The Alaska Earthquake 

March 27, 1964 

Regional Effects 

Shore Processes 

and Beach Morphology 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 543-J 

THE ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964: 

REGIONAL EFFECTS 

Effects of the 

Alaska Earthquake of 

March 27, 1964 

On Shore Processes and 

Beach Morphology 

By KIRK W. STANLEY 

The effects of tectonic uplift and subsidence 

along 10,000 miles of shoreline, and the 

practical meaning of those effects 

~~~m~~~~~~ll'ilir- DENVER 

3 1819 00086468 2 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 543-J 

APR 7 1969 APR 11 1991 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

William T. Pecora, Director 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON 1968 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402- Price 45 cents (paper cover) 
THE 

ALASKA EARTHQUAKE 

SERIES 

The U.S. Geological Survey is publishing the results of its investigations of the Alaska earthquake 

of March 27, 1964, in a series of six Professional 

Papers. Professional Paper 543 describes the regional effects of the earthquake. Other Professional 

Papers in the series describe field investigations and 

reconstruction and the effects of the earthquake on 

communities, on the hydrologic regimen, and on 

transportation, utilities, and communications. 
CONTENTS 

Page 

Abstract_______________________ J1 

Introduction____________________ 1 

Shorelines of the earthquake-affected region_________________ 2 

Coastal features and earthquake 

effects_______________________ 3 

Beaches____________________ 3 

Changes in profile and 

gradient______________ 3 

Minor beach features_____ 5 

Low-water features______ 6 

Modern beach ridges_____ 7 

Ancient beach ridges_____ 10 

Stream-mouth changes_______ 10 

Submergent areas_______ 10 

Uplifted areas___________ 11 

Coastal erosion and movement 

of materiaL _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 12 

Erosion________________ 12 

Page 

Coastal features and earthquake 

effects -Continued 

Coastal erosion and movement 

of material-Continued 

Longshore material move- ment ________________ J15 

Upslope material movement________________ 17 

Biologic effects of shoreline 

changes ______________________ 17 

Fish___ ___________________ 17 

Shellfish _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 18 

WildfowL__________________ 18 

Effects on property and manmade 

structures_____________________ 19 

Submergent areas___________ 19 

Emergent areas_____________ 19 

Legal problems______________ 19 

Need for further studies__________ 20 

References cited_________________ 20 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

1. Index map of south-central Alaska showing coastlines affected by the earthquake _____________ _ 

2. Diagram illustrating beach feature ____________ _ 

3. Photograph of sharp break-in-slope on shingle beach ____________________________________ _ 

4. Sketch of changes of beach configuration in submergent areas _____________________________ _ 

5. Photograph of deposition of material on backslope 

of frontal ridge ___________________________ _ 

6. Aerial photograph of barrier beach at Breving 

Lagoon, Seward Peninsula __________________ _ 

7. Photograph showing undercutting and sloughing 

of bluffs, Cook Inlet _______________________ _ 

8. Oblique photograph of new land created by tectonic uplift, Copper River Delta ____________ _ 

FIGURES 

Page Page 

9. Photograph of gullying and sloughing caused by 

vr headward stream erosion, Copper River Delta_ .J12 

J3 10. Photograph of eastern shore of Cook Inlet showing 

undercutting and sloughing of bluffs caused by 

4 subsidence_________________________________ 13 

11. Photograph of bluff erosion at Kenai____________ 13 

5 12-14. Photographs of timber seawall on Homer Spit: 

12. As constructed_________________________ 14 

8 13. Damaged, 6 months after construction____ 14 

14. Almost completely destroyed by waves, 16 

9 months after construction_____________ 15 

15. Photograph of cobble-filled wire-mesh fence, 

9 Larsen Bay, Kodiak Island__________________ 15 

16. Profiles of updrift and downdrift fill of grain at 

11 Homer Spit________________________________ 16 

v 
56'15' 

156• 

156• 64' 

50 0 

0 

50 100 

144' 

.., 64 ° 

.";;f 

s 

EXPLANATION 

Approximate line of zero land level 

change (after Plafker, 1965) 

150 MILES 

56'15' 

144 ' 

1.-·South-central Alaska showing coastlines affected by the earthquake. Land to left of zero land-level change was generally 

lowered; land to right was raised. 

VI 
THE ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964: REGIONAL EFFECTS 

EFFECTS OF THE ALASKA EARTHQUAKE OF MARCH 27, 1964, ON 

SHORE PROCESSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY 

Some 10,000 miles of shoreline in 

south-central Alaska was affected by the 

subsidence or uplift associated with the 

great Alaska earthquake of March 27, 

1964. The changes in shoreline processes 

and beach morphology that were suddenly initiated by the earthquake were 

similar to those ordinarily caused by 

gradual changes in sea level operating 

over hundreds of years, while other 

more readily visible changes were simiLar to some of the effects of great but 

short-lived storms. Phenomena became 

available for observation within a few 

hours which would otherwise not have 

been available for many years. 

In the subsided areas-including the 

shorelines of the Kenai Peninsula, 

Kodiak Island, and Cook Inlet-beaches 

tended to flatten in gradient and to recede shoreward. Minor beach features 

One of the strongest earthquakes 

ever reported occurred in Alaska 

on March 27, 1964, at 5:36 p.m. 

Alaska standard time. The epicenter was at Unakwik Inlet in 

Prince William Sound (fig. 1). 

The magnitude of the main shock 

was 8.4-8.6 on the Richter scale 

(Wood, 1966). The area of land 

and sea bottom affected by the 

earthquake is at least 70,000 square 

miles and may exceed 110,000. 

Forty thousand squa.re miles wa8 

1 Geologist, Anchorage, Alaska : formerly 

Tidelands Supervisor, Alaska Department of 

Xaturnl Resources, Division of Lands. 

By Kirk W. Stanley 1 

ABSTRACT 

were altered or destroyed on submergence but began to reappear and to 

stabilize in their normal shapes within 

a few monthH after the earthquake. 

Frontal beach ridges migrated shoreward and grew higher and wider than 

they were before. Along narrow beaehes 

backed by bluffs, the relatively higher 

sea level led to vigorous erosion of the 

bluff toes. Stream mouths were drowned 

and some were altered by seismic sea 

waves, but they adjusted within a few 

months to the new c-onditions. 

In the uplifted areas, generally around 

Prince William Sound, virtually all 

beaches were stranded out of reach of 

the sea. New beaches are gradually developing to fit new sea levels, but the 

processes are slow, in part because the 

material on the lower parts of the old 

beaches is predominantly fine grained. 

INTRODUCTION 

lowered as much as 71;2 feet and 

25,000 square miles was raised as 

much as 33 feet (Plafker, 1965, 

1967). The coastlines affected by 

the earthquake are shown by 

figure 1. 

Definite limits of the coastal area 

of Alaska affected by the earthquake have not been determined. 

Most authorities, however, agree 

that it is bounded by Yakataga 

(just southeast of the area shown 

in figure 1) on the east and the 

Kodiak group of islands on the 

southwest (Plafker, 1965). I£ all 

the shoreline irregularities of the 

mainland and the islands affected 

Streams were lengthened in the emergent areas, and down cutting and bank 

erosion have increased. 

Except at Homer and a few small villages, where groins, bul,kh€1llds, and 

,cobble-filled baskets were installed, 

there has been little attempt to protect 

tihe postearthquake shorelines. The few 

structures that were built have been 

only partially successful because there 

was too little time to study the habits 

of the new shore features and to design 

appropriate protection measure~. Emergence of large areas that were once 

below water and permanent submergence of once-useful land areas have led 

to many problems of land use and 

ownership in addition to the destruction 

or relocation of wildfowl, shellfish, and 

salmon habitats. 

by the earthquake are included, 

the shoreline within the area exceeds 10,000 nautical miles. 

Certain changes in beach forms 

occurred as a result of relative 

changes in sea level caused by uplift or subsidence of the land during the earthquake. These changes 

were abrupt and thus cannot be 

unconditionally compared to a 

gradual change in sea level, but 

they did provide much information regarding normal shore processes. Because sea-level changes 

were not only abrupt but also 

permanent, months were afforded 

for observations, which otherJ1 
J2 

wise-as during storms-would 

have been limited to hours or at 

the most several days. 

No attempt is made in this paper 

to present a detailed description 

of changes in beaches throughout 

either the submergent or emergent 

areas. A study of this type might 

have provided some interesting 

and descriptive material, but, considering the great distances and 

the general remoteness of much of 

the shoreline involved, such a 

study would have been impractical. 

This paper is therefore restricted 

to descriptions of specific areas and 

ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 

problems. These limited observations do not reflect all conditions 

and processes that occurred within 

the area affected by the earthquake, but they do provide a basis 

for understanding the general 

processes that occurred. 

The chief objective of this report 

is to compare pre- and post-earthquake processes. For this reason, 

Homer Spit is used as an example 

for much of the descriptive matter; it happens to be one of the 

few places :for which considerable preearthquake information is 

available. Descriptions of coastal 

erosion primarily involve examples along Cook Inlet because (1) 

much of the shoreline there is eroding and ( 2) the area is more 

densely populated than elsewhere. 

The earthquake not only caused 

physical changes which have left 

their marks upon the beach; it also 

had certain significant economic 

and legal consequences. These sociological effects have an interconnection with the physical effects 

and are considered worthy of 

mention. 

SHORELINES OF THE EARTHQUAKE-AFFECTED REGION 

The line of zero land movement, 

(fig. 1) trends southwest from the 

epicenter on Unakwik Inlet at the 

head of Prince William Sound, 

