U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Special Report

JUNE 2017 NCJ 250546

Figure 1

Inmates and adult general population who met the criteria 

for drug dependence or abuse, 2007–2009

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Adult general 

population*a Sentencedjail inmates**

State 

prisoners**

Percent Abuse

Dependence

Note: See Methodology for definition of dependence and abuse based on the 

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. See appendix 

table 1 for standard errors. 

*Comparison group.

**Difference with the comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aGeneral population estimates have been standardized to the state prisoner 

population by sex, race, Hispanic origin, and age.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; 

and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey 

on Drug Use and Health, 2007–2009.

Jennifer Bronson, Ph.D., and Jessica Stroop, BJS Statisticians

Stephanie Zimmer and Marcus Berzofsky, Dr.P.H., RTI International

Drug Use, Dependence, and Abuse 

Among State Prisoners and Jail Inmates, 2007-2009

More than half (58%) of state prisoners and 

two-thirds (63%) of sentenced jail inmates met 

the criteria for drug dependence or abuse, 

according to data collected through the 2007 and 2008-09 

National Inmate Surveys (NIS) (figure 1). In comparison, 

approximately 5% of the total general population age 18 or 

older met the criteria for drug dependence or abuse. General 

population data come from the National Survey of Drug Use 

and Health (NSDUH) collected from 2007 to 2009 by 

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration. Drug dependence and abuse estimates in 

both the NIS and NSDUH data collections were based on 

criteria specified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of 

Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV).1,2

This report examines patterns of past drug use by different 

periods (i.e., ever used, at time of offense, month before 

arrest, and regularly used), demographics, and offense 

type. Drug data were grouped into eight categories for 

analysis: marijuana/hashish, cocaine/crack, heroin/opiates, 

depressants, stimulants, methamphetamine, hallucinogens, 

1Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, text 

revision (2000). Washington. DC: American Psychiatric Association.

2The fifth edition of the DSM (DSM-V) was published in May 2013. The 

DSM-IV was current at time of data collection.

HIGHLIGHTS

 During 2007-09, an estimated 58% of state prisoners 

and 63% of sentenced jail inmates met the Diagnostic 

and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition 

(DSM-IV) criteria for drug dependence or abuse.

 Among prisoners and jail inmates, prevalence estimates 

for those who met the criteria for dependence were two to 

three times higher than for abuse. 

 The percentage of inmates who met the DSM-IV criteria was 

higher for those held for property offenses than those held 

for violent or other public order offenses.

 Lifetime drug use among the incarcerated populations was 

unchanged from 2002 to 2009.

 During 2007-09, prisoners (77%) and jail inmates (78%) 

reported having ever used marijuana/hashish, more than 

any other drug.

 During 2007-09, more females in prison (47%) or jail (60%) 

used drugs in the month before the current offense than 

males in prison (38%) or jail (54%).

 More non-Hispanic white than non-Hispanic black 

prisoners regularly used cocaine/crack, heroin/opiates, 

or methamphetamines.

 Among those who met the criteria for drug dependence or 

abuse, 28% of prisoners and 22% of jail inmates participated 

in a drug treatment program since admission. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 2

Measurement of drug dependence and abuse 

The National Inmate Survey (NIS) included questions to 

assess the percentage of inmates who met the Diagnostic 

and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition 

(DSM-IV) criteria for drug dependence or abuse. Inmates 

who reported having ever used any drug were asked about 

their experiences and symptoms related to their drug 

use in the year prior to admission to the current facility. 

The DSM-IV criteria are guidelines designed to be used 

with a patient’s history and sound clinical judgment in 

order to make a diagnosis. Data presented in this report 

are based on inmate self-reports and were not validated 

or confirmed by a trained clinician or clinical interview. 

(See Methodology.)

The DSM-IV defines drug dependence as a maladaptive 

pattern of drug use leading to clinically significant 

impairment or distress as manifested by three or more of 

the following occurring at any time in the same 12-month 

period: 

1. tolerance 

2. withdrawal symptoms or drug taken to relieve 

withdrawal 

3. drug taken in larger amounts for longer periods than 

intended 

4. persistent desire or unsuccessful attempts to cut down 

or control drug use 

5. a lot of time is spent obtaining drugs, using them, or 

recovering from its effects 

6. a reduction in or absence from social, occupational, 

or recreational activities 

7. continued use despite adverse consequences. 

Unlike the criteria for drug dependence, criteria for drug 

abuse do not include tolerance, withdrawal, or a pattern 

of compulsive use. Instead, the abuse criteria include 

only the harmful consequences of repeated use. Abuse is 

defined in the DSM-IV as a maladaptive pattern of drug 

use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, 

as manifested by one or more of the following, occurring 

at any time in the same 12-month period: 

1. recurrent drug use resulting in a failure to fulfill 

major role obligations 

2. recurrent drug use in which it is physically hazardous 

3. recurrent drug-related legal problems

4. continued drug use despite having persistent or 

recurrent drug-related social problems.

For any one drug, a diagnosis of dependence takes 

precedence over a diagnosis of abuse for the same drug. 

This means that a person who meets the dependence 

criteria for a particular drug cannot meet the abuse 

criteria for that same drug. The DSM-IV states that a 

diagnosis of drug dependence can be applied to 10 drug 

classes: alcohol, amphetamine or similarly acting 

sympathomimetics, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, 

inhalants, nicotine, opioids, phencyclidine (PCP) or 

similarly acting arylcyclohexylamines, and sedatives.The 

category of drug abuse can apply to all of these drug 

classes, except nicotine.4

A diagnosis of drug dependence or abuse should be 

drug-specific (e.g., cocaine dependence or heroin abuse) 

and not generally made based on drug use in the past year 

as a whole. However, NIS data do not permit an analysis 

of dependence or abuse symptoms by individual drug 

type. As such, dependence and abuse data presented in 

this report are not drug-specific.

4The DSM-IV uses the term “classes,” which is not the same as 

the schedule of controlled substances established through the 

1970 Controlled Substance Act (P.L. 91-513).

population was divided into three groups that were 

based on self-reported involvement with the criminal 

justice system in the year prior to the interview: (1) no 

involvement, (2) under supervision (probation or parole), 

or (3) arrested. (See Methodology.)

This report combined data from the addendums of 

NIS-1 (2007) and NIS-2 (2008-09). (See Methodology.) 

The NIS-3 (2011-12) also collected drug use data, but 

the data were not used because of potential bias. For this 

reason, the 2007-09 data are the most recent data available 

on drug use and drug use disorders among inmates.

and inhalants.3 Alcohol and nicotine were excluded from 

the analysis. Prevalence estimates are presented for inmates 

who met the DSM-IV criteria for drug dependence or abuse 

and for those who participated in a drug abuse treatment 

program. All NIS data were self-reported, and the analyses 

include state prisoners and sentenced local jail inmates.

To facilitate comparisons between the inmate and general 

population, NSDUH data on the general population were 

standardized twice to (1) match the prison population 

and (2) match the jail population by sex, race, Hispanic 

origin, and age. (See Methodology.) In addition, the general 

3Depressants include barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaaludes. Stimulants 

include amphetamine and methamphetamine. Hallucinogens include LSD, 

PCP, and ecstasy.
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 3

Drug dependence and abuse

During 2007-09, more than half of state prisoners and 

two-thirds of sentenced jail inmates met the DSM-IV 

criteria for drug dependence or abuse

About 58% of state prisoners and 63% of sentenced jail 

inmates during 2007-09 met the DSM-IV criteria for drug 

dependence or abuse for any drug (table 1). Among state 

prisoners, 42% met the criteria for drug dependence and 

17% met the criteria for abuse. The percentage of state 

prisoners who met the criteria for dependence was the same 

as those who did not meet the criteria for either dependence 

or abuse (42% each). Sentenced jail inmates were about three 

times as likely to have met the criteria for drug dependence 

(47%) than those who met the criteria for abuse (16%). For 

sentenced jail inmates, the percentage of those who met 

the criteria for dependence (47%) was higher than those 

who did not meet the criteria for either dependence or 

abuse (37%).

Female inmates were more likely than male inmates to 

have met the DSM-IV criteria for drug dependence or 

abuse

Approximately 7 in 10 females in state prison (69%) or 

jail (72%) met the DSM-IV criteria for dependence or 

abuse, compared to about 6 in 10 males in prison (57%) or 

jail (62%) (table 2). A larger percentage of non-Hispanic 

white state prisoners (62%) and sentenced jail inmates 

(72%) met the criteria for dependence or abuse than 

non-Hispanic black inmates in prison (55%) or jail (57%). 

Hispanic inmates (58% in prison and 55% in jail) were 

also less likely than white inmates to have met the criteria. 

Approximately 26% of prisoners and 40% of sentenced jail 

inmates age 55 or older met the criteria for dependence or 

abuse. These numbers were less than the 64% of prisoners 

and 62% of sentenced jail inmates ages 18 to 24 who met the 

same criteria.

Inmates incarcerated for a property offense were more 

likely to have met the criteria for dependence or abuse 

than inmates incarcerated for other offenses

About 54% of state prisoners and 61% of sentenced jail 

inmates incarcerated for violent offenses met the DSM-IV 

criteria for drug dependence or abuse. This was lower than 

the percentage of prisoners and jail inmates incarcerated 

for property (68% of prisoners and 72% of jail inmates) 

or drug (67% and 74%) offenses. Among prisoners who 

met the criteria for drug dependence or abuse, there was 

no difference in the percentage incarcerated for violent 

offenses (54%), DWI/DUI offenses (55%), or other public 

order offenses (55%). Among jail inmates, 45% of those 

incarcerated for DWI/DUI and 51% for public order offenses 

met the criteria.

Table 1

State prisoners and sentenced jail inmates who met the 

criteria for drug dependence or abuse, 2007–2009

Diagnostic criteria State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

Dependence or abuse 58.5% 63.3%

Dependence 41.7 47.2

Abuse 16.8 16.1

No dependence or abuse* 41.5% 36.7%

Total count 1,265,400 375,700

Note: See Methodology for definition of dependence and abuse based on 

the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. See 

appendix table 2 for standard errors. 

*Includes inmates who did not report ever using drugs.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

Table 2

Drug dependence and abuse among state prisoners and 

sentenced jail inmates, by selected characteristics, 2007–2009

State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

Characteristic Count Percent Count Percent

All inmates 716,900 58.5% 233,000 63.3%

Sex

Male* 656,600 56.9% 195,600 61.8%

Female 60,300 69.2** 37,400 72.3**

Race/Hispanic origina

White* 265,600 62.3% 105,300 72.1%

Black 245,900 54.6** 69,400 57.1**

Hispanic 128,200 57.6** 35,900 55.0**

Two or more races 51,800 61.2 16,000 68.3

Otherb 20,600 58.9 5,300 56.5**

Age

18–24* 119,900 64.2% 61,500 61.9%

25–34 241,400 60.3** 78,000 64.1

35–44 206,900 61.3 59,300 66.4**

45–54 128,400 57.3** 30,200 63.4

55 or older 20,200 25.8** 4,100 39.5**

Most serious offense

Violent* 338,300 53.5% 46,200 60.7%

Property 158,900 68.2** 66,100 72.1**

Drug 147,000 66.9** 67,700 73.9**

DWI/DUI 12,800 55.2 12,100 45.1**

Other public orderc 22,300 54.8 24,600 51.4**

Note: See Methodology for definition and criteria for drug dependence and abuse 

based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. 

See appendix table 3 for standard errors.

*Comparison group.

