Traditional Knowledge Regarding Bowhead Whales in the 

Chukchi Sea near Wainwright, Alaska

Lori T. Quakenbush

Principal Investigator

Henry P. Huntington

Co-Principal Investigator

Final Report

OCS Study MMS 2009-063

September 2010
This study was funded in part by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE) through Cooperative Agreement No. 

0102CA85294, Task Order No. 72989, between BOEMRE, Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Region, 

and the University of Alaska Fairbanks. 

This report, OCS Study MMS 2009-063, is available from the Coastal Marine Institute (CMI), 

School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220. 

Electronic copies can be downloaded from the MMS website at 

www.mms.gov/alaska/ref/akpubs.htm. Hard copies are available free of charge, as long as the 

supply lasts, from the above address. Requests may be placed with Ms. Sharice Walker, CMI, by 

phone (907) 474-7208, by fax (907) 474-7204, or by email at skwalker@alask.edu. 

Once the limited supply is gone, copies will be available from the National Technical Information 

Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161, or may be inspected at selected Federal Depository 

Libraries. 

The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be 

interpreted as representing the opinions or policies of the U.S. Government. Mention of trade 

names or commercial products does not constitute their endorsement by the U.S. Government. 
Traditional Knowledge Regarding Bowhead Whales in the 

Chukchi Sea near Wainwright, Alaska

Lori T. Quakenbush

Principal Investigator

Henry P. Huntington

Co-Principal Investigator

Final Report

OCS Study MMS 2009-063

September 2010
Contact information 

 email: sharice@sfos.uaf.edu 

 phone: 907.474.7208 

 fax: 907.474.7204 

 Coastal Marine Institute 

 School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences 

 University of Alaska Fairbanks 

 P. O. Box 757220 

 Fairbanks, AK 99775-7220 
Table of Contents 

List of Figures............................................................................................................................... 3 

Abstract..........................................................................................................................................4 

Introduction...................................................................................................................................4 

Methods..........................................................................................................................................6 

Results............................................................................................................................................7 

 Seasonal Movements ....................................................................................................................7 

 Spring.......................................................................................................................................7 

 Summer.................................................................................................................................. 7 

 Fall ......................................................................................................................................... 7 

 Behavior...................................................................................................................................... 7

 Size Segregation...................................................................................................................... 7 

 Mating..................................................................................................................................... 8 

 Calving.................................................................................................................................... 8 

 Feeding.................................................................................................................................... 8 

 Other Information ....................................................................................................................... 8 

 Ice Conditions .......................................................................................................................... 8 

 Other Species .......................................................................................................................... 9 

 Recent Changes....................................................................................................................... 9 

 Whalers’ Concerns.................................................................................................................. 10 

Traditional Knowledge and the Satellite Tagging Study..............................................................10 

Discussion.....................................................................................................................................11

Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................... 12 

Study Products............................................................................................................................ 13 

References.....................................................................................................14 

Appendix A. Traditional knowledge of bowhead whale migratory patterns near 

Wainwright, Alaska. Report to the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission...........................19 

List of Figures 

Figure 1. Study area and other places mentioned.........................................................16 

Figure 2. Movements and behavior of bowhead whales near Wainwright, Alaska ................17 

Figure 3. Tracks of three satellite-tagged whales that returned to Barrow............................18 

3
Abstract 

Bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) are an important subsistence and cultural resource 

for coastal people of western and northern Alaska, as well as an important component of 

the ecosystems of the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort seas. There is extensive traditional 

knowledge regarding bowhead whale migration and behavior near subsistence whaling 

villages in Alaska. The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and 

Enforcement (BOEMRE) is funding a satellite telemetry study to document bowhead 

whale movements, important habitats, and interactions with industrial activities. The 

purpose of this project is to collect traditional Iñupiat knowledge regarding bowhead 

whales so that it can be combined with data from the satellite telemetry study for a more 

complete understanding of the migrations and local movements of bowhead whales. 

Seven whaling captains from the Chukchi Sea village of Wainwright shared their 

knowledge of ice conditions, timing of migration, feeding and mating behavior, 

conditions necessary for whaling, and their concerns about oil and gas activities. The 

collection and sharing of traditional knowledge regarding bowhead whale migration 

timing and feeding areas near Wainwright will add to the overall understanding of 

bowhead whale ecology so that impacts of offshore oil and gas activities on bowhead 

whales and the people who hunt them can be minimized. 

Introduction 

The general migratory patterns of bowhead whales in the Bering, Chukchi, and 

Beaufort seas are well documented (Moore and Reeves 1993). The details of whale 

movements and activity throughout the migratory range are not well known. Offshore 

industrial activity in the region is increasing, including seismic exploration, oil and gas 

development, and ship traffic. A better understanding of bowhead whale movements and 

habitat use is needed, therefore the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) with 

funding from the MMS, and PIs Quakenbush and Huntington with funding from the 

MMS through the Coastal Marine Institute (CMI) are conducting two related projects to 

learn more about bowhead whale movements and behavior. 

The first project involves ADF&G in cooperation with the Alaska Eskimo 

Whaling Commission (AEWC), the North Slope Borough, and others placing satellite 

transmitters on a small number of whales to learn more about the movements and 

behavior of individual whales over large portions of the migratory range. Forty-four 

transmitters have been deployed; 35 in Alaska and 9 in Canada. Thirty-five transmitters 

were placed on whales near Barrow; four in spring and 31 in fall. Efforts to place 

transmitters on whales near Kaktovik have not been successful due to weather conditions. 

In 2007, ADF&G worked with the Canadian community of Aklavik and two whalers 

from Kaktovik to tag five bowheads near Shingle Point in Canada. In August of 2008 

and 2009, ADF&G worked with whalers from Kaktovik, Point Hope, and the Canadian 

community of Tuktoyaktuk to tag one bowhead in 2008 and three in 2009. In Alaska, 

efforts will continue in Barrow and work with Yup’ik whaling captains on St. Lawrence 

Island will begin to extend the work to the Bering Sea. The satellite transmitter tracking 

4
project has been funded by the MMS (Contract No. 01-05-CT39268) and tagging efforts 

in Canada have been supported by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 

The second project began at the request of the AEWC, because they wanted the 

knowledge of generations of whalers regarding bowhead whale movements and behavior 

near their villages (traditional knowledge) to be recorded and included in reports in 

addition to the movements and behaviors of the tagged whales. Traditional knowledge 

from discussions with whaling captains and crew members in Wainwright (reported here; 

Fig. 1), and in Kaktovik and Barrow (reported separately; Huntington and Quakenbush 

2009a) were recorded to document bowhead whale movements and behavior near those 

communities. 