along the east shore of Kenai Peninsula, to Kodiak Island. West 

of this line the land subsided; to 

the east it was uplifted. Anomalous areas of submergence, particularly along deltas and at the heads 

of bays, occur in both regions and 

were caused by compaction and 

settlement of sediments. Compaction of sediments in the uplifted 

area reduced the overall upward 

change in some localities; compaction in the subsided areas accentuated submergence. 

The landmass bordering the 

coastal area affected by the earthquake is mountainous, and both it 

and the shoreline are characterized 

by glacial or periglacial features. 

The shoreline from Yakataga 

northwestward to the Copper 

River Delta is characterized by 

long sweeping beaches broken by 

wide-mouthed rivers and resembles a ria coast (Lobeck, 1939). 

The shoreline features were 

formed in part of outwash deposits from the Bering and other 

large glaciers. Westward from the 

Copper River Delta the shoreline 

is glacially carved and is highly 

irregular, deeply incised, and 

fringed by numerous offshore 

rocks and reefs. The offshore area, 

particularly between the mouth of 

the Copper River and Cordova, is 

shallow and has numerous shoals, 

barrier islands, and spits. Active 

glaciers occupy the heads of many 

bays in the region, particularly in 

Prince William Sound. 

Along Kodiak Island the shoreline is characterized by fiords in 

classic forms. The bays, particularly along the Shelikof Strait side 

of Kodiak Island, have deep depressions at their heads and submarine threshholds of either rock 

or unconsolidated material at 

their mouths-a feature that, according to Guilcher (1958, p. 160), 

denotes a true fiord. The walls of 

the bays are usually steep, and 

many headlands are characterized 

by cliffs. Beaches are generally 

poorly developed and are composed of medium to coarse shingle. 

Sandy beaches and constructional 

costal forms occur along the 

heads of bays, however, and welldeveloped sand-shingle beaches 

tens of miles in length are present 

along the south,yesternmost part 

of the island. 

Along the southern Kenai Peninsula and the western part of 

Prince William Sound, the shoreline resembles that of Kodiak Island in its irregularity, although 

bayhead depressions and submarine rock ramparts at the bay 

mouths are less well developed. 

However, the presence of active 

glaciers along the shoreline indicates that many of the indentations are true fiords. Here also the 

walls of many of the bays are 

steep, and cliffs are more numerous 

than along Kodiak Island. N arrow, relatively steep beaches consist predominantly of shingle. 

Sandy beaches occur along the 

sides and heads of inlets and bays 

but are less well developed than 

along the eastern shoreline of 

Prince William Sound. 
EFFECTS ON SHORE PROCJ<JSSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY J3 

Contrasting sharply with the irregular shorelines of Kodiak Island and Prince William Sound is 

the more uniform one of Cook Inlet. Cook Inlet extends into the 

mainland more than 175 miles and 

narrows and shallows towards its 

head. The backshore, particularly 

east and north of the inlet, consists of low gently rolling glacial 

outwash plains. Wave-cut bluffs as 

high as several hundred feet occur 

in that area, and the adjacent 

beaches are generally well developed. At the head of Cook Inlet 

the waters are shallow, and broad 

silty tidal flats are common. South 

of Tuxedni Bay, on the west shore 

of Cook Inlet, the low coastal plain 

pinches out, and mountains rise 

abruptly from the sea. 

Much of the shoreline affected 

by the earthquake presents seemingly contradictory evidence of 

both uplift and subsidence-a contradiction that perhaps is not surprising when viewed in the light 

of the complex tectonic history of 

the region. The high Chugach 

Mountains, Saint Elias Mountains, 

and Fairweather Range are obvious manifestations of strong tectonic uplift. Raised beaches along 

some coasts indicate more recent 

uplift, also, but the drowned fiordlike character of much of the shoreline, combined with numerous offshore islands, skerries, and reefs, 

suggest coastal subsidence and 

submergence. 

Reconnaissance studies of the 

displaced shorelines, paced by numerous radiocarbon dates, have 

brought out a genera·} similarity 

between the pattern of earthquake 

displacements and the long-term 

trend of Holocene coastal emergence or submergence, as well as a 

remarkable widespread submergence during the past several centuries over much of the zone that 

was uplifted during the earthquake, and at least part of the zone 

that subsided (Plafker and Rubin, 

1967; Plafker, 1968, in press). 

Thus, according to Plafker, the 

tectonic movements that accompanied the earthquake were but one 

pulse in a long-continuing trend 

of diastrophic deformation that 

has resulted in regional emergence 

of parts of the continental margin, 

simultaneous submergence of the 

Kenai-Kodiak Mountains belt, and 

either relative stability or emergence along the shores of Cook Inlet and pa.rts of Shelikof Strait. 

COASTAL FEATURES AND EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS 

BEACHES 

The beach face is the area between high and low water (fig. 2) . 

It is an ever-changing feature, but 

normally the changes are subtle 

and become noticeable only during 

severe storms. 

During the earthquake of 1964, 

rapid changes in land elevation 

caused obvious changes in shore 

processes and beach-face morphology. These changes were comparable in magnitude to changes that 

normally are caused by centurieslong fluctuations in sea level-or, 

paradoxically, to sudden changes 

caused by severe storms. Thus, 

changes in the beach face following the earthquake are important 

both to the study of fluctuating 

sea level as it affects a beach and to 

the engineering problems that 

might be met along the beach face 

as a result of changes caused by 

storms. 

298-580 0-68~2 

Frontal ridge 

or berm 

High water w 

c. 

0 

Vi 

FEET ·:L 

0 30 FEET 

1--------------Beach face --------------1 

2.-Diagram illustrating beach features. 

CHANGES IN PROFILE AND 

GRADIENT 

Obvious changes in profile and 

gradient occurred along shingle 

beaches within the submergent 

areas. In those areas, changes were 

noticed within 1 week after the 

earthquake. The most noticeable 

change was a flattening of the 

gradient and a recession of the 

beach face. 

Many shingle beaches within the 

submergent area.s range in gradient from 1 : 8 to 1 : 30 and are 

characterized by a break-in-slope 

50-200 feet seaward of the highwater 1ine. The break-in-slope 

marks the location where waves act 

longest at high tide (King, 1959). 

The beach face (fig. 2) shoreward 

of the break (termed the "upper 

beach face") has a steeper gradient and coarse·r material than does 

the lower beach face. The breakin-slope shown in figure 3 is typical 

of those on many shingle beaches 

in Alaska. 
J4 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 

3.-Sharp break-in-slope between upper and lower beach faces extends from midforeground to midcenter of photograph, just to right of man. These features, here seen 

in Kachemak Bay at low tide, are common to many shingle beaches. 

After earthquake-caused subsidence, waves reached higher on 

the beach face •and caused severe 

scour erosion of the upper face; 

the break-in-slope gradually 

shifted shoreward. The upper 

limit of the swash was also extended at some places, and the 

frontal ridge, or berm, was overflowed. Part of the material eroded 

from the beach :Jiace was thus carried by the swash over the frontal 

ridge and was deposited along the 

land ward side. 

A good example of profile and 

gradient changes •along a shingle 

beach within the submergent areas 

was afforded by beaches along 

Homer Spit. Adjustment of the 

Homer Spit beaches to the new 

high-water level was gradual but 

can be described as occurring in 

three stages (fig. 4). The first stage 

was characterized by severe erosion and planing off of the 

beach face and crest by wave and 

swash overwash. Part of the eroded 

material was carried across the 

beach crest and onto the spit. The 

second stage was characterized by 

active erosion along the break-inslope and the development of a new 

postearthquake frontal ridge. During this stage the beach became 

noticeably convex upward because 

material from near the break-inslope moved toward tJhe upper 

beach face. The third stage was 

characterized by development of a 

well-defined break-in-slope tJhat 

had gradually shifted landward. 

Erosion and recession of the beach 

face continued until the slope approached the preearthquake gradient. During the third stage the 

new frontal ridge increased noticeably in height •and eventua'lly 

retarded overflow. During this 

stage also, some of the material 

carried by the longshore drift began to accumulate along the lower 

beach face near the break-in-slope. 

The observed erosional ·and depositional effects of a relatively raised 

sea level on tJhe Homer Spit 

beaches are in agreement with suggestions made originally by Bruun 

(1962) and partly tested by 

Schwartz (1965) with small-scale 

l-aboratory experiments. Bruun 

concluded in part that a raised sea 

level is followed by shoreward displacement of the beach profile as 

the upper beach is eroded and that 

the amount of material eroded 

from the upper beach is equal in 

volume to that deposited on the 

nearshore bottom. Thus the rise of 

the nearshore bottom tJhat results 

from this deposition will ultimately equal the original rise in 

relative sea level. 

Along beaches protected from 

severe storm waves, adjustment to 

subsidence differed somewhat from 

that on exposed shingle beaches 

such as Homer Spit. Within the 

protected areas, for example those 

along the south side of Kachemak 

Bay and certain shores of Kodiak 

Island, recession of the beach face 

was more uniform and the convexupward profiles were less noticeable because wave action was less 

turbulent. Erosion along the new 

break-in-slope and swash action 

along the beach crest were also less 

severe. Thus, the rate of beach-face 

recession along the beaches not 

acted on by large waves was more 

uniform and less rapid than along 

exposed beaches. 

Even less noticeable changes occurred along sandy be-aches, probably becam;e their gradient is usually flatter than thrut of shingle 

beaches and because sand is less 

readily moved by wave action than 

is shingle. 

One area of subsidence where 

sandy silty beaches predominate is 

