 

11.1 Introduction 

Walkways provide mobility along a linear path. Eventually, people need to cross roads and streets at 

intersections. These intersections, where the paths of people and vehicles come together, can be the most 

challenging part of negotiating a pedestrian network. If pedestrians cannot cross the street safely, then 

mobility is severely limited, access is denied, and walking as a mode of travel is discouraged. 

This lesson provides an overview of several design features critical to providing pedestrian access at 

intersections. Much research has been done on this topic, and several design manuals provide much detail, 

including the MUTCD, the AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedestrian 

Facilities, and the ITE Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities, among others.(1,2,3) The major sections 

of this lesson are as follows: 

• 11.1 Introduction. 

• 11.2 Intersection Design Principles. 

• 11.3 Crosswalks. 

• 11.4 Curb Ramps. 

• 11.5 Crossing and Detection Technology. 

• 11.6 Pedestrian Signal Heads and Half-Signals. 

• 11.7 Curb Extensions and Curb Radii. 

• 11.8 Signal Timing and Pushbuttons. 

• 11.9 Pedestrian Refuge Islands. 

• 11.10 Roundabouts. 

• 11.11 Student Exercise. 

• 11.12 References and Additional Resources. 

Text for this lesson was taken from the FHWA 1998 report titled Implementing Pedestrian Improvements 

at the Local Level.(4) It has been reprinted with minor modifications and updates. Other information has 

been drawn from the ITE publication, Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities—A Recommended 

Practice of ITE.

(3)

11.2 Intersection Design Principles 

In urban areas, two-thirds of pedestrian injuries occur at central business district (CBD) intersections. A 

suitable example of such injuries is the intersection dash, in which a pedestrian enters the street at an 

intersection and is seen too late by the driver of a motor vehicle. This is the third most prevalent 

pedestrian crash type, accounting for 7.2 percent of all pedestrian crashes. 

The solution to such pedestrian crashes at intersections is to design and build intersections that: 

• Encourage pedestrian use rather than at midblock crossing locations. 

• Make pedestrians as visible as possible. 
178 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

• Make pedestrian actions as predictable as possible. 

• Slow vehicular traffic. 

A good place to start is to develop design guidelines for intersections that respond to the needs of 

pedestrians—guidelines that can be followed whenever new intersections are built or when existing 

intersections are being improved or reconstructed. 

Table 11-1 contains important intersection issues and potential solutions: 

Table 11-1. Intersection issues for safe pedestrian crossings.

Issue Improvement 

Improved pedestrian conspicuity • Painted crosswalks in the roadway. 

• Extensions to move pedestrians out from behind parked cars (see 

figure 11-1). 

• Improved horizontal and vertical sight distances through the removal 

of extraneous curbside clutter (newspaper boxes, redundant utility 

poles, overgrown vegetation, etc.). 

Speed reduction of motor vehicle 

drivers • Raised intersections to alert drivers that the area is not designed for 

rapid through movement and pedestrians can be expected. 

• Right-turn slip lanes with exit angles between 50 and 60 degrees. 

Predictability and control of 

pedestrian actions and movement • Crosswalks. 

• Signalization. 

Distance and time that pedestrians 

have to cross a roadway • Curb extensions. 

• Medians. 

• Refuge islands. 

Ease of movement from walkway to 

street level and vice versa • Curb ramps to facilitate the transition from walkways to streets. 

• Raised intersections that eliminate the need for curb ramps and make 

the crosswalk a natural extension of the walkway. 

Figure 11-1. Photo. Reduced visibility of pedestrians 

behind parked cars can create conflict. 

Improving intersections for pedestrians involves the coordination and integration of a number of design 

elements, including crosswalks, curb ramps, curb extensions, turning radii, and signalization. Some other 

important considerations when designing intersections include: 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 179 

• Taking vertical as well as horizontal sight distances into account. 

• Referring to the AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedestrian 

Facilities for formulas relating to storage space needed for pedestrians.(2)

• Prohibiting parking near intersections. 

• Limiting right-turn-on-red movements in areas of high pedestrian volumes. 

• Keeping crosswalks at right angles to turning roadway terminals and slip lanes. 

• Keeping right turns below 24.2 km/h (15 mi/h) and left turns below 32.2 km/h (20 mi/h). 

• Locating crossing close to the parallel street [0.6 m (2 ft)] of offset is standard). 

• Using stop bars for motorists and keep stop bars behind crosswalks. 

11.3 Crosswalks 

Typical Concerns 

Of the 61 different pedestrian crash types, the midblock dart-out type—where a pedestrian may suddenly 

appear between parked cars or otherwise cross a vehicular way at a random location—accounts for 13.3 

percent of all pedestrian crashes. In three-quarters of these cases, the crash occurs in the curbside lane. 

One-third of midblock dart-outs result in serious injury or fatality. 

Possible Solutions 

One solution is to create an ongoing retrofit program to establish crosswalks in locations that encourage 

pedestrians to cross in specific locations and that also provide motorists with a reasonable expectation of 

where pedestrians might cross a roadway. Crosswalks are one tool that municipalities can use to 

accomplish both goals. Other tools include curb extensions and medians (discussed later in this lesson). 

Important crosswalk concepts and issues include: 

1. Creating reasonable expectations where pedestrians may cross a roadway. A crosswalk 

creates a visible indication for both motorists and pedestrians as to where pedestrians may be 

expected to cross a roadway. 

2. Controlling pedestrian actions and movement. When combined with signalization (as well as 

curb extensions and refuge islands, where appropriate), crosswalks can help to control pedestrian 

movement and make them more routine and predictable (see figure 11-2). 
180 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

Figure 11-2. Photo. Use of colored crosswalks and median refuges 

makes this intersection more pedestrian-friendly. 

3. Knowing when and where crosswalks are appropriate. As noted in the Oregon Bicycle and 

Pedestrian Plan, some studies have found that pedestrians may develop a false sense of security 

when crossing a road in marked crosswalks.(5) Other studies have found that motorists are more 

likely to stop for pedestrians in marked crosswalks, especially where pedestrian right-of-way laws 

are enforced. 

It is important that the proper use of crosswalks is backed up by State law. Vermont is one State 

whose law gives pedestrians conditional right-of-way when using marked crosswalks. As long as 

“traffic control signals are not in operation, the driver of a vehicle shall yield the right-of-way, 

slowing down or stopping, if necessary, to a pedestrian crossing the roadway within a crosswalk” 

(Vermont Statutes, §1051(a)). (6) Where this law is reinforced by signage in the crosswalk itself, 

reminding drivers of the State law and their responsibility to stop, some town select board 

officials have said that drivers’ habits markedly favor pedestrians. The responsibility, however, is 

on the pedestrian to safely enter a crosswalk. Vermont law continues, “No pedestrian may 

suddenly leave a curb or other place of safety and walk or run into the path of a vehicle which is 

so close that it is impossible for a driver to yield” (Vermont Statutes, §1051 (b)). (6)

4. Deciding where crosswalks might be located. Generally, marked crosswalks are located at all 

open legs of signalized intersections. They may also be provided at other locations. When used 

with curb extensions, signage, and illumination, the visibility of pedestrian crossings can be 

enhanced. 

Although expected at intersections, the installation of crosswalks at midblock locations may also 

be desirable under some conditions, such as when medians or refuge islands are used. 

ITE recommends that certain conditions may not warrant the installation of marked crosswalks, 

such as when the hourly peak pedestrian volume is very low (<25 pedestrians per peak 4 hours) 

or when traffic volume is very low (<2,000 AADT). At all other locations, or where 

predominately young, elderly, or disabled pedestrians may be found, crosswalks are 

recommended. 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 181 

Implementation Strategies 

1. Develop and adopt a crosswalk policy and design guidelines. Decide where crosswalks shall 

be used; when policies and ordinances are changed or updated, make sure a crosswalk policy is 

implemented. Likewise, develop standard crosswalk designs for the public works department to 

follow. 

2. Piggyback on capital and/or maintenance projects. Look for opportunities to install 

crosswalks whenever intersections are changed or upgraded or when roadways are resurfaced. 

3. Use crosswalks to connect sidewalks and curb ramps at intersections. Coordinate crosswalk 

painting with new or existing curb ramp locations. 

4. Establish an annual crosswalk improvement program. Schedule crosswalk replacement or 

repainting so that crosswalk markings never become deteriorated or less visible to motorists. The 

duty of a driver to yield right-of-way to a pedestrian in a crosswalk may be compromised if the 

driver could not see the crosswalk or one did not exist. Furthermore, the municipality may be 

liable for failing to exercise due care toward maintaining the crosswalk for pedestrians, especially 

if the municipality knew or should have known of a crosswalk deficiency. 

5. Implement a vigorous enforcement program. Convince law enforcement authorities to actively 

monitor crosswalk behavior, enforce crosswalk laws, and prosecute crosswalk scofflaws. Create 

and implement a public relations program to increase public awareness about the rights and 

responsibilities of crosswalk use. Emphasize crosswalk laws through the use of informational 

signage at crosswalk locations. 

Resources and Scheduling 

Crosswalks are relatively inexpensive to install. Obtaining authorization to install them, on the other 

hand, could take months or longer. 

Evaluation 

An informal traffic study can determine if the crosswalk program is enhancing pedestrian safety. 

Especially monitor locations of high pedestrian use. Review crash statistics on a regular basis. 

Planning and Design Considerations 

When planning and designing crosswalks, consider these recommendations: 

• Place crosswalks across the full width of the pavement. 

• Use crosswalks at all signalized intersections. 

• Use crosswalks at unsignalized intersections with discretion. 

• Place crosswalks in locations where they are visible and where they are not obscured by parked 

cars or signs. 

• Illuminate midblock crosswalks that are not expected by motorists. 

• Use two white parallel lines 0.2 m to 0.6 m (0.5 ft to 2.0 ft) wide, spaced at a 1.8-m (6-ft) 

minimum, or the width of the approaching sidewalk if it is greater, to define a crosswalk area. 
182 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

• Use special markings such as striped (zebra) longitudinal lines or diagonal crosshatching for 

added visibility and to emphasize a crossing. 

• Use crosswalks at the corners of skewed intersections. 

• Where warranted, the lighting levels in pedestrian areas should meet those recommended by the 

Illuminating Engineering Society (IES). 

• Ensure that crossings have a smooth, even surface for people who use wheelchairs, walkers, or 

have other mobility impairments. 

11.4 Curb Ramps 

Curb ramps at intersections are an important design feature which should be considered. Refer to 

lesson 8.6, “Design Requirements,” or lesson 9.3, “Basic Sidewalk Elements,” for more information 

about curb ramps. 

Typical Concerns 

The absence of curb ramps prevents many wheelchair users from crossing streets. Such a deficiency is 

common in many communities. Even if ramps are provided, they may be poorly designed. Typical 

problems include: 

• Steep slopes. 

• Lack of a flat landing area. 

• Obstructions in or near the ramp. 

• Lip at street connection. 

• Severe counter slope at gutter. 

• Water, ice, or debris at the toe of ramp. 

• Ramps that are too narrow to accommodate wheelchairs. 

• Uneven surfaces. 

When new public walkways are built, the ADA requires a curb ramp at each curbed street crossing. 

Ramps must also be added when roadways are repaired. A Pennsylvania court interpreted this 

requirement very broadly to include annual street resurfacing programs.(7) ADA also requires that curb 

ramps be installed in new development, annual programs, and capital projects. A transition plan should 

show how a community will systematically install curb ramps, especially at key locations like social 

service agencies and transit stops. 

Possible Solutions 

The solution is to install curb ramps using ADA design guidelines. Curb ramps should be installed along 

with all new walkways. A program to retrofit existing walkways with curb ramps should be developed. 

Existing curb ramps should be inspected and replaced if they do not meet ADA guidelines. 

Implementation Strategies 

Having curb ramps installed at all intersections with sidewalks requires a clear, well-planned strategy that may 

require a period of several years to fully implement. Here are three keys to a successful implementation. 

1. Regulate new development and redevelopment. Make sure all permits involving walkways include 

curb ramps. Because this is required by ADA, it should not be hard to implement. Local ordinances may 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 183 

need changing, or where there is less formality, a simple directive might be issued. The same goes for 

bringing standard plans and specifications into compliance with ADA guidelines. 

Simply changing the regulations to require curb ramps, however, may not be enough. People who 

review new plans and issue permits must know where ramps are appropriately located and what 

an acceptable design is. Here are a few steps to consider: 

a. Find out who reviews plans and issues permits. They may or may not be the same people. 

b. Educate them on ADA and local curb ramp requirements (location and design). This could 

involve developing typical layouts and designs, a special training session, or a presentation at 

a staff meeting. 

c. Follow up. Education is not a one-time effort—employees move on and new ones take their 

places. Periodic memos and presentations can keep everyone on track. 

d. Inspectors are key players. Involve them in each of the steps above. 

2. Capital projects and annual programs. ADA requires curb ramps to be installed whenever 

“alterations to existing transportation infrastructure” are made. In other words, all capital projects 

and annual programs must be scrutinized for opportunities to install new ramps to ensure that all 

new or rebuilt intersections conform to ADA requirements. This can include construction projects 

ranging from annual resurfacing programs to major signalization upgrades and street widening. 

Implementing a curb ramp requirement for all capital projects and annual programs requires an 

ongoing, concerted effort. There are several things that can be done: 

• Work with the managers of annual programs, such as asphalt resurfacing, to identify locations 

where curb ramps should be installed. 

• Make sure curb ramps are written into all scope of work text and budgets for funding 

proposals and locally funded capital projects. 

• As projects are funded and staff assigned, make sure the project manager knows where curb 

ramps must be included in the project. Have someone knowledgeable review designs to make 

sure well-designed curb ramps have been included. 

3. Annual curb ramp installation programs. To meet ADA requirements, an annual curb ramp 

installation program will likely need to be created. Here are some ways to get started: 

• Encourage staff and constituents to identify locations where ramps are needed. Try 

distributing ramp request forms in the form of public request cards (see figure 11-3) to 

agencies and groups involved with the disabled community. 

• Evaluate and respond quickly to returned ramp request forms. 

• Develop a systematic way for identifying priority locations. Start by looking at sites that 

serve transit, social service agencies, schools, and neighborhood shopping areas. Curb ramp 

projects may be built by either contractors or the public works department. Both ways can 

work, and one is not necessarily less expensive than the other. However, here are two 

important points to consider: 

o Curb ramps must be properly built. Even a 0.6-cm (0.25-in) lip on a ramp can make it 

difficult, if not impossible, for some wheelchair users to negotiate it. 
184 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

o It helps public relations to respond to ramp requests within a reasonable amount of 

time—less than six months. When using private contractors, it may make sense to bid 

some of the ramps on a per unit basis as opposed to a site-specific basis to allow for 

quickest response to citizen requests. 

Figure 11-3. Photo. Ramp request form used by the 

City of Seattle, WA, Engineering Department. 

Source: Implementing Pedestrian Improvements at the Local Level(4)

Resources and Scheduling 

Curb ramps typically cost between $500 and $1,000 each. Usually, it is cheaper to install a large number 

at the same time or as part of other concrete work. Timely ramp installation is a key part of an overall 

pedestrian program. Frequently, curb ramps can be installed easily and quickly, giving communities 

highly visible products that can improve locations all over town. With this in mind, it is preferable to 

design a curb ramp program to respond to citizen requests within six months. Where narrow sidewalks 

and limited rights-of-way exist, installation of curb ramps may take longer. In either case, consider using 

a public request card like the one shown above in figure 11-3 to bring curb ramp requests to the attention 

of the street or public works department. The city of Seattle, WA has developed an excellent program in 

this regard. 

Evaluation 

Check to see if ramps are being built as required and designed. In the case of new developments, do 

occasional checkups to see if ramps are included in new plans. The same goes for annual programs. Seek 

out feedback on the location and design of ramps from local organizations that include wheelchair users. 

Planning and Design Considerations 

Important planning and design considerations for curb ramps include: 

• Maximum slope not to exceed 8.33 percent (1:12) is required. 

• The width must be 0.9 m (3 ft) or greater. 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 185 

• A maximum allowable cross slope is 2 percent (1:50) is required. 

• Transition areas between a walkway and a ramp should be beveled 10 percent for 1.2-m (4-ft) 

ramps and 8.33 percent for ramps of less than 1.2 m (4 ft). 

• Textured surfaces at curb ramps help identify crosswalk locations for visually impaired 

pedestrians (information on textured surfaces is included later in this lesson and previously in 

lesson 9, section 3). 

Refer to lesson 8.6, “Design Requirements,” or lesson 9.3, “Basic Sidewalk Elements,” for figures and 

further curb ramp design information. 

11.5 Crossing and Detection Technology 

Typical Concerns 

In some cases, simply installing a crosswalk is not enough to ensure pedestrian safety at a crossing. 

Therefore, several other treatments may be used in conjunction with crosswalks to improve safety and 

provide greater visibility of pedestrians to motorists. 

Possible Solutions 

Many possible solutions have already been discussed in previous chapters relating to walkways and 

crosswalks: 

• Pavement markings and signing (lesson 10.4–10.8). 

• In-roadway warning lights (lesson 10.9, “ITS Technology”). 

• Automated detection devices (lesson 10.9, “ITS Technology”). 

• Street lighting (lesson 9.5, “Ambience, Shade, and Other Sidewalk Enhancements”). 

• Pavement surfaces and tactile ground surface indicators (lesson 9.3, “Basic Sidewalk Elements”). 

As adapted from an Informational Report by an ITE Pedestrian and Bicycle Council Task Force 

Committee,(8) the following list offers a few more crossing and detection technologies that could be 

employed at or before intersections to provide solutions for safer pedestrian crossings: 

• Flags (see figure 11-4): 

o Description—Pedestrians select a flag from those posted on each side of the crosswalk, flag 

traffic to let drivers know they wish to cross, then return the flag to the holder on the opposite 

side of the street after crossing. 

o Application—Crossings on higher-volume multilane roads. 

o Cost (including labor)—$100 including holding racks per crossing. 
186 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

Figure 11-4. Photo. Flag treatment used 

in Kirkland, WA. 

Source: ITE Informational Report(8)

• Fluorescent yellow-green signs (see figure 11-5): 

o Description—Pedestrian signs made of the FHWA-approved fluorescent yellow-green color 

are posted at crossings. 

o Application—Pedestrian and bicycle crossings, including schools. 

o Cost (including labor)—$200–$300 per sign. 

Figure 11-5. Photo. Fluorescent yellow-green 

sign treatment in Austin, TX. 

Source: ITE Informational Report(8)

• Flashing beacons (see figure 11-6): 

o Description—Flashing amber lights are installed on overhead signs, signs in advance of the 

crosswalk, or signs located at the entrance to the crosswalk on pedestal poles. 

o Application—Marked uncontrolled crossings. 

o Cost (including labor)—$10,000–$40,000 per crossing, depending on placement. 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 187 

Figure 11-6. Photo. Flashing beacon 

treatment in Austin, TX. 

Source: ITE Informational Report(8)

• Detectable warnings (see figure 11-7): 

o Description—Detectable warnings are a standardized surface feature composed of raised 

truncated domes, used to identify a change from pedestrian to vehicle use. 

o Application—At the base of curb ramps and curb cuts adjacent to a crossing. 

o Cost (including labor)—$200–$2000 per ramp or curb, depending on total area. 

Figure 11-7. Photo. Detectable warnings 

treatment in Roseville, CA. 

Source: ITE Informational Report(8)

• Staggered pedestrian crossings (Z-crossings) (see figure 11-8): 

o Description—Median islands and crosswalks laid out in a staggered configuration at 

uncontrolled intersections require pedestrians to walk toward traffic to reach the second half 

of the crosswalk. 

o Application—Across multilane roads (applications at midblock locations will be discussed in 

lesson 12). 

o Cost (including labor)—$25,000–$75,000. 
188 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

Figure 11-8. Photo. Staggered pedestrian crossings 

(Z-crossings) treatment in San Luis Obispo, CA. 

Source: ITE Informational Report(8)

11.6 Pedestrian Signal Heads and Half-Signals 

Typical Concerns 

Pedestrians often have trouble crossing at unsignalized intersections along arterials. This is especially true 

for the elderly, whose eyesight and mobility may be poor, and for children, whose judgment may be 

questionable. And, while most motorists may be required to stop and yield to crossing pedestrians, few 

arterial street drivers will stop unless forced by, for example, traffic signals. 

Traffic control signals are usually placed at intersections when they meet certain warrants. In the 2003 

edition of MUTCD, section 4C.05 describes the Pedestrian Volume Signal Warrant, which states that: 

The need for a traffic control signal at an intersection or midblock crossing shall be 

considered if an engineering study finds that both of the following criteria are met: 

A. The pedestrian volume crossing the major street at an intersection or midblock 

location during an average day is 100 or more for each of any 4 hours or 190 or more 

during any 1 hour; and 

B. There are fewer than 60 gaps per hour in the traffic stream of adequate length to 

allow pedestrians to cross during the same period when the pedestrian volume 

criterion is satisfied. When there is a divided street having a median of sufficient 

width for pedestrians to wait, the requirement applies separately to each direction of 

vehicular traffic.(1)

In general, when the Pedestrian Volume Signal Warrant is met and a new traffic control signal is 

installed, pedestrian signal heads are installed along with the signal. Often, jurisdictions create their own 

policies for when to install pedestrian signal heads. Rather than follow the MUTCD standards (or in 

addition to following the standards), they may rely on other design features already in place in order to 

determine the need for a pedestrian signal head. For instance, a community may decide to install 

pedestrian signal heads at all locations with intersection curb ramps. Or they may have a policy that any 

new traffic signal installation will automatically include pedestrian signal heads. 

Where traffic volumes are high and pedestrian crossings frequent, the lack of signalized crossings makes 

pedestrians impatient. The result: jaywalking, unpredictable movements, and ultimately more 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 189 

pedestrian-traffic crashes. Yet if the intersecting side street is lightly traveled, it makes little sense to 

install a full traffic signal for vehicles. 

Possible Solutions 

The solution is to install a pedestrian half-signal (see figure 11-9). A half-signal is a pedestrian actuated 

light that stops arterial traffic only, leaving the lower volume cross street unsignalized and controlled by 

Stop signs only. This allows pedestrians to cross safely upon demand without unnecessarily creating 

delays upon arterial street traffic that a fully signalized intersection might impose. 

Figure 11-9. Photo. Half-signal in Portland, OR. 

While a full signal might be an option, costs could easily be prohibitive. A fully signalized intersection 

can cost twice as much as a half-signal. If a signal on the residential street is unnecessary, the pedestrian 

half-signal can be an answer. 

Another way to accommodate pedestrians without unnecessarily impeding arterial traffic is to tie in a 

half-signal with full signals on either side. In this scenario, after a pedestrian pushes the call button, the 

WALK signal is displayed when it is tied in with the progression of adjacent signals. This method may be 

more attractive to transportation engineers who don’t want to impede traffic. 

Section 7 of the ITE Informational Report summarizes the use of different signals installed for pedestrian 

crossings.(8) Pedestrian signals can be applied to intersections where the pedestrian crossing is signalized 

but the intersection side street approaches are controlled by Stop signs. However, most applications of 

pedestrian signals in the United States are at midblock locations. These will be discussed in lesson 12. 

Implementation Strategies 

Here are a few ways for implementing pedestrian half-signals into an overall pedestrian program: 

1. Create an annual program. If the need is great and local budgets can afford it, creating an 

annual half-signal installation program is best. This approach helps staff learn to evaluate 

potential locations. It also helps institutionalize the logic behind the pedestrian half-signal. 
190 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

Identifying and prioritizing suitable locations is the key. Costs, however, can be high and may 

average from $50,000 to $100,000 per installation. 

2. Select suitable locations. Half-signal sites are often suggested by local schools, hospitals, social 

service offices, and senior citizen centers. These institutions typically generate a lot of pedestrian 

trips. If one is located across from a bus stop, for example, numerous daily crossings can be 

expected. 

Relatively low volume but difficult crossings used by children and the elderly may warrant 

half-signals. In such cases, common sense tempered by engineering judgment can substitute for 

numeric standards. Junctions of heavily used bicycle/pedestrian trails and high-volume arterials 

are also good candidates. Citizens, particularly the elderly, can help identify difficult 

intersections. Follow up their requests and complaints with onsite staff evaluations. If an 

intersection looks promising, conduct a detailed analysis. List the best candidate locations and 

prioritize based on crash histories, traffic speeds, pedestrian volumes, and characteristics. 

3. Focus on environment mitigation. Your jurisdiction might require half-signals as a condition of 

development. If a given development is likely to create a pedestrian crossing problem, requiring 

mitigation makes sense. This approach demands clear warrants for when pedestrian half-signals 

are necessary to justify assessing developers the cost of traffic impacts. Issuing permits can thus 

be linked to half-signal installation. 

Resources and Scheduling 

Pedestrian half-signals cost anywhere from one quarter to one half of a full intersection signalization, 

depending upon the intersection. Because they are costly, it may not be feasible to install more than a few 

each year. 

Evaluation 

In many respects, it is easy to evaluate the success of a pedestrian half-signal. If the number of crashes 

and/or pedestrian complaints goes down, then it’s a success. If the arterial has high volumes, study traffic 

impacts such as the frequency of motorist delays. If frequent red phases cause delays, consider 

lengthening the green phase a bit. To strike the right balance, observe the intersection throughout the day 

and, if necessary, vary the timing. 

Planning and Design Considerations 

Regardless of which implementation strategy is chosen, the objective conditions which warrant the use of 

a half-signal will have to be determined. In all likelihood, the public works department has warrants that 

must be met before installing a traffic signal. Most jurisdictions use MUTCD to determine signal 

warrants, whether the signals are to be installed for vehicular traffic or pedestrians. (It should be noted 

that pedestrian half-signals have not yet been incorporated in MUTCD). When should the pedestrian 

half-signal option be chosen over the full signalization option? Here are two useful guidelines: 

• When traffic volumes on the intersecting street are less than 50 percent of 

MUTCD-recommended benchmarks. 

• When a substantial amount of traffic might be expected to opt for and use lower-volume parallel 

streets in order to avoid a full signal placed along the arterial. 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 191 

Because signals and their impacts are often controversial and politically sensitive, creating a flexible 

warrant may be appropriate, especially given the lack of MUTCD guidelines. 

11.7 Curb Extensions and Curb Radii 

Typical Concerns 

Walking across a wide street takes longer than crossing a narrow street. As a result, pedestrians are 

exposed for a longer period of time to the threat of being hit by a vehicle when they cross a wide street. 

Another problem pedestrians face when trying to cross a street is visibility. Parked cars may make it 

difficult for them to see oncoming vehicles and vice versa. Also, when streets intersect at an acute or 

obtuse angle, or have a large curb radius, motorists can make turns at relatively high speeds. By contrast, 

90-degree intersections and corners with tight curb radii tend to slow motorists down. The problem with 

obtuse angles is particularly bad when a vehicle on an arterial street turns onto a residential street. 

Pedestrians crossing the residential street adjacent to the arterial may not expect high-speed turning traffic 

or they may have their backs turned toward the turning cars. 

Possible Solutions 

The solution is to shorten the crossing distance for pedestrians. One way to effectively shorten the 

pedestrian crossing distance on streets where parking is permitted is to install curb extensions, also known 

as bulb-outs, chokers, neck-downs, or flares. Curb extensions project into the street, usually for a distance 

equal to the depth of a typical parallel parking space, making it easier for pedestrians to see approaching 

traffic and giving motorists a better view of pedestrians (see figure 11-10). When motorists are better able 

to see pedestrians, they have a greater opportunity to stop before a crash can occur. 

Decreasing crossing distances for pedestrians also provides these motor vehicle capacity benefits: 

• At signalized intersections, it decreases the length of the pedestrian phase, thereby increasing the 

main street green time and thus more vehicle throughput and less driver delay. 

• At unsignalized intersections, it reduces the time a right- or left-turning vehicle has to wait for a 

pedestrian to cross before exiting the roadway. 

When designing curb extensions at intersections where there is low truck traffic, consider making the 

corner radius as small as possible. This will have the effect of slowing down right-turning motor vehicles. 

Where truck traffic is present, a tight corner radius may make the turn difficult to negotiate for these 

vehicles. Furthermore, the constant overriding of the curb and sidewalk by rear wheels of trucks may 

ultimately cause damage to the curb or sidewalk or cause injury to pedestrians. 
192 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

 

Figure 11-10. Photos. Curb extensions reduce crossing distances 

for pedestrians and provide additional corner storage space. 

Simultaneously installing curb extensions and changing curb radii is frequently possible since both 

involve moving the curb and gutter into the improved portion of the street right-of-way. Adding bollards 

to make the corner more visible may be an alternative solution. 

Where acute or obtuse intersections are encountered, such as where a residential street meets an arterial, 

creating an intersection that is closer to 90 degrees may also provide opportunities to reduce curb radii 

and create curb extensions (see figure 11-11). 

17.4 m (58 ft)

17.4 m (58 ft)

9.6 m (32 ft)

Before

After

17.4 m (58 ft)

Figure 11-11. Illustration. Curb extensions improve the visibility 

of pedestrians by motorists and vice versa. 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 193 

Implementation Strategies 

Typically, curb extensions and curb radius changes are appropriate at a limited number of intersections. 

Consequently, over time, most intersections that need improvements may be upgraded for pedestrians in 

this fashion. As with other pedestrian improvements, the key is to develop a strategy and stick to it over a 

period of years. Here’s how to get started: 

1. Determine arterial and residential street specifications. Include curb extensions and/or smaller 

curb radii in standard plans and specifications for public and private road projects. A change in 

one or more local ordinances may be required or specifications may sometimes be implemented 

by administrative rule. 

2. Start an annual program to install curb extensions and adjust the curbs at obtuse-angle 

intersections. Develop project selection criteria to select the projects that will do the most to 

enhance safety. Some areas to be considered include: 

• Locations where residential streets meet arterial streets at an obtuse angle. 

• Locations that are on routes used by schoolchildren or the elderly. 

• Downtown or neighborhood shopping areas with high pedestrian volumes. 

• Projects nominated by neighborhood associations. 

Resources and Scheduling 

The cost of installing curb extensions and changing curb radii can vary considerably, depending on 

whether drain grates have to be moved and/or whether other issues must be addressed. For example, it 

may be necessary to move the conduit for a signal or relocate utility poles and light and/or sign standards. 

Decide if the work is to be done by the public works department or a private contractor. In general, if only 

a few curb extensions are involved, it may be less expensive and faster to have town or city crews do the 

work. If there is a lot of work to be done, it may be less expensive to use a private contractor. The key is 

to let the public know how long it will take to install a curb extension and then deliver promptly. 

Evaluation 

Visit project sites to determine if good locations have been selected and the best design(s) is being used. 

Check crash records, do speed studies of cars making turns, look at the curbs to see if trucks or buses are 

driving over them, and ask pedestrians if they feel safer. Be a good listener and observer, and make 

modifications where needed. 

Planning and Design Considerations 

Transportation agencies have increased curb radii over the years to keep trucks and buses from running 

over curbs and striking pedestrians standing on the corner; such changes also increase capacity. 

Unfortunately, curb radii have been increased at intersections that do not have large truck traffic or buses 

(e.g., in residential neighborhoods). The following are guidelines for curb extensions and small curb radii: 

• On arterial streets, install curb extensions only where permanent parallel parking is next to the 

curb. Curb extensions should protrude a minimum of 1.8 m (6 ft) into the roadway. Ideally, they 

should project the full depth of adjacent parking stalls, usually 2.4 to 2.7 m (8 to 9 ft). Curb 

extension projections prevent the parking area next to the curb from becoming a travel lane. 
194 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

• A curb radius of 3.0 to 4.6 m (10 to 15 ft) should be used where residential streets intersect other 

residential streets and arterial streets. 

• A curb radius of 6.1 m (20 ft) should be used at the intersections of arterial streets that are not bus 

or truck routes. 

• A curb radius of 7.6 to 9.1 m (25 to 30 ft) should be used at the intersections of arterial streets 

that are bus and/or truck routes. 

• Curb extensions should not extend so far into the street that they present a bottleneck for bicycle 

travel. As a minimum, a 4.3-m (14-ft) travel lane should be maintained. 

11.8 Signal Timing and Pushbuttons 

Typical Concerns 

The public is often baffled by pedestrian signal timing and pushbuttons; such pedestrian features seem to 

vary not only from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but also from intersection to intersection. WALK/DON’T 

WALK timing lengths often appear arbitrary—especially the WALK and flashing DON’T WALK 

phases. Part of the problem stems from the fact that many walkers do not know that the flashing DON’T 

WALK is intentionally displayed before an average person can completely cross the street. Another part 

of the problem may result from timing cycles that are simply too fast for slow walkers such as older 

pedestrians or persons with disabilities. 

Another aspect of the problem may be due to the absence of pedestrian pushbuttons or because a call 

button is obscured or difficult to reach (see figure 11-12). At many intersections that do have pushbuttons, 

the DON’T WALK phase is so long that pedestrians feel their pushbutton request has not been recognized 

by the signal system. All of these problems encourage disrespect for pedestrian signals, promote increased 

jaywalking, and create conflicts with motorists. 

Figure 11-12. Photo. Example of obscure pedestrian pushbuttons; 

pushbuttons should be conveniently placed and clear from obstacles. 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 195 

Possible Solutions 

Develop policies governing pedestrian signal timing and pushbutton actuation to ensure fair treatment for 

pedestrians. Make signal timing as consistent as possible, and adopt a clear pedestrian pushbutton 

warrant. Develop a desired LOS for pedestrian waiting and pushbutton response times and evaluate 

signalized intersections to see if the pedestrian LOS at signalized intersection falls within an acceptable 

range. 

Major issues related to pedestrians and signalized intersections include: 

• Seemingly arbitrary length of WALK and flashing DON’T WALK cycles. 

• Pros and cons of lengthening flashing DON’T WALK to accommodate slower pedestrians. 

• Safety tradeoff of shortened pedestrian phase implemented to enhance vehicular right turns. 

• Fairness of laws that allow motorists to enter an intersection on the yellow while prohibiting 

pedestrians from doing so during flashing DON’T WALK. 

• Tradeoff between motor traffic delays and pedestrian delays at actuated pedestrian crossings. 

• Integration of pedestrian recall and pedestrian actuation in way pedestrians will understand. 

Implementation Strategies 

Making signalized intersections consistent with stated policies won’t happen overnight; consider it as part 

of a long-term commitment to pedestrian safety. Whatever strategy is employed, use field observations to 

see how pedestrians react to signal timing and pushbuttons. Comparing a variety of configurations will 

help. It is possible for workable and consistent policies to be developed. 

1. Annual program. A comprehensive program should be established to evaluate and prioritize 

improvements. It should not be hard to locate those areas needing attention. In all likelihood, the 

public works department probably maintains a file filled with complaints from citizens. 

2. New signal or signal timing projects. Review the pedestrian signal timing plan for any 

intersections undergoing signal modification or adjustments. Keep aware of signal work, 

providing appropriate suggestions. This will help signal engineers become more sensitive to 

pedestrian needs. 

Resources and Scheduling 

The peculiarities of many intersections mean that a strictly policy-driven approach may not be possible. 

As a result, trained personnel will be needed to evaluate signal timing and actuation at many specific 

locations. Most of the work will be done by agency crews unless there is a large enough backlog to justify 

going out to bid. 

Evaluation 

Monitor intersections with modified signal timing and pushbuttons, and compare them with unaltered 

intersections. Crash reductions and/or fewer pedestrian complaints will be good indicators of whether the 

new policies are working. Develop an LOS for pedestrian pushbuttons and apply accordingly. 
196 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

Planning and Design Considerations 

Consider these features when providing signals that are responsive to pedestrians: 

• Signals must fulfill a need, gain attention, convey a clear and simple meaning, and command the 

respect of road users, as well as provide adequate time for response (see figure 11-13). 

Figure 11-13. Illustration. Pedestrian crossing signals 

should be clear and understandable by all users. 

• Average walking speed has been calculated at 1.2 m/s (4 ft/s); 1.1 m/s (3.5 ft/s) is becoming more 

common; 0.9 m/s (3 ft/s) should be used where there is a high frequency of older pedestrians; and 

people with mobility impairments move as slow as 0.8 m/s (2.5 ft/s). Some signal devices can 

provide additional time, if required, often by depressing the pushbutton for a specified period of 

time. 

• Many pedestrians stop watching for lights and instead look for gaps to cross streets when their 

delay exceeds 30 seconds. 

• Consider using leading pedestrian interval (LPI) to give pedestrians an advance walk signal 

before the motorists get a green light, thus giving the pedestrian several seconds to start into the 

crosswalk where there is a concurrent signal. 

• Place pedestrian signal heads at each end of the crosswalk. 

• Place the pushbutton at the top of and as near as possible to the curb ramp and clearly in line with 

the direction of travel. This will improve operations since many pedestrians push all buttons to 

ensure that they hit the correct one (see figure 11-14). Pedestrian pushbuttons are often provided 

at locations with intermittent pedestrian volumes to call for the walk message and/or extend the 

crossing interval. 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 197 

Figure 11-14. Photo. Example of pedestrian 

pushbutton location. 

• Use a pushbutton box that gives pedestrians a visible acknowledgment (indicator light comes on 

at pushbutton box) that their crossing request has been received. Where medians exist, place 

additional pushbuttons in medians. If signal head on opposite side of the street is more than 

18.3 m (60 ft) away, place additional pedestrian signal heads in medians. 

• Place pedestrian signals in channelized islands. 

• Visually impaired people need audio support at key signalized intersections. 

• Audio signals are available that use different sounds—from pleasant (cuckoo or tinkling bell 

sounds preferred) to obnoxious (avoid raspy sounding buzzers). 

• Potentially use a leading pedestrian interval that allows pedestrians a head start at getting into the 

crosswalk and makes them more visible to motorists. 

• For the WALK phase, allow time for pedestrians to look around and start walking. For 

coordinated signal systems, extend to full green time minus flashing. 

• For the DON’T WALK phase (pedestrian clearance interval), avoid shortening the WALK phase 

to improve the flow of right-turning vehicles. 

• The flashing DON’T WALK phase (pedestrian clearance interval) should be included in the full 

green time. This is calculated as part of the crossing time. Crossing time equals distance divided 

by 0.8 to 1.2 m/s (2.5 to 4.0 ft/s), depending on the customer base. 

• For the steady DON’T WALK phase, allow equal time for the yellow clearance and the all-red 

signal. Pedestrians should be out of the street. 
198 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

MUTCD has many suggestions regarding pushbutton placement and pedestrian signal timing. In many 

other areas of pedestrian activity, however, it leaves a great deal to engineering judgment. 

11.9 Pedestrian Refuge Islands 

Pedestrian refuge islands are defined as the areas within an intersection or between lanes of traffic where 

pedestrians may safely wait until vehicular traffic clears, allowing them to cross a street. Refuge islands 

are commonly found along wide, multilane streets where adequate pedestrian crossing time could not be 

provided without adversely affecting the traffic flow. These islands provide a resting area for pedestrians, 

particularly those who use wheelchairs, elderly, or otherwise unable to completely cross an intersection 

within the provided signal time. These refuge islands also provide a safety area for pedestrians caught in 

the street when a signal changes. 

When evaluating whether a refuge island is needed, both crossing time and safety must be considered. 

For example, in suburban areas with long distances between intersections and traffic signals, a large 

proportion of pedestrian crossings occur at unsignalized intersections and at midblock locations. 

However, with a median, a pedestrian would only have to look in one direction to cross to the median, 

and in the opposite direction to complete their crossing from the median to the far side of the street. 

Pedestrians crossing an undivided, multilane street may experience delays 10 times longer than the delay 

incurred crossing a street with a median as shown by the pedestrian crossing delay curves provided in the 

National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 294A.(9)

The effect of refuge islands and medians (see figure 11-15) on pedestrian safety is unclear. Studies have 

reported both increases and decreases in crashes after pedestrian islands have been installed. There is a 

substantial lack of definitive information on this subject. However, a 1978 study in Western Australia 

indicated that the rate of pedestrian crashes at a four-lane unsignalized intersection was reduced to 

11.5 percent of its original level when raised median islands were installed.(10)

Figure 11-15. Photo. Streets with raised medians 

usually have lower pedestrian crash rates. 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 199 

Refuge islands can be beneficial under certain conditions and inconsequential or even harmful under 

others. The typical conditions where refuge islands are most beneficial include: 

• Wide, two-way streets (four lanes or more) with high traffic volumes, high travel speeds, and 

large pedestrian volumes. 

• Wide streets where the elderly, people with disabilities, and children cross regularly. 

• Streets with insufficient green signal phasing time for safe pedestrian crossings. 

• Wide, two-way intersections with high traffic volumes and significant numbers of crossing 

pedestrians. 

• Low-volume side-street traffic demands with insufficient green time to cross—low side-street 

volumes in combination with high main street volumes may warrant short green times for the side 

street, which, in turn, does not allow enough time for the pedestrian to cross the entire street. 

The typical conditions where refuge islands are least beneficial or possibly harmful include: 

• Narrow streets and/or streets where substandard-width refuge islands are used. 

• Instances in which a high turning volume of large trucks exist. 

• Where space is needed more for sidewalks. 

• Conditions under which the roadway alignment obscures the island, thereby making it likely that 

vehicles will drive onto the island. 

• Areas where the presence of a safety island will severely hamper snowplowing. 

In areas where refuge islands are beneficial, the advantages to pedestrians are many, including: 

• Reducing pedestrian crossing time by splitting crossing distances (i.e., providing staged crossing 

of pedestrians), thereby reducing the green time required for the pedestrian crossing phase. 

• Providing pedestrians with a resting place when crossing wide roads or intersections (see 

figure 11-16). 

• Providing a pedestrian storage area. 

• Increasing the capacity of the intersection with a near-side island that provides a better location 

for the stop bar. 

• Loading and unloading transit riders (although curbside locations provide a better alternative). 

• Providing a location for traffic control (shorter mast arms) and utility pole installations. 
200 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

Figure 11-16. Photo. Refuge islands provide pedestrians with 

a resting place when crossing roads or intersections. 

The disadvantages of pedestrian refuge islands include: 

• A false sense of security or safety to pedestrians. 

• Street sweeping or snowplowing problems. 

• Damage to vehicles if struck. 

• High installation costs. 

• Generally greater right-of-way requirements. 

Recommended Practice 

Pedestrian refuge islands may be installed at intersections or midblock locations as deemed appropriate by 

engineering studies. Refuge islands should be considered during the design of complex intersections or 

streets rather than after construction has been completed. They must be visible to motorists at all times 

and should be delineated by curbs, guideposts, signs, or other treatments. Refuge islands should be 

designed to minimize the potential hazard to motorists and pedestrians alike. 

Island Design Features 

Pedestrian refuge islands should be designed in accordance with AASHTO policy and MUTCD 

requirements. Design considerations include: 

• Areas at traffic signals where the total length of crosswalk cannot be readily traveled in one 

pedestrian phase. Special consideration should be given to intersections where a large number of 

elderly pedestrians and/or people with disabilities will be present. Special consideration should 

also be given to complex or irregularly shaped intersections where islands could provide a 

pedestrian with the opportunity to rest and become oriented to the flow of oncoming traffic. 

• Raised curbs with cut-through ramps at pavement level or curb ramps for wheelchair users. 

Cut-through ramps should be graded to drain quickly and should also have detectable warning 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 201 

(truncated domes, colored pavement, etc.) to identify the refuge island. Islands with ramps should 

have a level area at least 1.8 m (6 ft) long at the same level as the top of the raised median to 

provide a level area for wheelchair users. 

• Areas at least 1.8 m (6 ft) wide from the face of the curb to the face of the curb. The minimum 

width should not be less than 1.2 m (4 ft) wide from the face of the curb to the face of the curb. 

The island should not be less than 3.6 m (12 ft) long or the width of the crosswalk, whichever is 

greater. The minimum island size should be 4.6 m2

 (50 ft2). 

• An approach nose, offset from the edge of the traffic lane, appropriately treated to provide 

motorists with sufficient warning of the island’s presence. This can be achieved in various ways 

such as illumination, reflectorization, marking, signage, and/or size. 

• Pedestrian pushbuttons and signage adjacent to crosswalks, one for each crossing, with a 

minimum separation of 3 m (10 ft). 

• Detectable warnings for the visually impaired. 

• Placement on wide (four lanes or more) streets with high traffic volumes. 

• No obstruction to visibility by such features as foliage, barriers, or benches. 

• Barriers that may be necessary to keep pedestrians from stepping into traffic at improper 

locations. 

11.10 Roundabouts 

According to the Pedestrian Facilities Users Guide:

(11)

A modern roundabout is built with a large, often circular, raised island located at the 

intersection of an arterial street with one or more crossing roadways and may take the 

place of a traffic signal. Traffic maneuvers around the circle in a counterclockwise 

direction, and then turns onto the desired street. All traffic yields to motorists in the 

roundabout and left-turn movements are eliminated. Unlike a typical intersection, 

vehicles generally flow and merge through the roundabout from each approaching street 

without having to stop. 

Roundabouts need to accommodate pedestrians and bicyclists. It is important that 

automobile traffic yields to pedestrians crossing the roundabout. Splitter islands at the 

approaches slow vehicles and allow pedestrians to cross one traffic lane at a time. 

Single-lane approaches can be designed to keep speeds down to safer levels and allow 

pedestrians to cross. Multilane approaches have higher speeds, create multiple threats for 

pedestrians, and are not recommended. 

Typical Concerns 

Roundabouts represent a tradeoff for pedestrians (see table 11-2). Roundabouts generally improve safety 

for pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorists.(12) A well-designed roundabout can improve pedestrian safety 

by: 

• Lowering vehicular speeds. This allows more time for drivers to react to potential conflicts and 

reduces the pedestrian’s risk of death if hit by a motor vehicle. 
202 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

• Reducing conflict points. This eliminates the potential for hazardous conflicts, in contrast to an 

intersection (see figures 11-17 and 11-18). Conflicting vehicles come from a more defined path at 

roundabouts, and thus pedestrians have fewer places to check for conflicting vehicles. 

Compared to two-way stop-controlled intersections, roundabouts may make it easier and safer for most 

pedestrians to cross the major street.(13) At both roundabouts and two-way stop-controlled intersections, 

pedestrians have to judge gaps in the major (uncontrolled) stream of traffic. By reducing stopping 

distance, the low vehicular speeds through a roundabout generally reduce the frequency and severity of 

incidents involving pedestrians. In addition, when crossing an exit lane on the minor road, one’s sight 

angle is smaller than when watching for left-turning vehicles at a conventional intersection.(13)

Table 11-2. Roundabout trade-off issues for pedestrians.

Benefits Problems 

Shorter crossing distances—There are 

generally fewer lanes to cross in a roundabout, 

and many crossings are broken by pedestrian 

refuge islands. 

Out-of-direction travel—Roundabouts may be inconvenient 

for pedestrians because the crosswalks are set back farther from 

the intersection and the distance pedestrians have to travel is 

longer. 

Decreased waiting time—Pedestrians do not 

need to wait for a long traffic signal cycle 

before they can cross the roadway. 

Visually impaired pedestrians—Visually impaired pedestrians 

who use audible cues from the traffic movements in order to 

judge when it is safe to cross find fewer cues to negotiate a 

roundabout. 

Figure 11-17. Illustration. Intersections have 

16 vehicle/pedestrian conflict points. 

Source: Roundabouts: An Informational Guide(13)
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 203 

Figure 11-18. Illustration. Roundabouts have eight 

vehicle/pedestrian conflict points. 

Source: Roundabouts: An Informational Guide(13)

Visually Impaired Pedestrians

The Informational Guide states that: 

All-way stop-controlled intersections may be preferred by pedestrians with visual 

impairment because vehicles are required to stop before they enter the intersection. 

However, crossing the exit leg of an all-way stop-controlled intersection can be 

intimidating for a pedestrian since traffic may be turning onto the exit from multiple 

directions. Roundabouts, on the other hand, allow pedestrians to cross one direction of 

traffic at a time; however, traffic may be moving (even if at a slow speed), thus making it 

more challenging to judge gaps, especially for visually impaired users, children, and the 

elderly. 

Elderly pedestrians, children, and pedestrians who have vision loss find it more difficult 

to cross unprotected road crossings. These pedestrians generally prefer larger gaps in the 

traffic stream, and walk at slower speeds or start later than other pedestrians. Multilane 

roadways entering and exiting double-lane roundabouts require additional cues to cross, 

since pedestrians need assurance that they have been seen by drivers in each lane they are 

crossing. 

When crossing a roundabout, there are several areas of difficulty for the blind and/or 

visually impaired pedestrian. It is expected that a visually impaired pedestrian with good 

travel skills must be able to arrive at an unfamiliar intersection and cross it with 

pre-existing skills and without special, intersection-specific training. Roundabouts pose 

problems at several points of the crossing experience, from the perspective of information 

access. 
204 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

Unless these issues are addressed by a design, the intersection is “inaccessible” and may 

not be permissible under the ADA. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 [of the Informational Guide] 

provide specific suggestions to assist in providing the above information. However, more 

research is required to develop the information jurisdictions need to determine where 

roundabouts may be appropriate and what design features may be appropriate for the 

disabled, such as audible signalized crossings. Until specific standards are adopted, 

engineers and jurisdictions must rely on existing related research and professional 

judgment to design pedestrian features so that they are usable by pedestrians with 

disabilities.(13)

Vision impaired pedestrians may have difficulty navigating and identifying appropriate gaps at 

roundabout crossings because circulating traffic masks the sounds needed to identify a gap in the 

traffic to make a safe crossing. 

Crosswalks

Crosswalks at roundabouts can be a tricky design issue. Unlike an intersection, by vehicle code 

definitions there cannot be a legal unmarked crosswalk at a roundabout. A legal crosswalk at a 

roundabout must be marked.(11) However, many State guidelines recommend not painting pedestrian 

crossing lines across the entrances and exits of roundabouts because they could give pedestrians a false 

sense of security when crossing the roadway. Instead, they recommend encouraging pedestrians to 

identify gaps in traffic and cross when acceptable gaps are available. 

According to the report, Modern Roundabouts for Oregon: 

Priority crossing should be considered only where: 

• Pedestrian volumes are high. 

• There is a high proportion of young, elderly, or infirm citizens wanting to cross the 

road. 

• Pedestrians are experiencing particular difficulty in crossing and being delayed 

excessively. 

Most guidelines recommend the location of a crosswalk at 1 to 2 car lengths from the 

yield line [or] 6.1 to 10 m (20 to 33 ft). This will reduce decisionmaking problems for 

drivers and avoid [a] backup queue of vehicles waiting to exit roundabouts. 

The ideal solution would be to have all pedestrians follow the path created for them and 

to have all motorists yield to them. But in moving pedestrians too far from the 

roundabout, pedestrians will not tolerate the out-of-direction travel created. If the 

crosswalks are too close to the yield line, motorists will stop on it. Therefore, the best 

solution is to place the crosswalk behind a stopped car, about 4.0 to 5.0 m (13 to 16.5 ft) 

from the entry point. This is not an ideal solution, as one cannot force pedestrians to 

make even this slight a detour, and when a bus or truck is stopped, it will cover the 

crosswalk. 

This position does have the advantage of allowing a pedestrian to cross behind a stopped 

car waiting to enter. The driver who stops to let a pedestrian cross at an exit lane does so 

outside of the roundabout, in an area perceived as more comfortable than in the 

circulating roadway.(12)
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 205 

The Informational Guide provides the following recommendations for pedestrian crosswalks at 

roundabouts:

• Pedestrian crossings are set back from the yield line by one or more vehicle lengths to: 

o Shorten the crossing distance compared to locations adjacent to the inscribed circle. 

o Separate vehicle-vehicle and vehicle-pedestrian conflict points. 

o Allow the second entering driver to devote full attention to crossing pedestrians while waiting 

for the driver ahead to enter the circulatory roadway. 

