PIN : 100432

CENTER OF MILITARY HISTORY

UNITED STATES ARMY

WASHINGTON, D.C., 2010
Library of Congress Catalog Number: 74-31183 

First Printed 1975-CMH Pub 70-6-1 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Internet: book.store.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800; DC area (202) 512-1800 

Fax: (202) 512-2250 Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001 
Foreword 

The American Revolution, the Bicentennial of which we are 

celebrating in 1975 and 1976, was an event of utmost significance in 

the history of both this country and the world. It brought into 

being a nation, dedicated to the ideals of liberty and justice, that 

was destined to become, in less than two centuries, the leader of 

the western world. And it marked the beginning of vast changes 

that would sweep that western world in the century following, 

thrusting aside old monarchical institutions in favor of representative government and free economic institutions. Albeit fought on 

the battlefields much like other eighteenth century wars, it also 

carried within it the seeds of change in the military sphere that 

were to sprout and grow in the French Revolution less than two 

decades later. It was, in this sense, a war of transition between the 

epoch of limited wars fought by professional armies and people's 

wars fought by the "nation in arms." 

Our first national army, the Continental Army, was created to 

fight the Revolution. As the forebear of the United States Army of 

today, the Continental Army established many of the traditions and 

practices still honored in our service. The War of the American Revolution was, until Vietnam at least, the Army's longest war. It is 

altogether fitting and proper then that the United States Army 

should pay particular attention to the study of its origins during the 

bicentennial years and commemorate the events of the Revolution 

in which the Continental Army and its adjunct, the militia, participated. 

The purpose of this small volume is to provide a ready reference 

for such study and observance. The American Revolution has been 

intensively studied and written about in the two hundred years that 

have elapsed since 1775. There is much good scholarship as well 

as popular writing, both old and new, covering all aspects of the 

conflict and the political and social changes that accompanied it. 

The military conflict, though largely neglected by professional 

historians in the first part of this century, has come in for its share 

of attention since World War II. In offering this volume on the 

occasion of the Bicentennial, the Center of Military History is 

making no attempt to add to the large body of original scholarship 

on the war. This work is rather an introduction and a reference, a 

111 
distillation of existing scholarship in the form of a summary and 

chronology of events, and a bibliography which provides the basis 

for additional reading, study, or research. In adopting this approach 

rather than seeking to provide some more ambitious history of the 

Continental Army or of the course of the land war, the Center is 

following a long established policy of concentrating original research in more modern areas where Army historians can operate 

more effectively than can outside scholars. In contrast to World War 

II, the Korean War, and the War in Vietnam, the sources for study 

of the military actions of the Revolution are not concentrated in 

federal military archives but are widely dispersed. Historians outside the Army, and particularly those in our academic centers, are 

in many ways more favorably situated to undertake research and 

writing projects on the War of the American Revolution than are 

those in the U.S. Army Center of Military History. And indeed 

they have exploited these sources, as the bibliography included in 

this volume shows, to such a degree that the production of a new 

history of the war on land by the Center would appear superfluous. 

Instead, in publishing this pamphlet, the Center is acting as a broker 

in offering information on the products of outside scholarship that 

the Army can use with profit in observing the Bicentennial of the 

American Revolution. 

This book then is intended primarily for internal use within 

the Army as a ready reference on dates, places, and other factual 

matter during the period of the Bicentennial. It is essentially a book 

of facts on the military history of the American Revolution, and of 

references to places where other and more detailed facts and interpretations may be found by those who are seeking them. It is to be 

hoped that in addition to its primary purpose it may also serve a 

broader one of assisting students, teachers, and even serious scholars, 

both during the Bicentennial and afterward, to a better understanding of the military struggle in which this nation was born. 

Washington, D.C. 

24 June 1974 

JAMES L. COLLINS, JR. 

Brigadier General, USA 

Commander, U.S. Army Center 

of Military History 

IV 
Preface 

This reference work on the American Revolution consists of 

three parts-a brief narrative history of the war, a chronology 

of military events, and a bibliography. Each part requires a word of 

explanation. 

The narrative consists of one chapter on the colonial background of American military history and two on the Revolution itself. These three chapters ate reprints of Chapters 2-4 of American 

Military History, edited by Maurice Matloff, a volume prepared by 

the predecessor agency of the Center of Military History, the Office 

of the Chief of Military History, the most recent edition published 

in 1973. American Military History is a volume in the Army Historical Series, whose primary purpose is to serve as an ROTC text, 

although it has also found numerous other uses in the academic 

world. The narrative presented in these chapters reprinted here is 

the same as that in the original 1969 edition of American Military 

History; it was drawn very largely from secondary sources and reflects, insofar as possible, the best of modern scholarship on the 

military conflict as interpreted by the author. 

Part Two is a chronology, oriented toward military events, covering the period between the signing of the Treaty of Paris ending 

the Seven Years War in 1763 and the ratification by the Continental 

Congress some twenty years later of a second Treaty of Paris confirming American independence. These were an eventful twenty 

years both in the history of the United States and of the world, 

and no attempt has been made to include all the important events of 

that period. The emphasis has been placed on the events of the 

land war, 1775-1783, and on events that relate to the institutional 

history of the Army-hence the designation of an Army Chronology. 

The chronology includes major milestones on the road to war, 1763-

1775, and major political and diplomatic developments afterward, 

but the focus is on the military conflict. And within this area of concentration, only the more important events of the war at sea receive 

notice. A chronology by its very nature lacks selective emphasis. 

The small skirmish is likely to receive as much attention as the 

great battle, depending on the space required to make clear what 

the event described was rather than on its intrinsic historical significance. The selective emphasis appears in the narrative; the chronolv 
ogy is to provide a reference on specific dates and places and to 

place all events listed in their proper time relationship. This our 

Army Chronology attempts to do. 

Part Three, the bibliography, contains listings of over a thousand· titles of books, articles, and published source material on the 

American Revolution. The emphasis is again on the land war, but 

proportionately the bibliography gives more attention to the political, social and economic aspects of the Revolution and to its naval 

phase than do either the narrative or the chronology. It is not an 

annotated bibliography. The author found himself faced with alternatives of presenting a much more select and critical bibliography, 

containing his own personal opinion on each work, or of providing 

a much larger number of listings without critical comment. He 

opted for the latter alternative in the belief that there are, in the 

works he has listed, many more evaluative bibliographical essays 

than there are comprehensive listings of the great multitude of 

works that have been published on the military history of the 

American Revolution in the last two hundred years. Even with the 

multitude of listings, however, this bibliography is by no means a 

complete one of books and articles in print. Its organization and its 

limitations are set forth further in the introduction to Part Three. 

Dr. Stetson Conn, while still Chief Historian, developed the 

concept for this volume and prepared the draft of the chronology 

before his departure from the Office of the Chief of Military History 

in 1971. Dr. Robert W. Coakley, currently Deputy Chief Historian, 

Center of Military History, is the author of the chapters reprinted 

hom AmeTican MilitaTy History) revised the chronology for publication, and compiled the bibliography. Acknowledgments are due 

to Dr. Howard H. Peckham of the William L. Clements Library, 

University of Michigan, Mr. Donald H. Kent, Director of the Bureau 

of Archives and History, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Colonel 

Thomas E. Griess, Professor and Head of the Department of History, U.S. Military Academy, Dr. William B. Willcox of the Papers 

of Benjamin Franklin, Lieutenant General Joseph M. Heiser, Jr., 

USA, and Dr. Brooks E. Kleber, Chief Historian, U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command for helpful comments on the chronology. Mrs. Mary Thomas, Miss Evelina Mounts, Mrs. Anita Dyson, 

and Mrs. Arlene Morris did yeoman service in typing a difficult 

manuscript. Mr. Joseph Friedman and Mr. Duncan Miller edited 

the manuscript in preparation for the printer. The authors, however, acknowledge responsibility for all errors of fact or interpretation found herein. 

Washington, D.C. 

24 June 1974 

ROBERT W. COAKLEY 

STETSON CONN 

VI 
Contents 

PART ONE-NARRATIVE 

I. THE BEGINNINGS 

The European Heritage ....... . 

Eighteenth Century European Warfare 

The Colonial Scene 

Colonial Militia ...... . 

The Colonies in the World Conflict, 1698-1783 .. 

The American Rifle 

The Colonial Heritage 

II. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 

The Outbreak 

Formation of the Continental Army 

The Invasion of Canada and the Fall of Boston 

The New Nation 

Evolution of the Continental Army 

The British Problem ........ . 

Of Strategy 

The British Offensive in 1776 

Trenton and Princeton 

III. THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1777-1783 

The Campaign of 1777 

Valley Forge 

First Fruits of the French Alliance 

The New Conditions of the War 

British Successes in the South 

Nadir of the American Cause 

Greene's Southern Campaign 

Yorktown: The Final Act 

Page 

I 

1 

4 

9 

11 

13 

21 

22 

24 

25 

29 

33 

35 

38 

41 

44 

45 

50 

53 

53 

62 

64 

67 

68 

71 

73 

76 

The Summing Up: Reasons, Lessons, and Meaning. 81 

PART TWO-CHRONOLOGY 

An Army Chronology of the American Revolution 85 

Vll 
PART THREE-SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Introduction .. 

Secondary Works 

Reference Works 

General Military History of the Revolution-Narrative and 

Critical ....................... . 

The Causes, and Political, Economic, and Social Aspects-A 

Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . 

The Military Prelude to Lexington-The British Army in 

America before the Revolution 

The Outbreak . . . . ......... . 

Battles and Campaigns 

1. Bunker Hill and the Siege of Boston 

2. The Invasion of Canada ........... . 

3. The New York Campaign and the Battles of Trenton 

and Princeton . . . . . . ......... . 

4. The Campaign of 1777-the Middle States 

5. The Campaign of 1777-Burgoyne's Invasion and Surrender . . . . . . . . . . ........ . 

6. Campaigns in the North-1778 to the End 

7. The War in the South .. 

8. The Yorktown Campaign ....... . 

9. The West, the Frontier, and the Indians 

British Policy and Strategy 

The British Army in America during the Revolution 

The Loyalists ......... . 

The German Allied Troops ...... . 

The Continental Army: The Individual Soldier, Discipline, 

and Morale .......... . 

Weapons, Tactics, Flags, and Uniforms 

Unit Histories .... 

Finance, Administration, and Logistics 

The Militia .... 

The Continental Navy and the Naval War 

Military Activities in Region, State, or Locality 

French Aid and the French in America 

Spain in the War ....... . 

Intelligence and Psychological Warfare 

Blacks in the Revolution 

Prisoners of War 

Military Medicine 

Maps 

Music . . . ..... . 

Vlll 

Page 

141 

151 

152 

154 

157 

158 

159 

159 

160 

161 

162 

163 

164 

165 

167 

168 

170 

172 

173 

175 

176 

178 

181 

182 

185 

186 

188 

191 

193 

194 

195 

196 

197 

198 

199 
Civil-Military Relations ........ . 

Lists of Soldiers . . . . . . . . . . ......... . 

Biographical Material . . . . ................... . 

1. Collections of Biographical Sketches 

2. Biographies 

3 .. Biographical Articles 

Source Material 

General Collections of Documents 

Collections of Personal Letters and Papers ......... . 

Memoirs, Journals, Diaries, Travel Accounts, Personal Recollections, and Similar Materials 

Orderly Books-American ...... . 

Orderly Books-British and Loyalist 

Notes on the Manuscript Sources 

Maps 

No. 

I. Colonial North America 

2. Braddock's Expedition, June-July 1755 

3. The Boston-Concord Area 

4. American Attack on Quebec 

5. Retreat From New York, October-December 1776 

6. Attack on Trenton, 26 December 1776 

7. Pennsylvania-New Jersey Area of Operations, 1777-1778 

8. Battle of Germantown, 4 October 1777 ....... . 

9. Burgoyne's March on Albany, June-October 1777 

10. The Southern Area, 1778-1781 ......... . 

ll. Battle of the Cowpens, l7 January 1781 

12. Concentration of Forces at Yorktown, April-October 1781. 

Illustrations 

Braddock's Defeat 

General Washington With Maj. Gen. Artemas Ward 

Alexander Hamilton's Artillery at Trenton 

Steuben Training American Forces at Valley Forge 

Surrender of Comwallis 

IX 

Page 

200 

201 

203 

203 

204 

212 

215 

220 

225 

239 

241 

243 

Page 

13 

17 

28 

34 

47 

51 

56 

57 

59 

69 

75 

78 

19 

31 

52 

64 

80 

PART ONE 

NARRATIVE 

I. The Beginnings 

The United States as a nation was, in its origins, a product of English 

expansion in the New World in the seventeenth and 6ghteenth centuries-a 

part of the general outward thrust of western European peoples in this epoch. 

British people and institutions, transplanted to a virgin continent and mixed 

with people of different origins, underwent changes that eventually produced 

a distinctive American culture. In no area was the interaction of the two 

influences-European heredity and American environment-more apparent 

than in the shaping of the military institutions of the new nation. 

The European Heritage 

The European military heritage reaches far back into the dim recesses of 

history. Many centuries before the birth of Christ, organized armies under 

formal discipline and employing definite systems of battlefield tactics appeared 

in the empires of the Near East, rivaling in numbers and in the scope of 

their conflicts anything that was to appear in the Western World before the 

nineteenth century. In the fourth century B.C., Alexander the Great of 

Macedonia brought all these empires and dominions, in fact most of civilization 

known to theW estern World, under his suzerainty in a series of rapid military 

conquests. In so doing, he carried to the highest point of development the 

art of war as it was practiced in the Greek city-states. He utilized the phalanxa solid mass infantry formation using pikes as its cutting edge-as the Greeks 

had long done, but put far greater emphasis on heavy cavalry and contingents of 

archers and slingers to increase the maneuverability of his armies. 

The Romans eventually fell heir to most of Alexander's empire and 

extended their conquests westward and northward to include present-day 

Spain, France, Belgium, and England, bringing these areas within the pale 

of Roman civilization. The Romans built on the achievements of Alexander 

and brought the art of war to its zenith in the ancient world. They perfected, 

in the legion, a tactical military unit of great maneuverability comparable in 

some respects to the modern division, performed remarkable feats of military 
2 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

engineering, and developed elaborate systems of fortification and siegecraft. 

For all their achievements, the Romans made no real progress in the 

development of new weapons, and Roman military institutions, like Roman 

political organization and economy, underwent progressive decay after the 

second century A.D. The Roman Empire in the west was succeeded first by a 

congeries of barbarian kingdoms and eventually by a highly decentralized 

political system known as feudalism, under which a multitude of warring 

nobles exercised authority over local areas of varying size. The art of war 

underwent profound change with the armored knight on horseback succeeding to the battlefield supremacy that, under the Greeks and Romans, 

had belonged to disciplined formations of infantry. Society in the Middle Ages 

was highly stratified, and a rigid division existed between the knightly or 

ruling noble class and the great mass of peasants who tilled the soil, most of 

them as serfs bound to the nobles' estates. Warfare became for the most part 

a monopoly of the ruling classes, for only men of substance could afford horse 

and armor. Every knight owed a certain number of days of military service 

to his lord each year in a hierarchical or pyramid arrangement, the king at 

the apex and the great mass of lesser knights forming the base. But lords who 

were strong enough defied their superiors. Fortified castles with moat and 

drawbridge, built on commanding points of terrain, furnished sanctuaries 

where lesser lords with inferior forces could defy more powerful opponents. 

Wherever freemen were found, nonetheless, in town or countryside, they 

continued to bear arms on occasion as in£antry, often as despised adjuncts to 

armies composed of heavy cavalry. This yeoman class was always stronger in 

England than on the Continent, except in such remote or mountainous areas as 

Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries. Even after the Norman conquest 

had brought feudal institutions to England, the ancient Saxon tradition of the 

fyrd that required every freeman between sixteen and sixty to bear arms in 

defense of his country remained alive. In n8I the English King Henry II 

declared in his Assize of Arms that every freeman should keep and "bear these 

arms in his [the king' s] service according to his order and in allegiance to the 

lord King and his realm." 

Vestiges of feudal institutions survived well into the twentieth century, 

nowhere more prominently than in European military organizations where the 

old feudal nobility long dominated the officer ranks and continued its traditions 

of honor and chivalry. At the other end of the scale, the militia system, so 

prominent in British and American history, owed much to medieval precedents, 

for the Saxon fyrd and Henry II's Assize of Arms underlay the militia tradition 

transplanted from England to America. 
THE BEGINNINGS 3 

Between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries the feudal order as the 

basic political organization of European society gave way gradually to new 

national states under the dynastic rule of royal families. The growth of towns 

with their merchant and artisan classes and the consequent appearance of a 

money economy enabled ambitious kings to levy taxes and borrow money to 

raise and support military forces and to unify and rule their kingdoms. The 

Protestant Reformation shattered the religious unity of Western Christendom. 

A long series of bloody wars ensued in which the bitter animosity of Protestant 

and Catholic was inextricably mixed with dynastic and national ambition in 

provoking conflict. 

Changes in military organization, weapons, and tactics went hand in hand 

with political, social, and economic change. In the later Middle Ages formations of disciplined infantry using longbow, crossbow, pike, and halberd (a 

long-handled ax with a pike head at the end), reasserted their superiority on 

the battlefield. The introduction of gunpowder in the fourteenth century began 

a process of technological change in weapons that was to enhance that superiority; more immediately, gunpowder was used in crude artillery to batter down 

the walls of medieval castles. The age of the armored knight and the castle 

gave way to an age of mercenary infantry. 

In the religious and dynastic wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth .-::enturies, as mercenary armies came more and more to be national armies, various 

weapons employing gunpowder gradually replaced pike and halberd as the 

standard infantry weapons, and armor gradually disappeared from the bodies 

of both infantry and cavalry soldiers. At first musketeers were employed alongside pikemen in square formations, the pikemen protecting the musketeers 

while they reloaded. As the wheel lock musket succeeded the harquebus as a 

shoulder arm and the flintlock in turn supplanted the wheel lock, armies came 

to rely less and less on the pike, more and more on firepower delivered by 

muskets. By 1700, with the invention of a socket bayonet that could be fitted 

onto the end of the flintlock musket without plugging the barrel, the pike disappeared entirely and along with it the helmet and body armor that had primarily been designed for protection against pikes. Meanwhile, commanders 

learned to maneuver large bodies of troops on the battlefield and to employ 

infantry, cavalry, and artillery in combination. National armies composed of 

professional soldiers came once again to resemble the imperial forces that had 

served Alexander the Great and the Roman emperors. 

In the destructive Thirty Years' War in Germany ( I618-48), religious 

passions finally ran their course. European warfare would henceforth be a 

matter of clashes of dynastic and national rather than local or religious interests. 
4 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

After the chaos and destruction that had attended the religious wars, rulers and 

ruling classes in all countries sought stability and order. Beginning with the 

wars of Louis XIV of France in 166o, dynastic rivalries were to be fought out 

by professional armies within the framework of an established order which, in 

its essentials, none sought to disturb. The eighteenth century European military 

system that resulted constituted an important part of the world environment 

in the period the United States came into being. 

Eighteenth Century European Warfare 

In contrast to the great world wars of the twentieth century, eighteenth 

century warfare was limited in character, fought by rival states for restricted 

territorial gains and not for the subjugation of whole peoples or nations. It was 

conducted by professional armies and navies without the mobilization of men, 

economic resources, and popular opinion of entire nations that has characterized twentieth century war, and without the passion and hatred of the religious 

wars. Except in areas where military operations took place, the people in the 

warring nations carried on their everyday life as usual. 

The professional armies employed in this "formal" warfare reflected the 

society from which they sprang. Although Europe's titled nobles no longer 

exercised political power independent of their kings, they remained the dominant privileged class, proprietors of the great estates and leaders of the national 

armies. The great masses of people remained for the most part without property 

or voice in the government, either tilling the soil on the nobles' estates or working in the shops and handicraft industries in the towns. Absolute monarchy 

was the prevailing form of government in every European country save England 

and certain smaller states on the Continent. In England, where the constitutional power of Parliament had been successfully established over the king, 

Parliament was by no means a democratic institution but one controlled by the 

landed gentry and wealthy merchants. 

The military distinction nobles had formerly found in leading their own 

knights in battle they now sought as officers in the armies of their respective 

kings. Princes, counts, earls, marquises, and barons, men who held position by 

hereditary right, royal favor, or purchase, filled the higher commands, while 

"gentlemen" of lesser rank usually served as captains and lieutenants. Advancement to higher ranks depended as much on wealth and influence at court as on 

demonstrated merit on the battlefield. Eighteenth century officers were hardly 

professionals in the modern sense of the word, for they might well first enter 

the service as mere boys through inheritance or purchase of a commission, and, 
THE BEGINNINGS 5 

except for technical specialists in artillery and engineering, they were not 

required to attend a military school to train for their duties. 

As the officers came from the highest classes, so the men in the ranks came 

from the lowest. They were normally recruited for long terms of service, sometimes by force, from among the peasants and the urban unemployed, and more 

than a sprinkling of paupers, ne'er-do-wells, convicts, and drifters were in the 

ranks. Since recruiting extended across international boundaries, foreign mercenaries formed part of every European army. Discipline, not patriotic motivation, was the main reliance for making these men fight. Penalties for even minor 

offenses ran as high as a thousand lashes, and executions by hanging or firing 

squad were frequent. The habit of obedience inculcated on the drill ground 

carried over into battle where, it has often been said, the men advanced because 

they preferred the uncertainties of combat to the certainty of death if orders 

were disobeyed. 

Most of the significant European wars of the period were fought over 

terrain that was open, relatively flat, and thickly populated. Normally, fighting 

took place only during favorable weather and during daylight hours; rain or 

darkness quickly called a halt to a battle, and by December opposing armies 

usually retired to winter quarters where they awaited spring to resume hostilities. 

Road and river transportation systems were, for the time, highly developed, 

facilitating the movement of men and supplies. Food for men and forage for 

horses were usually available in the areas of military operations, but all supplies 

were customarily obtained by systematic and regular procedures, not by indiscriminate plunder. Each nation set up a series of fortresses or magazines along 

the line of march of its army in which replacement supplies and foodstuffs could 

be stored. 

Eighteenth century armies were composed predominantly of infantry, with 

cavalry and artillery' as supporting elements. Because battles were usually fought 

in open country, cavalry could be employed to full advantage. As for artillery, 

it was used in both attack and defense, either in campaigns of maneuver or in 

siege warfare. Some eighteenth century commanders used the three arms skillfully in combination, but it was the clash of infantry that usually decided the 

issue. In the eighteenth century infantry was truly the "Queen of Battle." 

The standard infantry weapon of the time was the flintlock musket with 

bayonet. Probably the most famous model was Brown Bess, the one used in the 

British Army. Brown Bess had a smoothbore barrel 3 feet 8 inches long with 

a q-inch bayonet and fired a smooth lead ball about three-quarters of an inch 

in diameter. The musket was highly inaccurate since the barrel had no rifling 

and the charge necessarily fitted loosely, permitting the escape of gas and 
6 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

reducing the effect of the propelling charge. It misfired occasionally and was 

useless when the powder in the priming pan got wet. The rate of fire was, at 

best, about three rounds per minute. When the ball hit within its effective 

range, rso to 200 yards, its impact was terrific, tearing ghastly holes in flesh and 

shattering bone, but the inaccuracy of the weapon practically precluded its use, 

even for volley fire, at ranges greater than 50 to IOO yards. The inefficiency of 

the smoothbore musket as a firearm made its attached bayonet almost as important as its firepower, and infantry relied on the bayonet for shock action against 

an enemy softened by musketry fire. 

Cavalrymen were variously armed with pistol and lance, carbine and sword, 

depending on the country and the time. Pistol and carbine were discharged at 

close range against the ranks of opposing infantry or cavalry, while lance and 

sword were used for close-in shock action. 

There were many different kinds of artillery. The larger pieces were mainly 

for siege warfare and were relatively immobile. Artillery used in the field was 

lighter and mounted on wheeled carriages pulled by men or horses. Whether 

siege or field, these artillery pieces were, like the muskets, smoothbore muzzleloaders, very limited in range and highly inaccurate. Loading and firing were 

even slower than in the case of the musket, for the cannon barrel had to be 

swabbed out after each round to prevel).t any residue of burning powder from 

causing a premature explosion. There was no traverse and the whole carriage 

had to be moved to change the direction of fire. Cannon fired mainly solid iron 

balls, or at shorter ranges, grapeshot and canister. Grapeshot was a cluster of 

small iron balls attached to a central system (thus resembling a bunch of grapes) 

and dispersed by the explosion of a propellent charge; canister consisted of 

loose pellets placed in a can and when fired had even greater dispersion than 

grape. 

The nature of the soldiers, their weapons, and the terrain go far to explain 

the tactics used. These tactics were usually designated linear tactics to distinguish them from earlier mass formations such as the Spanish Square and the 

column formations employed later by Napoleon. Linear tactics were first used 

by Gustavus Adolphus, the Swedish king and military innovator, in the Thirty 

Years' War, and they came into general use in European armies in the later 

dynastic wars of Louis XIV of France with the invention of the socket bayonet. 

Frederick the Great of Prussia carried them to their ultimate state of perfection, 

and his armies were the most methodically ordered in Europe. In the mideighteenth century the Frederician system was the model that others imitated. 

In the employment of linear tactics, troops marched onto the battlefield in 

columns and then deployed into line. A line consisted of a number of battalions 
THE BEGINNINGS 7 

or regiments-the terms were then practically synonymous-formed three or 

more ranks deep. In the ranks the men stood shoulder to shoulder and delivered 

their fire. Loading, firing, and bayonet charge were all performed at command 

in a drill involving many separate motions. Firing, insofar as officers were able 

to maintain rigid discipline, was entirely by volley, the purpose being to achieve 

the greatest mass of firepower over a given area. The goal was always the 

"perfect volley." Individual, aimed fire, given the characteristics of the flintlock 

musket, was deemed to be of little value. 

Artillery was deployed in the line with the infantry, cavalry on the flanks 

or in the rear. Usually commanders also kept an infantry force in reserve for 

use at a critical point in the battle. In the traditional eighteenth century battle, 

both forces would be drawn up in similar formation, and the battle would be 

opened by artillery fire from both sides. In the midst of this fire, the attacking 

infantry would move forward, maintaining the rigid linear formation in 

which it was trained, stopping as frequently as necessary to dress its lines. At 

a range of 50 to roo yards, the attacking line would halt on the command of 

its officers. At a second command, a volley would be fired and answered by the 

opposing line; or there might be a great deal of jockeying over who should fire 

first, for it was considered an advantage to take, not to give, the first volley and to 

deliver one's own answering volley at closer range. In any case, the exchange 

of volleys would continue until one side determined to try to carry the field 

by bayonet or cavalry charge, usually committing its reserves in this action. 

If either side was able to carry the field, the victorious commander then sought 

to execute a successful pursuit, destroying the enemy's army; the defeated 

commander attempted to withdraw his force in a semblance of order to a 

fortress or other defensive position, there to re-form and fight another day. 

Eighteenth century battles were bloody affairs. At Zorndorf in 1758, for 

instance, the victorious army of Frederick lost 38 percent of its effectives, 

the defeated Russians about half of theirs. Professional soldiers were difficult 

to replace for there was no national reservoir of trained manpower to draw on, 

and it took two years or more to train a recruit properly. Commanders, therefore, sparing of the blood of their soldiers, sought to avoid battle and to 

overcome the enemy by a successful series of maneuvers against his line of 

communications. They also tried to take advantage of terrain features and of 

fortified positions, to strike by surprise or against the flanks of the enemy, 

forcing him to realign his forces while fighting, and to employ artillery and 

cavalry to the greatest advantage in paving the way for infantry assault. 