upper Cook Inlet. That region is 

characterized by an estuarine environment where the beach material consists largely of silt-sized 

particles derived from glacier-fed 

streams (Karlstrom, 1964). Storm 

waves seldom exceed 4 feet in 

height. The beach gradient is as 

low as 1 :500 and, because the beach 

is acted upon by a tidal range of 

35 feet, silty mud flats several 
EFFECTS ON SHORE PROCESSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY J5 

lst stage 

Preearthquake HWL // 

-------------;11" 

2d stage 

/ 

// 

/ 

Face convex 

upward 

/ / 

Planing-off of 

face and crest 

Frontal ridge 

Erosion along break in slope 

3d stage 

Postearthquake HWL 

/ / / / / 

/ 

/ 

// 

/ 

EXPLANATION 

Dashed line represents preearthquake 

frontal ridge 

Solid line represents beach profile 

at various postearthquake stages 

HWL 

High water line 

4.-Sketch of three stages that characterized the postearthquake changes of beach 

configuration in the submergent areas. Sketch is based on behavior of the beach on 

the Cook Inlet side of Homer Spit, but applies to many other beaches. 

miles wide are exposed during low 

water. Subsidence of the region 

was not uniform but was as much 

as 2 feet. Some beaches examined 

shortly after the quake showed no 

noticeable change in profile or 

gradient, but by mid-1967, 3 years 

after the earthquake, subtle 

changes in profile had occurred. 

The action of shore processes 

following subsidence of the coastal 

region and the resultant effects on 

the beaches were similar to the 

effects of a severe storm. However 

the changes resulting from subsidence must be measured in years, 

whereas the maximum destructive 

action of a storm is usually measured in hours. 

"\Vithin the emergent areas, as 

along the Copper River Delta, the 

profile and gradient of the uplifted beaches remain unaffected 

with respect to wave action. The 

changes that have taken place are 

related to abandonment and 

stranding of the former beach 

faces above high water, and to exposure to the normal processes of 

subaerial erosion. In time, of 

course, new beaches will develop 

below the abandoned ones to fit 

the postearthquake high-water 

lines. 

MINOR BEACH FEATURES 

Minor beach forms including 

cusps, small beach ridges, and steps 

began to reappear on all submergent beaches within a few weeks 

after the earthquake. The new 

beach cusps were generally poorly 

developed and irregularly spaced 

upon the beach. Some of the hollows were overly large-being 30-

40 feet wide as compared with preearthquake forms 5-15 feet wide. 

The outlines of the forms were 

Yague, and at some places one horn 

was two to three times longer than 

the other. In all known examples, 

however, when the beach face itself 

began to revert to the preearthquake form, the cusps also began 

to develop gradually into preearthquake forms. 

On beaches where the gradient 

was lowered by initial postearthquake processes, cusps did not reappear until the gradient had 

steepened, possibly because lack of 

mobility of the materials retarded 

the formation of the beach cusps. 

On beaches where the gradient was 

initially steepened after the ea.rthquake, poor I y defined cusps 

formed early, that is, within 3 

months after submergence. These 

cusps were alternately destroyed 

and rebuilt by large storm waves, 

however-a process that suggests 

that beach cusps will not form, or 

at least will not persist, if the 

gradient of the beach flattens below a critical gradient. Along 

Homer Spit, this gradient apparently is about 1 :20 for shingle 

beaches. 

Prior to the earthquake, small 

beach ridges and steps occurred 

along the upper beach face of most 

shingle beaches. Submergence destroyed or greatly altered both 

features. However, the ridges and 

steps began to develop in approximately the same location on the 

postearthquake beach face about 3 

months after subsidence. Unlike 
J6 

beach cusps, the ridges and steps 

became stabl.e within 1 year after 

submergence. 

LOW-WATER FEATURES 

The most prominent low-~water 

features on beaches are ridges, runnels, and submarine sandbars. AU 

three forms 'vere modified by the 

earthquake, and the changes observed give some insight into the 

movement of material and the deYelopment of such :forms. 

RIDGE AND RUNNEL 

Ridges and runnels occur along 

most beaches of low gradient 

where sand is available and where 

the tide range is large enough to 

expose several hundred feet of 

beach face at low water. Good examples are found a]ong many 

beaches of Al<aska but they are 

especially conspicuous at Cook 

Inlet. 

The ridge,g are composed chiefly 

of sandy material; the runnels, or 

troughs, are floored with gravel. 

The runnels provide channels 

which drain the beach on the ebbing tide. King ( 1 !)59) suggests 

tha.t a correlation can be made between the most persistent ridges 

and the position at which the tide 

will stand for the longest period 

during the tidal cycle. The ridges 

along the Alaska coast are usually 

fairly stable, particulwrly those 

that are alined parallel to the coast 

and perpendicular to the direction 

of the dominant wave approach. 

In profile the normal sand ridge 

is asymmetrical, not unlike a ripple mark, but. on a much larger 

sca.le; seaward-facing slopes are 

steeper than shoreward-facing 

ones. In general, individual ridges 

near the low-water line are higher 

than those farther up the beach 

face. 

In the areas of land subsidence, 

a noticeable scouring of sand 

ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 

occurred in the runnels within a 

few weeks after the earthquake, 

and at numerous places exposed a 

much coarser bed material. During 

the same period the ridges became 

rounded and more symmetrical in 

profile. The heights of many ridges 

increased ·a foot or more. At many 

places where the preearthquake 

ridges were hard enough to support the weight of a man without 

appreciable indentation, the postsubsidence ridges were soft. Approximately 30 days after the 

earthquake, many of the ridges 

had widened, some to as much as 

several hundred :feet, from previous widths of a few scores of feet. 

During the 'videning process the 

adjacent runnels were partly filled, 

and low basins were left in some 

areas to serve as drainage channels. Ridges and runnels that were 

particularly conspicuous prior to 

the earthquake were modified to 

broad, somewhat undulating sand 

flats without definitely recognizable features. 

The landward shifting of the 

ridges was not a simple process 

of individual ridge migration. 

Instead, the ridges were first 

rounded then widened, and finally 

were coalesced-a process which 

often obscured and obliterated the 

intervening runnels. No appreciable seaward migration of material occurred. The predominant 

landward migration seems to bear 

out King~s statements (1959) that 

sea,vard of the plunge zone, or 

break-in-slope of the beach face, 

there is a definite landward migration of material. 

One year after the earthquake, 

most of the ridges and runnels had 

stabilized in approximately the 

same configurations as those before the earthquake. 

The landward migration of the 

ridges apparently is not a simple 

process of removal from the seaward side of the ridges and deposition on the landward side, such as 

that by which a new frontal ridge 

forms along the crest of a beach. 

Instead, the process seems to be 

one of flattening and spreading of 

the material followed by a landward movement of material en 

masse. As the landward migration 

of sand is slowed by its deposition 

at a higher elevation on the beach, 

runnels begin to form. '\Vater 

draining from the beach contributes to the process by eroding sand 

from the channels. The eroded 

sand is thereafter transported to 

the lower beach face where part 

of it is eventually carried downbeach by littoral currents. For this 

reason there was a persistent meandering and relocation of the 

runnel courses during the first 

year following subsidence, something that had not been observed 

before the earthquake. The meandering process is a result of the 

larger quantity of available sand 

and its increased movement along 

the low-water areas; part of the 

sand was deposited by the runnels 

themselves. 

On new beaches within the uplifted areas, particularly along 

the Copper River Delta, incipient 

ridges and runnels became noticeable about a year after the earthquake. They were poorly developed, perhaps because the newly 

formed lower foreshore had not 

yet stabilized with respect to gradient and profile. In part, material 

in the ridges was transported landward and deposited on the upper 

beach face or on frontal ridges 

along the new high-water line. A 

few preearthquake sand ridges 

and runnels were partly stranded 

above the high-water line and so 

were altered or destroyed by 

storm "·aves. 

SUBMARINE SAND BARS 

Limited observations indicate 

some relocation of submarine bars. 
EFFECTS ON SHORE PROCESSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY J7 

This relocation is suggested by 

previously reported hard bottoms 

in anchorages that, after the earthquake, were composed of soft sand. 

This condition was particularly 

noticeable along Homer Spit 

where scuba diving showed that 

preearthquake areas of hardpacked sand were characterized by 

soft loose sand within a year after 

the earthquake. 

In some areas, particularly in 

Prince William Sound, submarine 

sand bars apparently were altered 

or destroyed by seismic sea waves 

or by local waves. G D. Hanna 

(written commun., 1965) states 

that soft sediments were scoured 

from many shallow bottom areas. 

Elsewhere submarine bars were altered even though tsunami effects 

were not evident along the shoreline. 

MODERN BEACH RIDGES 

Beach ridges (also referred to as 

"beach storm berms") occur along 

many of the beaches of Alaska; in 

the submergent areas many of 

these ridges were altered during 

the earthquake. Obsern<tions since 

the earthquake have provided information on the formation of 

beach ridges as well as their adjnstment to relatinly higher sea level. 

Beach ridges of south-central 

Alaska are more perfectly formed 

along shingle beaches than along 

sand beaches where most are smaller and less well developed. Most 

constructional coastal forms, such 

as cuspate forelands, spits, and 

tombolos, are formed and enlarged 

by the development of successive 

beach ridges along the shoreline. 

The usual beach ridge consists 

of a mound or windrow like deposit 

along the beach immediately above 