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin, unless specified.

bIncludes American Indian and Alaska Natives; Asian, Native Hawaiian, and Other 

Pacific Islanders; and persons of two or more races.

cExcludes DWI/DUI.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 4

State prisoners were 12 times more likely than adults 

in the general population to have met the criteria for 

dependence or abuse

The NSDUH general population data included adults age 

18 or older and were standardized to match the prison 

population by sex, race, Hispanic origin, and age. The 

general population was divided into three groups based 

on their self-reported involvement in the criminal justice 

system during the year prior to the interview: (1) no 

involvement, (2) under supervision (probation or parole) or 

(3) arrested. A total general population was also included, 

which combined all three groups into one category.

The percentage of state prisoners who met the DSM-IV 

criteria for drug dependence or abuse (58%) was 12 times 

higher than adults in the total general population (5%) and 

14 times higher than the general population (4%) that was 

not criminally involved with the justice system (table 3). 

Adults in the general population who had been on probation 

or parole (12%) or who had been arrested in the past 

12 months (19%) were more likely to have met the criteria 

for drug dependence or abuse than their noncriminally 

involved counterparts (4%).

Similar to the pattern observed among prisoners, a larger 

percentage of people in each general population group met 

the criteria for drug dependence than abuse. Among persons 

not involved in the criminal justice system, 2% met the 

criteria for drug dependence and 1% met the criteria for drug 

abuse. A larger percentage of adults on probation or parole 

met the criteria for drug dependence (10%) than abuse 

(3%). This pattern was similar for adults who were arrested: 

15% met the criteria for drug dependence compared to 

5% for abuse. 

Jail inmates were more likely to have met the criteria for 

dependence or abuse than those in the general population 

who had been arrested

Approximately two-thirds (63%) of the sentenced jail 

population met the DSM-IV criteria for either drug 

dependence or abuse (table 4). This was more than 

Table 3 

Drug dependence and abuse among state prisoners and general population groups, by criminal justice system involvement, 

2007–2009

Adults in general population

Diagnostic criteria State prisoners* Totala Noncriminala,b Under supervisionb,c Arrestedc,d

Dependence or abuse 58.5% 4.8%** 3.6%** 12.3%** 19.2%**

Dependence 41.7 3.3** 2.4** 9.7** 14.7**

Abuse 16.8 1.5** 1.2** 2.6** 4.5**

No dependence or abusee 41.5% 95.2%** 96.4%** 87.7%** 80.8%**

Note: See Methodology for definition of dependence and abuse based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. See appendix table 4 

for standard errors.

*Comparison group.

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aGeneral population estimates have been standardized to the state prisoner population based on sex, race, Hispanic origin, and age.

bIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had not been arrested or on probation or parole in the past 12 months. 

cA small percentage of respondents said they had been on probation or parole and had been arrested in the past 12 months. See Methodology. 

dIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had been arrested in the past 12 months. 

eIncludes inmates who did not report ever using drugs.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey on 

Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 2007–2009.

TABLE 4

Drug dependence and abuse among sentenced jail 

inmates and general population groups, by criminal justice 

involvement, 2007–2009

Sentenced 

jail inmates*

Adults in the general population

Diagnostic 

criteria Total Noncriminala Under supervisionb,c Arrestedc,d

Dependence 

 or abuse 63.3% 5.7%** 4.4%** 14.3%** 20.9%**

Dependence 47.2 3.9** 2.9** 11.2** 15.8**

Abuse 16.1 1.8** 1.5** 3.2** 5.1**

No 

 dependence 

 or abusee 36.7% 94.3%** 95.6%** 85.7%** 79.1%**

Note: General population estimates have been standardized to the jail inmate 

population based on sex, race, Hispanic origin, and age. See Methodology for 

definition of dependence and abuse based on the Diagnostic and Statistical 

Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. See appendix table 5 for standard 

errors.

*Comparison group.

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level. 

aIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they 

had not been arrested or on probation or parole in the past 12 months. 

bIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they 

had been on probation or parole in the past 12 months. 

cA small percentage of respondents said they had been on probation or parole 

and had been arrested in the past 12 months. See Methodology. 

dIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they 

had been arrested in the past 12 months. 

eIncludes inmates who did not report ever using drugs.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; 

and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National 

Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 2007–2009.
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 5

10 times the percentage of adults in the standardized general 

population (6%), and almost 15 times the percentage of the 

noncriminally involved standardized general population 

who met the criteria for drug dependence or abuse (4%). 

The percentage of sentenced jail inmates who met the 

criteria for drug dependence (47%) was about three times 

larger than those who met the criteria for drug abuse (16%). 

This pattern was the same for the general population on 

probation or parole (11% for drug dependence and 3% 

for abuse) and for those who were arrested in the past 

12 months (16% drug dependence and 5% for abuse).

Trends in lifetime and regular use of drugs by state 

prisoners and jail inmates

Overall drug use reported by inmates was unchanged from 

past surveys

Lifetime use and regular use of drugs by state prisoners and 

sentenced jail inmates remained relatively stable. During 

2007-09, an estimated 81% of persons in prisons and 84% of 

those in jail reported ever using any drug in their lifetime 

(table 5). These percentages were virtually unchanged from 

the 83% of prisoners (based on BJS’s 2004 Survey of Inmates 

in State Correctional Facilities) and 85% of sentenced jail 

inmates (based on BJS’s 2002 Survey of Inmates in Local 

Jails) reported ever using drugs.

Since the 2002 and 2004 surveys, regular use of drugs 

slightly increased among prisoners and jail inmates during 

2007-09. Regular use was defined as having ever used any 

drug once a week or more for at least a month. In 2004, 

69% of prisoners regularly used drugs and in 2002, 71% 

of jail inmates regularly used drugs. These numbers were 

similar to 72% of prisoners and 75% of jail inmates who 

regularly used drugs during 2007-09.

More state prisoners and jail inmates reported they had 

ever used marijuana/hashish than any other drug

Among state prisoners, marijuana/hashish was the most 

often reported drug type (77%) during 2007-09, followed 

by cocaine/crack (47%). In 2004, the percentage of 

prisoners who had ever used marijuana/hashish (78%) and 

cocaine/crack (47%) were nearly the same.

Nearly 42% of prisoners during 2007-09 said they had ever 

used hallucinogens, which was up from the 33% who reported 

its use in 2004. Likewise, the percentage of state prisoners 

who had ever used depressants increased from 21% in 2004 

to 30% during 2007-09. Regular use of depressants among 

state prisoners almost doubled between 2004 and 2007-09, 

increasing from 10% to 18%. Regular use of hallucinogens 

prior to incarceration also increased, from 13% in 2004 to 

22% during 2007-09. 

During 2007-09, the percentages of sentenced 

jail inmates who had ever used or regularly used 

drugs were similar to prisoners. Marijuana/hashish 

(78%) and cocaine/crack (52%) were the most frequently 

TABLE 5 

State prisoners and sentenced jail inmates who had ever 

used or regularly used drugs, by drug type, 2002, 2004, and 

2007–2009

State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

Type of drug 2004* 2007–2009 2002* 2007–2009

Ever used

Any druga 83.2% 81.4%** 84.5% 83.5%

Marijuana/hashish 77.6 76.6 77.7 78.1

Cocaine/crack 46.8 47.3 50.5 51.5

Heroin/opiates 23.2 26.4** 21.2 28.2**

Depressantsb 21.3 30.4** 22.1 34.1**

Stimulantsc 28.5 32.4** 28.9 34.1**

Methamphetamine 23.4 26.1 23.9 28.7**

Hallucinogensd 32.6 41.7** 34.0 46.2**

Inhalants 13.6 16.9** 13.2 16.9**

Regularly usede

Any druga 69.2% 71.6%** 70.5% 74.9%**

Marijuana/hashish 59.0 62.7** 59.3 64.4**

Cocaine/crack 30.0 34.2** 32.4 38.5**

Heroin/opiates 13.0 16.6** 12.2 18.9**

Depressantsb 9.9 18.3** 11.0 20.8**

Stimulantsc 17.9 23.4** 18.1 23.9**

Methamphetamine 14.9 19.2** 14.8 19.8**

Hallucinogensd 13.3 21.7** 13.9 22.5**

Inhalants 4.5 6.0** 4.3 5.0

Total count 1,226,200 1,265,400 444,500 375,700

Note: Detail sums to more than total because person may have used more than 

one type of drug. See appendix table 6 for standard errors.

*Comparison group.

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aIncludes other unspecified drugs.

bIncludes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaaludes.

cIncludes amphetamines and methamphetamine.

dIncludes LSD, PCP, and ecstasy.

eUsed drugs at least once a week for at least a month.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; 

Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 2002; and Survey of Inmates in State Correctional 

Facilities, 2004.

used drugs that jail inmates had ever used. This pattern 

did not change from 2002. Between 2002 and 2007-09, 

a larger percentage of jail inmates reported ever using 

heroin/opiates (21% in 2002 and 28% during 2007-09), 

depressants (22% and 34%), stimulants (29% and 34%), and 

hallucinogens (34% and 46%).

An estimated 75% of sentenced jail inmates reported regular 

use of any drug during 2007-09, compared to 70% in 2002. 

The percentage of jail inmates who regularly used a drug 

increased across all but one drug type from 2002 to 2007-09. 

About 39% of jail inmates during 2007-09 reported regular 

use of cocaine/crack, compared to 32% of those in 2002. 

Regular use of depressants during 2007-09 by jail inmates 

(21%) was twice that of the percentage who reported the 

same in 2002 (11%). The percentage of jail inmates who 

reported regular use of heroin/opiates increased from 

12% in 2002 to 19% during 2007-09, stimulants increased 

from 18% to 24%, and hallucinogens from 14% to 23%.
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 6

Patterns of drug use at time of the offense

4 in 10 prisoners and jail inmates used drugs at the time of 

the offense for which they were currently incarcerated

During 2007-09, about 4 in 10 state prisoners (42%) and 

sentenced jail inmates (37%) said they used drugs at the time 

of the offense for which they were currently incarcerated 

(table 6).Among prisoners, 22% reported marijuana/hashish 

use at time of the offense, 16% reported cocaine/crack use, 

11% reported stimulant use, and 7% reported heroin/opiate 

use. Among sentenced jail inmates, 19% reported using 

marijuana/hashish at time of the offense, 13% reported 

cocaine/crack use, and 8% reported stimulant and heroin/

opiate use.

About 4 in 10 state prisoners and sentenced jail inmates 

who were incarcerated for property offenses committed 

the crime to get money for drugs or to obtain drugs

About 21% each of state prisoners and sentenced jail inmates 

said their most serious current offense was committed to 

get money for drugs or to obtain drugs (table 7). A larger 

percentage of prisoners (39%) and jail inmates (37%) held 

for property offenses said they committed the crime for 

money for drugs or drugs than other offense types. Nearly 

a third of drug offenders (30% of state prisoners and 29% of 

jail inmates) said they committed the offense to get drugs 

or money for drugs. Approximately 1 in 6 state prisoners 

(15%) and jail inmates (14%) who committed violent 

offenses said they did so to get money for drugs or to 

obtain drugs.

Drug use by demographics and offense

Among state prisoners, females, whites, and those 

age 54 or younger were more likely than other persons to 

have used drugs in the month before the offense

About 39% of state prisoners during 2007-09 used drugs 

in the month before the offense, and 42% used drugs at 

the time of offense (table 8). For both 2004 and 2007-09, 

reference periods, female prisoners were more likely to have 

used drugs than their male counterparts. An estimated 

47% of females used drugs in the month before and 49% at 

the time of the offense, compared to 38% of males who used 

drugs in the month before and 41% at time of the offense.