Traditional Knowledge (also called Traditional Ecological Knowledge) and its 

value to science was well described by Huntington and Mymrin (1996): 

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (or TEK) is a system of understanding 

one’s environment. It is built over generations, as people depend on the 

land and sea for their food, materials, and culture. TEK is based on 

observations and experience, evaluated in light of what one has learned 

from one’s elders. People have relied on this detailed knowledge for their 

survival—they have literally staked their lives on its accuracy and 

repeatability. TEK is an important source of information and 

understanding for anyone who is interested in the natural world and the 

place of people in the environment. Many scientists recognize the value 

of working with people who live in an area and who have great insight 

into the natural processes at work in that area. While the scientific 

perspective is often different from the traditional perspective, both have a 

great deal to offer one another. Working together is the best way of 

helping us achieve a better common understanding of nature. 

Observations that form traditional knowledge and scientific observations are 

independent sources of information that when combined, can increase our depth of 

knowledge (Huntington et al. 2004). Traditional knowledge can provide details about the 

patterns of larger numbers of whales, over a longer time period, in more localized areas; 

complementing the information gathered by satellite telemetry about the patterns of a few 

whales, over a relatively short time period, in larger areas. This traditional knowledge 

project used the same approach that the Native Village of Savoonga used when 

documenting traditional knowledge about bowhead whales on St. Lawrence Island 

(Noongwook et al. 2007). Traditional knowledge research was also conducted in 

Kaktovik and Barrow with funding from ConocoPhillips (Huntington and Quakenbush 

2009a), which was used as match by the CMI for research in Wainwright. This report 

presents the results of the interviews conducted in Wainwright. 

 The objectives of this project were 1) to gather traditional knowledge about 

bowhead whale movements, distribution, and long-term changes in population size, 

composition, and abundance in the Chukchi region, specifically near the village of 

Wainwright; 2) prepare a document compiling the traditional knowledge for the 

5
community of Wainwright; 3) engage a whaling captain as a co-author of the report; and 

4) incorporate traditional knowledge into the results of the satellite tagging study for 

reports and publications. Although we were not able to find a whaling captain that was 

interested in helping co-author the report, the interviews with the whaling captains 

provided an additional opportunity to discuss the real-time locations and tracks of the 

tagged whales, as well as the satellite tagging project in general, and future plans for 

tagging. 

Methods 

We used the semi-directive interview method (Nakashima and Murray 1988; 

Huntington 1998) to conduct a single group discussion with seven whaling captains, who 

were identified and invited to participate by the head of the Wainwright Whaling 

Captains Association. The captains had an average of 35 years of whaling experience 

ranging from 15 to 45. The discussion took place in Wainwright in late February 2008. 

This method was also used to document traditional knowledge on St. Lawrence Island in 

Noongwook et al. (2007). 

Using the semi-directive method, researchers initiate a discussion around various 

topics of interest, but allow the participants to determine the order in which topics are 

discussed and to make connections between various topics that the researchers might not 

have anticipated. The discussion is thus more fluid than would be a standardized 

questionnaire. The discussions were conducted in English, as all participants were 

comfortable in that language, though the participants occasionally discussed a particular 

point in Iñupiaq before providing a summary in English. 

The researchers included the two Principal Investigators (PI); PI Quakenbush, a 

marine mammalogist who is also the PI of the satellite transmitter study, and PI 

Huntington, a social scientist with experience in traditional knowledge studies. PI 

Huntington also took part in the St. Lawrence Island study mentioned earlier. PI 

Huntington led the discussion, and both PIs asked follow-up questions. Both researchers 

were experienced in the methodology having previously worked together with whaling 

captains in Barrow and Kaktovik (Huntington and Quakenbush 2009a). Having both 

forms of expertise helped in framing the discussions and in asking appropriate follow-up 

questions. The meetings also allowed the opportunity for PI Quakenbush to share and 

discuss preliminary results of the satellite transmitter study, specifically the movements 

of tagged whales. 

We prepared a draft report, which was made available to the participants for their 

review and comments. Comments and changes received from the participants were 

incorporated into the final report. The revised report (Huntington and Quakenbush 

2009b; Appendix A) was reviewed and approved by the Wainwright Whaling Captains 

(March 2009) and the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission (October 2009) before it was 

shared outside of the whaling communities. 

6
Results 

Seasonal Movements 

Spring. In the past, bowhead whales first arrived at Wainwright in late April, but 

in recent years they arrive earlier so that now they appear in the area in early April and at 

times even in March. Most whales have passed by early June. The movements of 

bowhead whales near Wainwright are determined primarily by ice conditions. Leads in 

the local area affect local distribution, whereas the condition of leads to the south 

influences the timing of the migration as a whole. The prevailing east-northeast winds 

tend to open the leads near Wainwright, with currents playing a role, too. West winds 

tend to close the lead, making whaling impossible. When the lead is closed, the whales 

travel farther from the shorefast ice. Currents are stronger by Point Belcher, and there is 

a strong current near the Kuk River mouth by Wainwright in late May and early June 

(Fig. 1). The whales often follow the shorefast ice edge, but may also travel directly 

from the Icy Cape area to the Point Belcher area, staying farther offshore as they pass the 

village. Wainwright whalers hear from St. Lawrence Island whalers and from Point 

Hope whalers that bowheads are migrating. They expect bowhead whales to reach the 

Wainwright area about a week after they reach Point Hope, depending on ice conditions 

in between. 