the high-water line. King (1959, p. 

;~53) considers the ridges to be the 

product of steep storm 'nwes 

which throw debris above the 

reach of normal waves. The larger 

ridges along the Alaska coast are 

composed of shingle, often with 

minor amounts of sand. A beach 

ridge along the present shoreline is 

generally referred to as a modern 

or frontal ridge, whereas the 

ridges farther inshore are referred 

to as ancient or old ridges. 

Most individual ridges are 5-6 

feet above high water and 8-10 

feet wide, but some are as high as 

20 feet and their bases may be as 

wide as 200 feet. Most ridges eventually become stabilized by vegetation that establishes itself on the 

land\vard slope. 

Frontal ridges grow gradually 

in both height and width by the 

deposition of m&terial carried onto 

and across the ridge crest by waves 

and s'vashes during storms. As the 

ridges increase in height, the ability of the overwash to carry debris 

across them decreases. Thereafter 

material will accumulate along the 

sea m<rd side of the ridge; as the 

accumnla.tion of debris progresses, 

a second ridge, sea,ward of the 

earlier one, will begin to form. 

The entire process may then be 

repeated. 

The time span between development of snccessive 1·idges is Yariable, being about a year or less 

along certain narrow stable 

beaches (a "stable" beach being defined as one not enlarging seaward 

or retreating landward) but several hundred years or more along 

such large forms as cuspate forelands and spits. 

It is generally accepted that 

coastal forms, such as cuspate 

forelands and spits, widen seaward by the development of successi.-e parallel and subparallel 

beach ridges. The landward parts 

of such coastal forms are usually 

characterized by a series of old 

vegetation-conred beach ridges 

that represent former shorelines 

that trend parallel or subparallel 

to the present shoreline. 

RESPONSE TO SUBSIDENCE AND 

UPLIFT 

Changes in beach ridges occurred 

in many submergent areas. The 

magnitude of the changes depended on (1) the extent to which the 

land was submerged, (2) the geogra phie lo'cation of the beach with 

respect to storm waves, ( 3) the 

slope of the beach face, and ( 4) the 

type of beach material. In sheltered areas where submergence was 

only about 1-2 feet., changes were 

minor, but in areas of greater subsidence and exposed sea conditions 

the changes were often major. 

In Borne areas, such as along 

Homer Spit, subsidence caused 

waves to reach as much as 6 feet 

higher on the be1ach face than before the earthquake, and s·washes 

overflowed the crest of the frontal 

ridge. Material along the upper 

beach face, which was formerly 

above all but the highest waves 

and swashes, was scoured and eroded. Pal'lt of the e!"oded material was 

carried by the swash across the 

crest of the frontal ridge and deposited along the landward slope 

(fig.5). 

As overflow of the frontal ridges 

continued, material eroded from 

the beach face, ineluding the face 

of the frontal ridge, was carried 

onto the backshore and deposited 

there. Continued overflow and 

erosion of the preearthquake frontal ridges reduced the crest height 

and caused the eroded material to 

spread out along the backshore. 

The beaches along Homer Spit 

(Stanley, in Waller, 1966a) are 

good examples of postearthquake 

beach-ridge development. 'Within 

a.pproximately 30 d'ays after the 

earthquake, the beach face in some 

areas had receded as much as 15 

feet, but the front1al ridges had increased as much as 30 feet in width 

and 2-3 feet in height. As the frontal ridges widened, coarse debris 
J8 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 

5.-0verflow of the crests of some beaches caused material to be carried and spread 

out along the backshore, left half of picture. Gradually the material accumulated into 

a new and higher frontal ridge. View along Homer Spit, looking southeast. 

was deposited near the crest and 

the finer material was carried toward the backslrore. Along the 

crest and the seaward side of the 

ridge, the material \YaS poorly 

sorted because of the severe scour. 

On the landwa,rcl slope of the frontal ridges, the sorting was generally better and the grain 

size decreased. Aloi1g the extreme 

landward edge of the frontal 

ridge, the overflow material was 

delicately layered in :fanlike forms 

and consisted of silt, &'tnd, and peasized gravel. 

Continued overflow and the 

transfer of material from one side 

of the frontal ridges to the other 

caused the ridges to migrate toward the hackshore. The transfer 

of material from one location to 

t:he other led to a net loss along 

the seaward side and a net gain 

along the hndward side. Thus the 

process of land'"'ard ridge migration was accomplished by the 

transfer of material within tJhe 

ridge proper. 

During overflow of the frontal 

ridges a greater volume of coarse 

material was deposited along the 

crest than 'along the landward side; 

the height of the ridges thus gra:dually increased. ·when the ridges 

had increased sufficiently in height 

to prevent overflow, migration 

stopped and the ri'dges stabilized. 

Observations of the migration 

of beach ridges after the earthquake suggest an explanation as 

to why some ridges appear to 

migrate even under conditions not 

necessarily related to a rise in sea 

level. As stated above, beach ridges 

along Homer Spit migrated land-

\Yard under conditions of re}ati,rely higher sea level, N1e migration being brought about by the 

process of overflo,Y. Migration of 

the ridges ceased, however, when 

the width of the ridge was sufficient to :furthet' the heightening by 

deposition of material along the 

crest. It is concluded, therefore, 

that a beach ridge will stabilize if 

there is sufficient backshore area 

upon which the overflmy material 

ca.n accumulate. 

If a barrier bE)ach fronts a 

lagoon, then there is no platform 

for buildup of material, and landward migration of the beach ridge 

may continue indefinitely. This 

condition is exempli'fied by the 

barrier beach at Breving Lagoon, 

on the Sewa.rd Peninsula, :far from 

the area where shorelines were affected by the earthquake (fig. 6). 

This barrier beach has a maximum 

width of 500 feet and is separated 

from the mainland by a shallow 

lagoon as much as a mile across. 

The beach is migrating landward, 

rupparently because of storm-wave 

ruction and the resultant process of 

overflow. Material eroded by storm 

waves from the seaward side and 

transferred by overflow to the 

landward side of the barrier beach 

is carried into, and spread out on 

the floor of, the lagoon. Because 

the lagoon affords no pla.tfol'ln on 

which overflow material can accumulate there can be no appreciable widening of the barrier beach, 

and therefore, the height of the 

beach cannot be increased. Hence 

under normal storm conditions the 

beach will continue to migrate 

land\\"ard; the landward migration 

is not dependent on a rise in sea 

level. 

Unlike the large ridges along 

shingle beaches at such places as 

Homer Spit, beach ridges along 

sandy beaches on the east shore of 

Cook Inlet were destroyed in many 

areas, particularly along the toes 

of ]my bluffs. In such areas the 

widths of beaches between t lw 

high-water line and the bluff toes 

pr-ior to the earthquake ranged 

from 25 to 150 feet. . \ fter subsidence the beach widths \H're decreased and the small beach 

ridges-those from 1 to ± feet 

high-were destroyed. The relatively narro\Y width of such 

beaches prevented overflow material from accumulating, and 

thus the beach ridges could notretreat landward when acted on by 

tt sea }eye] as much as 2 feet higher 
EFFECTS ON SHORE PROCESSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY J9 

6.-Part of the barrier beach at Breving Lagoon, Sewtard Peninsula. Lagoon is north of (above) bE'ach; Bering Sea is south 

of lhelow) beach. The lagoonward migration of the barrier beach is shown by superposition of the overflow upon the cuspate 

spit. i\Iost beaches in the earthquake-affected part of Alaska migrated landward only short flistances because they were backed by land platforms that allowed overwash material to accumnlatP. Photograph IJy Ala~ka Highway Department. 

(fig. 7). Thus, the material, instead of accumulating higher on 

the beach (as it did along Homer 

Spit) was dissipated by waYe 

action and was transported a way 

from the site by the longshore 

drift. As the bluffs in such areas 

erode and recede, the beaches will 

eventually regain their preearthquake "·idths, and new beach 

ridges similar to those that existed 

before the earthquake should 

develop. 

In the uplifted areas the old 

frontal ridges are abandoned and 

stranded above high " ·atel'. Ne"· 

ridges haYe formed in some places, 

and rather rapidly. In most areas, 

however, the growth of nmv ridges 

has been slow, probably because 

the predominantly fine material 

7.- SubmergE'nce caused the high-water line to shift to a higher elevation on this 

beach on the eastern shore of Cook Inlet. The establishment of a new high-water 

line caused undercutting and sloughing of bluffs. Note absence of beach ridges. 
JlO 

along the preearthquake lower 

beach face does not form stable 

bea:ch ridges as readily as does 

shingle. The old ridges in the uplifted areas will gradually be 

covered by ve'getation and ~will 

then assume the character of the 

typical old beach ridges of many 

coastal areas. N e>v ridges along the 

lower high-water line will begin to 

develop as material continues to 

be worked by waves. However, the 

new ridges probably will require 

several years to stabilize, mainly 

because of a lack of coarse source 

material. 

ANCIENT BEACH RIDGES 

Postearthquake studies of subsided coastal forms afford an explanation for the fact that the 

crests of some ancient beach ridges 

are uniformly lower than the modern or frontal ridge. In some areas 

this condition is sufficiently pronounced to result in a basin -shaped 

area between the frontal ridge and 

the mainland. This habit of Alaska 

beach ridges has also been noted 

else>vhere (Bird, 1964; ,Johnson, 

1919). 

,Johnson (1919), Fisher (1955), 

and Zenkovitch (1959) at.tribute 

the relatively lower crest elevation 

of the older ridges to a continuous 

rise in sea level whereby each successive frontal ridge builds higher. 

This is well illustra.ted along 

Homer Spit; as a result of the 

earthquake-caused rise in relative 

sea level, the frontal ridge here has 

been built higher than the older 

ridges. If a rise in sea level is the 

only factor at 'vork, hmvever, the 