TABLE 6 

State prisoners and sentenced jail inmates who used drugs 

at time of offense, by drug type, 2007–2009

Type of drug State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

Any druga 42.0% 37.2%

Marijuana/hashish 22.4 18.9

Cocaine/crack 15.8 13.3

Heroin/opiates 6.8 7.9

Depressantsb 5.0 5.9

Stimulantsc 10.8 8.0

Methamphetamine 9.7 7.3

Hallucinogensd 4.9 4.2

Inhalants 0.5 0.5

Note: Detail sums to more than total because persons may have used more than 

one type of drug. See appendix table 7 for standard errors.

aIncludes other unspecified drugs.

bIncludes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaaludes.

cIncludes amphetamines and methamphetamine.

dIncludes LSD, PCP, and ecstasy.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09.

TABLE 7 

State prisoners and sentenced jail inmates who committed 

offense to get money for drugs, by type of offense, 2007– 2009

Most serious offense State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

All inmates 21.3% 20.8%

Violent 14.6 14.0

Property 39.4 36.7

Drug 29.9 28.8

DWI/DUI 1.0 1.9

Other public order* 8.7 7.5

Note: See appendix table 8 for standard errors.

*Excludes DWI/DUI.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09.

TABLE 8 

Drug use in month before offense and at the time of offense 

among state prisoners and sentenced jail inmates, by 

selected characteristics, 2007–2009

State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

Characteristic

Month before 

offense

At time 

of offense

Month before 

offense

At time 

of offense

All inmates 39.3% 42.0% 54.5% 37.2%

Sex

Male* 38.2% 40.9% 53.7% 35.8%**

Female 46.8** 49.1** 59.7 45.5**

Race/Hispanic origina

White* 42.5% 47.9% 58.8% 43.7%

Black 36.5** 37.2** 55.2** 33.5**

Hispanic 37.5** 39.1** 45.2** 31.0**

Two or more races 41.1 45.2 57.2 38.3

Otherb 41.1 41.2 43.6** 26.7**

Age

18–24* 46.8% 44.8% 61.2% 35.8%

25–34 41.8** 43.5 54.8** 40.6**

35–44 39.3** 44.2 52.4** 40.0**

45–54 36.4** 41.6 49.1** 30.2**

55 or older 15.6** 18.6** 29.2** 17.5**

Most serious offense

Violent* 34.4% 39.9% 53.6% 37.2%

Property 47.0** 50.1** 63.4** 46.4**

Drug 47.1** 50.2** 66.6** 50.6**

DWI/DUI 33.5 27.5** 24.2** 16.8**

Other public orderc 43.9** 29.4** 43.3** 19.3**

Note: See appendix table 9 for standard errors.

*Comparison group.

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin, unless specified.

bIncludes American Indian and Alaska Natives; Asian, Native Hawaiian, and Other 

Pacific Islanders; and persons of two or more races.

cExcludes DWI/DUI.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 7

Black and Hispanic prisoners were less likely than white 

prisoners to report drug use in the month before or at 

the time of the offense. The percentage of prisoners who 

reported drug use in the month before the offense declined 

with age. About 47% of prisoners ages 18 to 24 used drugs 

in the month before the offense, compared to 36% of those 

ages 45 to 54 and 16% of those 55 or older. Drug use at the 

time of the offense varied less across age groups, with about 

42% to 45% of prisoners age 54 or younger reporting use. 

However, prisoners age 55 or older were significantly less 

likely to have used drugs at time of the offense (19%) than 

prisoners of other age groups.

State prisoners incarcerated for property or drug offenses 

were more likely to have used drugs than those who 

committed violent offenses

During 2007-09, state prisoners whose most serious 

current offense was a violent offense were less likely to have 

used drugs in the month before the offense (34%) than 

those incarcerated for a property crime (47%), drug offense 

(47%), or public order offense (44%).

Four in 10 (40%) prisoners incarcerated for violent crimes 

said they used a drug at time of the offense. This was lower 

than the percentage of prisoners incarcerated for a property 

offense (50%) or a drug offense (50%) but more than the 

percentage incarcerated for a DWI/DUI (28%) or other 

public order offense (29%).

Female jail inmates were more likely than male inmates 

to have used drugs in the month before the offense or at 

the time of the offense 

More than half (54%) of sentenced jail inmates during 

2007-09 used a drug in the month before the offense. 

About 37% used a drug at the time of the offense. Much 

like the demographic profile of state prisoners, a larger 

percentage of females than males in jail reported drug 

use in the month before the offense or at the time of the 

offense. Sentenced jail inmates who were black, Hispanic, 

or of other races were less likely than white inmates to 

report drug use in the month before or at the time of the 

offense. About 61% of sentenced jail inmates ages 18 to 

24 used drugs in the month before their offense, and this 

percentage decreased among older groups. In comparison, 

fewer jail inmates ages 18 to 24 used drugs at the time 

of the offense (36%) than those ages 25 to 34 (41%) and 

35 to 44 (40%).

More than half of sentenced jail inmates incarcerated for 

a drug crime used drugs at the time of the offense

When assessed by offense type, sentenced jail inmates 

had a similar pattern of drug use in the month before the 

offense. About 2 in 3 jail inmates incarcerated for property 

offenses (63%) or drug offenses (67%) used drugs in the 

month before the offense. These percentages were higher 

than that of jail inmates (54%) who were incarcerated 

for a violent offense and used drugs in the month before 

arrest. Jail inmates incarcerated for DWI/DUI (24%) or 

other public order offenses (43%) were the least likely to 

have used drugs in the month before the offense. A smaller 

percentage of inmates incarcerated for violent offenses 

(37%) than for property (46%) or drug (51%) offenses used 

drugs at the time of the offense.
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 8

Regular use of cocaine/crack, methamphetamine, or 

heroin/opiates by demographics

Patterns of regular drug use differed by race and Hispanic 

origin. White inmates in prison or jail were more likely 

than black or Hispanic inmates to have regularly used any 

drug. Black prisoners were the least likely to have regularly 

used cocaine/crack (28%), compared to whites (42%) and 

Hispanics (31%) (figure 2). Among jail inmates, 31% of 

blacks, 47% of whites, and 29% of Hispanics regularly used 

cocaine/crack (figure 3). Black inmates were the least likely 

among prisoners and jail inmates to report regular use of 

methamphetamine or heroin/opiates.

TABLE 9 

Regular cocaine/crack use among state prisoners and 

sentenced jail inmates, by selected characteristics, 2007–2009 

Characteristic State prisoners

Sentenced 

jail inmates 

Sex

Male* 31.4% 35.7%

Female 48.9** 48.2**

Race/Hispanic origina

White* 41.7% 47.2%

Black 28.0** 31.0**

Hispanic 31.1** 28.5**

Otherb 31.8** 40.2**

Age

18–24* 25.8% 24.1%

25–34 28.4 34.7

35–44 41.4** 48.5**

45–54 42.2** 52.3**

55 or older 17.4** 36.1**

Most serious offense

Violent* 28.6% 33.7%

Property 45.2** 47.5**

Drug 37.4** 43.2**

DWI/DUI 31.4 26.9

Other public orderc 27.0 29.8

Note: Regular drug use was defined as using drugs at least once a week for at 

least a month. See appendix table 12 for standard errors.

*Comparison group.

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin, unless specified.

bIncludes American Indian and Alaska Natives; Asian, Native Hawaiian, and Other 

Pacific Islanders; and persons of two or more races.

cExcludes DWI/DUI.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

Cocaine/crack

During 2007-09, regular use of cocaine/crack was highest 

among females, whites, inmates ages 35 to 44, and 

property offenders

Almost half of female state prisoners (49%) and sentenced 

jail inmates (48%) regularly used cocaine/crack (table 9). 

Among male inmates, 31% of those in prison and 36% of 

those in jail regularly used cocaine/crack.

Regular use of cocaine/crack was highest among inmates 

ages 45 to 54 (42% of state prisoners and 52% of jail 

inmates). A quarter of prisoners (26%) and jail inmates 

(24%) ages 18 to 24 said they regularly used cocaine/crack.

A larger percentage of state prisoners incarcerated for 

property (45%) or drug (37%) offenses than violent 

offenses (29%) said they regularly used cocaine/crack. 

Among sentenced jail inmates, 48% of those incarcerated 

for property offenses, 43% for drug offenses, and 34% for 

violent offenses reported regular use of cocaine/crack 

during 2002-09.

Figure 2

Regular drug use among state prisoners, by race and 

Hispanic origin, 2007–2009

Percent

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Hispanic 

Black Whitea

a

Any drug** Cocaine/crack** Methamphetamine** Heroin/opiates**

Whitea*

Blacka

Hispanic

Note: Regular drug use was defined as using drugs at least once a week for at 

least a month. See appendix table 10 for estimates and standard errors.

*Comparison group.

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin. 

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09.

Figure 3

Regular drug use among sentenced jail inmates, by race and 

Hispanic origin, 2007–2009

Note: Regular drug use was defined as using drugs at least once a week for at 

least a month. See appendix table 11 for estimates and standard errors.

*Comparison group.

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin. 

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

Percent

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Hispanic 

Black Whitea

a

Any drug** Cocaine/crack** Methamphetamine** Heroin/opiates**

Blacka

Whitea*

Hispanic
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 9

Methamphetamine

Female inmates were more likely than male inmates to 

have regularly used methamphetamine during 2007-09

Among both prisoners and jail inmates, a larger percentage 

of females (31% for prison and 26% for jail) than males 

(17% each) reported regular use of methamphetamine 

(table 10).

About 19% of prisoners in each age group age 54 or 

younger reported regular use of methamphetamine, 

compared to 8% of prisoners age 55 or older. Jail inmates 

ages 25 to 44 (21%) were more likely to have regularly used 

methamphetamine than those ages 18 to 24 (14%).

A higher percentage of white (34%) than black (2%) 

prisoners regularly used methamphetamine. Among 

jail inmates, 31% of whites and 3% of blacks regularly 

used methamphetamine. Among Hispanics in state 

prison or jail, about 19% of each population regularly 

used methamphetamine.

More state prisoners incarcerated for property offenses 

(28%) than violent offenses (14%) reported regular use of 

methamphetamine. Among sentenced jail inmates, a larger 

percentage of those incarcerated for property (24%) or drug 

(23%) offenses than violent offenses (16%) reported regular 

use of methamphetamine.

TABLE 11

Regular use of heroin/opiates among state prisoners and sentenced jail inmates, by selected characteristics, 2007–2009

Characteristic State prisoners

Sentenced 

jail inmates 

Sex

Male* 15.2% 16.8%

Female 22.3** 24.7**

Race/Hispanic origina

White* 24.7% 29.8%

Black 7.6** 7.9**

Hispanic 15.9** 12.1**

Otherb 17.5** 19.7**

Age

18–24* 12.0% 13.7%

25–34 14.5** 18.8**

35–44 16.8** 18.7**

45–54 21.5** 21.7**

55 or older 13.7 19.9

Most serious offense

Violent* 13.0% 14.9%

Property 24.6** 23.9**

Drug 16.6** 22.8**

DWI/DUI 18.4 10.1

Other public orderc 11.0 13.1

Note: See appendix table 14 for standard errors.

*Comparison group. 

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin, unless specified.

bIncludes American Indian and Alaska Natives; Asian, Native Hawaiian, and Other 

Pacific Islanders; and persons of two or more races.

cExcludes DWI/DUI.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

Heroin/opiates

Regular use of heroin/opiates was lowest among black 

prisoners and jail inmates during 2007-09

About 1 in 4 females in state prison (22%) or jail (25%) 

reported regular use of heroin/opiates, compared to about 

1 in 6 males in prison (15%) or jail (17%) (table 11).