• If sidewalks on the intersecting roads are adjacent to the curbs, this setback may require the 

sidewalks to deviate from a straight path. This is not the case if sidewalks are separated from the 

curbs by a generous landscape buffer.(11)

Possible Solutions 

Splitter Islands

Typically, modern roundabout design includes splitter islands (also called median islands) on each 

approach to the roundabout that serve as pedestrian refuges. By having space to pause on the splitter 

island, pedestrians can consider one direction of conflicting traffic at a time, which simplifies the task of 

crossing the street.(13)

There should be a cut-through in the splitter island with a minimum width of 2.0 m (6.6 ft).(12) If this can’t 

be accomplished, a raised island as narrow as 0.8 m (2.5 ft) is still preferred over a painted line alone. 

Planning and Design Considerations 

Some other design considerations for roundabouts include: 

• Determine that street widths and/or available right-of-way are sufficient at the location to 

accommodate a properly designed roundabout. 

• Reduce vehicle approach speed (to 24.1 to 29.0 km/h (15 to18 mi/h)) by providing adequate 

deflection on each approach. 

• Design splitter islands as large as the site allows. 

• Prohibit parking on the approaches of the roundabouts to provide clear visibility. 

• Provide street lighting to illuminate not only the circulating roadway but also the approaches. 

• Locate signs and plants so as not to obscure pedestrians. 

• Understand that roundabouts are generally not appropriate for multilane road intersections. 

• Plan roundabouts for locations with high percentages of left-turning traffic. 

• Discourage pedestrians from crossing to the central island by using landscape buffers, etc., on the 

corners.(11,12,13)

Additional research is needed to determine the best way for visually impaired pedestrians to safely cross 

roundabouts. To this end, NCHRP has funded a significant research effort (Project 3-78) to develop 

crossing solutions at roundabouts and channelized turn lanes for pedestrians with vision disabilities. 

NCHRP Project 3-78 was scheduled to begin in late 2004. 
206 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

11.11 Student Exercise 

1. Look at research on roundabouts and the visually impaired and develop geometric designs or other 

approaches that will make roundabouts more user friendly for pedestrians who are visually impaired 

and don’t employ visual cues to identify gaps in the traffic stream. 

2. The need to develop and detail pedestrian intersection improvements in a manner that can be 

constructed within the normal field of highway construction is an extremely important issue. 

Pedestrian accommodations at intersections include both traffic signal and pavement marking 

improvements. An exercise covering pavement marking issues was previously addressed in exercise 

10.10. With regard to signalization at intersections, pedestrian improvements typically include 

pedestrian signals, pedestrian pushbuttons, conduit/wiring, mounting brackets, and pedestrian poles. 

Traffic signal improvements are specified through a detailed system of standard drawings, 

specifications, and bid item numbers. An example plan view drawing demonstrating this method for 

specifying traffic signal improvements using Georgia Department of Transportation (GDOT) 

standards is provided for reference in figure 11-19. 

1 in=2.54 cm. 1 ft=0.3 m 

Figure 11-19. Illustration. Example traffic signal plan, 

Superior Parkway construction plans, Lawrenceville, GA. 
Pedestrian Design at Intersections 207 

Develop a plan to install pedestrian signals and related improvements for an intersection in your 

community. The plan should be developed using nomenclature and reference standards from your State 

DOT. A list of standard drawings for pedestrian facility construction from California Department of 

Transportation (Caltrans) was previously provided in exercise 10.10. If possible, you should obtain an 

intersection drawing from your local traffic engineering department. This drawing typically shows the 

location of existing roadway features, travel lanes, signal equipment, and utilities. In addition to preparing 

a plan of proposed improvements, develop an estimate of quantities needed for each construction item and 

prepare an engineer’s construction cost estimate. You will need to utilize the following resources: 

• Plan view drawing of local intersection. 

• Standard drawings (periodically published document). 

• Standard specifications (periodically published document). 

• Bid item numbers (typically a published list). 

• Statewide average bid summary (typically assembled several times a year). 

11.12 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. MUTCD, FHWA, Washington, DC, 2003, available online at http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov, accessed 

April 22, 2004. 

2. Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, 

DC, July 2004. 

3. Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities—A Recommended Practice of the ITE, ITE, 

Washington, DC, 1998, available online at 

http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/designsafety.pdf. 

4. Implementing Pedestrian Improvements at the Local Level, FHWA, Publication No. 

FHWA-98-138, Washington, DC, 1998, available online at 

http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/localpedguide.pdf. 

5. Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan: An Element of the Oregon Transportation Plan, Oregon 

Department of Transportation, 1995. 

6. Vermont Statutes Online, http://www.leg.state.vt.us/statutes/statutes2.htm, accessed August 12, 

2005. 

7. KINNEY v. YERUSALEM, No. 93-1168, available online at 

http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/foia/pa2.txt, accessed August 12, 2005. 

8. Lalani, N., “Alternative Treatments for At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings,” Informational Report, 

Pedestrian and Bicycle Task Force, ITE, Washington, DC, 2001. 

9. Planning and Implementing Pedestrian Facilities in Suburban and Developing Rural Areas, 

NCHRP Report 294A, NCHRP, TRB, Washington, DC, June 1987. 

10. “A Comparison of the Pedestrian Safety of Median Islands and Marked Crossings,” Western 

Roads, Western Australia, August 1978. 
208 Pedestrian Design at Intersections 

11. Zegeer, C.V., C. Seiderman, P. Lagerwey, M. Cynecki, M. Ronkin, and R. Schneider, Pedestrian 

Facilities Users Guide—Providing Safety and Mobility, Publication No. FHWA-RD-01-102, 

FHWA, McLean, VA, March 2002. 

12. Taekratok, T., Modern Roundabouts for Oregon, Publication No. OR-RD-98-17, Oregon 

Department of Transportation, Salem, OR, June 1998, available online at 

http://www.odot.state.or.us/techserv/engineer/pdu/Modern%2520Roundabouts.pdf, accessed 

March 23, 2004. 

13. Robinson, B.W., L. Rodegerdts, W. Scarborough, W. Kittleson, et al., Roundabouts: An 

Informational Guide, Publication No. FHWA-RD-00-067, FHWA, McLean, VA, June 2002, 

available online at http://www.tfhrc.gov/safety/00068.htm, accessed March 24, 2004. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Pedestrian Access to Modern Roundabouts: Design and Operational Issues for Pedestrians who 

are Blind, August 2003, available online at http://www.access-board.gov/research&training/ 

roundabouts/bulletin.htm. 
Midblock Crossings 209 

LESSON 12: 

MIDBLOCK CROSSINGS 

12.1 Introduction 

Designers often assume that pedestrians will cross roadways at established intersections. However, 

observation of pedestrian behavior clearly indicates that people routinely cross at midblock locations. 

Pedestrians will rarely go out of their way to cross at an intersection unless they are rewarded with a 

much improved crossing—most will take the most direct route possible to get to their destination, even if 

this means crossing several lanes of high-speed traffic. 

Well-designed midblock crossings can actually provide many safety benefits to pedestrians when placed 

in proper locations. This chapter discusses those benefits and explains several basic design principles for 

midblock crossings. The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 12.1 Introduction. 

• 12.2 Background. 

• 12.3 Medians and Refuge Islands—Powerful Safety Tools. 

• 12.4 Advantages of Medians. 

• 12.5 Design Considerations for Medians. 

• 12.6 Midblock Crossings by Roadway Classification. 

• 12.7 Midblock Crossing Design. 

• 12.8 Staggered Midblock Crosswalks. 

• 12.9 Midblock Crossing and Detection Technology. 

• 12.10 Midblock Signals. 

• 12.11 Grade-Separated Crossings. 

• 12.12 Student Exercise. 

• 12.13 References and Additional Resources. 

12.2 Background 

For most of this century—since pedestrians and motorists began competing for space—safety campaigns 

have directed pedestrians to walk to intersections to cross roadways. This is helpful advice, especially in 

downtown locations where signalization is frequent, where cycle lengths are short, where blocks are 

short, and where intersections are small and compact. But with the advent of the modern suburb, blocks 

are much longer, signalization is less frequent, some intersections are very wide, and vehicle speeds are 

much higher than in downtown areas. Under these conditions, crossing at intersections becomes less 

practical and often more dangerous. 

Today’s designer is challenged to find workable crossing points to move pedestrians across high-speed 

roadways. When convenient and manageable crossing points are not identified, most pedestrians cross at 

random, unpredictable locations. In making random crossings, they create confusion and add risk to 

themselves and drivers. 
210 Midblock Crossings 

This chapter addresses several ways to facilitate nonintersection crossings: medians and refuge islands, 

midblock crossings, and grade-separated crossings. By placing medians along multilane roadways, the 

designer helps channel pedestrians to the best locations: where gaps are more frequent; where lighting is 

improved; and where motorists have the best chance to search, detect, recognize, and respond to the 

presence of pedestrians (see figure 12-1). Where there are medians, the pedestrian still may cross at 

random locations, but because of the increased frequency of acceptable gaps and greatly reduced 

conflicts, the pedestrian is more likely to find a longer gap and then walk (not rush) across the roadway. 

Midblock crossings are an essential design tool. All designers must learn the best placement, geometrics, 

and operations of midblock crossings. 

 

Figure 12-1. Photo. Midblock crossings are easily located on low-volume, 

low-speed roadways such as short collectors through neighborhoods. 

12.3 Medians and Refuge Islands—Powerful Safety Tools 

A median or refuge island is a raised longitudinal space separating the two main directions of traffic. 

Median islands, by definition, run one or many blocks. Refuge islands are much shorter than medians, 

with a length of 30.5–76.2 m (100–250 ft). Medians and refuge islands can be designed to block 

side-street or driveway crossings of the main road, as well as block left-turning movements. Because 

medians reduce turning movements, they can increase the flow rate (capacity) and safety of a roadway. 

Medians have become an essential tool in minimizing the friction of turning and slowing vehicles. 

Medians maximize the safety of the motorist and pedestrian. Medians have been extensively studied by 

the Georgia and Florida DOTs. Based on more than 1609.3 centerline km (1,000 centerline mi) of 

conversion from two-way left-turn lanes (TWLTLs) to raised medians, motorist crashes were reduced 

dramatically. Florida DOT (FDOT) research has shown that pedestrians are at high risk while standing in 

TWLTLs.(1)

Midblock crossings can be kept simple and are easily located on low-volume, low-speed [40.2–48.3 km/h 

(25–30 mi/h)] roadways such as short collectors through neighborhoods. When collectors are longer and 

handle more traffic and higher speeds, medians or refuge islands are helpful and sometimes essential (see 

figure 12-2). On multilane minor and major arterials, refuge islands or raised medians are essential. 

However, when used, crosswalks must be placed with great care in these locations, especially once travel 

speeds exceed 64.4 km/h (40 mi/h). 
Midblock Crossings 211 

Figure 12-2. Photo. Refuge islands and visible crosswalks 

are essential on major arterials with higher traffic speeds. 

12.4 Advantages of Medians 

Medians separate conflicts in time and place. The pedestrian faced with one or more lanes of traffic in 

each direction must determine a safe gap in two, four, or even six lanes at a time. This is a complex task 

requiring accurate decisions. Younger and older pedestrians have reduced gap acceptance skills compared 

with pedestrians in other age groups. Pedestrians also typically have poor gap assessment skills at night. 

Many may predict that a car is 61.0 m (200 ft) off when, in fact, it is only 30.5 m (100 ft) away, far too 

close to attempt a crossing. 

Medians Allow More Frequent Gaps 

Not only do medians separate conflicts, but they also create the potential for acceptable gaps. On a 

standard-width, four-lane roadway with a center left-turn lane [19.5 m (64 ft) wide, with five 3.7-m 

(12-ft) lanes plus two 61.0-cm (24-in) gutter pans], it takes an average pedestrian traveling 1.2 m/s (4 ft/s) 

nearly 16 seconds to cross. Finding a safe 16-second gap in four moving lanes of traffic may be difficult 

or impossible. In any event, an attempt to cross may require a wait of 3–5 minutes. Faced with such a 

substantial delay, many pedestrians select a less adequate gap, run across the roadway, or stand in the 

center left-turn lane in hope of an additional gap. If a raised median is placed in the center, the pedestrian 

now crosses 7.9 m (26 ft) instead. This requires two 8-second gaps (see figures 12-3 and 12-4). These 

shorter gaps come more frequently. Based on traffic volume and the platooning effects from downstream 

signalization, the pedestrian may be able to find an acceptable gap in a minute or less. 
212 Midblock Crossings 

Figure 12-3. Photo. A midblock crossing without median refuge requires 

the pedestrian to look for gaps in both directions at once. 

Figure 12-4. Photo. A midblock crossing with a median refuge allows 

the pedestrian to look for gaps in only one direction at a time. 

Medians Are Less Expensive To Build 

The reduced construction cost of a median versus a center left-turn lane comes as a surprise to many 

designers. Grass medians allow natural percolation of water, thus reducing drainage and water treatment 

costs. Medians do not require a base or asphalt. Curbing is essential in urban sections where medians are 

typically raised above the level of the street. In general, however, medians average a 5- to 10-percent 

reduction in materials and labor costs compared to a center left-turn lane. 

Medians Are Less Expensive To Maintain 

While there is only a slight savings in cost to build a raised median versus a center left-turn lane, there is a 

substantial savings in maintenance. An FDOT study compared 6.4 km (4 mi) of median versus center 

left-turn lane maintenance costs and found that medians save an average of 40 percent on maintenance 

costs based on a 20-year roadway life. More frequent resurfacing, such as every 7 to 9 years, would show 

much greater savings. This, too, surprises many designers. During the full life of the roadway asphalt, a 

raised median saves costs associated with sweeping accumulated debris, repainting lines, replacing raised 

pavement markers, and resurfacing lanes. 
Midblock Crossings 213 

12.5 Design Considerations for Medians 

Ideally, a median should be at least 2.4 m (8 ft) wide to allow the pedestrian to wait comfortably in the 

center, 1.2 m (4 ft) from moving traffic. A wider median is necessary if it must also serve the purpose of 

providing a left-turn bay for motor vehicle traffic at intersections. If the desired 2.4 m (8 ft) cannot be 

achieved, a width of 1.8 m (6 ft), or 1.2 m (4 ft) will be sufficient. To find the needed width, especially in 

a downtown or other commercial environment, consider narrowing travel lanes to an appropriate width. In 

most locations, this reduction in travel lanes can only be made to 3.4 m (11 ft), but in many other 

locations, where speeds are in the 32.2–48.3-km/h (20–30-mi/h) range, the reduction to 3.0 m (10 ft) or 

even 2.7 m (9 ft) is possible, and may even be desirable. 

Medians typically have an open, flat cut and do not ramp up and down due to the short width. If the island 

is sufficiently large, then ramps approved by the ADA (1:12 grade) can be used. It is best to provide a 

slight grade (2 percent or less) to permit water and silt to drain from the area. Median cuts work best at 

midblock crossings. 

12.6 Midblock Crossings by Roadway Classification 

Midblock crossings are located and placed according to a number of factors, including roadway width, 

traffic volume, traffic speed and type, desired lines for pedestrian movement (see figure 12-5), and 

adjacent land use. Guidance for median placement on various types of roadways appears below. 

Figure 12-5. Photo. Landscaping a median can block midblock access 

and divert pedestrians to adjacent intersections. 

Local Roads 

Due to their low traffic speed and volume, local roadways rarely have median treatments. Some 

exceptions may apply, especially around schools and hospitals, where traffic calming is desired, and in 

other unique locations. 
214 Midblock Crossings 

Collector Roads 

Two-lane collector roads occasionally have medians or refuge islands to channel pedestrians to preferred 

crossing locations. Used in a series, these refuge islands have a strong visual presence and act as 

significant devices to slow motorist travel through the corridor. A 16.1-km/h (10-mi/h) speed reduction 

(from to 64.4 to 48.3 km/h (40 mi/h to 30 mi/h)) has been achieved. Pedestrians crossing at these 

midblock refuge islands with marked crosswalks (who also make their intent to cross known) achieve a 

nearly 100-percent favorable response from motorists. 

When collector roads are widened to four lanes (not recommended), raised medians may be essential. A 

boulevard-style street with tree canopies is recommended. This canopy effect helps reduce travel speeds. 

Multilane Arterial Highways with Four Lanes 

Suburban crossings of four-lane roadways are greatly improved when medians and midblock crossings 

are used. On lower-volume roadways, it is best not to use signalization. 

Signalization may be helpful or even essential under the following conditions: 

• On higher volume roadways. 

• Where gaps are infrequent. 

• In school zones. 

• Where elderly or disabled pedestrians cross. 

• Where speeds are high. 

• When a number of other factors are present. 

Multilane Arterial Highways with Six or More Lanes 

On multilane arterials with six or more lanes, merging is occurring, lane changing increases, and there is a 

greater tendency for motorists to speed and slow. This creates highly complex conditions that must be 

interpreted by the pedestrian. 

At midblock locations, where vehicle speeds are high, signalization may be the only practical means of 

helping pedestrians to cross unless as part of a signal coordination scheme. At high speeds and with 

infrequent signal calls, high numbers of rear-end crashes can be anticipated. It is best not to allow urban 

area roadways to achieve high corridor speeds. This is especially true in areas where land use supports 

higher densities. The higher the speed, the greater the engineering challenge to cross pedestrians safely. 

If a pedestrian crossing is needed in such a location, the designer must increase the devices used to alert 

the motorist. The standard pedestrian crossing and advanced crossing symbols with signs measuring 91 

by 66 cm (36 by 26 in) are an absolute minimum for speeds of 64.4 km/h (40 mi/h) or greater. Pavement 

word symbols can be used as further enhancements. An enhanced crosswalk marking such as a zebra- or 

ladder-style crossing should be considered. Large overhead signs, flashing beacons, bulb-outs (see figure 

12-6), and even flashing overhead signs have been successfully used in some locations. 
Midblock Crossings 215 

Figure 12-6. Illustration. Midblock crossing curb extensions provide 

better visibility for motorists and pedestrians. 

12.7 Midblock Crossing Design 

The design of midblock crossings makes use of warrants similar to those used for standard intersections. 

Stopping sight distances, effects of grade, cross slope, the need for lighting, and other factors all apply. 

The design considerations for medians are covered earlier in this lesson. However, there are a number of 

added guidelines that must be followed. 

Connect Desire Lines 

All other factors considered, pedestrians and bicyclists have a strong desire to continue their intended path 

of travel. Look for natural or existing patterns. Use of a high-angle, time-lapse video camera to map 

pedestrian crossings quickly paints this location, if it is not already well known. 

Lighting 

Motorists need to see both the pedestrians who stand waiting to cross and those who are already crossing. 

Either direct or back lighting is effective. Some overhead signs such as in Portland, OR, and Seattle, WA, 

use overhead lights that identify the pedestrian crossing and also shine down on the actual crosswalk. 

Grade-separated crossings at midblock or intersection locations are effective in a few isolated 

circumstances (see section 12.11 for a further discussion of grade-separated crossings). However, because 
216 Midblock Crossings 

of their cost and their potentially low use, engineering studies should be conducted by experienced 

designers. If given a choice, on most roadways, pedestrians generally prefer to cross at grade. 

12.8 Staggered Midblock Crosswalks 

Staggered crosswalks (or Z-crossings) are treatments in which the crosswalk is split by a median and is 

offset on either side of the median. This configuration forces pedestrians to turn in the median and face 

oncoming traffic before turning again to cross the second half of the crosswalk. Notice in figure 12-7 

how, in either walking direction, the pedestrian must turn slightly toward traffic before crossing. In order 

to curtail shortcutting and force pedestrians to follow the intended path, some medians may also have 

attractive fencing to corral pedestrians in the correct direction (see figure 12-8). One problem with 

staggered crosswalks is that they may present a challenge for visually impaired pedestrians who are 

thrown off course by changes in the direction of the walkway leading to the road. A solution is to provide 

detectable warnings and/or railings to help realign the pedestrian perpendicularly to the roadway just 

before the crossing. 

Figure 12-7. Illustration. Diagram of a staggered crossing configuration. 

Source: Southeast Neighborhood Traffic Management Plan(2)
Midblock Crossings 217 

Figure 12-8. Photo. Staggered crosswalk with fencing. 

Source: PBIC 

Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(3)

12.9 Midblock Crossing and Detection Technology 

Midblock crossings can be enhanced and made safer by the installation of some of the same crossing and 

detection technology found at intersections and other walkway locations. Refer to these previous sections 

for a discussion of these technologies: 

• Pavement markings and signing (lessons 10.4–10.8). 

• In-pavement flashers (lesson 10.9, “ITS Technology”). 

• Automated detection devices (lesson 10.9, “ITS Technology”). 

• Street lighting (lesson 9.5, “Ambience, Shade, and Other Sidewalk Enhancements”). 

• Pavement surfaces and detectable warning (lesson 9.3, “Basic Sidewalk Elements”). 

• Other crossing technologies (lesson 11.5, “Crossing and Detection Technology”). 

12.10 Midblock Signals 

The placement of midblock signals is called for in some locations. The warrants provided in the MUTCD 

should be followed. But even more caution must be provided for signalized midblock locations. 

Pedestrians feel frustrated if a signal is holding them back from crossing when there is an ample gap. 

Many will choose to cross away from the crossing, while others will dutifully push the activator button, 

not get an immediate response, and cross when there is a sufficient gap. A few seconds later, the 

approaching motorists must stop at a red signal for no reason, which can encourage motorist disrespect 

for the signal in the future. 

Thus, the best signal setup for a midblock crossing is a hot (nearly immediate) response. As soon as the 

pedestrian call actuator button is pushed, the clearance interval should be activated. This minimal wait 
218 Midblock Crossings 

time is a strong inducement for pedestrians to walk out of their way to use the crossing. Hot responses can 

often be used if the nearby signals are not on progression, or else a hot response may be permitted in 

off-peak hours. Midblock signals should be part of a coordinated system to reduce the likelihood of 

rear-end crashes and double cycles (i.e., two pedestrian cycles per one vehicle cycle at intersections to 

reduce pedestrian delay). 

If a midblock signal system is used, it is important to place pedestrian pushbuttons in the median. There 

will be times when some pedestrians start too late or when older pedestrians lack time to cross, even at 

0.9 m/s (3 ft/s). In these rare instances, the pedestrian needs to reactivate the signal. 

12.11 Grade-Separated Crossings 

According to the North Carolina DOT (NCDOT) Bicycle Facilities Guide, a grade-separated crossing 

“provides continuity of a bicycle/pedestrian facility over or under a barrier.”(4) 

A grade-separated crossing such as a bridge/overpass or a culvert/underpass should be considered when 

a pedestrian facility meets a barrier like an active multitrack railroad, stream, or freeway (see figure 12-9). 

Figure 12-9. Photo. An underpass continues this shared-use bicycle path 

beneath a four-lane highway with high traffic volume. 

Source: Bicycle Facilities Guide: Types of Bicycle Accommodations(4)

Some principal planning concerns with grade-separated crossings are: 

• This type of facility can be expensive and difficult to implement. For these reasons, advance 

planning, identification of a source of funds, and a compelling purpose and need are primary 

factors in obtaining approval for construction of bicycle/pedestrian bridges or underpasses. 
Midblock Crossings 219 

• Bicycle/pedestrian grade separations to be included in State highway construction projects should 

already be identified in locally adopted bicycle or greenway master plans by the time a proposed 

highway improvement is in the early stages of development. 

• Many bicyclists and pedestrians will not use an overpass that is inconvenient. Instead, pedestrians 

may choose a time-saving and sometimes more hazardous crossing. Fencing or other controls 

may be required to reinforce the safe crossing point. 

• Grade crossings must be accessible; ramps, handrails, landings, etc., must be provided so the 

facility is accessible to all. 

For a grade-separated crossing to be warranted, some of the following circumstances should be present: 

• High pedestrian volumes at the location and a high demand to cross. 

• A large number of young children who must regularly cross (particularly at locations near 

schools). 

• High volumes of motor vehicles traveling at high speeds along the roadway. 

• No convenient alternative crossing places nearby. 

• Funding and a specific need for the overpass/underpass. 

• An extreme hazard for pedestrians. 

Section 7F.02 of the MUTCD states that “experience has shown that overpasses are more satisfactory 

than underpasses for pedestrian crossings, as overpasses are easier to maintain and supervise.”(5) When 

deciding on the use of an overpass or underpass, be aware of the need to provide artificial lighting to 

reduce potential crime. Also, pay attention to the existing topography of the proposed site to “minimize 

changes in elevation for users of overpasses and underpasses and to help insure construction costs are not 

excessive.”(6)

12.12 Student Exercise 

Choose an urban site that would be a good candidate for a midblock crossing with a pedestrian refuge 

island. Document the reasons that people often cross at this site (or would cross, given the opportunity). 

Photograph the site and prepare a sketch design solution. 

12.13 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Florida Pedestrian Planning and Design Guidelines, Florida Department of Transportation, 

Tallahassee, FL, 1996, available online at http://www.dot.state.fl.us/Safety/ped_bike/ 

handbooks_and_research/PEDHBTOC.PDF. 

2. “Chapter 5: Neighborhood Street Design Guidelines,” Southeast Neighborhood Traffic 

Management Plan (NTMP), City of Vancouver, WA, 2003, available online at 

http://www.ci.vancouver.wa.us/transportation/ntmp/NTMTools/ 

TOOL%2012%20-%20Mid-Block%20Crossing%20for%20Arterial%20Streets.pdf, accessed 

May 18, 2004. 

3. Image Library, PBIC, available online at http://www.pedbikeimages.org, accessed May 6, 2004. 
220 Midblock Crossings 

4. Bicycle Facilities Guide: Types of Bicycle Accommodations, North Carolina Department of 

Transportation, Raleigh, NC, June 2003, available online at 

http://www.ncdot.org/transit/bicycle/projects/project_types/Grade_Separated_Crossing.pdf, 

accessed April 21, 2004. 

5. MUTCD, FHWA, Washington, DC, 2003, available online at http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov, accessed 

April 22, 2004. 

6. “Grade Separation Worksheet,” Kane County Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan: Appendix J, Kane 

County Division of Transportation, Geneva, IL, January 2003, available online at 

http://www.co.kane.il.us/DOT/COM/Bicycle/outline.asp, accessed April 21, 2004. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Design and Safety of Pedestrian Facilities—A Recommended Practice of ITE, ITE, Washington, 

DC1998. 

• Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, Oregon Department of Transportation, Salem, OR, 1995. 
Selecting Bicycle Facility Types and Evaluating Roadways 221 

LESSON 13: 

SELECTING BICYCLE FACILITY TYPES 

AND EVALUATING ROADWAYS 

13.1 Introduction 

Several different types of facilities can be provided for bicyclists on roadways. The appropriate bicycle 

facility type is often determined by factors such as roadway cross-section elements, vehicle traffic 

characteristics, and bicyclist skill level. Some of these same factors used to determine appropriate bicycle 

facility type can also be used to evaluate the bicycle compatibility or bicycle friendliness (also called 

bicycle LOS) of roads with or without special bicycle facilities. This lesson describes several approaches 

to selecting appropriate bicycle facility types and summarizes several methods used to evaluate the 

bicycle compatibility of roads. 

The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 13.1 Introduction. 

• 13.2 Overview of Bicycle Facility Selection. 

• 13.3 AASHTO Guidance on Selecting Bicycle Facility Type. 

• 13.4 Overview of Evaluating Roads for Bicyclists. 

• 13.5 Bicycle Compatibility Index. 

• 13.6 Bicycle LOS. 

• 13.7 Student Exercise. 

• 13.8 References and Additional Resources. 

13.2 Overview of Bicycle Facility Selection 

As will be presented in lessons 14 and 15, there are several basic bicycle facility types: 

• Shared roadway with regular lane width. Bicyclists share the existing road with other vehicle 

traffic (the majority of road mileage in the United States falls into this category) (see figure 13-1). 

• Wide curb lane. Bicyclists share a wide outside (curb) lane with other vehicle traffic (see 

figure 13-2). 

• Bike lane. Bicyclists have dedicated road space that is adjacent to but separated from other 

vehicle traffic lanes (see figure 13-3). 

• Separated path or lane. Bicyclists have dedicated paths and trails (or sometimes very wide 

lanes) that offer significant separation from other vehicle traffic (see figure 13-4). 
222 Selecting Bicycle Facility Types and Evaluating Roadways 

Figure 13-1. Photo. Bicyclist on 

a shared roadway. Figure 13-2. Photo. Bicyclists in 

a wide curb lane. 

Figure 13-3. Photo. Bicyclist in a bike lane. Figure 13-4. Photo. Bicyclists and pedestrians 

on a separated (shared-use) path. 

(These pictures show bicyclists not wearing helmets. FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Source for all images: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(1)

Technical information on the design of these different bicycle facilities has dramatically improved in 

recent years. The 1999 AASHTO Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities is more than twice the 

size of previous editions and is based on considerably more research and practice than earlier versions.(2)

Many State and local agencies have adopted their own design practices that exceed recommendations in 

the 1999 AASHTO Guide for such things as bike lane width, trail width, and intersection treatments. 

However, there is still considerable debate over the appropriate choice of bicycle facility type in any 

given set of circumstances. When is a striped bike lane the appropriate design solution rather than a 

simple shared lane or a multiuse path? At what traffic speed or volume does a shared lane cease to 

provide the level of comfort sought by most bicyclists? 

A review of bicycle facility selection approaches by King found many differences, particularly between 

guidelines in the United States versus those used in Europe.(3) The review did not find universal 

agreement among the U.S. guidelines, but it does point to some general ranges in which facility selection 

decisions can be made. The review concluded that engineering judgment and planning experience will 

continue to be vital elements in selecting appropriate bicycle facility types. 
Selecting Bicycle Facility Types and Evaluating Roadways 223 

Nearly all of the facility selection approaches in the King review were based on at least two common 

variables: 

1. Traffic volumes (typically ADT volume). 

2. Traffic speed (typically 85th percentile speed or speed limit). 

Many of the approaches had other variables that were considered but were not common among all other 

approaches. 

Despite the many differences between the facility selection guidelines, the King review did present an 

aggregate or composite chart that attempts to represent all guidelines from North America on a single 

chart (see figure 13-5). This composite chart points to clear trends among all guidelines: 

• Shared roads (also referred to as normal lanes) are recommended where traffic volumes and 

speeds are low. 

• Wide curb lanes are recommended where traffic volumes and speeds are moderate. 

• Bicycle lanes are recommended where traffic volumes and speeds are high. 

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

15 20 25 30 35 40

85th Percentile Speed (mph)

Average Daily Traffic Volume .

Normal lane Wide lane Bike lane or shoulder

1 mi/h=1.61 km/h 

Figure 13-5. Bar chart. A composite chart of numerous approaches to bicycle facility selection. 

Source: Bicycle Facility Selection: A Comparison of Approaches(3)
224 Selecting Bicycle Facility Types and Evaluating Roadways 

13.3 AASHTO Guidance on Selecting Bicycle Facility Type 

The 1999 AASHTO Guide provides some qualitative guidance on choosing the appropriate facility type, 

but largely suggests that bicycle facility selection is a policy decision to be made by State and local 

agencies. The facility selection guidance is largely centered on the skill levels of bicyclists and what types 

of facilities they prefer. The 1999 AASHTO Guide defines three bicycle user types (these were first 

defined in a 1994 FHWA report):(2,4) 

1. Type A (Advanced). 

2. Type B (Basic). 

3. Type C (Children). 

The following descriptions are from the 1999 AASHTO Guide:

(2)

Advanced or experienced riders are generally using their bicycles as they would a motor 

vehicle. They are riding for convenience and speed and want direct access to destinations 

with a minimum of detour or delay. They are typically comfortable riding with motor 

vehicle traffic; however, they need sufficient operating space on the traveled way or 

shoulder to eliminate the need for either themselves or a passing motor vehicle to shift 

position. 

Basic or less confident adult riders may also be using their bicycles for transportation 

purposes, e.g., to get to the store or to visit friends, but prefer to avoid roads with fast and 

busy motor vehicle traffic unless there is ample roadway width to allow easy overtaking 

by faster motor vehicles. Thus, basic riders are comfortable riding on neighborhood 

streets and shared-use paths and prefer designated facilities such as bike lanes or wide 

shoulder lanes on busier streets. 

Children, riding on their own or with their parents, may not travel as fast as their adult 

counterparts but still require access to key destinations in their community, such as 

schools, convenience stores and recreational facilities. Residential streets with low motor 

vehicle speeds, linked with shared-use paths and busier streets with well-defined 

pavement markings between bicycles and motor vehicles, can accommodate children 

without encouraging them to ride in the travel lane of major arterials. 

These definitions suggest that bicyclists with different skill levels will prefer certain facility types. 

Advanced bicyclists, because of their advanced skills, desire for speed, convenience, and direct access, 

prefer direct routes that may also carry significant vehicle traffic, without any dedicated space for 

bicyclists. Children, however, prefer shared residential roads with little traffic or separated paths. Because 

of these differing preferences, it may sometimes be difficult to accommodate all potential bicyclists’ 

preferences. 

The 1999 AASHTO Guide suggests that facility selection is dependent on many factors, including the 

bicyclist skill level, the specific corridor conditions, and facility cost. However, more specific information 

about balancing the preferences of bicyclists is not provided. The Guide does indicate that bicyclists may 

be provided with more than one option to meet the travel and access needs of all potential users. Further, 

the Guide indicates that continuity and consistency should be considered when providing bicycle 

facilities. For example, children bicyclists using a separated path to get to school should not have to cross 

a major arterial without some intersection controls. Similarly, shoulders and bike lanes should not end 

abruptly at difficult intersections or busy segments of highway. 
Selecting Bicycle Facility Types and Evaluating Roadways 225 

13.4 Overview of Evaluating Roads for Bicyclists 

An integral part of the planning process for bicycle facilities is an inventory of existing conditions. Most 

bicycle plans attempt to quantify how well the existing road network accommodates bicyclists. A variety 

of bicycle compatibility criteria have been developed since the early 1990s to quantify how compatible a 

roadway is for accommodating safe and efficient bicycle travel. Also included under the genre of bicycle 

compatibility criteria are bicycle stress levels, bicycle safety indices, bicycle suitability ratings, roadway 

condition indices, bicycle interaction hazard scores, and bicycle LOS. As the name indicates, bicycle 

compatibility criteria are somewhat analogous to the LOS criteria established in the Highway Capacity 

Manual, which engineers and planners commonly use to evaluate the quality of traffic flow on highways 

and streets.(5) 

Bicycle compatibility criteria, like the LOS criteria, can be used to evaluate existing conditions and 

identify facility improvement needs. Bicycle compatibility criteria also can be used to determine those 

streets or highways that are most amenable to bicycle travel. Many studies have shown, for example, that 

most bicyclists typically prefer to use streets with low traffic volumes, low vehicle speeds, and wide 

travel lanes. A number of other factors or variables can be used in addition to these to determine the 

roadways most compatible for bicycle use and, therefore, most likely to elicit positive traveler response. 

Several recent studies have identified roadway cross-section elements and traffic factors that affect 

bicyclists’ perceptions of safety, comfort, and convenience. These factors have been tested and calibrated 

in real-world conditions to develop models that attempt to quantify bicyclist comfort levels (based mostly 

on perceptions of safety). Numerous models have been developed, but the following two appear to be 

most commonly used in bicycle planning and facility selection: 

• Bicycle Compatibility Index (BCI). Used to “evaluate the capability of specific roadways to 

accommodate both motorists and bicyclists.”(6) This model was developed as part of an FHWA 

study and involved data collection from 200 persons in three different States. 

• Bicycle LOS. Used to evaluate “...the bicycling conditions of shared roadway environments.”(7)

This model was developed using 150 persons in Florida; however, the model has been calibrated 

and extensively tested in numerous other locations. 

13.5 Bicycle Compatibility Index 

A team of researchers developed BCI in the late 1990s to quantify the “bicycle friendliness” of 

roadways.(6) BCI is calculated as shown in table 13-1. The significant variables include: the presence and 

width of a paved shoulder or bicycle lane; motor vehicle traffic volume and speed in adjacent lanes; the 

presence of motor vehicle parking; and the type of roadside development. 
226 Selecting Bicycle Facility Types and Evaluating Roadways 

Table 13-1. Bicycle compatibility index model. 

Source: The Bicycle Compatibility Index: A LOS Concept, Implementation Manual(6) 

BCI = 3.67 – 0.966BL – 0.410BLW – 0.498CLW + 0.002CLV + 0.022SPD + 0.506PKG – 0.264AREA + AF

where:

BL = presence of a bicycle lane or paved shoulder 

greater than 0.9 m (1 ft) 

 No = 0 

 Yes = 1 

PKG = presence of a parking lane with more than 30 

percent occupancy 

 No = 0 

 Yes = 1 

BLW = bicycle lane (or paved shoulder) width, m (to 

the nearest tenth) 

AREA = type of roadside development 

 Residential = 1 

 Other type = 0 

CLW = curb lane width, m (to the nearest tenth) AF = ft+ fp + frt 

CLV = curb lane volume, vehicles per hour (v/hr) in one 

direction

OLV = other lane(s) volume—same direction, v/h 

SPD = 85th percentile traffic speed, km/h

Where: 

AF = adjustment factors 

ft = adjustment factor for truck volumes (see below) 

fp = adjustment factor for parking turnover (see below) 

frt = adjustment factor for right-turn volumes (see below) 

Adjustment Factors 

Hourly Curb Lane 

Large Truck Volumea ft 

Parking Time Limit 

(minutes (min)) fp 

> 120 

60–119 

30–59 

20–29 

10–19 

< 10 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0.0 

< 15 

16–30 

31–60 

61–120 

121–240 

241–480 

> 480 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0.0 

Hourly RightTurn Volumeb frt  

> 270 

< 270 

0.1 

0.0 

Notes: a Large trucks are defined as all vehicles with six or more tires. 

b

 Includes total number of right turns into driveways or minor intersections along a road segment. 

In developing BCI, the research team used the perspectives of more than 200 persons in 3 cities 

(Olympia, WA; Austin, TX; and Chapel Hill, NC) to subjectively evaluate the perceived bicycling 

comfort level in different roadway environments. The approach used in this study relied on participants 

viewing roadway segments on videotape; the videotape method was validated with an on-street pilot 

study using 24 participants and 13 different roadway segments. After viewing the videotape for a 

particular roadway segment, each of the 200+ participants in the larger study were asked to grade the 

segment viewed on a numerical scale of 1 to 6 (corresponding to LOS rankings of A to F). 

The BCI method has been developed to allow practitioners to evaluate existing facilities to determine 

what improvements may be required, as well as determine the geometric and operational requirements for 

new bicycle facilities. 
Selecting Bicycle Facility Types and Evaluating Roadways 227 

13.6 Bicycle LOS 

LOS is an evaluation of bicyclists’ perceived safety and comfort with respect to motor vehicle traffic 

while traveling in a roadway corridor. It identifies the quality of service for bicyclists or pedestrians that 

currently exists within the roadway environment.(6,7) The bicycle LOS is also discussed in lesson 4 of this 

workbook in the section titled Using Models to Evaluate Roadway Conditions for Bicycling and Walking. 

To evaluate bicycle LOS, a statistically calibrated mathematical equation is used to estimate bicycling 

conditions in a shared roadway environment. It uses the same measurable traffic and roadway factors that 

transportation planners and engineers use for other travel modes. This modeling procedure clearly reflects 

the effect on bicycling suitability or compatibility because of factors such as roadway width, bike lane 

widths and striping combinations, traffic volume, pavement surface condition, motor vehicle speed and 

type, and on-street parking. The form of the bicycle LOS model is provided below (see figure 13-6). 

Bicycle LOS = a1ln (Vol15/Ln) + a2SPt(1+10.38HV)2 + a3(1/PR5)

2

 + a4(We)

2

 + C

Figure 13-6. Equation. Bicycle LOS. 

 Vol15 = Volume of directional traffic in 15-minute time period 

 Vol15 = (ADT x D x Kd) / (4 x PHF) 

 where: 

 ADT = ADT on the segment or link 

 D = Directional factor (assumed = 0.565) 

 Kd = Peak-to-daily factor (assumed = 0.1) 

 PHF = Peak-hour factor (assumed = 1.0) 

 Ln = Total number of directional through lanes 

 SPt = Effective speed limit 

 SPt = 1.1199 ln(SPp - 20) + 0.8103 

 where: 

 SPp = Posted speed limit (a surrogate for average running speed) 

 HV = Percentage of heavy vehicles (as defined in the 1994 Highway Capacity Manual) 

 PR5 = FHWA five-point pavement surface condition rating 

 We = Average effective width of outside through lane: 

 where: 

 We = Wv − (10 ft x % OSPA) and Wl = 0 

 We = Wv + Wl (1 − 2 x % OSPA) and Wl > 0 & Wps= 0 

 We = Wv + Wl − 2 (10 x % OSPA) and Wl > 0 & Wps> 0 

 and a bike lane exists 

 where: 

 Wt = Total width of outside lane (and shoulder) pavement 

 OSPA = Percentage of segment with occupied on-street parking 

 Wl = Width of paving between the outside lane stripe and the 

 edge of pavement 

 Wps = Width of pavement striped for on-street parking 

 Wv = Effective width as a function of traffic volume 
228 Selecting Bicycle Facility Types and Evaluating Roadways 

 where: 

 Wv = Wt if ADT > 4,000 vehicles per day (veh/day) 

 Wv = Wt (2−0.00025 x ADT) if ADT ≤ 4,000 veh/day, and if the 

 street/road is undivided and unstriped 

a1: 0.507 a2: 0.199 a3: 7.066 a4: - 0.005 C: 0.760 

 where: 

(a1–a4) = coefficients established by the multivariate regression analysis. 

The bicycle LOS score resulting from the final equation is prestratified into service categories of A 

through F (A being the best and F, the worst), according to the ranges shown in table 13-2, which reflect 

users’ perception of the road segments’ LOS for bicycle travel. This stratification is in accordance with 

the linear scale established during the referenced research (i.e., the research project bicycle participants’ 

aggregate response to roadway and traffic stimuli). The model is particularly responsive to factors that are 

statistically significant. An example of its sensitivity to various roadway and traffic conditions is shown 

in figure 13-7. 

Table 13-2. Bicycle LOS categories. 

Source: Bicycle LOS Software User’s Manual(8)

LOS Bicycle LOS Score 

A ≤ 1.5 

B > 5.5 

C > 4.5 and ≤ 5.5 

D > 3.5 and ≤ 4.5 

E > 2.5 and ≤ 3.5 

F > 1.5 and ≤ 2.5 

Because the model represents the comfort level of a hypothetical typical bicyclist, some bicyclists may 

feel more or less comfortable than the bicycle LOS calculated for a roadway. A poor bicycle LOS grade 

does not mean that bikes should be prohibited on a roadway. 

The bicycle LOS model is used by planners, engineers, and designers throughout the United States and 

Canada in a variety of planning and design applications. Applications include: 

1. Conducting a benefits comparison among proposed bikeway/roadway cross sections. 

2. Identifying roadway restriping or reconfiguration opportunities to improve bicycling conditions. 

3. Prioritizing and programming roadway corridors for bicycle improvements. 

4. Creating bicycle suitability maps. 

5. Documenting improvements in corridor or systemwide bicycling conditions over time. 
Selecting Bicycle Facility Types and Evaluating Roadways 229 

Figure 13-7. Equation. Bicycle LOS sensitivity analysis. 

Source: Bicycle LOS Software User’s Manual(8)

13.7 Student Exercise 

Select a variety of local streets, and assemble their traffic and geometric data (you may estimate certain 

data if none are available). With the information at hand, evaluate LOS of the roadways, and make 

recommendations for additional bike facilities. 
230 Selecting Bicycle Facility Types and Evaluating Roadways 

13.8 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Image Library, PBIC, available online at http://www.pedbikeimages.org, accessed May 6, 2004. 

2. Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1999. 

3. King, M., Bicycle Facility Selection: A Comparison of Approaches, PBIC, University of North 

Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, August 2002, available online at 

http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/de/bike_selection.htm, accessed May 5, 2004. 

4. Selecting Roadway Design Treatments to Accommodate Bicycles, Publication No. 

FHWA-RD-92-073, FHWA, Washington, DC, January 1994, available online at 

http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/select.pdf. 

5. Highway Capacity Manual, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 2000. 

6. Harkey, D.L., D.W. Reinfurt, and A. Sorton, The Bicycle Compatibility Index: A Level of Service 

Concept, Implementation Manual, Publication No. FHWA-RD-98-095, FHWA, Washington, DC, 

December 1998, available online at http://www.hsrc.unc.edu/research/pedbike/98095/index.html. 

7. Landis, B.W., V.R. Vattikuti, and M.T. Brannick, “Real-Time Human Perceptions: Toward a 

Bicycle Level of Service,” Transportation Research Record 1578, TRB, 1997, available online 

at. http://www.dot.state.fl.us/planning/systems/sm/los/pdfs/ 

BLOS_TRBscanned.pdf 

8. Bicycle LOS Software User’s Manual, Sprinkle Consulting, Inc., Tampa, FL no date. 
Shared Roadways 231 

LESSON 14: 

SHARED ROADWAYS 

14.1 Introduction 

As indicated in lesson 13, there are a variety of ways to accommodate bicyclists on roadways. In many 

cases, a few simple construction projects can make a big difference for bicyclists, such as replacing 

unsafe drain grates, filling potholes, or maintaining roadway shoulders so that they are free of debris. 

This lesson provides information on shared roadways, which can encompass the following: 

• Regular roads and streets with no special bicycle provisions. 

• Wide curb lanes. 

• Roadway shoulders or shoulder bikeways. 

• Designated bicycle routes. 

• Bicycle boulevards. 

The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 14.1 Introduction. 

• 14.2 Shared Roadways. 

• 14.3 Wide Curb Lanes. 

• 14.4 Roadway Shoulder or Shoulder Bikeways. 

• 14.5 Designated Bicycle Routes. 

• 14.6 Bicycle Boulevards. 

• 14.7 Other Design Considerations. 

• 14.8 Practices to Avoid. 

• 14.9 Student Exercise. 

• 14.10 References and Additional Resources. 

This lesson has been primarily derived from the Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, a statewide policy, 

planning, and design manual for the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) in 1995.(1) Additional 

information has been gathered from the 1999 AASHTO Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, 

which is abbreviated in this lesson as the AASHTO Guide.

(2)

14.2 Shared Roadways 

Since bicyclists are legally able to use nearly all roadways, the great majority of road mileage can be 

technically classified as shared roadways (see figure 14-1). The exception for shared roadways are where 

bicycling has been expressly prohibited by an ordinance or law, such as on some city streets or 

controlled-access freeways in some States. The 1999 AASHTO Guide defines a shared roadway as “a 

roadway which is open to both bicycle and motor vehicle travel. This may be an existing roadway, street 

with wide curb lanes, or a road with paved shoulders.”(2)
232 Shared Roadways 

Figure 14-1. Illustration. Shared roadways include most existing roads and streets. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)

In the United States, most shared roadways have no provisions for bicycle travel and are perceived by 

many bicyclists to be unsafe or at least uninviting. However, there are some design measures that can be 

taken to ensure that shared roadways accommodate bicyclists safely and efficiently. This lesson describes 

several design options for shared roadways, including wide curb lanes, shoulder bikeways, and bicycle 

boulevards. There is also a discussion of practices to be avoided, such as sidewalk bikeways. 

There are no specific bicycle standards for most shared roadways; they are simply the roads that currently 

exist as local urban or rural roads and highways. Mile for mile, shared roadways are the most common 

bikeway type. Shared roadways are suitable in urban areas on streets with low speeds—40 km/h (25 mi/h) 

or less—or low traffic volumes (3,000 vehicles per day or less, depending on speed and land use). 

In rural areas, the suitability of a shared roadway decreases as traffic speeds and volumes increase, 

especially on roads with poor sight distances. Where bicycle use or demand is potentially high, roads 

should be widened to include paved shoulders or shoulder bikeways if the travel speeds and volumes on 

the roadway are high. 

Many urban local streets carry excessive traffic volumes at speeds higher than they were designed to 

carry. These can function as shared roadways if traffic speeds and volumes are reduced. There are many 

traffic calming techniques that can make these streets more amenable to bicycling on the road. 

14.3 Wide Curb Lanes 

A wide curb lane may be provided where there is inadequate width to provide bike lanes or shoulder 

bikeways. This may occur on retrofit projects where there are severe physical constraints and all other 

options have been pursued, such as removing parking or narrowing travel lanes. Wide curb lanes can 

often be installed by narrowing inner lanes on a multilane arterial, thereby reallocating roadway space so 

that the outside (curb) lanes are wider (see lesson 15 for roadway retrofit solutions). Wide curb lanes are 

not particularly attractive to most bicyclists, as they do not specifically designate road space for bicyclists. 

Wide curb lanes simply allow motor vehicles to pass bicyclists within a travel lane. 

In general, 4.2 m (14 ft) of usable lane width is the recommended width for shared-use in a wide curb lane 

(see figures 14-2 and 14-3). Usable width is normally measured from the edge stripe to the centerline or 

adjacent lane stripe, and the gutter pan should not be included as usable width. A wider curb lane (up to 

4.5 m (15 ft)) may be appropriate on steep grades where bicyclists need more maneuvering space. The 

increased width may also be appropriate in areas where drainage grates, raised reflectors, or other 

pavement features detract from usable width. With these exceptions in mind, wide curb lanes greater than 

4.2 m (14 ft) that extend continuously may encourage two motor vehicles to share a lane, and are 

therefore not recommended. In situations where more than 4.5 m (15 ft) of pavement width exist, a bike 

lane or paved shoulder should be considered. 
Shared Roadways 233 

3.6 m (12 ft) 4.2 m (14 ft) min.

of usable lane width

Inside travel lane Wide curb lane

Figure 14-2. Illustration. Example of a wide curb lane. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 14-3. Photo. Motorists overtaking bicyclists in a wide curb lane. 

A few cities in Canada and the United States (most notably Denver) have experimented with placing a 

bicycle symbol with an arrow along the right side of wide curb lanes at regular intervals (see figures 14-4 

and 14-5). Called a hybrid bicycle lane, this bicycle facility has not been endorsed by the AASHTO 

Guide or other bicycle facility design manuals. The use of this bicycle pavement marking is suggested to 

offer the advantages of bicycle lanes along with many of the problems associated with bicycle lanes. 

Proponents of this treatment indicate that the bicycle symbol clearly indicates the right side of the wide 

curb lane for bicyclists, while also alerting motorists to the potential presence of bicyclists on the road. 

There are currently no standards or guidance on how to deal with bus routes on shared roadway facilities 

having wide curb lanes. Extra space is needed for a bus to overtake a bicycle, so a wider curb lane (up to 

4.5 m (15 ft)) may be appropriate. If both bus and bicycle traffic is significant, other alternatives besides a 

shared roadway should probably be considered. In some cities, a shared bus and bike lane accommodates 

both groups and ranges from 4.2 to 4.9 m (14 to 16 ft). Other cities have chosen to separate these two road 

users by providing separate bicycle and bus lanes. 
234 Shared Roadways 

Bike and separate

arrow marking

“Bike in house”

 marking

Modified

“bike in house”

 marking

Bike and chevron

 marking

Figure 14-4. Illustrations. Various pavement markings for shared roadways and wide curb lanes. 

4.3 m

(14 ft)

min.

Figure 14-5. Illustration. Typical application of shared roadway pavement markings. 

14.4 Roadway Shoulders or Shoulder Bikeways 

Paved shoulders are provided on rural highways for a variety of safety, operational, and maintenance 

reasons: 

• Space is provided for motorists to stop out of traffic in case of mechanical difficulty, a flat tire, or 

other emergency. 

• Space is provided to escape potential crashes. 

• Sight distance is improved in cut sections. 

• Highway capacity is improved. 

• Space is provided for maintenance operations such as snow removal and storage. 

• Lateral clearance is provided for signs and guardrail. 

• Storm water can be discharged further from the pavement. 

• Structural support is given to the pavement. 