Summer. Bowhead whales have been seen occasionally in June and July after the 

shorefast ice has broken up near Wainwright. After the whaling season, hunters often 

seek bearded seals in the pack ice. At these times they may see bowhead whales still 

migrating. One such whale was seen near Point Franklin in June of 2007 (Fig. 1). Many 

large whales were seen in July 2007 while hunters were out after bearded seals. These 

are believed to be part of the third wave, the large whales that come last. Whales have 

been seen later in July on a few occasions, near Wainwright and Icy Cape. Three very 

large bowheads were seen by the Kuk River mouth one July about 35 years ago (Fig. 1). 

Fall. Bowhead whales do not generally follow the coast southwards from Barrow 

during their fall migration. Bowhead whales have been seen a few times near 

Wainwright in October. 

Behavior

Size Segregation. Whalers recognize three different waves (also called pulses, 

runs, and schools) of whales made up of different sized whales that pass in spring. The 

first wave is primarily small, young whales, and occurs when the leads first open. The 

whales in the first wave migrate past Wainwright through open leads or ponds of open 

water. The second wave of whales, comprised of mid-sized whales, also requires open 

leads or ponds. For both waves, if the lead closes or if leads are not available to the 

south, the whales may delay their migration to await more favorable conditions. The 

whales may congregate in open pools while waiting for the leads to open up. 

7
The third wave of whales, which includes the largest whales and also most of the 

mother-and-calf pairs, takes place in the second half of May and early June. These large 

mother whales are capable of pushing up through young ice (up to approximately 18” or 

45 cm thick) to create breathing holes. Whales following behind will use the same 

breathing holes, which can be dangerous to people on the ice if the holes are covered with 

snow and thus invisible from above. Later whales follow the path set by the first whales. 

Young boys at whaling camps are told to keep quiet so that blows could be heard even 

when the lead was closed, but it was also important to keep quiet so that the whales 

would not be disturbed while setting the migratory path for the other whales to follow. 

Bowhead whales can also find cracks in thicker ice through which they can breathe. 

They are thus able to migrate even when the main lead system is closed. Whales in the 

third wave may also be found in cracks and openings far out in the pack ice. 

Mating. Mating behavior consists of several males and one female. The female 

and one male will stay in one location, rolling slowly over and over so that each has the 

opportunity to breathe without disengaging. The other males will slowly circle the mating 

pair. Whalers once asked elders about the advisability of hunting a mating pair. The 

elders discouraged this, saying that first the whales were making more whales, and 

second that they might become violent if disturbed at this time and thus would be 

hazardous to the whalers. For these reasons, mating whales are left alone. 

Calving. Calving has been seen in a few locations (Fig. 2). Calves are 

occasionally seen in late April, but more typically in late May and June. Calves are small 

and gray, rather than the black of an older whale. Elders emphasized the need to look 

carefully when whaling to make sure that an adult whale is not accompanied by a calf. 

Whales with calves should not be taken. 

Feeding. Feeding is often seen along the edge of the shorefast ice (Fig. 2). 

Whales will swim parallel to the edge with their mouths open. They may have trouble 

closing their mouths, sometimes using the ice by pushing their lower jaw against the ice 

to help shut their mouths. Whales are also known to swim under the shorefast ice to feed, 

circling under a particular area or traversing the area by breathing through cracks in the 

shorefast ice or pushing up through young ice to create breathing holes. Whalers have 

seen and heard whales surfacing between their camps at the ice edge and land, as the 

whales migrate under the shorefast ice. In one case, the whalers had cut a hole in the ice 

behind their camp, and found a whale breathing in that hole. In another case, where 

whales were repeatedly circling under the shorefast ice, the whalers approached and the 

whales quickly moved away from the area. Whales also feed under young ice, where 

food can often be found. 

Other Information 

Ice Conditions. Before whaling, Wainwright whalers wait for the leads to be 

open wide, to help reduce the struck-and-lost rate. The pattern of leads varies from year 

to year in the Wainwright area. In some years, the lead has remained open all spring, 

8
whereas in other years there has been hardly any open water during whaling season. 

When nearshore leads do not open, whalers may have to travel farther offshore, either 

across young ice or on un-grounded ice susceptible to breaking off, both of which are 

dangerous. 

Wainwright whalers seek open leads closest to shore. The whalers will have been 

on the ice throughout the winter, watching where the ice breaks off and assessing where it 

is likely to do so in spring, which helps them plan. In most years, whaling starts near 

Point Belcher to the north of the village (Fig. 2), where the currents and ice conditions 

tend to create leads closer to shore. The ice is typically rough in this area. A key concern 

is finding a suitable location for hauling a whale onto the ice for butchering. The ice 

needs to be thick enough to support a whale and have a large, flat area for the whale and 

the cutting-up activities. The whalers begin by seeking such a place, often traveling the 

lead edge by boat and then cutting a trail to the suitable location. Searching on the 

shorefast ice would be much more difficult due to the difficulty of traveling over rough 

ice. In recent years, the ice has been thinner, making it harder to find such a place. 

As the season progresses, leads may open up closer to Wainwright, and the 

whalers may move to the southwest from Point Belcher, seeking other locations to set up 

whaling camps. In some years, the whalers may go as far south as Icy Cape, though that 

is not as common (Fig. 2). One year, migrating ducks at Icy Cape were so numerous that 

the whalers’ camps and gear were covered in duck droppings, reducing the appeal of 

returning to that particular location. 

Other Species. Whalers have seen other species of whales in the region. 

Identifying which species is difficult, but characteristics such as a small dorsal fin make it 

clear that they are not bowhead or gray whales. Fin and minke whales are likely 

candidates, and there is a possibility that sperm and blue whales have been seen in the 

area, too. A sperm whale was seen during bearded seal hunting about 30 years ago, 

recognized by its blunt head (whalers being familiar with Moby Dick). Beluga whales 

are common during the spring migration, typically migrating ahead of one or more 

bowheads. In summer, belugas congregate near Icy Cape. In some years, they come 

close to Wainwright and are hunted, whereas in other years they do not come past Icy 

Cape along the coast. 

Recent Changes. In recent years, the ice has been changing. The ice used to start 

forming in October, but now may not form until December or even until after Christmas. 