Twenty-two percent of both prisoners and jail inmates 

ages 45 to 54 reported they regularly used heroin/opiates. 

These percentages were higher than those ages 18 to 24 who 

said they regularly used heroin/opiates among prisoners 

(12%) and jail inmates (14%).

Three times more whites (25%) than blacks (8%) in prison 

regularly used heroin/opiates. Almost four times more 

whites (30%) than blacks (8%) in jail regularly used heroin/

opiates. Hispanics in prison (16%) and jail (12%) were also 

less likely than white inmates to have regularly used heroin/

opiates.

Prisoners (25%) and jail inmates (24%) incarcerated 

for property offenses had higher rates of regular use of 

heroin/opiates than those incarcerated for violent offenses 

(13% for prisoners and 15% for jail inmates). Seventeen 

percent of prisoners and 23% of jail inmates incarcerated for 

drug offenses said they regularly used heroin/opiates.

TABLE 10 

Regular use of methamphetamine among state prisoners and 

sentenced jail inmates, by selected characteristics, 2007–2009

Characteristic State prisoners

Sentenced 

jail inmates 

Sex

Male* 16.8% 17.2%

Female 31.0** 25.8**

Race/Hispanic origina

White* 34.0% 31.3%

Black 2.1** 2.9**

Hispanic 19.4** 19.8**

Otherb 24.3** 25.4**

Age

18–24* 17.8% 14.1%

25–34 19.4 21.0

35–44 19.8 21.3

45–54 19.2 16.5

55 or older 8.2** 12.4**

Most serious offense

Violent* 14.0% 15.9%

Property 27.9** 23.6**

Drug 21.9** 23.1**

DWI/DUI 15.6 13.3

Other public orderc 17.6 14.1

Note: See appendix table 13 for standard errors.

*Comparison group. 

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aExcludes persons of Hispanic origin, unless specified.

bIncludes American Indian and Alaska Natives; Asian, Native Hawaiian, and Other 

Pacific Islanders; and persons of two or more races.

cExcludes DWI/DUI.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 
Estimates of lifetime and regular use of drugs among 

adults in the general population

Little to no change occurred in the percentage of adults 

in the general population who had ever used or regularly 

used drugs between 2002-04 and 2007-09

During the 3-year aggregate period from 2002 to 2004, 

about half (48%) of adults in the general population said 

they had ever used drugs (figure 4). Nearly the same 

percentage of adults (49%) in the general population 

reported ever using any drug during 2007-09. Among 

adults in the general population who had ever used drugs, 

there was little to no difference by drug type between 

reference periods. In both periods, about 44% of adults in 

the general population said they had ever used marijuana/

hashish, compared to 16% who ever used cocaine/

crack, 16% who ever used hallucinogens, and 15% who 

ever used heroin/opiates. Methamphetamine was the least 

Percent

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Hallucinogens Inhalants d Stimulants Methamphetamine c Depressantsb Any drug Marijuana/hashish Cocaine/crack Heroin/opiates a

2007–2009

2002–2004

2007–2009

2002–2004

Figure 4

Drug use in adult general population who had ever used drugs, 2002–2004 and 2007–2009

Note: Differences between 2002–2004 and 2007–2009 were not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. See appendix table 15 for estimates and 

standard errors.

aIncludes other unspecified drugs.

bIncludes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaaludes.

cIncludes amphetamines and methamphetamine.

dIncludes LSD, PCP, and ecstasy.

Source: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2002–2004 and 2007–2009.

reported, with 5% of adults in the general population who 

said they had ever used the drug.

There was virtually no variation observed between 2002-04 

and 2007-09 in the percentage of adults in the general 

population who reported regular use of drugs (figure 5). 

For the adult general population, regular use was defined as 

use of any drug at least once in the past month prior to the 

interview. During 2007-09, fewer than 1 in 10 (8%) adults in 

the general population reported regular use of drugs.

Month-before drug use among prisoners was three times 

higher than the general population

Drug use for the month-before reference period was defined 

differently for the general population and inmates. For the 

general population, it was the percentage who reported drug 

use in the month before the interview. For both prisoners 

and jail inmates, it was the percentage who said they used 

drugs in the month before their arrest.

Percent

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Hallucinogens Inhalants d Stimulants Methamphetamine c Depressantsb Any drug Marijuana/hashish Cocaine/crack Heroin/opiates a

2007–2009

2002–2004

2007–2009

2002–2004

Figure 5

Drug use in adult general population who regularly used drugs, 2002–2004 and 2007–2009

Note: Differences between 2002–2004 and 2007–2009 were not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. See appendix table 16 for estimates and 

standard errors.

aIncludes other unspecified drugs.

bIncludes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaaludes.

cIncludes amphetamines and methamphetamine.

dIncludes LSD, PCP, and ecstasy.

Source: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2002–2004 and 2007–2009.
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 11

During 2007-09, the percentage of prisoners (39%) who 

reported drug use in the month before arrest was more 

than three times higher than the standardized adult 

general population (12%) and five times higher than the 

unstandardized adult general population (8%) (table 12). 

Twenty-four percent of the general population on probation 

or parole and 32% of those who were arrested in the past 

year reported drug use in the past month.

For almost every drug type, prisoners were significantly 

more likely than adults in the general population to have 

used it in the month before the arrest or interview. However, 

the exceptions were adults in the general population 

who were arrested in the past year. They were as likely as 

prisoners to have used marijuana/hashish (27%) and heroin/

opiates (7%) in the month before the interview.

TABLE 12 

Drug use among state prisoners and general population groups in the month before based on criminal justice system 

involvement in the past year, by drug type, 2007–2009

Adults in the general population

State prisoners*

Total 

(nonstandardized)

Percent of standardized

Type of drug Total Noncriminala Under supervisionb,c Arrestedc,d

Any druge 39.3% 8.1%** 12.2%** 10.5%** 23.9%** 31.7%**

Marijuana/hashish 27.5 6.1** 9.8** 8.4** 18.4** 26.0

Cocaine/crack 14.7 0.8** 1.4** 1.1** 4.1** 4.6**

Heroin/opiates 7.4 2.0** 2.4** 2.0** 5.6** 6.9

Depressantsf 7.6 0.8** 0.8** 0.7** 3.0** 3.4**

Stimulantsg 10.1 0.4** 0.4** 0.4** 1.8** 2.1**

Methamphetamine 8.2 0.2** 0.2** 0.1** 1.1** 1.3**

Hallucinogensh 6.3 0.4** 0.7** 0.5** 1.9** 2.4**

Inhalants 1.1 0.1** 0.2** 0.2** 0.3** 0.4**

Note: Detail sums to more than total because persons may have used more than one type drug. NIS estimates based on drug use in the month before arrest. General 

population estimates based on drug use in the past month. General population estimates standardized to the state prisoner population based on sex, race, Hispanic 

origin, and age. See appendix table 17 for standard errors.

*Comparison group. 

**Difference with the comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had not been arrested or on probation or parole in the past 12 months.

bIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had been on probation or parole in the past 12 months. 

cA small percentage of respondents said they had been on probation or parole and had been arrested in the past 12 months. See Methodology.

dIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had been arrested in the past 12 months. 

eIncludes other unspecified drugs.

f

Includes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaaludes.

gIncludes amphetamines and methamphetamine.

hIncludes LSD, PCP, and ecstasy.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys (NIS), 2007 and 2008–09; and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey 

on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 2007–2009. 

Among prisoners and adults in the general population, 

marijuana/hashish was reported as the most used drug in 

the month before the arrest or interview

State prisoners (28%) and adults in the general population 

(10%) reported more past month use of marijuana/hashish 

than any other drug. However, prisoners reported cocaine/

crack (15%) as the second most used drug in the month 

before. Adults in the general population reported heroin/

opiates (2%) as the second most reported drug used in the 

month before. 

The use of stimulants in the month before was higher among 

prisoners (10%) than adults in the general population (0.4%) 

and those with no past year criminal justice involvement 

(0.4%). Stimulant use was also higher among prisoners than 

among adults in the general population on probation or 

parole (2%) and those who had been arrested (2%).
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 12

Sentenced jail inmates were more likely than the general 

population to have used drugs in the prior month

During 2007-09, more than half (55%) of sentenced 

jail inmates used drugs in the month before the arrest 

(table 13). This compares to 12% of adults in the 

standardized general population with no criminal justice 

involvement, 14% of adults in the standardized general 

population, 27% of those on probation or parole, and 35% of 

those who had been arrested in the past year.

Across all drug types, sentenced jail inmates were more 

likely than adults in the general population to have used the 

drug in the month prior to their interview. This pattern also 

held for each subgroup of adults in the general population 

by criminal justice involvement.

Compared to the standardized total general population, 

sentenced jail inmates were more likely to have reported 

past month stimulant use (12% for jail inmates and 1% 

for the general population), to have used cocaine/crack 

(21% and 1%), and to have used depressants (12% and 1%).

TABLE 13 

Drug use among sentenced jail inmates and general population groups in the month before based on criminal justice system 

involvement in the past year, by drug type, 2007–2009

Adults in the general population

Sentenced 

jail inmates*

Total 

(nonstandardized)

Percent of standardized

Type of drug Total Noncriminala Under supervisionb,c Arrestedc,d

Any druge 54.5% 8.1%** 14.3%** 12.4%** 27.2%** 34.6%**

Marijuana/hashish 38.7 6.1** 11.8** 10.2** 21.6** 28.6**

Cocaine/crack 21.1 0.8** 1.4** 1.1** 4.2** 4.6**

Heroin/opiates 12.0 2.0** 2.8** 2.4** 6.6** 7.7**

Depressantsf 12.0 0.8** 1.0** 0.8** 3.1** 3.6**

Stimulantsg 12.3 0.4** 0.6** 0.4** 2.1** 2.3**

Methamphetamine 9.8 0.2** 0.2** 0.2** 1.2** 1.3**

Hallucinogensh 9.1 0.4** 0.9** 0.7** 2.4** 3.0**

Inhalants 1.1 0.1** 0.2** 0.2** 0.4** 0.5**

Note: Detail sums to more than total because persons may have used more than one type drug. NIS estimates based on drug use in the month before arrest. General 

population estimates based on drug use in the past month. General population estimates standardized to the state prisoner population based on sex, race, Hispanic 

origin, and age. See appendix table 18 for standard errors.

*Comparison group. 

**Difference with the comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

aIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had not been arrested or on probation or parole in the past 12 months.

bIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had been on probation or parole in the past 12 months. 

cA small percentage of respondents said they had been on probation or parole and had been arrested in the past 12 months. See Methodology.

dIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had been arrested in the past 12 months. 

eIncludes other unspecified drugs.

f

Includes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaaludes.

gIncludes amphetamines and methamphetamine.

hIncludes LSD, PCP, and ecstasy.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys (NIS), 2007 and 2008–09; and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey 

on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 2007–2009. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 13

TABLE 14 

Participation in drug treatment programs since admission 

among state prisoners and sentenced jail inmates who met 

drug dependence or abuse criteria, 2007–2009

Type of drug treatment program State prisoners

Sentenced 

jail inmates

Any drug treatment program 28.5% 22.2%

Treatment 14.9% 13.9%

Residential facility or unit 9.5 7.6

Counseling by a professional 6.3 6.1

Detoxification unit 1.3 2.0

Maintenance drug 0.4 0.9

Other programs 25.2% 16.5%

Self-help group/peer counseling 18.9 11.7

Education program 15.3 8.4

Note: See Methodology for definition of drug dependence and abuse based on 

the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. See 

appendix table 19 for standard errors.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

Participation in drug treatment programs

Fewer than a third of inmates who met the criteria for 

drug dependence or abuse received drug treatment or 

participated in a program

Among inmates who met the DSM-IV criteria for drug 

dependence or abuse, 28% of prisoners and 22% of jail 

inmates said they received drug treatment or participated in 

a program since admission to the current facility (table 14). 