• Paved shoulders, if they are adequately maintained, provide an excellent place for bicyclists to 

operate. 
Shared Roadways 235 

Width Standards 

In general, the shoulder widths recommended for rural highways in AASHTO’s Policy on Geometric 

Design of Highways and Streets serve bicyclists well, since wider shoulders are required on heavily 

traveled and high-speed roads and on those carrying large numbers of trucks.(3)

When providing paved shoulders for bicycle use, a minimum width of 1.2 m (4 ft) is recommended (see 

figure 14-6); however, even 0.6 m (2 ft) of shoulder width will benefit more experienced bicyclists. A 

shoulder width of 1.5 m (5 ft) is recommended from the face of guardrail, curb, or other roadside barriers. 

Figure 14-6. Illustration. Example of a paved shoulder or shoulder bikeway. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)

Certain situations may require a wider paved shoulder. On steep grades, it is desirable to maintain a 1.8-m 

(6-ft) shoulder (minimum of 1.5 m (5 ft)), as cyclists need more space for maneuvering. A 1.8-m (6-ft) 

shoulder allows a cyclist to ride far enough from the edge of the pavement to avoid debris, yet far enough 

from passing vehicles to avoid conflict. If there are physical width limitations, a minimum width of 1.2 m 

(4 ft) from the longitudinal joint between a monolithic curb and gutter and the edge of travel lane may be 

adequate. Where high bicycle usage is expected, it is desirable to increase the shoulder width. Additional 

shoulder width may also be appropriate where vehicle speeds are greater than 80 km/h (50 mi/h), or 

where there is significant truck, bus, or recreational vehicle traffic. 

Pavement Design 

Many existing gravel shoulders have sufficient width and base to support shoulder bikeways. Minor 

excavation and the addition of 75 to 100 millimeters (mm) (3 to 4 in) of asphalt pavement is often enough 

to provide shoulder bikeways. It is best to widen shoulders in conjunction with pavement overlays for 

several reasons: 

• The top lift of asphalt adds structural strength. 

• The final lift provides a smooth, seamless joint. 

• The cost is less, as greater quantities of materials will be purchased. 

• Traffic is disrupted only once for both operations. 

When shoulders are provided as part of new road construction, the pavement structural design should be 

the same as that of the roadway. 

On shoulder widening projects, there may be some opportunities to reduce costs by building to a lesser 

thickness. A total of 50–100 mm (2–4 in) of asphalt and 50–75 mm (2–3 in) of aggregate over existing 

roadway shoulders may be adequate if the following conditions are met: 
236 Shared Roadways 

• There are no planned widening projects for the road section in the foreseeable future. 

• The existing shoulder area and roadbed are stable and there is adequate drainage, or adequate 

drainage can be provided without major excavation and grading work. 

• The existing travel lanes have adequate width and are in stable condition. 

• The horizontal curvature is not excessive, so the wheels of large vehicles do not track onto the 

shoulder area (on roads that have generally good horizontal alignment, it may be feasible to build 

only the insides of curves to full depth). 

• The existing and projected vehicle and heavy truck traffic is not considered excessive (e.g., heavy 

truck traffic less than 10 percent of total traffic). 

The thickness of pavement and base material will depend upon local conditions, and engineering 

judgment should be used. If there are short sections where the travel lanes must be reconstructed or 

widened, these areas should be constructed to normal full-depth standards. 

The Joint between the Shoulders and the Existing Roadway 

The following techniques should be used to add paved shoulders to roadways where no overlay project is 

scheduled: 

• Saw Cutting. A 0.3-m (1-ft) saw cut inside the existing edge of the pavement provides the 

opportunity to construct a good tight joint. This eliminates a ragged joint at the edge of the 

existing pavement (see figure 14-7). 

Saw cut

Existing Asphalt Pavement New Asphalt Pavement

Figure 14-7. Illustration. Example of a saw-cut pavement joint. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)

• Feathering. Feathering the new asphalt onto the existing pavement can work if a fine mix is used 

and the feather does not extend across the area traveled by bicyclists (see figure 14-8). 

Feather (fine mix)

Existing Asphalt Pavement New Asphalt Pavement

Figure 14-8. Illustration. Example of a feathered pavement joint. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)

• Grinding. Where some shoulder width and thickness are already available, a pavement grinder 

can be used to make a clean cut at the edge of the travel lane, grade the existing asphalt to the 

right depth, and cast aside the grindings in one operation (see figure 14-9), with these advantages: 
Shared Roadways 237 

o Less of the existing pavement is wasted. 

o The existing asphalt acts as a base. 

o There will not be a full-depth joint between the travel lane and the shoulder. 

o The grindings can be recycled as base for the widened portion. 

New asphalt can then be laid across the entire width of the shoulder bikeway with no 

seams. 

Edge of travel lane

Grindings

Step 1

Step 2

New Asphalt Pavement

Figure 14-9. Illustration. Example of the use of grindings as pavement base. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)

Gravel Driveways and Approaches 

Wherever a highway is constructed, widened, or overlaid, all gravel driveways and approaches should be 

paved back 4.5 m (15 ft) to prevent loose gravel from spilling onto the shoulders (see figure 14-10). 

4.5 m (15 ft)

Gravel

Figure 14-10. Illustration. A paved driveway apron reduces gravel on roadway shoulders. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)
238 Shared Roadways 

14.5 Designated Bicycle Routes 

Bicycle routes are specially designated shared roadways that are preferred for bicycle travel for certain 

recreation or transportation purposes. The 1999 AASHTO Guide also refers to a designated bicycle route 

as a signed shared roadway and lists the following reasons for designating signed bike routes: 

• The route provides continuity to other bicycle facilities such as bike lanes and shared-use paths. 

• The road is a common route for bicyclists through a high-demand corridor. 

• In rural areas, the route is preferred for bicycling because of low motor vehicle traffic volumes or 

paved shoulder availability. 

• The route extends along local neighborhood streets and collectors that lead to internal 

neighborhood destinations, such as a park, school, or commercial district. 

Bike route signs may also be used on streets with bike lanes, as well as on shared-use paths. Regardless of 

the type of facility or roadway on which they are used, it is recommended that bike route signs always 

include destination, direction, and distance information (see figure 14-11). 

D11-1

M7 series sign

Optional Destination Signing

In urban areas, signs should be placed every 500 m (approx. 0.25 mile),

at every turn, and at all signalized intersections.

Figure 14-11. Illustration. Typical signed shared route signing. 

Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (2)
Shared Roadways 239 

The signing of shared roadways indicates to bicyclists that there are particular advantages to using these 

routes compared to alternate routes. This means the responsible agencies have taken action to ensure that 

these routes are suitable as shared routes and will be maintained as such.

The following criteria should be considered prior to signing a route: 

• The route provides through and direct travel in bicycle-demand corridors. 

• The route connects discontinuous segments of shared-use paths, bike lanes, and/or other bike 

routes. 

• An effort has been made to adjust traffic control devices (e.g., stop signs, signals) to give greater 

priority to bicyclists on the route, as opposed to alternative streets. This could include placement 

of bicycle-sensitive detectors where bicyclists are expected to stop. 

• Street parking has been removed or restricted in areas of critical width to provide improved 

safety. 

• A smooth surface has been provided (e.g., utility adjusted to grade, bicycle-safe drainage grates 

installed, potholes filled, etc.). 

• The route will be maintained at sufficient intervals to prevent accumulation of debris (e.g., 

regular street sweeping). 

• Wider curb lanes are provided compared to parallel roads. 

• Shoulder or curb-lane widths meet or exceed width requirements for shared roadways (1.2-m 

(4-ft) shoulder; 4.2-m (14-ft) curb lanes).

14.6 Bicycle Boulevards 

The bicycle boulevard is a refinement of the shared roadway concept in that the operation of a local street 

is modified to function as a through-street exclusively for bicycles while maintaining local access for 

automobiles. Traffic calming devices reduce traffic speeds and extensive through traffic. Traffic controls 

limit conflicts between motorists and bicyclists and give priority to through-bicycle movement. 

Advantages of Bicycle Boulevards 

• Opportunity—Traditional street grids offer many miles of local streets that can be converted to 

bicycle boulevards. 

• Low cost—The major costs are for traffic control and traffic calming devices. 

• Traffic calming techniques are increasingly favored by residents who want slower traffic on 

neighborhood streets. 

• Bicycle travel on local streets is usually compatible with local land uses. 

• Bicycle boulevards may attract new or inexperienced cyclists who do not feel comfortable on 

arterials and prefer to ride on lower traffic volume streets. 

• Bicycle boulevards can improve conditions for pedestrians, with reduced traffic and improved 

crossings. 
240 Shared Roadways 

Disadvantages of Bicycle Boulevards 

• They are often located on streets that do not provide direct access to commercial land uses and 

other destinations; some cyclists may have to negotiate a hostile street environment to complete a 

portion of their trip. 

• If improperly implemented, they can cause traffic diversion onto other streets. 

• Failure to provide arterial crossings can result in unsafe conditions for bicyclists. 

• Traffic signals may be expensive or unacceptable for the traffic conditions. 

Successful bicycle boulevard implementation requires careful planning with residents and businesses to 

avoid unacceptable impacts. 

Elements of a Bicycle Boulevard 

Several elements are typically considered in the design of a bicycle boulevard (see figure 14-12): 

• Selecting a direct and continuous street, rather than a circuitous route that winds through 

neighborhoods. Bike boulevards work best on a street grid system. 

• Turning stop signs toward intersecting streets so bicyclists can ride with few interruptions. 

• Placing motor vehicle traffic diverters at key intersections to reduce traffic volumes (the diverters 

must be designed to allow through-bicycle movement). 

• Placing traffic calming devices on streets to lower traffic speeds. 

• Placing directional signs that route cyclists to key destinations, guide cyclists through difficult 

situations, and alert motorists to the presence of bicyclists. 

• Providing protection where the boulevard crosses high-volume arterials: 

o Using signals where a traffic study has shown that a signal will be safe and effective in 

ensuring that bicyclists can activate it. Signal loops should be installed where bicyclists stop 

and should be supplemented with a pushbutton that does not require dismounting. 

o Using median refuges with gaps wide enough to allow bicyclists to pass through (minimum 

of 2.4 m (8 ft)). The median should be wide enough to provide a refuge (minimum of 3 m 

(10 ft)). The design should allow bicyclists to see the travel lanes they must cross. 
Shared Roadways 241 

Raised median prevents

motor vehicle traffic from

cutting through

Median opening allows

bicyclists to cross

arterial

Traffic circle acts as

traffic calming device

One-way choker prohibits

motor vehicle traffic

from entering bike blvd.

Turning stop signs to

favor through movements

on bike blvd.

Traffic signal allows

bikes to cross arterial

Cyclist

activates

signal by

pushbutton

Figure 14-12. Illustration. Typical elements of a bicycle boulevard. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)
242 Shared Roadways 

14.7 Other Design Considerations 

Rumble Strips 

Rumble strips are provided to alert motorists that they are wandering off the travel lanes onto the shoulder 

or across the centerline on an undivided highway. They are most common on rural freeways, but are also 

being considered on other primary and secondary highways. One of a bicyclist’s main concerns about 

rumble strips is the ability to control the bicycle when traveling across or along the rumble strip for such 

maneuvers as a left turn or to avoid debris or an obstacle on the paved shoulder. Travel to the right of the 

rumble strip is generally most beneficial for the bicyclist as long as that area is free of debris and 

obstacles and the travel path is wide enough to comfortably accommodate the bicycle. 

According to the 1999 AASHTO Guide, rumble strips or raised pavement markers, where installed to 

warn motorists they are driving on the shoulder (or discourage them from doing so), are not 

recommended where shoulders are used by bicyclists unless there are:(2)

• A minimum clear path of 0.3 m (1 ft) from the rumble strip to the traveled way. 

• 1.2 m (4 ft) from the rumble strip to the outside edge of paved shoulder (or 1.5 m (5 ft) to an 

adjacent guardrail, curb, or other obstacle). 

If existing conditions preclude achieving the minimum desirable clearance, the width of the rumble strip 

may be decreased or other appropriate alternative solutions should be considered. 

Additional guidance on rumble strips is provided by the FHWA:(4)

• Rumble strips should only be installed when an adequate unobstructed width of paved surface 

remains available for bicycle use. To aid a bicyclist's movement to the left of a shoulder rumble 

strip when needed to avoid debris, make turns, or avoid other shoulder users, some States provide 

periodic gaps of 3.0 m (10 ft) to 3.6 m (12 ft) between groups of the milled-in elements 

throughout the length of the shoulder rumble strip. A study by one State recommends a gap of 

3.6 m (12 ft) between milled-in elements of 8.5 m (28 ft) to 14.6 m (48 ft) in length. Other States 

have specified 3.0 m (10 ft) gaps between 3.0-m (10-ft) milled-in elements. 

• Small stones, sand, and other debris often collect on roadway shoulders. Usually the air 

turbulence caused by passing traffic will keep the portion of the shoulder closest to traffic 

relatively clear of such debris. For this reason, most bicyclists prefer to ride on that portion of the 

shoulder nearest to traffic to avoid debris. To provide a clear area beyond the rumble strip for 

bicycle travel, highway maintenance agencies should periodically sweep shoulders along 

identified bicycle routes and other routes with high bicycle usage. 

• Recent studies by two States attempted to develop modified rumble strip designs that would be 

more acceptable to bicyclists. The principle adjustments to the milled-in strip elements 

considered were reduced depth, reduced width, and changes to the center-to-center spacing. 

Several types of raised elements have also been tested and evaluated. Both studies concluded that 

a reasonable compromise between maximum warning to errant motorists and tolerable discomfort 

to bicyclists was a reduced-depth, milled rumble strip. 

Some highway agencies have instituted policies that prohibit the use of shoulder rumble strips on roads 

designated as bike routes or where there is insufficient paved shoulder room remaining to accommodate 

bicycle travel. Others evaluate the use of rumble strips on a case-by-case basis and often opt to install 

them only at locations with a history of run-off-road crashes. 
Shared Roadways 243 

Other designs being used or investigated employ a skip pattern of rumble strip that provides a smoother 

travel path throughout portions of the strip and thus allows bicyclists to move to the left when needed. 

Furthermore, some highway agencies are providing an aid to cyclists and all travelers in general by 

posting roadside signs, such as RUMBLE STRIPS AHEAD, alerting the traveler to the presence of the 

shoulder rumble strip. 

ODOT uses a rumble strip design that meets the AASHTO guidelines (see figure 14-13): 400-mm (16-in) 

grooves are cut into the shoulder 150 mm (6 in) from the lane edge line. On a 2.4-m (8-ft) shoulder, this 

leaves 1.8 m (6 ft) of usable shoulder for bicyclists. 

Lane

edge

marking

Rumble

strip

Cross-sectional view

400 mm

(16 inches)

2.4 m

(8 ft)

150 mm

(6 inches)

Plan view Lane edge marking

400 mm

(16 inches)

2.4 m

(8 ft)

150 mm

(6 inches)

Rumble

strip

Figure 14-13. Illustration. Rumble strip guidance provided by ODOT. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)

The following recommendations come from a Colorado DOT study.(5) The standard type of ground-in 

rumble strips are 0.3 m (12 in) wide, with a groove depth of 9.5 mm ± 3 mm (0.375 in ± 0.125 in) ground 

in an interrupted pattern, and is the recommended configuration for asphalt rumble strips based on the 

data collected for this report. No recommendation is made concerning rolled-in concrete rumble strips. 
244 Shared Roadways 

In a study for the Pennsylvania DOT, the authors recommended two different “bicycle tolerable” rumble 

strip patterns:(6)

• For nonfreeway facilities with speeds greater than 88 km/h (55 mi/h): 

o Groove width of 127 mm (5 in). 

o Flat portion between cuts of 178 mm (7 in). 

o Depth of 10 mm (0.375 in). 

• For nonfreeway facilities with speeds near 72 km/h (45 mi/h): 

o Groove width of 127 mm (5 in). 

o Flat portion between cuts of 152 mm (6 in). 

o Depth of 10 mm (0.375 in). 

Drainage Grates 

Care must be taken to ensure that drainage grates are bicycle-safe. If not, a bicycle wheel may fall into a 

slot in the grate, causing the bicyclist to fall. Replacing existing grates with bicycle-safe grates (see A and 

B in figure 14-14, preferred methods) or welding thin metal straps across the grate perpendicular to the 

direction of travel (see C in figure 14-14, alternate method) is required. These should be checked 

periodically to ensure that the straps remain in place. 

Direction

of travel

Direction

of travel

Direction

of travel

A B C

* max 150 mm

(6-inch) spacing

*

Figure 14-14. Illustration. Examples of bicycle-safe drainage grates. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)

Note that grates with bars perpendicular to the roadway must not be placed at curb cuts, as wheelchairs 

could get caught in the slots. The most effective way to avoid drainage grate problems is to eliminate 

them entirely with the use of inlets in the curb face (see figure 14-15). 
Shared Roadways 245 

Figure 14-15. Illustration. Example of curb drainage inlet. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)

If a street-surface grate is required for drainage, care must be taken to ensure that the grate is flush with 

the road surface. Inlets should be raised after a pavement overlay to within 6 mm (0.25 in) of the new 

surface. If this is not possible or practical, the pavement must taper into drainage inlets so they do not 

cause an abrupt edge at the inlet. 

Railroad Crossings 

Special care must be taken wherever a bikeway intersects railroad tracks. The most important 

improvements for bicyclists are smoothness, angle of crossing, and flange openings (see figure 14-16). 

Smoothness. Concrete performs better than other materials under wet conditions and, when laid with 

precision, provides a smooth ride. Rubberized crossings provide a durable, smooth crossing, although 

they tend to become slippery when wet. If asphalt pavement is used, it must be maintained in order to 

prevent a ridge buildup next to the rails. Timber crossings wear down rapidly and are slippery when wet. 

Angle of Crossing. The risk is kept to a minimum where the bikeway crosses the tracks at a 90° angle. If 

the skew angle is less than 45°, special attention should be given to the bikeway alignment to improve the 

angle of the approach, preferably to 60° or greater, so cyclists can avoid catching their wheels in the 

flange and losing their balance. 

Flange Openings. The open flange area between the rail and the roadway surface can cause problems for 

bicyclists, since it can catch a bicycle wheel, causing the rider to fall. Flange width must be kept to a 

minimum.

Note that the combination of smoothness, angle, and flange opening creates conditions that affect 

bicyclists. By improving smoothness and flange opening, the angle becomes less critical. 

Sidewalk Ramps on Bridges 

Sidewalk ramps can help bicyclists if the bridge sidewalks are wide enough for bicycle use (minimum 

1.2 m (4 ft), see figure 14-17). They should be provided where motor vehicle traffic volumes and speeds 

are high and the shoulders on the bridge are narrow. 
246 Shared Roadways 

60o bikeway crossing with

9 m (30 ft) radius curves.

Tracks cross roadway at 30o

1.2 m (4 ft) tangent section

provided both sides of rail to

allow bike to cross tracks

with both wheels straight.

9.0 m (30 ft)

radius minimum

Travel

lane

Normal edge

of pavement

60o

30o

22.8 m (76 ft)

4.8 m

(16 ft)

Shoulder or

bike lane

Figure 14-16. Illustration. Bike lane or shoulder crossing railroad tracks. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)

2.4 m (8 ft)

minimum

Figure 14-17. Illustration. Curb ramp provides access to sidewalk. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(1)
Shared Roadways 247 

14.8 Practices to Avoid 

ODOT has more than 20 years of experience designing bikeways, and it has also learned from local city 

and county experiences. Several practices have proven to be poor ones, including sidewalk bikeways, 

extruded curbs, and raised pavement markings. These practices are discussed in this section. 

Sidewalk Bikeways 

Some early bikeways used sidewalks for both pedestrians and bicyclists. While in rare instances this type 

of facility may be necessary, or desirable for use by small children, in most cases it should be avoided. 

Sidewalks are not suited for bicycling for several reasons: 

• Bicyclists face conflicts with pedestrians. 

• There may be conflicts with utility poles, sign posts, benches, etc. 

• Bicyclists face conflicts at driveways, alleys, and intersections: A bicyclist on a sidewalk is 

generally not visible to motorists and may emerge unexpectedly. This is especially true of 

bicyclists who ride opposing adjacent motor vehicles. 

• Bicyclists are put into awkward situations at intersections where they cannot safely act like a 

vehicle, but are not in the pedestrian flow either, which creates confusion for other road users. 

Bicyclists are safer when they are allowed to function as roadway vehicle operators rather than as 

pedestrians. 

Where constraints do not allow full-width walkways and bikeways, solutions should be sought to 

accommodate both modes (e.g., narrowing travel lanes or reducing on-street parking). In some urban 

situations, preference may be given to accommodating pedestrians. Sidewalks should not be signed for 

bicycle use—the choice should be left to the users. 

Extruded Curbs 

Raised concrete curbs create an undesirable condition when used to separate the motor vehicle lane from 

a bike lane or paved shoulder: Either one may hit the curb and lose control, with the motor vehicle 

crossing onto the bikeway or the bicyclist falling onto the roadway. 

At night, the curbs cast shadows on the lane, reducing the bicyclist’s visibility of the surface. Extruded 

curbs make bikeways difficult to maintain and tend to collect debris. They are often hit by motor vehicles, 

causing them to break up and scatter loose pieces onto the roadway surface. 

Reflectors and Raised Pavement Markers 

The placement of some raised pavement markers or reflectors can deflect a bicycle wheel, causing the 

bicyclist to lose control. If pavement markers are needed for motorists, they should be installed on the 

motorist’s side of the lane stripe, and they should have a beveled front edge.

14.9 Student Exercise 

Choose a local street that would be a good candidate for a bicycle boulevard. The street segment should 

be several blocks in length, and should include at least one crossing of a major arterial. Prepare a 
248 Shared Roadways 

conceptual design plan for the street segment, showing the location of signing, traffic signals, on-street 

parking, and traffic calming features. Your design should be shown in plan view, and should be 

accompanied by a narrative explaining the purpose of special design features. 

14.10 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, Oregon Department of Transportation, 1995. 

2. Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1999. 

3. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 2004. 

4. Roadway Shoulder Rumble Strips, Technical Advisory T 5040.35, FHWA, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/legsregs/directives/techadvs/t504035.htm, accessed April 27, 2004. 

5. Outcalt, W., Bicycle-Friendly Rumble Strips, Colorado Department of Transportation, Publication 

No. CDOT-DTD-R-2001-4, May 2001, available online at 

http://www.dot.state.co.us/publications/Bicycle%20Friendly/BFRSW.pdf, accessed April 27, 

2004. 

6. Elefteriadou, L., M. El-Gindy, D. Torbic, P. Garvey, A. Homan, Z. Jiang, B. Pecheux, and R. 

Tallon, Bicycle-Tolerable Shoulder Rumble Strips, Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, 

March 2000, available online at http://www.pti.psu.edu/mautc/docs/MA-III-0008.pdf, accessed 

April 27, 2004. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• MUTCD, FHWA, revised edition, November 2003, Washington, D.C., available online at 

http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/HTM/2003/html-index.htm, accessed February 25, 2004. 
Bicycle Lanes 249 

LESSON 15: 

BICYCLE LANES 

15.1 Introduction 

The 1999 AASHTO publication, Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities (hereafter referred to as 

the AASHTO Guide), defines a bicycle or bike lane as “a portion of a roadway which has been designated 

by striping, signing, and pavement markings for the preferential or exclusive use of bicyclists.”(1) The 

public agency and community support for bike lanes as a reasonable accommodation of bicyclists has 

been growing in many American cities. Although some cities such as Davis, CA, have several decades of 

experience, many American cities are still developing innovative ways to design bike lanes into complex 

roadway and traffic environments. A number of best design practices have emerged and are included in 

the 1999 AASHTO MUTCD.(2) This lesson includes the design standards from AASHTO as well as 

additional design guidelines that other cities or States have developed. This lesson also summarizes other 

innovative bike lane designs and concepts (some are borrowed from Europe—see lesson 23) that are still 

being tested and evaluated. 

The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 15.1 Introduction. 

• 15.2 Width Standards and Cross-Section Design. 

• 15.3 Retrofitting Bicycle Lanes on Existing Streets. 

• 15.4 Bicycle Lanes at Intersections and Interchanges. 

• 15.5 Bicycle Lane Pavement Markings. 

• 15.6 Bicycle Lane Signing. 

• 15.7 Other Design Considerations. 

• 15.8 Practices to Avoid. 

• 15.9 Student Exercise. 

• 15.10 References and Additional Resources. 

This lesson on bicycle lanes has been derived from several sources, including the 1999 AASHTO Guide, 

the 1995 Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, and the Philadelphia Bicycle Facility Design 

Guidelines.

(1,3,4)

15.2 Width Standards and Cross-Section Design 

Bicycle lanes serve the needs of all types of cyclists in urban and suburban areas by providing them with 

a dedicated travel lane within the street space. The minimum width of a bike lane will vary based on the 

roadway cross section (see figure 15-1). For roadways with no curb and gutter, the minimum width of a 

bike lane should be 1.2 m (4 ft). If parking is permitted, the bike lane should be placed between the 

parking area and the travel lane, and have a minimum width of 1.5 m (5 ft). Where parking 

is permitted but a parking stripe or stalls are not utilized, the shared area should be a minimum of 3.3 m 

(11 ft) without a curb face and 3.5 m (12 ft) adjacent to a curb. 
250 Bicycle Lanes 

(1) On-Street Parking

(2) Parking Permitted without

 Parking Stripe or Stall

15 m (6-inch) 0-m solid white stripe*

Parking stalls or optional solid stripe* 100-mm (4-inch)

Motor vehicle lanes

Motor vehicle lanes

15 m (6-inch) 0-m solid white stripe

1.5 m

(5 ft)

min.

* The optional solid stripe may be advisable where stalls are unnecessary (because parking is light) but

 there is concern that motorist may misconstrue the bike lane to be a traffic lane. 

* 3.9 m (13 ft) is recommended where there is a substantial parking or turnover of parked cars is

 high (e.g., Commercial areas).

(3) Parking Prohibited

150-mm (6-inch)

solid white stripe

Motor vehicle lanes

0.9 m

(3 ft)

 min.

Motor vehicle lanes

Rumble

strips*

(4) Typical Roadway in Outlying

 Areas Parking Protected

Parking

3.6 (12 ft) min.* m 3.3 (11 ft) min.* m 

Parking Bike

lane

Bike

lane

1.5 m

(5 ft)

min.

Parking Bike lane Bike lane Parking

Vertical curb Rolled (mountable)

curb

1.5 m

(5 ft)

min.

Bike

lane

1. m

(4 ft)

min.

2

Bike

lane

1. m

(4 ft)

min.

2

Bike

lane

150-mm 

solid white stripe

(6-inch)

1. m

(4 ft)

min.

2

Bike

lane

* If rumble strips exist there should be 1.2 m (4 ft) minimum from the rumble strips to the outside

 edge of the shoulder. 

Figure 15-1. Illustrations. Typical bike lane cross sections. 

Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (1)
Bicycle Lanes 251 

The recommended width of a bike lane is 1.5 m (5 ft) from the face of a curb or guardrail to the bike lane 

stripe. This 1.5-m (5-ft) width should be sufficient in cases where a 0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft) gutter pan exists, 

given that a minimum of 0.9 m (3 ft) of ridable surface is provided and the longitudinal joint between the 

gutter pan and the pavement surface is smooth. If the joint is not smooth, 1.2 m (4 ft) of ridable surface 

should be provided. 

Since bicyclists usually tend to ride a distance of 0.8–1.0 m (32–40 in) from the curb face, it is very 

important that the pavement surface in this zone be smooth and free of structures. Drain inlets and utility 

covers that extend into this area cause bicyclists to swerve, resulting in a reduction of usable lane width. 

Where these structures exist and the surface cannot be made smooth, the bike lane width should be 

adjusted accordingly. Regular maintenance is critical for bike lanes (see lesson 16). 

Bicycle lanes are always located on both sides of the road on two-way streets. Since bicyclists must 

periodically merge with motor vehicle traffic, bike lanes should not be separated from other motor vehicle 

lanes by curbs, parking lanes, or other obstructions. Two-way bike lanes on one side of two-way streets 

create hazardous conditions for bicyclists and are not recommended. The problems associated with 

two-way bike lanes are discussed in more detail in section 15.8. 

On one-way streets, bicycle lanes should be installed on the right-hand side, unless conflicts can be 

greatly reduced by installing the lane on the left-hand side. Left-side bicycle lanes on one-way streets may 

also be considered where there are frequent bus or trolley stops, unusually high numbers of right-turning 

motor vehicles, or if there is a significant number of left-turning bicyclists. 

15.3 Retrofitting Bicycle Lanes on Existing Streets 

While bike lanes may be desirable in many urban locations, designers face the reality that space is limited 

on most urban streets. Unless plans call for a roadway widening project, the extra width for bike lanes is 

often very difficult to find in retrofit situations. In central business districts, roadway widening for bike 

lanes is usually not a desired option, since it could cause problems for pedestrians by further reducing 

sidewalk space. This section discusses possible options to consider when retrofitting bicycle lanes into 

limited space on existing streets. 

Where existing street width does not permit desirable roadway cross-section dimensions to be used, it 

may be possible to modify elements of the roadway to accommodate bike lanes. In their guidelines, the 

Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) considers these options:(3)

• Reduction of travel lane width. 

• Reduction of the number of travel lanes. 

• Removal, narrowing, or reconfiguration of parking. 

• Other design options. 

ODOT uses the guidelines in this section to determine how a roadway can be modified to accommodate 

bike lanes without significantly affecting the safety or operation of the roadway. The reduced travel lane 

widths are within AASHTO minimums. ODOT stresses the importance of using good engineering 

judgment when retrofitting bike lanes on existing streets. 
252 Bicycle Lanes 

Reduction of Travel Lane Widths 

The need for full-width travel lanes decreases with speed (see figure 15-2): 

• Up to 40 km/h (25 mi/h), travel lanes may be reduced to 3.0 or 3.2 m (10.0 or 10.5 ft). 

• From 50 to 65 km/h (30 to 40 mi/h), 3.3-m (11-ft) travel lanes and 3.6-m (12-ft) center turn lanes 

may be acceptable. 

• At 70 km/h (45 mi/h) or greater, try to maintain a 3.6-m (12-ft) outside travel lane and 4.2-m 

(14-ft) center turn lane if there are high truck volumes. 

3.6 m

(12 ft)

4.8 m

(16 ft)

4.2 m

(14 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

4.2 m

(14 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

20.4 m (68 ft)

BEFORE

AFTER

Figure 15-2. Illustration. Retrofitting bike lanes by reducing travel lane widths. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

Reduction of the Number of Travel Lanes 

Many one-way street pairs were originally two-way streets. This can result in an excessive number of 

travel lanes in one direction. A traffic capacity study will determine if traffic can be handled with one less 

lane (see figure 15-3). 
Bicycle Lanes 253 

3.3 m

(11 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

4.2 m

(14 ft)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

BEFORE

AFTER

13.2 m (44 ft)

Figure 15-3. Illustration. Reducing the number of 

travel lanes on a one-way street. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

On two-way streets with four travel lanes and a significant number of left-turn movements, restriping for 

a center turn lane, two travel lanes, and two bike lanes can often improve traffic flow (see figure 15-4). 

This type of street reconfiguration is referred to as a road diet and is considered to be effective at calming 

traffic and providing space for bicyclists while still providing a reasonable vehicle LOS. Burden and 

Lagerway summarize the street and location criteria that can be used to identify potential candidates for 

road diets:(5)

• Moderate volumes (8,000–15,000 ADT). 

• Roads with safety issues. 

• Transit corridors. 

• Popular or essential bicycle routes/links. 

• Commercial reinvestment areas. 

• Economic enterprise zones. 

• Historic streets. 

• Scenic roads. 

• Entertainment districts. 

• Main streets. 
254 Bicycle Lanes 

BEFORE

AFTER

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

Figure 15-4. Illustration. Road diet: retrofitting bike lanes 

by reducing the number of travel lanes. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

Removal, Narrowing or Reconfiguration of Parking 

A roadway’s primary function is to move people and goods rather than to store stationary vehicles. When 

parking is removed, safety and capacity are generally improved. Removal of parking will require 

negotiations with the local governing body (such as the city council), affected business owners, and 

residents. To reduce potential conflicts, careful research is needed before making a proposal, including: 

• Counting the number of businesses and residences and the availability of both on-street and 

off-street parking. 

• Selecting which side of the roadway would be less affected by removal (usually the side with 

fewer residences or businesses, or the side with residences rather than businesses in a mixed-use 

neighborhood). 

• Proposing alternatives such as: 

o Allowing parking for church or school activities on adjacent lots during services or special 

events. 

o Promoting shared use by businesses. 

o Constructing special parking spaces for residents or businesses with no other options. 

Instead of removal of all on-street parking, several other options can be pursued. Parking can be narrowed 

to 2.1 m (7 ft) (see figure 15-5), particularly in areas with low truck parking volumes. 
Bicycle Lanes 255 

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

1.5 m

(5 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

BEFORE

AFTER

13.2 m (44 ft)

Parking

3.0 m

(10 ft)

Parking

2.4 m

(8 ft)

Parking

3.0 m

(10 ft)

Parking

2.1 m

(7 ft)

Figure 15-5. Illustration. Narrowing parking on a one-way street. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

Bicycle lanes next to on-street parking can be problematic if enough space is not provided to prevent 

bicyclists from riding into an opened door. The AASHTO Guide recommends a combined width of 3.9 m 

(13 ft) for combined width of parking and bike lanes (see figure 15-1). 

In some cases, parking may be needed on only one side to accommodate residences and/or businesses 

(see figure 15-6). Note that it is not always necessary to retain parking on the same side of the road 

through an entire corridor. 

Parking

3.0 m

(10 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

BEFORE

AFTER

Parking

2.4 m

(8 ft)

13.2 m (44 ft)

Parking

3.0 m

(10 ft)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

Figure 15-6. Illustration. Parking removed on one side of a two-way street. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

Diagonal parking takes up an inordinate amount of roadway width relative to the number of parking 

spaces provided. It can also be hazardous, as drivers backing out cannot see oncoming traffic. Changing 

to parallel parking reduces availability by less than one-half (see figure 15-7). On one-way streets, 

changing to parallel parking on one side only is sufficient; this reduces parking by less than one-fourth. 
256 Bicycle Lanes 

BEFORE

AFTER

3.6 m

(12 ft)

Diagonal

Parking

4.2 m

(14 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

1.8 m

(6 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.6 m

(12 ft)

15.6 m (52 ft)

Parking

2.4 m

(8 ft)

Parking

2.4 m

(8 ft)

Diagonal

Parking

4.2 m

(14 ft)

Figure 15-7. Illustration. Changing from diagonal to parallel parking on a two-way street. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

Most business owners cite the fear of losing potential customers as the main reason to retain on-street 

parking. Many cities have had success with ordinances prohibiting employees from parking on the street. 

This could help increase the number of available parking spaces for customers, even if the total number of 

parking spaces is reduced. Note that one parking place occupied by an employee for 8 hours is the 

equivalent of 16 customers parking for half an hour, or 32 customers parking for 15 minutes. 

Where all of the above possibilities of replacing parking with bike lanes have been pursued, and 

residential or business parking losses cannot be sustained, innovative ideas should be considered to 

provide parking, such as off-street parking. Other uses of the right-of-way should also be considered, such 

as using a portion of a planting strip where available (see figure 15-8). 

BEFORE AFTER

Figure 15-8. Illustration. Providing parking when there are no reasonable alternatives. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)
Bicycle Lanes 257 

Other Design Options 

Not all existing roadway conditions will be as simple to retrofit as those listed previously. In many 

instances, unique and creative solutions will have to be found. Width restrictions may only permit a wide 

curb lane (4.2–4.8 m (14–16 ft)) to accommodate bicycles and motor vehicles (see figure 15-9). Bike 

lanes must resume where the restriction ends. It is important that every effort be made to ensure bike lane 

continuity. Practices such as directing bicyclists onto sidewalks or other streets for short distances should 

be avoided, as they may introduce unsafe conditions. 

BEFORE

AFTER

3.9 m

(13 ft)

3.9 m

(13 ft)

3.9 m

(13 ft)

3.9 m

(13 ft)

4.5 m

(15 ft)

4.5 m

(15 ft)

15.6 m (52 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

Figure 15-9. Illustration. Restriping for a wide curb lane. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

Other minor improvements at the outer edge of the roadway should be made in conjunction with bike lane 

restriping, including: 

• Existing drainage grates, and manhole and utility covers should be raised flush to the pavement 

prior to striping a bike lane. 

• Minor widening may be required to obtain adequate width. 

• Removal or relocation of obstructions away from the edge of the roadway may gain some usable 

width. Obstructions can include guardrails, utility poles, and sign posts. 

Additional Benefits from Retrofitting Bike Lanes 

Safety is enhanced as travel lanes are offset from curbs, lanes are better defined, and parking is removed 

or reduced. Adding bike lanes can often improve sight distance and increase turning radii at intersections 

and driveways. Restriping travel lanes redistributes motor vehicle traffic, which can help extend the 

pavement life, as traffic is no longer driving in the same well-worn ruts. 

Salem, OR, Case Study 

A paper by Chuck Fisher contains information about how the city of Salem, OR, approached the retrofit 

of bicycle lanes in their city.(6) The first step in the retrofitting process was identifying which streets 

would make the best connections for bicyclists. In Salem, there is a lack of connectivity between the outer 

areas’ bicycle facilities and the downtown core. Particularly lacking are connecting bicycle lanes within 
258 Bicycle Lanes 

3 km (2 mi) of downtown, the area most likely served by increased levels of bicycling. Salem city staff 

recognized that retrofitting these older neighborhoods with bike lanes and removing all on-street parking 

would probably have created a political firestorm. As a result, the staff developed policies and 

methodologies that allowed for the mitigation of on-street parking demand. 

Policy Language. The relevant policy language is contained within the Goal, Objective, and Policies of 

the Salem Transportation System Plan’s Bicycle System Element: 

Policy 1.2—Mitigation of On-Street Parking Loss Due to Future Bicycle Facility 

Projects. Where new bicycle facilities require the removal of on-street parking spaces on 

existing roadways, parking facilities shall be provided that mitigate, at a minimum, the 

existing on-street parking demand lost to the bike project. This policy does not apply to 

street widening or major reconstruction projects. 

The key phrase in the policy is the mitigation of parking demand, not supply. As part of the update of the 

plan, the staff developed criteria for ranking potential bike projects. Working with this list, the staff 

determined which projects were to be included for the next construction season. First and foremost, the 

staff surveys the existing on-street parking demand on the facility. Other data collection includes existing 

cross sections and on-street parking supply. Analysis activities included sketching cross-section design, 

locating alternative on-street parking locations, and developing initial project cost estimates. 

Public Involvement. At this point, the staff began a public involvement process that included 

neighborhood meetings, letters to abutting property owners, public workshops to determine alternatives, 

on-street sign notification, Citizens Advisory Traffic Commission meetings, and final approval by the 

City Council. 

Some of the alternatives presented by the staff at the meeting workshops included restriping the road to 

accommodate parking on one side instead of two. Neighbors were asked to help determine on which side 

of the street parking should remain, given that only half of the parking supply would be required to meet 

the demand. A variation on this would be to alternate the parking from side to side. For instance, if a 

six-block area required parking on one side, a solution might be to allow parking on one side for three 

blocks and then changing to the other side for three blocks. 

Another alternative would be to build parking bays, especially if only a small amount of parking 

mitigation would be required. Similar to bus bays or pull-outs, these would add the necessary room to 

accommodate parking in what had been the planting strip, between the curb and sidewalk. 

15.4 Bicycle Lanes at Intersections and Interchanges 

At intersections and interchanges, bicyclists proceeding straight through and motorists making turns must 

cross paths. Lane striping and signing configurations that encourage crossings and merging in advance of 

the intersection are preferable to those that force a crossing or merging in the immediate vicinity of the 

intersection. The following paragraphs within this section provide guidance on bike lane design issues at 

intersections and interchanges. 

Intersections with Right-Turn Lanes 

The AASHTO Guide provides supplemental information about the design of bike lanes at intersections 

with right-turn lanes.(1) Figure 15-10 illustrates typical bike lane design and pavement markings at a 

variety of intersection approaches. There are several possible approaches for bike lane design where these 
Bicycle Lanes 259 

right-turn lanes are present (see figure 15-11). The most desirable configuration will depend on the local 

road cross section and turning vehicle traffic patterns. 

Minor interse cti on

Signalized intersectio n

 solid line

Dotted line for bus stops

immediately beyond the

intersection is optional;

otherwise use 150-mm

(6-inch) solid line

15-60 m 50-200 ft ()

dotted line -

0.6 m 2 ft ( ) dot,

1.8 m (6 ft) space

Optional 100-mm

( solid line 4-inch)

150-mm 6-inch ()

solid line

15-60 m 50-200 ft) (

dotted line if bus stop

or heavy

right-turn volume

R3-17

R7 series sign

(as appropriate)

R3-17

R7 series sign

(as appropriate)

R3-17

R8-3a

R3-17

R8-3a

150-mm 6-inch ()

Figure 15-10. Illustration. Typical pavement markings for bike lane on two-way street. 

Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (1)
260 Bicycle Lanes 

A. Right-turn-only lane b

Note: The dotted lines in cases "A" and "B" are optional (see case "C”)

C. Right-turn-only lane

B. Parking lane into right-turn-only lane

D. Optional right/straight and right-turn-only lane

R3-7R R3-8

W11-1 and W16-1

(Optional)

R4-4 at beginning of

right-turn lane

R3-7R R3-7R

R4-4 at beginning of

right-turn lane

R4-4 at beginning of

right-turn lane

Figure 15-11. Illustrations. Possible configurations for bike lane and right-turn lane. 

Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (1)

Dual right-turn lanes are particularly difficult for bicyclists. Warrants for dual turn lanes should be used to 

ensure that such lanes are provided only if absolutely necessary. The design for single right-turn lanes 

allows bicyclists and motorists to cross paths in a predictable manner, but the addition of a through lane 
Bicycle Lanes 261 

from which cars may also turn adds complexity. Some drivers make a last minute decision to turn right 

from the center lane without signaling, thus catching bicyclists and pedestrians unaware. 

Several approaches to bike lane design with dual right-turn lanes are provided in figure 15-12. Design 

alternative A encourages cyclists to share the optional through-right-turn lane with motorists. Design 

alternative B guides cyclists up to the intersection in a dedicated bike lane. Design alternative C allows 

cyclists to choose a path themselves (this design is the AASHTO recommendation—simply dropping the 

bike lane prior to the intersection). Engineering judgment should be used to determine which design is 

most appropriate for the situation. 

A BC

Figure 15-12. Illustrations. Design alternatives for a through bike lane with dual right-turn lanes. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

On bike lane retrofit projects where there is insufficient room to mark a minimum 1.2-m (4-ft) bike lane 

to the left of the right-turn lane, a right-turn lane may be marked and signed as a shared-use lane to 

encourage through-cyclists to occupy the left portion of the turn lane (see figure 15-13). This has proven 

to be most effective on slow-speed streets. 
262 Bicycle Lanes 

Figure 15-13. Illustration. Right-turn lane shared by bicyclists and motorists. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

Intersections with Bus Stops 

If there is a bus stop at the near side of an intersection, a broken white bike lane line between 15 and 60 m 

(50 and 200 ft) in length should be used, and the solid white line should resume on the far side of the 

intersection, immediately after the crosswalk (see figure 15-10). If a bus stop is located on the far side of 

the intersection, the solid white line on the far side of the intersection should be replaced with a broken 

line for a distance of at least 24 m (80 ft) from the crosswalk. 

Traffic Signal Actuation 

It is recommended that new on-road bicycle facilities include traffic signals that detect bicycles for all 

actuated signal systems. The Traffic Detector Handbook recommends several bicycle-sensitive loop 

configurations (loops are wires installed beneath the pavement surface that detect the presence of 

vehicles) that can effectively detect bicycles.(7) The quadrupole loop is the preferred solution for bike 

lanes, and the diagonal quadrupole loop is preferred for use in shared lanes (see figure 15-14). 

A potential solution for existing intersection signals that do not respond well to bicycles is to install a 

special pavement marking over the exact spot that a bicycle must stop in order to activate the signal. 

MUTCD, 2003 edition, recommends a pavement marking that can be used to locate these sensitive areas 

covering loop detectors for bicyclists (see figure 15-15).(2)
Bicycle Lanes 263 

Standard Loop

detects most strongly over

 wires

gradual cut-off

used for advanced detection

Diagonal Quadrupole Loop

sensitive over whole area

sharp cut-off of sensitivity

used in shaded lanes

Quadrupole Loop

detects most strongly in center

sharp cut-off of sensitivity

used in bike lanes

Directionof travelDirectionof travelDirectionof travel

Figure 15-14. Illustrations. Different loop detector configurations for traffic signals. 

Source: Traffic Detector Handbook(7)

150 mm (6 inches)

125 mm (5 inches)

600 mm (24 inches)

50 mm (2 inches)

150 mm (6 inches)

Figure 15-15. Illustration. Example of bicycle detector pavement marking. 

Source: MUTCD, 2003 Edition(2)
264 Bicycle Lanes 

Expressway Interchanges 

Expressway interchanges often present barriers to bicycle travel. Designs that encourage free-flowing 

motor vehicle traffic movements are the most difficult for pedestrians and bicyclists to negotiate. 

Interchanges with access ramps connected to local streets at a right angle are easiest for bicyclists to 

negotiate. The intersection of the ramp and the street should follow established urban intersection designs. 

The main advantages of this approach are: 

• The distance that pedestrians and bicyclists must cross at the ramps is minimized. 

• Signalized intersections stop traffic. 

• Visibility is enhanced. 

If these configurations are unavoidable, mitigation measures should be sought. Special designs should be 

considered that allow pedestrians and bicyclists to cross ramps in locations with good visibility and where 

speeds are low. 

Where it is not possible to accommodate pedestrians and bicyclists with at-grade crossings, grade 

separation should be considered. Grade-separated facilities are expensive; they add out-of-direction travel 

and will not be used if the added distance is too great. This can create problems if pedestrians and 

bicyclists ignore the facility and try to negotiate the interchange at grade with no sidewalks, bike lanes, or 

crosswalks. 

In some instances, a separate path can be provided on only one side of the interchange, which leads to 

awkward crossing movements. Some bicyclists will be riding on a path facing traffic, creating difficulties 

when they must cross back to a bike lane or shoulder (clear and easy-to-follow directions must be given to 

guide bicyclists’ movements if those movements are inconsistent with standard bicycle operation). 

The following concepts have been presented by ODOT as examples of innovative solutions to bike lane 

design at freeway/expressway interchanges and intersections.(3) Traffic entering or exiting a roadway at 

high speeds creates difficulties for slower-moving bicyclists. 

It is difficult for bicyclists to traverse the undefined area created by right-lane merge movements, 

because: 

• The acute angle of the approach creates visibility problems. 

• Motor vehicles are often accelerating to merge into traffic. 

• The speed differential between cyclists and motorists is high. 

The design in figure 15-16 guides bicyclists at merging entrance ramps in a manner that provides: 

• A short distance across the ramp at close to a right angle. 

• Improved sight distances in an area where traffic speeds are slower than farther downstream. 

• A crossing in an area where drivers’ attention is not entirely focused on merging with traffic. 
Bicycle Lanes 265 

Entrance ramp

Travel lanes

6 7 5 5 °- °

6 m (20 ft)

min. Radius

W11-1

Figure 15-16. Illustration. Bike lane configuration at entrance ramp 

(urban design—not for limited access freeways). 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

Exit ramps present difficulties for bicyclists because: 

• Motor vehicles exit at fairly high speeds. 

• The acute angle creates visibility problems. 

• Exiting drivers often do not use their right-turn signal, thus confusing pedestrians and bicyclists 

seeking a gap in the traffic. 

The exit ramp design in figure 15-17 guides bicyclists in a manner that provides: 

• A short distance across the ramp, at close to a right angle. 

• Improved sight distances in an area where traffic speeds are slower than farther upstream. 

• A crossing in an area where the driver’s attention is not distracted by other motor vehicles. 
266 Bicycle Lanes 

•

Inside radius =

9 m (30 ft) min.

Approximate angle 15°

Figure 15-17. Illustration. Bike lane configuration at exit ramp 

(urban design—not for limited access freeways). 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

15.5 Bicycle Lane Pavement Markings 

Section 9C of MUTCD addresses numerous aspects of pavement markings for bicycle facilities.(2)

Pavement markings typically consist of: 

• Solid or broken-edge line lane markings that delineate the vehicle travel lane and the bike lane 

(see figure 15-10 for examples). 

• Lane symbols that indicate the preferential nature of the bike lane and its direction (see figure 

15-18 for examples). 

• Traffic signal detector symbol to indicate preferred bicyclist stopping location at actuated signals 

(see figure 15-15 for example). 

• Pavement markings to warn of road hazards or obstructions. 

Care should be taken to use pavement striping that is durable, yet skid-resistant. Reflectors and raised 

markings in bike lanes can deflect a bicycle wheel, causing a bicyclist to lose control. If reflective 

pavement markers are needed for motorists, they should be installed on the motorist’s side of the stripe 

and have a beveled front edge. 
Bicycle Lanes 267 

Directional arrow

Symbols Word Legends

(optional)

= 100 mm x 100 mm

(4 inches x 4 inches)

Normal 

white line

1.8 m (6 ft)

(optional)

1.8 m (6 ft)

1.8 m (6 ft)

Figure 15-18. Illustrations. Examples of optional word and symbol 

pavement markings for bike lanes. 

Source: MUTCD, 2003 Edition(2)

15.6 Bicycle Lane Signing 

MUTCD section 9B addresses standard bike lane signing. Figure 15-19 shows regulatory signs for 

bicycle facilities (including bike lanes). MUTCD also provides recommendations for warning signs and 

bicycle route guide signs. Key MUTCD signing principles for bicycle facilities are: 

• Bicycle signs shall follow standard MUTCD conventions for shape, legend, and color. 

• All signs shall be retroreflectorized. 

• Where signs serve bicyclists and other road users, the size, vertical mounting height, and lateral 

placement shall be as specified for vehicle traffic applications. 
268 Bicycle Lanes 

• Except for size, the design of signs specifically for bicycle facilities should be identical to that 

specified in MUTCD for vehicular travel. 

R4-2

R5-3 R5-6 R7-9

R9-3c

R5-1b

R1-1

R9-3a R9-6 R9-7

R3-17a

R3-17 R3-17b

R9-5 R10-3 R10-22 R15-1

R7-9a

R4-1 R4-3 R4-4 R4-7

R1-2

Figure 15-19. Illustrations. Regulatory signs for bicycle facilities. 

Source: MUTCD, 2003 Edition(2)
Bicycle Lanes 269 

15.7 Other Design Considerations 

Colored Bike Lanes 

Colored bike lanes have been tested in two U.S. cities (Portland, OR, and Cambridge, MA) as a way to 

guide bicyclists through complex intersections as well as to make motorists aware that they are crossing a 

bike lane. The concept of colored bike lanes has been applied and is standard practice in several European 

countries such as The Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Belgium, and France (see 

lesson 23). A study of blue bike lanes in Portland, OR (see figure 15-20 for example), reached the 

following conclusions:(8)

• Significantly more motorists yielded to bicyclists and slowed or stopped before entering the blue 

pavement area; 

• More bicyclists followed the colored bike lane path. 

• Fewer bicyclists turned their heads to scan for traffic or used hand signals, perhaps signifying an 

increased comfort level or lower level of caution. 

Colored bike lanes have issues of maintenance—the paint wears quickly with vehicle traffic. As of 2004, 

the use of colored bike lanes has not been endorsed by any national design manuals or standards (such as 

the AASHTO Guide or MUTCD). 

Figure 15-20. Photo. Example of blue bike lane in Portland, OR. 

Source: Evaluation of the Blue Bike-Lane Treatment Used in Bicycle/Motor Vehicle Conflict 

Areas in Portland, Oregon, http://www.trans.ci.portland.or.us/bicycles/broadwayblue.htm(8)
270 Bicycle Lanes 

Contraflow Bike Lanes 

Contraflow bicycle lanes on a one-way street are not usually recommended. They may encourage cyclists 

to ride against traffic, which is contrary to the rules of the road and a leading cause of bicycle/motor 

vehicle crashes. There are, however, special circumstances when this design may be advantageous: 

• A contraflow bike lane provides a substantial savings in out-of-direction travel. 