profile between the frontal ridge 

and mainland should have a gentle 

landward slope rather than the 

commonly observed basin-shaped 

profile. 

Studies by the author after the 

earthquake suggest that com paction and settlement of sediments 

ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 

by seismic shaking may also contribute to a change of coastal 

forms. The 1964 earthquake caused 

compaction and settlement of sediments in many parts of south-central Alaska (Kachadoorian, 1965; 

Coulter and Migliaccio, 1966; Waller, 1966a). Coastal forms must 

have been subjected to similar compaction processes many times : 

During the past 50 years that official records have been kept, hundreds of earthquakes have occurred 

along the Alaska coast (U.S. Coast 

and Geodetic Survey, 1964, p. 23). 

As new beach ridges develop, 

the coastal form widens seaward 

with a corresponding increase in 

thickness of the column of sediment. The coarsest material is usually near the mainland and the 

smaller particles along the seaward 

side. If the mass of this sediment 

is repeatedly subjected to seismic 

and microseismic shocks, the sediments-particularly the finer particles-will lose bearing capacity 

and settlement will follow (Terzaghi and Peck, 1948). In some 

kinds of sediments, vibration can 

lead to spontaneous liquefaction 

which would cause additional settlement. 

Even though the coastal form 

nearest the mainland is oldest and 

hence has been subjected longest 

to seismic action, the sediment layer there is thinnest and the size of 

the particles is coarsest. Compaction by seismic shaking, therefore, 

would be less in such areas than 

in the seaward pa.rt of the landform where the sediment is thicker 

and the particle size is smaller. 

Although the modern frontal 

ridge has been subjected to fewer 

earthquakes than have the ancient 

ridges, sediment compaction does 

occur there also. However, any decrease in height caused by compaction would perhaps be offset by the 

addition of new material brought 

in by waves. Maximum decrease in 

height from compaction and settlement, therefore, probably would 

occur between the modern frontal 

ridge and the mainland and would 

lead to the typical basinlike profile 

that characterizes so many coastal 

const.ructiona.l forms along the 

south-central coast of Alaska. 

STREAM-MOUTH CHANGES 

Stream mouths were changed 

throughout the areas of uplift and 

subsidence. In uplifted areas, 

streams were lengthened and incised into the elevated beach face. 

In the submergent areas, streams 

were shortened and drowned. 

SUBME.RGENT A.RE:AS 

Stream mouths were drowned 

throughout the submergent areas. 

Maximum drowning occurred 

mostly at the mouths of low-gradient streams that flowed across 

low-flying backshores composed of 

water-laid sediments. Within such 

areas, subsidence is attributed both 

to tectonic movement and compaction of the sediments ( Kachadoorian and Plafker, 1967, p. F27; Kachadoorian, 1965, p. B2), and the 

extent of stream drowning is a 

function of both. 

The most notable examples of 

stream-mouth drowning are along 

the shores of Kodiak Island and 

the southern Kenai Peninsula 

where subsidence of the land 'vas 

5 feet or more in some locations 

(Alaska Dept. Fish and Game, 

1965). Several excellent photographs of drowned streams on 

Kodiak Island are shown in a report on that area by Pia fker and 

Kachadoorian (1966). 

During the earthquake many 

bays along Kodiak Island were 

hit by seismic sea waves. Spits, 

bay-month bars, and barrier 

beaches at or near stream mouths 

were altered or dest,royed. Some of 

the lovver of these landforms were 
EFFECTS ON SHORE PROCESSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY JU 

overwashecl, eroded, and reduced 

in height. New outlets formed 

where the tsunamis tore channels 

through ridges and spits. In all 

examples known to the writer, 

stream mouths that were acted 

upon by tsunamis "·ere "·idened 

by scour and erosion. 

Since the earthquake, erosion by 

normal " 'ave and S\Yash overflow 

has gradually caused many coastal 

features such as spits and barrier 

beaches to flatten in profile and 

recede hmdward. Thus, the effect 

of the tsunami and of normal wave 

action has reduced many once-conspicuous forms to flattened, poorly 

defined deltaliko features. In some 

areas of active shore drifting, 

material eroded by ''"avo action 

from the stream mouths has replenished the beach along the 

downdrift side. In areas of w&'tk 

or inactive shore drifting the 

eroded material is merely spread 

out on the lower beach face. 

In certain streams of lo''" gradient and velocity, the shores ''"ere 

subjected to strong mtve action 

when the land subsided, and material eroded from the u nconsol idated deposits aJong their banks, 

such as deltas and ouhYash fans, 

was transported by waves into the 

stream mouths. This process is particularly noticeable along Turnagain Arm in upper Cook Inlet, 

where mud is accumulating in 

dro,Yned stream mouths. 

In some areas the drowning of 

streams has decreased the supply 

of material for natural beach 

nourishment. By reducing stream 

gradients, submergence has led to 

prograding rather than degrading 

of channels. Stre:Lm erosion therefore is Jess effective than it \YRS 

before the earthquake, and the reduced quantity of debris carried 

by the strea,ms diminishes the 

qua,ntity of materia,l availa,ble to 

the longshore ch·ift. The extent to 

"·hich the beaches ''"ill be affected 

8.-Tectonic uplift created new lands permanently above high water, such as this 

area along the Copper River Delta. View at high tide, several months after the earthquake. The preearthquake high-wat('r line is shown approximately by the dashed line. 

Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 

by the decreased supply of materia,l is not yet clear; ho\Yever, because of a decrease in stream-borne 

material, because wider stream 

mouths ''"ill retard longshore 

drifting and by-passing of material, and because of continuing 

''"ave action, beach erosion prob-

:tbly will characterize many 

dro,Yned stream-mouth areas for 

many years to come. 

UPLIFTED AREAS 

Changes at the mouths of 

streams in the uplifted areas are 

related to stream-course lengthening and dO\mcutting (fig. 8). 

These changes range from minor 

alterations along shorelines of 

little npli ft. to major changes along 

gently sloping, easily eroded 

beaches in areas that \Yere appreciably uplifted. 

The effects of tsunamis on 

stream mouths in the uplifted 

areas varied widely. In many 

pla.ces, sand and silt were scoured 

from the mouths and carried with 

other debris into the upper reaches 

of the streams. Such deposition 

caused considerable silting in 

stream mouths and channels, and 

in some streams caused a temporary damming or blocking. Spits 

a,nd barrier ridges at stream 

mouths were generally altered by 

the tsunamis. Many of the lower 

beach forms were appreciably 

changed, and material was redistributed along the beach into the 

stream mouth. Such redistribution 

of the material even obliterated 

some stream courses. 

Along appreciably uplifted 

shorelines composed of sand and 

silt, rapid gullying occurred at 

stream mouths (fig. 9). Along the 

Copper River Delta, an area of 

readily eroded sand and silt that 

was uplifted several feet, gullying 

commenced within hours after uplift (Reimnitz and Marshall, 

1965). Rapid head\Yard erosion 

produced small waterfalls 1-2 feet 

high. 
J12 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 

9.-Rapid gullying and sloughing caused by headward stream erosion along the 

uplifted coast on the Copper River Delta. Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 

Along beaches of mixed sand 

and shingle, stream adjustments 

were slower. Small riffles formed 

at stream mouths along su~h 

beaches. 

Kirkby and Kirkby (1968) described in detail stream-mouth rudj ustment along elevated intertidal 

zones composed of sand and shingle at Montague Island, where uplift was as much as 33 feet. As on 

the Copper River Delta, stream adjustment began immediately after 

uplift had occuvred. 

Along some elevated shingle 

beaches, streams disappeared into 

the gravel of the uplifted intertidal zone. Generally this condition 

was temporary, and after several 

months the streams developed new 

courses across the intertidal zone. 

Most uplifted stream courses 

showed evidence of degradation 

and bank erosion within a few days 

after the earthquake. Slumping of 

bank material and debris deposited 

by seismic sea waves also contributed material. In addition, after 

spring breakup, the normal increase of streamflow made deposition of material all the greater. The 

overall result was an increase in 

material carried by the streams 

and deposited at their mouths. 

Along some stream mouths the 

newly deposited material has retarded channel development and 

has led to meandering. Along the 

larger streams the process has been 

mainly silting and dissection of 

newly formed deltas and spits. 

Although evidence indicates an 

increase in sediment carried by the 

streams, the length of time the 

increased load was carried probably was short. By the fall of 1964, 

6 months after the earthquake, the 

stream-carried sediment load was 

normal (Waller, 1966b). 

COASTAL EROSION AND 

MOVEMENT OF MATERIAL 

EROSION 

Coastal erosion is active along 

all shorelines within the area affected by the earthquake except on 

the rocky platforms. The shorelines most affected are those composed of unconsolidated material 

within the submergent areas. 

Of the shorelines modified by 

wave erosion, none were affected 

more than the east shore of Cook 

Inlet from Kachemak Bay to 

Turnagain Arm-a distance of 

more than 170miles (fig.1). There 

the entire shoreline is eroding. As 

already mentioned, the shoreline is 

a relatively uniform sandy beach 

with slopes as low as 1 : 300. The 

tidal range is about 22 feet along 

the southern section but increases 

to more than 30 feet near Turnagain Arm. Because of the low 

beach gradient and high tidal 

range, several thousand feet of 

tidelands are exposed at low water. 

The beach is backed by a line of 

bluffs about 200 feet high in most 

places, but locally as high as 600 

feet in the Homer area. Most of 

the bluffs are of unsorted glacial 

material that is easily eroded. 

Prior to the earthquake, wave 

action was undercutting the bluffs 

in many areas. Most of the sandy 

fra;ction of the sloughed material 

drifted away, but part of the 