However, inmates may have participated in or received more 

than one type of treatment program. Nineteen percent of 

those in prison said they participated in a self-help group 

or peer counseling, 15% were in a drug education program, 

10% were placed in a residential facility or unit, and 

6% received drug-related counseling by a professional. In 

comparison, about 12% of sentenced jail inmates who met 

the DSM-IV criteria participated in a self-help group or peer 

counseling, 8% were in a drug education program, 8% were 

placed in a residential facility or unit, and 6% received 

drug-related counseling by a professional.

Prisoner and jail inmate participation in a drug treatment 

program did not differ by time since arrival to the current 

facility or time until release

Prisoner and jail inmate participation in a drug treatment 

program was assessed by time spent in the current facility 

since arrival and expected time left until release. Among 

prisoners who met the criteria for dependence or abuse 

and had been in the current facility for 6 months or less, 

60% received or participated in a drug treatment program 

during 2007-09 (table 15). Of those prisoners who met the 

criteria for dependence or abuse and had 12 months or less 

before release, 64% said they had participated in a drug 

treatment program.

Among sentenced jail inmates who met the criteria for 

dependence or abuse and had been in the current facility 

for 6 months or less, 63% participated in a drug treatment 

program. The same percentage of jail inmates who met the 

criteria and had 12 months or less until release participated 

in a drug treatment program (63%).

TABLE 15 

Participation in drug treatment programs since arrival to 

current facility among state prisoners and sentenced jail 

inmates who met drug dependence or abuse criteria, by time 

served, 2007–2009

Time served in current facility State prisoners

Sentenced 

jail inmates

Time since arrival

6 months or less* 60.4% 62.6%

More than 6 months 57.4** 66.2**

Time until release

12 months or less* 63.5% 63.2%

More than 12 months 57.9** 64.0

Note: See Methodology for definition of drug dependence and abuse based on 

the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. See 

appendix table 20 for standard errors.

*Comparison group. 

**Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level. 

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 14

More inmates who met the criteria for dependence or 

abuse participated in a drug treatment program than 

adults in the general population

An estimated 11% of adults in the general population who 

met the DSM-IV criteria for drug dependence or abuse 

received or participated in a drug treatment program in 

the past 12 months prior to the interview (table 16). (See 

Methodology.) Among adults in the general population 

who met the criteria for dependence or abuse, criminal 

justice involvement increased the likelihood of past 

year participation in a drug treatment program. When 

standardized to match the prison population by sex, race, 

Hispanic origin, and age, about 8% of adults in the general 

population who met the criteria for dependence or abuse 

and had no past year criminal justice involvement received 

or participated in a drug treatment program in the past year. 

In comparison, 35% of the probation or parole population 

and 30% of those arrested in the past year were in a drug 

treatment program.

Adults in the general population who met the criteria 

for dependence or abuse and who participated in a drug 

treatment program in the past year reported more often 

that it was a self-help group compared to other treatment 

program type. When standardized to match the prison 

population by sex, race, Hispanic origin, and age, 30% 

of those on probation or parole, 23% of those who were 

arrested, 10% of adults in the total general population, 

and 5% of noncriminally justice-involved adults in the 

past year reported they had attended a self-help group. Of 

those adults who met the criteria for dependence or abuse 

and participated in a drug treatment program in the past 

year, 5% of those on probation or parole and 4% of those 

who were arrested reported that the location of this drug 

treatment program was in a prison or jail.

TABLE 16 

Drug treatment program participation in the past year among the general population who met drug dependence or abuse 

criteria, by location and involvement in criminal justice system, 2007–2009

Total 

(nonstandardized)

Percent of standardized

Drug treatment program location Total Noncriminala Under supervisionb,c Arrestedc,d

Any location 11.4% 13.7% 7.8% 34.9% 29.7%

Hospital, inpatient 4.2 5.2 2.8 12.1 9.5

Rehab facility, inpatient 5.4 7.3 4.7 16.1 10.6

Rehab facility, outpatient 6.8 8.4 4.6 22.2 16.0

Mental health facility, outpatient 4.2 4.4 2.6 8.7 7.5

Emergency room 2.2 2.5 1.8 4.9 4.1

Private doctor’s office 3.0 3.5 1.7 7.5 7.8

Self-help group 7.8 10.0 5.1 30.2 23.0

Prison or jail 1.1 1.8 0.1 5.4 4.0

Note: Persons may have received or participated in more than one drug treatment program. General population estimates have been standardized to the prisoner 

population based on sex, race, Hispanic origin, and age. See Methodology for definition of drug dependence and abuse based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of 

Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. See appendix table 21 for standard errors.

aIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had not been arrested or on probation or parole in the past 12 months.

bIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had been on probation or parole in the past 12 months. 

cA small percentage of respondents said they had been on probation or parole and had been arrested in the past 12 months. See Methodology.

dIncludes respondents from the 2007, 2008, and 2009 NSDUH who indicated they had been arrested in the past 12 months.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey on 

Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 2007–2009. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 15

Methodology

National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008-09

Estimates produced for this report are based on survey 

responses from the National Inmate Survey, 2007 (NIS-1) 

and the National Inmate Survey, 2008-09 (NIS-2). The 

NIS-1 was conducted in 127 state prisons, 14 federal 

prisons, and 282 local jails between April and December 

2007. The NIS-2 was conducted in 148 state prisons, 

19 federal prisons, 286 local jails, and 10 special facilities 

(military, Indian country, and Immigration and Customs 

Enforcement (ICE)) between October 2008 and December 

2009. RTI International, under a cooperative agreement with 

the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), collected the data for 

both collections.

The NIS-1 and NIS-2 administered two questionnaires 

to inmates: (1) a survey about sexual victimization while 

incarcerated and (2) a survey about prior drug and alcohol 

use, drug dependence and abuse symptoms, and treatment 

for drug dependence or abuse. Inmates were randomly 

assigned to receive one of the two questionnaires, so that at 

the time of the interview, the content of the survey remained 

unknown to facility staff and the interviewers.

A total of 71,571 inmates participated in NIS-1 and 

81,566 inmates participated in NIS-2 receiving either 

the sexual victimization survey or the randomly 

assigned companion survey. In NIS-1, the surveys 

were administered to 22,943 inmates in state prisons, 

3,214 federal prisons, and 45,414 inmates in jails. In NIS-2, 

the surveys were administered to 28,749 state prisoners, 

3,280 federal prisoners, 48,066 inmates in jails, and 

1,471 inmates in special facilities.

The interviews, which averaged 30 minutes, used 

computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) and audio 

computer-assisted self-interviewing (ACASI) data collection 

methods. In both surveys, interviewers conducted a personal 

interview using CAPI to obtain background information 

and date of administration. For the remainder of the 

interview, inmates interacted with a computer administered 

questionnaire using a touchscreen and synchronized 

audio instructions delivered via headphones. Respondents 

completed the ACASI portion of the interview in private, 

with the interviewer either leaving the room or moving away 

from the computer. ACASI administration helped to elicit 

more candid responses on sensitive subjects and behaviors, 

eliminated literacy issues, and protected respondents’ 

privacy. While underreporting of behaviors may exist, the 

relative extent is unknown.

A shorter paper questionnaire (PAPI) was made available 

for inmates who were unable to come to the private 

interviewing room or interact with the computer. The paper 

form was completed by 530 NIS-1 and 496 NIS-2 prisoners 

(or 2.0% for NIS-1 and 1.5% for NIS-2 prisoner interviews) 

and 233 NIS-1 and 226 NIS-2 jail inmates (0.5% of all jail 

inmate interviews in both NIS-1 and NIS-2). Inmates who 

completed the PAPI were not asked about their prior drug 

and alcohol use or treatment for drug abuse.

Additional information on the methodology for sample 

selection of facilities and inmates can be found in Sexual 

Victimization in Local Jails Reported by Inmates, 2007

(NCJ 221946, BJS web, June 2008), Sexual Victimization 

in State and Federal Prisons Reported by Inmates, 2007

(NCJ 219414, BJS web, December 2007), and Sexual 

Victimization in Prisons and Jails Reported by Inmates, 

2008-09 (NCJ 231169, BJS web, August 2010).

In this report, the analysis of past drug use, drug dependence 

and abuse symptoms, and treatment was restricted to adult 

state prisoners or jail inmates. Inmates in federal prisons, 

military, Indian country, or ICE facilities were excluded from 

this report.

Measurement of prior drug use and drug 

abuse treatment

Prior drug use, drug dependence and abuse symptoms, 

and treatment modules were administered to participating 

inmates in the NIS-1 and NIS-2 for one of two reasons:

1. To ensure the survey length was similar for all 

participating prisoners and jail inmates regardless of 

whether they had experienced a victimization.

2. As part of the alternative survey, the drug use questions 

consisted of an initial screener asking about each type 

of drug a prisoner or jail inmate may have used in their 

lifetime prior to incarceration. For each drug that an 

inmate had used, follow-up questions were asked about 

the frequency of use and periods in which the inmate 

used the drug (e.g., month prior to the offense, at the 

time of the offense).

Questions on past drug use consisted of an initial screener 

asking about eight types of drugs a prisoner or jail inmate 

may have ever used in their lifetime: marijuana/hashish, 

cocaine/crack, heroin/opiates, depressants, stimulants, 

methamphetamine, hallucinogens, and inhalants. For each 

drug that an inmate said they had ever used, follow-up 

questions were asked about the frequency in which each 

drug was used and periods in which the inmate used the 

drug (e.g., month prior to the offense or at the time of 

the offense).

Prisoners and jail inmates who met the drug dependence or 

abuse criteria were asked if they had attended any kind of drug 

treatment program since admission to the current facility. 

Drug treatment programs were defined as (1) spending time 

in a special facility or unit, (2) counseling with a trained 

professional while not living in a special facility or unit, 

(3) spending up to 72 hours in a detoxification unit to dry 

out, (4) receiving a maintenance drug to cut the high or to 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 16

make you sick (e.g., methadone), (5) self-help or peer group 

counseling (e.g., Narcotics Anonymous), or (6) an education 

or awareness program that explained the problems with 

drug use.

Among prisoners and jail inmates who received the sexual 

victimization survey (90% of inmates surveyed in NIS-1 

and 95% of inmates surveyed in NIS-2), inmates received 

the prior drug use, dependence and abuse symptoms, and 

treatment components only if they completed the sexual 

victimization modules in less than 30 minutes. Based on 

this criterion, 38,008 state prisoners received the past drug 

use and drug abuse treatment modules (80% of sexual 

victimization survey prison respondents). Among jail 

respondents, 73,396 inmates received the past drug use 

and drug abuse treatment modules (86% of jail sexual 

victimization survey respondents).

A total of 3,432 state prisoners and 6,577 jail inmates 

were randomized to the alternative survey. This constituted 

10% of NIS-1 respondents and 5% of NIS-2 respondents. 

These prisoners and jail inmates received the full set of 

past drug use, dependence and abuse symptoms, and 

treatment modules.