The resulting thinner ice can be blown offshore more easily during winter storms, further 

reducing the time it has to thicken and become anchored to provide safe locations for 

whaling camps. Break-up of the shorefast ice used to occur in late June and July, but 

now the ice may start to rot in May (both from sun on top and from currents underneath), 

making travel on the ice dangerous and limiting the season that the whalers can be out 

whaling. The lack of multi-year sea ice and other large, thick floes has allowed the 

whales to begin their migration earlier in the spring. In the past, bowhead whales first 

arrived in late April, but in recent years they arrive in early April and at times even in 

March. 

9
Whalers Concerns. Wainwright whalers are concerned about offshore oil and gas 

activities in the Chukchi Sea. In 1968, there was seismic testing offshore during the 

spring migration. The whalers saw no whales, not even a blow, that spring. Barrow 

provided whale meat and maktak to Wainwright for Thanksgiving and Christmas. The 

whalers were supposed to have been compensated for the loss of whaling that year, but 

never were. For planned activities in the Chukchi Sea, the Wainwright whalers believe 

stringent conditions should be imposed to protect marine mammals and their food. They 

also have seen (probably heard of) impacts from the activity near Prudhoe Bay, 

recognizing that Barrow and Nuiqsut whalers report that the whales now migrate farther 

offshore in the fall than before. In Wainwright, the whalers believe that this means 

whales would not travel southwest near the eastern coast of the Chukchi Sea where they 

might be accessible to whalers in the fall, but would stay offshore to the north as they 

migrate across to the Russian coast. 

Traditional Knowledge and the Satellite Tracking Study 

At the time of the meetings (February 2007) we had only a few tracks of tagged 

whales to present for discussion with the whalers that were directly relevant to 

Wainwright. We have more now and can explore how traditional knowledge from 

Wainwright and the satellite tracking data fit together. In fall, tracks of tagged whales 

have shown that most whales leaving the Beaufort Sea pass Barrow traveling west, 

toward Wrangel Island, Russia (Fig. 3; Quakenbush et al.2010). A few whales have 

traveled west, turned around, and returned to Barrow along the coast of Alaska passing 

near Wainwright in September and early October. These whales upon leaving Barrow for 

the second time, traveled in a more west southwest direction bypassing Wrangel Island 

on the way to the northern Chukotka Peninsula, and did not travel near the Alaska coast 

at all (Quakenbush et al. 2010). These tracks of tagged whales appear to corroborate the 

reasons that Wainwright does not see many whales in the fall and thus does not have a 

fall whaling season. During the interview, the whalers mentioned that some crews were 

talking about trying to see if they could catch whales in the fall time, but they recognized 

that few whales are seen then. 

The whalers commented that they see whales arrive in the spring as early as late 

March and early April now, compared to late April in the past. In spring of 2009 all of 

the tagged whales (n=6) passed Wainwright between 14 April–7 May. Although we do 

not have any comparable data from tagged whales to complement the traditional 

knowledge that bowhead whales travel in waves segregated by size this information 

emphasizes our need to distribute tags among waves in order for the timing of tagged 

whale movements to be representative of the population. Also knowing that bowhead 

whales sometimes feed along the shorefast ice during the spring migration may help to 

interpret dive data collected by the tags. We cited both traditional knowledge reports in 

our publication describing bowhead whale movements in fall in the Chukchi Sea 

(Quakenbush et al. 2010) to document segregation by size during migration (Huntington 

and Quakenbush 2009a), and movement behavior relative to heavy vs. light ice years 

(Huntington and Quakenbush 2009a, b). 

10
Discussion 

Although we had some ideas about the type of information contained within 

traditional knowledge (e.g., movements, distribution, and changes in population size, 

composition, and abundance) we did not know what would emerge from the process. We 

did not try to force any topics and believe that what was shared was likely to be 

information that was best known or important. In addition, we believe that the omission 

of information is also of importance. For example, in Barrow we heard that in the fall 

bowhead whales travel south closer to the Alaska coast in years when ice is heavy than 

they do in years when ice is light (Huntington and Quakenbush 2009a). In Wainwright 

we heard that few whales are seen in the fall and observations during that time period 

relate to hunting other marine mammals. There was no distinction between fall 

movements in heavy vs. light ice, which is consistent with no fall whale hunt regardless 

of ice conditions. 

In spring, bowhead whales reliably travel in three pulses of similar sized whales. 

The smallest whales come first, followed by the medium-sized whales, and then the 

largest whales and new calves come last. This behavior has been document by whalers 

from Gambell and Savoonga (Noongwook et al. 2007), Barrow (Huntington and 

Quakenbush 2009a), and Wainwright (this study). Scientists have also documented this 

difference in timing by size during spring migration from aerial photogrammetric surveys 

of bowhead whales (Nerini et al. 1987). In fall, Barrow and Kaktovik report some size 

segregation in movements but it is less reliable and less separated in time (Huntington 

and Quakenbush 2009a). 

The changes that the Wainwright whalers have observed in the sea ice in winter 

may be affecting the timing of the bowhead migration in the spring. Sea ice now forms 

later in the fall (December instead of October), and when it does there is less multi-year 

ice mixed in so the ice is thinner and can break up in spring more quickly allowing the 

spring migration to begin earlier (late March–early April instead of late April). Barrow 

whalers also noted that the spring migration is earlier now (Huntington and Quakenbush 

2009a). In the spring of 2009, tagged whales began leaving the Bering Sea on 31 March 

and all had passed Barrow between 15 April and 8 May (L. Quakenbush, unpubl. data). 

The practice that females with calves should not be harvested and mating whales 

should be left alone are examples of traditional conservation measures that recognize 

calves are needed to ensure good hunting in the future. Reproductive females tend to be 

the large females (>40 ft. long). The traditional practice of not taking cows with calves 

has been incorporated into the Management Plan developed by AEWC. Permissible 

Harvesting Methods state that “Whaling captains and crews should harvest bowhead 

whales that are less than 40 feet plus (+) or minus (-) 15% in length” and “no whaling 

captain or crew shall attempt to harvest a calf or a cow accompanied by a calf” (AEWC 

Management Plan 2005). These methods protect reproductive females with and without 

calves. 