coarser mat~rial remained along 

the high-water line in the form of 

shingle on beach ridges. The 

ridges, which were as high as 8 

feet, protected the toes of the bluffs 

from all but the larger storm 

waves. 

During the earthquake the 

shoreline subsided as much as 3% 

feet along the southem section 

near Homer and as much as 1 foot 

near Point Possession at the mouth 

of Turnagain Arm. Prior to submergerice the width of beach between the high-"·ater line and the 

toe of the bluff was generally less 

than 100 feet, and in some areas 

less than 20 feet. Submergence decreased these widths and, after the 

earthquake, storm waves, pal'ticularly along the southern section, 

acted directly upon the toes of the 

bluffs. Many beach ridges that had 

previously protected the toes of the 

bluffs were exposed to ''"aves of 

e\·en, moderate height (fig. 10). 
EFFECTS ON SHORE PROCESSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY J13 

10.-Undercutting and sloughing of bluffs caused by tectonic subsidence, eastern 

;;bore of Cook Inlet. Driftwood along toe of l.Jluff indicates the position of post· 

earthquake high-water line. 

11.- Serious bluff erosion caused by subsidence along the waterfront of the town of 

Kenai. View looking northwestward, about 30 days after the earthquake. 

By 1967, 3 years after the e.arthqua.ke, the. bluff line. in some areas 

had receded sufficiently to provide 

a width of beach that afforded protection from all but the ln.rger 

storm waves. Elsmd1ere intermediate-size storm \Yaves still 

( 1 967) erode the toes of the bluffs. 

l -ntil the bluff line recedes enough 

to provide a sufficient bea:ch to prevent \ntve nmup to the toe, erosion 

and recession "·ill continue. 

The two communities along this 

shoreline most seriously affected 

by bluff erosion were Kenai and 

Homer. Kenai is at the mouth of 

the Kenai River, a tidal estuary. 

During the earthquake the area 

subsided 12-18 inches. South of 

the town, bluffs as much as 150 feet 

high consist of readily eroded 

glacial material and alluvium. 

After regional subsidence, the 

preearthquake accumulation of 

sloughed debris along the toe of 

the bluffs was quickly removed. 

Undercutting by waves and by the 

river began a few days after the. 

earthquake, and within 3 months 

the bluffs had receded as much as 

20 feet (fig. 11) . 

In the Homer area the regional 

subsidence was about 31/z feet. Particularly damaging wave erosion 

occurred in the. Millers Landing 

area, toward the east end of Homer 

on Kachemak Bay, along a low 

line of bluffs composed of peat, 

sand, and silt. After the earthquake, undercutting caused serious sloughing; within 6 months, 

the bluff line had receded as mnch 

as 8 feet. 

SHORE PROTECTION MEASURES 

Except at Homer and a few 

small villages, no serious effort has 

been made to construct erosionpreventive works any\Yhere in the 

earthquake-affeeted area. Along 

the Cook Inlet side of Homer Spit, 

erosion on the lee side of the. groin 

farthest down drift became critical. 

Retreat of the beach was jeopardizing the spit higlmay. In July 

1964, a seawall and two additional 

groins " ·ere. constructed. Two hundred feet of the. \Yall was constructed to a height of 1-2 feet 

above the high-water line, and one 

section was built 5 feet higher 

above the high-water line. Figure 

12 shows the. timber bulkhead and 

the additional groins a short time 

after construction. Figures 13 and 

14 show the same area 6 and 16 
J14 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 

12.-Timber seawall and new groms along west side of Homer Spit as constructed 

3¥.! months after earthquake-caused subsidence. 

13.-Seawall shown in figure 12, approximately 6 months after construction. 
EFFECTS ON SHORE PROCESSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY J15 

14.-Seawall shown in figure 12 some 16 months after construction. Note that the 

bulkhead and one of the groins were completely destroyed during this period owing to 

their exc!'ssive height. 

15.-Cobble-filled wire-mesh fence under construction at Larsen Bay, Kodiak Island, 

shortly after the earthquake and resultant subsidence of 2 feet. Most of the fence 

was destroyed by a storm before it could be completed. 

months later, respectively. Sixteen 

months ,after construction, the 

high timber bulkhead between the 

fifth and sixth groin had been destroyed, as had the last groin (fig. 

14). Similar high bulkheads were 

constructed in other areas but 

most were destroyed within several 

months, or at most within a year, 

after the earthquake. Failure is 

attributed to the fact that the 

bulkheads were too high and were 

anchored in unstable beach gravel. 

Elsewhere wire-mesh baskets 

filled with cobbles were placed 

along the beach to serve as bulkheads. Such baskets appeared to 

function well along Homer Spit, 

even though they were pounded by 

waves as high as 10 feet. Erosion, 

moveover, occurred on neither the 

updrift nor the downdrift side. A 

similar cobble-filled "·ire-mesh 

fence was started at Larsen Bay 

on Kodiak Island (fig. 15), but 

most of it was destroyed by storm 

waves before it could be completed. 

Wave erosion of landslides 

caused by the earthquake was 

rapid, particularly along Cook Inlet where the frontal edges of the 

slides were greatly modified within 

2 years. Many slides consisted of 

sandy-silty material. Silty-mud 

beaches have developed gradually, 

particularly on the downdrift 

sides. 

Erosion within the uplifted 

areas is evident along the postearthquake lower high-water line. 

Wave erosion along most of the 

uplifted area is not serious so far 

as loss of land is concerned; most 

streams across elevated tidal flats 

are incising channels. 

LONGSHORE MATERIAL 

MOVEMENT 

No significant changes resulting 

from the earthquake are known or 

reported for the directional habit 

of tJhe longshore drift. The changes 

that have occurred are only in the 

quantity of material carried. 

Along most shorelines aJfected by 

the earthquake, more material has 

entered the longshore drift than 

before. 

T'he additional material began 

to enter the sea immediately a.fter 

the earthquake. This fact was 

made obvious a.long many shorelines by a broad band of muddy 

water that was several miles wide 
J16 

NE 

<J) 

cxi 

N 

,; 

w "' 

A 

-- B -----

c 

33 

'---------""' 

----

""' ""' 

ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 

"'---

------------------------........_ __ --------

------------------------------- ........ 

_____ ................ 

..__, ~ 

---------

EXPLANATION 

Groin 

Downdrift, southeast side 

Updrift, northwest side 

52 67 80 96 125 150 166 184 196 

MEASUREMENT POINTS 

sw 

216 

16.-Profiles of updrift and downdrift fill of groin at Homer Spit, measured (A) on March 2, 1964, a few weeks prior to the 

earthquake; (B) on August 2S, 1964, 4 months after submergence; and (G) on September 30, 1965, 18 months after submergence. The change in configuration of the groin fill was caused by submergence and the resultant higher level of water on the 

filL Note, however, that the gradient at 18 months approximates the preearthquake gradient. 
EFFECTS ON SHORE PROCESSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY J17 

in some areas, but no direct effect, 

such as the formation of new 

berms by the deposition of the material, was observed along beaches 

until several weeks a.fter the earthquake. A good example of the effect 

of a delayed longshore drift is described by Stanley (in Waller, 

1966a, p. D24). At Homer Spit 

the additional quantity of material 

that had entered the longshore 

drift in the source area, 2-6 miles 

west of the spit, did not reach the 

spit until about 30 days after the 

earthquake. 

Aecelerated shoreline erosion in 

the snhmergent areas caused more 

material to enter the drift than 

had been entering before the earthquake. However, in the same areas, 

material contributed by rivers and 

streams decreased. The converse 

was true in the uplifted areas. 

\:Vhat effect the change in balance 

of the source and supply of material 'ivill have on the character of 

the longshore drift is not yet 

known. In planning future coastal 

projects the possible changes in 

source tmd supply that have occurred since the earthquake must 

be taken into consideration. 

UPSLOPE MATERIAL MOVEMENT 

Only one limited study of material movement was made 'vithin 

the first year following the earthquake (Stanley, in Waller, 1966a.). 

Significant changes in material 

movement ma.y therefore lmve 

passed unnoticed. 

The study was made by the 

Alaska Division of Lands along 

the west side of Homer Spit at a 

system of filled groins that had 

been studied prior to the earthquake. ~\fter submergence the 

high-water line rose 3.5 feet. \Vithin 5 days after submergence, 1-2 

feet of material had accumulated 

along the land"·ard end of the 

groins and had spread inland to a 

width of ;)0-50 feet. The newly deposi,ted material was first thought 

to ha ,.e been carried in by the longshore drift. However, the first profiles made 7 days after submergence indicated that the intergroin 

fills had actually receded and 

flattened and all had undergone a 

net loss of material (fig. 16A). Inasmuch as the material lost from 

the intergroin till area about 

equaled the newly deposited material along the landward end of 

the groins, the material probably 

was deri \·ed from the adjacent intertill area rather than from some 

distant source. 

Additional profiles were made 

at about 15-day intervals for the 

next 60 days (fig. 16B, 0). Within 

the first BO days the intergroin fills 

receded as material continued to 

accumulate along the landward 

ends of the groins (fig. 16B), but 

about 30 days after the earthquake 

the intergroin fills began to enlarge, and thereafter the enlargement increased noticeably. The 

material causing the increase probably was brought there by the 

longshore drift. 

Observations indicate that during the 30-day period following 

the earthquake, the material deposited along the beach crest came 

from the lower-upper beach face 

of the groin tills and was carried 

upslope. Erosion along the lowerupper beach face continued until a 

new profie of equilibrium had been 

established. The dominant movement of material during the 30-

day period following subsidence 

was upslope because the waves 

\vere reaching higher up the beach 

face. \V aves running higher up 

the beach face shorten the travel 

distance of the swash and thus increase its carrying capacity. 

The increased shoreline erosion 