Fortresses, normally constructed along the frontiers to impede the advance 

of an invading army, played a vital role in these maneuvers. It was considered 
8 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

axiomatic that no army could leave a fortress in its rear athwart its line of 

communications, that any major fortified point had to be reduced by siege. 

By 1700 the arts of both fortification and siegecraft had been reduced to certain 

geometric principles by Marshal Sebastien Vauban, a distinguished soldier 

and engineer in the service of Louis XIV of France. 

Vauban's fortresses were star-shaped, with walls partially sunk in the 

earth and covered with earthen ramparts on which cannon could be mounted; 

projections or bastions with mutually supporting fields of fire jutted forth 

from the main walls; a ditch was dug around the whole and a second smaller 

wall erected in front of it, with earth also sloped against it to absorb the 

shock of cannon balls. 

Vauban's system for attacking this or any other type of fortified position 

was known as an approach by parallel lines. Once a fortress had been surrounded 

and outside aid cut off, batteries of siege artillery were brought up within 

about 6oo yards of the fortress walls, the guns being so placed as to rake the 

lengths of the bastions with enfilade fire; behind these guns the first parallel 

trench was dug to protect the gunners and assault troops. Zigzag approach 

trenches were then dug forward about 200 yards to the points from which a 

second parallel was constructed, then the same process was repeated and a 

third parallel was dug. Infantry and siege artillery were moved forward as 

each parallel was completed until, in the third, they were beneath the outer 

wall of the fortress. From this vantage point the artillery could breach the 

main wall and the infantry could take the fortress by storm, but usually the 

fortress commander surrendered to avoid further bloodshed. Under Vauban's 

system the capture of a fortress by a superior besieging force was usually only 

a matter of time, and the siege was conducted, often in leisurely fashion, along 

lines as rigidly fixed as those of the formal battle in the open field. 

Perhaps the most indelible picture of formal eighteenth century warfare 

that has survived is one of French and British officers at the Battle of Fontenoy 

in 1746, bowing politely to each other and each inviting the other side to fire 

the first volley, thus starting the carnage that was to follow. This picture has 

a certain ludicrous quality about it, but there was method in their madness as 

there was in eighteenth century warfare generally. The eighteenth century 

army was adapted to the European environment of the time, to the political 

and social climate as well as to the geography and terrain. Men knowledgeable 

in military matters at the time firmly believed that no body of semitrained 

citizens, however numerous and inspired, could stand before the disciplined 

ranks of professionals. If today we can see many of the weaknesses in the 

eighteenth century military system that were not so obvious to contemporaries-
THE BEGINNINGS 9 

its basic lack of flexibility, a paucity of true professional leadership, and its 

failure effectively to mobilize national resources for war-these perceptions 

result from a vastly different social and political environment. 

The Colonial Scene 

The environment in the British colonies of North America was different 

from that of Europe. America was a new continent, heavily forested and 

sparsely populated. The main enemy with whom the English colonists had first 

to contend was the primitive and savage Indian, who neither knew the rules 

of formal warfare nor cared to learn them. Colonial society from its very beginnings developed along more democratic and individualistic lines than society 

in England or continental Europe. Military institutions and practices, though 

heavily influenced by English patterns, also evolved in the seventeenth and 

eighteenth centuries along different lines. It would be a mistake to call the society 

that took form in the thirteen English colonies in North America a new 

society, for in most respects it followed the English pattern of social, economic, 

and political organization. But England itself had stronger democratic traditions than existed on the Continent, and important differences in the environment gave these English traditions much stronger force in America. Here 

there was no titled nobility exercising a monopoly on governmental office or 

holding a vested title to most of the land. While an aristocracy of wealth soon 

appeared, it was never able to exercise the same prerogatives as a titled nobility. 

Besides, it was far easier to move from the poorer to the wealthier class, since 

acquisition of landed wealth was easier in a country where land was plentiful 

and labor to work it scarce. If older settled areas tended to develop something 

approaching the pattern of European class distinction, new frontiers were constantly opening up where dissatisfied individuals could move and find new 

opportunities. Life under these conditions bred a spirit of individualism and 

self-reliance. 

In political life, this spirit found expression in the popular assemblies that 

played an increasingly important part in the government of each of the colonies. 

Each colony had a government modeled generally on England's. Though there 

were variations in the pattern, the prevailing form consisted of a royal governor 

appointed by the British Crown, a council appointed by the governor from the 

ranks of the colonial aristocracy, and a popular assembly elected by the landholders. Modeled on the British House of Commons, these popular assemblies 

in the colonies rested on a much broader democratic base, since property ownership-the main qualification for voting in Britain and America in this age-
10 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

was far more widespread in the colonies. The colonial assemblies claimed the 

same prerogatives vis-a-vis the royal governor that the British Parliament exercised in its relations with the Crown, including control of the purse and regulation of the military establishment of the colony. 

The Indian method of warfare in the forest, perforce adopted by the white 

man also, was the most significant influence in developing and preserving the 

spirit of individualism and self-reliance in the military sphere. When the white 

man came, the Indian relied on bow and spear, or tomahawk and knife, but he 

soon learned the value of the white man's muskets and was not long in obtaining 

them in trade for his valuable furs. With bow or musket, his method of fighting 

was the same. Indian tribes had no organized system of war; warriors simply 

formed voluntary bands under war chiefs and took off on the warpath. In battle 

each Indian fought a separate opponent without regard for his fellows. Indians 

avoided pitched battle whenever possible, instead seeking victory by surprise 

and carefully utilizing cover and concealment. Only when they had the advantage did they close in for hand-to-hand combat. In such combat the Indian brave 

lacked neither skill nor courage. Since he cared little about the rules of civilized 

warfare, he slaughtered men, women, and children indiscriminately. The favorite Indian tactic was a surprise raid on an isolated settlement. When the settlers 

organized a pursuit, the Indians lay in wait and ambushed them. 

The white man soon adapted his tactics to the Indian's, quickly learning the 

value of surprise and stealth himself. To avoid ambush he sent out scouts as the 

Indians did, frequently employing friendly Indians in the role. Instead of fighting in the closed formations of Europe, he too adopted the open formation and 

fought from behind trees, rocks, and fences. In such fighting more depended on 

individual initiative and courage than on strict discipline and control. 

The white settler learned to benefit from some of the enemy's weaknesses. 

For all their cunning, the Indians never learned the lesson of proper security and 

did not post guards at night. Nor did they like to fight in winter. Expeditions 

into the Indian country used as their favorite technique an attack on an Indian 

village at dawn and in the winter season. This attack almost invariably came as a 

surprise, and the white man, imitating the savagery of his opponent, burned the 

Indian's villages and sometimes slaughtered braves, squaws, and papooses. 

The settlers tried to provide some permanent protection for their frontiers 

by erecting forts along the westernmost line of settlement in each colony, moving 

them forward as the line of settlement moved. These forts were not the elaborate 

earth and masonry structures of Europe, but simple rectangular inclosures, their 

walls constructed of upright pointed logs. Usually there were wooden blockhouses at each corner. These rude frontier forts served as points to which settlers 
THE BEGINNINGS 11 

and their families could retreat for protection in time of Indian troubles. Having 

no artillery, the Indians found the forts hard to take and could rely only on 

burning arrows to set them afire, on surprise attack, or on direct frontal assault. 

From the last alternative they almost invariably shrank. Their war chiefs possessed no power to order any group of braves to undertake an assault in which 

they would suffer heavy casualties for the sake of gaining an objective. 

Colonial Militia 

For fighting Indians, colonial governments were in no position to form 

professional armies, even had the nature of Indian warfare lent itself to such a 

practice. Instead they fell back on the ancient British tradition of the militia. This 

tradition took on new vitality in America at the same time that it was declining 

in England where, after Oliver Cromwell's time, England's wars were fought 

on the sea and in foreign lands. The British Government came to rely on its 

Regular Army and Navy just as other European states did, despite a continuing 

tradition of opposition to a standing army. Each of the thirteen colonies, except 

for Pennsylvania where Quaker influence was dominant, enacted laws providing 

for a compulsory militia organization, generally based on the principle of the 

Saxon fyrd that every able-bodied free male from sixteen to sixty should render 

military service. Each member of the militia was obligated to appear for training 

at his county or town seat a certain number of days each year, to provide himself 

with weapons, and to hold himself in readiness for call in case of Indian attack 

or other emergency. 

Each colony maintained its separate militia establishment, and each concentrated on the problems of protecting or extending its own frontiers; co-operation among the militias of the various colonies was confined to specific expeditions in which two or more colonies had an interest. The militia was by and large 

a local institution, administered in county and town or township under the 

general militia laws of each colony. It was closely integrated with the social and 

economic structure of colonial society. Though the royal governors or colonial 

assemblies appointed the general officers and the colonels who commanded 

militia districts, the companies in each locality elected their own officers. This 

practice seemingly put a premium on popularity rather than wealth or ability, 

but rank in the militia generally corresponded with social station in the 

community. 

Each individual militiaman was expected to provide his own weaponusually a smoothbore musket-and ammunition, clothing, and food for a short 

expedition, just as the British knight had been required to provide his own 
12 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

horse, armor, and suitable weapons for feudal warfare. Local authorities maintained reserve supplies of muskets to arm those too poor to buy them and collected stores of ammunition and sometimes small cannon that could be dragged 

along through the wilderness. For really long campaigns, the colonial government had to take charge, the assembly appropriating the money for supplies and 

designating the supply officers or contractors to handle purchasing and 

distribution. 

Although the militia was organized into units by county or township, it 

hardly ever fought that way. Instead the local unit served as a training and 

mobilization base from which individuals could be selected for active operations. When a particular area of a colony was threatened, the colonial government would direct the local militia commander to call out his men and the 

commander would mobilize as many as he could or as he thought necessary, 

selecting the younger and more active men for service. For expeditions into the 

Indian country, individuals from many localities were usually selected and 

formed into improvised units for the occasion. Selection was generally by volunteering, but local commanders could draft both men and property if necessary. 

Drafted men were permitted the option of hiring substitutes, a practice that 

favored the well to do. Volunteer, drafted man, and substitute alike insisted on 

the militiaman's prerogative to serve only a short period and return to home and 

fireside as quickly as possible. 

As a part-time citizen army, the militia was naturally not a well-disciplined, 

cohesive force comparable to the professional army of the age. Moreover, its 

efficiency, even for Indian fighting, varied from colony to colony and even from 

locality to locality within the same colony, depending on the ability and determination of commanders and the presence or absence of any threat. When 

engaged in eliminating an Indian threat to their own community, militiamen 

might be counted on to make up in enthusiasm what they lacked in discipline 

and formal training, but when the Indian threat was pushed westward there 

was a tendency for people along the seaboard to relax. Training days, one a 

week in the early days of settlement, fell to one a month or even one a year. 

Festivities rather than military training increasingly became the main purpose 

of many of the gatherings, and the efficiency of the militia in these regions 

declined accordingly. In some towns and counties, however, the military tradition was kept alive by volunteers who formed units of their own, purchased 

distinctive uniforms, and prepared themselves to respond in case of war or 

emergency. These units became known as the volunteer militia and were the 

predecessors of the National Guard of the United States. In Pennsylvania, which 
THE BEGINNINGS 13 

lacked a militia law until 1755 and then passed one that made militia service 

voluntary rather than compulsory, all units were composed of volunteers. 

On the frontier, where Indian raids were a constant threat, training days 

were more frequent and militia had to be ready for instant action. Except on the 

frontier, where proficiency in this sort of warfare was a matter of survival, it is 

doubtful that colonial militia in general were really adept in forest fighting. 

Training days were devoted not to the techniques of fighting Indians but to 

learning the drill and motions required on a European battlefield. 

The Colonies in the World Conflict, I689-I783 

While England was colonizing the eastern seaboard from Maine to Georgia, 

France was extending its control over Canada and Louisiana and asserting its 

claim to the Great Lakes region and the Mississippi Valley in the rear of the 

British colonies. (Map I) Spain held Florida, an outpost of its vast colonial 

domains in Mexico, Central and South America, and the West Indies. England 

MAP 1 
14 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

and France were invariably on opposite sides in the four great dynastic coalition 

wars fought in Europe between 1689 and 1763. Spain was allied with France 

in the last three of these conflicts. Each of these European wars had its counterpart in' a struggle between British and French and Spanish colonists in America, 

intermingled with a quickening of Indian warfare all along the frontiers as 

the contestants tried to use the Indian tribes to their advantage. Americans 

and Europeans called these wars by different names. The War of the League 

of Augsburg (1689-97) was known in America as King William's War, the 

War of Spanish Succession (IJOI-I3) as Queen Anne's War, the War of 

Austrian Succession ( 1744-48) as King George's War, and the final and decisive 

conflict, the Seven Years' War (1756-63), as the French and Indian War. In 

all of these wars one of the matters involved was the control of the North 

American continent; in the last of them it became the principal point at issue 

in the eyes of the British Government. 

The main centers of French strength were along the St. Lawrence River 

in Canada-Quebec and Montreal-and the strategic line along which much 

of the fighting took place in the colonies lay between New York and Quebec, 

either on the lake and river chain that connects the Hudson with the St. 

Lawrence in the interior or along the seaways leading from the Atlantic up 

the St. Lawrence. In the south, the arena of conflict lay in the area between 

South Carolina and Florida and Louisiana. In 1732 the British Government 

established the colony of Georgia primarily as a military outpost in this region. 

In the struggle for control of North America, the contest between England 

and France was the vital one, the conflict with Spain, a declining power, 

important but secondary. This latter conflict reached its height in the "War 

of Jenkins' Ear," a prelude to the War of Austrian Succession, which began 

in 1739 and pitted the British and their American colonists against the Spanish. 

In the colonies the war involved a seesaw struggle between the Spanish in 

Florida and the West Indies and the English colonists in South Carolina and 

Georgia. Its most notable episode, however, was a British expedition mounted 

in Jamaica against Cartagena, the main port of the Spanish colony in Colombia. 

The mainland colonies furnished a regiment to participate in the assault as 

British Regulars under British command. The expedition ended in disaster, 

resulting from climate, disease, and the bungling of British commanders, and 

only about 6oo of over 3,ooo Americans who participated ever returned to 

their homes. The net result of the war itself was indecisive. 

The first three wars with the French were also indecisive. The nature of 

the fighting in them was much the same as that in the Indian wars. Although 

the French maintained garrisons of Regulars in Canada, they were never 
THE BEGINNINGS 15 

sufficient to bear the brunt of the fighting. The French Canadians also had 

their militia, a more centralized and all-embracing system than that in the 

English colonies, but the population of the French colonies was sparse, scarcely 

a twentieth of that of the British colonies in 1754. The French relied heavily 

on Indian allies, whom they equipped with firearms. They were far more 

successful than the British in influencing the Indians, certainly in part because 

their sparse population posed little threat to Indian lands. The French could 

usually count on the support of the Indian tribes in the Great Lakes and Ohio 

Valley regions, though the British colonists did maintain greater influence 

with the powerful Iroquois confederacy in New York. The French constructed 

forts at strategic points and garrisoned them with small numbers of Regulars, 

a few of whom they usually sent along with militia and Indian raiding parties 

to supervise operations. Using guerrilla methods, the French gained many local 

successes and indeed kept the frontiers of the English colonies in a continual 

state of alarm, but they could achieve no decisive results because of the essential 

weakness of their position. 

The British and their colonists usually took the offensive and sought to 

strike by land and sea at the citadels of French power in Canada. The British 

Navy's control of the sea made possible the mounting of sea expeditions against 

Canada and at the same time made it difficult for the French to reinforce their 

small Regular garrisons. In 1710 a combined British and colonial expedition 

captured the French fort at Port Royal on Nova Scotia, and by the treaty of 

peace in 1713 Nova Scotia became an English possession. In 1745 an all-colonial 

expedition sponsored by Massachusetts captured Louisbourg on Cape Breton 

Island in what was perhaps the greatest of. colonial military exploits, only to 

have the stronghold bargained away in 1748 for Madras, a post the French 

had captured from the British in India. 

While militia units played an important part in the colonial wars, colonial 

governments resorted to a different device to recruit forces for expeditions 

outside their boundaries such as that against Louisbourg. This was the volunteer 

force, another institution that was to play an important part in all American 

wars through the end of the nineteenth century. Unlike the militia units, 

volunteer forces were built from the top down. The commanding officers were 

first chosen by one of the colonial governors or assemblies and the men were 

enlisted by them. The choice of a commander was made with due regard for 

his popularity in the colony since this was directly related to his ability to 

persuade officers and men to serve under him. While the militia was the main 

base for recruitment, and the officers were almost invariably men whose previous 

experience was in the militia, indentured servants and drifters without military 
16 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

obligation were also enlisted. The enlistment period was only for the duration 

of a campaign, at best a year or so, not for long periods as in European armies. 

Colonial assemblies had to vote money for pay and supplies, and assemblies 

were usually parsimonious as well as unwilling to see volunteer forces assume 

any of the status of a standing Regular Army. With short enlistments, inexperienced officers, and poor discipline by European standards, even the best of 

these colonial volunteer units were, like the militia, often held in contempt 

by British officers. 

The only positive British gain up to 1748 was Nova Scotia. The indecisive 

character of the first three colonial wars was evidence of the inability of the 

English colonies to unite and muster the necessary military forces for common 

action, of the inherent difficulty of mounting offensives in unsettled areas, 

and of a British preoccupation with conflicts in Europe and other areas. Until 

1754 the British Government contented itself with maintaining control of the 

seas and furnishing Regulars for sea expeditions against French and Spanish 

strongholds; until 1755 no British Regulars took part in the war in the 

interior, though small "independent companies" of indifferent worth were 

stationed continuously in New York and occasionally in other colonies. No 

colony, meanwhile, was usually willing to make any significant contribution 

to the common cause unless it appeared to be in its own interest. Efforts to 

form some kind of union, the most notable of which was a plan advanced by 

Benjamin Franklin in a colonial congress held at Albany in 1754, all came 

to naught. 

Between 1748 and 1754 the French expanded their system of forts around 

the Great Lakes and moved down into the Ohio Valley, establishing Fort 

Duquesne at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers in 1753 

and staking a claim to the entire region. In so doing, they precipitated the 

final and decisive conflict which began in America two years before the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe. In 1754 Governor Robert Dinwiddie 

of Virginia sent young George Washington at the head of a force of Virginia 

militia to compel the French to withdraw from Fort Duquesne. Washington 

was driven back and forced to surrender. The British Government then sent 

over two understrength regiments of Regulars under Maj. Gen. Edward 

Braddock, a soldier of some forty-five years' experience on continental battlefields, to accomplish the task in which the militia had failed. Accustomed 

to the parade ground tactics and the open terrain of Europe, Braddock placed 

all his faith in disciplined Regulars and close order formations. He filled his 

regiments with American recruits and early in June 1755 set out on the long 

march through the wilderness to Fort Duquesne with a total force of about 
THE BEGINNINGS 17 

2,200, including a body of Virginia and North Carolina militiamen. (Map 2) 

George Washington accompanied the expedition, but had no command role. 

Braddock's force proceeded westward through the wilderness in traditional 

column formation with 300 axmen in front to clear the road and a heavy baggage 

train of wagons in the rear. The heavy wagon train so slowed his progress that 

about halfway he decided to let it follow as best it could and went ahead with 

about 1,300 selected men, a few cannon, wagons, and packhorses. As he approached Fort Duquesne, he crossed the Monongahela twice in order to avoid 

a dangerous and narrow passage along the east side where ambush might be 

expected. He sent Lt. Col. Thomas Gage with an advance guard to secure the 

site of the second crossing, also deemed a most likely spot for an ambush. Gage 

found no enemy and the entire force crossed the Monongahela the second 

time on the morning of July 9, 1755, then confidently took up the march toward 

Fort Duquesne, only seven miles away. 

About three quarters of a mile past the Monongahela crossing, Gage's 

advance guard suddenly came under fire from a body of French and Indians 

concealed in the woods. Actually it was a very inferior force of 70 French 

--APPROXIMATE ROUTE OF ENGLISH TROOPS X FRENCH AND INDIAN AMBUSH 

Contour Interval 1000 feet 

10 20 30 

MILES 

MAP 2 
18 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Regulars, 150 Canadian militia (many mere boys), and 650 Indians who had 

just arrived on the scene after a hasty march from Fort Duquesne. Some 

authorities think Gage might have changed the whole course of the battle 

had he pushed forward, forcing the enemy onto the open ground in their 

rear. Instead he fell back on the main body of Braddock's troops, causing 

considerable confusion. This confusion was compounded when the French 

and Indians slipped into the forests on the flanks of the British troops, pouring 

their fire into a surprised and terrified mass of men who wasted their return 

volleys on the air. "Scarce an officer or soldier," wrote one of the participants, 

"can say they ever saw at one time six of the Enemy and the greatest part 

never saw a single man .... " 

None of the training or experience of the Regulars had equipped them to 

cope with this sort of attack, and Braddock could only exhort them to rally 

in conventional formation. Two-thirds of his officers fell dead or wounded. 

The militia, following their natural instincts, scattered and took positions 

behind trees, but there is no evidence they delivered any effective fire, since 

French and Indian losses for the day totaled only 23 killed and 16 wounded. 

The few British cannon appear to have been more telling. Braddock, mortally 

wounded himself, finally attempted to withdraw his force in some semblance 

of order, but the retreat soon became a disordered flight. The panic-stricken 

soldiers did not stop even when they reached the baggage wagons many 

miles to their rear. 

Despite the completeness of their victory, the French and Indians made 

no attempt to follow it up. The few French Regulars had little control over 

the Indians, who preferred to loot the battlefield and scalp the wounded. The 

next day the Indians melted back into the forest, and the French commandant 

at Duquesne noted in his official report: "If the enemy should return with 

the I,ooo fresh troops that he has in reserve in the rear, at what distance we 

do not know, we should perhaps be badly embarrassed." The conduct of the 

battle was not so reprehensible as the precipitate retreat of the entire force 

back to the safety of the settled frontiers, when no enemy was pursuing it. 

Although Braddock had been aware of the possibilities of ambush and 

had taken what he thought were necessary precautions, in the broader sense 

he violated the principles of security and maneuver; for when the ambush 

came he had little idea how to cope with Indian tactics in the forest. As he 

lay dying on the wagon that transported him from the battlefield, the 

seemingly inflexible old British general is alleged to have murmured, "Another 

time we shall know better how to deal with them." 
THE BEGINNINGS 19 

BRADDOcK's DEFEAT 

Braddock could not profit from his appreciation of the lesson but the 

British Army did. "Over the bones of Braddock," writes Sir John Fortescue, 

the eminent historian of the British Army, "the British advanced again to 

the conquest of Canada." 

After a series of early reverses, of which Braddock's disastrous defeat was 

only one, the British Government under the inspired leadership of William 

Pitt was able to achieve a combination of British and colonial arms that 

succeeded in overcoming the last French resistance in Canada and in finally 

removing the French threat from North America. In this combination 

British Regular troops, the British Navy, British direction, and British financial 

support were the keys to victory; the colonial effort, though considerable, 

continued to suffer from lack of unity. 

As an immediate reaction to Braddock's defeat, the British Government 

sought to recruit Regulars in America to fight the war, following the precedent 

set in the Cartagena expedition. Several American regiments were raised, 

the most famous among them Col. Henry Bouquet's Royal Americans. On the 

whole, however, the effort was a failure, for most Americans preferred short 

service in the militia or provincial volunteer forces to the long-term service 

and rigid discipline of the British Army. After 1757 the British Government 

under Pitt, now convinced that America was the area in which the war would 

be won or lost, dispatched increasing numbers of Regulars from England-a 
20 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

total of 2o,ooo during the war. The British Regulars were used in conjunction 

with short-term militia and longer term volunteer forces raised in the service 

of the various individual colonies. The British never hit upon any effective 

device to assure the sort of colonial co-operation they desired and the burdens 

of the war were unequally divided since most colonies did not meet the quotas 

for troops, services, and supplies the British Government set. Massachusetts, 

Connecticut, and New York furnished about seven-tenths of the total colonial 

force employed. The British found it necessary to shoulder the principal 

financial burden, reimbursing individual colonies for part of their expenses and 

providing the pay and supply of many of the colonial volunteer units in order to 

insure their continued service. 

Braddock's defeat was not repeated. In no other case in the French and 

Indian War was an inferior guerrilla force able to overcome any substantial 

body of Regulars. The lessons of the debacle on the Monongahela, as the 

British properly understood, were not that Regular forces or European methods 

were useless in America or that undisciplined American militia were superior 

to Regular troops. They were rather that tactics and fo:;mations had to be 

adapted to terrain and the nature of the enemy and that Regulars, when 

employed in the forest, would have to learn to travel faster and lighter and 

take advantage of cover-, concealment, and surprise as their enemies did. Or 

the British could employ colonial troops and Indian allies versed in this sort 

of warfare as auxiliaries, something the French had long since learned to do. 

The British adopted both methods in the ensuing years of the French and 

Indian War. Light infantry, trained as scouts and skirmishers, became a 

permanent part of the British Army organization. When engaged in operatians 

in the forest, these troops were clad in green or brown clothes instead of the 

traditional red coat of the British soldier, their heads shaved and their skins 

sometimes painted like the Indians'. Special companies, such as Maj. Robert 

Rogers' Rangers, were recruited among skilled woodsmen in the colonies and 

placed in the Regular British establishment. 

Despite this employment of light troops as auxiliaries, the British Army 

did not fundamentally change its tactics and organization in the course of 

the war in America. The reduction of the French fortress at Louisbourg in 

1758 was conducted along the classic lines of European siege warfare. The 

most decisive single battle of the war was fought in the open field on the 

Plains of Abraham before the French citadel of Quebec. In a daring move, 

Maj. Gen. James Wolfe and his men scaled the cliffs leading up to the plain 

on the night of September 12, 1759, and appeared in traditional line of battle 

before the city the next morning. Major General the Marquis de Montcalm, the 
THE BEGINNINGS 21 

able French commander, accepted the challenge, but his troops, composed 

partly of militia levies, proved unable to withstand the withering "perfect 

volleys" of Wolfe's exceptionally well-disciplined regiments. 

The ultimate lesson of the colonial wars, then, was that European and 

American tactics each had its place, and either could be decisive where conditions were best suited to its use. The colonial wars also proved that only 

troops possessing the organization and discipline of Regulars, whatever their 

tactics, could actually move in, seize, and hold objectives, and thus achieve 

decisive results. 

Other important lessons lay in the realm of logistics, where American conditions presented difficulties to which European officers were unaccustomed. 

The impediments to supply and transport in a vast, undeveloped, and sparsely 

populated country limited both the size and variety of forces employed. The 

settled portions of the colonies produced enough food, but few manufactured 

goods. Muskets, cannon, powder, ball, tents, camp kettles, salt, and a variety of 

other articles necessary for even the simple military operations of the period 

almost all had to come from Europe. Roads, even in the settled areas, were poor 

and inadequate; forces penetrating into the interior had to cut their roads as 

they went, as Braddock did. These logistical problems go far to explain why the 

fate of America was settled in battles involving hardly one-tenth the size of 

forces engaged in Europe in the Seven Years' War, and why cavalry was 

almost never employed and artillery to no great extent except in fixed fortifications and in expeditions by sea when cannon could be transported on board ship. 