• The contraflow bike lane provides direct access to high-use destinations. 

• Improved safety because of reduced conflicts on the longer route. 

• There are few intersecting driveways, alleys, or streets on the side of the contraflow lane. 

• Bicyclists can safely and conveniently reenter the traffic stream at either end of the section. 

• A substantial number of cyclists are already using the street. 

• There is sufficient street width to accommodate a bike lane. 

A contraflow bike lane may also be appropriate on a one-way residential street recently converted from a 

two-way street (especially where this change was made to calm traffic). 

For a contraflow bike lane to function well, special features should be incorporated into the design: 

• The contraflow bike lane must be placed on the proper side of the street (to motorists’ left) and 

must be separated from oncoming traffic by a double yellow line. This indicates that the bicyclists 

are riding on the street legally, in a dedicated travel lane. 

• Any intersecting alleys, major driveways, and streets must have signs indicating to motorists that 

they should expect two-way bicycle traffic. 

• Existing traffic signals should be fitted with special signals for bicyclists (see figure 15-21); this 

can be achieved with either loop detectors or pushbuttons (these should be easily reached by 

bicyclists without having to dismount). 

Under no circumstances should a contraflow bike lane be installed on a two-way street, even where the 

travel lanes are separated by a raised median. 
Bicycle Lanes 271 

(This picture shows a bicyclist not wearing a helmet. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 15-21. Photo. Contraflow bike lane with bicycle-specific signal in Madison, WI. 

Diagonal Parking 

Diagonal parking causes conflicts with bicycle travel: Drivers backing out have poor vision of oncoming 

cyclists; parked vehicles obscure other vehicles backing out. These factors require cyclists to ride close to 

the center of a travel lane, which is intimidating to inexperienced riders. 

Where possible on one-way streets, diagonal parking should be limited to the left side, even if the street 

has no bike lane (on one-way streets with bike lanes, the bike lane should be placed adjacent to parallel 

parking, preferably on the right). 

Bike lanes are not usually placed next to diagonal parking. However, should diagonal parking be required 

on a street planned for bike lanes, the following recommendations can help decrease potential conflicts: 

• The parking bays must be long enough to accommodate most vehicles. 

• A 200-mm (8-in) stripe should separate the parking area from the bike lane (see figure 15-22). 

• Enforcement may be needed to cite or remove vehicles encroaching on the bike lane. 
272 Bicycle Lanes 

Figure 15-22. Illustration. Use of wide stripe to separate bike lane from diagonal parking. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

Some cities have found the use of back-in diagonal parking to be more effective along streets with bike 

lanes. With back-in diagonal parking, parking motorists are required to stop in the travel lane and back 

their car across the bike lane into the parking spot. When leaving the back-in diagonal parking, the 

motorists are in a much better position to see bicycles approaching the bike lane. This design alternative 

has not been widely used yet, and more experience will determine its effects on the safety and operation 

of bike lanes near parking. 

15.8 Practices to Avoid 

Two-Way Bike Lanes 

Two-way bike lanes create a dangerous condition for bicyclists (see figure 15-23). They encourage illegal 

riding against traffic, causing several problems: 

• At intersections and driveways, wrong-way riders approach from a direction where they are not 

visible to motorists. 

• Bicyclists closest to the motor vehicle lane have opposing motor vehicle traffic on one side and 

opposing bicycle traffic on the other. 

• Bicyclists are put into awkward positions when transitioning back to standard bikeways. 

If constraints allow widening on only one side of the road, the centerline stripe may be shifted to allow for 

adequate travel lanes and bike lanes. 
Bicycle Lanes 273 

Primary Field of View

Primary Field of View

Two-way

bike lane

Figure 15-23. Illustration. A wrong-way bicyclist in a two-way bike lane 

is not in a driver’s field of vision. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

Continuous Right-Turn Lanes 

A continuous right-turn lane configuration is difficult for bicyclists. Riding on the right puts them in 

conflict with right-turning cars, but riding on the left puts them in conflict with cars merging into and out 

of the right-turn lane. The best solution is to eliminate the continuous right-turn lane, consolidate 

accesses, and create well-defined intersections (Figure 15-24). 
274 Bicycle Lanes 

Before After

Figure 15-24. Illustration. Reconfiguration of a continuous 

right-turn lane to be bicycle-friendly. 

Source: Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan(3)

15.9 Student Exercise 

Exercise A 

Redesign a local intersection to include bike lanes. Choose an intersection with a moderate level of 

complexity, and assume that curb lines can be moved at will in order to achieve your design. Prepare a 

report and graphics that show existing conditions and your recommended modifications. Signalization 

changes (if necessary) should also be explained, as well as any advance striping and signing needed on 

the intersection approaches. 

Exercise B 

Choose a local urban street that would be a good candidate for a bike lane retrofit project. Redesign a 

two-block section of the roadway to include bike lanes (sketch drawings will be sufficient). Present at 

least two options for retrofitting the street, and include solutions that would require further traffic studies. 

Indicate proposed dimensions for travel lanes, parking lanes, and bike lanes. If removal of parking is one 

of your solutions, describe the public involvement process you would go through to achieve agreement 

from adjacent property owners and businesses. 
Bicycle Lanes 275 

15.10 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1999. 

2. MUTCD, FHWA, Washington, DC, 2003, available online at http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov, 

accessed April 22, 2004. 

3. Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, Oregon Department of Transportation, Salem, OR, 1995. 

4. Philadelphia Bicycle Facility Design Guidelines, Philadelphia Department of Streets, 

Philadelphia, PA,1998. 

5. Burden, D., and P. Lagerwey, Road Diets: Fixing the Big Roads, Walkable Communities, Inc., 

March 1999, available online at http://www.contextsensitivesolutions.org/content/reading/ 

road-diets-3/resources/road-diets-fixing/. 

6. Fisher, C., “Retrofitting Bicycle Lanes While Mitigating On-Street Parking Demand,” Pro 

Bike/Pro Walk 1996 Conference Proceedings, Portland, ME, September 1996. 

7. Kell, J.H., I.J. Fullerton, and M.K. Mills, Traffic Detector Handbook, Publication No. 

FHWA-IP-90-002, FHWA, July 1990, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/tfhrc/safety/pubs/Ip90002/intro.htm, accessed April 28, 2004. 

8. Hunter, W.W., D.L. Harkey, J.R. Stewart, and M.L. Birk, Evaluation of the Blue Bike Lane 

Treatment Used in Bicycle/Motor Vehicle Conflict Areas in Portland, Oregon, Publication No. 

FHWA-RD-00-150, August 2000, available online at 

http://www.walkinginfo.org/pdf/r&d/bluelane.PDF, accessed April 28, 2004. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Bike Lane Design Guide, PBIC, October 2002, available online at 

http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/de/bikelaneguide.htm, accessed April 28, 2004. 

Bicycle Facility Maintenance 277 

LESSON 16: 

BICYCLE FACILITY MAINTENANCE 

16.1 Introduction 

This lesson describes maintenance programs and activities that are critical to successful bicycle facilities, 

and it recommends a step-by-step approach to solving common maintenance problems. The major 

sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 16.1 Introduction. 

• 16.2 Problem Overview. 

• 16.3 Solution Overview. 

• 16.4 Objectives. 

• 16.5 Implementation Strategies. 

• 16.6 Subtasks. 

• 16.7 Schedule and Resource Requirements. 

• 16.8 Typical Maintenance Concerns. 

• 16.9 Student Exercise. 

• 16.10 References and Additional Resources. 

This lesson on bicycle facility maintenance has been primarily derived from the “Bicycle-Related 

Maintenance” chapter of the FHWA publication, Implementing Bicycle Improvements at the Local 

Level.

(1) Other sources of information are listed at the end of the lesson. 

16.2 Problem Overview 

Bicycles and bicyclists tend to be particularly sensitive to maintenance problems. Many bicycles lack 

suspension systems, and as a result, potholes that motorists would hardly notice can cause serious 

problems for bicyclists. In addition, since bicyclists often ride near the right edge of the road—sometimes 

as required by traffic law—they use areas that are generally less well maintained than the main traffic 

lanes. On roads with higher vehicle speeds, air from passing vehicle traffic typically sweeps debris to the 

right where most bicyclists travel. In addition, ridges, such as those found where a new asphalt overlay 

does not quite cover the older roadway surface, can catch a wheel, and throw a bicyclist to the ground. 

Aside from these general problems, special bicycle facilities often need more maintenance than they 

receive. On shared-use trails, for example, vegetation is often allowed to overgrow the pavement edge, 

effectively narrowing the usable surface. Soil treatments that are commonly used under new roadbeds are 

sometimes ignored on trail projects; as a result, the surfaces are quickly destroyed by intruding plants. 

16.3 Solution Overview 

For the most part, satisfying bicycle facility maintenance requirements is a matter of slightly modifying 

current roadway procedures. For example, if street sweeping crews pay a bit more attention to the right 

edge of the road, it can benefit bicyclists greatly. 
278 Bicycle Facility Maintenance 

In addition, using maintenance-friendly design and construction techniques can reduce the need for 

special and sometimes costly treatments later. For example, when paving a street bordered by unpaved 

alleys and driveways, paving into those alleys and driveways 3 to 6 m (10 to 20 ft) (depending on grades 

and other features) can keep entering traffic from dragging gravel and other debris onto the paved surface. 

Special bicycle facilities such as bike lanes or trails may require enhanced maintenance (see figure 16-1). 

This cost, along with a clear understanding of who has responsibility for maintenance, should be part of 

every project budget. 

Figure 16-1. Photo. Shared-use paths and bicycle lanes 

may require additional maintenance. 

16.4 Objectives 

The primary objectives of a bicycle facility maintenance program should be to: 

1. Maintain roadways and bikeways to a relatively hazard-free standard. This can be accomplished 

by: 

• Sweeping pavement edges and paved shoulders with sufficient care. 

• Patching surfaces as smoothly as possible and requiring other agencies or private companies 

to do likewise whenever they dig up a road or trail. 

• Making sure pavement overlay projects feather the new surface into the existing one or 

otherwise do not create new linear joints. 

• Replacing such hazards as dangerous grates or utility covers as the opportunity arises. 

• Patching potholes in an expeditious manner. 

• Routinely cutting back all encroaching vegetation, especially on trails or popular bike routes. 

2. Encourage bicyclists to report maintenance problems and hazards. This can be accomplished by: 

• Developing a bicycle spot improvement form and distributing copies throughout the bicycling 

community. 

• Making sure returned forms are acted on in a timely fashion. 
Bicycle Facility Maintenance 279 

3. Design and build new roadways and bikeways in such a way as to reduce the potential for 

accumulating debris. This can be accomplished by: 

• Using edge treatments, shoulder surfaces, and access controls that reduce the potential for 

accumulation of debris (see figure 16-2). 

• Using materials and construction techniques that increase the longevity of new trail surfaces. 

Figure 16-2. Photo. Roadways with paved shoulders should reduce on-road debris. 

4. Include maintenance costs and clearly spelled-out maintenance procedures in all bicycle facility 

projects. This can be accomplished by: 

• Including reasonable estimates of the maintenance costs in the project budget. 

• Establishing clear maintenance responsibilities in advance of construction. 

16.5 Implementation Strategies 

Improving maintenance for bicycle facilities requires action on several fronts. First, maintenance policies 

used by all relevant agencies should be reviewed and changed, if necessary. Second, designers should be 

encouraged to think maintenance when they design: low-maintenance requirements should be the rule 

rather than the exception. And, finally, an outreach effort should be implemented to: 

• Encourage bicyclists to report maintenance problems. 

• Identify existing maintenance problems, particularly on special bicycle facilities or popular 

bicycling routes. 
280 Bicycle Facility Maintenance 

16.6 Subtasks 

Subtask 1—Identify Key Implementers 

Implementation requires working closely with those agencies and personnel responsible for maintaining 

the current infrastructure, as well as those charged with designing and building new facilities. For 

roadway maintenance, this may mean the local street department or the State transportation agency’s 

district maintenance division. For trails, it may mean local, State, or Federal parks or lands agencies. 

New facility design can involve local engineering and parks planning agencies, as well as State and 

Federal officials, depending on jurisdiction. It may be, for example, that a new arterial street being built in 

the local community is actually designed by engineers working in a remote headquarters office. 

Subtask 2—Review Existing Policies and Practices 

In some cases, an agency’s policies, standards, and guidance are included in formal documents that have 

gone through an approval process or that have been issued by department supervisors. Examples of these 

may be standard sweeping schedules and priority streets for snow removal. Conducting a review of these 

may be relatively simple once copies have been obtained. 

On the other hand, some practices may simply be matters of how a particular person handles a specific 

task. For instance, one street sweeper may leave more of the right roadway edge unswept than did another 

sweeper. Identifying important areas in which practices vary from standard procedure—or in which 

standard procedures do not exist—can help in determining needed improvements in such areas as policy 

development, communication, and employee training. 

Subtask 3—Review Results in the Field and Solicit Comments from Users 

In some cases, policies may seem reasonable in theory but may break down in practice. For this reason, it 

is important to see how well the facilities work. Checking out the street and trail system from the saddle 

of a bicycle can help uncover previously unknown problems. For instance, an agency may have a policy 

of sweeping arterial streets every two weeks. But field experience may show that certain arterials are 

subject to greater accumulations of debris from nearby land uses. Increasing the frequency of sweeping on 

such streets—particularly if they are popular bicycling streets—may be necessary. 

In addition, soliciting comments from users can help identify problems that would otherwise be 

overlooked. Because of their intimate knowledge of surface conditions, bicycle users can often pinpoint 

specific locations and needs. To get information, send news releases to local bicycle groups, as well as the 

media, asking for help. In all likelihood, users will welcome the opportunity to contribute. 

Subtask 4—Recommend Appropriate Changes in Policies and Practices 

Based on the reviews and comments discussed above, develop modified versions of policies and practices 

where warranted; for important topics not previously covered, develop new guidance for adoption. Work 

with the appropriate agencies to make sure the changes are understood and implemented. 

Subtask 5—Create an Ongoing Spot Improvement Program 

As mentioned earlier, soliciting comments from users can help an agency find specific problem locations. 

Institutionalizing this process, in the form of a spot improvement program, can provide ongoing input 

and, in many cases, help identify problems before someone gets hurt. In addition, such a program can 
Bicycle Facility Maintenance 281 

dramatically improve the relationship between an agency and the bicycling public. Spot improvement 

programs are good policy and good public relations. 

To this end, set aside a modest annual budgetary allocation for user-requested spot improvements. Create 

mail-back postcards (see figure 16-3 for example postcard) for distribution to local bicycle shops and user 

groups. As cards come in, check out the locations identified and take action as necessary. 

Figure 16-3. Photo. Example of spot improvement postcard 

used to identify roadway maintenance issues. 

Source: Vermont Bicycle & Pedestrian Coalition(2)

Subtask 6—Evaluate Progress 

As the work proceeds, keep track of successes and failures, as well as the schedule of routine maintenance 

activities. Identify changes that have or have not been made to policies and determine if additional effort 

is needed. On an annual basis, ask the bicycling public for comments on maintenance issues in general, 

and the spot improvement program in particular. In addition, keep track of the numbers and kinds of 

problems identified and how they were dealt with. Finally, determine if the program budget is appropriate 

to the task. 

16.7 Schedule and Resource Requirements 

In regions with harsh winters, special effort should be made to clear the winter’s accumulation of road 

sand and other debris early in the spring. Also, the periods following high winds and flooding may require 

special attention. 

For the most part, bicycle-related maintenance tasks involve the work an agency already does; little 

additional effort will be required. It may simply mean adding popular bicycling routes to the priority 

sweeping route network, for example. In some instances, however, additional equipment may be needed. 
282 Bicycle Facility Maintenance 

For example, maintaining a particular trail may require purchasing special equipment—perhaps a small 

sweeper or a special attachment for a tractor. 

16.8 Typical Maintenance Concerns 

The following paragraphs list and describe bicyclists’ most common maintenance concerns and some 

typical solutions. 

Surface Problems 

Potholes and other surface irregularities. Patch to a high standard, paying particular attention to 

problems near bicyclists’ typical travel alignments. Require other agencies and companies to patch to a 

similarly high standard; if repairs fail within a year, require remedial action. 

Debris (sand, gravel, glass, auto parts, etc.) near the right edge of the road. Sweep close to the right 

edge. If necessary, use vacuum trucks to remove material, especially if it accumulates adjacent to curbs. 

Pay particular attention to locations such as underpasses, where changes in lighting conditions can blind 

bicyclists to surface hazards. 

Debris or surface irregularities on curves or at intersections. Pay special attention to the areas 

between the typical paths of turning and through motor vehicle traffic; often these fill with debris and are 

in typical bicyclist trajectories. In addition, areas where debris washes across the paved surface should 

receive special attention; for example, eliminating the source of the problem by providing better drainage 

is ultimately a more cost-effective solution than increased sweeping. 

Chip seal gravel. Many local agencies use chip seal to extend the lives of their roadways. However, the 

technique, which involves laying down a coating of oil and a layer of crushed rock, often leaves deep 

piles of gravel just to the right of the typical travel paths of motor vehicles. To reduce the impact on 

bicyclists, remove excess gravel as soon as possible and suggest alternative routes as detours. 

Ridges or cracks. These should be filled or ground down as needed to reduce the chance of a bicyclist 

catching a front wheel and crashing. Pay particular attention to ridges or cracks that run parallel to the 

direction of travel. One common location to check is where a merging lane is provided just beyond an 

intersection. Because traffic must merge left to continue traveling straight, the bicyclist will be crossing 

the joint between the merge lane and the through lane at a very shallow angle. 

Snow removal. Many shared-use paths in colder climates will require snow removal during the winter. 

Snowplows and other snow removal equipment typically used for streets are often much too large to 

maneuver on shared-use paths. Special snow removal equipment and policies should be considered part of 

regular trail maintenance. Snow removal policies for shared-use paths should address the overall priority 

of this activity and estimated clearance times so that trail users can adjust their trips and expectations 

accordingly. In some cases, snow removal policies may also address whether snow is to be cleared. Along 

some trails and paths in northern climates, snow is left in place for the benefit of cross country skiing and 

other snow-related activities. 

Encroaching Vegetation 

Bushes and tree branches adjacent to trail edges. Trim vegetation back to allow at least a 0.6-m (2-ft) 

clearance between the edge of the pavement and the vegetation, paying particular attention to the insides 

of curves. 
Bicycle Facility Maintenance 283 

Grasses adjacent to trail edges. Tall grasses should be mowed regularly to expose any potential hazards 

that might otherwise be hidden from a cyclist’s view. In addition, vegetation should be prevented from 

breaking up the edge of pavement and encroaching on the trail surface. 

Signing and Marking 

Trail signing. Because they are often unique, trail signs may be subjected to frequent theft or vandalism. 

Regular inspections should be conducted to ensure that signs are still in place and in good condition; this 

is particularly true of regulatory and warning signs. 

Trail markings. Generally, trails have a few simple markings (e.g., a yellow center line); however, these 

should be repainted when necessary (see figure 16-4). Center lines, for example, perform the very useful 

function of encouraging bicyclists to keep to their side of the trail. 

On-road bicycle signs. Special bicycle signs (regulatory, warning, or information) should be maintained 

in the same way that other roadway signs are. Pay particular attention to bike route signs at decision 

points, warning signs at special hazard locations, and regulatory signs on popular streets with bike lanes. 

On-road bicycle markings. Bicycle lane striping should be renewed at the same time that other stripes 

are painted. The same goes for bike lane pavement markings. Some markings may suffer from more 

wear-and-tear than others and deserve special attention. For instance, pavement markings that indicate the 

hot spot for traffic signal loop detectors may be in a location where car tires routinely pass; as a result, 

they may wear out faster than other markings. 

Figure 16-4. Photo. Example of newly striped bicycle lane 

with accumulation of debris next to curb. 

Source: PBIC 

Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(3)

16.9 Student Exercise 

Inventory three to five bicycle facilities, rating their condition based on the techniques learned in the 

lesson (surface, vegetation, etc.—what are the problems and potential solutions?). Review policies and 

procedures to make improvements to the bicycle facility, documenting the ease of reporting and the 

remedy of any deficiencies reported. 
284 Bicycle Facility Maintenance 

16.10 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Williams, J., B. Burgess, and B. Wilkinson, Implementing Bicycle Improvements at the Local 

Level, USDOT, FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-RD-98-105, Washington, DC, September 1998. 

2. Vermont Bicycle & Pedestrian Coalition, available online at http://www.vtbikeped.org, accessed 

May 17, 2004. 

3. Image Library, PBIC, available online at http://www.pedbikeimages.org, accessed May 6, 2004. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• AASHTO Maintenance Manual: The Maintenance and Management of Roadways and Bridges, 

3rd Edition, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1999. 

• Flink, C.A., K. Olka, and R.M. Searns, Trails for the Twenty-First Century: Planning, Design, 

and Management Manual for Multi-Use Trails, Island Press, Washington, DC, 2000. 

• Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1999. 
Bicycle Parking and Storage 285 

LESSON 17: 

BICYCLE PARKING AND STORAGE 

17.1 Introduction 

Bicycle parking is an important supporting element in bicycle programs. Quite simply, bicyclists need a 

safe and convenient place to park or store their bicycles along or at the end of most trips. This lesson 

contains the following information on developing an effective bicycle parking program: basic bicycle 

parking strategies; bicycle rack designs, specifications, and costs; and bicycle parking ordinances. The 

major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 17.1 Introduction. 

• 17.2 Overview of the Problem. 

• 17.3 Overview of Bicycle Parking Strategies. 

• 17.4 Implementing Bicycle Parking Strategies. 

• 17.5 Student Exercise. 

• 17.6 References and Additional Resources. 

This lesson on bicycle parking and storage has been primarily derived from the “Bicycle Parking” chapter 

of Implementing Bicycle Improvements at the Local Level.

(1) Other sources of information are listed at the 

end of the lesson. 

17.2 Overview of the Problem 

Providing secure bicycle parking is a key ingredient in efforts to encourage bicycling at the local level 

(see figure 17-1). Many bicycle trips end somewhere other than the bicyclist’s home, and as a result, the 

bicyclist must park his or her bicycle. And for those who live in apartment complexes, college 

dormitories, or other high-density settings, the issue of where to leave a bike while at home is also a 

serious issue. In short, at one time or another, most bicyclists have experienced the frustration of finding 

no secure place to leave their bikes. 

While providing secure bicycle parking is not the entire solution to the problem of theft, it certainly can 

help, and it can increase bicyclists’ comfort in leaving their bicycles unattended. As a result, many bicycle 

owners may be encouraged to make bicycle trips that they might otherwise forego. 
286 Bicycle Parking and Storage 

Figure 17-1. Photo. Effective bicycle parking improves security and reduces theft. 

17.3 Overview of Bicycle Parking Strategies 

An effective bicycle parking program should include the following basic strategies: 

• Provide bicycle parking in public rights-of-way. Provide well-located secure bicycle parking at 

popular destinations in business districts and at other public sites: 

o Install bicycle parking at public centers. 

o Install bicycle parking on public rights-of-way in neighborhood commercial and downtown 

business districts. 

o Encourage private businesses to provide bicycle parking for their customers. 

o Install bicycle parking at transit stops and in parking garages. 

o Encourage the installation of high-security bicycle parking at existing worksites, schools, and 

high-density residential developments. 

• Provide bicycle parking in private development. Encourage bicycle parking at existing 

developments and require new commercial, public, and high-density residential developments to 

include plans for bicycle parking: 

o Encourage existing businesses to provide bicycle parking for their customers. 

o Add provisions to local zoning regulations requiring bicycle parking as part of new 

developments, particularly commercial, public, and high-density residential developments. 

o Make these requirements part of the process of getting a building permit. 
Bicycle Parking and Storage 287 

Typically, the provision of bicycle parking at public facilities helps to convince business owners of the 

need for bicycle parking on private development. The use of zoning regulations or bicycle parking 

ordinances helps in the long-term to ensure bicycle parking in newly developed areas. 

Bicycle parking can be provided for these strategies using three types of devices (see figure 17-2): 

1. Bicycle racks. These are open-air devices to which a bicycle is locked and work well for 

short-term parking. 

2. Bicycle lockers. These are stand-alone enclosures designed to hold one bicycle per unit and are a 

good choice at sites that require long-term parking for a variety of potential users. 

3. Bicycle lock-ups. These are site-built secure enclosures that hold one or more bicycles and are 

often used for long-term parking for a limited number of regular and trustworthy users. 

Bicycle Racks Bicycle Lock-up

Bicycle Locker

( ) Note cage enclosure

Figure 17-2. Illustrations and photo. Examples of common bicycle parking devices. 

17.4 Implementing Bicycle Parking Strategies 

This section describes one possible approach to implement bicycle parking. Other approaches are possible 

and encouraged, particularly if the bicycle parking program is managed by city or county government. 

This approach is organized chronologically by major steps. 

Step 1—Identify Key Implementers 

Each of the strategies described previously requires the cooperation of a different group of constituencies. 

Bicycle parking in public spaces requires the cooperation of public agencies who control or manage the 

property involved. Sidewalks are typically controlled by the streets or public works department, whereas a 

parks and recreation department typically has responsibility for open spaces and recreational areas. There 

may be an agency (similar to the Federal Government’s General Services Administration) in charge of all 

public property. Or agencies that run specific services (e.g., libraries, public health clinics) may control 

their own sites. 

Encouraging businesses to install bicycle parking may require the cooperation of such groups as the local 

chamber of commerce, downtown business association, or shopping center manager. In addition, agencies 
288 Bicycle Parking and Storage 

that routinely deal with businesses should be enlisted as outlets for any literature developed as part of the 

program. 

Altering zoning regulations to require consideration of bicycle parking in new developments requires 

close cooperation with city planning and zoning agency staff, as well as assistance from appointed zoning 

boards and builders’ associations. Typically, regulations are revised on a schedule; therefore, the time or 

opportunity to revisit bicycle parking requirements will need to be coordinated with these schedules. 

Step 2—Structure the Program 

In some communities, a reactive program that simply fills orders and answers questions can be successful. 

This success would be most likely in a bicycle-friendly community with a high degree of interest in 

bicycling matters. However, in many places, a reactive approach will result in little and disorganized 

response. Business owners and managers of large employment centers or residential complexes often see 

bicycles as clutter and a problem to be eliminated rather than as a solution to traffic congestion or air 

quality problems. As a result, a successful bicycle parking program should include elements of marketing 

and promotion. 

With the help of the key implementers identified in step 1, one could create three ad hoc task groups to 

cover three primary thrusts. The groups should create the ground rules and materials necessary for the 

following tasks: 

• Task Group 1: Public Bicycle Parking. 

o Install bicycle parking at public centers. 

o Install bicycle parking on public rights-of-way. 

o Install bicycle parking at transit stops and in parking garages. 

• Task Group 2: Private Bicycle Parking. 

o Encourage private businesses to provide bicycle parking for their customers. 

o Encourage installation of high-security bicycle parking at worksites, schools, and 

high-density residential developments. 

• Task Group 3: Zoning Regulation Revision. 

o Add provisions to local zoning regulations requiring bicycle parking. 

o Make these requirements part of the process of getting a building permit. 

Step 3—Identify Priority Locations that Need Bicycle Parking 

The International Bicycle Fund (IBF) provides the following information on identifying locations for 

bicycle parking:(2)

Various mechanisms can be used for determining where bicycle parking is needed. 

Almost all the ones that are sited with bicyclist input are in heavy use. It is more likely 

that those sited for political consideration will be underutilized. Siting bicycle parking 

doesn't have to be scientific. Some of the best deterrents for bicycle parking are: 

• Visual observation: Look for where bikes are parked illegally due to lack of legal parking. 

The (car) parking patrol people can probably do this for you in a week. 
Bicycle Parking and Storage 289 

• User input: Ask bicyclists (through clubs or advocacy groups) to create a list of most-needed 

spots for bike parking. 

• Land use criteria: Target every coffee shop, bookstore, video arcade, teen/young adult 

clothing store. 

• Public-private partnership: Have a grant program whereby businesses can request bike 

parking for customers and employees, paying for the installation themselves, but getting the 

racks paid for by the grant. 

• Building code: Require all new development or change of business to install bike parking 

proportionate to car parking requirements. 

More scientific criteria may be useful for determining exactly what kind of bicycle 

parking device to install and exactly where. 

• Visibility: Cyclists should easily spot short-term parking when they arrive from the street. A 

highly visible location discourages theft and vandalism. Avoid locations “off on the side,” 

“around the corner” or in un-supervised parking structures or garages. 

• Access: The parking area should be convenient to building entrances and street access, but 

away from normal pedestrian and auto traffic. Avoid locations that require bicycles to travel 

over stairs. 

• Security: Surveillance is essential to reduce theft and vandalism. For security, locate parking 

within view of passersby, retail activity, or office windows. Better yet: officially assign 

building security, a parking lot attendant or other personnel to watch for suspicious behavior. 

• Lighting: Bicycle parking areas should be well lit for theft protection, personal security and 

accident prevention. 

• Weather protection: Whenever possible, protect bicycle parking area from weather. An 

existing overhang or covered walkway is recommended. Alternatively, construct a canopy or 

roof—either freestanding or attached to an existing building. 

• Avoid conflict with pedestrians: Locate racks so that parked bicycles don't block the 

pedestrian path. Select a bike rack with no protruding bars that could trip or injure cyclists or 

pedestrians. Very low bar-type racks can be a hazard to pedestrians and are not 

recommended. 

• Avoid conflict with automobiles: Separate bicycle parking, auto parking, and road areas 

with space and a physical barrier. This prevents motor vehicles from damaging parked 

bicycles and keeps some thieves at a distance. Most professional bike thieves use vans or 

similar vehicles to hide their activities and make a getaway with their loot concealed. The 

closer bicycle parking is to automobile parking, alleys, roads, etc., the better the opportunity 

for a bike thief. 

The following location criteria have been gathered from guidelines used by the cities of Denver and 

Seattle for placing bicycle racks: 

• Racks should be located within 15.2 m (50 ft) of building entrances (where bicyclists would 

naturally transition into pedestrian mode). 

• Racks should be installed in a public area within easy viewing distance from the main pedestrian 

walkway, usually on a wide sidewalk with 1.5 m (5 ft) or more of clear sidewalk space remaining 
290 Bicycle Parking and Storage 

(a minimum of 61 cm (24 in) of clear space from the parallel wall and 76 cm (30 in) from the 

perpendicular wall). 

• Racks are placed to avoid conflicts with pedestrians. They are usually installed near the curb and 

at a reasonable distance from building entrances and crosswalks. 

• Racks can be installed at bus stops or loading zones only if they do not interfere with boarding or 

loading patterns and there are no alternative sites. 

Step 4—Choose Appropriate Bicycle Parking Devices 

As described earlier, bicycle parking can be accomplished with three basic devices: racks, lockers, or 

lock-ups (see figure 17-2). Packets of information should be assembled for available bicycle parking 

devices, along with the pros and cons of each device. In a joint meeting(s) with all three task groups, 

adopt a set of criteria and decide which devices are to be endorsed. Typical criteria used to evaluate 

bicycle parking devices are security (and how well the device works with common bicycle locks), 

durability and resistance to vandalism, ease of use, aesthetics, and cost. 

The Association of Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals (APBP) publication, Bicycle Parking Guidelines,

suggest that bicycle racks should:(3)

• Support the bicycle upright by its frame in two places. 

• Prevent the wheel of the bicycle from tipping over. 

• Enable the frame and one or both wheels to be secured. 

• Support bicycles without a diamond-shaped frame with a horizontal top tube (e.g., a women’s or 

other frame). 

• Allow front-in parking: a U-lock should be able to lock the front wheel and the down tube of an 

upright bicycle. 

• Allow back-in parking: a U-lock should be able to lock the rear wheel and the seat tube of the 

bicycle. 

• Resist being cut or detached using common hand tools. 

AASHTO’s Bicycle Guidelines recommend that bicycle racks should:(4)

• Not bend wheels or damage other bicycle parts. 

• Accommodate high-security U-shaped bike locks. 

• Accommodate locks securing the frame and both wheels (preferably without removing the front 

wheel from the bicycle). 

• Not impede or interfere with pedestrian traffic. 

• Be easily accessed from the street and protected from motor vehicles. 

• Be visible to passersby to promote usage and enhance security. 

• Be covered where users will leave their bikes for a long time. 

• Have as few moving parts as possible. 

• Accommodate a wide range of bicycle shapes and sizes. 
Bicycle Parking and Storage 291 

• Be simple to operate. 

Figure 17-3 illustrates a variety of bicycle racks that meet these requirements, whereas figure 17-4 

illustrates types of bicycle racks that are not recommended because they fail to meet one or more of these 

requirements. The average cost for typical bicycle racks ranges from $75 to $100 per rack; a single rack 

typically holds one or two bicycles. The cost for bicycle lockers ranges considerably more, from about 

$500 to $1,500 per bicycle. 

Post & Loop Inverted “U” “A”

One rack element supports two bikes One rack element supports two bikes One rack element supports two bikes

Figure 17-3. Illustrations. Recommended types of bicycle racks. 

Source: Bicycle Parking Guidelines(3)

Wave

One rack element is a vertical segment

of the rack

Toast

One rack element holds one wheel

of a bike

Comb

One rack element is a vertical segment

of the rack

These bicycle racks are not recommended

Figure 17-4. Illustrations. Bicycle rack types that are not APBP-recommended. 

Source: Bicycle Parking Guidelines(3)

In addition to the basic bicycle rack design, the layout of bicycle rack areas will need to be designed. The 

APBP Bicycle Parking Guidelines provides some minimum recommended dimensions for bicycle rack 

areas (see figure 17-5).(3) Their guidelines also suggest that large rack areas with a high turnover rate have 

more than one entrance. If possible, the rack area should be protected from weather elements. 
292 Bicycle Parking and Storage 

1.8 m (72 inches)

All dimensions are recommended minimums.

1.2 m (48 inches) 1.8 m (72 inches)

0.6 m

(24 inches)

0.6 m

(24 inches)

Figure 17-5. Illustration. APBP-recommended design dimensions for bicycle rack areas. 

Source: Bicycle Parking Guidelines(3)

Step 5a—Tasks for Developing Public Bicycle Parking 

The first task group should set criteria for installing bicycle parking on sidewalks as well as at public 

destinations. For sidewalks, criteria could include such items as minimum width of sidewalk, rack 

position on sidewalk and proximity to other street furniture and vegetation, and number per block or 

number per site. For public sites, they could include proximity to the main entrance, and minimum 

number of bicycle parking spaces per installation (i.e., based on the type of facility served). 

Next, they should create a step-by-step procedure for planning and installation. This should include initial 

identification of the potential site, discussion with relevant agency personnel, determination of the 

specific site’s needs (number of parking devices and location), cost analysis and budgeting, procurement, 

installation, and followup. 

To support this activity, they should create a project sheet for rack installation that includes places for the 

source of the request (if any), signatures of any required agency personnel, a schematic diagram of the 

site, installation date, and any comments. 

Next, they should estimate the total bicycle parking need for public places given a list of potential sites. 

Estimates can be conservative and based to some extent on existing bicycle traffic, as long as participants 

recognize that latent demand may be significant. For this reason, phased installation may be particularly 

appropriate. 

For sidewalks, a base number of racks to be installed during a fiscal year (e.g., 100, 500, or 750) should 

be decided, along with a map showing priority areas. For instance, downtown might be a top-priority area, 

neighborhood commercial areas could be second, and strip development areas might be third. 
Bicycle Parking and Storage 293 

Finally, the first task group should set an annual budget for the program and decide how the bicycle 

parking will be funded. Potential sources include a wide variety of Federal transportation programs, as 

well as local funding opportunities. 

Step 5b—Tasks for Developing Private Bicycle Parking 

The second task group should assemble a packet of information for potential private-sector bicycle 

parking providers. The packet should include a cover letter describing the importance of bicycle parking 

to businesses and giving any organizational endorsements for the program; a list of available parking 

devices, along with information on how to order them and which are best suited for which settings; tips 

on deciding how many bikes need to be accommodated; and tips on locating and installing the devices. 

The second task group should also work out details of any promotional activities that will need to be 

planned. For instance, they should develop a list of groups to talk with, determine who should be 

responsible for reaching each one, and start making contacts. To this end, the task group should develop a 

standard presentation, possibly including slides and handouts. 

Step 5c—Tasks for Revising Zoning Regulations 

The third task group should start by identifying passages in the existing zoning codes where motor 

vehicle parking is discussed. They should find out when the regulations are going to be modified and use 

that in determining their schedule of work. They should then assemble sample bicycle parking laws from 

other communities. Based on the sample laws, they should create a draft revision to the regulations and 

circulate it for comment. Once comments have been received and considered, they should forward a final 

draft revision for action at the proper time. 

Based upon examples from several locations (e.g., Ann Arbor, MI, Madison, WI, Denver, CO, and San 

Francisco, CA), bicycle parking ordinances should include these elements: 

1. Number of spaces required. Bike parking ordinances should clearly indicate how many bicycle 

parking spaces are required, either as a function of the type of development (retail, office, 

residential, etc.) or as a standard percentage of the required off-street automobile parking. For 

example, the City of Denver requires that off-street automobile parking facilities of 20 spaces or 

more provide bicycle parking equal to 5 percent of the automobile parking space requirement. 

2. Type(s) of permitted racks. Bicycle racks that support the bike by the wheel should not be 

permitted. 

3. Location of bicycle racks. Bicycle racks should be located at least as close to the building 

entrance as to the nearest parking space (excluding accessible parking spaces). 

4. Other elements. The requirements can also address lighting of bicycle racks, requirements to 

retrofit existing public buildings, and protection from weather. 

A growing number of communities have included bicycle parking requirements in their development 

regulations. By so doing, they ensure that bicycle parking is included in the normal course of 

development. Figure 17-6 contains excerpts about bicycle parking from the off-street parking ordinance in 

Madison, WI.(5) Figure 17-7 illustrates the City of Philadelphia’s standard for bicycle rack placement in 

business districts.(6) Bicycle parking ordinances from numerous other cities can be found by searching a 

particular city’s website for their planning, development, or land use ordinances. 
294 Bicycle Parking and Storage 

Step 6—Implement the Program 

With the program established, materials prepared, and initial funding identified, implementation of the 

program can begin. Routine responsibilities for the various tasks should be taken care of by the agencies 

identified through the previous steps. Oversight of the program may require the attention of a project 

coordinator. This may be a task delegated to a member of the planning department or public works staff. 

Step 7—Evaluate Progress 

As the work is proceeding, keep track of successes and failures. Early on, get the word out to the 

bicycling public that: (1) the program exists and (2) they should submit comments and ideas for potential 

parking sites. Keep a record of how many parking devices have been installed, how many comments have 

been received, how many information packets have been sent out, what proportion of public places has 

adequate bicycle parking, how well the parking is working (i.e., whether the public likes it, whether it 

holds up well to vandalism), and how successful the zoning regulations appear to be (once they are 

adopted). Use this feedback to fine-tune the program and determine future levels of funding. 
Bicycle Parking and Storage 295 

Excerpts from “28.11 OFF-STREET PARKING AND LOADING FACILITIES” 

(1) Statement of Purpose

... 

(d) Providing adequate and safe facilities for the storage of bicycles. 

(2) General Regulations

(a) Scope of Regulations

... 

4. Bicycle parking facilities shall be provided as required for all new structures and uses established as 

provided in Sec. 28.11(2)(a)1. or for changes in use as provided in Secs. 28.11(2)(a)2. and 3; however, 

bicycle parking facilities shall not be required until the effective date of this paragraph. Notwithstanding 

Secs. 28.08(1)(i), 28.09(1)(i), and 28.09(5)(a), bicycle parking facilities shall be provided in all districts 

including districts in the Central Area. 

... 

(3) Off-Street Parking Facilities

(a) Utilization

1. In the residence district, accessory off-street parking facilities provided for uses listed herein shall be 

solely for the parking of passenger automobiles (including passenger trucks) and bicycles of patrons, 

occupants, or employees. Such vehicles are limited in size to less than one (1) ton in capacity. 

... 

(e) Size ... Required bicycle parking spaces shall be at least 0.6 m by 1.8 m (2 ft by 6 ft). An access aisle of 

at least 1.5 m (5 ft) shall be provided in each bicycle parking facility. Such space shall have a vertical 

clearance of at least 1.8 m (6 ft). 

... 

(h) Design and Maintenance. ... 2. d. Bicycle Parking Facilities. Accessory off-street parking for bicycle 

parking shall include provision for secure storage of bicycles. Such facilities shall provide lockable enclosed 

lockers or racks or equivalent structures in or upon which the bicycle may be locked by the user. Structures 

that require a user-supplied locking device shall be designed to accommodate U-shaped locking devices. All 

lockers and racks must be securely anchored to the ground or the building structure to prevent the racks and 

lockers from being removed from the location. The surfacing of such facilities shall be designed and 

maintained to be mud and dust free. 

... 

(i) Location. ... 3. Bicycle parking facilities shall be located in a clearly designated safe and convenient 

location. The design and location of such facility shall be harmonious with the surrounding environment. The 

facility location shall be at least as convenient as the majority of automobile parking spaces provided. 

... 

(l) Schedule of Required Off-Street Parking Facilities. ... 1. Bicycle parking facility spaces shall be provided 

in adequate number as determined by the Zoning Administrator. In making the determination, the Zoning 

Administrator shall consider when appropriate, the number of dwelling units or lodging rooms, the number of 

students, the number of employees, and the number of automobile parking spaces in accordance with the 

following guidelines: 

(continued on next page) 

Figure 17-6. Photo. Excerpts from off-street parking ordinance in Madison, WI. 

Source: Code of Ordinances(5)
296 Bicycle Parking and Storage 

(l) Schedule of Required Off-Street Parking Facilities —Continued

Off-Street Bicycle Parking Guidelines 

Land Use Bike Space 

Dwellings/lodging rooms 1 per dwelling unit or 3 lodging rooms 

Clubs/lodges 1 per lodging room plus 3% of person capacity 

Fraternities/sororities 1 per 3 rooms 

Hotels/lodging houses 1 per 20 employees 

Galleries/museums/libraries 1 per 10 automobile spaces 

Colleges/universities/junior high and high schools 1 per 4 employees plus 1 per 4 students 

Nursery/elementary schools 1 per 10 employees plus students above second grade 

Convalescent and nursing homes/institutions 1 per 20 employees 

Hospitals 1 per 20 employees 

Places of assembly, recreation, entertainment, and 

amusement 

1 per 10 automobile spaces 

Commercial/manufacturing 1 per 10 automobile spaces 

Miscellaneous/other To be determined by the Zoning Administrator based 

on the guidelines for the most similar use listed above 

(l) 1. a. In all cases where bicycle parking is required, no fewer than two spaces shall be required. 

 b. After the first fifty (50) bicycle parking spaces are provided, additional bicycle parking spaces 

required are 0.5 (one-half) space per unit listed. 

 c. Where the expected need for bicycle parking for a particular use is uncertain due to unknown or 

unusual operating characteristics of use, the Zoning Administrator may authorize that construction 

and provision of not more than 50 percent of the bicycle parking spaces be deferred. Land area 

required for provision of deferred bicycle parking spaces shall be maintained in reserve.... 

Figure 17-6. Photo. Excerpts from off-street parking ordinance in Madison, WI—Continued

Source: Madison, WI, Code of Ordinances(5)

2.9 m (9.5 ft) minimum

0.8 - 0.9 m

(2.5 - 3.0 ft)

Parking

Figure 17-7. Illustration. Philadelphia’s standard for 

bike rack placement in business districts. 

Source: City of Philadelphia Bicycle Parking Specifications(6)
Bicycle Parking and Storage 297 

17.5 Student Exercise 

Exercise A 

Do an inventory of need for bicycle storage facilities and a preliminary site design for an activity center in 

your community. 

Exercise B 

Develop a bicycle parking ordinance for your local community. Have students consider the features 

discussed in this chapter. 

17.6 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Williams, J., B. Burgess, and B. Wilkinson, Implementing Bicycle Improvements at the Local 

Level, FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-RD-98-105, Washington, DC, 1998. 

2. Bicycle Parking Criteria, Bike Rack, Bicycle Locker, Cycle Stands & Bike Storage Systems, IBF, 

2004, available online at http://www.ibike.org/engineering/parking.htm, accessed March 9, 2004. 

3. Bicycle Parking Guidelines, Association of Pedestrian and Bicycle Professionals, Spring 2002, 

available online at http://www.apbp.org/pdfs/bikepark.pdf or 

http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/pdf/bikepark.pdf, accessed March 23, 2004. 

4. Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1999. 

5. Code of Ordinances, City of Madison, WI. 

6. City of Philadelphia Bicycle Parking Specifications, 1998. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Bicycle Parking, Bicycling Info Website, available online at 

http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/de/park.htm, accessed April 12, 2004. 

• Bicycle Parking Facility Guidelines, City of Portland, OR, Office of Transportation, available 

online at http://www.trans.ci.portland.or.us/bicycles/parkguide.htm, accessed April 20, 2004. 

• Fletcher, Ellen, Bicycle Parking, 1990. 

• Pro Bike News, Bicycle Federation of America, April 1996. 

• Source Book of Designs, Manufacturers, and Representatives, Bicycle Federation of America, 

1992.

Bicycle and Pedestrian Connections to Transit 299 

LESSON 18: 

BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN CONNECTIONS TO TRANSIT 

18.1 Introduction 

Bicycling and walking typically account for one-fourth to one-half of all personal trips in European cities, 

as well as the vast majority of all public transportation access trips, even in lower density suburban areas. 

This stands in sharp contrast to the United States, where the share of personal trips made by nonmotorized 

means fell in recent decades to less than 10 percent, and where automobile park-and-ride accounts for a 

major share of suburban transit access.(1)

In city after city, transit agencies are rediscovering that good bicycle and pedestrian access is a critical 

component of the success of the transit system. It has been estimated that 53 percent of the American 

public lives within 3.2 km (2 mi) of a public transit route. Walking is the most environmentally friendly 

and low-cost way to get people to and from public transportation. When given sidewalks or traffic-calmed 

streets to walk along, safe and convenient ways to cross streets, and a comfortable and attractive 

environment, most people are willing to walk farther to reach public transportation. 

In the United States, however, lack of attention to pedestrian needs beyond the bounds of the transit 

station seems fairly common. The locations of park-and-ride lots are often not amenable to nonmotorized 

access. One transit agency commented that all of their park-and-ride lots are located near freeways and/or 

shopping areas where residential housing is quite far away, and no paths or sidewalks are located near the 

park-and-ride lots. 

Some U.S. transit and transportation agencies are, nevertheless, turning a promisingly sharper focus on 

the larger environment that surrounds and leads to transit stations and bus stops. A variety of facilities and 

services are being provided to improve the interface between bicycling and transit: bike racks on buses; 

provisions for the transport of bicycles on light- and heavy-rail transit, commuter rail, and long-distance 

trains; bike parking at transit stations; design improvements at transit stations (curb cuts, signing, and 

lighting); links to transit centers (bike lanes, multiuse trails, and widened roadway shoulders); and 

multipurpose Bikestations® which cater to the bicycle commuter. 

The U.S. Congress has emphasized the connection of transit with bicycle and pedestrian facilities in 

Federal transportation legislation by providing several funding sources for bicycle and pedestrian 

improvements through the FTP, among other programs. 

This lesson discusses the history of bicycle and pedestrian access to transit in the United States and 

provides an overview of how bicycling and walking are being integrated with transit. Case studies from 

the United States and Europe describe successful projects. 

The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 18.1 Introduction. 

• 18.2 Interagency Cooperation. 

• 18.3 Why Link Bicyclists With Transit Services? 

• 18.4 Bike-on-Bus Programs. 
300 Bicycle and Pedestrian Connections to Transit 

• 18.5 Bike-on-Rail Programs. 

• 18.6 Example Transit Access Programs. 

• 18.7 Bicycle Parking Facilities at Transit Stations. 

• 18.8 Bikestations. 

• 18.9 What Are the Key Elements of Successful Programs? 

• 18.10 Student Exercise. 

• 18.11 References and Additional Resources. 

18.2 Interagency Cooperation 

While U.S. transit authorities have expended considerable planning and engineering efforts to meet 

pedestrian needs in the interiors of transit stations, in many cases, little attention has been devoted to 

either the pedestrian or bicycling environment to and from stations. Poorly developed interjurisdictional 

and interagency cooperation often impedes consideration of the door-to-door experience of using public 

transportation. It is not unusual for several different agencies to maintain independent control over the 

various facilities that are used by someone walking or bicycling to and from a single transit stop. 

Unless these agencies agree to cooperate together in assessing, planning, and enhancing nonmotorized 

transit access, major impediments to pedestrian and bicycle access may persist or grow in severity. Local 

and State governments with the authority to manage, maintain, and construct pedestrian and bicycle 

facilities and roads should cooperate with transit agencies and interested citizens in developing action 

programs to reduce barriers to bicycle and pedestrian access to transit. 

18.3 Why Link Bicyclists With Transit Services? 

Integration enhances travel potential for both modes of travel by offering a number of advantages that 

each mode alone cannot provide: 

• Bike-on-transit service enables bicyclists to travel greater distances and overcome topographical 

barriers. 

• Bike-on-transit services to recreational destinations during off-peak periods can increase overall 

transit ridership and increase efficient use of capacity. 

• Bicycle-to-transit services (trails, on-road bike lanes, and bike parking) enlarge transit’s 

catchment area by making it accessible to travelers who are beyond walking distances from 

transit stations. 

Integration lowers air pollutant emissions from trips taken on public transit. Outside of central business 

districts, most commuters using rail transit and park-and-ride lots arrive by auto; typical trip lengths are 3 

to 6 km (5 to 10 mi). For an auto trip of 11 km (7 mi), nearly 90 percent of the emissions occur in the first 

1.6 km (1 mi), known as the cold-start stage. Either converting transit access trips from auto to bike or 

converting car commutes to bike-and-ride transit trips can produce significant emission reductions.(2)

18.4 Bike-on-Bus Programs 

Bike-on-bus programs are functionally similar to bike-on-rail programs, but often operate in much lower 

density corridors than rail transport. By expanding a bus line’s access and egress service area, bike-on-bus 

programs can attract many passengers who would not otherwise be able to use transit for their trip, 

particularly to reach suburban destinations where transit coverage is often sparse. 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Connections to Transit 301 

There are two means of accommodating bicycles on buses—placing them on front-mounted racks and 

allowing them inside the bus. Rear-mounted racks were the earliest system, but for operational and safety 

reasons, preferences have shifted toward front-mounted racks (see figure 18-1). 

Figure 18-1. Photo. The preferred style of bike rack mounts to the front of the bus. 

When considering bike-on-bus programs, agencies typically cite two main concerns: 

Schedule Adherence. A 1994 study completed through the Transit Cooperative Research Program 

(TCRP) shows that most transit agencies are not experiencing problems with schedule delays resulting 

from accommodating bicyclists; new designs of bike-on-bus racks have minimized dwell times for 

loading and removal.(3)

Safety and Protection of Transit Property. The study has also shown that the impact of bicycle-transit 

integration has been minimal on the personal safety of bicyclists, operators, and the public, and on transit 

agency property. Bike racks on the fronts of buses have not proven to interfere with driving. Because of 

concerns about bicycles aboard crowded trains during rush hours, some commuter rail programs have 

limited bike-on-train access to off-peak hours. 

Most U.S. bike-on-bus services do not require a permit. While some U.S. transit systems accommodate 

bikes only on designated routes, others, such as Phoenix, AZ, Aspen, CO, and Sacramento, CA, have no 

route restrictions and have opened their entire system to carrying bicycles (see figure 18-2). 
302 Bicycle and Pedestrian Connections to Transit 

Figure 18-2. Photo. Some transit agencies allow bicyclists 

to carry their bikes onto buses. 