Measurement of drug dependence and abuse

To determine if a prisoner or jail inmate met the criteria 

for drug dependence or abuse, a series of questions was 

modeled after the DSM-IV criteria and included on the NIS 

surveys. The following NIS questions were used to assess 

drug dependence with the corresponding DSM-IV criteria 

category in parentheses. A positive response to three or 

more of the items indicated that a prisoner or jail inmate 

likely met the DSM-IV criteria for dependence.

During the year before you were admitted to the 

current facility—

1. Did your usual amount of drugs have less effect on you 

than it once did or did you have to use more to get the 

effect you wanted? (tolerance)

2. Did you experience some of the bad after-effects of 

using drugs after cutting down or stopping your drug 

use—like shaking, feeling nervous or anxious, sick to 

your stomach, restless, sweating, or having trouble 

sleeping or fits or seizures, or see, feel, or hear things 

that weren’t really there? (withdrawal-a)

3. Did you ever keep using drugs to get over any of the 

bad after-effects of a drug or to keep from having bad 

after-effects? (withdrawal-b)

4. Did you often use a drug in larger amounts or for longer 

periods than you meant to? (compulsive use)

5. Did you more than once want to cut down on your drug 

use or try to cut down on your drug use but found you 

couldn’t do it? (impaired control)

6. Did you spend a lot of time getting drugs, using them, 

or getting over the bad after-effects? (time spent)

7. Did you give up activities that you were interested in 

or that were important to you in favor of using drugs 

like—work, school, hobbies, or associating with family 

and friends? (neglect of activities)

8. Did you continue to use drugs even though it was 

causing emotional or psychological problems? 

(continued use despite problems-a)

9. Did you continue to use drugs even though it 

was causing physical health or medical problems? 

(continued use despite problems-b)

For each symptom, the percentage of prisoners reporting 

they experienced symptoms ranged from 31% (withdrawal) 

to 40% (continued use despite problems) (table 17). 

Approximately 45% of prisoners had no dependence 

symptoms, 8% had one, and 47% had two or more. For 

jail inmates, the percentage who experienced symptoms 

ranged from 37% (withdrawal, time spent obtaining and 

using, and neglect of activities) to 46% (continued use 

despite problems). Thirty-nine percent of jail inmates had 

no dependence symptoms, 8% had one, and 53% had two 

or more.

Table 17 

State prisoners and sentenced jail inmates who answered 

affirmatively to dependence symptoms, by symptom type 

and number of symptoms, 2007–2009

Symptom State prisoners 

Sentenced 

jail inmates 

Dependence symptoms 40.5% 47.2%

Tolerance 37.7 43.6

Withdrawal 30.5 37.1

Compulsive use 35.9 41.1

Impaired control 36.9 44.2

Time spent obtaining and using 31.8 37.1

Neglect of activities 31.4 37.2

Continued use despite problems 40.4 46.0

Number of symptoms

0 45.0% 38.6%

1 8.3 8.3

2 6.2 5.9

3 5.9 6.0

4–5 11.0 11.9

6–7 23.7 29.2

Note: See appendix table 22 for standard errors.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 17

The following NIS questions were used to measure if a 

person met the drug abuse criteria. The corresponding 

DSM-IV criteria category follows in parentheses. A positive 

response to one or more of the items, in conjunction with 

fewer than three positive responses to the dependence items, 

indicated that a prisoner or jail inmate was likely to have met 

the criteria for drug abuse.

During the year before you were admitted to the current 

this facility—

1. Did you lose a job because of your drug use? (failure to 

fulfill obligations-a)

2. Did you have job or school trouble because of your drug 

use, like missing too much work, not doing your work 

well, being demoted at work, or dropping out of school? 

(failure to fulfill obligations-b)

3. Did using drugs or being sick from using drugs keep 

you from doing work, going to school, or caring for 

children? (failure to fulfill obligations-c)

4. Did you get into situations while using drugs or just 

after using drugs that increased your chances of getting 

hurt—like driving a car or other vehicle, swimming, 

using machinery, or walking in a dangerous area or 

around traffic? (use in hazardous situations)

5. Did you get arrested or held at a police station because 

of your drug use? (legal problems)

6. Did you have arguments with your spouse, boyfriend or 

girlfriend, family, or friends while under the influence 

of a drug? (social problems-a)

7. Did you get into a physical fight while under the 

influence of a drug? (social problems-b)

8. Did you continue to use drugs even though it was 

causing problems with family, friends, or work?” 

(social problems-c)

For each abuse symptom, the percentage of prisoners 

reporting they experienced symptoms ranged from 

28% (legal problems) to 52% (social problems) (table 18). 

Approximately 43% of prisoners had no abuse symptoms, 

14% had one, and 43% had two or more. Among jail 

inmates, the percentage who met each abuse symptoms 

ranged from 31% (use in hazardous situations) to 

56% (social problems). Thirty-eight percent had no 

symptoms, 14% had one, and 48% had two or more.

Nonresponse bias analysis

Bias occurs when the estimated prevalence of an outcome 

is different from the actual prevalence of the outcome for a 

given facility. One potential source of bias is nonresponse. 

A nonresponse bias analysis was conducted to determine 

if prisoners or jail inmates who did not receive the past 

drug use, alcohol, and drug abuse treatment modules were 

different from those who did.

Among the sexual victimization survey respondents, there 

were two potential sources for nonresponse bias. First, due 

to time limitations in the survey, about 20% of ACASI state 

prison respondents and 16% of ACASI jail respondents 

did not receive the drug, alcohol, and treatment modules. 

These respondents were more likely to have indicated a 

sexual victimization. While these percentages were large, 

it was determined to be possible to adjust for this potential 

bias through a post-survey weight adjustment (see section 

on Weighting and nonresponse adjustments). Second, 

prisoners or jail inmates who took the survey via PAPI 

did not receive the past drug use, dependence, or abuse 

symptoms, or treatment modules. The sexual assault survey 

PAPI respondents were found to have a higher prevalence of 

sexual victimization. Given that the PAPI respondents made 

up 1.8% of prison respondents and 0.5% of jail respondents 

across the combined survey years, it was determined that 

a weight adjustment could reduce the potential bias due to 

PAPI respondents not being asked the past drug use and 

drug abuse items.

For the alternative survey, since all respondents completed 

the survey via ACASI, there was no potential for bias due to 

the mode of the interview.

Table 18 

State prisoners and sentenced jail inmates who answered 

affirmatively to abuse symptoms, by symptom type and 

number of symptoms, 2007–2009

Symptom State prisoners 

Sentenced 

jail inmates 

Abuse symptoms 56.8% 61.9%

Failure to fulfill obligations 33.0 38.8

Use in hazardous situations 29.3 30.7

Legal problems 27.9 32.1

Social problems 51.9 56.4

Number of symptoms

0 43.2% 38.1%

1 13.6 13.9

2 14.7 15.2

3 14.5 17.2

4 13.9 15.5

Note: See appendix table 23 for standard errors.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 18

Weighting and nonresponse adjustments

Responses from interviewed prisoners and jail inmates 

were weighted to produce national-level estimates. 

Each interviewed inmate was assigned an initial weight 

corresponding to the inverse of the probability of selection 

within each sampled facility. A series of adjustment factors 

was applied to the initial weight to minimize potential bias 

due to nonresponse and to provide national estimates:

1. The adjustment of overall survey nonresponse is 

described in detail in Sexual Victimization in Local 

Jails Reported by Inmates, 2007 (NCJ 221946, BJS web, 

June 2008), Sexual Victimization in State and Federal 

Prisons Reported by Inmates, 2007 (NCJ 219414, 

BJS web, December 2007), and Sexual Victimization 

in Prisons and Jails Reported by Inmates, 2008-09

(NCJ 231169, BJS web, August 2010).

2. A second weighting adjustment was conducted to 

account for the potential bias due to survey mode 

nonresponse among the sexual victimization survey 

respondents. Bias could result if the PAPI respondents 

were different from the ACASI respondents. Because 

PAPI respondents received only the sexual victimization 

survey, this adjustment was not applied to alternative 

survey respondents. The adjustment for mode 

nonresponse included a calibration of the weights so 

that the weight from a PAPI respondent was assigned 

to an ACASI respondent with similar characteristics. 

Since both ACASI and PAPI respondents provided 

demographic and criminal history information, 

these data were used in weight adjustment. For each 

inmate, these adjustments were based on a generalized 

exponential model developed by Folsom and Singh 

(2002), and applied to the sexual victimization survey 

respondents.5

3. A third adjustment corrected for module nonresponse. 

Sexual victimization survey respondents who did not 

complete the sexual victimization modules within 

30 minutes and, therefore, did not receive the past 

drug use or drug abuse treatment modules were 

considered nonrespondents. Because alternative survey 

respondents did not have a similar time constraint, this 

adjustment was not applied to inmates randomized to 

the alternative survey.

The module nonresponse adjustment included a calibration 

of the weights so that the weight from a past drug use 

and drug abuse treatment module nonrespondent was 

assigned to a responding prisoner or jail inmate with similar 

characteristics. The adjustment used data from modules that 

both groups completed, including demographic, criminal 

history, sexual victimization, and interview debriefing 

characteristics. This adjustment ensured that the estimates 

accurately reflected the full sample, rather than only the 

prisoners and jail inmates who responded to the past drug 

use or drug abuse treatment modules. For each inmate, these 

adjustments were based on a generalized exponential model 

and applied to the sexual victimization survey respondents.

The survey mode and module nonresponse adjustments 

maintained the control totals designed to provide 

national-level estimates for the number of prisoners and jail 

inmates age 18 or older who were held in jails at midyear 

2007 for NIS-1 and 2009 for NIS-2, or in prison at yearend 

in 2007 and 2009.6 The totals estimated the number of 

prisoners and jail inmates by sex during the survey period. 

These totals came from BJS’s Annual Survey of Jails and 

National Prisoner Statistics Program for local jail and state 

prison respondents. In 2007, the national estimates for 

local jails (with an average daily population of six or more 

inmates) were 673,005 males and 99,810 females. In 2009, 

the national estimates for state prisons were 1,178,916 adult 

males and 88,518 adult females. For jails with an average 

daily population of six or more inmates, estimates included 

678,136 adult males and 99,096 adult females.

4. A fourth adjustment corrected survey weights to 

account for the combining of multiple survey years to 

allow survey totals to represent the average number 

of prisoners or jail inmates across the survey years 

included in the analytic file. The weight adjustment 

was produced by dividing the mode nonresponse 

adjusted weights by the number of survey years being 

combined—in this case 2 years.

5. A final adjustment was applied to combine data from 

the sexual victimization survey and the alternative 

survey. For this adjustment, the weight for each 

responding prisoner or jail inmate was multiplied by 

the probability of receiving the survey type received. In 

NIS-1 the survey nonresponse and mode nonresponse 

adjusted weight for the ACASI respondents were 

multiplied by 0.90 for the sexual victimization survey 

and by 0.10 for respondents to the alternative survey. In 

NIS-2 the survey nonresponse and mode nonresponse 

adjusted weight for the ACASI respondents were 

multiplied by 0.95 in the sexual victimization survey 

and 0.05 for respondents to the alternative survey.

5Folsom, Jr., R.E., and Singh, A.C. (2002). The generalized exponential 

model for sampling weight calibration for extreme values, nonresponse, and 

poststratification. Proceedings of the American Statistical Association, Survey 

Research Methods Section, pp. 598–603.

6In NIS-1 the state inmate population was not benchmarked to the National 

Prisoner Statistics.
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 19

Standard errors and tests of significance

As with any survey, the NIS estimates are subject to error 

arising from their basis on a sample rather than a complete 

enumeration of the population of adult inmates in prisons 

and jails. For past drug use, dependence and abuse 

symptoms, and treatment outcomes, the estimated sampling 

error varies by the size of the estimate, by the number of 

completed interviews, and by the intracluster correlation of 

the outcome within facilities.