The limited mobility of large Regular forces, whatever the superiority of their 

organization and tactics, put a premium both on small bodies of trained troops 

familiar with the terrain and on local forces, not so well trained, already in an 

area of operations. Commanders operating in America would ignore these 

logistical limitations at their peril. 

The American Rifle 

By the end of the French and Indian War, a new weapon had appeared on 

the frontier in Pennsylvania and to the southward, one far better suited to 

guerrilla warfare than the musket. This weapon was later to become renowned 

as the Kentucky rifle. The effects of rifling a gun barrel, that is, of making spiral 

grooves that imparted a spinning effect to the bullet, giving it greater range and 

accuracy, had been known for some centuries in Germany and Switzerland. 

But the early rifles made there were too heavy and slow to load to be of military 

use. The Germans who settled in Pennsylvania developed, around 1750, a much 
22 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

lighter model, far easier and faster to load. They used a bullet smaller than the 

bore and a greased patch to keep the fit tight. This early American rifle could, 

in proper hands, hit a target the size of a man's head at 200 yards. 

Despite its superior range and accuracy, the rifle was to undergo almost a 

hundred years of development before it would supplant the musket as the standard infantry weapon. At first each individual piece was handmade and each 

required a separate bullet mold. The standard bayonet would fit none of them. 

The rifle was effective only in the hands of an expert trained in its use. The rate 

of fire was only about one-third that of the musket, and therefore, without 

bayonet, the rifle could hardly be used by troops in the line. For the guerrilla 

tactics of the frontier, where men did not fight in line but from behind trees, 

bushes, and rocks, it was clearly a superior weapon. Thus, like the tactics of the 

American forest, it would have its place in any future war fought in America. 

The Colonial Heritage 

In the Indian wars and the colonial wars with France, Americans gained 

considerable military experience, albeit much of it in guerrilla warfare that did 

not require the same degree of organized effort and professional competence as 

the European style of warfare. The major effort against the French in Canada 

had, after all, been directed by the British Government. Many colonials later 

to become famous in the Revolution had· served their military apprenticeship as 

officers of middle rank in the French and Indian War: George Washington, 

Israel Putnam, Philip Schuyler, and John Stark, for instance, in provincial 

forces; Charles Lee, Horatio Gates, and Richard Montgomery in the British 

Army. 

Certain traditions had been established that were to influence American 

military policy and practice right down to the two great world wars of the 

twentieth century. One of these was primary reliance on the militia for defense 

and on volunteer forces for special emergencies and expeditions. Another was 

that relatively permanent volunteer units should be formed within the militia. 

The fear of a standing army of professionals, an English heritage, had become 

an even stronger article of faith in America. The colonial experience also established a strong tradition of separatism among the colonies themselves, for each 

had for a long period of years run its own military establishment. Within each 

colony, too, the civilian authority represented in the popular assembly had 

always kept a strict rein on the military, another tradition that was to have 

marked effect on American military development. 
THE BEGINNINGS 23 

Certain characteristics of the American soldier that were to be fairly constant throughout all future wars had also made their appearance. The American 

soldier was inclined to be highly individualistic and to resent discipline and the 

inevitable restrictions of military life; he sought to know why he should do 

things before he would put his heart into doing them; and if in the end he 

accepted discipline and order as a stern necessity he did so with the idea of 

winning victory as quickly as possible so that he could return to his normal 

civilian pursuits. 

These traditions and these characteristics were the product of a society 

developing along democratic lines. The military strengths and weaknesses they 

engendered were to be amply demonstrated when the American soldier took 

up arms against his erstwhile comrade, the British Regular, in the American 

Revolution. 
II. The American Revolution: 

First Phase 

The American Revolution came about, fundamentally, because by 1763 the 

English-speaking communities on the far side of the Atlantic had matured to 

an extent that their interests and goals were distinct from those of the ruling 

classes in the mother country. British statesmen failed to understand or adjust 

to the situation. Ironically enough, British victory in the Seven Years' War set 

the stage for the revolt, for it freed the colonists from the need for British protection against a French threat on their frontiers and gave free play to the forces 

working for separation. 

In r763 the British Government, reasonably from its point of view, moved 

to tighten the system of imperial control and to force the colonists to contribute 

to imperial defense, proposing to station ro,ooo soldiers along the American 

frontiers and to have the Americans pay part of the bill. This imperial defense 

plan touched off the long controversy about Parliament's right to tax that 

started with the Stamp and Sugar Acts and ended in December 1773, when a 

group of Bostonians unceremoniously dumped a cargo of British tea into the 

city harbor in protest against the latest reminder of the British effort to tax. 

In this ro-year controversy the several British ministries failed to act either 

firmly enough to enforce British regulations or wisely enough to develop a more 

viable form of imperial union, which the colonial leaders, at least until r776, 

insisted that they sought. In response to the Boston Tea Party, the king and his 

ministers blindly pushed through Parliament a series of measures collectively 

known in America as the Intolerable Acts, closing the port of Boston, placing 

Massachusetts under the military rule of Maj. Gen. Sir Thomas Gage, and 

otherwise infringing on what the colonists deemed to be their rights and interests. 

Since r763 the colonial leaders, in holding that only their own popular 

assemblies, not the British Parliament, had a right to levy taxes on Americans, 

had raised the specter of an arbitrary British Government collecting taxes in 

America to support red-coated Regulars who might be used not to protect the 

frontiers but to suppress American liberties. Placing Massachusetts under military rule gave that specter some substance and led directly to armed revolt. 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 25 

The Outbreak 

The First Continental Congress meeting at Philadelphia on September 5, 

1774, addressed respectful petitions to Parliament and king but also adopted 

nonimportation and nonexportation agreements in an effort to coerce the 

British Government into repealing the offending measures. To enforce these 

agreements, committees were formed in almost every county, town, and city 

throughout the colonies, and in each colony these committees soon became the 

effective local authorities, the base of a pyramid of revolutionary organizations 

with revolutionary assemblies, congresses, or conventions, and committees of 

safety at the top. This loosely knit combination of de facto governments superseded the constituted authorities and established firm control over the whole 

country before the British were in any position to oppose them. The de facto 

governments took over control of the militia, and out of it began to shape forces 

that, if the necessity arose, might oppose the British in the field. 

In Massachusetts, the seat of the crisis, the Provincial Congress, eyeing 

Gage's force in Boston, directed the officers in each town to enlist a third of 

their militia in minutemen organizations to be ready to act at a moment's warning, and began to collect ammunition and other military stores. It established a 

major depot for these stores at Concord, about twenty miles northwest of Boston. 

General Gage learned of the collection of military stores at Concord and 

determined to send a force of Redcoats to destroy them. His preparations were 

made with the utmost secrecy. Yet so alert and ubiquitous were the patriot eyes 

in Boston that when the picked British force of 700 men set out on the night of 

April 18, 1775, two messengers, Paul Revere and William Dawes, preceded them 

to spread the alarm throughout the countryside. At dawn on the 19th of April 

when the British arrived at Lexington, the halfway point to Concord, they 

found a body of militia drawn up on the village green. Some nervous fingerwhether of British Regular or American militiaman is unknown to this daypressed a trigger. The impatient British Regulars, apparently without any clear 

orders from their commanding officer, fired a volley, then charged with the 

bayonet. The militiamen dispersed, leaving eight dead and ten wounded on the 

ground. The British column went on to Concord, destroyed such of the military 

stores as the Americans had been unable to remove, and set out on their return 

Journey. 

By this time, the alarm had spread far and wide, and both ordinary militia 

and minutemen had assembled along the British route. From behind walls, 

rocks, and trees, and from houses they poured their fire into the columns of 

Redcoats, while the frustrated Regulars found few targets for their accustomed 
26 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

volleys or bayonet charges. Only the arrival of reinforcements sent by Gage 

enabled the British column to get back to the safety of Boston. At day's end the 

British counted 273 casualties out of a total of I,8oo men engaged; American 

casualties numbered 95 men, including the toll at Lexington. What happened 

was hardly a tribute to the marksmanship of New England farmers-it has 

been estimated 75,000 shots poured from their muskets that day-but it did 

testify to a stern determination of the people of Massachusetts to resist any 

attempt by the British to impose their will by armed force. 

The spark lit in Massachusetts soon spread throughout the rest of the colonies. Whatever really may have happened in that misty dawn on Lexington 

Green, the news that speedy couriers, riding horses to exhaustion, carried 

through the colonies from New Hampshire to Georgia was of a savage, unprovoked British attack and of farmers rising in the night to protect their lives, their 

families, and their property. Lexington, like Fort Sumter and Pearl Harbor, 

furnished an emotional impulse that led all true patriots to gird themselves for 

battle. From the other New England colonies, militia poured in to join the 

Massachusetts men and together they soon formed a ring around Boston. Other 

militia forces under Ethan Allen of Vermont and Benedict Arnold of Connecticut seized the British forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, strategic positions 

on the route between New York and Canada. These posts yielded valuable 

artillery and other military stores. The Second Continental Congress, which 

assembled in Philadelphia on May w, 1775, found itself forced to turn from 

embargoes and petitions to the problems of organizing, directing, and supplying 

a military effort. 

Before Congress could assume control, the New England forces assembled 

near Boston fought another battle on their own, the bloodiest single engagement 

of the entire Revolution. After Lexington and Concord, at the suggestion of 

Massachusetts, the New England colonies moved to replace the militia gathered 

before Boston with volunteer forces, constituting what may be loosely called a 

New England army. Each state raised and administered its own force and 

appointed a commander for it. Discipline was lax and there was no single chain 

of command. Though Artemas Ward, the Massachusetts commander, exercised 

over-all control by informal agreement, it was only because the other commanders chose to co-operate with him, and decisions were made in council. While by 

mid-June most of the men gathered were volunteers, militia units continued to 

come and go. The volunteers in the Connecticut service were enlisted until 

December w, 1775, those from the other New England states until the end of the 

year. The men were dressed for the most part in homespun clothes and armed 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 27 

with muskets of varied types; powder and ball were short and only the barest few 

had bayonets. 

Late in May Gage received limited reinforcements from England, bringing 

his total force to 6,500 rank and file. With the reinforcements came three major 

generals of reputation-Sir William Howe, Sir Henry Clinton, and Sir John 

Burgoyne-men destined to play major roles in England's loss of its American 

colonies. The newcomers all considered that Gage needed more elbowroom and 

proposed to fortify Dorchester Heights, a dominant position south of Boston 

previously neglected by both sides. News of the intended move leaked to the 

Americans, who immediately countered by dispatching a force onto the Charlestown peninsula, where other heights, Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill, overlooked 

Boston from the north. (Map 3) The original intent was to fortify Bunker Hill, 

the eminence nearest the narrow neck of land connecting the peninsula with 

the mainland, but the working party sent out on the night of June 16, 1775, 

decided instead to move closer in and construct works on Breed's Hill-a tactical blunder, for these exposed works could much more easily be cut off by a 

British landing on the neck in their rear. 

The British scorned such a tactic, evidently in the mistaken assumption that 

the assembled "rabble in arms" would disintegrate in the face of an attack by 

disciplined British Regulars. On the afternoon of the 17th, Gage sent some 

2,200 of his men under Sir William Howe directly against the American positions, by this time manned by perhaps an equal force. Twice the British advanced 

on the front and flanks of the redoubt on Breed's Hill, and twice the Americans, 

holding their fire until the compact British lines were at close range, decimated 

the ranks of the advancing regiments and forced them to fall back and re-form. 

With reinforcements, Howe carried the hill on the third try but largely because 

the Americans had run short of ammunition and had no bayonets. The American retreat from Breed's Hill was, for inexperienced volunteers and militia, an 

orderly one and Howe's depleted regiments were unable to prevent the Americans' escape. British casualties for the day totaled a staggering 1,054, or almost 

half the force engaged, as opposed to American losses of about 440. 

The Battle of Bunker Hill (for it was Bunker that gave its name to a battle 

actually fought on Breed's Hill) has been aptly characterized as a "tale of great 

blunders heroically redeemed." The American command structure violated the 

principle of unity of command from the start, and in moving onto Breed's Hill 

the patriots exposed an important part of their force in an indefensible position, 

violating the principles of concentration of force, mass, and maneuver. Gage and 

Howe, for their parts, sacrificed all the advantages the American blunders gave 
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them, violating the principles of maneuver and surprise by undertaking a suicidal attack on a fortified position. 

Bunker Hill was a Pyrrhic victory, its strategic effect practically nil since the 

two armies remained in virtually the same position they had held before. Its 

consequences, nevertheless, cannot be ignored. A force of farmers and townsmen, fresh from their fields and shops, with hardly a semblance of orthodox 

military organization, had met and fought on equal terms with a professional 

British Army. On the British this astonishing feat had a sobering effect, for it 

taught them that American resistance was not to be easily overcome; never again 

would British commanders lightly attempt such an assault on Americans in 

fortified positions. On the Americans, the effect was hardly sobering, and in the 

long run was perhaps not salutary. Bunker Hill, along with Lexington and Concord, went far to create the American tradition that the citizen soldier when 

aroused is more than a match for the trained professional, a tradition that was to 

be reflected in American military policy for generations afterward. 

Formation of the Continental Army 

The response of George III and his ministers to the events at Lexington, 

Concord, and Bunker Hill was a determined effort to subdue the rebellious 

colonists by force. It took time to mount this effort, and after Bunker Hill the 

Americans enjoyed a respite lasting almost a year. During most of this period 

the Second Continental Congress, though forced by events in New England to 

take on itself the leadership of an armed revolt, proceeded hesitantly, still seeking 

a formula for reconciliation that would preserve American rights. Military 

preparations were designed for a short struggle, to endure no longer than the 

end of the year 1776. Nevertheless the Americans took advantage of the respite 

to create a national army, to consolidate their hold on the governmental machinery throughout the thirteen colonies, to invade Canada, and finally to force 

the British to evacuate Boston. 

The creation of a Continental Army was in the long run perhaps their most 

significant achievement. Some time before Bunker Hill the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, aware of the necessity of enlisting the support of all the colonies 

in the struggle against the British, appealed to the Continental Congress to adopt 

the New England army. Althoughthere is no formal record of the action, Congress evidently did vote to adopt it on June 14, 1775-the accepted birthday of the 

U.S. Army. On the same day it voted to raise ten companies of riflemen-the 

first soldiers to be enlisted directly in the Continental service-in Pennsylvania, 

Maryland, and Virginia, to march north to join the army before Boston. 
30 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

The next day, June 15, Congress chose George Washington, a Virginian, to 

be Commander in Chief. The choice was made for geographical and political 

as mu.ch as for military reasons. The New Englanders felt that in order to enlist 

the support of the southern colonies, a southerner should be chosen for the post 

of command. Washington's military experience was perhaps greater than that of 

any other southerner, and he came from the largest and most important of the 

southern colonies. His impressive appearance, quiet and confident manner, and 

good work in the military committees of Congress had impressed all. 

The choice proved fortunate. Washington himself recognized, when he 

accepted the command, that he lacked the requisite experience and knowledge 

in handling large bodies of men. His whole military experience had been in 

frontier warfare during the French and Indian War. But experience as a 

political leader in his native Virginia and in directing the business affairs of his 

large plantation at Mount Vernon also stood him in good stead. He brought to 

the task traits of character and abilities as a leader that in the end more than 

compensated for his lack of professional military experience. Among these 

qualities were a determination and a steadfastness of purpose rooted in an 

unshakable conviction of the righteousness of the American cause, a scrupulous 

sense of honor and duty, and a dignity that inspired respect and confidence in 

those around him. Conscious of his own defects, he was always willing to profit 

by experience. From the trials and tribulations of eight years of war he was to 

learn the essentials of strategy, tactics, and military organization. 

Congress also appointed four major generals and eight brigadiers to serve 

under Washington, set up a series of staff offices closely resembling those in the 

British Army, prescribed a pay scale and standard ration, and adopted Articles 

of War to govern the military establishment. The same mixture of geographical, 

political, and military considerations governed the choice of Washington's subordinates. Two-thirds of them came from New England, in recognition of the 

fact that the existing army was a New England army. Three others-Charles 

Lee, Horatio Gates, and Richard Montgomery-were chosen because of their 

experience in the British Army. Lee, in particular, who had come from England 

to the colonies in 1773, was in 1775 deemed the foremost military expert in 

America, and he was for a time to be Washington's first assistant. 

The army of which Washington formally took command on July 3, 1775, 

he described as "a mixed multitude of people ... under very little discipline, 

order or government." Out of this "mixed multitude," Washington set out to 

create an army shaped in large part in the British image. Basing his observations 

on his experience with British Regulars during the French and Indian War, he 

wrote: "Discipline is the soul of an army. It makes small numbers formidable; 
GENERAL WAsHINGTON (center) WrTH MAJ. GEN. ARTEMAs WARD (right) 

and an aide (left) visiting the field, July 1775. 
32 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

procures success to the weak and esteem to all." Employing Gates, his experienced adjutant general, to prepare regulations and orders, the Commander in 

Chief set out to inculcate discipline. A strenuous effort was made to halt the 

random comings and goings of officers and men and to institute regular roll calls 

and strength returns. Suspicious of the "leveling" tendencies of the New Englanders, Washington made the distinction between officers and enlisted men 

more rigid. Various punishments were introduced-lash, pillory, wooden horse, 

and drumming out of camp-and courts-martial sat almost constantly. 

While establishing discipline in the existing army, Washington had at 

the same time to form a new one enlisted directly in the Continental service. 

Out of conferences with a Congressional committee that visited camp in 

September 1775 emerged a plan for such an army, composed of 26 regiments of 

infantry of 728 men each, plus one regiment of riflemen and one of artillery, 

20,372 men in all, to be uniformly paid, supplied, and administered by the 

Continental Congress and enlisted to the end of the year 1776. Except for the 

short term of enlistment, it was an excellent plan on paper, but Washington 

soon found he could not carry it out. Both officers and men resisted a reorganization that cut across the lines of the locally organized units in which they were 

accustomed to serve. The men saw as their first obligation their families and 

farms at home, and they were reluctant to re-enlist for another year's service. 

On December 10, despite pressures and patriotic appeals, most of the Connecticut men went home and militia from New Hampshire and Massachusetts 

had to be brought in to fill their places in the line. Others, who had jeered 

and hooted when the Connecticut men left, also went home when their enlistment expired only three weeks later. On January 1, 1776, when the army 

became "Continental in every respect," Washington found that he had only 

slightly more than 8,ooo enlistments instead of the 2o,ooo planned. Returns in 

early March showed only a thousand or so more. "I have often thought how 

much happier I would have been," wrote a sorely tried commander, "if, instead 

of accepting a command under such circumstances, I had taken up musket on 

my shoulder and entered the ranks, or, if I could have justified the measure 

to posterity and my own conscience, had retired to the back country and lived 

in a Wigwam." 

With enlistments falling short, the only recourse was to continue to use 

short-term militia to fill the gaps in the lines. A Continental Army had been 

formed, but it fell far short of the goals Washington and Congress had set for 

it. This army was enlisted for but a year and the whole troublesome process 

would have to be repeated at the end of 1776. The short term of enlistment 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 33 

was, of course, a cardinal error, but in 1775 everyone, including Washington, 

anticipated only a short campaign. 

While organizing and disciplining his army, Washington had also to 

maintain the siege of Boston.and overcome his deficiencies in supply. In these 

efforts he was more successful. Congress and the individual colonies sponsored 

voyages to the West Indies, where the French and Dutch had conveniently 

exported quantities of war materials. Washington put some of his troops on 

board ship and with an improvised navy succeeded in capturing numerous 

British supply ships. He sent Col. Henry Knox, later to be his Chief of 

Artillery, to Ticonderoga, and Knox in the winter of 1775-'76 brought some 

fifty pieces of captured cannon to Cambridge over poor or nonexistent roads 

in icebound New York and New England. By March 1776, despite deficiencies 

in the number of Continentals, Washington was ready to close in on Boston. 

The Invasion of Canada and the Fall of Boston 

The major military operations of 1775 and early 1776 were not around 

Boston but in far-distant Canada, which the Americans tried to add as a 

fourteenth colony. Canada seemed a tempting and vulnerable target. To take 

it would eliminate a British base at the head of the familiar invasion route 

along the lake and river chain connecting the St. Lawrence with the Hudson. 

Congress, getting no response to an appeal to the Canadians to join in its 

cause, in late June 1775 instructed Maj. Gen. Philip Schuyler of New York 

to take possession of Canada if "practicable" and "not disagreeable to the 

Canadians." 

Schuyler managed to get together a force of about 2,ooo men from New 

York and Connecticut, thus forming the nucleus of what was to become known 

as the Northern Army. In September 1775 Brig. Gen. Richard Montgomery 

set out with this small army from Ticonderoga with the objective of taking 

Montreal. To form a second prong to the invasion, Washington detached a force 

of I,IOo under Col. Benedict Arnold, including a contingent of riflemen under 

Capt. Daniel Morgan of Virginia, to proceed up the Kennebec River, across 

the wilds of Maine, and down the Chaudiere to join with Montgomery before 

Quebec. (Map 4) 

Montgomery, advancing along the route via Lake George, Lake Champlain, 

and the Richelieu River, was seriously delayed by the British fort at St. Johns 

but managed to capture Montreal on November 13. Arnold meanwhile had 

arrived opposite Quebec on November 8, after one of the most rugged marches 

in history. One part of his force had turned back and others were lost by 
34 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

AMERICAN ATTACK 

ON QUEBEC - ARNOLO'$ RoUTE II SEP-8 NOV 1775 

--MoNTGOMERY'S ROUTE 28 Aoo-2 DEC 1775 

= H<GH GROONO ABOVE 600 FEET 

0 25 50 

MAP 4 

starvation, sickness, drowning, and desertion. Only 6oo men crossed the St. 

Lawrence on November 13, and in imitation of Wolfe scaled the cliffs and 

encamped on the Plains of Abraham. It was a magnificent feat, but the force 

was too small to prevail even against the scattered Canadian militia and British 

Regulars who, unlike Montcalm, shut themselves up in the city and refused 

battle in the open. Arnold's men were finally forced to withdraw to Point 

aux Trembles, where they were joined by Montgomery with all the men he 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 35 

could spare fiom the defense of Montreal-a total of 300. Nowhere did the 

Canadians show much inclination to rally to the American cause; the French 

habitants remained indifferent, and the small British population gave its 

loyalty to the governor general. With the enlistments of about half their men 

expiring by the new year, Arnold and Montgomery undertook a desperate 

assault on the city during the night of December 30 in the middle of a raging 

blizzard. The Americans were outnumbered by the defenders, and the attack 

was a failure. Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded. 

The wounded Arnold, undaunted, continued to keep up the appearance 

of a siege with the scattered remnants of his force while he waited for reinforcements. The reinforcements came-Continental regiments raised in New 

York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania-but they came in driblets and there 

were never enough to build a force capable of again taking the offensive, though 

a total of 8,ooo men were eventually committed to the Canadian campaign. 

Smallpox and other diseases took their toll and never did the supply line bring 

in adequate food, clothing, or ammunition. Meanwhile, the British received 

reinforcements and in June 1776 struck back against a disintegrating American 

army that retreated before them almost without a fight. By mid-July the 

Americans were back at Ticonderoga where they had started less than a year 

earlier, and the initiative on the northern front passed to the British. 

While the effort to conquer Canada was moving toward its dismal end, 

Washington finally took the initiative at Boston. On March 4, 1776, he moved 

onto Dorchester Heights and emplaced his newly acquired artillery in position 

to menace the city; a few days later he fortified Nook's Hill, standing still closer 

in. On March 17 the British moved out. It would be presumptuous to say that 

their exit was solely a consequence of American pressure. Sir William Howe, 

who succeeded Gage in command, had concluded long since that Boston was 

a poor strategic base and intended to stay only until the transports arrived 

to take his army to Halifax in Nova Scotia to regroup and await reinforcements. 

Nevertheless, Washington's maneuvers hastened his departure, and the reoccupation of Boston was an important psychological victory for the Americans, 

balancing the disappointments of the Canadian campa}gn. The stores of 

cannon and ammunition the British were forced to leave behind were a welcome 

addition indeed to the meager American arsenal. 

The New Nation 

The Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, established a new nation 

and transformed a limited revolt to secure rights within the British empire 
36 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

into a far-reaching one, aimed at complete independence from British control. 

Since the king and his ministers had determined to restore British rule, the 

Americans now faced a long, hard struggle for independence requiring a 

sustained national effort such as they had not expected in I775· 

The new nation was still a weak confederation of thirteen independent 

states. Such national feeling as existed was a new phenomenon growing out 

of common opposition to British measures. Colonial tradition, divided loyalties, 

the nature of the economy, and the spirit of a revolt born in opposition to the 

use of military force to suppress popular liberties, all worked against the 

creation of any new strong central authority capable of mobilizing resources 

effectively for the long struggle that lay ahead. 

The thirteen states proclaiming their independence in 1776 possessed a total 

population of about two and a half million people, but not all the males of 

military age were part of the military potential. About 20 percent were Negro 

slaves who except under special circumstances were not eligible for service, 

though Negroes did serve in the Revolution and not in segregated units. 

Perhaps one-third of the "politically active" Americans remained loyal to the 

British Government. As in any society there were also the apathetic and 

indifferent who swayed with the tide. The genuine patriots still provided a 

far larger potential of military manpower than the British could possibly 

transport and supply across the Atlantic, but most of the men of military age 

were farmers who married young and immediately started large families. 

Whatever their patriotic sentiments, few were ready to undertake long terms 

of military service, fearing that if they did their farms and families at home 

would suffer. Accustomed to the tradition of short-term militia service under 

local commanders, they infinitely preferred it to long-term service in the 

Continental Army. 

The economy of the thirteen new states was neither self-sufficient nor 

truly national. The states were essentially a collection of separate agricultural 

communities, accustomed to exchanging their agricultural surplus for British 

manufactured goods and West Indian products. Manufacturing was still in 

its infancy and America produced few of the essentials of military supply. 

Despite diligent efforts to promote domestic production during the war years, 

the Continental Army had to rely primarily on captures and imports from 

Europe and the West Indies, run through a British blockade, for much of its 

military hardware and even for clothing. While the country produced foodstuffs in ample quantity, transport from one area to another was difficult. 

The normal avenues of commerce ran up and down the rivers, not overland; 

roads running north and south were few and inadequate. There was always a 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 37 

shortage of wagons, boats, and other means of transportation. Under these 

circumstances, it was far easier to support local militia for a few days or weeks 

than any sizable and continuously operating national army in the field. 

The governmental machinery created after the Declaration was characterized by decentralization and executive weakness. The thirteen new "free and 

independent states" transformed their existing de facto revolutionary governments into legal state governments by adopting constitutions. Almost invariably, 

these constitutions vested most of the powers of government in the state legislatures, successors to the popular assemblies of the colonial period, and severely 

restricted the executive authority of the governors. At the national level, the 

same general distrust of strong authority was apparent, and the existing 

Continental Congress, essentially a gathering of delegates chosen by the state 

legislatures and without either express powers of its own or an executive to 

carry out its enactments, was continued as the only central governing body. 

Articles of Confederation stipulating the terms of union and granting Congress 

specific but limited powers were drawn up shortly after the Declaration, but 

jealousies among the states prevented ratification until 1781. In the interim, 

Congress exercised most of the powers granted it under the Articles, but they 

did not include either the right to levy taxes or the power to raise military 

forces directly under its auspices. Congress could only determine the Confederation's need for troops and money to wage war and set quotas for the states 

to meet in proportion to their population and wealth. It had no means of 

insuring that the states met their quotas, and indeed they seldom did. 