The City of Phoenix, AZ, began a 6-month bike-on-bus demonstration program from March through 

August 1991 to assess potential use of the service. Bicycle racks were mounted on the front of buses 

operating on three routes that were selected based on criteria developed in coordination with the bicycle 

community. Two-thirds of the $15,000 program cost came from a grant by the Arizona Department of 

Environmental Quality (ADEQ). During the demonstration program, 5,500 bicycle trips were taken and 

ridership steadily increased. At the end of the first month, 153 riders had used the service. By the end of 

the third month (May), this jumped to 1,109 riders per month; by the end of 6 months, there were 1,404 

riders per month. Phoenix Transit reported no safety problems associated with the new service. The 

service not only attracted increasing numbers of bicyclists, but also attracted to transit people who did not 

previously use buses. A bike rider survey found that the vast majority (90 percent) of the bus riders used 

the bike racks for commuting. An evaluation of the demonstration concluded: (2)

From the response received, it would not be a stretch to say that the program was 

overwhelmingly popular among transit riders and [was] hailed as an excellent idea by 

bike riders. For bus patrons it is an added option, for bike riders it is an opportunity, and 

for public transit it is another step toward reducing the number of vehicles traveling on 

the road. 

As a result of the successful demonstration, the Phoenix Transit bike-on-bus program was expanded 

systemwide in July 1992. By 1997, all 463 buses in the Phoenix system were equipped with 

front-mounted bike racks, each of which carried two bikes. A survey in 1997 found that there were 2,146 

daily users of the bike racks within Phoenix alone (not including use outside of Phoenix). 

The success of the Phoenix program quickly caught the attention of other transit agencies and it is now 

estimated that more than one in five transit buses in the country are equipped with bike racks. In 1993, the 

Seattle/King County, State of Washington transit agency, Metro, used more than $900,000 of Congestion 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Connections to Transit 303 

Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) funds to equip every one of its 1,200 buses with racks. The agency 

now boasts more than 40,000 bicycle-carrying passengers every month. The racks were designed and 

supplied by a northwestern U.S. firm whose racks now carry more than 250,000 riders each month on 

systems throughout the country. 

The Tompkins Consolidated Area Transit (TCAT) agency in Ithaca, NY, used STP funds to install racks 

on its 42 buses in August 1996. After one year, it was carrying 1,000 bicyclists a month. The agency 

estimates that, within the city, 1.2 bicycles are carried for every 100 passengers. 

In California, the Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority (SCVTA) has equipped all its buses with 

bike racks and allows up to two bikes inside each bus, at the driver’s discretion, when the racks are full. 

During off-peak hours, the Sacramento Regional Transit District allows one bike inside each standard 

length 12.2-m (40-ft) bus not equipped with a front rack.(4)

Although most transit agencies offering bike-on-bus services have relied on various devices outside the 

bus, a few agencies have decided that such hardware is unnecessary and have allowed bicycles inside 

their buses instead. Westchester County Department of Transportation (WCDOT), located near New 

York, NY, simply adopted a permissive “welcome aboard” policy toward bicyclists and other potential 

users, beginning in the late 1970s. The space provided for passengers who use wheelchairs could be used 

by those traveling with baby carriages, shopping carts, bulky packages, or bicycles. This policy applied 

only to accessible Advanced Design Buses (ADBs) and only in off-peak periods. Wheelchair users were 

given priority over bicycles at all times. No problems had been reported with the service. 

18.5 Bike-on-Rail Programs 

Most light and heavy rail systems now provide some level of access to bicyclists and their bicycles (see 

figure 18-3). In systems with dedicated bike racks inside the rail cars (e.g., Caltrain® and SCVTA in 

California), the only restrictions relate to capacity and points of access to the train. In systems without 

dedicated space (e.g., Portland, OR, Washington, DC, and Boston, MA), riders may take bicycles on 

board except during the morning and evening peak hours and on festival and other major event days. 

Figure 18-3. Photos. Bicycle stencils on doors of Danish State railways indicate 

those cars where bikes may be brought on the train. 
304 Bicycle and Pedestrian Connections to Transit 

The Tri-County Metropolitan Transportation District of Oregon (Tri-Met) light rail system (known as 

MAX) in Portland, OR, is one of the few systems still requiring riders to obtain a permit before bringing 

bikes on board. The permit costs $5 and requires the rider to watch an 8-minute safety and operation 

video. Like a number of other transit agencies, the Washington [DC] Metropolitan Area Transit Authority 

(WMATA) eliminated its permit requirement for bringing bicycles on Metro trains. This simplifies travel 

for bike-transit users and encourages more bike-transit trips (http://www.wmata.com). 

Almost 2,000 bicyclists a day bring their bikes on board the 110-km (70-mi) Caltrain passenger rail line 

between San Francisco, CA, and Silicon Valley. Each train has space for 24 bikes (some trains may have 

2 bike cars, for a capacity of 48 bikes), up from just 4 spaces when the program began in 1992. More than 

half of a recent ridership jump of 7 percent was attributable to bicyclists. The initial $30,000 investment 

by San Francisco County, plus another $30,000 from Caltrain to expand capacity, was repaid in farebox 

revenue within 6 months. Demand for bicycle spaces is now so great that Caltrain recently started 

offering two rented bicycle lockers for the price of one in an effort to persuade bicyclists to keep bikes at 

both ends of their trip rather than bring their bike on board.(4)

Time Restrictions 

In the United States, nearly all bike-on-rail services are restricted to times outside weekday peak hours. 

The exceptions are the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) in San Francisco, CA, and the commuter rail 

system in Boston, MA, which allows bicycles to be carried during peak hours in the “reverse commute” 

direction only. Restrictions on most systems prohibit bicycles on rail weekdays before 9 or 9:30 a.m. 

(some allow bikes before 6 a.m.) and from 3 or 3:30 p.m. to 6:30 p.m. Weekend policies vary, with some 

systems having no restrictions and some blocking out certain hours when there is substantial shopping, 

work, or recreational travel. Several European bike-on-rail systems, including Oslo and Amsterdam, have 

no restrictions on the times when bicycles can be brought on board. Without any restrictions, bicyclists, 

using their own common sense, tend to avoid bringing bicycles into rail cars during crowded rush hours. 

SCVTA leads the United States in adopting the most European attitude toward bike-on-rail, allowing two 

bicycles per car in peak hours, and four per car in off-peak hours. 

Rail Car Design Constraints 

Restrictions on the number of bikes permitted on each rail transit system vary. Some systems permit two 

bicycles per car; others allow bicycles only on the last car of the train, with a maximum of four bicycles 

per train. Rail transit system restrictions on the number of bicycles permitted are based in part on rail car 

designs available in the United States, for which bicycle accommodation has not been a consideration. On 

the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) system in Atlanta, GA, and on other 

systems, bicyclists hold their bikes in a foldup seat area near the back door of the rail car. 

In California, design of the new California Car rail car, mandated and funded by Proposition 116, requires 

accommodation of a reasonable number of bicycles carried on board by passengers for both intercity and 

commuter applications. The California Car is a bilevel car that superficially resembles Amtrak’s® 

Superliner®, but with significant design differences, including bicycle storage on the lower level of the 

car. This new rail car, for use on State-sponsored Amtrak and local commuter rail services, is a promising 

new development in the United States. Its specifications could be adapted by other rail agencies to 

enhance bicycle-rail linkage. 

18.6 Example Transit Access Programs 

The City of Charlotte, NC, began a project in 1981 to encourage walking and bicycle access to bus transit 

along its heavily traveled Central Avenue Corridor, which contains seven intersections at a LOS of E or F 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Connections to Transit 305 

during the peak hours. To help address bicycle access needs, bicycle racks and lockers were installed at 

key bus stops. Pedestrian access was improved by installing 114 pedestrian signals and 115 pushbuttons 

at key intersections, and sidewalks were constructed with curb-cut ramps. 

In July 1996, the Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) initiated a statewide inventory of access for 

bicycles and pedestrians at 111 existing and planned light, heavy, and commuter rail stations throughout 

the State. The goal was to identify the availability and condition of roadways and facilities at or near rail 

stations to determine what improvements would be needed to accommodate, in a safe and effective 

manner, pedestrians and bicyclists. The inventory was funded with $160,000 of FTA State planning and 

research program money and $40,000 of State matching funds. Data were collected within a 3-km (2-mi) 

radius for bicycles and a 1-km (0.6-mi) radius for pedestrians on a wide range of items including: 

• Availability of bicycle racks and lockers. 

• Condition and availability of sidewalks, crossings, and bicycle access surrounding stations. 

• Traffic conditions such as traffic volumes and speed. 

• Lane widths, surface conditions, parking, and bridges. 

• Traffic mix and related considerations. 

The information was used to target improvements by the Maryland Department of Transportation 

(including MTA) and local governments and to generate a greater understanding of the importance of 

adequate access to public transportation.(4)

18.7 Bicycle Parking Facilities at Transit Stations 

Cities and transit authorities across the country are beginning to recognize the crucial role of secure 

bicycle parking at transit stations in promoting increased bicycle access to transit (see figure 18-4). A 

number of the Nation’s commuter rail and rail transit systems are investing in bicycle parking, but many 

lack a more comprehensive strategy that looks at the environment beyond the station. Frequently, the 

quality of the parking provided is inadequate, leaving most bicycles vulnerable to theft and vandalism. 

The majority of suburban bus transit systems, which could expand service area and ridership through 

bicycle-transit interface, appear to pay little, if any, attention to bicycle parking facilities at bus stops. 

Figure 18-4. Photo. Lack of adequate bike parking is a 

common problem at urban subways. 
306 Bicycle and Pedestrian Connections to Transit 

There is wide variation in the use of bicycle racks and lockers at rail stations and transit systems. Two 

crucial factors appear to be the degree to which the environment leading to the station is bicycle-friendly 

and the quality of the bicycle parking provided. In areas where separate bicycle paths or bike lanes on 

streets have been implemented, facilitating connection to rail or bus services, the ease and safety of access 

by bicycle is greatly enhanced. Access to many stations, however, passes through streets where little or no 

thought has been given to bicycle safety, which curtails the extent of this access. The degree to which a 

transit agency actively promotes its bicycle parking facilities, and more broadly, promotes the 

environmental and social benefits of bicycle access versus auto access, directly impacts the use of bicycle 

lockers and racks. 

18.8 Bikestation 

Bikestations provide another innovative method of integrating bicycles with transit and supporting 

bicycle transportation in general. The Bikestation concept originated in Europe and Japan and essentially 

is a holistic approach to providing everything the bicyclist needs in one location. A typical Bikestation 

can include secure indoor bike parking, a repair shop, bike sales and rentals, car sharing services, 

changing rooms, route and transit information, and a variety of other support services. The first 

Bikestation in the U.S. opened in Long Beach, CA. A number of other cities throughout the country have 

either already built Bikestations or are in the process of planning new Bikestations, including Seattle, 

WA, Palo Alto, CA, and Washington, DC. Individual Bikestations are typically developed by franchises 

(either nonprofit or for profit) and are membership-based. 

18.9 What Are the Key Elements of Successful Programs? 

Demonstration Projects 

Many successful programs began with a limited demonstration phase and then expanded to a broader, or 

even systemwide, operation. Demonstration projects tend to focus on identifying and solving specific 

technical and operational aspects of the service and usually lead to wider program implementation. 

Advisory Committees 

Such a committee should include nonagency organizations and individuals who have experience in 

bicycle advocacy in their community, an interest in bicycle-transit programs, knowledge of user needs 

and constituency characteristics, and some expertise in bicycle and/or transit issues. 

Marketing and Promotion 

A bike-transit program must vigorously market and promote in order to be effective: a brochure 

describing the agency’s program, a telephone number for information, and drawings or photographs of 

equipment to help users understand operating procedures. 

Tri-Met in Portland, OR, distributed 4,000 brochures directly to the local bicycle advocacy group’s 

membership. In Philadelphia, PA, the Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA) 

prepared a pamphlet highlighting eight scenic and cultural destinations for bicycle touring that were 

accessible by its local rail systems. Bike-to-Work Days and bicycle fairs or offers of free test rides have 

also proven effective in promoting new programs. 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Connections to Transit 307 

18.10 Student Exercise 

Exercise A 

Choose a local transit station (or individual transit stop) and determine the potential catchment area. 

Design a program for increasing bicycle and pedestrian access to the transit station, including both design 

improvements and education/promotion efforts. For physical improvements, include both the immediate 

vicinity and the connections to origins that lie in the catchment area. 

Exercise B 

Choose a nearby transit stop or park-and-ride station and ride a bike or walk to it. Document the problems 

along the way, as well as those you experience when you arrive at the station/stop. Given your knowledge 

of the community, what would it take to get people to bicycle and walk to this site? 

18.11 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. “Case Study No. 17: Bicycle and Pedestrian Policies and Programs in Asia, Australia, and New 

Zealand,” National Bicycling and Walking Study, Publication No. FHWA-PD-93-016, FHWA, 

Washington, DC, 1993. 

2. “Case Study No. 9: Linking Bicycle/Pedestrian Facilities With Transit,” National Bicycling and 

Walking Study, Publication No. FHWA-PD-93-012, FHWA, Washington, DC, 1992. 

3. Integration of Bicycles and Transit, TCRP Synthesis 4, TCRP, TRB, National Research Council, 

Washington, DC, 1994, available online at http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/tcrp/tsyn04.pdf . 

4. Bicycles and Transit: A Partnership that Works, FTA and FHWA, Washington, DC, 1999. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• “The Economic and Social Benefits of Off-Road Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities,” National 

Bicycle and Pedestrian Clearinghouse Technical Assistance Series, No. 1, FHWA, Washington, 

DC, 1995, available online at http://www.imba.com/resources/science/econsoc_benefits.html 

Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 309 

LESSON 19: 

GREENWAYS AND SHARED-USE PATHS 

19.1 Introduction 

Shared-use paths provide low-stress environments for bicycling and walking that are separate from motor 

vehicle traffic. They can be great places for novice and child bicyclists to try out their bicycling skills 

prior to taking trips on urban streets. Shared-use paths are frequently in high demand among bicyclists, 

joggers, in-line skaters, people walking dogs, people with disabilities, and a variety of other users. 

Systems of shared-use paths in urban and suburban communities serve as the arterials of the bicycle and 

pedestrian transportation system. They serve as a complement to and extension of onstreet facilities (not 

as alternatives to them) and offer the protection from motor vehicle traffic that many Americans seek 

when looking to leave their car behind in favor of a bike, walk, or skate. 

The popularity of many urban paths has shown that large volumes of pathway traffic, with a diverse user 

mix, can create congested and conflictive path conditions similar to that on urban highways. Therefore, 

planning and design of shared-use paths must be done with the same care and attention to recognized 

guidelines and user needs as the design of on-roadway bikeways and other transportation facilities. 

The following discussion addresses planning and design issues common to most shared-use path 

facilities, including how to accommodate various user types, address different right-of-way settings, and 

achieve various safety standards and guidelines. More detail on shared-use path design and engineering is 

provided in national guidelines established by FHWA, the U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers 

Compliance Board (the Access Board), and AASHTO. See specific resources listed in section 19.11. The 

major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 19.1 Introduction. 

• 19.2 Shared-Use Path Definition. 

• 19.3 Shared-Use Path Users. 

• 19.4 User Conflict. 

• 19.5 Shared-Use Path Types and Settings. 

• 19.6 Planning. 

• 19.7 Rail-Trails, Rails-with-Trails, and Towpaths. 

• 19.8 Greenway Paths. 

• 19.9 Paths Adjacent to Roadways. 

• 19.10 Path Design. 

• 19.11 Student Exercise. 

• 19.12 References and Additional Resources. 

19.2 Shared-Use Path Definition 

The term shared-use path is defined by AASHTO as “a bikeway physically separated from motorized 

vehicular traffic by an open space or barrier and either within the highway right-of-way or within an 

independent right-of-way. Shared-use paths may also be used by pedestrians, skaters, wheelchair users, 

joggers, and other nonmotorized users.”(1) These facilities are most commonly designed for two-way 
310 Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 

travel. In many communities, shared-use paths may also be referred to as trails, multiuse trails, bike paths, 

hiker/biker trails, or other similar terms. 

19.3 Shared-Use Path Users 

Shared-use paths are typically used by a diverse set of users representing different travel modes, using 

different types of equipment and traveling at different speeds (see figure 19-1). It is important to 

understand, even within the basic user categories of bicyclists, pedestrians, and skaters, how diverse path 

users can be. A recent study, Characteristics of Emerging Road and Trail Users and Their Safety, begins 

to document the various characteristics of these users and their equipment.(2)

Figure 19-1. Photo. To minimize user conflicts, adequate trail width 

is critical on paths having high volumes and 

diverse user mixes (Santa Barbara, CA). 

• Bicyclists include adults using traditional bicycles, but also child bicyclists, cyclists pulling 

trailers or trail-a-bikes, and riders of tandem bicycles, recumbent bicycles, hand cycles, tricycles, 

and a variety of four-wheeled human-powered vehicles. 

• Pedestrians include joggers, runners, and people walking dogs and pushing strollers, as well as 

disabled people. Today, disabled and injured people have a wide variety of assistive devices 

available to aid in travel or enable participation in trail activities, including powered and manual 

wheelchairs, powered scooters, tricycles, hand cycles, and racing wheelchairs, as well as the more 

traditional, crutches, walkers, and canes. 

• Skaters include users as diverse as in-line skaters, kick scooters, skateboarders, and people using 

roller-skis. 

In some communities, multiuse trails are designed and managed to accommodate equestrians, 

cross-country skiers, mountain bikers, and other users of specialized recreational activities. In general, the 

present discussion of shared-use paths does not specifically address the needs and issues of these more 

specialized user groups. 
Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 311 

Shared-use paths do not typically allow use by motorized vehicles such as cars, motor scooters, 

motorcycles, go-carts, or recreational all-terrain vehicles (ATVs); however, there are important 

exceptions to consider in planning and design: 

• Access for emergency, police, and maintenance vehicles. 

• Use of electric wheelchairs, scooters, or other devices by disabled persons. 

• Use of electric bicycles, electric push scooters, or other means of electric locomotion (if permitted 

by Federal-aid program regulations), at the discretion of local or State government. 

• In rural areas, use of snowmobiles in winter. 

Some shared-use paths may be appropriate for equestrian use. Some States claim that Federal law or 

regulation prohibits equestrian use on shared-use paths that use transportation funds. This is not true: 

there is no such Federal law or regulation. While the projects must serve a transportation function, 

nothing prohibits recreational use, and nothing requires a prohibition of equestrian use. There are various 

design options to allow equestrian use, such as providing both a paved path and an unpaved path within 

the same right-of-way. 

In addition to diverse users and a variety of equipment used, shared-use paths serve a wide variety of trip 

purposes. User behavior, such as travel speed and willingness to make stops, varies considerably with 

different trip purposes. Especially in urban and suburban areas, paths are routinely used for commuting to 

work or school, running errands, visiting friends, getting exercise, observing nature, and seeking 

recreation and enjoyment of the outdoors. 

Moreover, people of all ages and abilities use and enjoy shared-use paths—from the very young to the 

very old, from the novice cyclist to the marathon trainer. Accommodating and balancing the various 

needs created by this diverse user market is a central challenge for today’s shared-use path planners and 

designers. 

19.4 User Conflict 

User conflicts can emerge when user goals differ. In Conflicts on Multiple-Use Trails, Moore urges trail 

planners, designers, and managers “not to treat conflict as an inherent incompatibility among different 

trail activities, but as goal interference attributed to another’s behavior.”(3) In addition to following good 

trail planning and design principals, Moore describes how user conflicts can be successfully minimized 

through effective path management. 

Understanding the diverse social and operational needs of expected users and designing trails to 

accommodate projected volumes and mode mixes is critical to building successful trail systems—trails 

that will serve multiple roles in a community’s transportation and recreation network. 

19.5 Shared-Use Path Types and Settings 

Shared-use paths can be developed on a variety of rights-of-way and exist in many types of settings, 

including urban, suburban, exurban, and rural. Increasingly long paths use a variety of rights-of-way and 

pass through many diverse environments. The following is a list of the most common shared-use path 

types: 

• Rail-trails—Paths created on abandoned railroad corridors. 
312 Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 

• Rails-with-trails—Paths created adjacent to active rail lines (see figure 19-2), such as freight 

railroads, commuter rail lines, light rail, or other rail transit facilities. 

Figure 19-2. Photo. Shared-use paths can be adjacent to 

railroad lines (Libba Cotton Trail, Carrboro, NC). 

• Greenway trails—Paths incorporated into linear natural areas such as parks or conservation 

areas, along stream or river corridors, along waterfronts (see figure 19-3) including beaches and 

shorelines, or along flood control levees, etc. 

• Paths adjacent to highways, roads, and parkways—Sometimes referred to as sidepaths. 

• Towpaths—Paths created along abandoned canals by using the towpath or canal bed. 

• Paths using utility corridors—Such as power lines, water supply, or sewer corridors, irrigation 

canals, or other utility lines. 

• Other paths—Such as those developed within university campuses, on other institutional 

properties, or within large residential and/or commercial developments. 

A wide variety of other facilities are often referred to by the terms path, pathway, or trail. They may share 

similarities with shared-use paths, but they are not addressed in this course. These include nature and 

interpretive trails, primitive and backcountry hiking trails, historic trails, heritage trails and touring routes, 

and walking paths. 
Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 313 

Figure 19-3. Photo. Shared-use paths can be integrated into urban 

waterfronts and parks, providing direct access to central 

business districts (East Bay Bicycle Path, Providence, RI). 

19.6 Planning 

Greenways: A Guide to Planning, Design and Development and Trails for the Twenty-First Century are 

two well-researched resources on the subject of planning that both emphasize its importance in the 

process of creating a shared-use path.(4,5) Three key objectives that should be addressed during the 

planning phase comprise communicating a clear vision, goals, and concept for the facility; building 

community support; and developing a comprehensive corridor assessment. Other plan components may 

include: documentation of community benefits and opportunities, environmental impact assessments, 

preliminary cost estimates, funding and phasing options, and implementation plans. Public involvement, 

interagency coordination, and interjurisdictional coordination should also be considered during early 

planning activities. 

Trails for the Twenty-First Century offers a helpful guide to planning process terminology and includes 

four key steps in the pathway planning process:(5) 

1. Trail vision or concept 

2. The master plan 

3. Preliminary design 

4. Construction drawings and documents 

Too often, agencies charged with creating a shared-use path fail to understand or adopt a crucial pathway 

planning principal—that by definition, shared-use paths serve both transportation and recreation 

functions. As such, they must be planned and designed to be a part of two systems of community 

infrastructure: parks and recreation, and transportation. 
314 Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 

19.7 Rail-Trails, Rails-with-Trails, and Towpaths 

More than 20,117 km (12,500 mi) and 1,200 rail and canal trails are now in place nationwide. More than 

61 rails-with-trails and 25 towpaths are included in these totals. Unused rail and canal corridors offer 

many benefits as trail conversions, including gentle grades, existing base and sub-base for path 

construction, access to the center of communities, historic preservation and revitalization opportunities, 

scenic and natural resource preservation, and creation of social linkages from the past to the future. These 

types of pathways also present unique planning and design challenges. The following issues are especially 

important, since many of them have received extensive study and best-practice analysis (see “References” 

in section 19.11): 

• Right-of-way acquisition and landownership issues. 

• Liability issues. 

• Bridge, tunnel, stonewall, and other structure reuse and rehabilitation issues. 

• Potential historic resource impacts. 

• Potential environmental contamination. 

19.8 Greenway Paths 

The most common feature of many greenways is a trail...with so many types of users in 

the United States, there are many types of trails, and elementary though it may seem, it is 

important to distinguish among them. All greenway trails should be compatible with the 

natural landscape and its functions.(4)

What distinguishes the typical greenway path from other types of shared-use paths is that the path is only 

one component of a larger corridor, which is primarily defined by its environmental features or functions, 

including waterways, forests, wetlands, shorelines, or other natural or restored landscapes. Moreover, the 

reason that the corridor exists may not be primarily to create a context for a path, but for larger 

environmental purposes such as habitat preservation, to absorb and accommodate floodwaters, or to 

provide parkland and recreation resources for human communities. 

Greenway paths may be incorporated into built natural areas such as linear urban parks or parkways, 

along flood control levees or along urban waterfronts. Greenway paths can also be created in natural areas 

such as along beaches and shorelines, in conservation areas, or along stream or river corridors. 

Greenway paths present unique planning and design challenges. The following issues are especially 

significant, as many of them have received extensive study and best-practice analysis: 

• Positioning the pathway within the greenway corridor. 

• Minimizing and managing environmental disturbance and impact, both during path construction 

and as the path sustains ongoing use. 

• Reducing stormwater runoff and protecting against erosion. 

• Incorporating environmental restoration such as bioengineering and low-impact stormwater 

management techniques. 

• Designing the trail to be compatible with or even reinforce the larger goals and purposes of the 

corridor. 
Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 315 

19.9 Paths Adjacent to Roadways 

In select circumstances, locating shared-use paths adjacent to roads may be the best or only option 

available. In settings such as parkways or roadways with little or no access on one side and sufficient 

space to provide a path and buffer, locating paths adjacent to roads may be preferable to other options. 

Roads or streets that have low motor-vehicle traffic volumes and/or low traffic speeds can also be viable 

candidates for accommodating sidepaths, especially to provide continuity for a path that is otherwise on 

an independent right-of-way, but has critical gaps. 

However, in typical cases, if a two-way shared-use path is located immediately adjacent to a roadway, 

some operational problems are likely to occur. The extent of these problems will depend on the context 

and layout of the roadway, number and nature of cross-streets, driveways and access ramps, and adjacent 

motor vehicle travel speeds. The AASHTO Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities enumerates 

nine potential problems and safety issues that need to be given serious consideration when planning or 

designing a shared-use path adjacent to a roadway, as for example:(1)

• When the bicycle path ends, bicyclists going against traffic will tend to continue traveling on the 

wrong side of the street. Likewise, bicyclists approaching a bicycle path often travel on the wrong 

side of the street in getting to the path. Wrong-way travel by bicyclists is a major cause of 

bicycle/automobile crashes and should be discouraged at every opportunity. 

• At intersections, motorists entering or crossing the roadway often will not notice bicyclists 

coming from their right, as they are not expecting contraflow vehicles. Even bicyclists coming 

from the left often go unnoticed, especially when sight distances are poor. 

• Although the shared-use path should be given the same priority through intersections as the 

parallel highway, motorists falsely expect bicyclists to stop or yield at all cross-streets and 

driveways. Efforts to require or encourage bicyclists to yield or stop at each cross-street and 

driveway are inappropriate and frequently ignored by bicyclists. 

19.10 Path Design 

AASHTO’s updated (1999) Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities remains the primary design 

guide for shared-use paths. The MUTCD 2003 edition, “Part 9: Traffic Controls for Bicycle Facilities,” is 

the primary source for guidance regarding signing and striping of shared-use paths.(6)

A number of new publications provide supplementary information, including: 

• ADAAG.(7)

• Accessible Rights-of-way: Sidewalks, Street Crossings, and Other Pedestrian Facilities: A Design 

Guide.

(8)

• Characteristics of Emerging Road and Trail Users and Their Safety.

(2)

• Designing Sidewalks and Trails for Access: Parts 1 & 2.

(9)

• Draft Guidelines for Accessible Public Rights-of-Way.

(10)

• Evaluation of Safety Design and Operation of Shared Use Paths: Users Guide and Final 

Report.

(11)

• Recommendations for Accessibility Guidelines: Outdoor Developed Areas, Final Report.

(12)

• Trail Intersection Design Guidelines.

(13)
316 Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 

• Trails for the Twenty-First Century.

(5)

The following highlights address important trail design issues using references from the texts listed 

above. The AASHTO Guide should be used as a companion text for this module. 

Accessible Path Design 

Because shared-use paths provide a transportation function, all newly constructed shared-use paths should 

be built to provide access for people with disabilities. In addition, existing shared-use paths should be 

improved to enhance access whenever possible. Key issues for accessibility include trail access points, 

grade, cross-slope, street crossings, curb ramp design, railings, and signage. A single source of access 

guidance for shared-use trails has not been compiled; however, taken together, the sources above address 

the essential topics. 

• Surfaces can be paved (asphalt or concrete) or unpaved (crushed stone or aggregate), but should 

be firm, stable, and slip-resistant. 

• Grades should generally be less than 5 percent, but can be up to 12.5 percent for short distances, 

such as 3 m (10 ft). Level landings or rest areas should be provided at appropriate intervals on 

grades steeper than five percent. 

• Cross-slopes for drainage or superelevated curves should be no greater than two percent. 

Trail Width and Striping 

Under most conditions, the recommended paved width for two-directional trails is 3 m (10 ft); however 

3.7- to 4.3-m (12- to 14-ft) widths are preferred where heavy traffic is expected (see figure 19-4). In select 

instances, a reduced width of 2.4 m (8 ft) can be adequate, especially if one or the other of the bicycle or 

pedestrian modes has a small percentage of overall use. A recent study, Evaluation of Safety Design and 

Operation of Shared Use Paths, found that from 3 to 4.9 m (10 to 16 ft), every additional foot in width 

significantly improves the LOS for bicyclists using shared-use paths.(11)

This study also found that centerline stripes have a significant impact on how bicyclists tend to operate on 

shared-use paths: (11)

A striped centerline has a strong impact on the bicyclist’s perception of freedom to 

maneuver. This finding appears to support the intent of trail designers in providing a 

centerline, which is to clearly delineate two opposing travel lanes. A centerline reinforces 

the idea that to pass a slower moving user, the cyclist may need to use the travel lane of 

opposing trail users, and should pass only when the opposing lane is open...there may be 

valid safety reasons for providing a centerline stripe, particularly on crowded trails, on 

curves with limited sight distance, and in other appropriate circumstances. 

Additional details regarding striping and marking of paths are found in MUTCD. 
Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 317 

0.6 m (2 ft)

Graded area

0.6 m (2 ft)

Graded area

3.0 m (10 ft) recommended

Width of shared use path

1.2 m (4 ft) min.

5 5 ax 1. m ( ft) m .

0.9 m (3 ft) min.

1. m ( ft) m . 8 6 ax

0.9 m (3 ft) min.

1. m ( ft) m . 8 6 ax

1:6 max.

slope

1:6 max.

slope

1.2 m (4 ft) min.

5 5 ax 1. m ( ft) m .

Figure 19-4. Illustration. Typical cross section for multiuse trails. 

Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (1)

Trail/Roadway Intersection Design 

According to page 46 of AASHTO’s Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities:

(1)

Intersections between paths and roadways are often the most critical issue in shared-use 

path design. Due to the potential conflicts at these junctions, careful design is of 

paramount important to the safety of path users and motorists alike. The solutions 

provided in this chapter should be considered guidelines, not absolutes. Each intersection 

is unique and will require sound engineering judgment on the part of the designer as to 

the appropriate solution. 

The following are principles of intersection design taken from Trail Intersection Design, AASHTO, and 

other sources:(13,1)

• Design for the full spectrum of trail users—young and old, slow and fast, bicyclists, skaters, and 

walkers, etc. 

• Site the crossing area at a logical and visible location. 

• When assigning right-of-way, give trail users at least the same rights as the motoring public, and 

provide clear right-of-way assignment. 

• Provide positive guidance for trail users and motorists to ensure full awareness of the intersection. 

Warning signs and pavement markings (see figure 19-5) that alert motorists of the upcoming trail 

crossing should be used in accordance with MUTCD. 
318 Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. FHWA strongly 

recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 19-5. Photo. Signs, bollards, and trail and crosswalk markings alert 

both motorists and bicyclists to this midblock trail crossing. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, 

http://www.pedbikeimages.org 

• Minimize conflicts and channelize the intersection to separate conflicting movements. 

• Design unavoidable conflicts to occur at right angles. 

• Optimize sight triangles, thereby ensuring proper stopping, intersection crossing, and decision 

sight distances. Conflicts should be clearly visible. 

• Reduce motor-vehicle speed through traffic-calming techniques, as appropriate. 

• Use design to ensure appropriate trail user speeds approaching and through the intersection. 

Wherever possible, intersections and approaches should be on relatively flat grades. 

• Minimize trail user crossing distance with a median refuge area or by narrowing the roadway as 

appropriate. 

• Provide adequate staging and refuge areas for trail users; use trail edge railings or posts to give 

stopped bicyclists a handhold that allows them to stop and maintain a ready posture for crossing 

without taking their feet off the pedals. 

• Discourage unwanted motor vehicle intrusion onto the trail while enabling emergency and 

maintenance vehicle entry. 

• Avoid unnecessary obstacles and barriers, and visibly highlight necessary obstacles. At signalized 

intersections: 

o Minimize trail user delay by minimizing traffic signal cycle time. 

o Provide adequate signal crossing time for design pedestrians. 

o Provide tactile/audible pushbuttons that are easily accessible for all types of trail users. 
Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 319 

• Design to assist the trail user in looking in the direction of the potential hazard. Use signs and 

pavement markings on the trail to provide advance warning of upcoming intersections, especially 

in areas where the intersection is not clearly visible 75 m (250 ft) in advance. 

• Consider the potential for sun blinding and lighting needs. 

• Consider landscaping and other gateway treatments to draw motorists’ and trail users’ attention to 

intersections and to encourage slowing; however, take care to use designs that do not limit 

visibility and sight distances or demand trail users to make difficult maneuvers. 

Other Design Issues 

Quality shared-use path design requires a melding of skills from the fields of transportation engineering 

and landscape architecture. Guidance about basic engineering such as pavement structure, bridge loading, 

geometric design, and traffic safety must be combined with aesthetic, environmental, and cultural 

considerations such as attention to diverse human needs and the surrounding environmental and climatic 

conditions and integration with a community’s identity and history. The following list of additional 

design issues is addressed in one or more of the design resources provided in section 19.11; these issues 

can also be researched on the Internet for case examples and guidance from documents developed by 

regional, State, or local agencies. 

• Path surface and treadway design: 

o Hard and soft surfaces. 

o Boardwalks and bridge decks. 

o Separate treadways for wheels and heels. 

o Soils, subgrade, and geotechnical design. 

• Geometric design issues: 

o Sight distance. 

o Slopes, grades, and cross-slopes. 

o Horizontal alignment. 

• Providing access: 

o Stairs with bicycle rolling troughs for grade-separated crossings (see figure 19-6). 

o Access to abutting and cross-streets. 

o Controlled and uncontrolled access to adjacent properties. 

o Spur paths and trails. 
320 Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 

Figure 19-6. Photo. Stairway with bicycle rolling troughs 

(Capital Crescent Trail, Bethesda, MD). 

• Restricting access and separation from adjacent activities: 

o Restricting motor vehicle access. 

o Restricting path side access. 

o Paths adjacent to active railroads. 

o Fence, bollard, railing, and barrier design. 

• Adjacent to roadway design issues: 

o Curbs. 

o Buffers. 

o Trail edge railings. 

o Roadway guide rails. 

• Environmental controls and impacts: 

o Providing appropriate drainage. 

o Minimizing erosion. 

o Porous paving. 

o Trees and root systems. 

o Crossing wetlands. 

o Use of recycled materials and green building practices. 

• Aesthetic issues: 

o Materials and use of color. 

o Landscaping. 

o Signs. 
Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 321 

o Public art. 

o Lighting. 

• Amenities—location, citing, and design: 

o Bicycle parking. 

o Benches and rest areas. 

o Drinking water. 

o Restrooms. 

o Historic and cultural interpretation. 

• Signing (see figure 19-7): 

o Wayfinding. 

o Identity. 

o Etiquette. 

o Regulatory. 

o Interpretive. 

o Informational. 

Figure 19-7. Photo. Trailheads with parking and wayfinding 

signs assist shared-use path users 

(Rock Creek Trail, Montgomery County, MD). 

• Structures and special crossings (see figure 19-8): 

o Bridges. 

o Tunnels. 

o Underpasses. 

o Retaining walls. 

o Culverts and drainage structures. 

o Railroad/trail crossings. 

o Bicycle/pedestrian ferries. 
322 Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 

Figure 19-8. Photo. Bridges and floating sections 

allow paths to cross water and maintain continuity 

(Eastside Esplanade, Portland, OR). 

• Lighting: 

o Safety and security. 

o Wildlife impacts. 

• Trailheads and parking: 

o ADA accessibility. 

19.11 Student Exercise 

Visit and evaluate a trail facility in your area. Determine the positive elements and some of the issues of 

the facility, while paying close attention to the connection with on-street facilities, trail design, etc. Why 

might have the decision been made to build the facility in that manner, and what might be done to correct 

the issue? 

19.12 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1999. 

2. Characteristics of Emerging Road and Trail Users and Their Safety, FHWA, 2004, available 

online at http://www.tfhrc.gov/safety/pubs/04104/index.htm. 

3. Moore, R., Conflicts on Multiple-Use Trails, FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-PD-94-031, 

available online at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/conflicts/, 1994, accessed November 

22, 2004. 
Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 323 

4. Flink, C., L. Schwarz, and R. Searns, Greenways: A Guide to Planning, Design, and 

Development, The Conservation Fund, 1993. 

5. Flink, C., K. Olka, R. Searns, Trails for the Twenty-First Century—Planning, Design, and 

Management Manual for Multi-Use Trails, Second Edition, Island Press, Washington, DC, 2000, 

p. 30. 

6. “Part 9—Traffic Controls for Bicycle Facilities,” MUTCD, FHWA, 2003, most recent edition 

available online at http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov. 

7. ADAAG, Access Board, 2004, available online at 

http://www.access-board.gov/ada-aba/final.htm. 

8. Accessible Rights-of-Way: Sidewalks, Street Crossings and Other Pedestrian Facilities: A Design 

Guide, Access Board, 1999, available online at 

http://www.access-board.gov/prowac/guide/PROWGuide.htm. 

9. Designing Sidewalks and Trails for Access: Parts 1 & 2, FHWA, Publication No.’s 

FHWA-HEP-99-006 and FHWA-EP-01-027, 1999 and 2001, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/publications.htm. 

10. Draft Guidelines for Accessible Public Rights-of-Way, Access Board, 2002, available online at 

http://www.access-board.gov/rowdraft.htm. 

11. Evaluation of Safety, Design, and Operation of Shared-Use Paths, FHWA, Washington, DC, 

2005. 

12. Regulatory Negotiation Committee on Accessibility Guidelines for Outdoor Developed Areas, 

Final Report, Access Board, 1999, available online at http://www.access-board.gov. 

13. Pein, W., Trail Intersection Design Guidelines, Florida Department of Transportation, 1996, pp. 

2–11, available online at http://www.dot.state.fl.us/Safety/ped_bike/handbooks_and_research/ 

TRAILINT.PDF 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Design for Transportation Trails: Technical Brief No. 9, National Bicycle and Pedestrian 

Clearinghouse, 1996, Available online (from the International Mountain Bike Association 

(IMBA) website) at http://www.imba.com/, accessed May 18, 2004. 

• Drake, B., and D. Burden, Pedestrian and Bicyclists Safety and Accommodation, Participant 

Workbook, NHI Course No. 38061, FHWA-HI-96-028, 1996. 

• Pedestrian and Streetscape Guide: Toolkit 4—Trails and Paths, Georgia Department of 

Transportation, 2003, available online at http://www.dot.state.ga.us/dot/plan-prog/planning/ 

projects/bicycle/ped_streetscape_guide/toolkit%204%20final.pdf 

• Rail-Trails and Community Sentiment, Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, 1998, available online at 

http://trailsandgreenways.org/resources/development/opposcom/tgc_commsentiment.pdf. 

• Rail-Trails and Liability, Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, 2000, available online at 

http://www.trailsandgreenways.org/resources/development/opposcom/tgc_liability.pdf. 
324 Greenways and Shared-Use Paths 

• Rail-Trails and Safe Communities, Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, 1998, available online at 

http://www.enhancements.org/rtcdocs/safecomm.pdf. 

• Rails-with-Trails: Lessons Learned, FHWA, 2005, available online at 

http://www.altaplanning.com/focus/rails_lessons.html. 

• “Shared Use Paths” PBIC Webpage, 2004, Available online at 

http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/de/shared.htm, accessed April 26, 2004. 

• Towpaths-to-Trails, Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, Washington, DC, 1995. 

• Trapp, S., M. Gross, and R. Zimmerman, Signs, Trails and Wayside Exhibits—Connecting People 

and Places, UWSP Foundation Press, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI, 1994. 

• Tunnels on Trails, Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, 2001, available online at 

http://www.railtrails.org/whatwedo/information/tot.asp. 
Traffic Calming 325 

LESSON 20: 

TRAFFIC CALMING 

20.1 Introduction 

Traffic calming has been defined in Traffic Calming: State of the Practice as follows:(1)

Traffic calming is the combination of mainly physical measures that reduce the negative 

effects of motor vehicle use, alter driver behavior and improve conditions for 

nonmotorized street users. 

In this State of the Practice report, route modification, traffic control devices, and streetscaping were 

distinguished as being separate from traffic calming. In many cities, however, these techniques (as well as 

education and enforcement) are also included in traffic-calming programs. Figure 20-1 shows schematic 

examples of traffic-calming devices and elements. 

Neck down

Cul-de-sac

Truncated 

diagonal

diverter

Chicane

Curb

extensions

Traffic

circle

Left turn

movement around

traffic circle

Diagonal

diverter

Curb

extensions

Figure 20-1. Illustration. Examples of traffic-calming elements. 
326 Traffic Calming 

This chapter explores the principles of traffic calming and provides a variety of studies, design details, 

and photographs of areas where traffic calming has been effectively used in the United States and in 

Europe. Along with the advantages of traffic calming, the text describes mistakes that practitioners have 

sometimes made in implementing traffic-calming techniques. The major sections of this lesson are as 

follows: 

• 20.1 Introduction. 

• 20.2 Traffic-Calming Objectives. 

• 20.3 Traffic-Calming Issues. 

• 20.4 Traffic-Calming Devices. 

• 20.5 Traffic-Calming Impacts. 

• 20.6 Putting the Design Techniques to Work: Selected Examples of Traffic Calming. 

• 20.7 Student Exercise. 

• 20.8 References and Additional Resources. 

20.2 Traffic-Calming Objectives 

The fundamental purpose of traffic calming is to reduce the speed and volume of traffic to acceptable 

levels for the street functional class and nature of adjacent land use. Although secondary impacts are not 

as clearly quantified, some observers link the reductions in traffic speed and vehicle volume to: 

• Improved pedestrian and bicyclist safety. 

• Decreased traffic noise. 

• Improved neighborhood cohesion and livability. 

• Improved property values. 

• Improved street aesthetics and appearance (see figure 20-2). 

 

Figure 20-2. Photos. Traffic-calming devices are used to break up long, 

uninterrupted street vistas that encourage speeding. 

20.3 Traffic-Calming Issues 

When any new traffic-management approach is introduced, issues, concerns, and questions are bound to 

arise. Design decisions related to traffic can have far-reaching consequences. Lives, economic well-being, 

and urban livability are directly affected. 

Professional engineers, planners, government, and the public all are aware of and sensitive to proposals 

for changes in the traffic environment. Roadway congestion, air quality, traffic safety, street crimes, and 
Traffic Calming 327 

the high cost of new improvements are among the most widely debated issues in America today. New 

design ideas are, and should be, subjected to rigorous testing and evaluation before being accepted as part 

of the standard engineering and transportation-planning tool kit. Traffic calming is not a cure-all for urban 

transportation woes, but it can have significant benefits in many situations. 

It is also important to consider the overall context of a traffic concern before the decision is made to 

implement traffic-calming techniques. In many cases, traffic-calming measures are installed to treat an 

area with a traffic problem, but the cause of the problem is not considered. There may be, for instance, a 

problem on a major arterial (such as an intersection with poor signal timing) that is backing up traffic and 

causing motorists to take alternative routes through adjacent residential streets (see figure 20-3). Adding 

traffic-calming devices to control speeds and volumes along the minor roadways would not be necessary 

if the source of the problem (the signal timing on the principal arterial) were corrected. In other words, 

transportation planners and engineers should look to treat the disease—not the symptom—of poor traffic 

management. 

Principal arterial

Traffic problem:

poor signal timing

Traffic

calming

needed

Alternate

routes

Figure 20-3. Illustration. Traffic calming may not be necessary if 

the original problem is corrected. 

Fire and emergency services personnel should be consulted in the early stages of traffic calming programs 

(see figure 20-4). Their input into the type of location of traffic calming will ensure that emergency 

response times are not being significantly affected. Their support and acceptance of traffic calming may 

also tend to foster public support as well. 
328 Traffic Calming 

Figure 20-4. Photo. Emergency vehicle access should always be considered 

when incorporating traffic-calming measures. 

20.4 Traffic-Calming Devices 

Traffic calming has many potential applications, especially in residential neighborhoods and small 

commercial centers. Traffic-calming devices can be grouped within the following general categories: 

• Bumps, humps, and other raised pavement areas. 

• Reduced street areas (where motor traffic is given priority). 

• Street closures. 

• Traffic diversions. 

• Surface texture and visual devices. 

• Parking treatments. 

Frequently, a combination of traffic-calming devices is used. Examples of such combinations will be 

discussed briefly, including: 

• The woonerf. 

• Entry treatments across intersections. 

• Shared surfaces. 

• Bicycle boulevards. 

• Slow streets. 

• Channelization changes. 

• Traffic calming on a major road. 

• Modified intersection design. 
Traffic Calming 329 

Bumps, Humps, and Other Raised Pavement Areas 

This category includes all traffic-calming devices raised above pavement level. Included in this category 

are: 

• Speed hump (see figure 20-5). 

• Raised crosswalk (see figures 20-6 and 20-7). 

• Raised intersection. 

Figure 20-5. Photo. Speed humps can be combined with curb extensions 

and a winding street alignment. 
330 Traffic Calming 

Figure 20-6. Photo. Where possible, cyclists should be provided with 

cycle slips that enable them to bypass speed humps. 

Figure 20-7. Photo. Raised crosswalks can slow traffic and 

give pedestrians a level surface at the crossing. 
Traffic Calming 331 

Table 20-1 contains brief descriptions of each treatment and design considerations. 

Table 20-1. Description of bumps, humps, and other raised areas.

Device Description Design Considerations 

Speed bump • A raised area in the roadway pavement 

surface extending transversely across 

the travel way. 

• Generally has a height of 7.6 to 15.2 cm 

(3 to 6 in) and a length of 0.3 to 1 m (1 

to 3 ft). 

• Most effective if used in a series at 91.4- to 

152.4-m (300- to 500-ft) spacing. 

• Typically used on private property for speed 

control—parking lots, apartment complexes, 

private streets, and driveways. 

• Not conducive to bicycle travel and may not be 

pedestrian accessible. 

Speed hump • A raised area in the roadway pavement 

surface extending transversely across 

the roadway. 

• Normally has a minimum height of 7.6 

to 10.1 cm (3 to 4 in) and a travel length 

of approximately 3.7 m (12 ft). 

• May raise the roadway surface to the 

height of the adjacent curb for a short 

distance. 

• Can be round or flat-topped; the 

flat-topped configuration is sometimes 

called a speed table. 

• Can extend the full width of the road or 

curb to curb, or can be cut back at the 

sides to allow bicycles to pass and 

facilitate drainage. A single hump acts 

as only a point speed control. To reduce 

speeds along an extended section of 

street, a series of humps is usually 

needed. Typically, speed humps are 

spaced at between 91.4 and 182.8 m 

(300 and 600 ft) apart. 

• If midblock pedestrian crossings exist or are 

planned, they can be coordinated with speed hump 

installation since vehicle speeds will be lowest at 

the hump to negotiate ramps or curbs between the 

sidewalk and the street. 

• Must be visible at night. 

• Should be located to avoid conflict with 

underground utility access to boxes, vaults, and 

sewers. 

• Should not be constructed at driveway locations. 

• May be constructed on streets without curbs, but 

steps should be taken to prevent circumnavigation 

around the humps in these situations. 

• Adequate signing and marking of each speed 

hump is essential to warn roadway users of the 

hump’s presence and guide their subsequent 

movements. 

• Should not be installed in street sections where 

transit vehicles must transition between the travel 

lane and curbside stop. 

• To the extent possible, speed humps should be 

located to ensure that transit vehicles can traverse 

them perpendicularly. 

Raised 

crosswalk 

• Essentially a broad, flat-topped speed 

hump that coincides with pedestrian 

crosswalks at street intersections. 

• Raised above the level of the roadway to 

slow traffic, it enhances crosswalk 

visibility and makes the crossing easier 

for pedestrians who may have difficulty 

stepping up and down curbs. 

• Must be stable and firm and can be constructed of 

brick, concrete block, colored asphalt, or cement, 

with ramps striped for better visibility. 

• A raised crosswalk is applicable: 

o On roadways with vehicular speeds perceived 

as being incompatible with the adjacent 

residential land uses. 

o Where there are a significant number of 

pedestrian crossings. 

o In conjunction with other traffic-calming 

devices, particularly entry treatments. 

o On residential streets of two lanes or less that 

are classified as either local streets or 

neighborhood collector streets. 

o On roadways with 85th percentile speeds less 

than 72 km/h (45 mi/h). 
332 Traffic Calming 

Table 20-1. Description of bumps, humps, and other raised areas—Continued

Device Description Design Considerations 

Intersection 

hump/raised 

intersection 

• Raises the roadway at an intersection, 

forming a type of plateau across the 

intersection, with a ramp on each 

approach. 

• Situated at curb level, a plateau can be 

enhanced through the use of distinctive 

surfacing such as pavement coloring, 

brickwork, or other pavements. 

• In some cases, the distinction between 

roadway and sidewalk surfaces is 

blurred. If this is done, physical 

obstructions such as bollards or planters 

should be considered, restricting the 

area to which motor vehicles have 

access. 

• Ramps should not exceed a maximum gradient of 

16 percent. 

• Raised and/or textured surfaces can be used to 

alert drivers to the need for particular care. 

• Distinctive surfacing helps reinforce the concept 

of a calmed area and thus plays a part in reducing 

vehicle speeds. 

• Distinctive surfacing materials should be 

skid-resistant, particularly on inclines. 

• Ramps should be clearly marked to enable 

bicyclists to identify and anticipate them, 

particularly under conditions of poor visibility. 

• Care must be taken so the visually impaired have 

adequate cues to identify the roadway’s location 

(e.g., tactile strips). Color contrasts will aid those 

who are partially sighted. 

Bellevue Example

Table 20-2 below provides the findings for a before-and-after study of speed humps installed in Bellevue, 

WA, in order to reduce speeds in the area. 

Table 20-2. Bellevue, WA, speed hump findings.

Before After 

Location Street 

Type/Width 

No. of

Humps

Hump 

Spacing

m (ft) 

Speed 

Limit 

km/h 

(mi/h) 

85th % 

Speed 

km/h 

(mi/h) 

Daily 

traffic 

85th % 

Speed 

km/h 

(mi/h) 

Daily traffic 

Somerset 

Drive SE 

Two-way, 

12.2-m-wide 

(40-ft-wide) local 

residential 

neighborhood 

street 

2 103.6 

(340) 

40.2 

(25) 

62.8 

(39) 

795 43.5 

(27) 

541 (increased 

to 746 when 

the hump was 

reduced from 

1.9 to 7.6 cm 

(0.75 to 3 in) 

Highland 

Drive SE 

Two-way, 

10.7-m-wide 

(35-ft-wide) 

neighborhood 

collector 

3 67.1 

(220) 

40.2 

(25) 

57.9 

(36) 

1,700 40.2 

(25) 

No change 

because no 

alternative 

route exists 

166th/162nd 

Avenue SE 

Two-way, 

11.0-m-wide 

(36-ft-wide) local 

residential street; 

walk-to-school 

route 

2 

2 

182.9 

(600) 

176.8 

(580) 

40.2 

(25) 

40.2 

(25) 

59.5 

(37) 

59.5 

(37) 

655 

472 

38.6 

(24) 

43.5 

(27) 

.017 

.017 
Traffic Calming 333 

Table 20-2. Bellevue, WA, speed hump findings—Continued

Before After 

Location Street 

Type/Width 

No. of

Humps

Hump 

Spacing

m (ft) 

Speed 

Limit 

km/h 

(mi/h) 

85th % 

Speed 

km/h 

(mi/h) 

Daily 

traffic 

85th % 

Speed 

km/h 

(mi/h) 

Daily traffic 

SE 63rd Street Two-way, 

10.7-m-wide 

(35-ft-wide) local 

residential street 

temporarily serving 

as a connection 

between two minor 

arterials 

2 

3 

304.8 

(1,000) 

152.4 

(500) 

40.2 

(25) 

57.9 

(36) 

2,456 43.5 

(27) 

2,802 

Yarrow Bay 

neighborhood 

Primarily a 

neighborhood 

connector 

2 121.9 

(400) 

 62.8 

(39) 

3,585 40.2 

(25) 

2,931 

Reducing Street Area 

This category of traffic-calming techniques includes all those that reduce the area of the street designated 

exclusively for motor vehicle travel. Reclaimed space is typically used for landscaping, pedestrian 

amenities, and parking. Discussed here are: 

• Slow points. 