11
The whalers are concerned about how seismic operations may affect whaling and 

recalled an event in 1968 where they believe seismic activity on the ice in the spring 

affected their whaling success. Information about seismic testing in the 1960s is difficult 

to obtain. Federal records at the MMS office in Anchorage show permits were issued for 

open water seismic in 1968 for fall only. We have no information about such activities in 

state waters. The best available harvest records show that Wainwright landed two 

bowhead whales in 1968 and none in 1967 (Marquette and Bockstoce 1980) indicating 

that the year of the event may have been different. Regardless of the specific details of 

what occurred in the late 1960s, the whalers base their concerns about seismic activity on 

their past experiences as well as available information about current and planned 

activities. 

The quality of traditional knowledge depends on the experience of the individuals 

sharing their knowledge and their reputation for being knowledgeable about the topic. 

These factors are best judged by members of the community and can be accomplished by 

a community review of the results prior to a final report and dissemination (Huntington et 

al. 2004). For those reasons, the semi-directed interview process has the ability to 

identify observations that may not be widely shared so that they can be modified during 

the discussion. The draft report was reviewed by the Wainwright whaling captains and 

AEWC prior to sharing it outside the community. This process allowed others, not part 

of the discussions, to see if the information is consistent with what they know, which 

allows for a more accepted product. It also ensures that any misinterpretations or 

misrepresentations on our part were identified and rectified. 

Traditional knowledge from this project has been shown to be a valuable addition 

to what we need to know about bowhead whales in order to understand bowhead whale 

ecology in the Chukchi Sea. Traditional knowledge has also helped to plan the satellite 

tag deployments and to interpret the satellite tag data and it is being incorporated into our 

scientific reports and publications. Relationships developed during the discussions have 

allowed for continued interactions regarding the tagged whale results and for planning the 

direction of the tagging study. Traditional knowledge and satellite telemetry has proven 

to be a powerful combination of information and this project has allowed whalers and 

scientists to add to what is known about bowhead whales in the Chukchi Sea. 

Acknowledgments 

We are particularly grateful to the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission for their 

recommendation to collect traditional knowledge as it relates to bowhead whale 

movements and behavior and for their support and encouragement. Jack Panik and the 

Wainwright Whaling Captains’ Association were extremely helpful in inviting the 

captains to participate, planning the research trip, and reviewing the draft report. We 

appreciate the participation of Terry Tagarook and the other whaling captains, who chose 

to remain anonymous, for sharing their knowledge of bowhead whale behavior and 

whaling near Wainwright for this project. Rossman Peetook recommended that the 

report be approved by AEWC. We thank the Coastal Marine Institute for funding the 

project, with funds originally from the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation 

and Enforcement and matching funds from ConocoPhillips. We thank Caryn Rea for her 

12
role in providing the funds from ConocoPhillips. John Citta prepared the maps used 

during interviews and Justin Crawford made the figures in this report. Chris Campbell 

provided comments that greatly improved our report. The Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Regulation and Enforcement funded the satellite telemetry project that 

prompted the traditional knowledge component contained in this report. 

Study Products 

Presentations 

Regular updates to the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission 2006–2009. 

Quakenbush, L. 2007. Traditional knowledge of bowhead whale migratory patterns near 

Wainwright, Alaska. Annual presentation to CMI, February. Fairbanks, AK. 

Quakenbush, L. 2008. Traditional knowledge of bowhead whale migratory patterns. 

Presentation to Indigenous People’s Council of Marine Mammals, January. 

Anchorage, AK. 

Quakenbush, L. 2008. Traditional knowledge of bowhead whale migratory patterns near 

Wainwright, Alaska. Annual presentation to CMI, February. Fairbanks, AK. 

Publications 

Quakenbush, L.T., J.J. Citta, J.C. George, R.J. Small, and M.P. Heide-Jørgensen. 2010. 

Fall and winter movements of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) in the 

Chukchi Sea and within a potential petroleum development area. Arctic 63(3). 

13
References

AEWC. 2005. Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission Management Plan. Available from 

the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission, P.O. Box 570, Barrow, AK, 99723. 

Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for 

documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51(3):237–242. 

Huntington, H.P., and N.I. Mymrin. 1996. Traditional ecological knowledge of beluga 

whales: an indigenous knowledge pilot project of the Chukchi and northern Bering 

seas. Anchorage, Alaska: Inuit Circumpolar Conference. 88 p. 

Huntington, H.P., and L.T. Quakenbush. 2009a. Traditional knowledge of bowhead 

whale migratory patterns near Kaktovik and Barrow, Alaska. Report to the 

Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission. 

Huntington, H.P., and L.T. Quakenbush. 2009b. Traditional knowledge of bowhead 

whale migratory patterns near Wainwright, Alaska. Report to the Alaska Eskimo 

Whaling Commission. 

Huntington, H., T. Callaghan, S. Fox, and I. Krupnik. 2004. Matching traditional and 

scientific observations to detect environmental change: a discussion on arctic 

terrestrial ecosystems. Ambio Special Report 13:18–23. 

Marquette, W.M., and J.R. Bockstoce.1980. Historical shore-based catch of bowhead 

whales in the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Sea. Marine Fisheries Review 42:5-

19. 

Moore, S.E., and R.R. Reeves. 1993. Distribution and movement. Pages 313–386 In: J.J. 

Burns, J.J. Montague, and C.J. Cowles, eds. The bowhead whale. Special 

Publication No. 2. Lawrence, Kansas: Society for Marine Mammalogy. 

Nakashima, D.J., and D.J. Murray. 1988. The common eider (Somateria mollissima 

sedentaris) of eastern Hudson Bay: A survey of nest colonies and Inuit ecological 

knowledge. Report No. 102. Ottawa: Environmental Studies Revolving Fund. 

Nerini, M.K., D. Withrow, and K. Strickland. 1987. Length structure of the bowhead 

whale population derived from aerial photogrammetry with notes on recruitment, 

spring 1985 and 1986. Paper SC/39/PS14 presented to the International Whaling 

Commission Scientific Committee. 22 p. Available from IWC, The Red House, 

135 Station Road, Impington Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, CB49NP, UK. 

Noongwook, G., the Native Village of Gambell, the Native Village of Savoonga, H.P. 

Huntington, and J.C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale 

(Balaena mysticetus) around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 60(1):47–54. 