The decentralized structure provided no adequate means of financing the 

war. The state legislatures, possessing the power to tax that Congress lacked, 

hesitated to use it extensively in the face of popular opposition to taxation, 

and were normally embarrassed to meet even their own expenses. Congress 

very early took unto itself the power to issue paper money and to negotiate 

domestic and foreign loans, but it shared these powers with the states, which 

also printed paper money in profusion and borrowed both at home and 

abroad to the extent they could. The paper money was a useful expedient in 

the early part of the war; indeed the Revolution could not have been carried 

on without it. But successive issues by Congress and the states led to first 

gradual and then galloping inflation, leaving the phrase "not worth a Continental" as a permanent legacy to the American language. The process of 

depreciation and the exhaustion of credit gradually robbed both the states and 

Congress of the power to pay troops, buy supplies, and otherwise meet the 

multitudinous expenses of war. 
38 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Evolution of the Continental Army 

Under these circumstances it is not surprising that Washington never 

got the kind of army, molded in the British image, that he desired. The 

experience before Boston in 1775 was repeated many times, as local militia had 

to be called in continually to give the American Army a numerical superiority 

in the field. The Continental Army, nevertheless, became the center of 

American resistance, and its commander, Washington, the symbol of the patriot 

cause. The extent to which militia could be expected to rally to that cause was 

very largely determined by the Continental Army's success or failure in the 

field. 

Though the militia belonged to the states, the Continental Army was a creation of the Continental Congress. Congress prescribed its size and composition, 

chose its generals, and governed the system for its administration and supply. 

Suspicious on principle of a standing army and acutely aware of historic 

examples of seizure of political power by military leaders, its members kept 

a watchful eye on the Army's commanders and insisted they defer to civilian 

authority. Washington countered these suspicions by constantly deferring to 

Congressional wishes, and he was rewarded by the assiduity with which 

Congress usually adopted his recommendations. 

Lacking an executive, Congress ha:d to rely on committees and boards 

to carry out its policies-unwieldy devices at best and centers of conflicting 

interest and discord at worst. In June 1776 it set up a Board of War and 

Ordnance, consisting of five of its members, the lineal ancestor of the War 

Department. In 1777 Congress changed the composition of the board, directing 

that it henceforth be made up of persons outside Congress who could devote 

full time to their military duties. Neither of these devices really worked well, 

and Congress continually handled administrative matters by action of the 

entire membership or by appointment of special committees to go to camp. 

In 1781 the board was replaced by a single Secretary at War. 

Under the Articles of Confederation the states were responsible for raising 

troops for the Continental Army, for organizing and equipping them, and 

for appointing officers through the rank of colonel. State authorities called 

out militia sometimes at the request of Congress and sometimes on their 

own initiative. When they joined the main army, militia normally shared 

in its supplies and equipment. The states, however, maintained an interest 

in supplying and administering the troops of their own "lines" as well as their 

militia, and the Continental agents had continually to enlist state assistance in 

their own efforts. Lines of authority crisscrossed at every turn. 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 39 

It was an inefficient military system for an organized national effort. 

Washington could never depend on having enough trained men or supplies. 

He continually inveighed against sending militia to fight his battles and by 

early 1776 had concluded that he needed an army enlisted tor the duration of 

the war. Congress did not, as has often been charged, ignore his wishes. In 

October 1776 it voted a ~ew establishment, superseding the plan developed 

for the army before Boston in 1775 and haphazard arrangements made in the 

interim for raising Continental regiments in various states. This establishment was to ·contain 88 battalions of infantry, or about 6o,ooo men, enlisted 

to serve three years or "during the present war," with each state assigned a 

quota in proportion to its population under the system set up in the Articles. 

After the disastrous retreat across New Jersey in December 1776, Congress went 

further and authorized an additional 22 battalions to be recruited by Washington's officers directly into the Continental service. These no battalions 

remained the authorized strength of the Continental Army until 1781, when 

Congress cut it to 59· 

Neither the 88 battalions, nor the no, nor even the 59 ever existed except 

on paper. The Continental Army never had as many as 3o,ooo men at any one 

time, and very rarely was Washington able to muster as many as 15,000 

effectives in the field. The states were simply unable to meet their quotas. By 

the winter of 1777--78, the effort to enlist men for three years or the duration 

collapsed, and the following spring, with the sanction of Washington, Congress 

reverted to a system of one-year enlistments and recommended to the states 

that they institute a system of drafting men from the militia for one year's 

service. This first American wartime draft was applied irregularly in the 

various states and succeeded no better than had earlier methods in filling 

the Continental ranks. Bounties, instituted by both the states and the Congress 

very early in the war and progressively increased one step behind the pace 

of inflation, also produced only temporary andjrregular results. 

The coin did have another side. In reality the shortage of arms and 

ammunition and of facilities for producing them limited the number of men 

who could be kept continuously in the field as effectively as did the failure of 

enlistment drives. The militia system enabled many able-bodied males to 

perform part-time military service and still remain most of the time in the 

labor force that kept the economy going. It is doubtful whether the American 

economy could have sustained such an army as Washington and Congress 

proposed in 1776, even had there been a central administration with adequate 

power. As it was, the small Continental Army that did remain in the field 

intermittently suffered extreme hardship and near starvation. On the other 
40 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

hand, American ability to raise local armies in any threatened region helped 

to balance the strategic mobility that the British Fleet gave to the British 

Army. Although militia generally did not perform well in regular warfare, when 

highly motivated and ably led, they could fight well on terrain suited to their 

capabilities. Given the conditions under which the Revolution was fought, 

the American military system was more effective than its critics have recognized, 

though it failed to provide adequately for a sustained military effort over a 

period of years. 

Perhaps Washington's greatest achievement was simply in maintaining the 

Continental Army continuously in the field. Despite its many vicissitudes, that 

army did take shape during the war as the first distinctively American military 

organization, neither. quite a replica of the professional British Army on which 

it was modeled nor yet the type of national army raised by conscription that 

was to appear in France after the Revolution of I789. 

The Continental Army operated in three main territorial divisions or 

departments-the main army under Washington largely in the Middle States, 

the Northern Army in northern New York, and the Southern Army in the 

Carolinas and Georgia. Although Washington was Commander in Chief of 

the whole, the commanders of the Northern and Southern Armies still operated 

with a considerable measure of independence. Congress, rather than Washington, named their commanders and communicated directly with them. Of the 

two "separate armies," the Northern Army was by far the most important until 

I777 and the Southern Army existed largely on paper; by I78o the situation was 

reversed as the British transferred their main effort to the southern states. 

The Continental Army was composed mainly of infantry and artillery, 

with very little cavalry. The basic unit of infantry organization was the regiment 

or battalion composed of eight companies. Organization above this level was 

highly flexible. A brigade was usually formed of several regiments and was 

commanded by a brigadier general; a division consisted of a similar grouping 

of several brigades corr.manded by a major general. Artillery was organized 

into a brigade of four regiments under a Chief of Artillery, Brig. Gen. Henry 

Knox, but the various companies were distributed among the infantry battalions. 

There was a small corps of engineers and an even smaller contingent of artificers, 

who handled the servicing and repair of ordnance. 

Washington was provided with a staff generally corresponding to that of 

the British Army. The most important staff officer was the Quartermaster 

General, responsible not only for transportation and delivery of supplies but 

also for arranging the camp, regulating marches, and establishing the order of 

battle of the army. There were also an Adjutant General, a Judge Advocate 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 41 

General, a Paymaster General, a Commissary General of Musters, a Commissary General of Provisions, a Clothier General, a Chief Surgeon, and a Chief 

Engineer. Each of the separate armies also usually had staff officers in these 

positions, designated as deputies to those of the main army. 

All these staff officers had primarily administrative and supply functions. 

The modern concept of a general staff that acts as a sort of collective brain for 

the commander had no real counterpart in the eighteenth century. For advice 

on strategy and operations, Washington relied on a Council of War made up of 

his principal subordinate commanders, and, conforming to his original instructions from Congress, he usually consulted the council before making major 

decisions. 

Both organization and staff work suffered from the ills that afflicted the 

whole military system. Regiments were constantly understrength, were organized differently by the various states, and employed varying systems of drill, 

discipline, and training. In the promotion of officers in the state lines, Continental commanders shared authority with the states, and the confused system gave 

rise to all sorts of rivalries, jealousies, and resentment, leading to frequent 

resignations. Staff officers were generally inexperienced, and few had the 

patience and perseverance to overcome the obstacles posed by divided authority, 

inadequate means, and poor transportation and communication facilities. The 

supply and support services of the Continental Army never really functioned 

efficiently, and with the depreciation in the currency they came close to collapse. 

The British Problem 

Whatever the American weaknesses, the British Government faced no easy 

task when it undertook to subdue the revolt by military force. Even though 

England possessed the central administration, stable financial system, and wellorganized Army and Navy that the Americans so sorely lacked, the whole 

establishment was ill-prepared in 1775 for the struggle in America. A large 

burden of debt incurred in the wars of the preceding century had forced crippling economies on both Army and Navy. British administrative and supply 

systems, though far superior to anything the Americans could improvise, were 

also characterized by division and confusion of authority, and there was much 

corruption in high places. 

To suppress the revolt, Britain had first to raise the necessary forces, then 

transport and sustain them over 3,ooo miles of ocean, and finally use them effectively to regain control of a vast and sparsely populated territory. Recruiting 

men for an eighteenth century army was most difficult. The British Government 
42 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

had no power to compel service except in the militia in defense of the homeland, 

and service in the British Army overseas was immensely unpopular. To meet 

Sir William Howe's request for so,ooo men to conduct the campaign in 1776, 

the ministry resorted to hiring mercenaries from the small German states, particularly Hesse-Cassell (hence Hessians). These German states were to contribute almost 3o,ooo men to the British service during the war-complete 

organizations with their own officers up to the rank of major general and 

schooled in the system of Frederick the Great. Howe did not get his so,ooo men 

but by midsummer 1776 his force had passed 30,000 British and Hessians, and 

additional reinforcements were sent to Canada during the year. Maintaining a 

force of this size proved to be virtually impossible. The attrition rate in America 

from battle losses, sickness, disease, and desertion was tremendously high. 

English jails and poorhouses were drained of able-bodied men, bounties were 

paid, patriotic appeals were launched throughout England, Scotland, and Ireland, and all the ancient methods of impressment were tried, but the British 

were never able to recruit enough men to meet the needs of their commanders 

in America. 

Providing adequate support for this army over a long ocean supply line was 

equally difficult. Even for food and forage, the British Army had to rely primarily on sea lines of supply. Transports were in short supply, the hardships of 

the 2- to 4-month voyage terrible, and the loss of men and supplies to natural 

causes heavy. Moreover, though the Americans could muster no navy capable 

of contesting British control of the seas, their privateers and the ships of their 

infant navy posed a constant threat to unprotected troop and supply transports. 

British commanders repeatedly had to delay their operations, awaiting the 

arrival of men and supplies from England. 

Once in America, British armies could find no strategic center or centers 

whose capture would bring victory. Flat, open country where warfare could be 

carried on in European style was not common; and woods, hills, and swamps 

suited to the operations of militia and irregulars were plentiful. A British Army 

that could win victories in the field over the Continentals had great difficulty in 

making those victories meaningful. American armies seemed to possess miraculous powers of recuperation, while a British force, once depleted or surrendered, 

took a tremendous effort to replace. 

As long as they controlled the seas, the British could land and establish bases 

at nearly any point on the long American coast line. The many navigable rivers 

dotting the coast also provided water avenues of invasion well into the interior. 

But to crush the revolt the British Army had to cut loose from coastal bases and 

rivers. When it did so its logistical problems multiplied and its lines of com-
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 43 

munications became vulnerable to constant harassment. British armies almost 

inevitably came to grief every time they moved very far from the areas where 

they could be nurtured by supply ships from the homeland. These difficulties, a 

British colonel asserted in 1777, had "absolutely prevented us this whole vvar 

from going fifteen miles from a navigable river." 

The British could not, in any case, ever hope to muster enough strength to 

occupy with their own troops the vast territory they sought to restore to British 

rule. Their only real hope of meaningful victory was to use American loyalists 

as an instrument for controlling the country, as one British general put it, to 

help "the good Americans to subdue the bad." There were many obstacles to 

making effective use of the Tories. Patriot organization, weak at the center, was 

strong at the grass roots, in the local communities throughout America, whereas 

the Tories were neither well organized nor energetically led. The patriots 

seized the machinery of local government in most communities at the outset, 

held it until the British Army appeared in their midst, and then normally 

regained it after the British departed. Strong local control enabled the patriots 

to root out the more ardent Tories at the very outset, and by making an example 

of them to sway the apathetic and indifferent. British commanders were usually 

disappointed in the number of Tories who flocked to their standards and even 

more upset by the alacrity with which many of them switched their allegiance 

when the British Army moved out. They found the Tories a demanding, discordant, and puzzling lot, and they made no really earnest effort to enlist them 

in British forces until late in the war. By 1781 they had with their armies some 

8,ooo "provincial rank and file"; perhaps so,ooo in all served the British in some 

military capacity during the war. 

On the frontiers the British could also expect support from the Indian tribes 

who almost inevitably drifted into the orbit of whatever power controlled 

Canada. But support of the Indians was a two-edged sword, for nothing could 

raise frontier enthusiasm for battle like the threat of an Indian attack. 

Finally, the British had to fight the war with one eye on their ancient 

enemies in Europe. France, thirsting for revenge for defeat in the Seven Years' 

War, stood ready to aid the American cause if for no other purpose than to 

weaken British power, and by virtue of a Family Compact could almost certainly 

carry Spain along in any war with England. France and Spain could at the very 

least provide badly needed money and supplies to sustain the American effort 

and force the British to divert their forces from the contest in America. At most 

the combined Franco-Spanish fleet might well prove a match for the British 

Fleet and neutralize that essential control of the seas needed by the British to 

carry on the American war. 
44 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Of Strategy 

The story of the American Revolution can hardly be told in terms of longterm strategy and its success or failure. Neither side ever had any really consistent plan for the conduct of the war. The British, who retained the strategic 

initiative most of the time, failed to use it to great advantage. They were highly 

uncertain about their objective; plans were laid from year to year and seldom 

co-ordinated even for a single year. Blame for this uncertain approach falls in 

almost equal part on the administration in England and the commanders in 

America. If King George III, Lord North, his Prime Minister, and Lord George 

Germain, Secretary of State for the American Department-the three British 

officials mainly responsible for the conduct of the· war-never provided the 

timely guidance that might have been expected of them, their inability to do so 

came about in part because the commanders in the field never furnished accurate enough predictions of what to expect and differed so much among themselves as to the proper course to pursue. In assessing blame in this fashion, one 

must keep in mind the difficulties of logistics and communications under which 

the British labored, for these difficulties made it virtually impossible to co-ordinate plans over great distances or to assemble men and materials in time to 

pursue one logical and consistent plan. 

American strategy was primarily defensive and consequently had to be 

shaped largely in terms of countering British moves. Uncertainties as to the 

supply of both men and materials acted on the American side even more 

effectively to thwart the development of a consistent plan for winning the war. 

Yet Washington was never so baffied by the conditions of the war or uncertain 

of his objective as were the various British commanders. After some early 

blunders, he soon learned both his own and the enemy's strengths and weaknesses and did his best to exploit them. Though unable to develop a consistent 

plan, he did try to develop a consistent line of action. He sought to maintain 

his principal striking force in a central position blocking any British advance 

into the interior; to be neither too bold nor too timid in seeking battle for 

limited objectives; to avoid the destruction of his army at all costs; and to find 

some means of concentrating a sufficient force to strike a decisive offensive 

blow whenever the British overreached themselves. He showed a better appreciation than the British commanders of the advantages in mobility their Navy 

gave them, and after 1778, when the French entered the war, he clearly saw 

that the decisive blow he desired could be struck only by a combined effort of 

the Continental Army and the French Fleet. 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 45 

The British Offensive in 1776 

If the British ever had a single strategic objective in the war, it was the 

Hudson River-Lake Champlain line. By taking and holding this line the 

British believed they could separate New England, considered to be the principal center of the rebellion, from the more malleable colonies to the southward. Howe proposed to make this the main objective of his campaign in 

1776 by landing at New York, securing a base of operations there, and then 

pushing north. He wanted to concentrate the entire British force in America 

in New York, but the British Government diverted part of it to Canada in 

early 1776 to repel the American invasion, laying the groundwork for the 

divided command that was so to plague British operations afterward. 

After the evacuation of Boston, Howe stayed at Halifax from March until 

June, awaiting the arrival of supplies and reinforcements. While he tarried, the 

British Government ordered another diversion in the south, aimed at encouraging the numerous loyalists who, according to the royal governors watching 

.from their havens on board British warships, were waiting only for the 

appearance of a British force to rise and overthrow rebel rule. Unfortunately 

for the British, the naval squadron sent from England under Admiral Sir 

Peter Parker was delayed and did not arrive off the American coast until late 

in May. By this time all hopes of effective co-operation with the Tories had been 

dashed. Loyalist contingents had been completely defeated and dispersed in 

Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Parker, undeterred by these 

developments, determined to attack Charleston, the largest city in the south. 

There South Carolina militia and newly raised Continentals had prepared and 

manned defenses under the guidance of Maj. Gen. Charles Lee, whom 

Washington had dispatched south to assist them. The South Carolinians, 

contrary to Lee's advice, centered their defenses in Fort Moultrie, a palmetto 

log fort constructed on Sullivan's Island, commanding the approach to the 

harbor. It was an unwise decision, somewhat comparable to that at Bunker Hill, 

but fortunately for the defenders the British had to mount an un-co-ordinated 

attack in haste. Clinton's troops were landed on nearby Long Island, but on 

the day the Navy attacked, June 28, the water proved too deep for them to 

wade across to Sullivan's Island as expected. The British Army consequently 

sat idly by while the gunners in Fort Moultrie devastated the British warships. 

Sir Peter Parker suffered the ultimate indignity when his pants were set afire. 

The battered British Fleet hastily embarked the British soldiers and sailed 

northward to join Howe, for it was already behind schedule. For three years 

following the fiasco at Charleston the British were to leave the south un-
46 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

molested and the Tories there, who were undoubtedly numerous, without 

succor. 

Howe was meanwhile beset by other delays in the arrival of transports 

from England, and his attack did not get under way until late August-leaving 

insufficient time before the advent of winter to carry through the planned 

advance along the Hudson-Lake Champlain line. He therefore started his 

invasion of New York with only the limited objective of gaining a foothold 

for the campaign the following year. 

The British commander had, when his force was all assembled, an army 

of about 32,000 men; it was supported by a powerful fleet under the command 

of his brother, Admiral Richard Howe. To oppose him Washington had 

brought most of his army down from Boston, and Congress exerted its utmost 

efforts to reinforce him by raising Continental regiments in the surrounding 

states and issuing a general call for the militia. Washington was able to 

muster a paper strength of roughly 28,500 men, but only about 19,ooo were 

present and .fit for duty. As Christopher Ward remarks, "The larger part of 

them were raw recruits, undisciplined and inexperienced in warfare, and 

militia, never to be assuredly relied upon." 

Washington and Congress made the same decision the South Carolinians 

had made at Charleston-to defend their territory in the most forward positions-and this time they paid the price for their mistake. The geography of the 

area gave the side possessing naval supremacy an almost insuperable advantage. 

The city of New York stood on Manhattan Island, surrounded by the Hudson, 

Harlem, and East Rivers. (Map 5) There was only one connecting link with the 

mainland, Kingsbridge across the Harlem River at the northern tip of Manhattan. Across the East River on Long Island, Brooklyn Heights stood in a 

position dominating the southern tip of Manhattan. With the naval forces at 

their disposal, the Howes could land troops on either Long Island or Manhattan 

proper and send warships up either the East or Hudson Rivers a considerable 

distance. 

Washington decided he must defend Brooklyn Heights on Long Island if 

he was to defend Manhattan; he therefore divided his army between the two 

places-a violation of the principle of mass and the .first step toward disaster. 

For all practical purposes command on Long Island was also divided. Maj. Gen. 

Nathanael Greene, to whom Washington .first entrusted the command, came 

down with malaria and was replaced by Maj. Gen. John Sullivan. Not completely satisfied with this arrangement, at the last moment Washington placed 

Maj. Gen. Israel Putnam over Sullivan, but Putnam hardly had time to become 

acquainted with the situation before the British struck. The forces on Long 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 

BATTLE OF 

LONG ISLAND 27 Aug 1776 

NEW 

PA. 

MAP 5 

0 

Morristown 

October- December 1776 

....,..___ ROUTE OF AMERICAN RETREAT 

'~0~'-"--'~~--'----~'0 MILES 

47 

Island, numbering about IO,ooo, were disposed in fortifications on Brooklyn 

Heights and in forward positions back of a line of thickly wooded hills that 

ran across the southern end of the island. Sullivan was in command on the left 
48 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

of the forward line, Brig. Gen. William Alexander (Lord Stirling) on the right. 

Four roads ran through the hills toward the American positions. (inset, Map 5) 

Unfortunately Sullivan, in violation of the principle of security, left the JamaicaBedford road unguarded. 

Howe was consequently able to teach the Americans lessons in maneuver 

and surprise. On August 22 he landed a force of 2o,ooo on the southwestern tip 

of Long Island and, in a surprise attack up the Jamaica-Bedford road against the 

American left flank, crumpled the entire American position. Stirling's valiant 

fight on the right went for naught, and inexperienced American troops fled in 

terror before the British and Hessian bayonets, falling back to the fortifications 

on Brooklyn Heights. It seems clear that had Howe pushed his advantage 

immediately he could have carried the heights and destroyed half the American 

Army then and there. Instead he halted at nightfall and began to dig trenches, 

signaling an intent to take the heights by "regular approaches" in traditional 

eighteenth century fashion. Washington managed to evacuate his forces across 

the East River on the night of August 29. According to one theory, wind and 

weather stopped the British warships from entering the river to prevent the 

escape; according to another, the Americans had placed impediments in the 

river that effectively barred their entry. In any case, it was a narrow escape, made 

possible by the skill, bravery, and perseverance of Col. John Glover's Marblehead 

Regiment, Massachusetts fishermen who manned the boats. 

Washington had two weeks to prepare his defenses on Manhattan before 

Howe struck again, landing a force at Kip's Bay above the city of New York 

(now about 34th Street) on September 15. Raw Connecticut militia posted at this 

point broke and ran "as if the Devil was in them," defying even the efforts of a 

raging Washington to halt them. Howe once again had an opportunity to split 

the American Army in two and destroy half, but again he delayed midway across 

the island to wait until his entire force had landed. General Putnam was able to 

bring the troops stationed in the city up the west side of Manhattan to join their 

compatriots in new fortifications on Harlem Heights. There the Americans held 

out for another month, and even won a skirmish, but this position was also 

basically untenable. 

In mid-October Howe landed again in Washington's rear at Pell's Point. 

The American commander then finally evacuated the Manhattan trap via Kingsbridge and took up a new position at White Plains, leaving about 6,ooo men 

behind to man two forts, Fort Washington and Fort Lee, on opposite sides of 

the Hudson. Howe launched a probing attack on the American position at 

White Plains and was repulsed, but Washington, sensing his inability to meet 

the British in battle on equal terms, moved away to the north toward the New 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 49 

York highlands. Again he was outmaneuvered. Howe quickly moved to Dobbs 

Ferry on the Hudson between Washington's army and the Hudson River forts. 

On the advice of General Greene (now recovered from his bout with malaria), 

Washington decided to defend the forts. At the same time he again split his 

army, moving across the Hudson and into New Jersey with s,ooo men and 

leaving General Lee and Maj. Gen. William Heatn with about 8,ooo between 

them to guard the passes through the New York highlands at Peekskill and 

North Castle. On November 16 Howe turned against Fort Washington and with 

the support of British warships on the Hudson stormed it successfully, capturing 

3,ooo American troops and large quantities of valuable munitions. Greene then 

hastily evacuated Fort Lee and by the end of November Washington, with mere 

remnants of his army, was in full retreat across New Jersey with Lord Charles 

Cornwallis, detached by Howe, pursuing him rapidly from river to river. 

While Washington was suffering these disastrous defeats, the army that had 

been gathered was slowly melting away. Militia left by whole companies and 

desertion among the Continentals was rife. When Washington finally crossed 

the Delaware into Pennsylvania in early December, he could muster barely 2,ooo 

men, the hard core of his Continental forces. The 8,ooo men in the New York 

highlands also dwindled away. Even more appalling, most enlistments expired 

with the end of the year 1776 and a new army would have to be raised for the 

following year. 

Yet neither the unreliability of the militia nor the short period of enlistment 

fully explained the debacle that had befallen the Continental Army. Washington's generalship was also faulty. Criticism of the Commander in Chief, even 

among his official family, mounted, centering particularly on his decision to hold 

Fort Washington. General Lee, the ex-British colonel, ordered by Washington 

to bring his forces down from New York to join him behind the Delaware, 

delayed, believing that he might himself salvage the American cause by making 

incursions into New Jersey. He wrote Horatio Gates," ... entre nous, a certain 

great man is most damnably defici~nt .... " 

There was only one bright spot in the picture in the autumn of 1776. While 

Howe was routing Washington around New York City, other British forces 

under Sir Guy Carleton were attempting to follow up the advantage they had 

gained in repulsing the attack on Canada earlier in the year. Carleton rather 

leisurely built a flotilla of boats to carry British forces down Lake Champlain and 

Lake George, intending at least to reduce the fort at Ticonderoga before winter 

set in. Benedict Arnold countered by throwing together a much weaker flotilla 

of American boats with which he contested the British passage. Arnold lost this 

naval action on the lakes, but he so delayed Carleton's advance that the British 
50 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

commander reached Ticonderoga too late in the year to consider undertaking a 

siege. He returned his army to winter quarters in Canada, leaving the British 

with no advance base from which to launch the next year's campaign. 

Although its consequences were to be far reaching, this limited victory did 

little to dispel the gloom that fell on the patriots after Washington's defeats in 

New York. The British, aware that Continental enlistments expired at the end 

of the year, had high hopes that the American Army would simply fade away 

and the rebellion collapse. Howe halted Cornwallis' pursuit of Washington and 

sent Clinton with a detachment of troops under naval escort to seize Newport, 

Rhode Island. He then dispersed his troops in winter quarters, establishing a line 

of posts in New Jersey at Perth Amboy, New Brunswick, Princeton, Trenton, 

and Bordentown, and retired himself to New York. Howe had gained the object 

of the 1776 campaign, a strong foothold, and possibly, as he thought at the time, 

a great deal more. 

Trenton and Princeton 

While Howe rested comfortably in New York, Washington desperately 

sought to ·reconcentrate his forces and redeem the defeat in New York. General 

Lee had the misfortune to fall into British hands on December 12, and his 2,ooo 

remaining men then made haste to join Washington. Eight decimated regiments 

were also pulled from the Northern Army, and with some Pennsylvania militia 

Washington was able to assemble a force totaling about 7,000 by the last week of 

December 1776. If he was to use this force, he would have to do so before the enlistments expired on December 31. With ·great boldness, Washington formulated 

a plan to strike by surprise at the Hessian garrisons at Trenton and Bordentown 

on Christmas night, when the troops might be expected to relax their guard for 

holiday revelry. A Continental force of 2400 men under Washington's personal 

command was to cross the Delaware at McConkey's Ferry above Trenton and 

then proceed in two columns by different routes, converging on the opposite ends 

of the main street of Trenton in the early morning of December 26. (Map 6) 

A second force, mainly militia, under Col. John Cadwalader was to cross below 

near Bordentown to attack the Hessian garrison there; a third, also militia, under 

Brig. Gen. James Ewing, was to cross directly opposite Trenton to block the 

'Hessian route of escape across Assunpink Creek. 