• Medians. 

• Curb extensions. 

• Corner-radius treatments. 

• Narrow traffic lanes. 

Street Narrowing

Two-way streets can be narrowed in a short distance, forcing motorists to slow and, in some cases, to 

merge into a single lane. Street narrowing is also referred to as neck-downs, traffic throttles, or pinch 

points. Sometimes these are used in conjunction with a speed table and coincident with a pedestrian 

crossing. 

One-Lane Slow Point. One-lane slow points restrict traffic flow to one lane (see figure 20-8). This lane 

must accommodate motor traffic in both travel directions. Passage through the slow point can be either 

straight through or angled. 
334 Traffic Calming 

One-Lane Slow Point Two-Lane Slow Point

Figure 20-8. Illustration. Examples of one-lane and two-lane slow points. 

Two-Lane Slow Point. Two-lane slow points narrow the roadway while providing one travel lane in each 

direction (see figure 20-8). The following design considerations should be made for two-lane slow points: 

• Where slow points have been used in isolation as speed control measures, bicyclists have felt 

squeezed as motorists attempt to overtake them at the narrowing. Not all bicyclists have the 

confidence to position themselves in the middle of the road to prevent overtaking on the approach 

to and passage through the narrow area. 

• To reduce the risk of bicyclists’ being squeezed, slow points should generally be used in 

conjunction with other speed control devices such as speed tables at the narrowing. Slower 

moving drivers will be more inclined to allow bicyclists through before trying to pass. Where 

bicycle flows are high, consideration should be given to a separate right-of-way for bicyclists past 

the narrow area. 

• A textured surface such as smooth brick or pavers may be used to emphasize pedestrian crossing 

movement. Substituting this for the normal roadway surface material may also help to impress 

upon motorists that lower speeds are intended. 

• Such measures should not confuse pedestrians with respect to the boundary of the roadway area 

over which due care should still be taken. In particular, where a road is raised to the level of the 

adjacent sidewalk, this can cause problems for those with poor sight. However, a tactile strip may 

help blind people in distinguishing between the roadway and the sidewalk; similarly, a color 

variation will aid those who are partially sighted. 

• Slow points can be used to discourage use of the street by large vehicles. They can, however, be 

barriers to fire trucks and other emergency vehicles. Some designs permit access by emergency 

vehicles by means of lockable posts or ramped islands. 

• Slow points can enhance the appearance of the street. For example, landscaped islands can be 

installed, intruding into the roadway to form a narrow gate through which drivers must pass. 
Traffic Calming 335 

Landscaping enhances the neighborhood’s sense of nature and provides a visual break in views 

along the street. 

• Slow points are generally only sanctioned where traffic flows are less then 4,000 to 5,000 

vehicles per day. Above this level, considerable delays will occur during peak periods. 

• Clear signing should indicate traffic flow priorities. 

Table 20-3 displays the advantages and disadvantages of both one-lane and two-lane slow points. 

Table 20-3. Advantages and disadvantages of slow points.

Treatment Advantages Disadvantages 

One-lane 

slow point 

• Vehicle speed reduced. 

• Most effective when used in a series. 

• Imposes minimal inconvenience to local 

traffic. 

• Pedestrians have a reduced crossing distance 

and greater safety. 

• Reduced sight distances if landscaping is not 

low and trimmed. 

• Contrary to driver expectations of 

unobstructed flow. 

• Can be hazardous for drivers and bicyclists if 

not designed and maintained properly. 

• Opposing drivers arriving simultaneously can 

create confrontation. 

Two-lane 

slow point 

• Only a minor inconvenience to drivers. 

• Regulates parking and protects parked 

vehicles as the narrowing can help stop 

illegal parking. 

• Pedestrian crossing distances reduced. 

• Space for landscaping provided. 

• Not very effective in slowing vehicles or 

diverting through traffic. 

• Only partially effective as a visual 

obstruction. 

Medians

Medians are islands located along the roadway centerline, separating opposing directions of traffic 

movement. They can be either raised or flush with the level of the roadway surface. They can be 

expressed as painted pavement markings, raised concrete platforms, landscaped areas, or any of a variety 

of other design forms. Medians can provide special facilities to accommodate pedestrians and bicyclists, 

especially at crossings of major roadways (see figure 20-9). 
336 Traffic Calming 

Figure 20-9. Photo. This median refuge island provides railing and a staggered 

crossing area to direct pedestrian views toward oncoming traffic. 

The following design considerations should be made for medians: 

• Medians are most valuable on major, multilane roads that present safety problems for bicyclists 

and pedestrians wishing to cross. The minimum central refuge width for safe use by those with 

wheelchairs, bicycles, baby buggies, etc., is 1.6 m (5.2 ft) (2 m [6.6 ft] is desirable). 

• Where medians are used as pedestrian and bicyclist refuges, internally illuminated bollards are 

suggested on the medians to facilitate quick and easy identification. 

• Used in isolation, roadway medians do not have a significant impact in reducing vehicle speeds. 

For the purpose of slowing traffic, medians are generally used in conjunction with other devices 

such as curb extensions or roadway lane narrowing. 

Several caveats apply: 

• To achieve meaningful speed reductions, the travel lane width reduction must be substantial and 

visually obvious. The slowing, however, is temporary; as soon as the roadway widens again, 

traffic resumes its normal speed. 

• Bicyclists are put at risk of being squeezed where insufficient room has been left between a 

central median and the adjacent curb. Experience shows that most drivers are unlikely to hold 

back in such instances to let bicyclists go through first. This threat is particularly serious on roads 

with high proportions of heavy vehicles. 

• The contradiction between the need to reduce the roadway width sufficiently to lower motorist 

speeds, while at the same time leaving enough room for bicyclists to ride safely, must be 

addressed. This may be achieved by reducing the roadway width to the minimum necessary for a 

bicyclist and a motorist to pass safely (i.e., 3.5 m [11.5 ft]). 

Here are three suggestions: 

• Introducing color or texture changes to the road surface material around the refuge area reminds 

motorists to reduce speed. 
Traffic Calming 337 

• White striping gives a visual impression that vehicles are confined to a narrower roadway than 

that created by the physical obstruction—adjacent areas exist that vehicles can run over, but these 

are not generally apparent to approaching drivers. 

• In some cases, provide an alternate, cut-through route for bicyclists (see figure 20-6). 

Curb Extensions

The sidewalk and/or landscaped area on one or both sides of the road is extended to reduce the roadway 

to a single lane or minimum-width double lane. By reducing crossing distances, sidewalk widening can be 

used to make pedestrian movement easier and safer. 

Reducing roadway width results in reductions of vehicle speed and delay. When curb extensions are used 

at intersections, the resultant tightened radii ensure that vehicles negotiating the intersection do so at slow 

speeds. The delay incurred by vehicles is also reduced by reducing the green time required for pedestrian 

crossings. The following design issues should be considered for curb extensions: 

• They can be installed either at intersections or midblock. 

• They may be used in conjunction with other traffic-calming devices. 

• They are limited only to the degree that they extend into the travelway, but they cannot impede or 

restrict the operation of the roadway. 

• Successful bicycle facilities need a clear separation from sidewalk and street pavement, with 

adequate distances from parked cars to avoid opening doors. Cross-traffic should be slowed to 

allow bicyclists better continuity and safety. 

• Narrowing certain streets can, at the same time, create safer bicycle facilities, but care should be 

taken that bicyclists are not squeezed by overtaking vehicles where the road narrows. 

Encouraging motorists to let the bicyclists through first by using complementary traffic-calming 

techniques such as speed tables and cautionary signing or by leaving sufficient room for both to 

pass safely at the narrowing would be appropriate measures. 

• If it is expected that a motorist should be able to pass a bicyclist, the minimum desirable width is 

3.5 m (11.5 ft). 

• Curb extensions can be employed to facilitate bicycle movement where a segregated multiuse 

trail crosses a busy street. 

Corner Radius Treatment

Corner radii of intersection curbs are reduced, forcing turning vehicles to slow down. Efforts to 

accommodate trucks and other large vehicles have historically led to increased corner radii at 

intersections. To slow traffic, a corner radius of approximately 2.1 m (7 ft) is recommended (see 

figure 20-10). 
338 Traffic Calming 

Figure 20-10. Photo. A reduced radius allows for a slower, safer turn. 

The following results have been observed: 

• Large vehicles (trucks, vans, etc.) have more difficulty negotiating reduced radius corners. 

• Pedestrian crossing distances are reduced by up to 1.2 m (4 ft) when the radius is reduced (see 

figure 20-11). 

• The sharper turns that result from the reduced radii require motorists to reduce speed, increasing 

the time available to detect and take appropriate actions related to pedestrians at the crossing. 

• Smaller radii provide more pedestrian storage space, and pedestrians are more visible to drivers. 

Radius 1 =

16 m (52 ft)

Radius 2 =

2.1 m (7 ft)

Distance 1

Distance 2

Figure 20-11. Illustration. When turning radii are reduced, the width 

of an intersection is reduced as well. 
Traffic Calming 339 

Narrow Traffic Lanes

Especially in residential areas, wide streets may not be necessary or desirable. Wide traffic lanes 

encourage faster motor vehicle speeds. Consideration should be given to the review of cross-sections for 

all street classifications to determine whether roadway lane widths can be reduced (within the AASHTO 

guidelines) so more area can be dedicated to bicycle and pedestrian use and associated traffic-calming 

facilities (see figure 20-12). Cross-section approaching the reduced-width street should also be slowed. 

Figure 20-12. Photo. This traffic-calming measure uses a 

landscaped median to narrow the travel lanes. 

One method of narrowing traffic lanes is called a road diet. While not a traditional traffic-calming 

technique, a road diet consists of converting a two-way street with four travel lanes to two travel lanes 

with a center turn lane and using the additional space for bicycle and pedestrian space. Additional 

information can be found in section 15.3.Table 20-4 displays advantages and disadvantages of corner 

radius treatments and narrowed traffic lanes: 

Table 20-4. Advantages and disadvantages of corner radius and narrowed lane treatments. 

Treatment Advantages Disadvantages 

Corner radius 

treatment 

• Can result in increased safety for 

pedestrians by reducing crossing 

distances and slowing the speed of 

turning vehicles. 

• May result in wide swings in turning 

movements of large vehicles. 

• May result in large vehicles hitting and 

damaging curbs or endangering 

pedestrians on corners. 

• May affect response times for 

emergency vehicles. 

Narrow traffic lanes • Additional area for landscaping and 

pedestrian facilities. 

• Reduced vehicle speeds and increased 

safety. 

• On-street parking may be restricted. 
340 Traffic Calming 

Street Closures 

Three types of street closures are described in the following discussion: 

• Complete street closures. 

• Partial street closures. 

• Driveway links. 

Caution: Street closures must be considered in an areawide context, or traffic problems may simply shift 

to another nearby street. 

Complete Street Closures

Street closures, generally on residential streets, can prohibit through-traffic movement or prevent 

undesirable turns. Street closures may be appropriate where large volumes of through-traffic or shortcut 

maneuvers create unsafe conditions in a residential environment. The following design issues should be 

considered before closing streets completely: 

• Where proposals are likely to lead to a reduction in access, prior consultation with residents at 

early stages of planning and design is especially important to minimize opposition. 

• The benefits of exempting bicyclists should be carefully considered in all cases. 

• Bicycle gaps should be designed to minimize the risk of obstruction by parked vehicles. Painting 

a bicycle symbol and other directional markings on the road in front of the bicycle gap has proven 

to be effective. 

• Bollards can reduce the parking obstruction (see figure 20-13). 

• Bollards should be lighted or reflectorized to be visible at night. 

• The design of bicycle gaps should permit good visibility of adjacent roads. 

• Signing should acknowledge the continued route as a through-route for bicyclists. 

• Clearly defined parking can reduce the problem of parked cars blocking the closure and bicycle 

gap. 

• Police and fire departments should be consulted early in the design process to determine 

emergency access requirements. Often, removable bollards, crash gates, and card or key-operated 

gates can satisfy these requirements, combined with parking restrictions. A 6.1-m-wide 

(20-ft-wide) clear path is needed for emergency access. 

• Tree planting, benches, and textured paving can enhance appearance. 

• Street closures are recommended only after full consideration of all expected turning and 

reversing movements, including those of garbage trucks, fire trucks, and other large vehicles. 
Traffic Calming 341 

Figure 20-13. Photo. The design of street closures should provide specific parking 

areas to discourage obstruction of bicycle and pedestrian traffic. 

Partial Street Closures

Access to or from a street is prohibited at one end, with a no-entry sign and barrier restricting traffic in 

one direction. The street remains two-way, but access from the closed end is permitted only for bicyclists 

and pedestrians. The following design issues should be considered before closing streets partially: 

• As a general rule, bicycle and pedestrian exemptions should be provided and designed to 

minimize the likelihood of obstruction by parked vehicles. 

• All signing should acknowledge the continued existence of a through-route for bicyclists and 

pedestrians. 

Driveway Links

A driveway link is a partial street closure in which the street character is significantly changed so it 

appears to be a private drive. Typically, the roadway is narrowed and defined with textured or colored 

paving. A ribbon curb, landscaping, or bollards may be used to delineate roadway edges. Reclaimed 

roadway area is converted to pedestrian facilities and landscaping. 

This is a very effective method of changing the initial impression of the street. If done right, drivers will 

not be able to see through. It appears as a road closure, yet allows through traffic. 

The driveway link can provide access to small groups of homes and is especially applicable to planned 

residential developments. The go-slow feel of the driveway link is enhanced by design standards that 

eliminate vertical curb and gutter and use a relatively narrow driveway cross-section. 
342 Traffic Calming 

Traffic Diversion 

Traffic diversion is one of the most widely applied traffic-calming concepts. It includes all devices that 

cause motor vehicles to slow and change direction to travel around a physical barrier (see figure 20-1). 

Physical barriers used to divert traffic in this fashion can range from traffic circles to trees planted in the 

middle of the road. The discussion in this lesson provides information on the following traffic-calming 

devices: 

• Traffic diverters. 

• Traffic circles. 

• Roundabouts. 

• Chicanes. 

• Tortuous street alignments. 

Traffic Diverters

Traffic diverters are physical barriers installed at intersections that restrict motor vehicle movements in 

selected directions. The diverters may be designed to prevent right- or left-hand turns, to block 

straight-ahead travel and force turns to the right or left, or to create a T-intersection. In all cases, paths, 

cut-throughs, or other provisions should be made to allow bicyclists and pedestrians access across the 

closure. 

Traffic diverters can take many forms. In diagonal road closures and diversions, straight-through traffic 

movements are prohibited (see figure 20-14). Motorists are diverted in one direction only. Seattle, WA, 

installed truncated diagonal diverters, which allow right-turn movements around one end of the diverter. 

That city’s engineering department found that these diverters disrupted neighborhood traffic and has 

focused instead on installation of traffic circles to control neighborhood traffic problems. Problems 

experienced with diverters included: (1) travel time and distance increased for all users; (2) local residents 

were diverted to other streets; (3) visitors and delivery services were often confused and delayed; and 

(4) emergency vehicle response times were potentially increased. Bollard design has evolved, and the 

technology exists to provide access to select groups by using remote devices to lower the bollards. 

Limiting access may require agency policies to admit only the select vehicles. 

Figure 20-14. Photo. Diagonal road closures/diverters limit vehicular access 

but allow emergency vehicles to enter through removable bollards. 
Traffic Calming 343 

Turning movement diverters are installed at the intersection of a neighborhood street with a major street 

or collector to prevent cut-through traffic. They prevent straight-through movements and allow right turns 

only into and out of the neighborhood. 

Table 20-5 displays the advantages and disadvantages of these two types of diverters: 

Table 20-5. Advantages and disadvantages of diverters.

Treatment Advantages Disadvantages 

Diagonal road 

closures/diverters 

• Through-traffic is eliminated. 

• An area for landscaping is 

provided. 

• Conflicts are reduced. 

• Pedestrian safety is increased. 

• A bicycle pathway connection can 

be included. 

• Will inconvenience residents in gaining 

access to their properties. 

• May inhibit access by emergency vehicles 

unless they are permitted access or the street 

names are changed. 

• Will move through traffic to other streets if 

not back to the arterial. 

Turning movement 

diverters 

• Effective at discouraging 

cut-through traffic. 

• Relatively low cost. 

• Creates sense of neighborhood 

entry and identity. 

• Limits resident access. Should be installed as 

part of overall neighborhood circulation 

improvements to ensure reasonable 

convenience for residents. 

• Motorists may try to override the diverter to 

make prohibited turns unless vertical curbs, 

barriers, landscaping, or other means are used 

to discourage such actions. 

Traffic Circles

Large traffic circles, or rotaries, with two or more lanes, have a history of high speeds, public confusion 

as to yield regulations, and high crash rates. They are generally not regarded well by the U.S. public. 

However, smaller traffic circles, with center islands approximately 4.0 m (13 ft) in diameter, can be safer 

for both vehicles and pedestrians. They can be used as traffic-calming devices at intersections and are 

effective in reducing vehicle speeds (see figure 20-15). Traffic circles can reduce crashes by 50 to 90 

percent (when compared to two-way and four-way stop signs and other traffic signs) by reducing the 

number of conflict points at intersections. Success, however, depends on the central island being 

sufficiently visible and the approach lanes engineered to deflect vehicles, preventing overrun of the 

island. Traversable traffic circles on straight roads are less likely to produce the desired speed reduction. 

The discussion below on roundabouts also applies to small roundabouts, specifically their advantages and 

disadvantages. 
344 Traffic Calming 

Figure 20-15. Photo. Traffic circles can be designed to accommodate 

large vehicles and emergency access without undue restrictions. 

Roundabouts

Traditionally, distinctions between modern roundabouts and other kinds of circular intersections, such as 

rotaries or traffic circles, are not always clear. Table 20-6 provides a breakdown of the differences 

between traffic circles and modern roundabouts. This table was adapted from the FHWA report, 

Roundabouts: An Informational Guide.

(2) Like traffic circles, roundabouts vary in size and number of 

lanes they accommodate. Table 20-7 shows the advantages and disadvantages of roundabouts. These 

conditions can change with the size and configuration of the roundabout. 

Table 20-6. Comparison of roundabouts with traffic circles. 

Source: Roundabouts: An Informational Guide(2)

Issue Roundabout Traffic Circle 

Traffic control Yield control is used on all entries. 

The circulatory roadway has no 

control. 

Some traffic circles use stop control 

or no control, on one or more entries. 

Priority to circulating vehicles Circulating vehicles have the right of 

way. 

Some traffic circles require 

circulating vehicles to yield to 

entering traffic. 

Pedestrian access Pedestrian access is allowed only 

across the legs of the roundabout, 

behind the yield line. 

Some traffic circles allow pedestrian 

access to the central island. 

Direction of circulation All vehicles circulate 

counterclockwise and pass to the right 

of the central island. 

Some neighborhood traffic circles 

allow left-turning vehicles to pass to 

the left of the central island. 

Parking No parking is allowed within the 

circulatory roadway or at the entries. 

Some traffic circles allow parking 

within the circulatory roadway. 
Traffic Calming 345 

Table 20-7. Advantages and disadvantages of roundabouts. 

Source: Modern Roundabouts for Oregon(3)

Category Advantages Disadvantages

Safety • There are a reduced number of conflict 

points compared to uncontrolled 

intersection. 

• Lower operational speeds yield less 

severe and fewer crashes. 

• Slower speeds because of intersection 

geometry reduce crashes. 

• Since roundabouts are unfamiliar to the 

average driver in the United States, there is 

likely to be an initial period where crashes 

increase. 

• Signalized intersections can preempt control 

for emergency vehicles. 

•

Capacity • Traffic yields rather than stops, often 

resulting in the acceptance of smaller 

gaps. 

• For isolated intersections, roundabouts 

should give higher capacity/lane than 

signalized intersections due to the 

omission of lost time (red and yellow) at 

signalized intersections. 

• Where the coordinated signal network can be 

used, a signalized intersection will increase the 

overall capacity of the network. 

• Signals may be preferred at intersections that 

periodically operate at higher than designed 

capacities. 

Delay • Overall delay will probably be less than 

for an equivalent volume signalized 

intersection (this does not equate to a 

higher LOS). 

• During the off-peak, signalized 

intersections with no retiming produce 

unnecessary delays to stopped traffic 

when gaps on the other flow are 

available. 

• Drivers may not like the geometric delays 

which force them to divert their cars from 

straight paths. 

• When queuing develops, entering drivers tend 

to force into the circulating streams with 

shorter gaps. This may increase the delays on 

other legs and the number of crashes. 

Cost • In general, less right-of-way is required. 

• Maintenance costs of signalized 

intersections include electricity, 

maintenance of loops, signal heads, 

controller, timing plans (roundabout 

maintenance includes only landscape 

maintenance, illumination, and 

occasional sign replacement). 

• Crash costs are low due to the low 

number of crashes and severity. 

• Construction costs may be higher. 

• In some locations, roundabouts may require 

more illumination, increasing costs. 

•

Pedestrians 

and bicyclists

• A splitter island provides a refuge for 

pedestrians that will increase safety. 

• At low speed and low traffic volume, 

roundabouts should improve safety for 

bicyclists. 

• A splitter island may cause difficulty to people 

using wheelchairs. 

• Tight dimensions of roundabouts create an 

uncomfortable feeling to bicyclists. 

• Longer paths increase travel distances for both 

pedestrians and bicyclists. 

• Roundabouts may increase delay for 

pedestrians seeking acceptable gaps to cross. 

A roundabout is a channelized intersection at which all traffic moves counterclockwise around a central 

traffic island. These islands may be painted or domed, mountable elements may be curbed, and islands 

may also include landscaping or other improvements. 
346 Traffic Calming 

In 1989, a survey of crashes at roundabouts examined years of crash data for 447 sites in England, Wales, 

and Scotland.(4) Table 20-8 compares the crash rates for roundabouts and signalized intersections. Key 

survey findings were: 

• Roundabouts were most commonly used on streets with speed limits of 48 km/h (30 mi/h) or less. 

• Roundabouts were found to have a far lower overall crash rate than that of signalized 

intersections with equivalent speed limits. 

• Looking only at crashes involving bicycles, the study showed that four-arm roundabouts have 

about the same involvement rate (crashes per million vehicles of that type entering the 

intersection) as do conventional, four-legged, signalized intersections. 

Table 20-8. Comparative crash rates for signalized intersections and roundabouts. 

Source: Illustrated Guide to Traffic Calming(4)

Signalized Intersections* Roundabouts* 

• 2.65 crashes/intersection/year. 

• 34 crashes per 100 million vehicles. 

• 20% resulted in serious or fatal injury. 

• 0.83 crashes/intersection/year. 

• 20 crashes per 100 million vehicles. 

• 19% resulted in serious or fatal injury. 

*Note: Both types of intersections compared have 48-km/h (30-mi/h) speed limits and are 

four-legged intersections.

Splitter islands are the islands placed within legs of the roundabout to separate entering and exiting 

traffic. They are designed to deflect entering traffic (see figure 20-16) and prevent hazardous, wrong-way 

turning movements. 

Figure 20-16. Photo. The splitter islands should be raised and landscaped to prevent 

left-turning vehicles from taking a shortcut across the island. 
Traffic Calming 347 

These islands are important design elements that should be provided as a matter of routine wherever 

feasible. Without splitter islands, left-turning motorists have a tendency to shortcut the turn to avoid 

driving around the outside of the central island. The islands should, preferably, be raised and landscaped. 

If this is not possible, painted island markings should be provided. The following are other design issues 

that should be considered: 

• Roundabouts should preferably have sufficiently raised and highly visible centers to ensure that 

motorists use them, rather than overrunning. 

• Clear signing is essential. 

• Complementary speed reduction measures such as road humps on the approach to roundabouts 

can improve safety. 

• The design of roundabouts must ensure that bicyclists are not squeezed by other vehicles 

negotiating the feature. Yet, where possible, adequate deflection must be incorporated on each 

approach to enforce appropriate entry speeds for motor vehicles. 

There has been discussion of how usable roundabouts are to all pedestrians, depending on the size of the 

roundabout. Pedestrian gap acceptance is difficult due to the unknown intention of the vehicle traveling 

around the circle (will they exit the circle or keep going to another approach?). However, initial evidence 

shows lower pedestrian crashes which may be due to lower speeds and reduced conflict points, and 

NCHRP project 3-78 is investigating the safety experience of roundabouts 

(http://www4.trb.org/trb/crp.nsf/All+Projects/NCHRP+3-78). 

The Seattle, WA, Engineering Department (now known as the Seattle Department of Transportation) has 

experimented since the 1960s with a variety of neighborhood traffic control devices. The major emphasis 

of this Department’s Neighborhood Traffic Control Program is installing roundabouts at residential street 

intersections. City staff report that about 30 roundabouts are built each year. A total of approximately 400 

roundabouts have been installed to date. Each one costs about $5,000 to $6,000. 

In Seattle, a roundabout is an island built in the middle of a residential street intersection. Each one is 

custom-fitted to the intersection’s geometry; every roundabout is designed to allow a single-unit truck to 

maneuver around the central island without running over it. A 0.6-m (2-ft) concrete apron is built around 

the outside edge of the roundabout to accommodate larger trucks. The center island is generally 4.6 m 

(15 ft) in diameter. Large trucks, when maneuvering around the roundabout, may run over the apron. The 

interior section of the island is usually landscaped. The Seattle Engineering Department coordinates the 

design and construction of each roundabout with the Seattle Fire Department and school bus companies. 

Roundabouts are installed at the request of citizens and community groups. Because there are more 

requests than funding to build them, the Seattle Engineering Department has created a system for 

evaluating and ranking the requests. Before a request can be evaluated, a petition requesting a roundabout 

must be signed by 60 percent of the residents within a one-block radius of the proposed location. Then, 

the intersection’s collision history, traffic volume, and speeds are studied. 

Chicanes

Chicanes are barriers placed in the street that require drivers to slow down and drive around them. The 

barriers may take the form of landscaping, street furniture, parking bays, curb extensions, or other devices 

(see figure 20-1). 
348 Traffic Calming 

The Seattle Engineering Department has experimented with chicanes for neighborhood traffic control. It 

has found chicanes to be an effective means of reducing speed and traffic volumes at specific locations 

under certain circumstances. A demonstration project at two sets of chicanes showed: 

• Reduction of traffic volumes on the demonstration streets. 

• Little increase in traffic on adjacent residential streets. 

• Reduction of motor speeds and collisions. 

• Strong support for permanent installation of chicanes by residents (68 percent). 

The following issues should be considered when planning for and designing chicanes: 

• In the interest of safe bicycle travel, bicycle bypasses and signs to indicate directional priority are 

suggested. 

• A reduction in sight lines should not be used in isolation to reduce speeds; if used alone, this 

could be dangerous. Reduced sight lines may be appropriate to avoid excessive land taking or as a 

reinforcing measure only where other physical features are employed to reduce speed. 

• Chicanes offer a good opportunity to make environmental improvements through planting. 

However, preference should be given to low-lying or slow-growing shrubs to minimize 

maintenance and ensure good visibility. 

• Measures should be employed to ensure that chicanes are clearly visible at night. 

• Where full closure or speed humps are not feasible, chicanes may be used to reduce traffic 

speeds. Many different layouts are possible, including staggered parking (on alternating sides of 

the road). 

Curvilinear Roads

Roads can be designed to meander or turn sharply, slowing traffic and limiting views to discourage 

speeding. This technique can incorporate use of cul-de-sacs and courtyards. Curvilinear roads are 

generally planned as part of the design stage of a new road layout, rather than being superimposed on an 

existing layout. The siting of buildings is used to create a meandering road. The following design 

considerations should be made for tortuous roads: 

• Designers should be aware of the need for accessibility to residential properties, both in terms of 

servicing and the needs of the individual. Tortuous roads will prove to be unpopular if they 

severely restrict accessibility. 

• Where traffic is deliberately diverted onto a tortuous route—to avert town center congestion, for 

example—consider maintaining as direct a route as possible for bicyclists. 

• Curvilinear roads (a.k.a., serpentines) are under study, but have not yet been approved, for use in 

Portland, OR. If approved, their use would be limited to residential streets of two or fewer lanes. 

• Road design is limited by AASHTO standards for transition taper lengths. 

• This traffic-calming device may require significant parking removal and should be used where 

parking removal is not an issue. 
Traffic Calming 349 

Surface Texture and Visual Devices 

This category of traffic-calming devices includes signing, pavement marking, colored and textured 

pavement treatments, and rumble strips. These devices provide visual and audible cues about the traffic 

calmed area. Colors and textures that contrast with those prevailing along the roadway alert motorists to 

particular conditions, much as conspicuous materials increase bicyclist and pedestrian visibility. Signs 

and pavement markings also provide information about applicable regulations, warnings, and directions. 

Signing and Pavement Markings

Installation of directional, warning, and informational signs and pavement markings should conform to 

the MUTCD guidelines, as applicable (see figure 20-17). Traffic-calming devices may be new to many 

people in the United States, and the signs and markings will help minimize confusion and traffic conflicts. 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 20-17. Photo. These pavement markings at a median refuge delineate the crossing for 

motorists and provide visible cues to sighted pedestrians as to the location of the roadway edge. 

Consider the following when designing signing and pavement markings: 

• A part of the sign/pavement marking approach to mitigating traffic in residential areas includes 

painting of stripes/lines on the roadway and other patterns that are designed to have a 

psychological impact on drivers. Although such patterns are basically intended to slow vehicles 

rather than reduce traffic, they should make passage over residential streets less desirable than if 

the roadway were untreated, in effect, encouraging the use of alternative routes. 

• Many of the patterns tried have had only marginal success. In a few cases, the average speed 

increased slightly. A pattern that is successful is that of painting transverse bands. Painted lines 

are applied to the road at decreasing intervals approaching an intersection or “slow-down” point. 
350 Traffic Calming 

They are intended to give the impression of increasing speed and motorists react by slowing 

down. 

• In Drachten, The Netherlands, engineers are experimenting with removing all traffic signs and 

markings at intersections, thus forcing each vehicle, bicycle, and pedestrian movement to be 

negotiated individually toward a result of lower speeds and fewer crashes. 

Pavement Texturing and Coloring

The use of paving materials such as brick, cobbles, concrete pavers, or other materials that create 

variation in color and texture reinforces the identity of an area as a traffic-restricted zone (see 

figure 20-18). Detectable markings are also used at curb ramps, blended transitions, raised crossings, etc. 

Figure 20-18. Photo. Pavement treatments can be applied to the entire 

traffic-calmed area or limited to specific street uses. 

The following issues should be considered regarding pavement texturing and coloring: 

• The choice of materials should ensure that they do not pose a danger or deterrent to bicyclists or 

persons with disabilities. Cobbles present special difficulties, particularly for vehicles with 

narrow wheels and without the benefit of suspension. Such treatment is particularly discouraging 

for bicyclists on steep slopes, making it harder to maintain momentum when riding uphill. Thus, 

as a general rule, cobbles should not be employed. Similarly, pavers with chamfered edges impair 

a bicyclist’s stability and should be avoided. 

• The color and texture of the street surface are important aspects of the attractiveness of many 

residential streets. The variation from asphalt or concrete paving associated by most people with 

automobile territory signals to the motorist that he or she has crossed into a different residential 

zone where pedestrians and bicyclists can be expected to have greater priority. 
Traffic Calming 351 

20.5 Traffic-Calming Impacts 

Chapter 5 of the ITE report, titled Traffic Calming: State of the Practice, contains a synthesis of 

traffic-calming impacts experienced in the United States and Canada.(1) The report draws from detailed 

information collected on traffic-calming programs in 20 featured communities, another 30 communities 

surveyed less extensively, and a parallel Canadian effort by the Canadian ITE and the Transportation 

Association of Canada. The following information and tables were derived exclusively from this source. 

Traffic Speeds 

Naturally, reducing traffic speeds is one of the primary goals of traffic calming. Table 20-9 includes a list 

of several traffic-calming devices used and the impact they have on the speeds downstream of the traffic 

measure. Note that, due to the limitations of the studies, the data presented in table 20-9 are case-specific 

and represent only ballpark estimates of general traffic-calming impacts. 

Table 20-9. Speed impacts downstream of traffic-calming measures. 

Source: Traffic Calming: State of the Practice(1)

Traffic-Calming 

Device 

Sample 

Size 

Average 85th Percentile 

Speed After Calming 

km/h (mi/h) 

Average 85th Percentile 

Speed Change After 

Calming km/h (mi/h) 

Percentage 

Change (%) 

3.7 m (12 ft) Humps 179 44.1 (27.4) −12.2 (−7.6) −22 

4.3 m (14 ft) Humps 15 41.2 (25.6) −12.4 (−7.7) −23 

6.7 m (22 ft) Humps 58 48.4 (30.1) −10.6 (−6.6) −18 

Longer tables 10 50.9 (31.6) −5.1 (−3.2) −9 

Raised intersections 3 55.2 (34.3) −0.5 (−0.3) −1 

Traffic circles 45 48.8 (30.3) −6.2 (−3.9) −11 

Narrowings 7 52.0 (32.3) −4.2 (−2.6) −4 

One-lane slow points 5 46.0 (28.6) −7.7 (−4.8) −14 

Half closures 16 42.3 (26.3) −9.7 (−-6.0) −19 

Diagonal diverters 7 44.9 (27.9) −2.2 (−1.4) −4 

Traffic Volumes 

The report, Traffic Calming: State of the Practice, states:(1)

The effectiveness of traffic calming measures is also judged by impacts on traffic 

volumes. Volume impacts are much more complex and case-specific than are speed 

impacts. They depend on the entire network of which a street is a part, not just on the 

characteristics of the street itself. The availability of alternative routes and the application 

of other measures in areawide schemes may have as large an impact on volumes as do the 

geometrics and spacing of traffic calming measures. 

In particular, volume impacts depend fundamentally on the split between local and 

through traffic. This split also affects speeds, but to a lesser degree. Traffic calming 

measures will not affect the amount of locally bound traffic unless they are so severe or 

restrictive as to “degenerate” motor vehicle trips. 

What traffic calming measures may do is to reroute nonlocal traffic. Measures fall into 

three classes: those that preclude through traffic, which will be referred to as class I 

measures; those that discourage but still allow through traffic—class II measures; and 
352 Traffic Calming 

those that are neutral with respect to through traffic other than to slow it down—class III 

measures. Where individual measures fit into this scheme will, as already noted, be 

case-specific. It will depend on geometrics and spacing, quality of alternative routes, and 

other factors. Still, there may be some value in generalizing about diversion potential. 

Portland, OR, reports more diversion with [4.27-m] 14-foot humps than [6.71-m] 22-foot 

tables, and more diversion with either than with traffic circles. San Diego, CA, and 

Seattle, WA, report significant diversion with standard [3.66-m] 12-foot humps but 

minimal diversion with traffic circles. In terms of the three classes defined above, speed 

humps appear to be class II measures, discouraging but still allowing through traffic. If a 

good alternative route exists, humps will divert through trips in substantial numbers. 

Traffic circles appear to be class III measures, causing minimal diversion even where 

good alternative routes exist. Speed tables [6.71 m (22 ft) and up] could fall into either 

class; diversion information is too limited to be sure. 

Table 20-10 provides quantitative volume impacts of traffic-calming measures. 

Table 20-10. Volume impacts of traffic-calming measures. 

Source: Traffic Calming: State of the Practice(1)

Traffic-Calming 

Device Sample Size Average Change in Volume (vehicles per day) 

Average Percentage 

Change (%) 

3.7 m (12 ft) Humps 143 −355 −18 

4.3 m (14 ft) Humps 15 −529 −22 

6.7 m (22 ft) Humps 46 −415 −12 

Traffic circles 49 −293 −5 

Narrowings 11 −263 −10 

One-lane slow points 5 −392 −20 

Full closures 19 −671 −44 

Half closures 53 −1611 −42 

Diagonal diverters 7 −501 −35 

Collisions 

The report, Traffic Calming: State of the Practice, states:(1)

Perhaps the most compelling effect of traffic calming is in the area of safety. By slowing 

traffic, eliminating conflicting movements, and sharpening drivers’ attention, traffic 

calming may result in fewer collisions. And, because of lower speeds, when collisions do 

occur, they may be less serious. What makes positive safety impacts so important is that 

opposition to traffic calming is often based principally on safety concerns and concerns 

related to emergency response. 

It may be difficult to determine the safety impacts of a traffic-calming program. For a comprehensive 

view of the safety impact, it is important to examine a wide area, including streets with and without traffic 

calming. 
Traffic Calming 353 

Other Factors 

It has been determined that traffic-calming techniques may also have a positive effect on: 

• Crime reduction: Traffic calming encourages natural surveillance and access control. 

• Quality of street life: Lower speeds and volumes after traffic calming encourage walking, 

bicycling, and street life. 

• Rise in property value: Traffic calming eliminates or lessens negative externalities of motor 

vehicle use. 

• Noise reduction: Due to a decrease in traffic speeds, noise is reduced. 

20.6 Putting the Design Techniques to Work: Selected Examples of 

Traffic Calming 

Most traffic-calmed streets utilize a combination of the devices just discussed (see Figure 20-1). The 

following are some examples: 

• The woonerf. 

• Entry treatments. 

• Bicycle boulevards. 

• Channelization changes. 

The Woonerf 

A woonerf (Dutch for “living yard”) combines many of the traffic-calming devices just discussed to 

create a street where pedestrians have priority, and the line between motor-vehicle space and pedestrian 

(or living) space is deliberately blurred (see figure 20-19). The street is designed so motorists are forced 

to slow down and exercise caution. Drivers, the Dutch say, do not obey speed limit signs, but they do 

respect the design of the street. 

The woonerf (plural—woonerven) is a concept that emerged in the 1970s as planners gave increased 

emphasis to residential neighborhoods. People recognized that many residential streets were unsafe and 

unattractive and that the streets, which took up a considerable amount of land area, were used for nothing 

but motor vehicle access and parking. Most of the time, the streets were empty, creating a no-man’s-land 

separating the homes from one another. 

The Dutch, in particular, experimented extensively with street design concepts in which there was no 

segregation between motorized and nonmotorized traffic and in which pedestrians had priority. 

A law passed in 1976 provided 14 strict design rules for woonerven and resulted in the construction of 

2,700 such features in the following 7 years. 
354 Traffic Calming 

Bench around lighting column

Other Woonerf Elements

 No continuous curb

 Private access

Use of varied paving materials

 Private footway

No continuous pavement markings 

 Space for playing

Motor vehicle pathway

Empty parking lot: space to sit or play

Bench/play object

On request: Plot with plants

Tree

Clearly marked parking lots

Narrow openings

Bends in roadway

Planter

Parking prevented by obstacles

Fence for parking bicycles

*

*

*

Figure 20-19. Illustration. Model of a woonerf. 

The woonerven were closely evaluated, with the following findings: 

• Injury crashes were reduced by 50 percent. 

• Vehicle speeds were reduced to an average of 13 to 25 km/h (8 to 15 mi/h). 
Traffic Calming 355 

• Nationally, 70 percent of the Dutch population thought woonerven to be attractive or highly 

attractive. 

• Nonmotorized users assessed woonerven more positively than motorized users. 

• Feedback from residents living on woonerven was very positive. They appreciated the low traffic 

volumes and absence of cut-through traffic, but considered the larger play areas and other 

improvements to the street environment to be even more important benefits. 

Woonerf Design Principles

Following evaluation of the woonerven, the Dutch law was amended (July 1988) to allow greater design 

flexibility and replaced the design rules with six basic principles. 

1. The main function of the woonerf shall be for residential purposes. Thus, roads within the “erf” 

area may only be geared to traffic terminating or originating from it. The intensity of traffic 

should not conflict with the character of the woonerf in practical terms: conditions should be 

optimal for walking, playing, shopping, etc. Motorists are guests. Within woonerven, traffic 

flows below 100 vehicles per hour should be maintained. 

2. To slow traffic, the nature and condition of the roads and road segment must stress the need to 

drive slowly. Particular speed-reduction features are no longer mandated, so planners can utilize 

the most effective and appropriate facilities. 

3. The entrances and exits of woonerven shall be recognizable as such from their construction. 

They may be located at an intersection with a major road (preferable) or at least 20 m (60 ft) 

from such an intersection. 

4. The impression shall not be created that the road is divided into a roadway and sidewalk (see 

figure 20-20). Therefore, there shall be no continuous height differences in the cross-section of 

a road within a woonerf. Provided this condition is met, a facility for pedestrians may be 

realized. Thus, space can be designated for pedestrians and a measure of protection offered, for 

example, by use of bollards or trees. 

5. The area of the road surface intended for parking one or more vehicles shall be marked at least 

at the corners. The marking and the letter “P” shall be clearly distinguishable from the rest of 

the road surface. In shopping street “erfs” (winkelerven), special loading spaces can be 

provided, as can short-term parking with time limits. 

6. Informational signs may be placed under the international “erf” traffic sign to denote which type 

of “erf” is present.
356 Traffic Calming 

Figure 20-20. Photo. The distinctions between sidewalks and roadways are blurred in woonerfs. 

Entry Treatment Across Intersections

Traffic-calming devices can be combined to provide an entry or gateway into a neighborhood or other 

district, reducing speed though both physical and psychological means. Surface alterations at intersections 

with local streets can include textured paving, pavement inserts, or concrete, brick, or stone materials. At 

the entry, the surface treatment can be raised as high as the level of the adjoining curb. Visual and tactile 

cues let people know that they are entering an area where motor vehicles are restricted. 

Eugene, OR, installs curb extensions at entrances to neighborhood areas, usually where a residential street 

intersects an arterial. The curb extension is placed to prevent motor vehicle traffic from cutting through 

the neighborhood. The curb extension is signed as a neighborhood entrance or exit. Most of the street 

remains two-way, but one end becomes a one-way street. Compliance by motor vehicles is mostly good. 

Bikes are allowed to travel both ways at all curb extensions. 

Bicycle Boulevards 

The City of Palo Alto, CA, has moved beyond spot traffic-calming treatments and has created bicycle 

boulevards—streets on which bicycles have priority. 

The purpose of a bicycle boulevard is to provide: 

• Throughways where bicycle movements have precedence over automobiles. 

• Direct routes that reduce travel time for bicyclists. 
Traffic Calming 357 

• Safe travel routes that reduce conflicts between bicyclists and motor vehicles. 

• Facilities that promote and facilitate the use of bicycles as an alternative transportation mode for 

all purposes of travel. 

The Palo Alto, CA, bicycle boulevard is a 2-mi stretch of Bryant Street, a residential street that runs 

parallel to a busy collector arterial. It was created in 1982 when barriers were fitted to restrict or prohibit 

through motor vehicle traffic, but to allow through bicycle traffic. In addition, a number of stop signs 

along the boulevard were removed. An evaluation after 6 months showed a reduction in the amount of 

motor vehicle traffic, a nearly twofold increase in bicycle traffic, and a slight reduction in bicycle traffic 

on nearby streets. 

The City also found that anticipated problems failed to materialize and concluded that a predominantly 

stop-free bikeway—on less traveled residential streets—can be an attractive and effective route for 

bicyclists. The bicycle boulevard bike traffic increased to amounts similar to those found on other 

established bike routes. 

The bicycle boulevard continues to function as a normal local city street, providing access to residences, 

on-street parking, and unrestricted local travel. The City received complaints about the visual appearance 

of the initial street closure barriers (since upgraded with landscaping), but is unaware of any other serious 

concerns of nearby residents. 

Plans for the extension of the bicycle boulevard through downtown Palo Alto, CA, were approved by the 

City Council in the summer of 1992. Included in this extension was the installation of a traffic signal to 

help bicyclists cross a busy arterial. 

Channelization Changes 

The Seattle Engineering Department is changing some of Seattle, WA, streets from four lanes to two 

lanes with a center left-turn lane. These channelization changes can provide extra room for bicycle lanes 

or a wide lane for cars and bikes to share (see figure 20-21). 

3.6 m

(12 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

17.6 m (58 ft)

BEFORE

AFTER

1.2 m

(4 ft)

Parking

2.4 m

(8 ft)

Parking

2.4 m

(8 ft)

1.2 m

(4 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

Parking

2.4 m

(8 ft)

3.0 m

(10 ft)

Parking

2.4 m

(8 ft)

3.0 m

(10 ft)

3.3 m

(11 ft)

Figure 20-21. Illustration. The conversion of a four-lane roadway—the elimination 

of one travel lane in each direction creates space for bicyclists. 

Numerous comments from users of some of those streets say motor vehicle speeds seem to have 

decreased. One street in particular, Dexter Avenue North, is a popular commuting route to downtown 

Seattle, WA, for bicyclists. 
358 Traffic Calming 

Traffic counts on the street show bicyclists make up about 10 to 15 percent of the traffic at certain times 

during the day. The rechannelization had little or no effect on capacity, reduced overtaking crashes, and 

made it easier for pedestrians to cross the street (by providing a refuge in the center of the road). 

20.7 Student Exercise 

Do one of the following exercises: 

1. Choose a site-specific location (such as two to three blocks of a local street) where fast traffic or 

shortcuts are a problem. Conduct a site analysis to determine problems. Prepare a detailed site 

solution that incorporates several traffic-calming devices. Illustrate with drawings and describe 

the anticipated changes in traffic speed. 

2. Prepare a traffic-calming solution for an entire neighborhood or downtown area that illustrates 

an area-wide approach to slowing traffic. Conduct a site analysis to determine problem areas. 

Illustrate your solutions and describe the anticipated changes in traffic speed and flow. 

20.8 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Traffic Calming: State of the Practice, ITE with FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-RD-99-135, 

McLean, VA, August 1999, available online at http://www.ite.org/traffic/tcstate.htm#tcsop, 

accessed April 22, 2004. 

2. Roundabouts: An Informational Guide, FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-RD-00-067, McLean, 

VA, June 2000, available online at http://www.tfhrc.gov/safety/00-0671.pdf, accessed April 22, 

2004. 

3. Modern Roundabouts for Oregon, Publication No. OR-RD-98-17, Oregon Department of 

Transportation, June 1998, available online at 

http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/TD/TP_RES/docs/Reports/ModernRoundAbout.pdf, accessed 

April 22, 2004. 

4. Hass-Klau, C., Illustrated Guide to Traffic Calming, Friends of the Earth, London, UK, 1990. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• “Case Study No. 19: Traffic Calming, Auto-Restricted Zones, and Other Traffic Management 

Techniques—Their Effects on Bicycling and Pedestrians,” National Bicycling and Walking Study, 

FHWA, 1994, available online at http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/docs/case19.pdf, accessed 

April 22, 2004. 

• Drake, B., and D. Burden, Pedestrian and Bicyclists Safety and Accommodation Participation 

Workbook, NHI Course No. 38061, FHWA-HI-96-028, 1996. 

• Ewing, R., and C. Kooshian, “U.S. Experience With Traffic Calming,” ITE Journal, August 

1997, pp. 28–33, available online at http://tac.arlington.ma.us/references/survJHA97A28.pdf. 

• Hoyle, C., “Traffic Calming,” Planning Advisory Service Report No. 456, American Planning 

Association, 1995. 
Traffic Calming 359 

• Modern Roundabout Practice in the United States, NCHRP Synthesis 264, TRB, 1998. 

• Summary of a Proposed Recommended Practice—Guidelines for the Design and Application of 

Speed Humps, ITE, 1993, available online at 

http://www.ite.org/traffic/documents/JEA93A11.pdf. 

Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 361 

LESSON 21: 

BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN ACCOMMODATION IN WORK ZONES 

21.1 Introduction 

When construction zones encroach on sidewalks or crosswalks, pedestrians may suddenly find they have 

to make detours that are unsafe, difficult to navigate, or both (see figure 21-1). They may be forced to 

choose between picking their way through the construction site or walking in a busy street. Projects that 

are built in phases and construction zones that change weekly or even daily only add to the problem. 

Bicyclists also experience difficulties when traveling through construction zones, particularly when 

roadway space is constrained and pavement conditions are rough. In some instances, sudden pavement 

changes in construction zones can represent a severe hazard to bicyclists. In all such cases, it is important 

to ensure that bicycle and pedestrian detour routes are accessible and signed for all users. 

Figure 21-1. Utility work in bike lanes can often be accomplished 

without blocking the entire lane. 

This lesson describes typical problems and solutions that improve conditions for bicyclists and 

pedestrians in work zones. The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 21.1 Introduction. 

• 21.2 Possible Solutions. 

• 21.3 Implementation Strategies. 

• 21.4 Planning and Design Considerations. 

• 21.5 Student Exercise. 

• 21.6 References and Additional Resources. 
362 Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 

21.2 Possible Solutions 

It is important to develop and implement construction zone policies to eliminate unexpected obstacles for 

pedestrians and bicyclists and make transitions as safe and smooth as possible. The following concerns 

should be addressed: 

• Advance warning and guidance signs. 

• Adequate illumination and use of retroreflective materials. 

• Channelizing and barricading to separate pedestrians from traffic. 

• Temporary curb ramps and pedestrian signals where appropriate. 

• Measures preventing visually impaired pedestrians from entering work zones. 

• Warnings to bicyclists about surface irregularities and maintenance of areas where bicyclists can 

pass through construction zones. 

• Circumstances requiring temporary walkways and/or bikeways. 

Contractors should be allowed flexibility as long as requirements are met. Because many traffic control 

decisions are made daily in the field, it is often difficult to plan ahead. All parties involved should be 

made aware of the needs of pedestrians and bicyclists and be made responsible for ensuring safe and 

continuous passage. Many agencies require contractors to maintain access on the same side of the street. 

Protective Barriers 

According to the “Safety in Work Zones” chapter of the Georgia Department of Transportation (GDOT) 

publication, Pedestrian and Streetscape Guide:

(1)

Near work zones where higher volumes of pedestrian traffic or school children exist, 

pedestrian fences or other protective barriers may be needed to prevent pedestrian access 

into a construction area. Barriers should be made of sturdy, non-bendable material such 

as wood. Pedestrian fences should be at least 2.4 m (8 ft) high to discourage pedestrians 

from climbing over the fence and should be (cane) detectable by vision impaired.

The 2003 MUTCD provides the following standard relating to protective barriers:(2)

Short intermittent segments of temporary traffic barrier shall not be used because they 

nullify the containment and redirective capabilities of the temporary traffic barrier, 

increase the potential for serious injury both to vehicle occupants and pedestrians, and 

encourage the presence of blunt, leading ends. All upstream leading ends that are present 

shall be appropriately flared or protected with properly installed and maintained 

crashworthy cushions. Adjacent temporary traffic barrier segments shall be properly 

connected in order to provide the overall strength required for the temporary traffic 

barrier to perform properly. 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 363 

Covered Walkways 

The GDOT Pedestrian and Streetscape Guide also states:(1)

For construction of structures adjacent to sidewalks, a covered walkway may be required 

to protect pedestrians from falling debris. Covered walkways should be designed to 

provide: 

• Sturdiness. 

• Accessible for all users. 

• Adequate light and visibility for nighttime use and safety. 

• Proper sight distance at intersections and crosswalks. 

• Adequate and impact-resistant longitudinal separation from vehicles on higher 

speed streets; for work zones adjacent to high speed traffic, wooden railings, 

chain link fencing, and other similar systems are not acceptable. 