A common way to express this sampling variability is to 

construct a 95% confidence interval around each survey 

estimate. Typically, multiplying the standard error by 

1.96 and then adding or subtracting the result from the 

estimate produces the confidence interval. This interval 

expresses the range of values that could result among 95% of 

the different samples that could be drawn.

To facilitate the analysis, differences in the estimates of 

sexual victimization for subgroups in these tables have been 

tested and notated for significance at the 95% confidence 

level. For example, the difference in the percentage of 

state prisoners who reported ever using heroin/opiates 

during 2007-09 compared to state prisoners and jail 

inmates in 2004 is statistically significant at the 95% 

confidence level (table 1). In all tables providing detailed 

comparisons, statistically significant differences at the 

95% level of confidence or greater have been designated 

with two asterisks (**) when comparing two different 

population types (e.g., persons in prison and persons in the 

general population).

Comparing NIS estimates to prior prisoner and jail 

inmate surveys

In analyzing past drug use, dependence and abuse 

symptoms, and treatment among jail inmates, the analysis 

was restricted to sentenced jail inmates. The jail population 

was restricted to be comparable to the Survey of Inmates 

in Local Jail surveys. The prior survey was restricted to 

sentenced jail inmates to ensure the respondent would meet 

the minimum time in the facility to be eligible for the survey, 

and also to increase the likelihood that the jail respondents 

would be eligible to have access to treatment services while 

in jail.

The NIS estimates on drug dependence and abuse and drug 

abuse treatment were not compared to prior inmate surveys 

(e.g., 2004 Survey of Inmates in State Correctional Facilities 

and 2002 Survey of Inmates in Local Jails) for two reasons. 

First, the NIS used a different data collection mode from 

the prior inmate surveys. The NIS used ACASI for the drug 

dependence and abuse criteria and drug abuse treatment 

modules. The prior prisoner and jail inmate surveys 

used CAPI for these modules. Second, prior prisoner 

and jail inmate surveys asked about drug use during the 

“past month since the inmate’s current incarceration.” 

However, the NIS asked about drug use during the “past 

month since admission to the current facility.” Some 

prisoners or jail inmates may have been in a different 

facility—either another prison or a local jail—during the 

prior month to admission to their current facility.

These mode and measurement differences may confound 

any differences found when comparing estimates over 

time. In other words, any differences between prior 

surveys and the NIS may be due to changes over time or 

due to measurement and mode differences. Therefore, it is 

difficult to make confident statements regarding change. 

Furthermore, the measurement and mode differences 

impact the NIS estimates in different ways. As noted, 

ACASI is expected to yield higher estimates than CAPI. 

However, the instrument wording changes in the NIS likely 

suppress the past month drug use estimate because inmates 

did not have access to drugs while in another facility. The 

magnitude of each of these differences is not known, which 

makes comparisons with past surveys that used different 

methodologies and question wording difficult.

Drug use in the general population

Drug use estimates in the general population come from to 

the NSDUH. To be most comparable to the prisoner and 

jail inmate population included in the NIS, the NSDUH 

2007-2009 survey years were used in this analysis.

Using indicators provided in the NSDUH survey, the 

general population was split into three groups: (1) persons 

not involved in the criminal justice system during the past 

12 months, (2) those on probation or parole during the past 

12 months, and (3) those arrested in the past 12 months. 

These groups are not mutually exclusive in that a person 

can be both on probation or parole and arrested in the past 

12 months. For 2007-09, 1% of respondents said they were 

on probation or parole and had been arrested in the past 

12 months. These persons are represented in both criminal 

justice categories. Persons in the general population on 

probation and parole or arrested in the past 12 months 

should be more similar to the prisoner and jail inmate 

population than those never involved with the criminal 

justice system during the past 12 months. Figure 1 and tables 

4, 5, 9, 10, and 14 compare the inmate population in prisons 

and jails to the general population.

Standardization of general population estimates

When comparing two populations, differences found for 

some characteristics or conditions may be statistically 

different as a result of a true difference in the populations 

or due to basic demographic differences that are associated 

with the outcome of interest. One method to determine 

if these demographic differences are the sole cause for 

differences found for other characteristics or conditions is to 

standardize the estimates.
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 20

Standardization of survey estimates consists of calibrating 

the survey weights for one population such that, for key 

demographic characteristics that are known for each 

population, the distributions are identical. This process 

was done using the statistical software SUDAAN’s PROC 

DESCRIPT procedure. The resulting estimates are not a 

representation of the standardized population by themselves 

(i.e., generalizations about the population cannot be made 

from standardized estimates), but are appropriate estimates 

for comparison with other populations of interest.

In this report, estimates were standardized for each of the 

three general population types. For each general population 

type, estimates were standardized to the prisoner and 

jail inmate population’s distribution by sex, race and 

Hispanic origin, and age. Because the prison and jail 

inmate populations differed, the general population was 

standardized separately to each inmate population (see 

appendix tables 3 and 4). For the general, noncriminally 

involved population, estimates were standardized to the 

inmate population’s distribution based on race and Hispanic 

origin, age, and self-reported veteran status. Tables 3 and 

12 include standardized estimates to the prison population. 

Tables 4 and 13 include standardized estimates to the jail 

population. When standardization is done both the crude 

(unstandardized) and standardized estimates are presented 

for comparability.
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 21

Appendix table 1

Standard errors for figure 1: Inmates and adult general 

population who met the criteria for drug dependence or 

abuse, 2007–2009

Population Dependence Abuse

State prisoners 0.78% 0.45%

Sentenced jail inmates 0.74 0.44

Adult general population 0.17 0.09

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; 

and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey 

on Drug Use and Health, 2007–2009.

Appendix table 2 

Standard errors for table 1: State prisoners and sentenced 

jail inmates who met the criteria for drug dependence or 

abuse, 2007–2009

Diagnostic criteria State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

Dependence or abuse 0.77% 0.67%

Dependence 0.78 0.74

Abuse 0.45 0.44

No dependence or abuse 0.77% 0.67%

Total count 41,900 18,400

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

Appendix table 3 

Standard errors for table 2: Drug dependence and abuse 

among state prisoners and sentenced jail inmates, by 

selected characteristics, 2007–2009

State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

Characteristic Count Percent Count Percent

All inmates 24,100 0.77% 11,500 0.67%

Sex

Male 23,900 0.82% 9,900 0.71%

Female 6,500 1.31 2,800 1.69

Race/Hispanic origin

White 11,800 1.22% 5,900 0.89%

Black 11,600 1.05 5,800 1.09

Hispanic 10,200 1.60 2,500 1.48

Two or more races 3,700 2.19 1,100 2.38

Other 2,500 3.52 600 5.22

Age

18–24 7,700 1.44% 3,300 1.29%

25–34 9,200 1.12 3,900 1.10

35–44 8,800 1.11 3,800 1.41

45–54 7,300 1.36 2,200 1.73

55 or older 1,700 2.52 400 3.54

Most serious offense

Violent 14,200 1.03% 3,400 1.26%

Property 8,100 1.27 4,300 1.10

Drug 8,300 1.32 3,300 1.30

DWI/DUI 2,000 4.18 1,300 2.92

Other public order 2,000 2.90 1,900 1.54

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

Appendix table 4 

Standard errors for table 3: Drug dependence and abuse 

among state prisoners and general population groups, by 

criminal justice system involvement, 2007–2009

Adults in general population

Diagnostic 

criteria

State 

prisoners Total Noncriminal

Under 

supervision Arrested

Dependence 

 or abuse 0.77% 0.20% 0.18% 0.98% 1.31%

Dependence 0.78 0.17 0.14 0.97 1.31

Abuse 0.45 0.09 0.09 0.38 0.54

No dependence 

 or abuse 0.77% 0.20% 0.18% 0.98% 1.31%

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; 

and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National 

Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2007–2009.

APPENDIX TABLE 5

Standard errors for table 4: Drug dependence and abuse 

among sentenced jail inmates and general population 

groups, by criminal justice involvement, 2007–2009

Sentenced 

jail 

inmates

Adults in the general population

Diagnostic 

criteria Total Noncriminal

Under 

supervision Arrested

Dependence 

 or abuse 0.67% 0.19% 0.17% 0.84% 1.11%

Dependence 0.74 0.15 0.12 0.86 1.11

Abuse 0.44 0.09 0.09 0.37 0.45

No dependence 

 or abuse 0.67% 0.19% 0.17% 0.84% 1.11%

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; 

and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National 

Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2007–2009.
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 22

APPENDIX TABLE 6 

Standard errors for table 5: State prisoners and sentenced jail 

inmates who had ever used or regularly used drugs, by drug 

type, 2002, 2004, and 2007–2009

State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

Type of drug 2004 2007–2009 2002 2007–2009

Ever used

Any drug 0.48% 0.53% 0.69% 0.50%

Marijuana/hashish 0.56 0.59 0.80 0.59

Cocaine/crack 0.64 0.86 0.87 0.85

Heroin/opiates 0.55 0.77 0.77 0.74

Depressants 0.56 0.81 0.80 0.83

Stimulants 0.79 1.12 1.03 1.04

Methamphetamine 0.76 1.18 1.01 1.06

Hallucinogens 0.62 0.75 0.96 0.64

Inhalants 0.46 0.63 0.61 0.54

Regularly used

Any drug 0.55% 0.63% 0.93% 0.59%

Marijuana/hashish 0.56 0.65 0.93 0.60

Cocaine/crack 0.52 0.71 0.78 0.78

Heroin/opiates 0.41 0.59 0.60 0.70

Depressants 0.34 0.58 0.61 0.67

Stimulants 0.66 1.06 0.85 0.84

Methamphetamine 0.64 1.07 0.81 1.07

Hallucinogens 0.34 0.52 0.57 0.67

Inhalants 0.23 0.35 0.35 0.27

Total count 200 41,900 177,900 18,400

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; 

Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 2002; and Survey of Inmates in State Correctional 

Facilities, 2004.

Appendix table 7 

Standard errors for table 6: State prisoners and sentenced 

jail inmates who used drugs at time of offense, by drug type, 

2007–2009

Type of drug State prisoners

Sentenced 

jail inmates

Any drug 0.69% 0.71%

Marijuana/hashish 0.54 0.53

Cocaine/crack 0.58 0.47

Heroin/opiates 0.38 0.44

Depressants 0.30 0.39

Stimulants 0.77 0.58

Methamphetamine 0.74 0.56

Hallucinogens 0.29 0.29

Inhalants 0.07 0.09

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09.

Appendix table 8 

Standard errors for table 7: State prisoners and sentenced 

jail inmates who committed offense to get money for drugs, 

by type of offense, 2007–2009

Most serious offense State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

All inmates 0.68% 0.58%

Violent 0.69 1.04

Property 1.26 1.28

Drug 1.49 1.33

DWI/DUI 0.28 0.66

Other public order 1.56 0.79

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09.