Christmas night was cold, windy, and snowy and the Delaware River was 

filled with blocks of ice. Neither Cadwalader nor Ewing was able to fulfill his 

part of the plan. Driven on by Washington's indomitable will, the main force did 

cross as planned and the two columns, commanded respectively by Greene and 

Sullivan, converged on Trenton at eight o'clock in the morning of December 26, 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: FIRST PHASE 51 

cr 

ATTACK ON TRENTON 26 Dec 1776 

........ AXIS OF AMERICAN ADVANCE 

MILES 

MAP 6 

taking the Hessians completely by surprise. A New England private noted in 

his diary for the 26th: "This morning at 4 a clock we set off with our Field pieces 

and Marched 8 miles to Trenton whare we ware attacked by a Number of 

Hushing and we Toock 1000 of them besides killed some. Then we marched 

back and got to the River at Night and got over all the Hushing." This rather 

undramatic description of a very dramatic event was not far wrong, except in 

attributing the attack to the "Hushings." The Hessians surrendered after a fight 

lasting only an hour and a half. Forty were killed and the prisoner count was 

918. Only 400 escaped to Bordentown, and these only because Ewing was not 

in place to block their escape. The Americans lost only 4 dead and 4 wounded. 

Encouraged by this success, Washington determined to make another foray. 

By an impassioned appeal to the patriotism of the men, supplemented by an 

offer of a $10 bounty in hard money, he was able to persuade at least part of his 

old army to remain for six more weeks. With a force of around 5,000 Washington 

again crossed the Delaware on the night of December 30-31. By this time Cornwallis had hastily gathered together the scattered British garrisons in New 

Jersey, and took up a position confronting Washington at Trenton on January 2, 

I777· Convinced that he had the Americans in a trap, he put off battle until the 

next day because of the exhausted state of his troops. In the night Washington 

slipped away, leaving campfires burning brightly to deceive the British. The 
52 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

ALEXANDER HAMILToN's ARTILLERY AT TRENTON, with a 6-pounder brass 

field gun in the foreground. 

next morning he struck another surprise blow at Princeton, inflicting heavy 

losses on two British regiments just leaving the town to join Cornwallis. Washington then went into winter quarters in the hills around Morristown, New 

Jersey. Cornwallis did not pursue. The British had had enough of winter warfare, and Howe drew in his outposts in New Jersey to New Brunswick and 

Perth Amboy. 

Trenton and Princeton not only offset the worst effects of the disastrous 

defeats in New York but also restored Washington's prestige as a commander 

with friend and foe alike. In the execution of the two strokes east of the Delaware, Washington had applied the principles of offensive, surprise, and maneuver with great success and finally achieved stature as a military commander. 

If these victories did not assure him that he could recruit such an army as Congress had voted, they did at least guarantee that he would be able to field a force 

the following year. Sir William Howe found that, despite his smashing rout of 

the Americans in New York, he was left with little more than that city, a foothold in New Jersey, and the port of Newport in Rhode Island. 
Ill The Winning of Independence 

1777-I783 

The year 1777 was most critical for the British. The issue, very plainly, 

was whether they could score such success in putting down the American 

revolt that the French would not dare enter the war openly to aid the American 

rebels. Yet it was in this critical year that British plans were most confused 

and British operations most disjointed. The British campaign of 1777 provides 

one of the most striking object lessons in military history of the dangers of 

divided command. 

The Campaign of 1777 

With secure bases at New York and Newport, Howe had a chance to get 

the early start that had been denied him the previous year. His first plan, 

advanced on November 30, 1776, was probably the most comprehensive put 

forward by any British commander during the war. He proposed to maintain 

a small force of about 8,ooo to contain Washington in New Jersey and 7,ooo 

to garrison New York, while sending one column of ro,ooo from Newport 

into New England and another column of ro,ooo from New York up the 

Hudson to form a junction with a British force moving down from Canada. 

On the assumption that these moves would be successful by autumn, he would 

next capture Philadelphia, the rebel capital, and then make the southern 

provinces the "objects of the winter." For this plan, Howe requested 35,000 

men, 15,ooo more effective troops than he had left at the end of the 1776 

campaign. Sir George Germain, the American Secretary, could promise him 

only 8,ooo. Even before receiving this news, but evidently influenced by 

Trenton and Princeton, Howe changed his plan and proposed to devote his 

main effort in 1777 to taking Philadelphia. On March 3, 1777, Germain informed 

Howe that the Philadelphia plan was approved, but that there might be only 

5,500 reinforcements. At the same time Germain and the king urged a "warm 

diversion" against New England. 
54 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Meanwhile, Sir John Burgoyne, who had succeeded in obtaining the 

separate military command in Canada, submitted his plan calling for an 

advance southward to "a junction with Howe." Germain and the king also 

approved this plan on March 29, though aware of Howe's intention to go to 

Philadelphia. They seem to have expected either that Howe would be able 

to form his junction by the "warm diversion," or else that he would take 

Philadelphia quickly and then turn north to aid Burgoyne. In any case, Germain 

approved two separate and un-co-ordinated plans, and Howe and Burgoyne 

went their separate ways, doing nothing to remedy the situation. Howe's 

Philadelphia plan did provide for leaving enough force in New York for what 

its commander, General Clinton, called "a damn'd starved offensive," but 

Clinton's orders were vague. Quite possibly Burgoyne knew before he left 

England for Canada that Howe was going to Philadelphia, but ambitious 

"Gentleman Johnny" was determined to make a reputation in the American 

war, and evidently believed he could succeed alone. Even when he learned 

certainly on August 3, 1777, that he could not expect Howe's co-operation, he 

persisted in his design. As Howe thought Pennsylvania was filled with royalists, 

Burgoyne cherished the illusion that legions of Tories in New York and 

western New England were simply awaiting the appearance of the king's 

troops to rally to the colors. 

Again in 1777 the late arrival of Howe's reinforcements and stores ships 

gave Washington time that he sorely needed: Men to form the new Continental 

Army came in slowly and not until June did the Americans have a force of 

8,ooo. On the northern line the defenses were even more thinly manned. 

Supplies for troops in the field were also short, but the arrival of the first three 

ships bearing secret aid from France vastly improved the situation. They were 

evidence of the covert support of the French Government; a mission sent by 

Congress to France was meanwhile working diligently to enlist open aid and 

to embroil France in a war with England. The French Foreign Minister, the 

Comte de Vergennes, had already decided to take that risk when and if the 

American rebels demonstrated their serious purpose and ability to fulfill it 

by some signal victory in the field. 

With the first foreign material aid in 1777, the influx of foreign officers 

into the American Army began. These officers were no unmixed blessing. 

Most were adventurers in search of fortune or of reputation with little facility 

for adjusting themselves to American conditions. Few were willing to accept 

any but the highest ranks. Nevertheless, they brought with them professional 

military knowledge and competence that the Continental Army sorely needed. 

When the misfits were culled out, this knowledge and competence were used 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 17 7 7-17 8 3 55 

to considerable advantage. Louis DuPortail, a Frenchman, and Thaddeus Kosciuszko, a Pole, did much to advance the art of engineering in the Continental 

Army; Casimir Pulaski, another Pole, organized its first genuine cavalry contingent; Johann de Kalb and Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, both Germans, 

and the Marquis de Lafayette, an influential French nobleman who financed 

his own way, were all to make valuable contributions as trainers and leaders. 

On the Continental Army of 1777, however, these foreign volunteers had little 

effect and it remained much as it had been before, a relatively untrained body 

of inexperienced enlistees. 

When Howe finally began to stir in June 1777, Washington posted his 

army at Middlebrook, New Jersey, in a position either to bar Howe's overland 

route to Philadelphia or to move rapidly up the Hudson to oppose an advance 

northward. Washington confidently expected Howe to move northward to 

form a junction with Burgoyne, but decided he must stay in front of the main 

British Army wherever it went. Following the principle of economy of force, 

he disposed a small part of his army under General Putnam in fortifications 

guarding the approaches up the Hudson, and at a critical moment detached a 

small force to aid Schuyler against Burgoyne. The bulk of his army he kept 

in front of Howe in an effort to defend Philadelphia. Forts were built along the 

Delaware River and other steps taken to block the approach to the Continental 

capital by sea. 

In the effort to defend Philadelphia Washington again failed, but hardly 

so ignominiously as he had the year before in New York. After maneuvering 

in New Jersey for upward of two months, Howe in August put most of his 

army on board ship and sailed down the coast and up the Chesapeake Bay to 

Head of Elk (a small town at the head of the Elk River) in Maryland, putting 

himself even further away from Burgoyne. (Map 7) Though surprised by 

Howe's movement, Washington rapidly shifted his own force south and took 

up a position at Chad's Ford on Brandywine Creek, blocking the approach to 

Philadelphia. There on September I I, 1777, Howe executed a flanking movement not dissimilar to that employed on Long Island and again defeated 

Washington. The American commander had disposed his army in two main 

parts, one directly opposite Chad's Ford under his personal command and the 

other under General Sullivan guarding the right flank upstream. While Lt. Gen. 

Wilhelm von Knyphausen's Hessian troops demonstrated opposite the ford, a 

larger force under Lord Cornwallis marched upstream, crossed the Brandywine, 

and moved to take Sullivan from the rear. Washington lacked good cavalry 

reconnaissance, and did not get positive information on Cornwallis' movement 

until the eleventh hour. Sullivan was in the process of changing front when 
56 

MAP 7 

THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

PENNSYLVANIA- NEW JERSEY 

AREA OF OPERATIONS 

1777 -!778 

10 20 30 40 

MILES 

the British struck and his men retreated in confusion. Washington was able to 

salvage the situation by dispatching General Greene with two brigades to fight 

a valiant rear-guard action, but the move weakened ~is front opposite Kynphausen and his forces also had to fall back. Nevertheless, the trap was averted 

and the Continental Army retired in good order to Chester. 

Howe followed with a series of maneuvers comparable to those he had 

executed in New York, and was able to enter Philadelphia with a minimum of 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 17 7 7-17 8 3 57 

fighting on September 26. A combined attack of British Army and Navy forces 

shortly afterward reduced the forts on the Delaware and opened the river as 

a British supply line. 

On entering Philadelphia, Howe dispersed his forces, stationing g,ooo men 

at Germantown north of the city, 3,ooo in New Jersey, and the rest in Philadelphia. As Howe had repeated his performance in New York, Washington 

sought to repeat Trenton by a surprise attack on Germantown. The plan was 

much like that used at Trenton but involved far more complicated movements 

by much larger bodies of troops. Four columns-two of Continentals under 

Sullivan and Greene and two of militia-moving at night over different roads 

were to converge on Germantown simultaneously at dawn on October 4· 

(Map 8) The plan violated the principle of simplicity, for such a maneuver was 

MAP 8 

BATTLE OF GERMANTOWN 

4 October 1777 

____.., AXIS OF AMERICAN ADVANCE 

"'f"'T"r"T' 8R IT ISH POSITION (APPRO X) 
58 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

difficult even for well-trained professionals to execute. The two columns of 

Continentals arrived at different times and fired on each other in an early morning fog. The two militia columns never arrived at all. British fire from a stone 

house, the Chew Mansion, held up the advance while American generals 

argued whether they could leave a fortress in their rear. The British, though 

surprised, had better discipline and cohesion and were able to re-form and send 

fresh troops into the fray. The Americans retreated about 9:oo a.m., leaving 

Howe's troops in command of the field. 

After Germantown Howe once again concentrated his army and moved 

to confront Washington at Whitemarsh, but finally withdrew to winter quarters 

in Philadelphia without giving battle. Washington chose the site for his own 

winter quarters at a place called Valley Forge, twenty miles northwest of the 

city. Howe had gained his objective but it proved of no lasting value to him. 

Congress fled west to York, Pennsylvania. No swarms of loyalists rallied to the 

British standards. And Howe had left Burgoyne to lose a whole British army 

in the north. 

Burgoyne set out from Canada in June, his object to reach Albany by fall. 

(Map 9) His force was divided into two parts. The first and largest part-j',200 

British and Hessian Regulars and 650 Tories, Canadians, and Indians, under 

his personal command-was to take the route down Lake Champlain to Ticonderoga and thence via Lake George to the Hudson. The second-j'oo Regulars 

and r,ooo Tories and Indian braves under Col. Barry St. Leger-was to move 

via Lake Ontario to Oswego and thence down the Mohawk Valley to join Burgoyne before Albany. In his preparations, Burgoyne evidently forgot the lesson 

the British had learned in the French and Indian War, that in the wilderness 

troops had to be prepared to travel light and fight like Indians. He carried 138 

pieces of artillery and a heavy load of officers' personal baggage. Numerous 

ladies of high and low estate accompanied the expedition. When he started 

down the lakes, Burgoyne did not have enough horses and wagons to transport 

his artillery and baggage once he had to leave the water and move overland. 

At first Burgoyne's American opposition was very weak-only about 2,500 

Continentals at Ticonderoga and about 450 at old Fort Stanwix, the sole American bulwark in the Mohawk Valley. Dissension among the Americans was rife, 

the New Englanders refusing to support Schuyler, the aristocratic New Yorker 

who commanded the Northern Army, and openly intriguing to replace him 

with their own favorite, Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates. Ticonderoga fell to Burgoyne 

on June 27 all too easily. American forces dispersed and Burgoyne pursued the 

remnants down to Skenesborough. Once that far along, he decided to continue 

overland to the Hudson instead of returning to Ticonderoga to float his force 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1777-1783 

June- October 1777 

_....,.... AXIS OF BR1TISH ADVANCE 

~ HIGH GROUND A90VE 1000 FEET 

10 20 30 

MIL€$ 

MAP 9 

59 

down Lake George, though much of his impedimenta still had to be carried 

by boat down the lake. 

The overland line of advance was already a nightmare, running along 

wilderness trails, through marshes, and across wide ravines and creeks that had 

been swollen by abnormally heavy rains. Schuyler adopted the tactic of making 

it even worse by destroying bridges, cutting trees in Burgoyne's path, and digging trenches to let the waters of swamps onto drier ground. The British were 
60 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

able to move at a rate of little more than a mile a day and took until July 29 to 

reach Fort Edward on the Hudson. By that time Burgoyne was desperately 

short of horses, wagons, and oxen. Yet Schuyler, with a unstable force of 4,500 

men discouraged by continual retreats, was in no position to give battle. 

Washington did what he could to strengthen the Northern Army at this 

juncture. He first dispatched Maj. Gen. Benedict Arnold, his most aggressive 

field commander, and Maj. Gen. Benjamin Lincoln, a Massachusetts man noted 

for his influence with the New England militia. On August 16 he detached 

Col. Daniel Morgan with soo riflemen from the main army in Pennsylvania 

and ordered them along with 750 men from Putnam's force in the New York 

highlands to join Schuyler. The riflemen were calculated to furnish an antidote 

for Burgoyne's Indians who, despite his efforts to restrain them, were terrorizing 

the countryside. 

It was the rising militia, rather than Washington, who were to provide the 

Northern Army with its main reinforcements. Nothing worked more to produce this result than Burgoyne's employment of Indians. The murder and 

scalping of a beautiful white woman, Jane McCrea, dramatized the Indian 

threat as nothing else probably could have done. New England militiamen now 

began to rally to the cause, though they still refused to co-operate with Schuyler. 

New Hampshire commissioned John Stark, a disgruntled ex-colonel in the 

Continental Army and a veteran of Bunker Hill and Trenton, as a brigadier 

general in the state service (a rank denied him by Congress), and Stark quickly 

recruited 2,ooo men. Refusing Schuyler's request that he join the main army, 

Stark took up a position at Bennington in southern Vermont to guard the New 

England frontier. On August II Burgoyne detached a force of 650 men under 

Hessian Col. Friedrich Baum to forage for cattle, horses, and transport in the 

very area Stark was occupying. At Bennington on August 16 Stark nearly 

annihilated Baum's force, and reinforcements sent by Burgoyne arrived on the 

field just in time to be soundly thrashed in turn. Burgoyne not only failed to 

secure his much-needed supplies and transport but also lost about a tenth of his 

command. 

Meanwhile, St. Leger with his Tories and Indians had appeared before 

Fort Stanwix on August 2. The garrison, fearing massacre by the Indians, determined to hold out to the bitter end. On August 4, the Tryon County militia 

under Brig. Gen. Nicholas Herkimer set out to relieve the fort but were 

ambushed by the Indians in a wooded ravine near Oriskany. The militia, under 

the direction of a mortally wounded Herkimer, scattered in the woods and 

fought a bloody afternoon's battle in a summer thunderstorm. Both sides suf-
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1 7 7 7-1 7 8 3 61 

fered heavy losses, and though the militia were unable to relieve Stanwix the 

losses discouraged St. Leger's Indians, who were already restless in the static 

siege operation at Stanwix. 

Despite his own weak position, when Schuyler learned of the plight of the 

Stanwix garrison, he courageous! y detached Benedict Arnold with 950 Continentals to march to its relief. Arnold devised a ruse that took full advantage of 

the dissatisfaction and natural superstition of the Indians. Employing a half-wit 

Dutchman, his clothes shot full of holes, and a friendly Oneida Indian as his 

messengers, Arnold spread the rumor that the Continentals were approaching 

"as numerous as the leaves on the trees." The Indians, who had special respect 

for any madman, departed in haste, scalping not a few of their Tory allies as 

they went, and St. Leger was forced to abandon the siege. 

Bennington and Stanwix were serious blows to Burgoyne. By early September he knew he could expect help from neither Howe nor St. Leger. Disillusioned about the Tories, he wrote Germain: "The great bulk of the country 

is undoubtedly with Congress in principle and zeal; and their measures are 

executed with a secrecy and dispatch that are not to be equalled. Wherever the 

King's forces point, militia in the amount of three or four thousand assemble in 

twenty-four hours; they bring with them their subsistence, etc., and the alarm 

over, they return to their farms .... " Nevertheless, gambler that he was, 

Burgoyne crossed the Hudson to the west side during September 13 and 14, 

signaling his intention to get to Albany or lose his army. While his supply 

problem daily became worse, his Indians, with a natural instinct for sensing 

approaching disaster, drifted off into the forests, leaving him with little means 

of gaining intelligence of the American dispositions. 

The American forces were meanwhile gathering strength. Congress 

finally deferred to New England sentiment on August 19 and replaced 

Schuyler with Gates. Gates was more the beneficiary than the cause of the 

improved situation, but his appointment helped morale and encouraged the 

New Engiand militia. Washington's emissary, General Lincoln, also did his 

part. Gates understood Burgoyne's plight perfectly and adapted his tactics 

to take full advantage of it. He advanced his forces four miles northward and 

took up a position, surveyed and prepared by the Polish engineer, Kosciusko, 

on Bemis Heights, a few miles below Saratoga. Against this position Burgoyne 

launched his attack on September 19 and was repulsed with heavy losses. In 

the battle, usually known as Freeman's Farm, Arnold persuaded Gates to let 

him go forward to counter the British attack, and Colonel Morgan's riflemen, 

in a wooded terrain well suited to the use of their specialized weapon, took a 

heavy toll of British officers and men. 
62 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

After Freeman's Farm, the lines remained stable for three weeks. Burgoyne 

had heard that Clinton, with the force Howe had left in New York, had 

started north to relieve him. Clinton, in fact, stormed Forts Clinton and 

Montgomery on the Hudson on October 6, but, exercising that innate caution 

characteristic of all his actions, he refused to gamble for high stakes. He simply 

sent an advance guard on to Kingston and he himself returned to New York. 

Burgoyne was left to his fate. Gates strengthened his entrenchments and 

calmly awaited the attack he was sure Burgoyne would have to make. Militia 

reinforcements increased his forces to around Io,ooo by October 7· Meanwhile 

Burgoyne's position grew more desperate. Food was running out; the meadows 

were grazed bare by the animals; and every day more men slipped into the 

forest, deserting the lost cause. With little intelligence of American strength 

or dispositions, on October 7 he sent out a "reconnaissance in force" to feel 

out the American positions. On learning that the British were approaching, 

Gates sent out a contingent including Morgan's riflemen to meet them, and a 

second battle developed, usually known as Bemis Heights. The British suffered 

severe losses, five times those of the Americans, and were driven back to their 

fortified positions. Arnold, who had been at odds with Gates and was confined 

to his tent, broke out, rushed into the fray, and again distinguished himself 

before he was wounded in leading an attack on Breymann's Redoubt. 

Two days after the battle, Burgoyne withdrew to a position in the vicinity 

of Saratoga. Militia soon worked around to his rear and cut his supply lines. 

His position hopeless, Burgoyne finally capitulated on October 17 at Saratoga. 

The total prisoner count was nearly 6,ooo and great quantities of military 

stores fell into American hands. The victory at Saratoga brought the Americans 

out well ahead in the campaign of 1777 despite the loss of Philadelphia. What 

had been at stake soon became o~vious. In February 1778 France negotiated a 

treaty of alliance with the American states, tantamount to a declaration of war 

against England. 

Valley Forge 

The name of Valley Forge has come to stand, and rightly so, as a patriotic 

symbol of suffering, courage, and perserverance. The hard core of 6,ooo Continentals who stayed with Washington during that bitter winter of 1777-78 

indeed suffered much. Some men had no shoes, no pants, no blankets. Weeks 

passed when there was no meat and men were reduced to boiling their shoes 

and eating them. The wintry winds penetrated the tattered tents that were at 

first the only shelter. 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1777-1783 63 

The symbolism of Valley Forge should not be allowed to obscure the 

fact that the suffering was largely unnecessary. While the soldiers shivered 

and went hungry, food rotted and clothing lay unused in depots throughout 

the country. True, access to Valley Forge was difficult, but little determined 

effort was made to get supplies into the area. The supply and transport system 

broke down. In mid-1777, both the Quartermaster and Commissary Generals 

resigned along with numerous subordinate officials in both departments, mostly 

merchants who found private trade more lucrative. Congress, in refuge at 

York, Pennsylvania, and split into factions, found it difficult to find replacements. If there was not, as most historians now believe, an organized cabal 

seeking to replace Washington with Gates, there were many, both in and out 

of the Army, who were dissatisfied with the Commander in Chief, and much 

intrigue went on. Gates was made president of the new Board of War set up 

in 1777, and at least two of its members were enemies of Washington. In the 

administrative chaos at the height of the Valley Forge crisis, there was no 

functioning Quartermaster General at all. 

Washington weathered the storm and the Continental Army was to emerge 

from Valley Forge a more effective force than before. With his advice, Congress 

instituted reforms in the Quartermaster and Commissary Departments that 

temporarily restored the effectiveness of both agencies. Washington's ablest subordinate, General Greene, reluctantly accepted the post of Quartermaster 

General. The Continental Army itself gained a new professional competence 

from the training given by the Prussian, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben .. 

Steuben appeared at Valley Forge in February 1778 arrayed in such martial 

splendor that one private thought he had seen Mars, the god of war, himself. 

He represented himself as a baron, a title he had acquired in the service of a 

small German state, and as a former lieutenant general on the staff of Frederick 

the Great, though in reality he had been only a captain. The fraud was harmless, 

for Steuben had a broad knowledge of military affairs and his remarkable sense 

of the dramatic was combined with the common touch a true Prussian baron 

might well have lacked. 

Washington had long sensed the need for uniform training and organization, and after a short trial he secured the appointment of Steuben as Inspector 

General in charge of a training program. Steuben carried out the program during the late winter and early spring of 1778, teaching the Continental Army a 

simplified but effective version of the drill formations and movements of 

European armies, proper care of equipment, and the use of the bayonet, a 

weapon in which British superiority had previously been marked. He attempted 

to consolidate the understrength regiments and companies and organized light 
64 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

STEUBEN TRAINING AMERICAN FoRcEs AT VALLEY FoRGE 

infantry companies as the elite force of the Army. He constantly sought to 

impress upon the officers their responsibility for taking care of the men. Steuben 

never lost sight of the difference between the American citizen soldier and the 

European professional. He early noted that American soldiers had to be told 

why they did things before they would do them well, and he applied this 

philosophy in his training program. His trenchant good humor and vigorous 

profanity, almost the only English he knew, delighted the Continental soldiers 

and made the rigorous drill more palatable. After Valley Forge, Continentals 

would fight on equal terms with British Regulars in the open field. 

First Fruits of the French Alliance 

While the Continental Army was undergoing its ordeal and transformation at Valley Forge, Howe dallied in Philadelphia, forfeiting whatever remaining chance he had to win a decisive victory before the effects of the French 

alliance were felt. He had had his fill of the American war and the king accepted 

his resignation from command, appointing General Clinton as his successor. 

As Washington prepared to sally forth from Valley Forge, the British Army 

and the Philadelphia Tories said goodbye to their old commander in one of the 

most lavish celebrations ever held in America, the Mischianza, a veritable Belshazzar's feast. The handwriting on the wall appeared in the form of orders, 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, I 7 7 7-1 7 8 3 65 

already in Clinton's hands, to evacuate the American capital. With the French 

in the war, England had to look to the safety of the long ocean supply line to 

America and to the protection of its possessions in other parts of the world. 

Clinton's orders were to detach s,ooo men to the West Indies and 3,000 to 

Florida, and to return the rest of his army to New York by sea. 

As Clinton prepared to depart Philadelphia, Washington had high hopes 

that the war might be won in r778 by a co-operative effort between his army and 

the French Fleet. The Comte d'Estaing with a French naval squadron of eleven 

ships of the line and transports carrying 4,ooo troops left France in May to sail 

for the American coast. D'Estaing's fleet was considerably more powerful than 

any Admiral Howe could immediately concentrate in American waters. For a 

brief period in r778 the strategic initiative passed from British hands, and 

Washington hoped to make full use of it. 

Clinton had already decided, before he learned of the threat from d'Estaing, 

to move his army overland to New York prior to making any detachments, 

largely because he could find no place for 3,ooo horses on the transports. On 

June r8, 1778, he set out with about ro,ooo men. Washington, who by that time 

had gathered about r2,ooo, immediately occupied Philadelphia and then 

took up the pursuit of Clinton, undecided as to whether he should risk 

an attack on the British column while it was on the march. His Council of War 

was divided, though none of his generals advised a "general action." The boldest, 

Brig. Gen. Anthony Wayne, and the young major general, the Marquis de 

Lafayette, urged a "partial attack" to strike at a portion of the British Army 

while it was strung out on the ;oad; the most cautious, General Lee, who had 

been exchanged and had rejoined the army at Valley Forge, advised only guerrilla action to harass the British columns. On June 26 Washington decided to 

take a bold approach, though he issued no orders indicating an intention to 

bring on a "general action." He sent forward an advance guard composed of 

almost half his army to strike at the British rear when Clinton moved out of 

Monmouth Court House on the morning of June 27. Lee, the cautious, claimed 

the command from Lafayette, the bold, when he learned the detachment would 

be so large. 