14
Quakenbush, L.T., J.J. Citta, J.C. George, R.J. Small, and M.P. Heidi-Jørgensen. 2010. 

Fall and winter movements of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) in the Chukchi 

Sea and within a potential petroleum development area. Arctic 63(3). 

15
16

Figure 1. Study area and other places mentioned in the text. Blue dots denote villages and orange 

dots are places mentioned in the text.
Figure 2. Movements and behavior of bowhead whales in spring near Wainwright, Alaska relative to local landmarks and other 

have been observed calving, mating, and feeding in the nearshore lead near Wainwright. Calves are occasionally seen in late Aprlate May and June. 

17
18 

Figure 3. Tracks of three satellite-tagged bowhead whales that returned to the Barrow area after moving west into the Chukchi S
Appendix A. Report to the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission on traditional 

knowledge of bowhead whale migratory patterns near Wainwright, Alaska. 

19 
Traditional Knowledge of Bowhead Whale Migratory Patterns 

near Kaktovik and Barrow, Alaska

Report to:

The Barrow and Kaktovik Whaling Captains Associations

and 

The Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission

By:

Henry P. Huntington

Huntington Consultants

Eagle River, Alaska

hph@alaska.net

Ph: (907) 696-3564

And

Lori T. Quakenbush

Alaska Department of Fish and Game

Fairbanks, Alaska

lori.quakenbush@alaska.gov

Ph: (907) 459-7214

October 2009
2

Traditional Knowledge of Bowhead Whale Migratory Patterns near Kaktovik and 

Barrow, Alaska

Henry P. Huntington and Lori T. Quakenbush

Introduction

The general migratory patterns of bowhead whales in the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort 

Seas are well documented. The details of whale movements and activity throughout the 

migratory range are not as well known. Offshore industrial activity in the region is

increasing, including seismic exploration, oil and gas development, and ship traffic. A 

better understanding of bowhead movements and activity is needed to help determine 

how to minimize the impacts of industrial activity on whales and those who hunt them. 

The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), in cooperation with the Alaska 

Eskimo Whaling Commission (AEWC), is conducting two related projects to learn and 

document more about bowhead whale movements and activities.

First, ADF&G is placing satellite transmitters on a small number of whales to learn more 

about the movements and behavior of individual whales over large portions of the 

migratory range. To date, 40 transmitters have been deployed; 31 in Alaska and 9 in 

Canada. Thirty-one were placed on whales near Barrow; five in spring and 26 in fall, and 

most were tagged by Barrow whalers. Efforts to place transmitters on whales near 

Kaktovik have not yet been successful due to weather conditions. In 2007, ADF&G and 

whalers from Kaktovik and Point Hope, Alaska, have worked with the Canadian 

communities of Aklavik and Tuktoyaktak to tag nine bowheads in August. George 

Tagarook and Eddie Arey from Kaktovik assisted with this tagging effort at Shingle 

Point. In 2008, ADF&G worked with the Canadian community of Tuktoyaktuk to tag 

one bowhead in August. George Tagarook from Kaktovik and Ray Koonuk from Point 

Hope assisted with this tagging effort near Atkinson Point. In Alaska, ADF&G plans to 

continue its efforts in Barrow and also to work with whaling captains on St. Lawrence 
3

Island to extend its work to the Bering Sea. The satellite transmitter work has been 

funded by the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and tagging efforts in Canada are 

supported by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada.

Second, at the request of the AEWC, ADF&G has interviewed whaling captains and crew 

members in Kaktovik and Barrow to document traditional knowledge of bowhead 

movements and behavior near those communities. This information will provide details 

about the patterns of large numbers of whales in more localized areas, complementing the 

information gathered by satellite telemetry about patterns of a few whales over larger 

areas. The traditional knowledge project uses the same approach that the Native Village 

of Savoonga used when documenting traditional knowledge about bowhead whales on St. 

Lawrence Island (Noongwook et al. 2007). This study was funded by a grant from 

ConocoPhillips. This report presents the results of the interviews. 

Kaktovik

Bowhead whales have occasionally been seen in the Kaktovik area in July and early 

August, for example in Camden Bay or 8–10 miles offshore from Kaktovik. The main 

migration begins in late August, with whales moving westwards (Figure 1). The first 

whales in the migration are typically large ones that establish the route of the migration. 

Whalers do not hunt these whales, allowing the migratory pattern to be established in the 

expectation that later whales will follow regardless of whaling activity. This behavior is 

also recognized in migrating caribou and other animals. The migration continues through 

September and into October, but Kaktovik whalers stop whaling before the migration 

ends and so are not sure how late in the fall the whales continue to come by.

Some whales travel close to the shore, pausing to feed in the passes between barrier 

islands or just off of the islands where water flowing from the lagoons mixes with ocean 

water. In these areas, bowheads leave depressions in the sea floor that can be seen by 

whalers when the water is calm. Whales have been seen with mud on their stomachs 

when feeding in these areas. Other whales travel farther offshore, generally swimming 

steadily westward. “Traveling” whales can be distinguished from feeding whales because 
4

traveling whales surface to blow once and then continue, whereas feeding whales surface 

many times and stay in the same area. When the leader of a group of feeding whales 

shows its flukes during a dive, it signals to the other whales that it is time to leave. 

Whales are not seen close to shore every year. That whales have long been found 

nearshore is indicated by Arey Island’s Iñupiaq name, Nalagiagviq, which means “place 

to listen for whales.”

In some years, there is a band of loose pack ice (it is possible to boat through without 

difficulty) a few miles wide between 5 and 15 miles offshore. Bowheads are known to 

migrate on both sides of the ice and also among the ice floes. When being hunted, whales 

may hide or seek refuge in the ice. In years with ice, bowheads are generally closer to 

shore than in years without ice. Sometimes whalers go as far as 20 miles offshore to find 

whales.

Kaktovik whalers have seen few patterns in whale size or other characteristics during the 

bowhead migration. Large whales may tend to come earlier (not counting the first few 

whales that set the migratory path), but whales of all sizes are seen throughout the 

migratory period. Whalers noted that they do not see the “super-big” whales that are 

sometimes taken at Barrow. They speculated that those whales may be farther offshore 

than the whalers go (i.e., more than 20 miles). Cows and calves start coming by in midSeptember, later than the earliest whales to migrate past Kaktovik. Small whales may be 

more common close to shore, but large whales and even cow-calf pairs are seen close to 

shore, too. Calves may be separate from their mothers, making it difficult for whalers to 

tell if a small whale is a calf or not.