The MUTCD standard provides that “temporary traffic control devices used to delineate a temporary 

traffic control zone pedestrian walkway shall be crashworthy and, when struck by vehicles, present a 

minimum threat to pedestrians, workers, and occupants of impacting vehicles.”(2)

Sidewalk Closures 

The “Safety in Work Zones” chapter of the GDOT Pedestrian and Streetscape Guide provides this 

information about sidewalk closures:(1)

It is undesirable to close sidewalks or pathways during construction. This should be the 

last option. If sidewalks have to be closed, construction sites should provide alternative 

pedestrian routes, safe crossings to the other side of the street, and easy-to-read and 

distinguishable signs and placement markings. Temporary walkways must also be safe 

and clear of obstructions such as debris, potholes, grade changes, and mud. If a temporary 

route is created in the roadway adjacent to the closed sidewalk, the parking lane or one 

travel lane in a multilane street may be used for pedestrian travel, with appropriate 

barricades, cones, and signing, as illustrated in [f]igure 21-2. When using a barricade, it 

must be a continuous route, detectable by a cane. When a parking lane or travel lane is 

not available for closure, pedestrians must be detoured with advance signing in 

accordance with the MUTCD. For midblock construction, signs should be placed at the 

nearest intersection to forewarn pedestrians of a sidewalk closure. Signs should also be 

placed to avoid blocking the path of pedestrians. 

If sidewalks are closed and an alternate route has been determined, chapter 6D of MUTCD provides the 

following guidance for planning for pedestrians in temporary traffic control zones:(2)

1. Pedestrians should not be led into conflicts with work site vehicles, equipment, and operations. 

2. Pedestrians should not be led into conflicts with vehicles moving through or around the work 

site. 

3. Pedestrians should be provided with a safe, convenient path that replicates as nearly as practical 

the most desirable characteristics of the existing sidewalk(s) or a footpath(s). 
364 Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 

Avoid closing the crosswalks at intersections. Also, at signalized intersections:(1)

• Mark temporary crosswalks if they are relocated from their previous location. 

• Maintain access to pedestrian pushbuttons. 

• Include pedestrian phases in temporary signals. 

• Place advanced signing at intersections to alert pedestrians of midblock work sites and direct 

them to alternate routes (consider all users). 

Temporary Pedestrian Routes

Note: If travel or parking lane is not available/

 detour pedestrians with advanced signing.

Note: Parking lane used for pedestrian travel.

Figure 21-2. Illustration. Example method to create passageways 

for pedestrians during construction. 

Source: Pedestrian and Streetscape Guide(1)
Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 365 

Signage 

Advance signage should be provided that will alert pedestrians to potential sidewalk closures, diversions, 

or detours. Where pedestrians with vision disabilities normally use the closed sidewalk, a barrier that is 

detectable by a person aided by a long cane shall be placed across the full width of a closed sidewalk.(2)

Adequate provisions should be made for persons with disabilities as determined by an engineering study 

or by engineering judgment. Because printed signs and surface delineation are not usable by pedestrians 

with visual disabilities, blocked routes, alternate crossings, and sign and signal information should be 

communicated to such pedestrians with audible information devices, accessible pedestrian signals, and 

barriers and channelizing devices that are detectable to pedestrians who are aided by a long cane or have 

low vision.(2)

The most desirable way to provide visually disabled pedestrians with information that is equivalent to 

visual signage for notification of sidewalk closures is a speech message provided by an audible 

information device. Devices that provide speech messages in response to passive pedestrian actuation are 

the most desirable. Other devices that continuously emit a message or that emit a message in response to 

use of a pushbutton are also acceptable. Signage information can also be transmitted to personal receivers, 

but currently such receivers are not likely to be carried or used by pedestrians with visual disabilities in 

temporary traffic control zones. Audible information devices might not be needed if detectable 

channelizing devices make an alternate route of travel evident to pedestrians with visual disabilities. 

Diversions and Detours 

The following standards and guidance are from the 2003 edition of the MUTCD:(2)

When existing pedestrian facilities are disrupted, closed, or relocated in a temporary 

traffic control zone, the temporary facilities shall be detectable and include accessibility 

features consistent with the features present in the existing pedestrian facility. 

To accommodate the needs of pedestrians, including those with disabilities, the following 

considerations should be addressed when temporary pedestrian pathways in temporary 

traffic control zones are designed or modified: 

• Provisions for continuity of accessible paths for pedestrians should be 

incorporated into the temporary traffic control process. Pedestrians should be 

provided with a reasonably safe, convenient, and accessible path that replicates 

as much as practical the desirable characteristics of the existing pedestrian 

facilities. 

• Access to temporary transit stops should be provided. 

• Blocked routes, alternate crossings, and sign and signal information should be 

communicated to pedestrians with visual disabilities by providing devices such as 

audible information devices, accessible pedestrian signals, or barriers and 

channelizing devices that are detectable to the pedestrians traveling with the aid 

of a long cane or who have low vision. Where pedestrian traffic is detoured to a 

temporary traffic control signal, engineering judgment should be used to 

determine if pedestrian signals or accessible pedestrian signals should be 

considered for crossings along an alternate route. 
366 Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 

• When channelizing is used to delineate a pedestrian pathway, a continuous 

detectable edging should be provided throughout the length of the facility such 

that pedestrians using a long cane can follow it. 

• A smooth, continuous hard surface should be provided throughout the entire 

length of the temporary pedestrian facility. There should be no curbs or abrupt 

changes in grade or terrain that could cause tripping or be a barrier to wheelchair 

use. The geometry and alignment of the facility should meet the applicable 

requirements of the ADAAG (see [s]ection 1A.11). 

• The width of the existing pedestrian facility should be provided for the temporary 

facility if practical. Traffic control devices and other construction materials and 

features should not intrude into the usable width of the sidewalk, temporary 

pathway, or other pedestrian facility. When it is not possible to maintain a 

minimum width of 1500 mm (60 in) throughout the entire length of the 

pedestrian pathway, a 1500 by 1500 mm (60 [by] 60 in) passing space should be 

provided at least every 60 m (200 ft), to allow individuals in wheelchairs to pass. 

• Signs and other devices mounted lower that 2.1m (7 ft) above the temporary 

pedestrian pathway should not project more than 100 mm (4 in) into accessible 

pedestrian facilities. 

See figure 21-3 for an example of a crosswalk closure and pedestrian detour. 

21.3 Implementation Strategies 

Developing a workable policy for bicycle and pedestrian access through construction zones requires the 

cooperation of traffic engineers, construction inspectors, crew chiefs, contractors, and advocates. The 

policy should apply whenever construction or maintenance work affects pedestrian or bicycle access, 

whether the work is done by private firms or city, county, or State crews. 

Link to Construction Permits 

To develop the above policy, permits required for street construction or construction projects that 

encroach upon sidewalks or crosswalks should be contingent upon meeting bicycle and pedestrian access 

policies. Contractors should be given copies of the standards when they apply for a permit. Preexisting 

standards or a policy that is readily available will prove useful for incorporation into contracts, 

agreements, or specifications. 

Train In-House Work Crews 

Many road, pavement, maintenance, or utility projects use permanent city crews to do the work. Crew 

chiefs and crews should be educated to ensure that they understand and follow the policy. 

Enacting pedestrian and bicycle access policies for work zones are not expensive. The main costs involve 

developing the policy, training crews and construction inspectors, and imparting information to 

contractors. Ongoing costs will involve work site inspection. 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 367 

Figure 21-3. Illustration. Sidewalk closure and pedestrian detour example. 

Source: MUTCD (2)
368 Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 

21.4 Planning and Design Considerations 

While the 2003 MUTCD pedestrian guidelines apply to pedestrian traffic around work zones, the absence 

of specific guidance on pedestrian access around construction zones leaves local agencies with a great 

deal of flexibility. Keep in mind that MUTCD silence on this subject may lead some in an agency to balk 

at establishing hard and fast regulations. 

Rural Highway Construction 

Construction operations on rural highways affect mostly touring and recreational bicyclists; pedestrians 

are seldom encountered in rural settings. 

On low-volume roads or through short construction zones, standard traffic control practices are usually 

adequate. Bicyclists can ride through without impeding traffic. Their needs can be met by maintaining a 

paved surface and removing temporary signs, debris, and other obstructions from the edge of the roadway 

after each day’s work. 

On high-volume roads or through long construction zones, enough paved roadway width should be 

provided for motor vehicles to safely pass bicyclists. Flaggers and pilot cars should take into account the 

bicyclists’ lower speeds. When bicyclists are coming through, radio messages can be relayed to other 

flaggers. 

On highways with very high traffic volumes and speeds, and where construction will restrict available 

width for a long time, it may be advisable to provide a detour route for bicyclists where possible. The 

detour should not be overly circuitous. Directional signs should guide bicyclists along the route and back 

onto the highway. 

Urban Roadway Construction 

Through-bicycle movement must also be maintained. Bicyclists can share a lane over a short distance. On 

longer projects and on busy roadways, a temporary bike lane or wide outside lane may be provided. 

Bicyclists should not be routed onto sidewalks or onto unpaved shoulders. 

Debris should be swept to maintain a reasonably clean riding surface in the outer 1.5 or 1.8 m (5 or 6 ft) 

of roadway. Bicyclists have a low tolerance for surface grade changes and excessive bumps should be 

avoided. 

The placement of advance construction signs should obstruct neither the pedestrian’s nor the bicyclist’s 

path (see figure 21-4). Where this is not possible, placing signs half on the sidewalk and half on the 

roadway may be the best solution. 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 369 

Figure 21-4. Illustration. Construction sign placement. 

Pedestrian Issues: Seattle Example 

The City of Seattle, WA, has developed specific policies for pedestrian access, control, and protection in 

work zones. These policies are detailed in the City’s Traffic Control Manual for In-Street Work.

(3) The 

purpose of the manual is “to set forth the basic principles and standards to be observed by all those who 

perform work in public streets so as to provide safe and effective work areas and to warn, control, protect, 

and expedite vehicular and pedestrian traffic.” 

Before any in-street work is started, all persons performing work within the street right-of-way must first 

obtain a permit by submitting and receiving approval of a traffic control plan. 

To protect pedestrians, the manual describes procedures for erecting protective barricades, fencing, and 

bridges, together with guidance devices and signs. Whenever passageways or walkways are affected by 

construction, access for pedestrians and disabled persons is ensured. Access to recommended school 

crossings must be maintained at all times. Where walkways are necessarily closed by construction, 

alternate walkways, including temporary curb ramps, must be provided. Where alternate walkways are 

not feasible, signs are required at the limits of construction and in advance of the closure at the nearest 

crosswalk or intersection to divert pedestrians across the street. Pedestrians must never be diverted into a 

portion of the street concurrently used by moving vehicular traffic. Where required, fixed pedestrian ways 

using fences and canopies shall be considered. Adequate illumination and use of retroreflective materials 

are required during hours of darkness. 

Figures 21-5 and 21-6 are excerpted from Seattle’s Traffic Control Manual for In-Street Work.

(3)
370 Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 

Figure 21-5. Illustration. Pedestrian control. 

Source: Traffic Control Manual for In-Street Work(3) 

Figure 21-6. Illustration. Pedestrian 

control. 

Source: Traffic Control Manual 

for In-Street Work(3)

21.5 Student Exercise 

Identify several work zone locations and determine what elements of accommodation are being made. 

Are there others that could be made or might be more appropriate? Survey the location for several hours 

during the peak traffic period and determine if pedestrians are using the facilities in place. Do they violate 

the channelization? Why do they violate it, and are they endangering themselves? What can be done to 

improve the situation? 
Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation in Work Zones 371 

21.6 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. “Toolkit 11: Safety in Work Zones,” Pedestrian and Streetscape Guide, Georgia Department of 

Transportation, Atlanta, GA, November 2003, available online at 

http://www.dot.state.ga.us/DOT/plan-prog/planning/projects/bicycle/ped_facilities_guide/ 

index.shtml, accessed April 23, 2004. 

2. MUTCD, USDOT, FHWA, Washington, DC, 2003, available online at 

http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov, accessed March 21, 2003. 

3. Traffic Control Manual for In-Street Work, Fourth Edition, Seattle Department of 

Transportation, Seattle, WA, 1994, available online at 

http://www.seattle.gov/transportation/trafficcontrolmanual.htm. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Oregon Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan, Oregon Department of Transportation, Salem, OR,1995. 

• Implementing Pedestrian Improvements at the Local Level, USDOT, FHWA, Publication No. 

FHWA-98-138, Washington DC, 1998, Available online at 

http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/fourthlevel/pdf/LocalPedGuide.pdf, accessed March 9, 2004. 

Tort Liability and Risk Management 373 

LESSON 22: 

TORT LIABILITY AND RISK MANAGEMENT 

22.1 Introduction 

This lesson provides an understanding of tort liability, risk management principles, and techniques for 

monitoring and evaluating existing facilities and programs. Key definitions are provided, along with 

information on litigation trends, exposure evaluation methodologies, successful risk-reduction strategies, 

and case study examples. Students will study real cases that illustrate the importance of considering 

human performance in planning and design and of the role facilities play in creating predictable behavior. 

An understanding of tort liability and risk management issues will alert the designer to the need for 

evaluation and monitoring on an ongoing basis and for creating built-in feedback systems. More and more 

lawsuits are being settled against government entities that adopt a do-nothing posture. Identifying 

potential risks, doing something, and then evaluating the results as part of a systematic program is 

proving to be a more defensible approach. 

The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 22.1 Introduction. 

• 22.2 Tort Liability for Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities. 

• 22.3 Trends and Example Cases. 

• 22.4 Basic Definitions. 

• 22.5 Cases That Lead to Quick Settlements against a Government. 

• 22.6 Risk Assessment and Management. 

• 22.7 Student Exercise. 

• 22.8 References and Additional Resources. 

22.2 Tort Liability for Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities 

To an increasing degree, issues of risk management and tort liability are becoming major determinants of 

planning, engineering, and implementation programs for bicyclists and pedestrians. Agency concerns 

about potential liability can either lead to innovation and substantially improved facilities and programs, 

or they can lead to a do-nothing approach. Ignoring risks does not make them go away. Taking systematic 

steps to identify and evaluate risks and to develop an effective risk management program are essential 

measures, even if your agency cannot afford to remedy all problems immediately. Without a 

well-conceived and well-implemented risk management program, the courts become de facto 

policymakers. 

Highway engineers, designers, and planners must consider the needs of the pedestrian and bicyclist. 

Design of streets, bridges, surface conditions, maintenance, and operations must be all viewed differently 

with the increasing importance of bicycling and walking to people of all ages. The very young, the old, 

and the disabled rely on walking and bicycling for everyday transportation and exercise. Highway and 

recreational facilities that fail to fully incorporate the needs of all users increase the likelihood of potential 

court settlements in favor of those who are excluded (see figure 22-1). Since most highway professionals 

are not routinely trained to design for pedestrians and bicyclists, mistakes are common. The result is 
374 Tort Liability and Risk Management 

increased risk, which is often not identified until crashes occur. Training is especially important since 

some engineers and planners do not bicycle or walk extensively under the conditions for which they 

design. 

Figure 22-1. Photo. Courts have become less sympathetic 

to agencies that do not consider the needs of pedestrians and bicyclists. 

22.3 Trends and Example Cases 

Just how significant is the liability issue? Hasn’t this whole thing possibly been exaggerated? How much 

money is really involved? It has been reported that the total dollar amount of claims against U.S. highway 

agencies in a typical year is between $50 and $60 billion. 

The Urban Transportation Monitor reported these findings from a 2001 survey of 61 local (e.g., city and 

county) and State DOTs:(1)

• On average, State agencies faced about 80 lawsuits per year. City and county departments faced 

about three per year. 

• About 7 percent of all lawsuits against State agencies required a settlement by the State; however, 

50 percent of lawsuits against city and county agencies required a settlement cost. 

• The average settlement cost was $60,000 for State DOTs but $230,000 for city and county 

transportation departments. 

• The average cost to defend a tort liability lawsuit was about $70,000, with little practical 

difference between state costs ($68,000) and city and county costs ($72,000). 

The United States is experiencing an increase in tort liability claims. The public and its officials can and 

should demand fairness in settlements; however, it is unlikely that a dramatic reduction in charges and 

complaints will occur. More lawsuits are being filed. Legal action is becoming broader in its scope, with 

suits against nonprofits and the families of those affected, as well as agencies and individuals. 
Tort Liability and Risk Management 375 

Government, well-insured corporations, and professionals continue to be favored targets due, in part, to 

their perceived deep pockets and ability to pay. There is a tendency toward increased liability in areas that 

once had some degree of immunity, with a continuing rise in the size of claims. 

Insurance companies often settle rather than defend. People with a litigious bent are encouraged by the 

knowledge that insurance companies often settle quickly rather than bear the time and cost of defending 

themselves against relatively low-dollar claims. The courts are, in this way, taken out of the process. The 

knowledge that even a frivolous lawsuit may net someone $50,000 to $100,000 provides a strong 

incentive to sue. In a crazy world, risk management is here to stay. It is important that agencies and 

organizations understand this fact and structure their actions accordingly. 

Planning, Engineering, and Public Perception 

Most in the transportation community understand that planning and highway professionals work hard to 

address traffic problems, improve safety, save money, keep people and goods on the move, and meet 

many other praiseworthy goals on behalf of the public. But do the public really understand the parameters 

within which these professionals work? Do the public support their objectives? Do they know the 

limitations the professionals face—the schedules, budgets, and political pressures? Do they care? 

In some cases, it is a struggle to build and maintain the public’s confidence in the work of government. It 

is all too easy to blame mishaps on the bureaucracy and to take them to court if the opportunity arises. 

When someone travels a roadway or a trail on a regular basis and a crash occurs, they generally look 

beyond themselves for someone to blame. It is tempting to pin responsibility on the faceless public 

agency most directly involved in design, maintenance, regulation, or operation of the facility. Not only 

may people file lawsuits, but also they may become publicly critical of the agency and its programs. They 

become less likely to endorse budget increases and bond issues. If asked to serve as jurors in tort cases, 

they recall the negative experiences and perceptions and may filter facts through this bias. 

Implementing an aggressive and well-publicized risk management program can help head off these 

problems. An effective first line of defense is to build and maintain public confidence; to protect budget 

allocations for needed public works projects; and to foster a spirit of cooperation, not confrontation, 

between public and private sector parties. 

Today, the newspapers and electronic news media frequently headline court settlements against public 

agencies that have allegedly failed to use good judgment or carry out their professional responsibility on 

behalf of public health, safety, and welfare. Some settlements now soar as high as $10 to $14 million for a 

single injury. Even minor lawsuits (which may be settled for as little as $5,000) may require $10,000 to 

defend. 

Governments Can Be Sued for What They Do 

The examples that follow illustrate conditions that can lead to pedestrian and bicyclist injury. In these first 

two cases, the government was sued for an injury to a pedestrian or bicyclist on a facility that was 

specifically built to accommodate bicycling and walking. 

Example Case 1. An attorney was riding a bicycle on a sidewalk that was previously marked as a bicycle 

path. He did not slow down when approaching a residential driveway on a semiblind corner. He ran into a 

motorist exiting the driveway, hitting the car in the middle of the front-door panel. The bicyclist sued the 

motorist and the condominium owners for $750,000. 
376 Tort Liability and Risk Management 

The bicyclist will have a tough time proving that he was not guilty of contributory negligence in this case. 

Since he hit the middle of the car, it can be argued that he had plenty of discovery time, had he been 

paying attention and riding in a reasonable and prudent manner. The car was moving very slowly, 

stopping to check for traffic and entering the street. The bicyclist’s view of the driveway was partially 

blocked by a perimeter wall around the condo complex. 

Signing any sidewalk as a bicycle path increases the likelihood of tort settlements even years later. 

Designating a sidewalk for bicycle use sends the message that it is safe to ride there. Sidewalk facilities 

have built-in traps for the unsuspecting. 

Sight-distance problems at intersections with streets, driveways, and alleys are common on sidewalk 

facilities. Most local zoning ordinances allow construction of rear and side yard walls to a height of 1.8 m 

(6 ft) on the rear and side property lines. Since sidewalks are often located very close to rear or side 

property lines, especially in residential areas, walls on these property lines seriously limit sidewalk views 

for intersecting motorists. 

Motorists expect pedestrians on sidewalks, not bicycles moving 10 times as fast. Bicyclists, with the wind 

in their ears, on two-wheeled vehicles, are not as sensitive to noise cues as pedestrians and not as 

maneuverable. It takes them much longer to react and stop. 

Since sidewalks have historically been regarded as pedestrian zones, the pedestrian movement pattern of 

two-way traffic prevails. Bicyclists using the sidewalk often think this applies to them too, and ride 

against traffic. They don’t see stop signs at cross streets (located to be seen by motorists on the other side 

of the street), and they are not part of the normal scanning pattern for motorists. 

A person waiting to turn right will scan to the left for oncoming traffic, wait, and then move quickly to 

take advantage of a gap. At first, he may take a quick look right to see if a pedestrian is coming, but he 

seldom looks back. A fast-moving bicyclist can easily escape detection and a crash can result. For these 

and other reasons, sidewalks are not recommended for designation as bicycle facilities. 

Example Case 2. A wheelchair user is traveling along a sidewalk. The sidewalk is discontinuous, with an 

unpaved stretch of about 45 m (150 ft). To get around this, the wheelchair user moves into the street, 

going against traffic, gets stuck in sand on the shoulder of the road, and falls over. He can’t get up until a 

passer-by helps him, setting him upright, and pushing him through 45 m (150 ft) of sand to the 

continuation of the paved sidewalk. The wheelchair is damaged and the person is injured. The pedestrian 

sues the city, claiming negligence, and wins. 

The lesson learned here is to consider all users. Examine your community for these sorts of hazards and 

institute an aggressive retrofit program. The city was said to have led the wheelchair-bound person into a 

trap. A continuous paved surface should be provided or warning sign posted well in advance. 

Governments Can Be Sued for What They Do Not Do 

Doing nothing is not a viable option. In the two examples that follow, injuries occurred because a 

government did not take action to correct a potentially hazardous situation. More and more governments 

are being sued for failing to recognize public needs and taking actions to meet them. 

Example Case 3. A pedestrian is walking along the sidewalk on a one-way street, facing the flow of 

traffic approaching a signalized intersection. Because the traffic signals are positioned to be seen by 

oncoming (one-way) motor traffic, the pedestrian can see neither the motor vehicle signal nor the 

pedestrian signal (i.e., WALK & DON’T WALK indications). He hesitates until he thinks he has a green 
Tort Liability and Risk Management 377 

light and then steps out into traffic. After getting partway across, he realizes that he has made a mistake, 

turns around suddenly, is hit, and injured. The pedestrian sues the city and wins. The city did not provide 

pedestrian-oriented traffic controls. 

The lesson learned in this case is to consider all users. Examine your community for these sorts of 

omissions and institute an aggressive retrofit program. 

Example Case 4. On a bridge that provides the main linkage to downtown, the surface is badly broken 

up, the pavement has deteriorated on the decking, and seams have been patched over, leaving dangerous 

ridges (see figure 22-2). This bridge is known to be heavily used by bicycles, and the city has written to 

the State three times asking that the bridge be repaired due to the potential hazard. Because of these and 

other hazards, bicyclists cannot ride too near the curb and crowd the motorists in narrow lanes. The State 

has not responded, despite repeated requests for action. 

Figure 22-2. Photo. Bridges are a recurring theme 

in many tort liability claims. 

A semi-tractor-trailer left his air brake on. As he approached the bridge, he released his foot, activating 

the brake, which caused a loud noise. A 23-year-old woman bicycling across the bridge heard the noise 

behind her and moved closer to the curb. The trucker once again activated the brake, causing another loud 

noise as he approached the bicyclist. The bicyclist panicked, rode into the curb, fell, and was killed by the 

truck. The bicyclist’s family and the truck driver’s insurance company both sued the State. 

Because of the letter written by the city and the length of time the condition had been present, the State 

settled out of court. In addition to the poor pavement conditions, it was found that the bridge sloped 

slightly to the right and the State had, over time, let the centerline of the roadway drift toward the right. 

The right-hand lane was 4.0 m (13 ft) wide, while the left-hand lane width was 5.2 m (17 ft). The bicyclist 

was forced to share a dangerously narrow lane with both hazardous pavement conditions and heavy truck 

traffic. The lesson here is to take action promptly in response to identification of hazards, even if it means 

only the interim measure of posting warning signs until the correction can be made. 
378 Tort Liability and Risk Management 

The Impact of These Trends 

The issue of risk management is becoming a major factor in decisions about implementation of capital 

projects and programs. The high costs associated with risk management have, in some cases, meant that 

things simply are not built or programs are not funded. Decisionmakers are becoming gun-shy. Ignoring 

the problem, however, does not make it go away. As stated earlier, governments are just as often sued for 

what they do not do as for the actions they do take. 

The best approach is to develop a strong, proactive program to plan, design, build, maintain, and operate a 

fully balanced transportation system that responds to the needs of all potential users (see figure 22-3). The 

program must be based on a diligently applied set of defensible standards and a public process that allows 

involvement by all affected parties. It is very important that an agency be able to demonstrate it is aware 

of potential problems and is taking systematic steps to address them. 

Figure 22-3. Photo. The needs of all users, young and old, 

should be considered in transportation planning and design. 

22.4 Basic Definitions 

To negotiate the legal minefields successfully, a basic knowledge of several terms is useful. This section 

defines and provides examples for concepts such as tort, proximate cause, negligence, and sovereign 

immunity. 

Tort 

A tort is defined as a wrongful act, not including breach of contract or trust, that results in injury to 

another person’s property or the like and for which the injured party is entitled to compensation. When an 

individual is harmed by another party without criminal intent, he or she may be able file a tort claim. The 

tort claim must be based on establishing that the party had a duty to perform relative to the injured 

individual and that this duty was not performed with ordinary care, in a reasonable and prudent manner. 

An injury resulting from a breach of contract or trust does not fall within the definition of a tort. 
Tort Liability and Risk Management 379 

Example Case 5: A 32-year-old mother of three was permanently disabled when she lost control of her 

bicycle, went off a multiuse path into a drainage ditch, and fell. Her back was severely injured when she 

struck a rock on the far side of the ditch. 

It was found that the bicyclist was not warned of the potential hazard and thus was surprised by it. Once 

she went off the path, there was a trap in the recovery area. The assumption that design for low-speed use 

only was acceptable was found to be invalid. The city was responsible to design for expected speeds and 

could have been found at fault in this case. 

How could the path have been designed to minimize the chances of this type of crash? The path was 

originally designed as a pedestrian walkway and later designated as a bike path without modifying it to 

bring it into conformance with AASHTO or other accepted design standards for multiuse facilities.(2)

When it was built, the path met current standards for pedestrian use. The cost of rebuilding it to 

accommodate bicycles was thought to be excessive by the city council and signs were simply added to the 

existing path. 

The rationale for this action was that the path was meant for recreational use and that improving it to 

AASHTO standards would encourage high-speed bicycling that would endanger pedestrians. It was 

thought that the narrow width and tight turns would force bicyclists to ride slowly and use caution. 

The woman injured in the crash approached the turn in the path at a reasonable speed. Her view of the 

ditch was blocked by tall shrubs at the edge of the path. The horizontal radius of curvature for the path 

was far below AASHTO standards for a reasonable design speed. The path was designed for a maximum 

speed of 18 km/h (11 mi/h), whereas AASHTO recommends a 30-km/h (20-mi/h) design speed on level 

terrain with 38 m (125 ft) of stopping sight distance.(2)

The edge of the path dropped off directly into a culvert, with no shoulder provided. Swinging a little wide 

on the turn and having no available recovery area, her tire dropped off the edge of the path into the 

culvert, and her bicycle flipped, sending her flying to the far side of the drainage ditch. 

If the substandard radius on the curve had not caused a loss of control, and if the bicyclist had been able 

to see how tight the curve would become, and if the culvert had not been in the curve alignment, then the 

crash might not have occurred. The substandard design, then, is viewed as the proximate cause of the 

injury. Proximate cause must be proven to establish negligence in court. 

The city maintained that it was not designing for the high-speed bicyclist, but for the novice recreational 

rider who would not go fast. The courts found this position to have contributed to the cause of the crash. 

This contributory negligence often results in rulings against settlements favorable to the defense. 

How could the path have been designed to minimize the chances of this type of crash? Designers need to 

anticipate use by all types and ages of travelers—motorists, pedestrians, bicyclists; young, old, disabled, 

or hale and hearty. Only by understanding pedestrian and bicyclist behavior, perceptions, and operations 

as well as most traffic engineers understand motorists can these problems be avoided in the future. 

Negligence 

Negligence is defined as an act or omission within the scope of the duties of an individual, agency, or 

organization that leads to the harm of a person or of the public, as well as the failure to use reasonable 

care in one’s actions. To demonstrate design negligence, the plaintiff’s attorney must be able to answer 

these basic questions: 
380 Tort Liability and Risk Management 

• Was there a potentially dangerous defect? 

• Was a defect a proximate cause of the crash? 

• Was there contributory negligence on the part of the bicyclist or pedestrian? 

• Did the agency have knowledge that the condition existed? 

• Were the agency’s actions discretionary or ministerial? 

How is a judgment of negligence against government won? It is not easy to prove negligence within the 

context of the five conditions specified above. However, negligence must be proven if a judgment is to be 

won. The example that follows is taken from an actual case where negligence was alleged. 

Example Case 6. The Florida DOT (FDOT) was charged and tried in a civil court for negligence as a 

result of a bicyclist falling on a bridge (Miller v. FDOT). The bicyclist’s wheel fell into a bridge 

counterweight slot. The rider was pitched forward, sustaining serious facial injuries on the grating. The 

rider was a professional model and an experienced bicyclist. She brought a tort charge against the State, 

which had to be defended. 

The bridge was built more than 30 years ago, before bicycling became popular. There was no designated 

bicycle facility on the bridge. The bicyclist was riding to the far left of the lane. Was this a legal location 

for the bicyclist? Was this position within a narrow lane a logical location? Did the bicyclist have 

sufficient discovery time to see and avoid the slot? Could an adult with eight years of bicycling 

experience, one who served as a ride leader and had ridden this route a dozen times previously, have 

anticipated this danger? Considering your answers to these questions, can the five conditions necessary 

for negligence be proven? 

In this case, the court ruled against FDOT and the case was settled for $250,000. It was argued that FDOT 

was negligent for the following reasons: 

• FDOT had a duty to design, operate, and provide maintenance services for the bridge. The open 

counterweight slot constituted a maintenance condition. The government had a duty to maintain 

and operate a safe road for all users. Furthermore, FDOT had a duty to warn the public of an 

unsafe condition and had failed to do so. It was argued that the agency knew that bicyclists used 

this bridge and that there had been previous bicycling crashes on this grating that were associated 

with this slot. 

• The open slot had been previously reported as needing correction, but the correction had not been 

made. It was argued, therefore, that FDOT had not carried out its duty in a responsible manner. 

Even though the correction had not been made, FDOT could have warned bicyclists of a potential 

hazard. 

• The slot was the proximate cause of the crash. The bicycle wheel fell through the slot and 

precipitated the crash. 

• The bicyclist may have significantly contributed to the crash (been guilty of contributory 

negligence) because: (a) she was riding in both an illegal and illogical place on the roadway; (b) 

she was riding too fast for bridge conditions; (c) she rode this route at least weekly and should 

have been aware of the hazard; (d) she was riding directly behind another bicyclist so she did not 

see the slot until it was too late to take evasive action; and (e) she was an expert bicyclist with 

eight years of experience who served as a ride leader and officer in a bicycle club that used this 

route weekly; as a leader, she had a responsibility to know and alert others to potential hazardous 

conditions along the route. 
Tort Liability and Risk Management 381 

• The bicyclist, a professional model, suffered severe facial damage. The damage claims were 

found to be real and significant. A $250,000 settlement was awarded. 

Ordinary Care 

Ordinary care is defined as the level of care that a reasonably experienced and prudent professional or 

other individual would have taken in the same or a similar event or action. Ordinary care is distinguished 

legally from extraordinary care, which parties are not expected to meet. Standards for separating ordinary 

from extraordinary are based on the expectation that 85 percent of travelers operate in a responsible 

manner (the 85th percentile rule). Highway professionals are charged to design, operate, and maintain 

highways for the reasonably prudent traveler. 

Example Case 7. In a private development, a bicyclist transporting a child crashed into a second 

bicyclist, also transporting a child. One bicyclist was approaching a blind corner leading into an 

underpass from a lateral path providing street access to a greenbelt path. Because of limited clearances 

within the underpass, the bicyclist rode toward the middle of the underpass. He did not see the other 

bicyclist (approaching through the underpass from the opposite direction) in time to avoid a crash. 

The case was settled against the private developer. It was argued in court that motorists on the bridge 

above were given the advantage of full design, signing, and operations treatments based on AASHTO 

standards, but the bicyclists in the underpass below were left to “fend for themselves” in an abandonment 

of design principles. In this case, the project designer did not offer the same level of care for the bicyclist 

and pedestrian as was offered to the motorist. This case demonstrates the principle that the needs of all 

potential users must be given equal weight. 

Sovereign Immunity 

Immunity is defined as legal protection from court settlements. Sovereign immunity indicates that an 

agency is not required to pay settlements. Partial immunity puts a cap on how much can be awarded or 

limits exposure to certain areas, such as maintenance and operations. 

Today, most States and some counties have limited immunity. Florida, as an example, has a maximum 

settlement amount of $250,000 per incident. If the courts award a settlement in excess of this amount, the 

plaintiff has to appeal before the legislature for the difference. Very few States still have full sovereign 

immunity, where a plaintiff must request a waiver to win a government settlement. Some States allow 

lawsuits, but specify that they must be filed within a short period of time following the injury or limit the 

amount of the suit. Consultants and corporations have no immunity. Nonprofit corporations are losing the 

immunity they once had. Individuals seldom have immunity. 

To date, few lawsuits have been won against the Federal Government, although many suits are filed. An 

example of this type of case is Coleman v. U.S.A., in which the National Park Service was sued for a 

bicycle crash that occurred when a bicyclist crossed the centerline of a roadway to pass other riders 

during a large, mass bicycle ride. In moving left to pass, he hit a concrete seam along the center of the 

road at an oblique angle. His wheel caught the seam and he went down. Although this case is still 

pending, the National Park Service is saddled with the expense of a defense. 

Design decisions may have protection, but maintenance and operations do not. Certain actions have full 

or partial immunity from legal action. As a general rule, governments still enjoy some immunity in the 

area of design, although this, too, is eroding. There is little immunity for actions related to operations or 

maintenance. Lawsuits relating to signing, warnings, surface conditions, poor maintenance, and similar 

factors are among the most difficult cases to defend. 
382 Tort Liability and Risk Management 

Example Case 8. A well-educated adult bicyclist, riding in the correct direction on a bicycle lane, 

suddenly swerved left into the traffic lane, where he was hit broadside by a car going 88 km/h (55 mi/h). 

He was thrown 36 m (120 ft), landed on his head, and sustained severe brain injuries. In this case (Boyd v. 

Illinois), the lawsuit was filed against the bicycle manufacturer and the construction company, since the 

State of Illinois refused liability under legislative immunity. 

In this case, the bicycle lanes are on a highway bordered by steep cliffs on one side and a river on the 

other. On the river side of the highway, maintenance of the lane is so poor that many bicyclists opt to ride 

against traffic, along the cliffside lane, where the surface is in much better condition. They prefer to take 

their chances with oncoming traffic rather than risk a fall from broken pavement and the ever-present 

gravel, dirt, and debris along the river. The cliffside bicycle lane is routed within the narrow zone between 

curb and motorway. This zone traps a 0.6- to 0.9-m (2- to 3-ft) wide pile of debris and sediment, 

especially after storms, leaving a perilously narrow strip for bicycle movements. The bicyclist in the 

example lost control when a wrong-way cyclist suddenly challenged him for his narrow portion of the 

lane. 

Poor design (curbing and low-grade surfacing and construction quality) in this case led to a poor 

maintenance condition on both sides of the highway. The extremely poor maintenance on the river side 

led to an operations problem when bicyclists routinely elected to ride against traffic to maintain their 

stability rather than cope with the dangerously deteriorated pavement along the river. 

22.5 Cases That Lead to Quick Settlements against a Government 

Now that we have discussed methods for evaluating risk, common design errors, and general ways of 

strengthening your legal position, it may be useful to look at some of the most common lawsuits—the 

ones government employees stay up nights worrying about because they are usually settled quickly in 

favor of the injured party. Some of the most important pitfalls to be avoided are: 

• Open drainage grates in the traveled way. Lawyers refer to these as “waiting traps.” Much 

research has been devoted to analysis and design of bicycle-safe, hydraulically efficient drainage 

grates. Temporary solutions are simple and cost effective. If the grate cannot be replaced 

immediately, it can be rotated 90 degrees or temporary strips can be welded across it. It can be 

marked as a potential hazard. 

• Paths that end suddenly at hazardous locations with no transition or escape route provided 

(see figure 22-4 for an example). In court, you will hear that these paths “lead the customer into a 

trap.” All facilities should be ended logically, with a reasonable warning (e.g., “Path Ends”), a 

transition to an alternative route, and some design precautions taken so the inattentive path user is 

not launched off a cliff, slammed into a barricade around a blind corner, or otherwise penalized 

too harshly. 
Tort Liability and Risk Management 383 

Figure 22-4. Photo. Example of a sidewalk ending at a bridge abutment 

with no warning or alternative path. 

• Inadequate curve radii. Many designers are not aware that speed, not vehicle design, is the sole 

determinant of the proper radius of curvature. A bicycle and car going the same speed, say 

30 km/h (20 mi/h), each need a 29-m (95-ft) horizontal radius for turning. If anything, the bicycle 

needs a slightly wider path in a curve, since bicyclists lean into a turn, taking up slightly more 

space. Design speeds of 30 km/h (20 mi/h) on flat terrain and 50 km/h (30 mi/h) for grades up to 

4 percent are recommended by AASHTO guidelines. 

• Long-term, severe surface irregularities. The longer that surface irregularities (such as broken 

pavement, potholes, raveled edges, bumps, seams, and gutter-edge buildup) are left unattended, 

the greater is the potential exposure and the more difficult it becomes to convince a jury that you 

did not know the condition existed. The jury will be convinced that the condition was 

discoverable and you may be found negligent. 

• Poor sight distances. Like motorists, bicyclists need time to identify and react to potential 

hazards, such as tight turns, obstructions in the traveled way and intersecting motor vehicles, 

pedestrians, and other bicyclists. At least 6 seconds of discovery is needed to allow adequate 

reaction time, mechanical set-up, and braking to a stop. At 32 km/h (20 mi/h), this is a distance of 

54 m (176 ft). Walls and vegetation most often block views, but sometimes, sight distances can 

also be limited by steep hills (cresting sight distance) or curves on steep grades. These problem 

areas should be identified, with warning signs installed and/or obstructions removed. 

• Roadway design, planning, operation, and maintenance that do not consider bicycle and 

pedestrian use. It is no longer acceptable to plan, design, or build roadways that do not fully 

accommodate use by bicyclists and pedestrians. The bicycle is seeing increased use for 

transportation and the health benefits of walking are receiving greater attention. More than twenty 

years of experience have passed in designing for bicycles in the United States, with millions of 

dollars devoted to research and planning. With every passing year, the courts become less and 

less sympathetic to agencies that have not understood the message: bicyclists and pedestrians are 

intended users of the roadway. Transportation staff must be knowledgeable about planning, 

design, and other aspects of nonmotorized travel. All modes must be taken into account. 
384 Tort Liability and Risk Management 

• Bridges and underpasses that are hazardous to bicycles and pedestrians. Like motorists, 

bicyclists need to cross bridges to get to some destinations. Bridges are expensive to build and 

difficult to retrofit for bicycling. Bridges have many surface conditions, maintenance problems, 

and operations problems that must be dealt with. A facility of any length is only as safe as its 

weakest link—often the bridge. 

• Poor maintenance of off-street facilities. Many agencies have been successfully sued when 

people slip on gravel, sand, grass clippings, standing water, deteriorating pavement, and similar 

conditions. Bicycles are particularly sensitive to litter, debris, and other materials. An aggressive 

maintenance program is essential for all designated facilities. Methods for identifying and 

correcting problems should be developed in a timely manner. 

• Nonstandard traffic control devices. The MUTCD and similar manuals adopted by many States 

establish industry standards for installing signs, traffic signals, and pavement markings.(3) When 

traffic control devices conflict with or are not supported by existing standards, the liability is 

greater. Certainly these standards manuals like the MUTCD cannot address all possible situations 

or issues; where they do not, it is best to demonstrate that reasonably prudent judgment and 

engineering principles were used in the absence of specific standards. 

22.6 Risk Assessment and Management 

The General Process 

Given the increasing liability trends discussed earlier, it makes sense to adopt a proactive position. By 

developing a realistic assessment of the degree to which your agency may be exposed to potential liability 

problems, you will have taken an important first step toward developing a practical risk-reduction 

strategy. It is important that this assessment be systematic, that it be keyed to anticipate and counteract a 

wide range of legal actions, and that it involve all affected public and private parties. The basic steps are 

as follows: 

• Document the scope of your specified duties. 

• For each type of duty, prepare a detailed list of the actions involved in carrying it out. 

• Do some homework. Research the crashes and lawsuits that have occurred in your community. 

• For each action, document or develop a reasonable standard or set of criteria to be followed, 

taking into account their impact on all potential users. 

• Systematically evaluate your present programs and facilities according to the criteria and 

standards defined for each action. 

• Set priorities for action. 

This process should provide a good idea of the strong and weak points of your programs and facilities and 

an overall picture of your level of exposure. By working thoughtfully through a systematic analysis of 

what it takes to carry out your assigned duties and a realistic assessment of how well programs and 

facilities measure up to accepted standards, you will probably learn a great deal and establish a strong 

direction for subsequent development of a practical risk-reduction strategy (please see figure 22-5). 
Tort Liability and Risk Management 385 

(This picture shows a bicyclist not wearing a helmet. FHWA strongly 

recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 22-5. Photo. An assessment of potential liability 

is the first step toward a proactive position. 

Scottsdale, Arizona Case Study 

Let’s look for a moment at a recent case study from Scottsdale, Arizona, which has historically been a 

leader in the provision of bicycle facilities. Since the early 1970s, an extensive and popular multiuse 

pathway system has evolved—a north-south spine through the most populous part of the city. The paths 

are used by many commuters, but were designed primarily as recreational facilities. They are now 15 to 

20 years old. Some portions were built to standards that are now outdated or are more appropriate to 

pedestrians than to bicyclists. Use of the paths has increased, along with potential conflicts and the 

diversity of users. There have been crashes and lawsuits filed. 

In 1989, Scottsdale voters approved $214,000 in bond money for bicycle path improvements. This 

amount was not enough to bring the pathway system into complete conformance with current standards, 

but it was an important first step. The City commissioned a study to provide the City with a fully justified 

basis for developing a risk-reducing improvement program within available funding limitations.(4)

Specifically, the study provided:(4)

• Detailed documentation of existing conditions. 

• Review of applicable standards and criteria. 

• Analysis of existing conditions in the context of these standards. 

• Priorities for implementation. 

• A recommended action program. 

The Scottsdale Bicycle Path Improvement Study focused on giving the City a useful tool for reducing risk 

along its pathway system through a prioritized set of recommended improvement projects.(4)
386 Tort Liability and Risk Management 

Is Ignorance Really Bliss? 

The comment is sometimes heard that if all these potential hazards are identified, then the agency’s 

liability may increase since the agency can be shown to have been aware of the hazards without 

correcting them. Are you really less vulnerable if you don’t know what the problems are? In a word, the 

answer is “no.” It is not quite as simple as that, but the following is a summary. 

What if you don’t know about a potentially hazardous condition and an injury occurs? The success 

of your defense may, in part, depend on how discoverable the condition was. The question is often asked, 

“Did the agency have time to discover its error?” If a crash happened during the first week this condition 

existed, there might be a strong defense since there was not sufficient time to discover the error. If two 

years had gone by before the crash, most courts would rule that there was plenty of time for the agency to 

discover the condition and correct it.

Sometimes a condition is so patently unfair to the public that an injured party will bring a suit where he or 

she would normally accept most of the blame. For more than 15 years, bicyclists have been fighting 

governments that have tried to keep them off of the roadway. If a pedestrian were injured by a bicyclist on 

a sidewalk, one or both parties might file a case against the government for forcing the bicyclist into a 

space that does not provide reasonable and prudent sight distances, operational widths, and which now 

violates many laws, design standards, and accepted practices. 

Example Case 9. In the case of Walden v. Montana, a bicyclist descending an interstate ramp into Great 

Falls, MT, was drafting two fellow bicyclists at high speed. At the pinch point, where the guardrail and 

the lane narrow, the bicyclist came alongside his friend. The friend moved out from the guardrail, forcing 

the cyclist into the seam separating the travel lane from the ramp lane. The cyclist hit the lateral seam and 

crashed, landing on his head at more than 56 km/h (35 mi/h). Was Montana responsible for maintaining a 

concrete/asphalt joint to meet the needs of the bicyclist on an interstate? 

This case was tried and the defense won and the verdict was upheld in the State Supreme Court. They 

determined that the bicyclist contributed significantly to his own injury. The highway department had a 

serious uncorrectable groundwater problem that made it difficult to maintain a better joint. The joint met 

AASHTO standards for preventing tire scuffing and vehicle deflection problems at such a location. 

Signing the specific nature of the hazard for a bicyclist, who would normally stay on the 3-m (10-ft) 

shoulder, was not required to meet the standard of ordinary care, which requires highway professionals to 

design, operate, and maintain highways for the reasonably prudent traveler. 

What if you have been made aware of a potentially hazardous condition and an injury occurs 

before you have taken steps to correct the condition? Agencies have a responsibility to fix problems, 

but the courts tend to favor good will and intent to find solutions, even if some conditions are too 

expensive to fix immediately. Again, a great deal will depend on the length of time that has passed 

between identifying the condition and the injury. If it can be shown that a reasonably short period has 

elapsed and that the agency or other party is taking positive steps toward correcting the condition, the 

defense position will be improved. For example, if a city conducts a study to identify areas of potential 

risk along a recreational trail system and does not have sufficient funds to immediately make all 

corrections indicated by the study, all is not lost. 

If a crash occurs, and the city can demonstrate that it has a well-documented program of risk reduction 

and that it has taken some interim steps (such as warning signs and markings) to alert trail users to 

potential risk areas, its defense is strengthened. If it has not identified potential risks and taken steps 

toward risk reduction, the city’s defense would be substantially weakened. 
Tort Liability and Risk Management 387 

Signing a hazardous condition has long been recognized as an important interim treatment for many 

conditions (see figure 22-6 for an example). Failing to sign a known condition is difficult to defend. 

Signing and warning offer two types of benefits: first, people are more cautious, so the number of crashes 

and injuries are reduced; and second, the attempt to alert the public about a potentially hazardous 

condition generates good will and makes it more difficult for a plaintiff’s attorney to argue that the 

plaintiff was surprised by the condition. Signing should make use of international symbols and follow the 

standard signing and marking practices found in MUTCD. 

What if you have identified a potentially hazardous condition and have taken steps to correct it? What if 

you have trimmed shrubs that blocked sight distances, widened a tight turn to meet AASHTO standards, 

and added adequate shoulders to a path and still someone loses control and is injured? Assuming the 

agency responsible for the path has carried out its duties using ordinary care in a responsible way, it 

would be more difficult to prove negligence. The burden of responsibility may well shift to the bicyclist 

or other injured party whose contributory negligence may have led to the crash. 

Spot Maintenance and Improvement Programs 

Many communities have implemented a special annual fund to attend to pedestrian and bicycling facilities 

spot improvements. They have asked bicyclists and others to alert them to any poor maintenance 

conditions (see figure 22-7 for example postcard). This fund and response system allows the cities to 

respond to a hazardous condition within 48 hours of discovery. 

Figure 22-6. Photo. Use of signing to warn motorists and pedestrians of 

the potential hazard posed by vehicle mirrors on narrow bridge sidewalks. 
388 Tort Liability and Risk Management 

Figure 22-7. Photo. Example of spot improvement postcard used 

to identify roadway hazards. 

Source: Vermont Bicycle & Pedestrian Coalition(5)

22.7 Student Exercise 

Students should consider the following scenario and formulate answers to the questions:(6)

Several summers ago at a rest area on an interstate highway in the northern United States, a truck driver 

pulled his 18-wheeler into the truck parking portion of the rest area. The rest area was located on the side 

of a gently sloping hill. The truck parking area was at the bottom and the car parking area at the top. In 

between was the structure housing a travel center, vending machines and restrooms. The truck driver used 

the facilities and got a candy bar from the vending machine. 

As he descended the concrete stairs connecting the upper lot with the lower lot, he lost his balance and 

began to fall. He reached out to grab the handrail but the handrail was lying in the grass adjacent to the 

stairs. Unable to regain his balance, he tumbled down the stairs and landed on the sidewalk at the base of 

the stairs and which served the truck parking area. Although stunned and somewhat bruised, fortunately 

he was not seriously injured and was able to pick himself up. As he walked forward on the sidewalk, he 

brushed the dirt and debris off of himself and checked out the condition of his clothing and limbs. (He 

sustained ligament damage to his wrist and chipped bones around his elbow, both of which would have 

required medical attention. In addition, he severely tore his $5,000 Australian leather jacket). 

At the same time, another large rig had entered the truck parking area. Since the aisle between the 

sidewalk and the parking stalls was relatively narrow, the truck had to swing toward the sidewalk to get 

into the stall. As it swung, the outside mirror on the right side of the truck struck the right shoulder area of 

the truck driver who was walking on the sidewalk, nearly severing the arm from the shoulder. The victim 

was flown by helicopter to a regional hospital where the arm was reattached. The individual has 

permanent limitations on the use of his right arm such that he can no longer drive a commercial vehicle. 

The truck driver has filed against the State highway agency two lawsuits seeking compensation for 
Tort Liability and Risk Management 389 

damages and injuries received in the incident (for his medical and other bills and for his reduced earning 

potential due to the arm problems). 

The first suit alleges that the highway agency was negligent in its maintenance of the handrail on the 

stairs. Investigation revealed that because the handrail extended close to the sidewalk along the car 

parking lot, it was frequently struck by the bumpers of vehicles pulling into the parking stalls along the 

curb. Because of these frequent collisions, the handrail eventually failed and fell over, ending up in the 

grass. Two frequent users of the rest area gave deposition testimony that the handrail was lying in the 

grass for at least three months prior to the incident in question. 

The second suit alleges that the truck parking area was negligently designed such that it facilitated 

vehicle-pedestrian conflicts of the type which occurred. Highway agency records show that the rest area 

was designed in the late 1960s, when trucks were not as long or wide as they are today. Records indicate 

that the 1966 AASHTO Design Standards for Truck Parking Lots at Rest Areas manual was used to 

design the parking lot and that the parking area met those standards. Records also revealed that, in 1985, 

the highway agency became concerned that the larger trucks found on modern highways were having 

difficulty maneuvering in the lot. The design division prepared plans for a larger truck parking area using 

space between the rest area and the interstate highway. However, the plans were rejected by the State 

environmental protection agency because the expanded lot would have adversely affected a wetland 

adjacent to the existing parking area. Records indicated that highway agency designers explored other 

options but simply could not feasibly enlarge the truck parking area without damaging the wetland. 

Assume that you are a noted transportation consultant specializing in pedestrian safety. The highway 

agency retains your services to evaluate the circumstances surrounding these allegations. The attorney for 

the highway agency wants to know whether in your professional opinion the plaintiff has valid cases. 

Question 1: Does the plaintiff have a valid case relative to negligent maintenance of the handrail? Why 

or why not? If your answer is yes, what risk management lessons can be learned from this lawsuit? Your 

response should be discussed in general terms so it would be useful to any facility manager. 

Question 2: Does the plaintiff have a valid case relative to negligent design of the truck parking area? 

Why or why not? If your answer is yes, what risk management lessons can be learned from this lawsuit. 

Your response should be discussed in general terms so it would be useful to any facility manager. 