In the early morning, Lee advanced over rough ground that had not been 

reconnoitered and made contact with the British rear, but Clinton reacted 

quickly and maneuvered to envelop the American right flank. Lee, feeling that 

his force was in an untenable position, began a retreat that became quite confused. Washington rode up amidst the confusion and, exceedingly irate to 

find the advance guard in retreat, exchanged harsh words with Lee. He then 
66 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

assumed direction of what had to be a defense against a British counterattack. 

The battle that followed, involving the bulk of both armies, lasted until nightfall on a hot, sultry day with both sides holding their own. For the first time 

the Americans fought well with the bayonet as well as with the musket and 

rifle, and their battlefield behavior generally reflected the Valley Forge training. 

Nevertheless, Washington failed to strike a telling blow at the British Army, 

for Clinton slipped away in the night and in a few days completed the retreat 

to New York. Lee demanded and got a court-martial at which he was judged, 

perhaps unjustly, guilty of disobedience of orders, poor conduct of the retreat, 

and disrespect for the Commander in Chief. As a consequence he retired from 

the Army, though the controversy over his actions at Monmouth was to go on 

for years. 

Washington, meanwhile, sought his victory in co-operation with the French 

Fleet. D'Estaing arrived off the coast on July 8 and the two commanders at 

first agreed on a combined land and sea attack on New York, but d'Estaing 

feared he would be unable to get his deep-draft ships across the bar that 

extended from Staten Island to Sandy Hook, in order to get at Howe's inferior 

fleet. They then decided to transfer the attack to the other and weaker British 

stronghold at Newport, Rhode Island-a city standing on an island with difficult approaches. A plan was agreed on whereby the French Fleet would force 

the passage on the west side of the island and an American force under General 

Sullivan would cross over and mount an assault from the east. The whole 

scheme soon went awry. The French Fleet arrived off Newport on July 29 

and successfully forced the passage; Sullivan began crossing on the east on 

August 8 and d'Estaing began to disembark his troops. Unfortunately at this 

juncture Admiral Howe appeared with a reinforced British Fleet, forcing 

d'Estaing to re-embark his troops and put out to sea to meet Howe. As the 

two fleets maneuvered for advantage, a great gale scattered both on August 12. 

The British returned to New York to refit, and the French Fleet to Boston, 

whence d'Estaing decided he must move on to tasks he considered more pressing 

in the West Indies. Sullivan was left to extricate his forces from an untenable 

position as best he could, and the first experiment in Franco-American 

co-operation came to a disappointing end with recriminations on both sides. 

The fiasco at Newport ended any hopes for an early victory over the 

British as a result of the French alliance. By the next year, as the French were 

forced to devote their major attention to the West Indies, the British regained 

the initiative on the mainland, and the war entered a new phase. 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1 7 7 7-1 7 8 3 67 

TheN ew Conditions of the War 

After France entered the war in 1778, it rapidly took on the dimensions of 

a major European as well as an American conflict. In 1779 Spain declared war 

against England, and in the following year Holland followed suit. The necessity of fighting European enemies in the West Indies and other areas and of 

standing guard at home against invasion weakened the British effort against 

the American rebels. Yet the Americans were unable to take full advantage of 

Britain's embarrassments, for their own effort suffered more and more from 

war weariness, lack of strong direction, and inadequate finance. Moreover, the 

interests of European states fighting Britain did not necessarily coincide with 

American interests. Spain and Holland did not ally themselves with the 

American states at all, and even France found it expedient to devote its major 

effort to the West Indies. Finally, the entry of ancient enemies into the fray 

spurred the British to intensify their effort and evoked some, if not enough, of 

that characteristic tenacity that has produced victory for England in so many 

wars. Despite their many new commitments, the British were able to maintain 

in America an army that was usually superior in numbers to the dwindling 

Continental Army, though never strong enough to undertake offensives again 

on the scale of those of 1776 and I777· 

Monmouth was the last general engagement in the north between 

Washington's and Clinton's armies. In 1779 the situation there became a 

stalemate and remained so until the end of the war. Washington set up a 

defense system around New York with its center at West Point, and Clinton 

made no attempt to attack his main defense line. The British commander 

did, in late spring 1779, attempt to draw Washington into the open by 

descending in force on unfinished American outpost fortifications at Verplanck's 

Point and Stony Point, but Washington refused to take the bait. When Clinton 

withdrew his main force to New York, the American commander retaliated by 

sending Maj. Gen. Anthony Wayne on July 15, 1779, with an elite corps of light 

infantry, on a stealthy night attack on Stony Point, a successful action more 

notable for demonstrating the proficiency with which the Americans now used 

the bayonet than for any important strategic gains. Wayne was unable to 

take Verplanck's, and Clinton rapidly retook Stony Point. Thereafter the 

war around New York became largely an affair of raids, skirmishes, and 

constant vigilance on both sides. 

Clinton's inaction allowed Washington to attempt to deal with Britishinspired Indian attacks. Although Burgoyne's defeat ended the threat of invasion from Canada, the British continued to incite the Indians all along the 
68 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

frontier to bloody raids on American settlements. From Fort Niagara and 

Detroit they sent out their bands, usually led by Tories, to pillage, scalp, and 

burn in the Mohawk Valley of New York, theW yoming Valley of Pennsylvania, 

and the new American settlements in Kentucky. In August 1779 Washington 

detached General Sullivan with a force to deal with the Iroquois in Pennsylvania and New York. Sullivan laid waste the Indians' villages and defeated a 

force of Tories and Indians at Newtown on August 29. 

In the winter of 1778-79, the state of Virginia had sponsored an expedition 

that struck a severe blow at the British and Indians in the northwest. Young 

Lt. Col. George Rogers Clark with a force of only 175 men, ostensibly recruited 

for the defense of Kentucky, overran all the British posts in what is today 

Illinois and Indiana. Neither he nor Sullivan, however, was able to strike at 

the sources of the trouble-Niagara and Detroit. Indian raids along the frontiers 

continued, though they were somewhat less frequent and severe. 

British Successes in the South 

Late in 1778 the British began to turn their main effort to the south. Tory 

strength was greater in the Carolinas and Georgia and the area was closer to 

the West Indies, where the British Fleet had to stand guard against the French. 

The king's ministers hoped to bring the southern states into the fold one by 

one, and from bases there to strangle the recalcitrant north. A small British 

force operating from Florida quickly overran thinly populated Georgia in 

the winter of 1778-79. Alarmed by this development, Congress sent General 

Benjamin Lincoln south to Charleston in December 1778 to command the 

Southern Army and organize the southern effort. Lincoln gathered 3,500 

Continentals and militiamen, but in May 1779, while he maneuvered along the 

Georgia border, the British commander, Maj. Gen. Augustine Prevost, slipped 

around him to lay siege to Charleston. The city barely managed to hold out 

until Lincoln returned to relieve it. (Map 10) 

In September 1779 d'Estaing arrived off the coast of Georgia with a strong 

French Fleet and 6,ooo troops. Lincoln then hurried south with 1,350 Americans 

to join him in a siege of the main British base at Savannah. Unfortunately, the 

Franco-American force had to hurry its attack because d'Estaing was unwilling 

to risk his fleet in a position dangerously exposed to autumn storms. The 

French and Americans mounted a direct assault on Savannah on October 9, 

abandoning their plan to make a systematic approach by regular parallels. 

The British in strongly entrenched positions repulsed the attack in what was 

essentially a Bunker Hill in reverse, the French and Americans suffering 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1777-1783 

THE SOUTHERN AREA 1778-1781 

X ENGAGEMENT, DATE INDICATED 

~HIGH GROUND ABOVE 1000 FEET 

10 20 30 40 50 

MAP 10 

___ '!_A ___ _ 

Htllsboro 0 

N.C. 

69 

staggering losses. D'Estaing then sailed away to the West Indies, Lincoln 

returned to Charleston, and the second attempt at Franco-American co-operation ended in much the same atmosphere of bitterness and disillusion as 

the first. 
70 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Meanwhile Clinton, urged on by the British Government, had determined 

to push the southern campaign in earnest. In October 1779 he withdrew the 

British garrison from Newport, pulled in his troops from outposts around 

New York, and prepared to move south against Charleston with a large part 

of his force. With d'Estaing's withdrawal the British regained control of the 

sea along the American coast, giving Clinton a mobility that Washington 

could not match. While Clinton drew forces from New York and Savannah 

to achieve a decisive concentration of force ( 14,ooo men) at Charleston, 

Washington was able to send only piecemeal reinforcements to Lincoln over 

difficult overland routes. Applying the lessons of his experience in 1776, Clinton 

this time carefully planned a co-ordinated Army-Navy attack. First, he landed 

his force on John's Island to the south, then moved up to the Ashley River, 

investing Charleston from the land side. Lincoln, under strong pressure from 

the South Carolina· authorities, concentrated his forces in a citadel defense 

on the neck of land between the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, leaving Fort 

Moultrie in the harbor lightly manned. On April8 British warships successfully 

forced the passage past Moultrie, investing Charleston from the sea. The siege 

then proceeded in traditional eighteenth century fashion, and on May 12, 

1780, Lincoln surrendered his entire force of 5.466 men, the greatest disaster 

to befall the American cause during the war. Meanwhile, Col. Abraham 

Buford with 350 Virginians was moving south to reinforce the garrison. Lt. 

Col. Banastre Tarleton with a force of British cavalry took Buford by surprise 

at the Waxhaws, a district near the North Carolina border, and slaughtered 

most of his men, refusing to honor the white flag Buford displayed. 

After the capture of Charleston, Clinton returned to New York with 

about a third of his force, leaving General Cornwallis with 8,ooo men to follow 

up the victory. Cornwallis established his main seaboard bases at Savannah, 

Beaufort, Charleston, and Georgetown, and in the interior extended his line 

of control along the Savannah River westward to Ninety-Six and northward 

to Camden and Rocky Mount. Cornwallis' force, however, was too small to 

police so large an area, even with the aid of the numerous Tories who took to 

the field. Though no organized Continental force remained in the Carolinas 

and Georgia, American guerrillas, led by Brig. Gens. Thomas Sumter and 

Andrew Pickens and Lt. Col. Francis Marion, began to harry British posts 

and lines of communications and to battle the bands of Tories. A bloody, 

ruthless, and confused civil war ensued, its character determined in no small 

degree by Tarleton's action at the Waxhaws. In this way, as in the Saratoga 

campaign, the American grass roots strength began once again to assert itself 

and to deny the British the fruits of military victory won in the field. 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1 7 7 7-1 7 8 3 71 

On June 22, 1780, two more understrength Continental brigades from 

Washington's army arrived at Hillsboro, North Carolina, to form the nucleus 

of a new Southern Army around which militia could rally and which could 

serve as the nerve center of guerrilla resistance. In July Congress, without 

consulting Washington, provided a commander for this army in the person 

of General Gates, the hero of Saratoga. Gates soon lost his northern laurels. 

Gathering a force of about 4,ooo men, mostly militia, he set out to attack 

the British post at Camden, South Carolina. Cornwallis hurried north from 

Charleston with reinforcements and his army of 2,200 British Regulars made 

contact with Gates outside Camden on the night of August 15. In the battle 

that ensued the following morning, Gates deployed his militia on the left 

and the Continentals under Maj. Gen. Johann de Kalb on the right. The 

militia were still forming in the hazy dawn when Cornwallis struck, and they 

fled in panic before the British onslaught. De Kalb's outnumbered Continentals 

put up a valiant but hopeless fight. Tarleton's cavalry pursued the fleeing 

Americans for 30 miles, killing or making prisoner those who lagged. Gates 

himself fled too fast for Tarleton, reaching Hillsboro, 160 miles away, in 

three days. There he was able to gather only about 8oo survivors of the 

Southern Army. To add to the disaster, Tarleton caught up with General 

Sumter, whom Gates had sent with a detachment to raid a British wagon 

train, and virtually destroyed his force in a surprise attack at Fishing Creek 

on August 18. Once more South Carolina seemed safely in British hands. 

Nadir of the American Cause 

In the summer of 1780 the American cause seemed to be at as low an 

ebb as it had been after the New York campaign in 1776 or after the defeats 

at Ticonderoga and Brandywine in I777· Defeat in the south was not the only 

discouraging aspect of patriot affairs. In the north a creeping paralysis had 

set in as the patriotic enthusiasm of the early war years waned. The Continental 

currency had virtually depreciated out of existence, and Congress was impotent 

to pay the soldiers or purchase supplies. At Morristown, New Jersey, in the 

winter of 1779-80 the army suffered worse hardships than at Valley Forge. 

Congress could do little but attempt to shift its responsibilities onto the states, 

giving each the task of providing clothing for its own troops and furnishing 

certain quotas of specific supplies for the entire Army. The system of "specific 

supplies" worked not at all. Not only were the states laggard in furnishing 

supplies, but when they did it was seldom at the time or place they were needed. 

This breakdown in the supply system was more than even General Greene, 
72 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

as Quartermaster General, could cope with, and in early 1780, under heavy 

criticism in Congress, he resigned his position. 

Under such difficulties, Washington had to struggle to hold even a small 

Army together. Recruiting of Continentals, difficult to begin with, became 

almost impossible when the troops could neither be paid nor supplied adequately 

and had to suffer such winters as those at Morristown. Enlistments and drafts 

from the militia in 1780 produced not quite half as many men for one year's 

service as had enlisted in 1776 for three years or the duration. While recruiting 

lagged, morale among those men who had enlisted for the longer terms 

naturally fell. Mutinies in 1780 and 1781 were suppressed only by measures 

of great severity. 

Germain could write confidently to Clinton: "so very contemptible is the 

rebel fdrce now . . . that no resistance . . . is to be apprehended that can 

materially obstruct ... the speedy suppression of the rebellion ... the 

American levies in the King's service are more in number than the whole of 

the enlisted troops in the service of the Congress." The French were unhappy. 

In the summer of 1780 they occupied the vacated British base at Newport, 

moving in a naval squadron and 4,ooo troops under the command of Lieutenant 

General the Comte de Rochambeau. Rochambeau immediately warned his 

government: "Send us troops, ships and money, but do not count on these 

people nor on their resources, they have neither money nor credit, their forces 

exist only momentarily, and when they are about to be attacked in their own 

homes they assemble ... to defend themselves." Another French commander 

thought only one highly placed American traitor was needed to decide the 

campaign. 

Clinton had, in fact, already found his "highly placed traitor" in Benedict 

Arnold, the hero of the march to Quebec, the naval battle on the lakes, Stanwix, 

and Saratoga. "Money is this man's God," one of his enemies had said of Arnold 

earlier, and evidently he was correct. Lucrative rewards promised by the 

British led to Arnold's treason, though he evidently resented the slights 

Congress had dealt him, and he justified his act by claiming that the Americans 

were now fighting for the interests of Catholic France and not their own. 

Arnold wangled an appointment as commander at West Point and then entered 

into a plot to deliver this key post to the British. Washington discovered the 

plot on September 21, 1780, just in time to foil it, though Arnold himself 

escaped to become a British brigadier. 

Arnold's treason in September 1780 marked the nadir of the patriot cause. 

In the closing months of 1780, the Americans somehow put together the ingredients for a final and decisive burst of energy in 1781. Congress persuaded 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1777-1783 73 

Robert Morris, a wealthy Philadelphia merchant, to accept a post as Superintendent of Finance, and Col. Timothy Pickering, an able administrator, to 

replace Greene as Quartermaster General. Greene, as Washington's choice, 

was then named to succeed Gates in command of the Southern Army. General 

Lincoln, exchanged after Charleston, was appointed Secretary at War and the 

old board was abolished. Morris took over many of the functions previously 

performed by unwieldy committees. Working closely with Pickering, he abandoned the old paper money entirely and introduced a new policy of supplying 

the army by private contracts, using his personal credit as eventual guarantee 

for payment in gold or silver. It -was an expedient but, for a time at least, it 

worked. 

Greene's Southern Campaign 

It was the frontier militia assembling "when they were about to be attacked 

in their own homes" who struck the blow that actually marked the turning 

point in the south. Late in 1780, with Clinton's reluctant consent, Cornwallis 

set out on the invasion of North Carolina. He sent Maj. Patrick Ferguson, who 

had successfully organized the Tories in the upcountry of South Carolina, to 

move north simultaneously with his "American Volunteers," spread the Tory 

gospel in the North Carolina back country, and join the main army at Charlotte 

with a maximum number of recruits. Ferguson's advance northward alarmed 

the "over-mountain men" in western North Carolina, southwest Virginia, and 

what is now east Tennessee. A picked force of mounted militia riflemen 

gathered on the Catawba River in western North Carolina, set out to find 

Ferguson, and brought him to bay at King's Mountain near the border of the 

two Carolinas on October 7· In a battle of patriot against Tory (Ferguson was 

the only British soldier present), the patriots' triumph was complete. Ferguson 

himself was killed and few of his command escaped death or capture. Some 

got the same "quarter" Tarleton had given Buford's men at the Waxhaws. 

King's Mountain was as fatal 'to Cornwallis' plans as Bennington had been 

to those of Burgoyne. The North Carolina Tories, cowed by the fate of their 

compatriots, gave him little support. The British commander on October 14, 

1780, began a wretched retreat in the rain back to Winnsboro, South Carolina, 

with militia harassing his progress. Clinton was forced to divert an expedition 

of 2,500 men sent to establish a base in Virginia to reinforce Cornwallis. 

The frontier militia had turned the tide, but having done so, they returned 

to their homes. To keep it moving against the British was the task of the new 

commander, General Greene. When Greene arrived at Charlotte, North Carolina, early in December 1780, he found a command that consisted of 1,soo men 
74 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

fit for duty, only 949 of them Continentals. The army lacked clothing and 

provisions and had little systematic means of procuring them. Greene decided 

that he must not engage Cornwallis' army in battle until he had built up his 

strength, that he must instead pursue delaying tactics to wear down his stronger 

opponent. The first thing he did was to take the unorthodox step of dividing 

his army in the face of a superior force, moving part under his personal command to Cheraw Hill, and sending the rest under Brig. Gen. Daniel Morgan 

west across the Catawba over 100 miles away. It was an intentional violation 

of the principle of mass. Greene wrote: 

I am well satisfied with the movement .... It makes the most of my inferior force, for 

it compels my adversary to divide his, and holds him in doubt as to his own line of conduct. 

He cannot leave Morgan behind him to come at me, or his posts at Ninety-Six and Augusta 

would be exposed. And he cannot chase Morgan far, or prosecute his views upon Virginia, 

while I am here with the whole country open before me. I am as near to Charleston as he is, 

and as near Hillsborough as I was at Charlotte; so that I am in no danger of being cut off 

from my reinforcements. 

Left unsaid was the fact that divided forces could live off the land much 

easier than one large force and constitute two rallying points for local militia 

instead of one. Greene was, in effect, sacrificing mass to enhance maneuver. 

Cornwallis, an aggressive commander, had determined to gamble everything on a renewed invasion of North Carolina. Ignoring Clinton's warnings, 

he depleted his Charleston base by bringing almost all his supplies forward. 

In the face of Greene's dispositions, Cornwallis divided his army into not two 

but three parts. He sent a holding force to Camden to contain Green, directed 

Tarleton with a fast-moving contingent of 1,100 infantry and cavalry to find and 

crush Morgan, and with the remainder of his army moved cautiously up into 

North Carolina to cut off any of Morgan's force that escaped Tarleton. 

Tarleton caught up with Morgan on January 17, 1781, west of King's 

Mountain at a place called the Cowpens, an open, sparsely forested area six miles 

from the Broad River. (Map II) Morgan chose this site to make his stand 

less by design than necessity, for he had intended to get across the Broad. 

Nevertheless, on ground seemingly better suited to the action of Regulars, he 

achieved a little tactical masterpiece, making the most effective use of his 

heterogeneous force, numerically equal to that of Tarleton but composed of 

three-fourths militia. Selecting a hill as the center of his position, he placed his 

Continental infantry on it, deliberately leaving his flanks open. Well out in 

front of the main line he posted militia riflemen in two lines, instructing the first 

line to fire two volleys and then fall back on the second, the combined line to 

fire until the British pressed them, then to fall back to the rear of the Continentals 

and re-form as a reserve. Behind the hill he placed Lt. Col. William Washing-
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1 7 7 7-1 7 8 3 

BATTLE OF THE COWPENS 

MAP 11 

17 January 1781 

(Schematic) 

Terrom covered with open woods 

a 

YARDS 

500 

75 

ton's cavalry detachment, ready to charge the attacking enemy at the critical 

moment. Every man in the ranks was informed of the plan of battle and the 

part he was expected to play in it. 

On finding Morgan, Tarleton ordered an immediate attack. His men 

moved forward in regular formation, were momentarily checked by the militia 

rifles, but, taking the retreat of the first two lines to be the beginning of a rout, 

rushed headlong into the steady fire of the Continentals on the hill. When the 

British were well advanced, the American cavalry struck them on the right 

flank and the militia, having re-formed, charged out from behind the hill to 
76 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

hit the British left. Caught in a clever double envelopment, the British surrendered after suffering heavy losses. Tarleton managed to escape with only 

a small force of cavalry he had held in reserve. It was on a small scale, and with 

certain significant differences, a repetition of the classic double envelopment 

of the Romans by a Carthaginian army under Hannibal at Cannae in 216 B.C., 

an event of which Morgan, no reader of books, probably had not the foggiest 

notion. 

Having struck his fatal blow against Tarleton, Morgan still had to move 

fast to escape Cornwallis. Covering 100 miles and crossing two rivers in five 

days, he rejoined Greene early in February. Cornwallis by now was too heavily 

committed to the campaign in North Carolina to withdraw. Hoping to match 

the swift movement of the Americans, he destroyed all his superfluous supplies, 

baggage, and wagons and set forth in pursuit of Greene's army. The American 

general retreated, through North Carolina, up into southern Virginia, then 

back into North Carolina again, keeping just far enough in front of his 

adversary to avoid battle with Cornwallis' superior force. Finally on March 15, 

1781, at Guilford Court House in North Carolina, on ground he had himself 

chosen, Greene halted and gave battle. By this time he had collected 1,5oo 

Continentals and 3,ooo militia to the I,9<JO Regulars the British could muster. 

The British held the field after a hard-fought battle, but suffered casualties of 

about one-fourth of the force engaged. It was, like Bunker Hill, a Pyrrhic 

victory. His ranks depleted and his supplies exhausted, Cornwallis withdrew 

to Wilmington on the coast, and then decided to move northward to join the 

British forces General Clinton had sent to Virginia. 

Greene, his army in better condition than six months earlier, pushed 

quickly into South Carolina to reduce the British posts in the interior. He 

fought two battles-at Hobkirk's Hill on April 25, and at Eutaw Springs on 

September 8-losing both but with approximately the same results as at Guilford Court House. One by one the British interior posts fell to Greene's army, 

or to militia and partisans. By October 1781 the British had been forced to 

withdraw to their port strongholds along the coast-Charleston and Savannah. 

Greene had lost battles, but won a campaign. In so doing, he paved the way for 

the greater victory to follow at Yorktown. 

Yorktown: The Final Act 

As Howe and Burgoyne went their separate ways in 1777, seemingly determined to satisfy only their personal ambitions, so Clinton and Cornwallis in 

1781 paved the road to Yorktown by their disagreements and lack of co-
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1 7 7 7-1 7 8 3 77 

ordination. Clinton was Cornwallis' superior in this case, but the latter enjoyed 

the confidence of Germain to an extent that Clinton did not. Clinton, believing 

that without large reinforcements the British could not operate far from coastal 

bases, had opposed Cornwallis' ventures in the interior of the Carolinas, and 

when Cornwallis came to Virginia he did so without even informing his 

superior of his intention. 

Since 1779 Clinton had sought to paralyze the state of Virginia by conducting raids up its great rivers, arousing the Tories, and establishing a base 

in the Chesapeake Bay region. (Map 12) He thought this base might eventually 

be used as a starting point for one arm of a pincers movement against Pennsyl~ 

vania for which his own idle force in New York would provide the other. A 

raid conducted in the Hampton Roads area in 1779 was highly successful, but 

when Clinton sought to follow it up in 1780 the force sent for the purpose had 

to be diverted to Charleston to bail Cornwallis out after King's Mountain. 

Finally in 1781 he got an expedition into Virginia, a ~ontingent of I,6oo under 

the American traitor, Benedict Arnold. In January Arnold conducted a destructive raid up the James River all the way to Richmond. His presence soon proved 

to be a magnet drawing forces of both sides to Virginia. 

In an efforNo trap Arnold, Washington dispatched Lafayette to Virginia 

with 1,200 of his scarce Continentals and persuaded the French to send a naval 

squadron from Newport to block Arnold's escape by sea. The plan went awry 

when a British fleet drove the French squadron back to Newport and Clinton 

sent another 2,6oo men to Virginia along with a new commander, Maj. Gen. 

William Phillips. Phillips and Arnold continued their devastating raids, which 

Lafayette was too weak to prevent. Then on May 20 Cornwallis arrived from 

Wilmington and took over from Phillips. With additional reinforcements sent 

by Clinton he was able to field a force of about 7,ooo men, approximately a 

quarter of the British strength in America. Washington sent down an addi~ 

tiona} reinforcement of 8oo Continentals under General Wayne, but even with 

Virginia militia Lafayette's force· remained greatly outnumbered. 