Since whaling resumed in Kaktovik in the early 1960s, whalers have noticed more whales 

and a decrease in sea ice during whaling season. Whalers used to be able to climb onto 

ice floes and use high ice as a lookout for whales. Other aspects of whale behavior, such 

as the timing of the migration or feeding behavior near shore, have not changed. There 

has been considerable change in the barrier islands, with both erosion and build-up seen. 

Some passes have become shallower. Until the 1950s, the lagoon now called Kaktovik 
5

Lagoon was known as Agvigniagvik, or “place to hunt whales,” from an earlier period of 

whaling in the region. Today, beluga whales occasionally enter this lagoon, but it is too 

shallow for bowheads.

Bowhead whales are known to be sensitive to noise. When a thermos was accidentally 

knocked over in one whaling boat, a nearby bowhead whale immediately dove and was 

not seen again. Kaktovik whalers are thus worried about offshore oil activity in their area, 

fearing that the noise may deflect bowhead whales away from shore.

In the fall of 2006, whalers noticed millions of jellyfish in the waters off Kaktovik. This 

has been seen in other years, too. A Bering wolfish was caught near Kaktovik in the 

summer of 2006, the first time one had been seen in the area. Overall, fishing success has 

declined in recent years. Dolly varden and cisco were the most common fish. Today, 

there are more salmon than formerly.

Kaktovik whalers generally do not begin whaling until early September, when the air 

temperature is cool enough to preserve the meat during butchering. They typically finish 

whaling in September, having reached their allocation of whales before the migration 

ends and before the weather deteriorates. Prior to and after whaling, Kaktovik residents 

are typically hunting on land or fishing in rivers or the nearshore, and thus have limited 

opportunities to see whales when they are not actively whaling. 

Barrow

Bowhead whales have been seen near Barrow as early as February, but the main 

migration begins in mid-April. Offshore from Barrow, there are three lead systems in the 

spring sea ice. Moving outwards from shore, the first lead begins at the edge of the 

shorefast ice. Beyond this lead, there is pack ice out to another lead about 30 miles 

offshore. The third lead is about 75 miles offshore, but is narrow. There are also different 

current movements in the different leads with the farthest lead having the strongest 

current. Whalers who flew planes while guiding polar bear hunts in the 1960s have 

noticed these patterns. When the second lead is long, a few large bowhead whales have 
6

been seen there in early April, but beluga whales are more common in that lead than are 

bowheads. 

The main migration in the nearshore lead begins with a small number of mid-sized 

whales (“qairaliq”), followed by larger numbers of small whales in mid- to late April 

(Figure 2). The whales are plentiful during the three to four days the first wave lasts. The 

whalers let the first 50–100 whales of the first wave go past to establish the path. A 

second wave, consisting of mid-sized whales, typically arrives in early May after a gap of 

two or three days from the first wave. The second wave has many whales, and lasts about 

a week. After another period of fewer whales, the final wave of large whales, including 

cows and calves, arrives in mid-May and continues into June. 

One whaling crew has noticed a recognizable whale appearing year after year, always on 

April 23, indicating that perhaps some individual whales follow their own annual 

patterns. 

Whale behavior is the same during all three waves, although whales in the first wave may 

spend more time in the area, feeding or playing. While many bowheads migrate quickly 

through the Barrow area (perhaps aware of the presence of whalers), some stop and feed 

under the shorefast ice. Feeding whales may circle many times under the ice, returning to 

open water to breathe. This behavior is termed “pulataq” in Iñupiaq, and the whalers 

recognize “pulataq districts” along the edge of the shorefast ice. Whaling camps may be 

located at places where bowheads are expected to emerge from under the shorefast ice. 

Whales migrating quickly through the area tend to be farther from the edge of the 

shorefast ice.

A cow with a calf may leave the calf in bays in the shorefast ice while the cow travels 

ahead to scout conditions along the route. The cow will then retrieve the calf and 

continue the migration. Some females give birth in the Barrow area.
7

Barrow residents often hunt walrus and seals offshore, west of Barrow in July. During 

the interviews, respondents did not report seeing bowhead whales west of Barrow in July.

During the review of a draft of this report by the AEWC, however, it was remarked that 

bowhead whales have been seen west of Barrow in July in recent years. The difference 

may reflect the intentional selection of older respondents, many of whom are less active 

now and who therefore may not have observed recent changes in distribution, timing or 

behavior. Occasionally bowhead whales are seen north of Barrow in summer. Many gray 

whales are seen in this season. Gray whales may enter Dease Inlet, as do belugas, but 

bowhead whales require deeper water. 

In the 1940s, when one respondent was growing up at Cape Halkett, bowhead whales 

were not seen in that area.

Bowhead whales return to the area near Point Barrow in late August, though some large 

whales were seen 20–30 miles offshore in open water in early August one year. 

Generally, the large whales come first in the fall migration, followed by mid-sized 

whales, with small whales coming last (Figure 3). This pattern is less distinct in fall than 

is the three-wave pattern in spring. Bowhead whales may feed near the barrier islands 

east of Point Barrow. Whales are heavier in fall than in spring. In years with heavy pack 

ice in fall, whales will head southwest from Point Barrow. In years with light or no pack 

ice in fall, whales may stay near Point Barrow longer before heading west. The migration 

tends to occur later in years with little or no ice than in years with heavy ice, with whales 

in the area through late October. Small whales that stay close to shore may encounter 

gray whales southwest of Barrow.

Barrow whalers have noticed an increase in the number of whales over the past several 

decades. At the same time, changes in ice conditions and an increase in noise from 

snowmachine travel on the shorefast ice have led to noticeable changes in the spring 

migration pattern near Barrow. Fewer bowheads travel next to the edge of the shorefast 

ice, and fewer bowheads are seen southwest of Barrow. Whaling crews that used to set up 

camps near the Monument (approximately 12 miles southwest of Barrow) have had to 
8

move farther north along the shorefast ice. This shift may be the result of thinner ice 

conditions and less multi-year ice, which is associated with feeding opportunities for 

bowhead whales, thus reducing the attraction of the shorefast ice southwest of Barrow. 