Appendix table 9 

Standard errors for table 8: Drug use in month before 

offense and at the time of offense among state prisoners 

and sentenced jail inmates, by selected characteristics, 

2007–2009

State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates

Characteristic

Month before 

offense

At time 

of offense

Month before 

offense

At time 

of offense

All inmates 0.82% 0.69% 0.77% 0.71%

Sex

Male 0.87% 0.73% 0.78% 0.78%

Female 2.08 1.66 2.12 2.05

Race/Hispanic origin

White 1.19% 1.13% 0.99% 1.19%

Black 1.08 1.05 1.42 1.08

Hispanic 1.51 1.46 1.56 1.60

Two or more races 2.18 2.23 2.69 2.45

Other 3.49 4.15 4.58 3.63

Age

18–24 1.53% 1.51% 1.09% 1.23%

25–34 1.14 1.13 1.25 1.14

35–44 1.14 1.17 1.76 1.46

45–54 1.62 1.39 1.77 1.79

55 or older 1.80 2.12 3.01 2.14

Most serious offense

Violent 0.90% 0.91% 1.38% 1.28%

Property 1.43 1.37 1.42 1.31

Drug 1.43 1.36 1.35 1.33

DWI/DUI 4.90 4.70 2.16 1.73

Other public order 3.27 2.77 1.54 1.14

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 23

APPENDIX TABLE 12 

Standard errors for table 9: Regular cocaine/crack use 

among state prisoners and sentenced jail inmates, by 

selected characteristics, 2007–2009 

Characteristic State prisoners

Sentenced 

jail inmates 

Sex

Male 0.63% 0.56%

Female 2.46 1.63

Race/Hispanic origin

White 1.14% 0.82%

Black 0.85 0.81

Hispanic 1.34 1.10

Other 1.57 1.75

Age

18–24 1.50% 0.83%

25–34 1.00 0.88

35–44 1.15 1.21

45–54 1.28 1.21

55 or older 1.61 2.61

Most serious offense

Violent 0.83% 0.91%

Property 1.25 1.08

Drug 1.15 0.94

DWI/DUI 4.72 2.06

Other public order 1.92 1.01

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

APPENDIX TABLE 10 

Standard errors for figure 2: Regular drug use among state 

prisoners, by race and Hispanic origin, 2007–2009

Type of drug White Black Hispanic 

Any drug 0.97% 0.89% 1.55%

Cocaine/crack 1.14 0.85 1.34

Methamphetamine 1.57 0.24 1.47

Heroin/opiates 1.04 0.56 1.05

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

APPENDIX TABLE 11 

Standard errors for figure 3: Regular drug use among 

sentenced jail inmates, by race and Hispanic origin, 

2007–2009

Type of drug White Black Hispanic 

Any drug 0.59% 0.64% 1.24%

Cocaine/crack 0.82 0.81 1.10

Methamphetamine 1.57 0.24 1.47

Heroin/opiates 1.04 0.56 1.05

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

APPENDIX TABLE 13 

Standard errors for table 10: Regular use of 

methamphetamine among state prisoners and sentenced 

jail inmates, by selected characteristics, 2007–2009

Characteristic State prisoners

Sentenced 

jail inmates 

Sex

Male 0.98% 0.86%

Female 2.90 1.85

Race/Hispanic origin

White 1.57% 1.47%

Black 0.24 0.36

Hispanic 1.47 1.27

Other 2.17 1.53

Age

18–24 1.57% 0.82%

25–34 1.13 1.21

35–44 1.20 1.30

45–54 1.38 1.05

55 or older 1.07 1.53

Most serious offense

Violent 0.87% 1.24%

Property 1.68 1.38

Drug 1.37 1.20

DWI/DUI 3.38 1.45

Other public order 1.75 1.05

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

APPENDIX TABLE 14

Standard errors for table 11: Regular use of heroin/opiates 

among state prisoners and sentenced jail inmates, by 

selected characteristics, 2007–2009

Characteristic State prisoners Sentenced jail inmates 

Sex

Male 0.53% 0.5%

Female 2.20 1.20

Race/Hispanic origin

White 1.04% 0.90%

Black 0.56 0.72

Hispanic 1.05 0.95

Other 1.31 1.46

Age

18–24 1.01% 0.80%

25–34 0.71 0.76

35–44 0.96 0.93

45–54 1.29 1.18

55 or older 1.56 2.09

Most serious offense

Violent 0.58% 0.66%

Property 1.27 0.96

Drug 0.88 0.90

DWI/DUI 5.17 1.16

Other public order 1.11 0.96

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 24

APPENDIX TABLE 15 

Standard errors for figure 4: Drug use in adult general 

population who had ever used drugs, 2002–2004 and 

2007–2009

Type of drug 2002–2004 2007–2009

Any drug 0.42% 0.25%

Marijuana/hashish 0.36 0.26

Cocaine/crack 0.30 0.18

Heroin/opiates 0.30 0.17

Depressants 0.27 0.13

Stimulants 0.21 0.14

Methamphetamine 0.20 0.11

Hallucinogens 0.29 0.17

Inhalants 0.22 0.14

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

APPENDIX TABLE 16 

Standard errors for figure 5: Drug use in adult general 

population who regularly used drugs, 2002–2004 and 

2007–2009

Type of drug 2002–2004 2007–2009

Any drug 0.17% 0.11%

Marijuana/hashish 0.16 0.09

Cocaine/crack 0.06 0.04

Heroin/opiates 0.10 0.05

Depressants 0.06 0.03

Stimulants 0.04 0.02

Methamphetamine 0.03 0.02

Hallucinogens 0.03 0.02

Inhalants 0.03 0.02

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

APPENDIX TABLE 17 

Standard errors for table 12: Drug use among state prisoners and general population groups in the month before based on 

involvement in the criminal justice system in the past year, by drug type, 2007–2009

Adults in the general population

State prisoners

Total 

(nonstandardized)

Percent of standardized

Type of drug Total Noncriminal Under supervision Arrested

Any drug 0.82% 0.11% 0.26% 0.22% 1.48% 1.42%

Marijuana/hashish 0.68 0.09 0.23 0.20 1.21 1.42

Cocaine/crack 0.56 0.04 0.12 0.11 0.67 0.65

Heroin/opiates 0.39 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.60 0.71

Depressants 0.37 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.67 0.62

Stimulants 0.62 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.33 0.34

Methamphetamine 0.60 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.27 0.29

Hallucinogens 0.31 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.50 0.47

Inhalants 0.16 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.14 0.15

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey on 

Drug Use and Health, 2007–2009. 

APPENDIX TABLE 18 

Standard errors for table 13: Drug use among sentenced jail inmates and general population groups in the month before 

based on involvement in the criminal justice system in the past year, by drug type, 2007–2009

Adults in the general population

Sentenced 

jail inmates

Total 

(nonstandardized)

Percent of standardized

Type of drug Total Noncriminal Under supervision Arrested

Any drug 0.77% 0.11% 0.25% 0.21% 1.31% 1.22%

Marijuana/hashish 0.78 0.09 0.23 0.19 1.08 1.22

Cocaine/crack 0.64 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.58 0.55

Heroin/opiates 0.54 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.58 0.61

Depressants 0.54 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.50 0.45

Stimulants 0.55 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.33 0.29

Methamphetamine 0.64 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.27 0.21

Hallucinogens 0.41 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.45 0.41

Inhalants 0.12 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.11 0.16

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey on 

Drug Use and Health, 2007–2009. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 25

APPENDIX TABLE 19 

Standard errors for table 14: Participation in drug treatment 

programs since admission among state prisoners and 

sentenced jail inmates who met drug dependence or abuse 

criteria, 2007–2009

Type of drug treatment program State prisoners

Sentenced 

jail inmates

Any drug treatment program 1.05% 0.98%

Treatment 0.82% 0.82%

Residential facility or unit 0.67 0.69

Counseling by a professional 0.47 0.51

Detoxification unit 0.22 0.34

Maintenance drug 0.13 0.24

Other programs 0.97% 0.89%

Self-help group/peer counseling 0.85 0.68

Education program 0.72 0.63

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

APPENDIX TABLE 20 

Standard errors for table 15: Participation in drug treatment 

programs since admission to current facility among 

state prisoners and sentenced jail inmates who met drug 

dependence or abuse criteria, by time served, 2007–2009

Time served in current facility State prisoners

Sentenced 

jail inmates

Time since arrival

6 months or less 1.00% 0.72%

More than 6 months 0.90 1.38

Time until release

12 months or less 1.12% 0.82%

More than 12 months 0.92 1.79

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

APPENDIX TABLE 21 

Standard errors for table 16: Drug treatment program participation in the past year among the general population who met 

drug dependence or abuse criteria, by location and involvement in criminal justice system, 2007–2009

Total 

(nonstandardized)

Percent of standardized

Drug treatment program location Total Noncriminal Under supervision Arrested

Any location 0.63% 1.30% 1.14% 2.78% 2.40%

Hospital, inpatient 0.41 0.71 0.69 2.03 1.83

Rehab facility, inpatient 0.48 0.95 1.02 2.42 1.99

Rehab facility, outpatient 0.48 1.00 1.02 2.76 2.57

Mental health facility, outpatient 0.39 0.61 0.44 1.78 1.51

Emergency room 0.34 0.53 0.63 1.74 1.15

Private doctors office 0.37 1.00 0.36 0.58 0.94

Self-help group 0.55 1.25 1.04 2.63 2.43

Prison or jail 0.24 0.65 0.12 2.10 1.44

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09; and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Survey on 

Drug Use and Health, 2007–2009. 
DRUG USE, DEPENDENCE, AND ABUSE AMONG STATE PRISONERS AND JAIL INMATES, 2007-2009 | JUNE 2017 26

APPENDIX TABLE 22 

Standard errors for table 17: State prisoners and sentenced jail 

inmates who answered affirmatively to dependence symptoms, 

by symptom type and number of symptoms, 2007–2009

Symptom State prisoners 

Sentenced 

jail inmates 

Dependence symptoms 0.77% 0.74%

Tolerance 0.76 0.75

Withdrawal 0.72 0.77

Compulsive use 0.75 0.66

Impaired control 0.73 0.69

Time spent obtaining and using 0.73 0.73

Neglect of activities 0.69 0.70

Continued use despite problems 0.73 0.79

Number of symptoms

0 0.70% 0.65%

1 0.31 0.33

2 0.27 0.26

3 0.33 0.37

4–5 0.33 0.42

6–7 0.65 0.67

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 

APPENDIX TABLE 23 

Standard errors for table 18: State prisoners and sentenced 

jail inmates who answered affirmatively to abuse symptoms, 

by symptom type and number of symptoms, 2007–2009

Symptom State prisoners 

Sentenced 

jail inmates 

Abuse symptoms 0.78% 0.68%

Failure to fulfill obligations 0.68 0.63

Use in hazardous situations 0.68 0.67

Legal problems 0.70 0.65

Social problems 0.76 0.74

Number of symptoms

0 0.78% 0.68%

1 0.45 0.42

2 0.37 0.60

3 0.47 0.51

4 0.48 0.51

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Inmate Surveys, 2007 and 2008–09. 
Office of Justice Programs

Innovation • Partnerships • Safer Neighborhoods

www.ojp.usdoj.gov

NCJ250546

The Bureau of Justice Statistics of the U.S. Department of Justice is the principal 

federal agency responsible for measuring crime, criminal victimization, criminal 

offenders, victims of crime, correlates of crime, and the operation of criminal and 

civil justice systems at the federal, state, tribal, and local levels. BJS collects, analyzes, 

and disseminates reliable and valid statistics on crime and justice systems in the 

United States, supports improvements to state and local criminal justice information 

systems, and participates with national and international organizations to develop and 

recommend national standards for justice statistics. Jeri M. Mulrow is acting director.

This report was written by Jennifer Bronson and Jessica Stroop of BJS and Stephanie 

Zimmer and Marcus Berzofsky of RTI International. Verification was completed by 

Stephanie Zimmer and Marcus Berzofsky of RTI International and Danielle Kaeble 

of BJS.

Brigitte Coulton and Jill Thomas edited the report. Steve Grudziecki produced 

the report.

June 2017, NCJ 250546