Cornwallis and Clinton were soon working at cross~purposes. Cornwallis 

proposed to carry out major operations in the interior of Virginia, but Clinton 

saw as little practical value in this tactic as Cornwallis did in Clinton's plan to 

establish a base in Virginia for a pincers movement against Pennsylvania. Corn~ 

wallis at first turned to the interior and engaged in a fruitless pursuit of Lafayette 

north of Richmond. Then, on receiving Clinton's positive order to return to the 

coast, establish a base, and return part of his force to New York, Cornwallis 

moved back down the Virginia peninsula to take up station at Yorktown, a 

small tobacco port on the York River just off Chesapeake Bay. In the face of 
CONCENTRATION OF FORCES 

AT YORKTOWN 

April-October 1781 

MtLES 

Petersburg t 

I VA -----1------ 1 NC 

"'' :;I,_ 

~~~ 

a: 

~/d: a. 

81~ 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

MAP 12 

100 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, l 7 7 7-l 7 8 3 79 

Cornwallis' insistence that he must keep all his troops with him, Clinton vacillated, reversing his own orders several times and in the end granting Cornwallis' 

request. Lafayette and Wayne followed Cornwallis cautiously down the peninsula, lost a skirmish with him at Green Spring near Williamsburg on July 6, and 

finally took up a position of watchful waiting near Yorktown. 

Meanwhile, Washington had been trying to persuade the French to co-oper-

-ate in a combined land and naval assault on New York in the summer of 1781. 

Rochambeau brought his 4,ooo troops down from Newport in April and placed 

them under Washington's command. The prospects were still bleak since the 

combined Franco-American force numbered but w,ooo against Clinton's 17,000 

in well-fortified positions. Then on August 14 Washington learned that the 

French Fleet in the West Indies, commanded by Admiral Francois de Grasse, 

would not come to New York but would arrive in the Chesapeake later in the 

month and remain there until October 15. He saw immediately that if he could 

achieve a superior concentration of force on the land side while de Grasse still 

held the bay he could destroy the British army at Yorktown before Clinton had 

a chance to relieve it. 

The movements that followed illustrate most effectively a successful application of the principles of the offensive, surprise, objective, mass, and maneuver. 

Even without unified command of Army and Navy forces, Franco-American 

co-operation this time was excellent. Admiral Louis, Comte de Barras, immediately put out to sea from Newport to join de Grasse. Washington sent orders 

to Lafayette to contain Cornwallis at Yorktown and then, after making a feint 

in the direction of New York to deceive Clinton, on August 21 started the major 

portion of the Franco-American Army on a rapid secret movement to Virginia, 

via Chesapeake Bay, leaving only 2,000 Americans behind to watch Clinton. 

On August 30, while Washington was on the move southward, de Grasse 

arrived in the Chesapeake with his entire fleet of twenty-four ships of the line 

and a few days later debarked 3,ooo French troops to join Lafayette. Admiral 

Thomas Graves, the British naval commander in New York, meanwhile had 

put out to sea in late August with nineteen ships of the line, hoping either to 

intercept Barras' squadron or to block de Grasse's entry into the Chesapeake. 

He failed to find Barras, and when he arrived off Hampton Roads on September 5 he found de Grasse already in the bay. The French admiral sallied forth 

to meet Graves and the two fleets fought an indecisive action off the Virginia 

capes. Yet for all practical purposes the victory lay with the French for, while 

the fleets maneuvered at sea for days following the battle, Barras' squadron 

slipped into the Chesapeake and the French and American troops got past into 

the James River. Then de Grasse got back into the bay and joined Barras, con-
80 THE WAR OF THE AMERIC:AN REVOLUTION 

SuRRENDER oF CoRNWALLIS 

fronting Graves with so superior a naval force that he decided to return to 

New York to refit. 

When Washington's army arrived on September 26, the French Fleet was 

in firm control of the bay, blocking Cornwallis' sea route of escape. A decisive 

concentration had been achieved. Counting 3,ooo Virginia militia, Washington 

had a force of about 9,000 Americans and 6,ooo French troops with which to 

conduct the siege. It proceeded in the best traditions of V aubim under the direction of French engineers. Cornwallis obligingly abandoned his forward position 

on September 30, and on October 6 the first parallel was begun 6oo yards from 

the main British position. Artillery placed along the trench began its destructive 

work on October 9· By October 11 the zigzag connecting trench had been dug 

200 yards forward, and work on the second parallel had begun. Two British 

redoubts had to be reduced in order to extend the line to the York River. This 

accomplished, Cornwallis' only recourse was escape across the river to Gloucester Point where the American line was thinly held. A storm on the night 

of October 16 frustrated his attempt to do so, leaving him with no hope but 

relief from New York. Clinton had been considering such relief for days, but 

he acted too late. On the very day, October 17, that Admiral Graves set sail from 

New York with a reinforced fleet and 7,ooo troops for the relief of Yorktown, 

Cornwallis began negotiations on terms of surrender. On October 19 his entire 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1 7 7 7-1 7 8 3 81 

army marched out to lay down its arms, the British band playing an old tune 

called "The World Turned Upside Down." 

So far as active campaigning was concerned, Yorktown ended the war. 

Both Greene and Washington maintained their armies in position near New 

York and Charleston for nearly two years more, but the only fighting that 

occurred was some minor skirmishing in the South. Cornwallis' defeat led to 

the overthrow of the British cabinet and the formation of a new government 

that decided the war in America was lost. With some success, Britain devoted its 

energies to trying to salvage what it could in the West Indies and in India. The 

independence for which Americans had fought thus virtually became a reality 

when Cornwallis' command marched out of its breached defenses at Yorktown. 

The Summing Up: Reasons, Lessons, and Meaning 

The American victory in the War of the Revolution was a product of many 

factors, no one of which can be positively assigned first importance. Washington, looking back on the vicissitudes of eight years, could only explain it as the 

intervention of "Divine Providence." American historians in the nineteenth century saw that "Divine Providence" as having been manifested primarily in the 

character and genius of the modest Commander in Chief himself. Washington's 

leadership was clearly one of the principal factors in American success; it seems 

fair to say that the Revolution could hardly have succeeded without him. Yet 

in many of the events that led to victory-Bennington, Saratoga, King's 

Mountain, and Cowpens, to name but a few-his personal influence was remote. 

Today many scholars stress not the astonishment that Washington felt at 

the victory of a weak and divided confederation of American states over the 

greatest power of the age, but the practical difficulties the British faced in suppressing the revolt. These were indeed great but they do not appear to have 

been insuperable if one considers military victory alone and not its political 

consequences. The British forfeited several chances for military victory in 

1776-77, and again in 1780 they might have won had they been able to throw 

ro,ooo fresh troops into the American war. American military leaders were 

more resourceful and imaginative than the British commanders, and they proved 

quite capable of profiting from British blunders. In addition to Washington, 

Nathanael Greene, Henry Knox, Daniel Morgan, and Benedict Arnold showed 

remarkable military abilities, and of the foreign volunteers Steuben and the 

young Lafayette were outstanding. The resourcefulness of this extraordinary 

group of leaders was matched by the dedication of the Continental rank and file 

to the cause. Only men so dedicated could have endured the hardships of the 
82 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

march to Quebec, the crossing of the Delaware, Valley Forge, Morristown, and 

Greene's forced marches in the southern campaign. British and Hessian professionals never showed the same spirit; their virtues were exhibited principally 

in situations where discipline and training counted most. 

The militia, the men who fought battles and then went home, also exhibited 

this spirit on many occasions. The militiamen have been generally maligned as 

useless by one school of thought, and glorified by another as the true victors in 

the war. In any balanced view it must be recognized that their contributions 

were great, though they would have counted for little without a Continental 

Army to give the American cause that continued sustenance that only a permanent force in being could give it. It ,was the ubiquity of the militia that made 

British victories over the Continentals in the field so meaningless. And the 

success with which the militia did operate derived from the firm political control the patriots had established over the countryside long before the British 

were in any position to challenge it-the situation that made the British task so 

difficult in the first place. 

For all these American virtues and British difficulties and mistakes, the 

Americans still required French aid-money, supplies, and in the last phase 

military force-to win a decisive and clear-cut military victory. Most of the 

muskets, bayonets, and cannon used by the Continental Army came from France. 

The French contested the control of the seas that was so vital to the British, and 

compelled them to divert forces from the American mainland to other areas. 

The final stroke at Yorktown, though a product of Washington's strategic conception, was possible only because of the temporary predominance of French 

naval power off the American coast and the presence of a French army. 

French aid was doubly necessary because the American war effort lacked 

strong national direction. The Revolution showed conclusively the need for a 

central government with power to harness the nation's resources for war. It is 

not surprising that in 1787 nearly all those who had struggled so long and hard 

as leaders in the Continental Army or in administrative positions under the 

Congress were to be found in the ranks of the supporters of a new constitution 

creating such a central government with a strong executive and the power to 

"raise armies and navies," call out the militia, and levy taxes directly to support 

itself. 

Strictly military lessons of the Revolution were more equivocal. Tactical 

innovations were not radical but they did represent a culmination of the trend, 

which started during the French and Indian War, toward employment of 

light troops as skirmishers in conjunction with traditional linear formations. 

By the end of the war both armies were fighting in this fashion. The Americans 
THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE, 1 7 7 7-1 7 8 3 83 

strove to develop the same proficiency as the British in regular line-of-battle 

tactics, while the British adapted to the American terrain and tactics by themselves employing skirmishers and fighting when possible from behind cover. 

Washington was himself a military conservative, and Steuben's training program was designed to equip American troops to fight in European fashion 

with modifications to provide for the increased use of light infantry. The 

guerrilla tactics that characterized many actions, principally those of the militia, 

were no product of the design of Washington or his leading subordinates but 

of circumstances over which they had little control. The American rifle, most 

useful in guerrilla actions or in the hands of skirmishers, played no decisive 

role in the Revolution. It was of great value in wooded areas, as at Saratoga 

and King's Mountain, but for open-field fighting its slow rate of fire and lack 

of a bayonet made it inferior to the musket. 

Since both militia and Continentals played roles in winning the war, the 

Revolutionary experience provided ammunition for two diametrically opposed 

schools of thought on American military policy: the one advocating a large 

Regular Army, the other reliance on the militia as the bulwark of national 

defense. The real issue, as Washington fully recognized, was less militia versus 

Regulars-for he never believed the infant republic needed a large standing 

army-than the extent to which militia could be trained and organized to 

form a reliable national reserve. The lesson Washington drew from the Revolution was that the militia should be "well regulated," that is, trained and organized 

under a uniform national system in all the states and subject to call into national 

serviCe m war or emergency. 

The lesson had far greater implications for the future than any of the 

tactical changes wrought by the American Revolution. It balanced the rights 

of freedom and equality, proclaimed in the Declaration of Independence, with 

a corresponding obligation of all citizens for military service to the nation. 

This concept, which was to find explicit expression in the "nation in arms" 

during the French Revolution, was also implicit in the American, and it 

portended the end of eighteenth century limited war, fought by professional 

armies officered by an aristocratic class. As Steuben so well recognized, American 

Continentals were not professional soldiers in the European sense, and militia 

even less so. They were, instead, a people's army fighting for a _cause. In this 

sense then, the American Revolution began the "democratization of war," a 

process that was eventually to lead to national conscription and a new concept of 

total war for total victory. 

PART TWO 

AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE 

AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

An Army Chronology of the 

American Revolution 

1763 

10 February: Treaty of Paris, ending Seven Years' War signed, in 

which France ceded mainland North American possessions east 

of Mississippi River, and Spain ceded Florida, to Great Britain. 

France and Spain, smarting in defeat, were to find their opportunity for revenge in American Revolution. Coincidentally with 

signing of treaty, the British Government proposed to maintain 

15 regiments in America and to collect at least part of cost of 

maintaining them from the colonies, thus laying the basis for 

the agitation and debate over constitutional issues that was 

eventually to lead the 13 coastal colonies from New England to 

Georgia to armed rebellion. 

16 November: General Thomas Gage arrived in New York City to 

assume his new assignment as Commander-in-Chief of British 

Army in America. 

1764 

5 April: In Revenue Act, British Parliament asserted its authority 

to levy duties on colonial trade to raise revenue in order to 

defray expenses of defending and securing British Empire. 

1765 

22 March: Parliament passed Stamp Act to be effective 1 November 

1765, placing tax on printed matter and legal documents with 

objective of raising part of costs of maintaining British troops 

in American colonies. 

7-25 October: Stamp Act Congress, meeting in New York City, to 

which nine colonies sent delegates, formulated Declaration of 

Rights and Grievances which denied Parliament's right to tax 

colonies. It also gave impetus to informal agreements not to 

import British goods until act was repealed, beginnings of nonimportation as measure of economic coercion. 

1766 

18 March: Stamp Act repealed, but on same day Parliament passed 

Declaratory Act asserting its authority to make laws binding 

on American colonies "in all cases whatsoever." 

85 
86 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1767 

29 june: King George III approved Townshend Revenue Act imposing duties on selected colonial imports to obtain revenue 

to help defray costs of military defense and provide independent 

source of income for paying royal officials. Americans again 

countered with nonimportation. 

1768 

1 October: British troops arrived in Boston, Massachusetts, to enforce customs laws. 

1769 

16 May: Virginia Resolves drafted by George Mason and introduced 

in House of Burgesses by George Washington asserted that only 

governor and colony's own legislature had right to levy taxes 

in Virginia, and condemned Parliamentary proposal to send 

Americans to England for trial. 

1770 

19 january: "Battle" of Golden Hill in New York City followed 

several days of excitement after cutting down of Liberty Pole 

by British troops, and was outgrowth of long conflict over British 

attempts to enforce quartering provisions of Mutiny Act of 5 

May 1765. In this scuffle British troops attacking Sons of Liberty 

party with bayonets wounded several seriously. 

5 March: Boston "Massacre" climaxed rioting in front of customs 

house, with British guards firing into mob killing five and 

wounding six others. Whatever the provocation, and misrepresentation of this incident in patriot propaganda, it was significant action in stirring anti-British feeling and leading toward 

armed rebellion and independence. 

12 April: Parliament repealed all Townshend Revenue Act duties 

except tax on tea. 

9 june: British armed revenue schooner Gaspee) having run 

aground in Narragansett Bay seven miles below Providence, 

Rhode Island, was attacked and burned by a party of local 

patriots. 

2 November: First Committee of Correspondence was established 

in Boston, Massachusetts; other colonies followed this example, 

and these committees served as vehicles to link patriot antiBritish agitation and to organize public opinion against British 

actions. 

1773 

10 MaY': Parliament passed Tea Act which, although it retained tea 

duty from Townshend Act, made it possible for British East 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 87 

177 3-Continued 

India Company to undersell smuggled tea in American coloniesif it could be sold. Tea was subsequently turned back or impounded in New York City, Philadelphia, and Charleston, 

burned in Annapolis, and dumped in Boston. 

16 December: Boston Tea Party occurred when a group organized 

by Samuel Adams boarded tea ships in Boston harbor and 

threw overboard 342 tea chests valued at $90,000. This action 

led to British Coercive Acts of 1774, termed by Americans the 

Intolerable Acts. 

1774 

31 March: Parliament passed Boston Port Bill, first of Coercive Acts, 

ordering closing of port on 1 June 1774 until tea destroyed in 

"Tea Party" was paid for. 

17 May: General Gage landed in Boston to assume duties as Massachusetts Governor in addition to those as British Army Com· 

mander-in-Chief. 

20 May: Massachusetts Government Act, another of Coercive Acts, 

virtually annulled colonial charter and gave governor control 

of local town meetings. 

1 June: Boston harbor was closed to trade. 

2 June: Parliament passed Quartering Act at request of General 

Gage, specifically requiring colonists to furnish barracks and 

supplies to British troops when needed. Colonists viewed this 

law as another of Intolerable Acts. 

22 June: George III approved Quebec Act, granting religious toleration to French Canadians and extending Canada's boundaries 

in west to Ohio River. Most inhabitants of 13 coastal colonies 

found both provisions highly objectionable, and thus construed 

this rather enlightened action to be one of Intolerable Acts. 

1 September: General Gage seized Massachusetts stock of powder 

at Charlestown, across Charles River from Boston, Massachusetts. 

5 September: First Continental Congress, with representatives from 

12 colonies, met in Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

14 September: First Continental Congress approved Suffolk Resolve, drafted by convention meeting in Suffolk County, Massachusetts, which declared so-called Intolerable Acts to be 

unconstitutional, urged Massachusetts to set up a government 

independent of Crown until these acts were repealed, advised 

people to arm, and recommended economic sanctions against 

Great Britain. 

5 October: Massachusetts Assembly met in Salem and two days 

later adjourned to Concord where its members organized as 
88 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1774-Continued 

Provincial Congress. This extralegal body with John Hancock 

as president thereafter governed Massachusetts outside of Boston. In due course other colonies established similar provincial 

congresses. 

14 October: First Continental Congress adopted Declaration of 

Rights and Grievances summarizing colonial arguments of protest and denying Parliament's jurisdiction over American colonies except for regulation of colonial commerce and strictly 

imperial affairs. 

19 October: At Annapolis, Maryland, owner of ship Peggy Stewart, 

arriving with tea aboard on which tax had been paid, was forced 

to burn his own vessel to avert mob action toward same end. 

20 October: First Continental Congress approved Continental Association, economic boycott of Great Britain to stop in due course 

import, export, and consumption of British goods, an action 

that led to 90 percent decline in British imports by spring 177 5. 

By that time, committees organized for enforcement had become 

de facto local governments. 

26 October: First Continental Congress adjourned. 

26 October: Massachusetts Provincial Congress directed that militia-men of colony be reorganized so tl).at the most able-bodied 

third would be in separate companies of D)inute men. 

9-10 December: Patriots seized ordinance at Newport, Rhode Island, and carried it to Providence. 

14 December: Patriots in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, seized 100 

barrels of powder and some ordinance from Castle William and 

Mary. (Similar actions followed in other colonies.) 

1775 

26 February: British troops went by sea via Marblehead to destroy 

ordnance gathered by patriots at Salem, Massachusetts. Tense 

confrontation developed with Salem militia, and first, though 

slight, bloodshed occurred between British troops and militiaprelude to Lexington and Concord. 

23 March: Virginia Convention resolved that colony ought immediately to be put into posture of defense, and Patrick Henry 

in this connection delivered his "liberty or death" speech. 

15 April: In Boston, 23 flank (light infantry and grenadier) companies of 11 British regiments then composing garrison were 

detached, ostensibly for separate training. 

18 April: In late evening, British assembled flank companies in 

Boston for expedition to destroy colonial stores at Concord, and 

Paul Revere and William Dawes set out with this news to 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 89 

1775-Continued 

arouse militia and minutemen of towns along and surrounding 

line of march. 

19 April: In battles of Lexington, Concord, and during British retreat to Boston, about 4,000 patriot minutemen and militia 

and about I ,800 British troops were engaged, sustaining losses 

totaling about 95 on patriot side and 270 on British. Lexington 

and Concord marked transition from agitation to armed rebellion, and patriot propagandist versions of action did much to 

cement popular sentiment in 13 colonies behind armed rebellion. 

19 April: Secret committee in Charleston, South Carolina, seized 

mail arriving on British packet ship Swallow disclosing intentions of British Government to coerce colonies into submission. 

This action gave timely warning to patriots in Carolinas and 

Georgia, and disclosed to Second Continental Congress first 

clear evidence of British intentions. 

19 April 1775-17 March 1776: Patriot forces beseiged Boston for 

nearly a year, although officially designated Boston Campaign 

dates from 17 June rather than 19 April. 

20 April: Massachusetts Committee of Safety, acting on behalf of 

Provincial Congress, called out entire militia of colony. 

20-21 April: When Virginia Governor Lord Dunmore (John Murray) seized provincial powder supply at Williamsburg, open 

fighting with patriots was barely averted. 

21 April: Patriots in Charleston, South Carolina, seized all powder 

from public magazines. 

23 April: Massachusetts Provincial Congress resolved that volunteer New England Army of 30,000 should be raised, to which 

Massachusetts would contribute 13,600. The other New England 

Colonies were asked to furnish the rest. 

25 April: People of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, after hearing news 

of Lexington and Concord, agreed to associate "for the purpose 

of defending with arms, their lives, their property, and liberty." 

I May: People of New York City chose Committee of One Hundred 

to "stand or fall with the liberty of the continent." 

10 May: Second Continental Congress met in State House (Independence Hall), in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Delegates from 

all colonies except Georgia were present. 

10 May: Fort Ticonderoga, New York, guarding portage between 

Lake Champlain and Lake George on strategic Montreal-New 

York waterway, was captured by mixed force of Green Mountain 

Boys and others led by Ethan Allen and Col. Benedict Arnold 

(Ticonderoga Campaign). Capture included 50 British soldiers 

and large quantities of cannon and other ordnance supplies. 
90 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1775-Continued 

11 May: Patriots in Savannah, Georgia, seized powder from royal 

magazine. 

12 Afay: Patriots captured Crown Point, New York, British post on 

Lake Champlain 10 miles north of Ticonderoga, and its ordnance 

stores. 

15 May: Acting on request of City and County of New York through 

colony delegates, Continental Congress appointed committee to 

determine military posts and number of troops needed to man 

them in New York, first step toward absorbing New York forces 

into a Continental army. 

17-18 May: St. Johns, Canada, on Richelieu River east of Montreal, 

was occupied briefly by Col. Benedict Arnold and on next day 

by Ethan Allen and Green Mountain Boys. 

25 May: Maj. Gens. John Burgoyne, Henry Clinton, and William 

Howe arrived in Boston as part of reinforcements for General 

Gage. By mid-June British had force of 6,500 rank and file in 

Boston. 

25 May: Acting on committee report, Continental Congress resolved 

that posts were needed at Kings Bridge, Hudson Highlands, and 

Lake George in New York, which should be manned by not 

not more than 3,000 men, with action by New York provincial 

Congress "until further order is taken by this Congress." 

27 May: Patriot attack on Noddle's (now East Boston) and Hog 

Islands in Boston harbor included destruction of British armed 

schooner Diana. In day of skirmishing four patriots were slightly 

wounded and two British killed and several wounded. 

31 May: Mecklenburg Resolves (Mecklenburg County, North Carolina) declared British laws null and void. 

31 May: Governor Josiah Martin of North Carolina fled from New 

Bern first to Fort Johnson on Cape Fear and then on 18 July to 

British sloop Cruzier in Cape Fear River. 

2 june: Massachusetts requested Continental Congress to take over 

regulation and direction of New England Army, since it had 

been raised for general defense of American rights. 

2 june: Provincial Congress of South Carolina avowed citizens of 

colony "ready to sacrifice their lives and their fortunes" in patriot 

cause. 

8 june: Flight of Governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, to British 

warship Fowey at Yorktown, marked beginning of open conflict between patriots and loyalists in Virginia. 

12 june: At Machias, Maine, patriots seized British armed cutter 

Margaretta with loss of seven on each side. Captain of British 

vessel was killed. 

14 june: BIRTHDAY OF UNITED STATES ARMY. On or be-
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 91 

177 5-C ontinued 

fore this day Continental Congress secretly adopted New England 

forces besieging Boston and New York forces guarding strategic 

positions; and openly this day Congress appointed committee 

to draft regulations for new Continental Army and authorized 

addition of 10 companies of riflemen to be drawn from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. These actions also mark 

establishment of Infantry on this date. 

15 june: Continental Congress appointed George Washington General and Commander-in-Chief of Continental Army. 

16 june: Congress appointed for Continental Army two major generals, eight brigadier generals, Adjutant General, Quartermaster 

General and deputy, Commissary General of Stores and Provisions, Commissary of Musters, Paymaster General and deputy, 

and Chief Engineer and two assistants. These actions mark 

establishment of Adjutant General's Corps, Quartermaster 

Corps, Finance Corps, and Corps of Engineers. 

17 june: Battle of Bunker Hill followed overnight patriot fortification of Breed's Hill, in front of Bunker, overlooking Charlestown, Massachusetts. In action about 2,000 patriots fought 

2,500 British troops, and resulting casualties in killed and 

wounded were among heaviest of Revolutionary War engagements-the patriots losing 441, including 140 killed, and British 

1,150 (40 percent of those engaged), including 251 killed. 

22 june: Congress resolved to issue $2,000,000 in bills of creditfirst Continental currency. 

25 june: Maj. Gen. Philip Schuyler named commander of the 

Northern Department by Washington. 

27 june: Schuyler directed by Congress to proceed to Ticonderoga 

and Crown Point and if found practicable and "agreeable to 

the Canadians" to take possession of St. Johns, Montreal, and 

other parts of Canada. 

30 june: Congress approved rules and regulations for governance of 

Continental Army. 

3 july: At Cambridge, Massachusetts, General George Washington 

assumed command of Continental Army forces besieging Boston. 

5 july: Continental Congress adopted "Olive Branch Petition" 

which, while reiterating grievances of colonists, professed their 

attachment to the king and desire for reconciliation and avoidance of further hostile action. George III refused to receive 

this petition, and instead issued his 23 August proclamation 

declaring colonies to be in state of rebellion. 

6 july: Congress adopted Declaration of the Causes and Necessities 

of Taking Up Arms, which endorsed further resistance by 
92 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1775-Continued 

force rather than unconditional submission to Great Britain, 

and threatened dissolution of ties with mother country if no 

just resolution of differences was forthcoming. 

10 ] uly: Georgia sent out first patriot vessel commissioned for naval 

warfare. 

18 july: Congress recommended that colonies adopt a uniform organization and equipment of militia, that one-fourth of it be segregated into separate minuteman organizations, that each colony 

appoint committee of safety to direct its defense, and that each 

provide armed vessels as required to protect its harbors and navigation along its coasts. 

19 july: Congress authorized Washington to appoint CommissaryGeneral of Military Stores marking beginning of Ordnance 

Department. 

20 july: Patriots in surprise raid seized royal stores and their guard 

at Turtle Bay, Manhattan Island (presently 47th St. at East 

River), and sent stores to patriot forces at Boston and on Lake 

Champlain. 

21 july: Patriot forces raided Nantasket Point in Boston harbor, 

driving off guard and seizing forage, then destroyed equipment 

on adjacent Light-House (Great Brewster) Island, at harbor 

entrance, with casualties of two patriots wounded. 

25 july: First of rifle companies authorized by Congress on 14 June, 

led by Capt. Michael Doudel of York County, Pennsylvania, 

reached Continental force besieging Boston. 

27 july: Action of Congress setting up "hospital" or medical service for army of 20,000 headed by "Director General and Chief 

Physician" marks establishment of Army Medical Department. 

29 july: Congressional action authorizing $20.00 monthly pay for 

chaplains then in Continental service, earliest official recognition 

of chaplaincy in Army, marks establishment of Chaplain's Corps. 

29 july: Congressional action authorizing $20.00 monthly pay for 

Army Judge Advocate, and electing William Tudor, Esquire, 

to this position, marks establishment of Judge Advocate General's Corps. 

31 july': Patriots again attacked Great Brewster (Light-House) 

Island in Boston harbor, destroying repair work and capturing 

33-man British marine guard and 10 workmen. Several British 

and two patriots were wounded. 

8-9 August: British sloop Falcon on 8 August pursued American 

schooner into harbor of Gloucester, Massachusetts but intense 

shore fire drove Falcon away without its prizes and with 35 

wounded aboard. Patriots seized 26 British sailors (prize crews) 

as prisoners of war. 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 93 

1775~Continued 

14 August: Patriot ships raided Berrimda, capturing its forts and 

carrying off all powder in their magazines. 

18 August: New York provincial Congress recommended that the 

Hudson River Highlands be fortified immediately; appointed 

commission to supervise construction on Constitution Island 

(opposite West Point). 

23 August: King George III issued proclamation declaring 13 American colonies to be in state of rebellion and sedition and directing suppression of American resistance. 

28 August: Patriot invasion of Canada from Lake Champlain began 