throughout the area unquestionably increased the supply of material to the longshore drift; after 

about BO days a noticeably increased quantity of material was 

drifting alongshore, but during 

this first :30-day period following 

submergence the dominant motion 

of material was up the beach 

rather than 'along it. 

BIOLOGIC EFFECTS OF SHORELINE CHANGES 

FISH 

At the time this report was 

written (1967), the most comprehensive discussion of the effects of 

the earthquake on the Alaska fisheries ''"as the one compiled by the 

~\laska Department of Fish and 

Game ( 1965) . Although a, complete analysis and assessment of 

damage to this resource has not yet 

been made, the environment and 

habitat of the salmon is known to 

have been drastically changed in 

some areas. 

Part of Prince ·william Sound 

"·as uplifted as much as 33 feet, 

and great changes in the environment and habitat of pink and 

chum salmon resulted. Similarly, 

in the submergent areas, such as 

Kodiak Island, important intertidal spawmng grounds were 

inundated. 

G. Y. Harry, Jr. (written comnnm., 1964), reported, 5 months 

after the earthquake, that the 

greatest damage to the salmon in 

Alaska was probably in Prince 

'Villiam Sound; here 75 percent 

of the pink and chum salmon production comes from the intertidal 
J18 

spawning areas. Thorsteinson 

(1964) states that within Prince 

William Sound the runs of pink 

salmon range from 3.2 to 8.7 million fish and the chum salmon 

from 0.4 to 0.6 million fish. 

Compounding the pe,rmanent 

damage caused by uplift and submergence of the intertidal spa,wning grounds was the temporary 

effect of tsunamis and local waves. 

In parts of Prince William Sound, 

the waves caused considerable 

scour, and debris and silt were carried upstream for seveml hundred 

feet. Some biologists believe that 

many sa,lmon eggs were scattered 

by the movement of debris. When, 

all contributing factors in Prince 

William Sound are taken into account, the salmon loss caused by 

the earthquake and its subsidiary 

effects is thought to be about onequarter of a million salmon 

( N oerenberg ~1nd Ossiander, 

1964). 

In the Kodiak Island area, 

where submergence was as much 

as 6 feet, widespread flooding of 

the intertidal spawning areas occurred. In some places flooding of 

the intertidal area was helpful to 

the salmon in that wate.rfalls 

which formerly obstructed their 

upstream migration were eliminated. Along other streams, submergence and flooding increased 

the size of the intertidal area. Removal of waterfalls in some areas 

and enlargement of other areas, 

thus increased the size and availability of certain intertidaJ 

salmon -spawning grounds. 

W. L. Sheridan (written 

commun., 1965) stated that the 

changes in the intertidal spawning habitat and environment have 

not been fully assessed, but that 

future production will decrease. 

Although some intertidal spmwning areas have increased in size, 

Sheridan indicates that many of 

ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 

the preearthquake lower areas are 

now characterized by excessive 

quantities of sediments that decrease the survival rate of salmon 

eggs and alevins. 

SHELLFISH 

One of the more important 

habitats of shellfish, particularly 

the razor clam, is along the Copper 

River Delta. The delta was uplifted as much as 8 feet, and, because of the low offshore gradient, 

extensive intertidal areas \vere 

permanently elevated above high 

water. This area supported a large 

population of razor clams. The 

widespread death of these and 

other bivalves throughout Prince 

William Sound was evident 

within a few \veeks after the earthquake (G. B. Haven, written 

commun., 1965). Many of the clam 

beds are nmv above high water and 

are lost, but clam beds formerly 

below lower low water were 

elevated and are now accessible to 

clam diggers. In some areas of 

Prince ·william Sound, particularly aJong the western part, subsidence at the bay heads was caused 

by local compaction of the sediments. Consequently, clam beds 

which were once readily accessiblt 

are no\V from 2 to 4 feet below low 

water and out of reach to conventional methods of harve8ting. 

There is no general consensu8 as 

to wha1t long-term ecological effect 

either submergence or emergence 

has had upon the general clam or 

bivalve population within the affected areas. Certainly the initial 

mortality rate was high-especially in the uplifted areas-as 

was proved by the skeleton. In the 

submergent areas the greater 

depth of \Yater now present over 

the outermost clam beds has also 

resulted in bivalve mortality. 

WILDFOWL 

Ordinarily submergence or 

emergence v.ould not be considered 

to affect \vaterfowl adverse,ly, but, 

according to P. E. K. Shepherd 

(written commun., 1966), there 

has been an indirect e,ffect. In the 

feeding ground of the dusky Canada goose in the Copper River 

Delta, the preferred food of the 

goose is a type of vegetation referred to as "forb-grass." This 

grass-actually a combination of 

herbs and grasses-apparently requires occasional inundation by 

marine waters and usually grows 

along the sides of tidal sloughs and 

other areas regularly inundated by 

the highest tides. Because of 

changed tide levels, the forb-grass 

is dying, and before it is reestablished at a higher elevation, the 

dusky Canada goose is likely to 

have changed its habitat. Shepherd indicates that the habitat of 

the goose may be further changed 

because its former nesting grounds 

'vill become overgrown with conifers or other plants \Yhen the salt 

is leached out of the soil. To some 

extent these same changes are affecting the habitats of the dabbling and diving ducks and the 

trumpeter swans. 

Brakish-water lagoons and 

sloughs are particularly favored as 

nesting or feeding grounds by 

some wildfowl. Uplift drained 

some of these areas or made them 

less brackish because of the inflow 

of fresh water. Thus, changed en-

''ironments, whether caused by uplift or submergence, may ultimately contribute to a decrease in 

the wildfowl population in specific 

areas. "'Whether new wildfowl communities will spring up in areas 

made more favorable by the earthquake \vill not be known for some 

years. 
EFFECTS ON SHORE PROCESSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY J19 

EFFECTS ON PROPERTY VALUES AND MANMADE STRUCTURES 

Earthquake-caused uplift and 

subsidence--and the consequent 

changes in coastal processes~affeCJted the legalities of land ownership, and also led to many changes 

in property values and necessitated reconstruction or relocation of 

many coastal installations. A fe1w 

of the resultant problems are 

touclwd on here. 

SUBMERGENT AREAS 

As already mentioned, coastal 

erosion is occurring in many of the 

submergent areas, and in some 

areas~such as on the Kenai Peninsula~the rate of bluff recession 

is several feet per year. In other 

areas, erosion may still become a 

problem although the process is 

not yet noticeable. One such area 

is along upper Cook Inlet where 

submergence 'vas less than 2 feet. 

The dramatic effects seen in areas 

of greate!· submergence are not 

present in this area, but there is 

unquestionably a gradual retreat 

of the shoreline. This retreat is occurring in some of the more, 

densely populated areas where 

land values are high. 

At Turnagain Arm, \vave erosion has damaged road and railroad embankments that were 

raised after the earthquake. \Vave 

erosion in that area will probably 

continue, and the embankment will 

require constant surveilla.nce and 

Jmtintenance. In Homer, wave 

action has already damaged sections of the newly constructed 

Homer Spit highway. 

Some shore installations that 

escaped severe damage at the time 

of the earthquake were, because of 

the higher stand of the sea, endangered by flooding a few weeks 

after the earthquake when tides 

were high. Several cannery 

wharves and loading platforms 

had to be raised. In some places, 

such as at the \Vakefield Cannery 

at Port "\V akefield on Kodiak Island, complete relocation of the 

cannery was necessary. 

In some submergent areas, wave 

scour has moved la.rge quantities 

of gravel under or away from canneries and other facilities built 

over the high-,vater line. For example, a cannery at Larsen Bay on 

Kodiak Island, 'vhich was built in 

a seemingly ideal location and was 

adequately protected before the 

earthquake has incurred considerable storm damage since the earthquake. Erosion of gravel from the 

adjoining beach has endangered 

some of the cannery buildings. 

EMERGENT AREAS 

Some of the immediate effects 

of emergence that necessitated 

economic and engineering consideration were related to small-boat 

harbors. In the Cordova area. the 

lttnd was elevated about 8 feet. 

There emergence necessitated 

dredging and enlarging the smallboat harbor. Some of the channels 

of the Copper River Delta that 

had formerly been accessible to 

fishing boats required considerable 

redredging in order to afford access after the earthquake. In some 

uplifted areas, individuals who 

formerly had access to the sea by 

shallmY channels or tidal sloughs 

found it necessary to dredge their 

access routes. In other areas, landing facilities, such a.s docks and 

wharves, could no longer accommodate deep-draft vessels and had 

to be enlarged or relocated. 

In Cordova, because of the 8 feet 

of emergence, it has also been 

necessary to relocate the installations upon which barges, scows, 

and fishing boats -are stored in offsea.son months. At the beginning 

of the 1964 fishing season, following the earthquake, some craft had 

to be pulled from their storage 

areas onto the tidal flats by tractors 

before they could be refloated. 

LEGAL PROBLEMS 

Because the State of Alaska has 

jurisdiction over the bottoms of 

all navigable waters, legal problems lmYe arisen wherever land 

raised or lmvered by the earthquake abuts navigable waters. In 

Alaska the boundary of tidal 

\Vaters is the line of mean high 

tide. 

A person whose Alaskan property abuts the line of mean high 

tide is called an "upland owner." 

By common-law principles the upland owner enjoys all littoral 

rights and privileges afforded him 

by the location of his land. Such 

rights and pri l'ileges include, 

among others, free and unobstructed ingress and egress to the 

se1a. 

The line of mean high tide thus 

is the legal boundary that separates the upland owner's private 

property from the State-owned 

tidelands. The line of mean high 

tide remains fixed unless the shoreline is altered by accretion or erosion. If these processes result from 