22.8 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. “This Week’s Survey Results: Traffic/Highway Tort Liability,” Urban Transportation Monitor, 

Burke, VA, July 20, 2001, pp. 8-11. 

2. A Policy on Geometric Design and Highways and Streets, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 2001. 

3. MUTCD, FHWA, revised edition, November 2003, Washington D.C., Available online at 

http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/HTM/2003/html-index.htm, accessed February 25, 2004. 

4. Drake, B., Scottsdale Bicycle Path Improvement Study, Gruen Associates, Los Angeles, CA and 

Baker Engineers, 1991. 

5. Vermont Bicycle and Pedestrian Coalition, Available online at http://www.vtbikeped.org, 

accessed May 17, 2004. 
390 Tort Liability and Risk Management 

6. Student Exercise courtesy of Ronald Eck, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Drake, B., and D. Burden, Pedestrian and Bicyclists Safety and Accommodation Participation 

Workbook, NHI Course No. 38061, FHWA-HI-96-028, 1996. 

• Glennon, J.C., Roadway Defects and Tort Liability, Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company, 

Tucson, AZ,1996. 

• Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities, AASHTO, Washington, DC, 1999. 

• Lewis, R.M., Practical Guidelines for Minimizing Tort Liability, Report CP-K14, Criterion Press, 

Overland Park, KS, no date. 

• Managing Highway Tort Liability, NCHRP Synthesis 206, Washington, DC, 1994. 

• “Tort Liability of Highway Agencies,” Selected Studies in Transportation Law: Volume 4, 

NCHRP, Washington, DC, 2002. 
International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 391 

LESSON 23: 

INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO BICYCLE 

AND PEDESTRIAN FACILITY DESIGN 

23.1 Introduction 

Other countries with higher levels of bicycling and walking are often presented as examples when 

discussing improvements to bicycling and walking in the United States. Countries with much higher 

levels of bicycling and walking include those in Europe (such as The Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, 

Germany, and the United Kingdom (U.K.)), Australia, and even Canada in some major cities. These 

countries are considered to have the most similarities with the United States, more so than Asian countries 

or other developing third world countries. Therefore, this chapter will focus mostly on European 

experiences with some examples from Australia, Canada, and other similar countries. 

The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 23.1 Introduction. 

• 23.2 Overview of Trends and Issues. 

• 23.3 Pedestrian Facilities and Programs. 

• 23.4 Bicycle Facilities and Programs. 

• 23.5 Student Exercise. 

• 23.6 References and Additional Resources. 

This lesson has been primarily derived from the FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety in 

England, Germany, and The Netherlands, specifically those sections that describe innovative European 

approaches to bicycle and pedestrian facility design.(1) Other sources of information are listed at the end 

of the lesson. 

23.2 Overview of Trends and Issues 

A 2003 article in the American Journal of Public Health provides an excellent comparison of bicycling 

and walking in the United States to European countries.(2) The article highlights the large differences 

between walking and bicycling levels, as well as the trends and relative safety of walking and bicycling in 

different countries. The article also highlights some of the causes for these differences, and suggests 

several strategies that can be adopted from examples in The Netherlands and Germany. 

The bicycling and walking levels in urban areas in the United States are low compared to many other 

countries (see figure 23-1). In the United States, only 7 percent of urban travel is made by bicycling or 

walking. In Canada, that percentage is nearly double at 12 percent. In most European countries, bicycling 

and walking travel accounts for 25 to 50 percent of all urban travel. 
392 International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 

6%

10% 12%

24% 24% 24% 22%

28% 29%

21%

18%

4%

4% 4%

10% 12%

9%

10%

20% 28%

2%

1%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

United States

Canada

England & Wales

France

Italy

Switzerland

Germany

Austria

Sweden

Denmark

Netherlands

% of urban travel

Walking Bicycling

Figure 23-1. Bar chart. Walking and bicycling shares of urban travel 

in North America and Europe, 1995. 

Source: American Journal of Public Health(2)

The authors suggest three primary reasons for the large differences between the United States and the 

European countries, shown in figure 23-1:(2)

• More compact land use patterns in European cities lead to average trip distances that are only 

about half as long as in American cities, and thus, trips there are easier to make with a bicycle or 

by walking than they are here. 

• Higher cost of auto ownership and use (e.g., parking and fuel costs) in Europe means that 

bicycling and walking trips are often more convenient and less expensive than auto trips. 

• Unsafe, unpleasant, and inconvenient conditions in many American cities play a strong role in the 

lower numbers of bicycle and pedestrian trips here. 

Drawing from experiences in The Netherlands and Germany, the authors recommend the following 

programs and techniques to improve the safety of bicycling and walking in the United States: 

• Better facilities for bicycling and walking, such as auto-free zones; wide, well-lit sidewalks; 

pedestrian refuge islands for crossing wide streets; clearly marked and delineated pedestrian 

crossings; and extensively connected bicycle lane and path networks. 

• Areawide traffic calming of residential neighborhoods, including treatments such as raised 

intersections and crosswalks, traffic circles, road narrowing, speed humps, and midblock street 

closures. 
International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 393 

• Urban design oriented to people and not cars, which includes mixed-use development, parking 

lots that are next to or behind buildings (not in front), fewer cul-de-sacs, and easy access to 

commercial developments by bicycling or walking. 

• Restrictions on motor vehicle use, including auto-free zones; dedicated rights-of-way for walking 

and bicycling; lower speed limits for vehicles in cities; restrictions on parking; and restrictions on 

truck and through-traffic in residential neighborhoods. 

• Traffic education, including more extensive education of motorists, as well as education of school 

children on safe bicycling and walking practices. 

• Traffic regulations and enforcement, including stricter enforcement of speed limits, red light 

running, crosswalk laws, and bicyclist regulations. 

There are clearly several existing cultural and transportation policy differences in the United States that 

present a challenge to implementing practices from Europe and other countries that have higher levels of 

bicycling and walking. Several cities in the United States, however, have emulated some European 

practices. As a result, the levels of bicycling and walking in these cities are much higher than the U.S. 

national averages. 

There are certainly many variations of these strategies listed above that can be effective in the United 

States. In particular, there are numerous roadway design elements that can make bicycling and walking a 

safer, more convenient, and reasonable alternative to the auto. In fact, the ITE has published two reports 

that document innovative pedestrian and bicycle design treatments: 

• Alternative Treatments for At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings.

(3)

• Innovative Bicycle Treatments: An Informational Report.

(4)

Many of the innovative treatments in these two reports are located in the U.S. but originate from design 

treatments or concepts borrowed from other countries. 

The remaining sections of this lesson describe different design elements that are frequently used in 

bicycle and pedestrian-friendly countries. 

23.3 Pedestrian Facilities and Programs 

Zebra Crossings 

Zebra crossings are pedestrian crosswalks at uncontrolled midblock locations (see figure 23-2 for an 

example from the United Kingdom). The zebra crossings include high-visibility crosswalk markings 

across the road along with dashed lines that mark the crosswalk at both edges. Belisha beacons (i.e., poles 

with flashing orange-yellow globes—see figure 23-2) are placed on each side of the crosswalk. At zebra 

crossings, pedestrians have the right-of-way and drivers must yield (i.e., slow or stop) to pedestrians in 

the crosswalk. Zebra crossings are preceded by zigzag pavement markings next to the curb on the vehicle 

approach. However, zebra crossings are considered inappropriate on high-volume or high-speed roads 

where the 85th-percentile speed is greater than 55 km/h (35mi/h).(5) Pelican crossings (see later 

discussion), which use a pedestrian-activated traffic signal to assign right-of-way, are often used at these 

high-volume or high-speed locations where zebra crossings are inappropriate. 
394 International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 

Figure 23-2. Photo. Zebra crossing in London, U.K., with zigzag 

approach markings and Belisha beacons. 

A Swedish study found higher pedestrian-vehicle crash rates at zebra crossings than at signalized 

intersections or unmarked pedestrian crossings.(6) The crash rates were greater at zebra crossings even 

after adjusting for higher pedestrian demand and higher presence of children and the elderly at the zebra 

crossings. The authors hypothesized that pedestrians were more careful about crossing the street when no 

additional crosswalk markings are provided. The crash rate comparisons in the Swedish study agree with 

a U.S. study of marked and unmarked crosswalks.(7) However, the U.S. study hypothesized that marked 

crosswalks were only appropriate for certain lower-volume, lower-speed roads. The U.S. study 

recommended that other treatments (such as median refuge islands, curb extensions, flashing warning 

lights, traffic calming, etc.) supplement crosswalk markings at high-volume, high-speed crossings. 

Pelican Crossings 

Pelican crossings (most common in the United Kingdom) are midblock pedestrian crossings controlled by 

traffic signals and pushbutton pedestrian signals. The pedestrian pushbutton hardware lights up and 

conveys specific messages to pedestrians during each interval, as shown in figure 23-3. A walking green 

man symbol and a standing red man are displayed (see figure 23-4). A flashing green man indicates the 

part of the signal phase for pedestrian clearance. A flashing green man on the pedestrian approach 

concurrent with flashing amber and red balls on the vehicle approach precedes the green ball indication 

on the vehicle approach. Instead of zebra crosswalks, pelican crossings have dashed (not solid) parallel 

lines to mark the crosswalk. As with zebra crossings, pelican crossings are not used at intersections, but 

are installed only at selected midblock locations. 
International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 395 

Figure 23-3. Photo. Pedestrian pushbutton for pelican 

signals in the United Kingdom. 

Figure 23-4. Photo. Pedestrian signal with red standing man 

(shown) and green walking man. 
396 International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 

Toucan Crossings 

Toucan crossings (see figure 23-5) are shared crossings for pedestrians and bicyclists (i.e., bicyclists “too 

can” cross together) at selected crossings at the intersection of roadways with pedestrian and bicycle 

paths. The preferred layout includes a tactile warning surface, audible beepers, or tactile rotating knobs, 

pushbuttons with WAIT displayed in each corner of the crossing, infrared lamp monitoring, and vehicle 

detection on all approaches. The desirable crosswalk width is 4 m (12 ft); the minimum acceptable width 

is 3 m (10 ft). Signal indications include the standing red man, walking green man, and green bicycle. The 

flashing amber with the red ball indication is not used for the vehicle approach. Crosswalk lines are 

delineated by white squares. 

(This picture shows a bicyclist not wearing a helmet. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 23-5. Photo. Toucan crossing in the United Kingdom provides separate 

pedestrian and bicyclist signal indications where trail crosses the road. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)

Puffin Crossings 

Puffin (pedestrian user-friendly intersection) crossings in the United Kingdom, generally installed at 

intersections, consist of traffic and pedestrian signals with red pushbutton devices and infrared or pressure 

mat detectors. After a pedestrian pushes the button (or stands on the mat), a detector verifies the presence 

of the pedestrian. This helps eliminate false signal calls associated with children playing with the signal 

button or people who push the button and then decide not to cross. If a pedestrian is present at the end of a 

vehicle cycle, the red traffic signal is indicated to motorists, and pedestrians see the green man (i.e., 

WALK display). A separate motion detector extends the green interval (if needed) to ensure that slower 

pedestrians have time to cross safely. If a pedestrian pushes the button, but fails to wait for the green man 

symbol, the detector will sense that no pedestrian is waiting and will not stop motor vehicle traffic 

needlessly. 
International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 397 

Puffin crossings are recent developments and are said to improve pedestrian safety and reduce 

unnecessary vehicle delay. Since the motion detector can detect only those pedestrians walking within the 

crosswalk lines, physical barriers are used on the curbs to channel pedestrians into the crosswalks. At 

some crossings, tactile surfaces have been introduced that guide a visually impaired person to the 

crosswalk. Puffin crossings are currently used at 27 demonstration sites in the United Kingdom. One 

official stated that they expect to eventually replace all pelican and toucan crossings with puffin crossings 

if they are found to be effective based on the number of pedestrian crashes, vehicle delays, detector and 

equipment adequacy, and other factors. 

Pedestrian Messages on Pavement 

Pedestrian messages, such as “LOOK RIGHT” or “LOOK LEFT” (see figure 23-6), are painted on the 

street next to the curb to remind pedestrians which direction to look for motor vehicle traffic prior to 

stepping into the street. These messages are used extensively in London, U.K., where many tourists are 

accustomed to looking left for traffic before stepping off the curb and looking right for traffic when 

standing at a pedestrian island in the middle of a two-way street. These pavement messages have also 

been tested in the United States at places like Salt Lake City, UT where the 2002 Winter Olympics were 

held. 

Figure 23-6. Photo. Pedestrian messages on pavement in London, U.K. 

Pedestrian Displays for Traffic Signals 

At traffic signals in The Netherlands, pedestrian signal displays include a standing red man (i.e., DON’T 

WALK) and a walking green man (i.e., WALK). A flashing green man (i.e., you may walk, but the red 

man display will follow soon) follows the steady green man phase. Pedestrian pushbuttons are also used 

at some crossing locations. Pedestrian signals are placed at arterial intersections with high volumes of 

pedestrians and motor vehicles. They are installed near the vehicle traffic signal. 

A flashing yellow indicator has been tested in The Netherlands (along with legal regulations) in some 

simple situations instead of a solid red ball for pedestrian signals. The symbol used for the yellow 
398 International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 

indicator is a triangle with an exclamation point inside it. The flashing yellow tells pedestrians that they 

may cross at their own risk, but other traffic has priority. The zebra crosswalk markings are removed at 

such locations to avoid suggesting that pedestrians have priority in crossing. The pedestrian green is an 

exclusive movement and therefore should be conflict-free. The motivations for testing this symbol include 

the following: 

• Whether the pedestrian signal phase is actuated or pretimed, pedestrians are allowed to choose 

between crossing with the green indication or crossing during the flashing yellow indication 

during an appropriate gap in traffic. 

• Since the red indication is replaced by a flashing yellow, the situation allows for 100-percent 

compliance by pedestrians. Pedestrians no longer cross against the red indication because there is 

no longer a red indication. 

• At actuated locations, less time is consumed by exclusive pedestrian movements. Since 

pedestrians know that it is legal to cross whenever they want, they may not bother to call for the 

pedestrian green. 

• The Dutch also state that the use of flashing yellow indicators enhances the status of the red 

indication. Red indications will only be used at complex crossing locations. 

The disadvantages found with the triangle signal include the following: 

• It is unknown whether pedestrians understand that they do not have the right-of-way while they 

are crossing during the flashing yellow indication. However, it appears that turning traffic must 

give way to pedestrians; therefore, an exclusive turn arrow cannot be combined with a flashing 

yellow pedestrian indication. 

• It is safer for pedestrians to cross with the green indication in conflict-free situations. The 

situation of crossing during a flashing yellow pedestrian indication is still the same as crossing 

during a red indication. It is difficult to explain it to children and to convince them that they 

should wait for the green while they see others crossing at times when the light is yellow or red. 

Many elderly persons feel safer crossing in groups rather than alone. Following the crowd, an 

older person may end up at the tail end of the group, exposed to oncoming vehicles, and unable to 

sprint to safety. 

Another device tested in The Netherlands is called a pedestrian sender. This device provides a means for 

signal preemption for vulnerable pedestrians, including the visually and mobility impaired. The pedestrian 

sender is similar to the emergency beepers used by the elderly and impaired to call for help. This device 

influences the traffic controller by doubling the pedestrian green time, activating an acoustic signal, and 

preventing conflicting traffic movements. No information about providing a directional indication to the 

vulnerable pedestrian was available. The results of a questionnaire indicated great enthusiasm for the 

pedestrian sender. The survey also indicated no misuse of the device. 

While pedestrian improvements in Delft, The Netherlands, were said to lag behind bicycle facilities, 

pedestrian signals were installed at selected intersections in that city. A green man, yellow triangle, and 

red man were used for the WALK, DON’T START (clearance), and DON’T WALK intervals, 

respectively. Zebra-striped crosswalks are commonly used at pedestrian crossings. 

Animated Eyes on Pedestrian Signals 

An innovative pedestrian signal display has been tested in Canada and has been included in the 2003 

MUTCD.(8) The animated eyes display (see figure 23-7) prompts pedestrians to look for vehicles in the 
International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 399 

intersection during the time that the WALK signal indication is displayed. In this pedestrian signal 

application, the white eyeballs in the animated display scan from side to side. Other significant pedestrian 

treatments used in Canada include the following: 

• Advance stop lines at marked crosswalks to improve pedestrian visibility (while crossing). 

• Countdown displays for pedestrians signals. 

• Pedestrian-activated flashing amber beacons at uncontrolled intersections and midblock locations. 

• Multifaceted community approaches that include engineering, education, encouragement, 

enforcement, and evaluation. 

Figure 23-7. Photo. Animated eyes display used in conjunction 

with pedestrian signal. 

Pedestrian Zones 

Pedestrian zones have been established on many downtown streets in Germany. These zones can also be 

used by cyclists during off-peak hours (e.g., evenings). Not only are there fewer conflicts with pedestrians 

during off-peak hours, but it was claimed that the presence of pedestrian and bicycle traffic helped 

eliminate crime and added an element of personal safety. The pedestrian mall shown in figure 23-8 allows 

bus, bike, and taxi travel throughout the day. In Freiburg, on Kaiser Josef, a pedestrian street, cars and 

bicycles are not permitted. Streetcars and pedestrians have exclusive use of the street. 
400 International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 

(This picture shows a bicyclist not wearing a helmet. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 23-8. Photo. Pedestrian mall in Munster, Germany. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)

23.4 Bicycle Facilities and Programs 

The Netherlands 

The general philosophy in The Netherlands is to separate bicyclists from motor vehicles whenever speeds 

increase to greater than 30 km/h (20 mi/h). According to one official, bicycle paths are safer than bike 

lanes between intersections. At intersections, however, a separate bicycle path will generally have a 

higher number of crashes. Separate bicycle paths (see figure 23-9) are considered desirable under heavy 

motor vehicle traffic conditions, but undesirable along streets with low volumes of motor vehicles. Their 

general approach to bicycle facilities is to avoid making them too sophisticated. 

Bike lanes are typically wide enough for two cyclists to ride side-by-side. The bike lanes are generally 

reddish in color, with visible (and well-maintained) white bicycle symbol markings (see figure 23-10). 

Bike lanes are typically located between the motor vehicle lane and the sidewalk and are sometimes part 

of the sidewalk. Sometimes, problems occur with motor vehicles parked on the bicycle lane. Bike lanes 

are sometimes marked through intersections, as shown in figure 23-11. 
International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 401 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 23-9. Photo. Bicycle path in The Netherlands 

parallels the high-speed roadway. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 23-10. Typical bicycle lanes in The Netherlands have red pavement 

color and are wide enough for two bicyclists. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)
402 International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 23-11. Photo. Bicycle lane markings carried through 

an intersection in The Netherlands. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)

In The Netherlands, separate bicycle signals are commonly used at arterial intersections that have bike 

lanes and high volumes of bicyclists and motor vehicle traffic. The bicyclist signals are vertical red, 

amber, and green bicycle symbols mounted on a pole, as shown in figure 23-12. They are located either 

next to the vehicle signal head [i.e., using the same 20-cm (8-in) diameter signal face as the vehicle 

signal] or at a lower level (1 m or 3 ft high) using a smaller size signal face (7 to 7.5 cm or 3 in). The 

signal indications are all steady (i.e., no flashing indications), and there is typically an advance green 

phase for bicyclists, with a simultaneous red phase for right-turning motor vehicles. According to one 

local official, levels of compliance with the signal are generally not very high. 

In some cities, such as The Hague and Groningen, a special bicycle phase allows bicyclists in the bike 

lane to proceed straight before motor vehicles (i.e., right-turning traffic) are allowed to proceed. Motor 

vehicles are not allowed to turn right on red in The Netherlands, although bicyclists are allowed to do so 

in certain cities and locations. Bicycle lanes are not typically placed to the right of parked cars, since 

motorists cannot see bicyclists as easily. It is common for bicycle lanes to end before intersections. 

Mixing traffic before an intersection promotes anticipation and interaction among road users at the 

crossing. Otherwise, automobile drivers turning right often are not fully aware of bicyclists and moped 

riders coming from an adjacent bicycle lane. 

Renting a one- or three-speed bicycle in The Netherlands is relatively inexpensive, costing approximately 

the equivalent of $6 U.S. per day or about $30 U.S. per week. Bicycle rental shops are located throughout 

towns and cities, commonly at train stations. Information on bicycle rentals is provided at local hotels. 
International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 403 

Figure 23-12. Photo. Bicycle signal used in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist 

Safety in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)

Germany 

On-street bike lanes are installed on the street level and are typically painted red or installed with a red 

pavement surface. This type of facility is generally less expensive to install than off-street facilities. 

Bicycle lanes with continuous lane markings are reserved solely for bicyclists. If the lane is dashed, cars 

and trucks may use the space only when no bicycle is present. 

Off-street bike lanes are sometimes installed on the sidewalk level, as shown in figure 23-13. Generally 

marked with a distinctive red color (which contrasts with the gray stone used for pedestrian walkways and 

the clear zones between the street and bike path), these lanes provide a greater separation between 

bicyclist and motor vehicles. When a parking lane exists, this separation allows room to open car doors 

without obstructing the bike path. 

As observed in Munster, bike paths are typically 1.6 m (5.2 ft) wide (one direction on each side of the 

street), and the separation between cars and the bike path is generally 0.7 m (2.3 ft) wide. Some areas are 

narrower in cases where sufficient room does not exist. This type of facility was originally promoted in 

the 1940s as a means to eliminate the hindrance that bikes were causing to cars. They are now retained to 

separate cars and bicyclists for safety purposes. 

Bike tracks are generally paths through the countryside and are signed routes. They are generally not 

paved. 
404 International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 23-13. Photo. Sidewalk-based bicycle path used in Germany. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)

Bus lanes that can also be used by bikes require a width of 4.5 m (15 ft) or more to allow buses to easily 

and safely overtake cyclists when necessary. As shown in figure 23-14, these facilities are signed and 

marked with a bus and bike symbol. 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.)

Figure 23-14. Photo. Shared bus and bicycle lane in Germany. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)
International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 405 

Intersection improvements that facilitate bike travel include an advance stop line that allows bicyclists to 

exit sidewalk paths to turn left in front of motorized traffic. This provides a safer path for left-turning 

cyclists, provides better visual contact between bikes and cars, and allows bicyclists to be away from 

vehicle exhaust. This design has been found to be safer than the traditional weave operation. Other signal 

treatments include special advance green signals for cyclists, and in some cases, signals timed for bicycle 

traffic (based on a signal progression of approximately 15 km/h or 9 mi/h). It was also observed during 

site visits that traffic signal heads in Munster had one green bicycle signal head and two red bicycle signal 

heads. This was done to improve the visibility of the red bicycle signal. 

Bicycle parking lockers and sheltered spaces are offered at some park-and-ride or park-and-bike lots at 

transit stations (see figure 23-15). Each bike locker can hold two bikes and provides better security for 

more expensive bicycles than at bicycle shelters. The rental fee for bike lockers is the equivalent of 

$11.70 U.S. per month, which is much less expensive than car parking. 

Figure 23-15. Photo. Example of bicycle shelters located 

at a transit station in Germany. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)

The particular lot shown in figure 23-15 has 108 car parking spaces and is on the outskirts of the built-up 

area of the city. The construction cost is much less for bike parking facilities than for car parking. 

Furthermore, about 10 to 12 bikes can be parked in a single car-parking space. 

Bike parking at the train station facilitates train-bike combination trips. Bikes are parked in monitored 

areas and can be parked for four days before being moved to a long-term parking area. This allows train 

commuters to leave their bikes at the train station over the weekend. The City of Munster is also planning 

a 4,000-space underground bicycle parking facility at the train station. 

Separate signal heads for bicyclists, as well as separate distinctive signal heads for trolleys, are used 

where exclusive bus lanes exist (using vertical or horizontal white lines as bus signal displays). This often 

results in three sets of signal heads side-by-side (car, trolley, and bike). 
406 International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 

Installing bike racks at corners also helps intersection visibility. The study team was shown an 

intersection where car parking at the intersection had previously created a visibility problem for motorists 

on the side street. The problem occurred even after NO PARKING signs were posted. Installing bike 

racks at the corner physically prevented car parking and opened up sight distances for side-street traffic. 

The United Kingdom 

A variety of bicycle fatalities occur in the United Kingdom, particularly in smaller cities such as York and 

Cambridge, U.K., which have extensive networks of bicycle lanes and paths. Bicycle lanes are commonly 

narrow; some were observed by the study team to be 1 m (3 ft) wide or less in many cases. Along some 

city streets, contraflow bike lanes exist; that is, one-way bicycle lanes move in the opposite direction to 

one-way motor vehicle traffic (see figure 23-16). Double yellow lines next to the curb mean no parking. 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.) 

Figure 23-16. Photo. Narrow contraflow bicycle lane in Cambridge, U.K. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)

In some areas of the United Kingdom, bicycle trails allow for long-distance cycling separate from motor 

vehicles (see figure 23-17). Entrances onto these trails are designed to prevent most types of motor 

vehicles (including motorcycles) from entering (see figure 23-18). Such barriers cause some problems for 

bicyclists who enter or exit the trail. Bicyclists are also allowed to use an extensive network of exclusive 

bus lanes throughout London. In York, an abandoned rail line became an excellent bicycle facility by 

using existing bridges and underpasses. A 1,600-km (1,000-mi) cycle route network for London is 

planned over the next several years. 
International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 407 

(This picture shows bicyclists not wearing helmets. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.)

Figure 23-17. Photo. Bicycle trail on an abandoned 

railroad right-of-way south of York, U.K. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)

(This picture shows a bicyclist not wearing a helmet. 

FHWA strongly recommends that all bicyclists wear helmets.)

Figure 23-18. Photo. The entrance to this bicycle trail is 

designed to restrict entry to motor vehicles. 

Source: FHWA Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety 

in England, Germany, and The Netherlands(1)
408 International Approaches to Bicycle and Pedestrian Facility Design 

23.5 Student Exercise 

Compare and contrast local U.S. and European bike and pedestrian facilities as well as lifestyles. Would 

the European facilities make sense in the United States? Would they be used? 

23.6 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. Zegeer, C.V., M. Cynecki, J. Fegan, B. Gilleran, P. Lagerwey, C. Tan, and B. Works, FHWA 

Study Tour for Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety in England, Germany, and The Netherlands, 

Publication No. FHWA-PL-95-006, FHWA, October 1994, available online at 

http://ntl.bts.gov/DOCS/bikeped.html. 

2. Pucher, J., and L. Dijkstra, “Promoting Safe Walking and Cycling to Improve Public Health: 

Lessons From the Netherlands and Germany,” American Journal of Public Health 1509-1516, 

vol. 93, no. 9, September 2003, available online at 

http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/9/1509, accessed May 3, 2004. 

3. Lalani, N., Alternative Treatments for At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings, Report No. LP-629, ITE, 

2001. 

4. Nabti, J., and M. Ridgway, Innovative Bicycle Treatments: An Informational Report, Publication 

No. IR-114, ITE, 2002. 

5. Davies, D.G., Research, Development, and Implementation of Pedestrian Safety Facilities in the 

United Kingdom, Publication No. FHWA-RD-99-089, FHWA, December 1999, available online 

at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/tfhrc/safety/pubs/99089/intro.htm. 

6. Ekman, L., and C. Hyden, Pedestrian Safety in Sweden, Publication No. FHWA-RD-99-091, 

FHWA, December 1999, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/tfhrc/safety/pubs/99091/99091.pdf. 

7. Zegeer, C.V., J.R. Stewart, H.H. Huang, and P.A. Lagerwey, Safety Effects of Marked vs. 

Unmarked Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Locations: Executive Summary and Recommended 

Guidelines, Publication No. FHWA-RD-01-075, FHWA, March 2002, available online at 

http://www.walkinginfo.org/pdf/r&d/crosswalk_021302.pdf. 

8. Van Houten, R., and J.E.L. Malenfant, Canadian Research on Pedestrian Safety, Publication No. 

FHWA-RD-99-090, FHWA, December 1999, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/tfhrc/safety/pubs/99090/intro.htm. 

Additional resources for this lesson include: 

• Hummel, T., Dutch Pedestrian Safety Research Review, Publication No. FHWA-RD-99-092, 

FHWA, December 1999, available online at 

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/tfhrc/safety/pubs/99092/intro.htm. 

• Cairney, P., Pedestrian Safety in Australia, Publication No. FHWA-RD-99-093, FHWA, 

December 1999, available online at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/tfhrc/safety/pubs/99093/intro.htm. 
A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 409 

LESSON 24: 

A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH: 

ENGINEERING, EDUCATION, ENCOURAGEMENT, 

ENFORCEMENT, AND EVALUATION 

24.1 Introduction 

Experience has shown that developing bicycle- and pedestrian-friendly communities requires a 

comprehensive approach that includes more than simply engineering and constructing bike lanes and 

sidewalks. This comprehensive approach includes: 

• Engineering⎯designing and constructing roads for bicyclists and pedestrians. 

• Education⎯teaching or training bicyclists, pedestrians, motorists, and other road users. 

• Enforcement⎯ensuring that all road users follow traffic laws and rules of the road. 

• Encouragement⎯providing incentives beyond physical infrastructure. 

• Evaluation⎯confirming that the intended outcomes have been produced. 

Many of the previous lessons in this Student Workbook have concentrated on the engineering aspects of 

bicycle and pedestrian transportation. This lesson explores the fundamental elements of education, 

enforcement, and encouragement programs for bicycling and walking by providing examples of 

successful programs from around the country. The major sections of this lesson are as follows: 

• 24.1 Introduction 

• 24.2 The Importance of Comprehensive Programs 

• 24.3 Integrating Elements in a Comprehensive Approach 

• 24.4 Elements of an Effective Education Program 

• 24.5 Elements of an Effective Enforcement Program 

• 24.6 Elements of an Effective Encouragement Program 

• 24.7 Evaluation of Bicycle and Pedestrian Programs 

• 24.8 Student Exercise 

• 24.9 References and Additional Resources 

This lesson on comprehensive approaches has been derived from the National Bicycling and Walking 

Case Study 11: Balancing Engineering, Education, Law Enforcement, and Encouragement.

(1)

24.2 The Importance of Comprehensive Programs 

Historically, providing for bicyclists meant providing bicycle facilities. This was the focus during the 

early phase of program development in the United States. By the late 1970s, some progressive 

communities such as Boulder, CO, and Madison, WI, replaced that focus with a more comprehensive 4E 

approach that combined engineering and planning with enforcement, education, and encouragement (see 

figure 24-1). 
410 A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 

By then, it had become clear that simply providing a bicycle- and pedestrian-friendly road or trail 

environment, as important as it is, cannot solve all bicycle and pedestrian problems. Some safety 

problems, for example, may be more easily solved through programs than through facilities. In order to 

understand the importance of the other elements of a comprehensive program, consider the following two 

examples. 

Figure 24-1. Photo. Comprehensive bicycle and pedestrian programs 

include more than bike lanes and sidewalks. 

Source: PBIC 

Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(2)

Example One 

A person decides to ride her bicycle to work. Between home and the office, she rides a road with 

bicycle-friendly design features (e.g., wide outside lanes, bicycle lanes, etc.). While riding, she barely 

misses a 10-year-old wrong-way rider coming at her, is almost cut off by a motorist turning left in front of 

her, and finally finds no place to securely park her bicycle at the office. She locks her bike to the leg of a 

newspaper rack and goes into the office. When she leaves work, the sun has gone down; she has no bike 

lights. She calls a taxi to take her and her bicycle home. 

While she was able to take advantage of one element of a comprehensive program (the on-road facilities), 

the lack of other elements caused her serious inconvenience and danger. Youngsters need to learn which 

side of the road to use, and the traffic laws should be enforced; motorists should learn to watch for 

bicyclists and to yield to them just as they would to other motorists. Common bicyclist and motorist 

errors that lead to many crashes can be addressed through education, enforcement, and awareness 

programs. Secure and convenient bicycle parking should be provided at all popular destinations as a 

routine matter. In some communities, this is dealt with in the parking ordinance. 
A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 411 

Example Two 

A person gets in his car on a sunny summer afternoon to drive to a nearby store. The store is less than 

1 km (0.6 mi) away, and he is buying a quart of milk. There are sidewalks, but he doesn’t even think of 

walking. He drives there, buys his milk, and drives home. 

While the existence of sidewalks or places to walk is important, it does not necessarily convince people to 

walk if they habitually take a car for every trip. The average American household generates 10 auto trips 

per day, many of them short-distance errands. Breaking the driving habit requires effort and 

understanding. A good awareness campaign, including media spots and other elements, can help develop 

that understanding and encourage people to make the effort to walk for short trips. Walking takes little 

extra time compared to driving for very short distances. When one considers the costs (environmental, 

economic, personal health) of driving and the exercise and health benefits of walking, walking is often 

preferable. 

These two hypothetical examples point out the importance of going beyond the earlier focus on facilities 

alone to include other aspects as well. They suggest the potential roles that agencies such as the police 

department, the school district, and private parties such as the local television station and newspaper can 

play in improving the bicycling and walking situation in a community. 

It is important to keep in mind that some elements may not contribute directly to an increase in numbers 

of nonmotorized travelers. However, these elements are important for other reasons, primarily safety. 

24.3 Integrating Elements in a Comprehensive Approach 

How, exactly, can an effective mix of engineering, enforcement, education, and encouragement be 

determined? The answer is that participants from a wide range of agencies and groups must get involved 

in the process. The Geelong, Australia, model is a good one to illustrate this point. The Geelong Bike 

Plan Team included members from the enforcement community, roads department, safety agencies, 

school system, and bicycling community (see figure 24-2). In assembling their comprehensive program, 

the project managers enlisted the help of those who would, ultimately, be responsible for implementing it. 

Figure 24-2. Photo. Comprehensive bicycle and pedestrian programs 

bring together a variety of stakeholders. 
412 A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 

This is the process suggested here. A bike-pedestrian plan task force should be assembled to guide the 

program. The following structure is suggested for the task force. While the same department may be 

represented on several committees, this would not necessarily require different individuals. Individual 

members should deal with those aspects within their areas of expertise. Committees might be formed to 

include areas of expertise, as shown below: 

• Steering committee

o Physical environment 

o Education and awareness 

o Encouragement 

o Data collection 

• Physical environment

o Public works (traffic engineering, streets) 

o Planning (transportation, land use) 

o Parks and recreation (parks planning) 

o Cyclists and pedestrians 

o College campus planning 

• Education and awareness

o Parks and recreation (programming) 

o School district (elementary and junior high) 

o High school and college 

o Health 

o Cyclists and pedestrians 

• Enforcement

o Police (traffic) 

o Cyclists and pedestrians 

Determining the Scope of a Comprehensive Program 

Because so little is known about the bicycling and walking situations in most communities, it is difficult 

to predict in advance what level of expenditure and program activity will be needed to implement a 

comprehensive program. Until the needs have been identified and the problems assessed, the necessary 

scope of the program will probably remain unknown. However, the basic approach suggested here is to 

make bicycle and pedestrian considerations part of the normal process of governing. In many cases, this 

may require little extra expense. 

For example, if a police officer stops a bicyclist for running a red light, this should not be seen as a new or 

extra duty. It is simply part of traffic enforcement and it will pay the community back in terms of 

decreased crash rates. Similarly, adding pedestrian- or bicycle-related questions to a transportation needs 

survey will not necessarily require large amounts of money. It allows transportation planners to do a 

better job of planning for the community’s travel needs and can pay off in reduced motorized travel 

demand. Finally, changing a dangerous drainage grate standard to a bicycle-safe design costs no more, but 

can reduce an agency’s potential liability. 

There will be some projects (e.g., a new bicycle bridge) that require a significant expenditure of funds. 

However, if the need for a project is clearly documented through surveys and studies, it can take its place 
A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 413 

in the TIP. In such an arena, its strengths and weaknesses can be weighed against those of other potential 

projects. 

Steps in the Process 

There are four primary steps in the process of mixing the elements of engineering, education, 

enforcement, and encouragement to create a comprehensive bicycle and pedestrian program. 

First, it is important to develop an understanding of the local bicycling and walking situations. This 

means looking closely at nonmotorized travel in the community to determine its limitations and potential, 

as well as current levels of use and safety problems. This understanding will form the basis for the work 

that follows. 

The second step is to set realistic goals and objectives. These should be based on data from the 

information-gathering step, and they should be measurable and achievable. 

Third, participants should address those goals and objectives through the development of an action plan. 

The plan should be a blueprint for the community’s work in all the elements of the comprehensive 

program. It should include phasing and funding considerations. 

Fourth, as work on the action plan progresses, it should be evaluated based on its effects on the goals and 

objectives. Without an evaluation process, it is impossible to determine the effects of one’s work. With 

evaluation, one can judge and document success, correct errors, and fine-tune the program. 

24.4 Elements of an Effective Education Program 

This section contains examples of several elements and strategies that are commonly found in effective 

bicycle and pedestrian safety education programs. Additional examples of education programs can be 

found in Good Practices for Bicycle Safety Education.

(3)

Provide Instruction in Lawful, Responsible Behavior Among Bicyclists, Pedestrians, and 

Motorists 

Strategy 1: Teach important bicycling and walking skills to youngsters

Approach: Using information gathered from the user studies as well as the crash studies, work with 

school administrators and teachers to identify target ages for key educational messages. Review course 

options and identify opportunities for implementing bicycling and walking curricula for the target ages 

(see figure 24-3). 

Result: A program of instruction that effectively reaches the target audience. 

Examples: The Missoula, MT, school district has included bicyclist education in its core curriculum since 

1980; the program is taught by physical education instructors. The Boulder, CO, bicycle-pedestrian 

program staff includes a full-time education person in charge of implementing curricula in cooperation 

with the local school system. The Madison, WI, program works with local schools to do the same. 
414 A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 

Figure 24-3. Photo. Safety education programs are essential for young children. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(2)

Strategy 2: Teach important bicycling and walking skills to adults

Approach: Using information gathered from the user studies as well as the crash studies, work with 

college and high school administrators and teachers to identify key educational messages. Review course 

options and identify opportunities for implementing bicycling and walking curricula for the target ages. 

Result: A program of instruction that effectively reaches the target audience. 

Examples: Effective cycling instructors in Seattle, WA, Tucson, AZ, and other communities have offered 

adult courses through the local junior colleges. Missoula, MT, and several other communities have 

offered cycling classes to traffic-law violators through the local municipal court systems. 

Strategy 3: Include bike and pedestrian information in driver training

Approach: Using information from the crash studies, work with local driver training instructors and 

violators to identify key messages for delivery to new drivers, as well as those required to take remedial 

driving courses. Assemble a model curriculum unit and deliver it to all local instructors. 

Result: A model curriculum and delivery mechanism for reaching drivers during training. 

Examples: The Gainesville, FL, bicycle coordinator taught 14- and 15-year-old driver education students 

how to share the road with bicycles. The coordinator brought copies of bicycle/automobile crash reports 

to illustrate her points. She then divided the class into groups, each with a crash report. Groups analyzed 

how the crashes happened and how they could have been avoided. 
A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 415 

Deliver Important Safety Messages Through Various Print and Electronic Media 

Strategy 4: Determine which safety messages are most important for which audiences

Approach: Using information gathered from the crash studies, identify important messages for the whole 

range of target audiences (see figure 24-4). 

Result: A prioritized list of messages identified as to their target audiences. 

Examples: The Gainesville, FL, program determined that one of the audiences most in need of attention 

was the college student population. Key safety messages for these bicyclists were identified. 

Figure 24-4. Photo. Target safety messages to key audiences through various media. 

Strategy 5: Create a process for effectively delivering those messages

Approach: Work with the local media and other groups to determine the best way to reach the audiences 

identified above, given the resources available. 

Result: A long-term strategy for delivering selected messages to key target audiences. 

Examples: In 1986, working with local bicycling groups and the media, the Madison, WI, bicycle 

program created an ambitious bicycle helmet campaign. They did before-and-after studies of both helmet 

wearing rates and their success in delivering their messages. In Gainesville, FL, officials commissioned a 

safety specialist to create college student-oriented bicycling comic strips for publication in the campus 

newspaper and for printing as brochures. 
416 A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 

24.5 Elements of an Effective Enforcement Program 

This section contains examples of several elements and strategies that are commonly found in effective 

bicycle and pedestrian safety enforcement programs. Additional examples and information on 

enforcement programs can be found in the NHTSA Resource Guide on Laws Related to Pedestrian and 

Bicycle Safety (see figure 24-5).(4)

Figure 24-5. Photo. The NHTSA Resource Guide

can be used to improve existing traffic laws. 

Improve Existing Traffic Laws, as Well as Their Enforcement 

Strategy 1: Review and, if necessary, modify laws that affect bicyclists and pedestrians

Approach: In cooperation with the police department and city attorney, review local and State bicycle 

and pedestrian laws and compare with the current version of the Uniform Vehicle Code and Model 

Traffic Ordinance (see http://www.ncutlo.org/ for more information). Focus on those regulations that may 

unnecessarily restrict bicycle or pedestrian traffic or that seem out of date when compared to the national 

models. 

Result: A report listing suggested changes to local and State traffic laws. 

Examples: Palo Alto, CA, after reviewing potential crash problems and liability concerns, decided to 

allow bicycle traffic on a key expressway. In doing so, they opened a new route for fast crosstown travel. 

Strategy 2: Enforce laws that impact bicycle and pedestrian safety

Approach: Using information from the crash studies, determine which traffic violations are implicated in 

the most common serious car/bike and car/pedestrian crashes. Work with the police department, traffic 

court, and city attorney to develop a plan for enforcing the key laws. 
A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 417 

Result: A plan for equitable enforcement of bicycle, pedestrian, and motor vehicle traffic laws. 

Examples: Since the mid-1980s, the Madison, WI, police department has staffed a bicycle monitor 

program with specially deputized university students to enforce bicycle traffic laws. The Seattle, WA, 

police department aggressively polices crosswalks and routinely tickets motorists for violating pedestrian 

rights-of-way. The Missoula, MT, bicycle patrol routinely tickets motorists who violate the law. 

Strategy 3: Review and, if necessary, modify procedures for handling youthful violators

Approach: In cooperation with the police department, develop procedures for handling young bicycle 

and pedestrian law violators. 

Result: A set of procedures for dealing with young bicyclists and pedestrians. 

Examples: For years, Dallas, TX, operated a youth court for young bicyclists caught violating traffic 

laws. The City of Santa Barbara, CA, a pioneer in bicycle enforcement, developed a campaign that 

included special tickets for youngsters, a publicity campaign, and a training film for officers. Missoula, 

MT, has a special warning ticket for youngsters: one copy goes to the violator, one is mailed to the 

parents, and one is kept at the police station. 

Reduce the Incidence of Serious Crimes Against Nonmotorized Travelers 

Strategy 4: Develop a strategy for reducing the number of bikes stolen and increasing the 

proportion of recovered bikes

Approach: Based on the police department’s bike theft study, develop a strategy for reducing the impact 

of bike theft rings and other sophisticated thieves. Also consider a means to inform the public of simple 

steps they can take to keep their bikes from being stolen. 

Result: A plan for reducing bike theft in the community. 

Examples: Missoula, MT, used their 1982 bicycle theft study as the basis for TV spots, appearances on 

news shows, news releases, brochures, and posters, all of which promoted using high-security locks. They 

also developed a computerized bicycle registration procedure that has helped identify and return many 

licensed bikes to their owners. 

Strategy 5: Develop a strategy for reducing assaults on bicyclists and pedestrians

Approach: Based on the study of bicyclist and pedestrian harassment and assault, develop a standard 

procedure for dealing seriously with these complaints. 

Result: Policies and procedures for dealing with bicyclist and pedestrian assault and harassment. 

Examples: For years, the Missoula, MT, bicycle program has worked with the city attorney’s office on a 

case-by-case basis to resolve complaints of bicyclist harassment. Their efforts resulted in irresponsible 

motorists receiving numerous warnings and citations. 
418 A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 

Use Nonmotorized Modes to Help Accomplish Other Unrelated Departmental Goals 

Strategy 6: Implement nonmotorized patrols in appropriate areas

Approach: Based on the experiences of other communities, determine the need and potential of 

nonmotorized patrols in the community and develop an implementation plan. 

Result: A plan for funding and creating nonmotorized police patrols in the community. 

Examples: Seattle, WA, has pioneered the mountain bike patrol as a way of dealing with street crime. 

Begun in 1987, the patrol has grown to more than 100 officers, and the founders have given training 

seminars to police departments all over the country (see figure 24-6). Each year, hundreds of mountain 

bike officers gather for a national conference sponsored by the League of American Bicyclists; many also 

attend the annual Beat the Streets patrol competition hosted by that city. 

Figure 24-6. Photo. Police bicycle patrols are effective at outreach and crime prevention. 

Source: PBIC Image Library, http://www.pedbikeimages.org(2)

24.6 Elements of an Effective Encouragement Program 

This section contains examples of several elements and strategies that are commonly found in effective 

bicycle and pedestrian transportation encouragement programs. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation 

has published an excellent resource for public health promoters and advocators entitled Promoting Active 

Living Communities: A Guide to Marketing and Communication.

(5) Specifically, this guide has five basic 

strategies it recommends for promoting pedestrian-friendly communities: 

• Think like a marketer. 

• Get to know your audience. 

• Shape your program. 
A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 419 

• Get your messages out. 

• Evaluate your communication efforts. 

Reduce or Eliminate Disincentives for Bicycling and Walking and Incentives for Driving 

Single-Occupant Motor Vehicles 

Strategy 1: Add nonmotorized options to agency motor pools

Approach: Identify all agency motor pools and determine which can be modified to include bicycles. In 

addition, consider which trips can be efficiently taken on foot. Create a plan of action for adding 

nonmotorized options where possible. Promote the approach as a model for other local employment 

centers. 

Result: A plan for using nonmotorized modes in satisfying agency transportation needs. 

Examples: The City of Seattle, WA, recently created a nonmotorized pool, adding bicycles to the motor 

vehicles available for employee use. The bikes are proving to be extremely popular. 

Strategy 2: Require companies and agencies to produce balanced transportation plans for 

their workforce’s commuting needs

Approach: Review city policies and practices, as well as those of private companies and other large 

employers, that reward driving private automobiles or discourage walking or bicycling. Work with all 

appropriate agencies and companies to modify those provisions. 

Result: A set of proposed options (policies, ordinances, programs) that address institutional biases against 

bicycling and walking. 

Examples: In Palo Alto, CA, a transportation plan for Stanford University suggested helping staff 

purchase bicycles if they would use them for commuting to work. The City reimburses those who use 

their bicycles for work-related trips. The university campus in Davis, CA, has for many years severely 

restricted motor vehicle parking. This has been identified as one of the major factors in encouraging 

students and faculty to ride bikes to the campus. 

Provide Ways for Nonparticipants to Receive a Casual Introduction to Bicycling and Walking 

Strategy 3: Include entry-level bicycling and walking activities in local recreational 

programming

Approach: Identify existing programs or groups that could become sponsors for introductory-level 

bicycling and walking activities. Based on user studies, create a list of potential activities and match them 

with groups willing to offer sponsorship. 

Result: A schedule of introductory-level nonmotorized recreational activities. 

Examples: The Eugene, OR, recreation department sponsored a variety of recreational rides and 

workshops for novice adult riders through their network of parks. The Chesterfield County Parks 

Department in Richmond, VA, sponsors an annual Peanut Ride, which visits peanut farms in the area, 

allowing participants to learn more about local agriculture while getting exercise. 
420 A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 

Strategy 4: Promote utilitarian nonmotorized transportation through introductory fun events

Approach: Through a combination of promotional events and media publicity, encourage citizens to walk 

or ride in place of driving. 

Result: An annual series of promotions supporting nonmotorized travel. 

Examples: The Boulder, CO, annual Bike Week has become a major event over the years, encompassing 

a schedule of senior citizen rides, bike polo, business challenges, bicycle parades, and nonpolluter 

commuter races. During that city’s Bike to Work Day in 1992, approximately 7,000 people rode bicycles 

to work. 

Strategy 5: Offer key target audiences detailed information on utilitarian nonmotorized travel

Approach: Based on the user studies, determine which audiences are most likely to bicycle or walk, 

further determine their detailed informational needs, and create a plan for getting that information to the 

target audience. 

Result: A plan for giving detailed useful information to key target audiences. 

Examples: The Ann Arbor, MI, program has run seminars at local hospitals and other employment 

centers, helping participants learn how commuting by bicycle might work for them. In Los Angeles, CA, 

the El Segundo Employers Association, in cooperation with the Southern California Association of 

Governments, has produced maps, pamphlets, and seminars to promote nonmotorized transportation 

among their workers. 

Use Electronic and Print Media to Spread Information on the Benefits of Nonmotorized Travel 

Strategy 6: Develop and disseminate a limited set of simple, but important, probicycling and 

prowalking messages

Approach: Based on the user studies, determine the educational needs of bicyclists and walkers, 

assemble a list of the most important messages, and create a media campaign to get them across. Include 

the experiences of current nonmotorized travelers as a way of personalizing the messages and lending 

added credibility. 

Result: A media campaign promoting the benefits of bicycling and walking directed at key target 

audiences (see figure 24-7 for an example). 

Examples: San Diego, CA, has used bus-mounted advertising to promote the benefits of nonmotorized 

travel. Seattle, WA, in cooperation with a local television station, has created a series of local promotional 

television spots. 

 

Figure 24-7. Photos. Vehicle license plates that promote sharing the road with bicyclists. 
A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 421 

24.7 Evaluation of Bicycle and Pedestrian Programs 

A comprehensive bicycle and pedestrian program directed toward the goal of increasing safe travel by 

nonmotorized modes must combine the efforts of many people. No one office can do it all. Officials in 

public works, planning, enforcement, education, and recreation agencies all have a role and must work 

together to achieve the desired end. 

In order to measure future success, it is important to first determine current conditions. Since 

nonmotorized travel is so seldom measured, we know little about it. With data on use, user attitudes and 

behavior, safety, and security problems, it is possible to begin assembling an achievable set of goals and 

objectives. These goals and objectives should be used to guide the development and implementation of an 

action plan. The plan should include physical elements such as roadway improvements and trail systems, 

as well as nonphysical elements such as enforcement and educational programs. 

Evaluating the elements of the action plan is a critical step in determining future direction and past 

success. Success should be measured in terms of both services delivered and effects achieved. Evaluation 

must be seen as a key ingredient to implementation, rather than as an extra duty to be performed if there is 

time or money. 

Combining these steps into a comprehensive program will allow a community to achieve and measure 

success. 

24.8 Student Exercise 

Exercise A 

Volunteer at a bicycle or pedestrian education event. 

Exercise B 

Identify the organization, group, or committee that deals with engineering, education, and enforcement in 

the local area. If there is a group, sit in on a meeting and see what activities and issues there are in the 

community and how the class might help or participate as part of a class project. 

Exercise C 

Identify the education and enforcement activities in your community and critique and compare the 

elements in your community with the examples in the lessons. Work with public officials on how to make 

revisions to the programs and/or policies. 

24.9 References and Additional Resources 

The references for this lesson are: 

1. “Case Study No. 11: Balancing Engineering, Education, Law Enforcement, and Encouragement,”

National Bicycling and Walking Study, Publication No. FHWA-PD-93-009, FHWA, Washington, 

DC, 1994. 

2. Image Library, PBIC, available online at http://www.pedbikeimages.org, accessed May 6, 2004. 
422 A Comprehensive Approach: Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation 

3. Good Practices Guide for Bicycle Safety Education, FHWA, Publication No. FHWA-SA-02-001, 

available online at http://www.bicyclinginfo.org/ee/bestguidedoc.html, accessed May 3, 2004. 

4. Resource Guide on Laws Related to Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety, NHTSA, Publication No. 

DOT-HS-809-368, available online at 

http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/pedbimot/bike/resourceguide/, accessed May 4, 2004. 

5. Promoting Active Living Communities: A Guide to Marketing and Communication, The Robert 

Wood Johnson Foundation, available online at 

http://www.activelivingbydesign.org/fileadmin/template/documents/rwjf_toolkit.pdf 
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