Bowhead whales are also arriving earlier in spring now than they did in the past.

The shorefast ice has become thinner in spring and more susceptible to breaking off and

being blown away from shore. The shore-fast ice breaks apart earlier than it used to. In 

fall, there is more open water and the ice forms later. In November 1964, a 28-foot 

bowhead whale was landed at Barrow and hauled up onto sea ice for butchering. In more 

recent years, no shorefast ice has been present in November, at least not of sufficient 

thickness to bear the weight of a bowhead whale and allow butchering to take place on 

the ice.

When a test well was drilled offshore near Point Barrow, whales diverted their migration 

around the area, even though no drilling occurred during the migration. The noise from 

the idle drill ship was still sufficient to affect the whales. After the drilling ceased and the 

rig was removed, the whales reverted to normal behavior in the area within a couple of

years.

Barrow whalers have seen whales much larger than those that have been landed. Some 

whalers believe that the very large whales would have tough meat and maktak, and so 

might not be worth hunting. 

Methods

This study used the same basic methods to document traditional knowledge as those used 

by Noongwook et al. (2007), and described in detail there. (That paper also describes the 

ways that traditional knowledge is acquired among Yupik whalers. The description is 

generally applicable to Barrow and Kaktovik as well.) Specifically, we used the semidirective interview (Huntington 1998). Unlike Noongwook et al., however, our 

interviews were with one or two persons at a time, rather than with larger groups. In the 

semi-directive interview, researchers initiate a discussion around various topics of 
9

interest, but allow the person being interviewed to determine the order in which topics are 

discussed and to make connections between various topics that the researchers might not 

have anticipated. The interview is thus more fluid than would be a standardized 

questionnaire. The interviews were conducted in English, as all participants were 

comfortable in that language.

The research trip took place in early February 2007. In Kaktovik, we interviewed six 

whalers or whaling captains. They had an average of about 30 years of whaling 

experience, ranging from 18 to 45 years. In Barrow, we interviewed five whalers or 

whaling captains plus one locally resident scientist who had over 25 years of experience 

working with and learning from the whalers. The Barrow whalers and whaling captains 

had an average of over 50 years of whaling experience, ranging from 40 to 64 years. In 

both cases, the persons being interviewed were recommended by the head of the local 

whaling captains association or by chain referral (one participant recommending 

additional persons to interview). This report includes the information told to us by the 

whaling captains and whalers that participated in interviews in each village. As noted 

earlier, there may be additional information known by others that is not included here, 

particularly concerning recent changes. Because the environment continues to change, 

there may be merit in developing a mechanism for recording and reporting ongoing 

observations made by whalers and hunters.

The researchers included a marine mammalogist (LTQ) who is also the principal 

investigator of the satellite transmitter study, and a social scientist (HPH) with experience 

in traditional knowledge studies (and who also took part in the St. Lawrence Island study 

mentioned earlier). Having both forms of expertise helped in the conduct of the 

interviews and in asking appropriate follow-up questions. The interviews also allowed 

LTQ to share preliminary results of the satellite transmitter study, specifically the 

movements of two tagged whales. This information was in most cases shared at the end 

of the interview, the exceptions occurring when one respondent arrived as the previous 

interview was ending.
10

Following the trip, LTQ and HPH prepared a draft report, which was provided to the 

individuals who were interviewed and the presidents of the Barrow and Kaktovik whaling 

captains associations for corrections and comments. The corrections and comments were 

incorporated into a final report, which was approved by the AEWC.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to ConocoPhillips for funding the traditional knowledge project. We are 

particularly grateful to the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission for its support and 

encouragement, and to the Barrow Whaling Captains Association and the Kaktovik 

Whaling Captains Association for helping set up interviews, plan the research trip, and 

review the draft report. Eugene Brower and Fenton Rexford were extremely helpful as 

our primary local contacts. John “Craig” George in Barrow helped identify participants 

and also agreed to be interviewed himself. In Kaktovik, we interviewed Charles M. 

Brower, Eddie Rexford, and four others who preferred to remain anonymous. In Barrow, 

we interviewed Ben Itta, David U. Leavitt, Warren Matumeak, Johnnie Brower, John 

“Craig” George, and one individual who preferred to remain anonymous. Although Harry 

Brower, Jr. was not interviewed, he assisted in developing the project and he reviewed 

the draft report and provided valuable comments. John Citta prepared the maps used 

during interviews and the figures in this report. Minerals Management Service is funding

the satellite telemetry project that prompted the traditional knowledge interviews. 

References

Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for 

documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51(3):237-242.

Noongwook, G., the Native Village of Gambell, the Native Village of Savoonga, H.P. 

Huntington, and J.C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale 

(Balaena mysticetus) around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 60(1):47–54.
11

Figure 1. Movements and behavior of bowhead whales near Kaktovik, Alaska in 

August–September. Some whales travel close to shore, feeding in the passes between 

barrier islands and outside of Jago and Arey islands, however they may feed also feed at 

other places along the coast in this area. Whales also pass farther offshore and whalers 

may go as far as 20 miles from shore to find whales. Sometimes there is a band of loose 

ice 5–15 miles offshore. Whales travel to the north and south of this ice and through it. 

In years with more ice whales tend to travel closer to shore.
12

Figure 2. Movements of bowhead whales in spring near Barrow, Alaska. There are three 

lead systems in the spring sea ice. The closest one begins at the edge of the shorefast ice 

and is where the main migration occurs. The second lead occurs about 30 miles out and a 

third occurs about 75 miles out. Some whales move through quickly and some circle 

under the ice to feed. These feeding areas are called “pulataq districts”.
13

Figure 3. Movements and behavior of bowhead whales in fall near Barrow, Alaska. 

Bowhead whales may feed near the barrier islands between Nuwuk and Dease Inlet. In 

years with little or no ice, whales may stay longer near Barrow and head more west when 

they leave. In years with heavy ice, the whales head more southwest and they leave 

earlier.
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