natural causes and the shoreline 

changes are gmdual and imperceptible, the legal boundary will 

change location to match the line 

of mean high tide. However, if the 

changes are natural but sudden in 

character and wholly perceptible, 
J20 

the process i:s termed "avulsion," 

and the legal boundary remains 

fixed even though the mean high 

tide line has been displaced. 

Movement of the land during the 

earthquake was :rubrupt, certainly 

occurring within a matter of hours 

if not of minutes, and flooding or 

withdrawal of waters from the 

land was equally abrupt. On September 14, 1964, the attorney general for the State of Alaska described this process as one of 

avulsion and therefore the legal 

boundary line--the line of mean. 

high tide-remains fixed as it was 

the insta.nt before the eadhquake 

ALASKA EARTHQUAKE, MARCH 27, 1964 

(State of Al:aska Attorney Gen. 

Opinion 6, Sept. 14, 1964). 

Along the uplifted coasts many 

private parcels of land abutted the 

line of mean high tide before the 

earthquake; afterwards, however, 

the natural line of mean high tide 

was shifted sea1ward, in some pl:aces 

several hundred feet. Because 

withdrawal of the water has been 

defined as avulsion, the priva.te 

ownership cannot follow the retreating line of mean high tide but 

must instead remain fixed to the 

line existing the inst1ant before the 

earthquake. Thus those persons 

who enjoyed all the rights and 

privilege.s afforded them :as upland 

owners befiore the earthquake now 

find themselves una!ble to exercise 

their littoral rights and privileges. 

The opposite has occurred in the 

submergent areas. There, owners 

of land that abutted the line of 

mean high tide prim to the earthquake now find their boundary line 

( t1hat is, the preearthquake line of 

mean high tide) some distance seaward of the natural mean high tide 

line. These persons in fact own 

tidelands hut the la,nds are legally 

described as uplands. 

NEED FOR FURTHER STUDIES 

One danger in attempting to 

rectify coastal-erosion problems is 

that protective measures are often 

taken without a clear understanding of littoral conditions. This 

problem has already manifested 

itself at various localities where 

inst.allations that were constructed 

to protect the land have in fact 

destroyed it. 

Some of the later damage to 

I'Oa:ds and embankments may perhaps be explained by the rather 

hurried reconstruction effort immedia:tely following the earthquake. The necessity for haste 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 

1965, Post-earthquake fisheries 

evaluation; an interim report on 

the March 1964 earthquake effects 

on Alaska's, fishery resources: 

Juneau, Alaska, 72 p. 

Bird, E. C. F., 1964, Coastal landforms; 

an introduction to coastal geomorphology with Australian examples: 

Canberra, Australian Natl. Univ., 

193 p. 

probably did not allow for full 

consideration of design methods 

with respect to unnatural slopes; 

such slopes can promote wave erosion. Time did not always allow 

for adequate investigation of nearshore conditions, such as wave 

runup and current directi'On; consequently, adequate safeguards to 

insure maximum protection 

against coastal erosion were not 

designed. CerttLinly, in the submergent a:reas the sea has encroached 

upon the la.nd establishing a new 

profile of equilibrium. When artificial impediments are placed in 

REFERENCES CITED 

Bruun, Per, 1962, Sea-level ri~e aR a 

cause of shore erosion: Am. Soe. 

Civil Eng. Proe., v .. 88, paper 3065, 

.Jour. ·waterways and Harbors Div., 

no. WW 1, p, 117-130. 

Coulter, H. W., and ::\'ligliaccio, R. R, 

1966, Effects of the earthquake of 

March 27, 1964, at Valdez, Alaska: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 542-

C, p. C1-C36. 

such areas, the result more often 

than not promotes rather than retards wave erosion. 

The installation and construction of shore protective works will 

undoubtedly become necessary 

long before a profile of equilibrium 

de.-elops and stabilizes-a profile 

which will itself eventually retard 

shoreline erosion. Therefore, the 

eeonomic ramifications of coastal 

erosion not now readily noticeable 

may, within the next few years, become a problem which must be 

dealt with if valuable areas of land 

are to be saved. 

Fisher, R. L., 1955, Cuspate spits of St. 

Lawrence Island, Alaska: Jour. 

Geology, v. 63, no. 2, p, 133-142. 

Guilcher, Andre, 1958, Coastal and submarine morphology [translation by 

B. W. Sparks and R. H. W. 

Kneese] : New York, .John ·wiley 

and Sons, Inc., 274 p. 

Johnson, D. W., 1919, Shore processes 

and shoreline deveolpment: New 
EFFECTS ON SHORE PROCESSES AND BEACH MORPHOLOGY J21 

York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 

584 p. 

Kachadoorian, Reuben, 1965, Effects of 

the earthquake of March 27, 1964, 

at Whittier, Alaska; U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 542-B, p. B1-B21. 

Kachadoorian, Reuben, and Plafker, 

George, 1967,' Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, on the 

communities of Kodiak and nearby 

islands: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. 

Paper 542-F, p. F1-F41. 

Karlstrom, T. N. V., 1964, Quaternary 

geology of the Kenai Lowland and 

glaCial history of the Cook Inlet 

region, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 443, 69 p. 

King, C. A. M., 1959, Beaches and 

coasts : London, Edward Arnold and 

Co., 403 p. 

Kirltby, M. J., and Kirkby, A. V., 1968, 

Erosion and dePQsition on a beach 

raised by the 1964 earthquake, Montague Island, Alaska: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Prof. Paper 543-H. (In 

press.) 

Lobeck, A. K., 1939, Geomorphology ; 

an introduction to the study of 

landscapes: New York, McGrawHill Book Co., 731 p. 

Noerenberg, W. H., and Ossiander, F. J., 

1964, Effects of the March 27, 1964, 

earthquake on pink salmon alevin 

survival in Prince William Sound 

spawning streams: Alaska Dept. 

Fish and Game Inf. Leaflet 43, 10 p. 

Plafker, George, 1965, Tectonic deformation associated with the 1964 

Alaska earthquake: Science, v. 148, 

no. 3678, p. 1675-1687. 

Plafker,, George, 1967, Surface fauHs on 

:\Iontague Island associated with 

the 1964 Alaska earthquake: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper G43-G, p. 

G1-G42. 

--- 1968, Tectonics of the March 

27, 1964, Alaska earthquake: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper i343-l. (In 

press.) 

Plafker, George, and Kaehadoorian, 

Reuben, 1966, Geologie effects of 

the March 1964 earthquake and m;-

sociated seismic sea waves on Kodiak and nearby islands, Alaska : 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 543-

D, p. D1-D46. 

Plafker, George, and Rubin, :\feyer, 

1967, Vertical tectonic displacements in south-central Alaska during and prior to the great 1964 

earthquake : 

Osaka City 

p. 53-66. 

Jour. Geoscience, 

Univ., v. 10, art. 1-7, 

Reimnitz, Erk., and :\larshall, N. F., 

1965, Effects of the Alaska earthquake and tsunami on recent deltaic 

sediments: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 70, no. 10, p. 2363-2376. 

Schwartz, ::\faurice, 1965, Daboratory 

study of sea-level rise as a cause 

of shore erosion: Jour. Geology, v. 

73, no. 3, p. 528-534. 

Stanley, K. W., and Gre~·, H. J., 1966, 

Spray-on paint stripes to determine 

the directlion of beach drifting : 

Jour. Geology, Y. 74, no. 3, p. 357-

361. 

Terznghi, Karl, and Peck, R. B., 1948, 

Soil mechanics in engineering practice: ~ew York, John ·wiley and 

Sons, Inc., 566 p. 

Thorsteinson, F. Y., 1964, Effects of 

the Alaska earthquake on pink and 

chum salmon runs in Prince William Sound: U.S. Bur. Commercial 

Fisheries Bioi. Lab., Auke Bay, 

Alaska, 16 p. 

Twenhofel, "\Y. S., 1952, Recent shorplinp changes along the Pacific coast 

of Alaska: Am .. Jour. Sci., v. 250, 

no. 7, )J. ii23-i348. 

C.S. Coast and GPodetic Survey, 1964, 

Prince ·william Sound, Alaskan 

earthquakeN, :\Iarch-April 1964: 

U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey, Seismology Div., Prelim. Rept., 83 p. 

Waller, R. :\I., 1966a, effects of the 

ParthquakP of :\larch 27, 196-!, in 

the Homer arPa, Alaska, 1cith a section on Beach changes on Homer 

Spit, lJy K. W. Stanley: U.S. Geol. 

Sunpy Prof. Paper 542-D, p. D1-

D28. 

--- 1966lJ, }]ffects of the :\[arch 1964 

Alaska earthquake on the hydrology of south-central Alaska: U.S. 

Geol. Surny Prof. Pappr 544-A, p. 

A1-A28. 

Wood, F .. J., ed., 1966-67, The Prince 

"\Villiam Sound, Ala~;lm, earthquake 

of 1964 and aftershocks: U.S. Coast 

and Geod. SurvPy Pub. 10-3, v. 1, 

1966, 236 p. ; v. 2, pt. A, 1967, 391 p. 

Zenkoviteh. V. l'., 1951), On the genesis of 

euspa te spits along lagoon shores : 

.Jour. Geology, v. 67, no. 3, p. 269-

277. 
The Alaska Earthquake 

March 27, 1964: 

Regional Effects 

This volume was published 

as separate chapters A -J 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 543 
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

William T. Pecora, Director 
CONTENTS 

[Letters designate the separately published chapters] 

(A) Slide-induaed waves, seiching, and ground fracturing caused by the earthquake of l\larch 27, 1964, at Kenai Lake, 

Alaska, by David S. McCulloch. 

(B) Geomorphic effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, in the Martin-Bering Rivers area, Alaska, by Samuel J. Tuthill 

and Wilson M. Laird. 

(C) Gravity survey and regional geology of the Prince William Sound, epicl'ntral region, Alaska, by J. E. Case, D. 1!''. Barnes, 

George Plafker, and S. L. Robbins. 

(D) Geologic effects of the March 1964 earthquake and associat!'d ~!'ismic ~ea waves on Kodiak and nearby islands, Alaska, 

by George Plafker and Reuben Kachadoorian. 

(E) Effects of the earthquake of March 27, 1964, in the Copper Rin•r Basin area, Alaska, by Oscar J. Ferrians, Jr. 

{F) Ground breakage and associated effects in the Cook Inlet area, Alaska, resulting from the March 27, 1964, earthquake, 

by Helen L. Foster and T'hor N. V. Karlstrom. 

(G) Surface faults on Montague Island as,;ociated with tlw l!l64 Alaska earthquake, by Georg!' Plafk!'r. 

(H) Erosion and depos:ition on a beach rais!'d b~· the ll)'M !'arthquake. :\[ontagn!' Island, Alaska, by :\f. J. Kirkby and 

Anne V. Kirkby. 

(I) Tectonics of the March 27, 1964, Alaska earthquake, by Georg!' Plafker. 

(J) Effects of the Alaska earthquake of :\larch 27, 19fJ4, on shore processe,; and b!'ach morphology, by Kirk \V. Stanley. 

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICL 1968 0-298-580 


,..... 

...... 

...... ,..... 

C'? 

...... 

c.-> 

c.-> 

= .... 

< 

"' 

-