from Ticonderoga under leadership of Generals Philip Schuyler 

and Richard Montgomery. 

30 August: British naval bombardment of Stonington, Connecticut, 

killed two and destroyed a number of houses. 

5 September: Advanced detachment of General Schuyler's patriot 

force was ambushed near St. Johns, Canada, by Indian force 

led by New York loyalist. Patriots drove Indians off in bush fight 

but not before losing eight killed and eight wounded. 

11 September: Col. Benedict Arnold's march to Quebec began. 

Departing Cambridge, Massachusetts, this date, 1,150 men 

traveled mostly by water to and up Kenn~bec River in Maine, 

then by portages across height of land to Chaudiere River 

and thence to St. Lawrence River opposite. Quebec. Only 600 

reached this destination on 9 November after one of the most 

remarkable military marches in history. 

15 September: Lord William Campbell, Royal Governor of South 

Carolina, took refuge on British sloop Tamar. 

16 September-2 November: Patriot troops under General Montgomery beseiged St. Johns, Canada, key to defense of Montreal. 

25 September: Leading impulsive and premature attack on Montreal, 

Canada, Ethan Allen and about 40 of his men were captured 

after some brisk skirmishing. Eventually (1778) exchanged, Allen 

became Continental Army colonel but spent remainder of war 

in Vermont. 

7 October: Small British fleet operating out of Newport bombarded 

Bristol, Rhode Island, until its inhabitants provided 40 sheep 

for British Army consumption. This was only first of series of 

marauding attacks on islands and shores of Narragansett Bay 

that led to virtual extinction of loyalist support in area. 

10 October: General William Howe replaced General Gage as 

Commander of British Army forces in Boston, and formally 

succeeded Gage as Commander-in-Chief of British Army forces 

in the United Colonies in April 1776. 

13 October: BIRTHDAY OF UNITED STATES NAVY. Congress 
94 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

177 5-C on tin ued 

this day directed fitting out of two vessels to intercept ships 

carrying warlike stores and other supplies to British forces, and 

appointed "Marine Committee" to administer this action. 

18 October: Governor William Tryon of New York took refuge on 

British warship Halifax in New York harbor. 

18 October: Two British warships bombarded and burned West 

Falmouth (now Portland), Maine, destroying 400 of its 500 

buildings and burning or capturing 15 ships. 

19 October: During siege of St. Johns, Canadian-American patriot 

force with some 9-pounders attacked thin-walled fortress at 

Chambly, Canada, and forced surrender of its 88 British regulars 

and other inhabitants and seized quantities of powder and ordnance supplies. This action cut water escape from St. Johns 

and expedited its surrender. 

24-25 October: Lord Dunmore sent British naval captain and 

several small ships to bombard and destroy Hampton, Virginia. 

Militia riflemen drove off landing party on first day of bombardment, and with addition of another rifle company repelled 

second day's attack with heavy loss to British in men and ships. 

30 October: Congress authorized construction of four armed vessels 

"for the protection and defense of the United Colonies"-thus 

providing first ships of Continental Navy. 

2 November: British post of St. Johns, Canada, and its garrison 

of about 600 regulars and militia, surrendered. While this action 

opened way to capture of Montreal, British "forward" defense 

at St. Johns and Chambly forced patriots into costly and unsuccessful winter campaign and may have saved Canada for British. 

4 November: Congress approved reorganization of Continental 

Army before Boston, effective with new year; reorganized force 

was to consist of 20,372 officers and men to be enlisted through 

calendar year 1776; Congress also established a uniform ration 

for the Army. 

7 November: Lord Dunmore, Virginia Governor, ordered colony placed under martial law. 

9 November: Colonel Arnold's force of 600 arrived at St. Lawrence 

River opposite Quebec, Canada. 

10 November: BIRTHDAY OF UNITED STATES MARINE 

CORPS. Although colonies and Continental Army had employed 

marines since spring of this year, action of Congress on this day 

directing that two marine battalions be raised and appropriately 

officered is counted as beginning of Marine Corps. These battalions were to be part of Continental Army establishment under 

Washington's command. 

13 November: General Montgomery's troops occupied· Montreal, 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 95 

177 5-C ontinued 

Canada, after small British force under General and Governor 

Sir Guy Carleton withdrew on II November. 

17 November: Appointment of Col. Henry Knox to command 

of Continental Regiment of Artillery marks formal establishment of Artillery. 

19 November: Patriot forces blocking St. Lawrence River near 

Sorel, Canada, captured three British armed vessels and eight 

smaller craft with their crews and cargoes, and also British 

Montreal garrison except General Carleton who escaped in 

disguise with one or two of his officers. 

19 November: Arnold, after laying seige to Quebec, withdrew 

forces to Point aux Trembles in face of threatened British 

sortie with superior force. 

22 November: Patriot force of more than 4,000 overawed smaller 

loyalist force at Reedy River, South Carolina (south of modern 

Greenville), leading to capture of principal loyalist leaders and 

collapse of armed loyalist opposition in South Carolina almost 

without bloodshed. 

27 November: Capt. John Manley, commissioned by General 

Washington in Continental Army and master of armed schooner 

Lee) captured British ordnance brig Nancy at entrance of Boston harbor with cargo of tremendous value to patriot force beseiging Boston-most notable of a number of captures by 

Washington's "Navy" in fall and winter of 1775-1776. 

29 November: Congress appointed 5-man Secret Committee of 

Correspondence to develop foreign ties and support-embryo of 

Department of State. 

2 December: First of General Montgomery's troops joined Arnold's 

at Point aux Trembles and combined patriot force of 800 

effectives began seige of Quebec, a well fortified city defended 

by 1,800 British regulars and British and French-Canadian 

militia. 

9 December: Lord Dunmore sent force of 400 or so, half British 

regulars, to intercept patriot force advancing on Norfolk, Virginia. In rashly attacking instead of defending crossing at Great 

Bridge, Virginia, British forces suffered 62 casualties as against 

one patriot slightly wounded, and were completely routed in 

this first military action of war in Virginia. 

10 December: Connecticut men in Washington's Army, enlisted 

only until this date, departed for home, emphasizing Washington's problem in enlisting an adequate army. 

13 December: After action at Great Bridge, Norfolk, Virginia, was 

occupied by patriots. 
96 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1775-Continued 

13 December: Congress authorized construction of thirteen shipsfive 32's, five 28's, and three 24's--for Continental Navy. 

22 December: Parliament passed Prohibitory Act, interdicting 

foreign trade and intercourse with thirteen revolting colonies. 

31 December: With enlistments expiring, Montgomery and Arnold 

led 800 patriots in desperate and unsuccessful attack on Quebec, 

Canada (Quebec Campaign), during blinding snowstorm in 

early morning hours of new year. Montgomery was killed and 

Arnold wounded among 60 patriots killed and wounded and 

426 captured. British lost 5 killed and 13 wounded. 

1776 

1 january: American forces besieging Boston reorganized in 

accordance with Congressional resolve of preceding November, 

making this portion of patriot Army "Continental in every 

respect"; but only about 5,500 were present and fit for duty. 

1 january: First patriot flag bearing seven red and six white stripes 

raised at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in recognition of reorganization of Continental forces before Boston. 

1 january: Governor Dunmore, following patriot refusal to allow 

him to send ashore parties for provisions, bombarded and set 

fire to Norfolk, Virginia's largest town. 

5 january: New Hampshire adopted new written constitution 

replacing its colonial charter, first of 13 colonies to do so. 

5 january: Continental Congress ordered work on Constitution 

Island (opposite West Point) suspended and emphasis placed 

on Fort Montgomery. 

6 january: Alexander Hamilton's New York artillery battery constituted organization that became only Continental Army unit 

to have officially recognized modern active army descendant, the 

lst Battalion, 5th Artillery. 

10 january: Royal Governor Josiah Martin of North Carolina, 

from aboard British sloop Scorpion, urged loyalists to gather 

near Wilmington on Cape Fear River to collaborate with forthcoming British Army offensive in South. 

10 january: Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense published 

in Philadelphia, urging American declaration of independence. 

12-14 january: Sailors from British ships stationed at Newport 

raided Patience, Hope, and Prudence Islands in Narragansett 

Bay, Rhode Island, and on Prudence engaged militia from 

Bristol and Warren in 3-hour fight. 

20 january: Patriot General Philip Schuyler in New York leading 

3,000 militia forced Sir John Johnson of Johnstown, New York, 

and 700 other loyalists, to surrender, thereby breaking back of 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 97 

1776-Continued 

loyalist resistance in Albany area and assuring neutrality of 

neighboring Indians for some time to come. 

20 january: General Henry Clinton left Boston with about 1,200 

troops to lead British expedition against Carolinas. 

23 january: Patriot group from Elizabethtown (modern Elizabeth), 

New Jersey, led by William Alexander (better, if inaccurately, 

known as Lord Stirling) and Elias Dayton, captured British 

supply ship Blue Mountain Valley 40 miles off Sandy Hook. 

24 january: Col. Henry Knox, Washington's artillery chief, who 

on preceding 15 November had been sent to fetch cannon 

captured at Ticonderoga, returned to Cambridge, Massachusetts, with 55 guns. 

27 February: Congress resolved to establish separate Middle and 

Southern Departments of Continental Army, former including 

New York through Maryland and latter Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. 

27 February: Loyalist force of 1,400 including 1,000 Scotch Highlanders advancing toward Wilmington in hope of joining up 

with British Army force under Clinton was ambushed at Moore's 

Creek Bridge, North Carolina, about 15 miles north of Wilmington, and then caught between patriot forces in front and 

rear. In the fight at bridge, loyalists lost 50-70, patriots 2; but 

afterward more then 850 loyalists were taken prisoner. 

2-5 March: Heavy patriot bombardment of Boston began on 2 

March, and on night of 4-5 March darkness concealed Washington's occupation of Dorchester Heights and emplacement there 

. of cannon from Ticonderoga. 

3 March: Secret Committee of Correspondence decided to send 

"commercial" agent to France to purchase military supplies, and 

Congress selected Silas Deane of Connecticut for this mission. 

3-4 March: Patriot sailors and marines attacked New Providence 

(now Nassau) in Bahamas, capturing 100 cannon and mortars 

and a large quantity of other useful military stores. This action 

was first in which American marines participated as an organized 

unit. 

7 March: Royal Governor Sir James Wright, who fled Savannah, 

Georgia) on 11 February to take refuge on British warship, 

returned with naval reinforcements on 6 March, captured 11 

rice laden merchant ships, and threatened to attack Savannah 

from Hutchinson's Island opposite. Counterattack drove off 

British and left patriots in control of Savannah for next three 

years. 

9-13 March: British sloop Otter sailing up Chesapeake Bay was 

attacked and driven away by Maryland ship Defense and two 
98 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1776-Continued 

Maryland militia companies stationed at Chariton Creek, Northampton County, Virginia. 

17 March: General Howe having abandoned initial plan to attack 

new patriot fortifications on Dorchester Heights and realizing 

they made British position in Boston untenable, had decided on 

7 March to evacuate Boston and on this date did so, taking with 

him 1,000 loyalists, and sailing to Halifax, Nova Scotia. 

23 March: Congress authorized privateering, resolving "that the 

inhabitants of these colonies be permitted to fit out armed 

vessels, to cruise on the enemies of the United Colonies." 

25 March: Dr. Benjamin Franklin, Charles Carrol of Carrolton, 

and Samuel Chase left Philadelphia as envoys of Congress to 

Canada, to negotiate with Canadians toward union with 13 

coastal colonies in rebellion. 

6 April: Congress, disregarding British Navigation Acts and Prohibitory Act of December 1775, opened ports of United Colonies 

to trade of all nations, except for trade with British dominions 

and in British goods, and except also for import of slaves. 

12 April: Provincial Congress of North Carolina instructed its 

delegates in Continental Congress to vote for independencefirst of new governments of United Colonies to do so. 

13 April: General Washington arrived in New York, to which 

bulk of Continental forces that had besieged Boston had already 

been moved. 

2 May: France secretly allotted munitions from royal arsenals 

valued at one million livres ($200,000) to American patriots, 

and Spain followed suit. 

4 May: Act known as "Rhode Island Declaration of Independence" 

passed by its General Assembly. While not mentioning independence specifically it denied King's authority and authorized 

Rhode Island delegates to accept any Congressional measures 

they deemed prudent and effectual. 

6 May: \Vith large reinforcements under General John Burgoyne 

about to reach Quebec, Canada, General Carleton led sally from 

city that ended American siege begun preceding December and 

started patriot troops under General John Thomas on precipitous retreat. 

8-9 May: Thirteen Pennsylvania galleys attacked two British warships in Delaware River off mouth of Christiana Creek (near 

Wilmington), Delaware, and drove them down the river. Patriots lost one killed and two wounded in actions on successive 

days. 

15 May: Virginia Convention instructed Richard Henry Lee and its 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 99 

1776-Continued 

other delegates to Continental Congress to propose independence. 

16 May: At The Cedars, Canada, on St. Lawrence River about 30 

miles below Montreal, patriot force of 400 surrendered almost 

without fighting and smaller relieving force was also overwhelmed. 

19 May: Near Nantasket, Massachusetts, long boats from British 

men-of-war attempted to board patriot ships Franklin and Lady 

Washington, but were driven off after hand-to-hand fighting in 

which captain of Franklin and one other were killed and British 

may have lost as many as 70 killed including those drowned. 

4 june: British expeditionary force of more than 2,000 troops 

under General Clinton and nine warships under Admiral Sir 

Peter Parker arrived off Charleston, South Carolina. General 

Charles Lee, assigned by Congress to command Southern Department, arrived same day to direct defenses. 

7 june: Richard Henry Lee, delegate from Virginia, proposed 

resolution by Congress declaring independence of 13 United 

Colonies from Great Britain. 

8-9 june: After retreat from Quebec, 2,000 of best troops of reinforced patriot Army in Canada attacked Three Rivers (Trois 

Riveres), half way between Montreal and Quebec. Unknown to 

patriots Three Rivers had been heavily reinforced and attackers 

lost nearly 400 in casualties, British 17. This action ended any 

American hope of maintaining hold on St. Lawrence valley. 

9 june: Montreal, Canada, evacuated by patriot force of 300 under 

General Arnold. 

10 june: Pierre Augustin Caron Beaumarchais, French playwright 

and watchmaker, who had set up fictitious Hortalez et Cie as 

intermediary to transmit French and Spanish munitions to 

American patriots, received one million livres in gold from 

French government to initiate financing of his operations. 

11 june: Congress appointed committee of five delegates to draft 

declaration of independence. 

12 june: Virginia Convention adopted Declaration (or Bill) of 

Rights, drafted by George Mason. 

12 june: Remnants of American forces, beaten at Trois Riveres 

and subject to numerous ambushes en route, arrived at base at 

Sorel, Canada. 

12-13 june: On 12 June, Congress resolved to establish Board of 

War and Ordnance, to consist of five of its members, and next 

day this board, ancestor of War Department-Department of the 

Army headquarters, was established. 
100 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1776-Continued 

14 june: Remnant of American troops in St. Lawrence valley, now 

under General John Sullivan, began retiring from Sorel, Canada, pressed by advancing British forces. Patriots retreated first 

to Isle aux Noir at north end of Lake Champlain and by early 

July to Crown Point, New York, thus ending Canadian invasion 

of 1775-76. 

25 june: General William Howe arrived off Sandy Hook, New 

Jersey, with small British force, but one that was to grow to 

nearly 32,000 encamped on Staten Island, New York, by 12 

August, largest single military body in America during Revolutionary War. 

28 june: In New York City Thomas Hickey, belonging to General 

Washington's personal guard, executed for "sedition and mutiny," after discovery of loyalist inspired plot that allegedly 

included plan to assassinate Washington and other patriot 

generals. 

28 june: British naval forces attacked fortified Sullivan's Island 

guarding entrance to harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. 

Coordinated land attack by Clinton's troops from neighboring 

Long Island proved impossible because of deep water, and 

British warships were worsted in spirited exchange of fire with 

patriot forces. Patriots lost about 37, the British 225, and 

British gave up and sailed away, ending efforts to invade South 

for nearly three years. 

2 july: General Howe with 9,300 troops landed unopposed on 

Staten Island, New York. 

2 july: Congress at Philadelphia approved resolution of independence introduced by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia on 7 June. 

4 july: Congress at Philadelphia approved formal Declaration of 

Independence, as drafted by Thomas Jefferson and other members of committee appointed for this purpose, and in doing so 

"solemnly published and declared that these United Colonies 

are, and of Right, ought to be Free and Independent States." 

8-10 july: Patriot forces attacked and captured Gwynn Island, 

Virginia, off western shore of Chesapeake Bay where Governor 

Dunmore had taken refuge with some 500 white and Negro 

loyalists troops. Dunmore and survivors were forced to flee, and 

after raid up Potomac River went to Lynnhaven Roads near 

Cape Henry and then to New York. 

16 july: Lord Dunmore landed some of his force on St. George's 

Island, Maryland, near mouth of Potomac River, but was driven 

off by local militia. 

23 july: Lord Dunmore in sailing up Potomac River destroyed 

several plantations and then turned into Occoquan Creek, 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 101 

1776-Continued 

Virginia, to its falls and village, where he destroyed mill before 

being driven off by Prince William County militia. 

22 August: British disembarked 15,000 troops on Long Island, 

New York, and during next few days Washington sent large 

patriot reinforcements to Long Island to meet this threat and 

British also built up their initial landing force. 

27 August: Battle of Long Island (Long Island Campaign) fought 

between about 10,000 American defenders and 22,000 British 

and German troops. Americans were badly defeated and pushed 

into narrow confinement of Brooklyn Heights, losing about 

1,400 (1,100 captured) against British losses of 375. 

28 August: At Jamaica, New York, after British victory day before, 

militia detachment of 100 commanded by patriot General 

Nathaniel Woodhull was overwhelmed by much larger British 

force. 

29-30 August: Washington first reinforced Brooklyn Heights aftei 

defeat in Battle of Long Island, then in masterly fashion 

secretly withdrew his entire force at night across the East River 

onto Manhattan Island, above New York City, without loss. 

6-7 September: In New York harbor Sgt. Ezra Lee attempted 

first submarine attack in history of warfare in David Bushnell's 

"American Turtle," but copper bottoms of British ships off 

Governor's Island were too thick to be damaged by powder 

charges released from "Turtle." 

9 September: Congress resolved that in future all of its commissions and other instruments should be issued in name of 

United States instead of United Colonies as heretofore. 

11 September: Three-man delegation from Congress (Benjamin 

Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge) discussed possibilities of peace with Admiral Lord Richard Howe on Staten 

Island, but fruitlessly when Americans discovered Howe had no 

powers to negotiate, only to refer proposals to London. 

15 September: British troops from Long Island, under protection 

of warships, crossed East River and routed patriot forces at 

Kip's Bay (presently 34th Street) on Manhattan Island almost 

without firing shot. Washington managed to extricate his troops 

from New York City which British then occupied. 

16 September: After Washington withdrew his army to heights of 

northwestern Manhattan Island, he sent out small reconnaissance force to check British near site of present Columbia 

University. With both sides putting in reinforcements battle 

of Harlem Heights developed. Patriots lost 130, British and 

German troops involved about 170, and American morale was 

much improved by this successful holding action. 
102 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1776-Continued 

16 September: Congress resolved that 88 battalions of Continental 

Army troops, apportioned among the states according to population, should be enlisted as soon as possible for duration of 

war. This action was essential since existing Continental forces 

were enlisted only to end of 1776. 

20 September: Congress adopted Articles of War, "rules and articles to govern the armies of the United States." 

21-22 September: Capt. Nathan Hale of Connecticut captured 

by British on Manhattan Island while returning to American 

lines, and executed as spy. On 12 September he had volunteered 

for intelligence mission within British lines on Long Island. 

23 September: Patriot force of 240 attempted to recapture Montresor's (now Randall's) Island, New York, at East River end 

of Harlem River, but was repulsed with loss of 14. 

26 September: Congress appointed Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, 

and Thomas Jefferson as commissioners to court of France. 

When Jefferson declined to serve, Arthur Lee was appointed in 

his place. 

11-13 October: By June 1776 British had 13,000 troops in Canada, 

but invasion path by water route southward from the St. Lawrence River was barred until October by flotilla hastily constructed by General Benedict Arnold on Lake Champlain. 

On II October, Arnold led his ships northward and met principal British ships at Valcour Island, New York, then lost most 

of his ships in next two days and a quarter of his troops were 

casualties. Although Arnold was defeated, his operations 

thwarted British invasion from Canada in 1776, when it might 

have been fatal to patriot cause. 

12 October: General Howe's attempt to flank Washington's force 

in northern Manhattan started with landing at Throg's Neck, 

New York (northern end of modern Throg's Neck Bridge over 

Long Island Sound), but British were unable to get across 

bridge and causeway to dry ground because of stiff patriot rifle 

and cannon fire. 

14 October: After defeating Arnold's flotilla on Lake Champlain, 

General Carleton's invading force on this date occupied Crown 

Point, New York, but because of American strength at Ticonderoga and lateness of season withdrew to Canada on 3 November. 

18 October: Frustrated at Throg's Neck, General Howe shifted 

northward to Pell's Point and fought an action at Pelham, New 

York. American units posted there delayed British advance and 

helped Washington's safe withdrawal with main Continental 

force from Manhattan to White Plains. 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 103 

1776-Continued 

22-23 October: Force of Continentals attempted to surprise and 

cut off from main British Army Maj. Robert Rogers' "Queen's 

American Rangers," stationed at Mamaroneck, New York. Surprise was incomplete, but patriots came off with 36 prisoners 

and booty, at cost of 15 casualties. 

27 October: British attacked Fort Washington, New York, from 

both land and river sides, but attack was driven off with considerable loss to enemy, including one warship badly damaged. 

28 October: Having failed to flank Washington's main force of 

14,500, Howe attacked it with 13,000 at White Plains, New 

York. Although Americans again withdrew northward after 

battle, British suffered heavier losses (300 or more to 150) and 

once again failed to trap and destroy Washington's army. 

9-10 November: Washington with part of his army crossed Hudson 

River and moved into northeastern New Jersey. 

13-29 November: Patriots from Machias, Maine, and Bay of Fundy 

region, attacked and besieged Fort Cumberland, Nova Scotia 

(near modern Amherst), but were repelled when reinforcements arrived from Halifax. This was principal armed effort 

of American patriots to get New England settlers of Acadia 

aligned with American cause. 

16 November: Fort Washington, New York, surrendered to British. 

After battle of White Plains, Howe pulled his army back for 

another attack on Fort Washington on northern Manhattan 

Island overlooking Hudson River. Using 8,000 troops he forced 

surrender of more than 2,800 Continentals after fighting that 

cost enemy about 450 killed and wounded and Americans about 

300. 

20 November: Fort Lee, New Jersey, on Hudson River opposite 

Fort Washington, made untenable after latter's capture, was 

abandoned to British with heavy losses in materiel, and some 

160 Americans were taken prisoner. 

21 November-7 December: After loss of Fort Lee, Washington 

with about 4,000 troops retreated across New Jersey and Delaware River into Pennsylvania, with some of Howe's forces 

under General Charles Cornwallis following in close pursuit to 

Delaware. 

8 December: With Washington's forces safely across Delaware 

River and in possession of all small boats that might have been 

used to follow him across, Howe's advanced forces occupied 

Trenton, New Jersey. 

12 December: Constitution by Congress of regiment of light 

dragoons and appointment of Elisha Sheldon of Connecticut as 

its commander mark establishment of Cavalry. 
104 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1776-Continued 

13 December: American General Charles Lee captured at Basking 

Ridge, New Jersey, after two of his guard were killed and two 

wounded. 

19 December: Opening tract of The Crisis, "these are the times 

that try men's souls," by Thomas Paine, published in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

20 December: Congress, with British so near, adjourned at Philadelphia and on this date met in Baltimore, Maryland. 

26 December: General Clinton and Admiral Parker with 6,000 

British troops occupied Newport, Rhode Island, providing the 

British with an important naval base in New England. 

26 December: About 2,400 patriot troops under Washington 

having recrossed Delaware River surprised 1,400-man Hessian 

garrison at Trenton, New Jersey (Trenton Campaign), killing 

and wounding about 105 and capturing 918, with American 

losses at most 4 killed and 4 wounded. 

27 December: In view of critical situation, Congress in Baltimore 

resolved to grant General Washington almost dictatorial powers 

over military affairs for ensuing six months including authority 

to recruit 22 additional battalions. 

29-31 December: After escorting Hessians captured on 26 December across Delaware, Washington returned to New Jersey and 

reoccupied Trenton. 

1777 

2 january: When Cornwallis approached Trenton, New Jersey, 

with much stronger force than Washington had, latter retreated 

across Assunpink Creek south of town and then repulsed 

British attempts to cross creek. 

3 january: From south of Trenton Washington side-slipped British 

force under Cornwallis during night of 2-3 January, and next 

morning attacked and defeated British rear guard at Princeton, 

New Jersey (Princeton Campaign), British losing about 275 and 

patriots 40 in action. Victories at Trenton and Princeton did 

much to revive patriot cause from its lowest ebb. 

6 january: Washington moved into winter quarters at Morristown, 

New Jersey. 

10 january: British withdrew all forces from New Jersey except 

for those at posts at (New) Brunswick and (Perth) Amboy, 

covering winter quarters in and around New York City. 

17-25 january: Mixed Militia-Continental force under General 

William Heath attempted to take Fort Independence guarding 

approaches to New York. After several days of maneuvering and 

skirmishing, British sallied forth and scattered Heath's force. 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 105 

1777-Continued 

7-9 February: After patriots seized Georgia, many loyalists fled to 

St. Augustine in British East Florida. Expedition including 

Continental troops under General Robert Howe mounted 

against them in August 1776 failed, and remnant of patriots 

were overwhelmed on these dates at Fort Mcintosh in present 

Camden County, Georgia, bordering Florida. 

12 March: Congress having returned from Baltimore met in 

Philadelphia. 

23-24 March: British raiding party sailing up Hudson River 

attacked American supply base at Peekskill, New York. Counterattack on following day drove British off but not before they 

had destroyed large quantity of Continental Army supplies. 

13 April: British force of 2,000 under Cornwallis attacked patriot 

outpost at Bound Brook, New Jersey, manned by 500 Continentals under command of General Ben jam in Lincoln. Lincoln 

managed to extricate most of his force with loss of 35 or so. 

14 April: Congress approved establishment of magazine and laboratory in Springfield, Massachusetts, genesis of Springfield 

Arsenal and Springfield Armory. 

25-28 April: British raiding force of 2,000 from New York landed 

near Fairfield, Connecticut, and next day attacked and largely 

destroyed important patriot supply depot at Danbury, Connecticut, together with a number of dwellings. While unopposed 

at Danbury, raiding force was harried by militia on its return, 

at Ridgefield on 27th and at Compo Hill near its embarkation 

point on 28th. Patriots killed and wounded in these actions 

totalled 80, British, 154. 

10 May: Continental force under General Adam Stephen attempted 

to surprise British Highland regiment stationed at Piscataway, 

New Jersey, east of Brunswick, but was repulsed, patriots losing 

65 or more, Highlanders 28. 

23-24 May: Patriot raiding force from Guilford, Connecticut, 

crossed Long Island Sound and surprised British foraging party 

at Sag Harbor, New York. After destroying 12 vessels, and 

killing 6 and capturing 90 of British party, raiders got back to 

Guilford without losing a man. 

29 May: Washington moved main Continental Army from winter 

quarters at Morristown into positions to oppose any movement 

of Howe toward Philadelphia; began month of maneuvering 

between two armies. 

13 june: The Marquis de Lafayette and Johann Kalb, who were to 

distinguish themselves as military leaders in patriot cause, 

landed at Georgetown, South Carolina. 

14 june: Congress "Resolved, that the flag of the thirteen United 
106 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1777-Continued 

States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the 

union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new 

constellation." 

18 june: General John Burgoyne's expedition to invade and split 

American states set out on this date from St. Johns, Canada, 

reaching Crown Point, New York, on 27 June and Ticonderoga 

on 1 July. 

22 june: Pursuing British who were retiring to Staten Island to 

embark for Philadelphia, Washington's leading forces attacked 

enemy rear guard at Brunswick, New Jersey, although only 

American riflemen inflicted any significant damage 

26 june: As his final maneuver in New Jersey before embarking 

for Philadelphia campaign, General Howe attacked General 

Alexander's (Lord Stirling's) division at Metuchen, New Jersey, 

but Continentals withdrew with only modest loss. 

6 july: Fort Ticonderoga, New York, occupied by British after 

Burgoyne's invading force of about 10,000 outflanked fortress 

on two sides and forced its 3,300 defenders to abandon it. 

6 july: Pursuing patriot force withdrawing from Ticonderoga, 

British troops attacked it at Skenesboro (modern Whitehall), 

New York, at southern end of Lake Champlain, and while 

inflicting few casualties forced patriots to burn their shipping 

and supplies. 

7 july: Part of patriot force retreating from Ticonderoga, numbering about 1,000 men, struck by surprise attack of 7 50 British 

and German troops at Hubbardton, Vermont. Americans were 

routed after heavy fighting, in which enemy lost 170 and patriots 

400 including prisoners. 

8 july: Patriot force at Fort Anne, New York, superior in numbers, 

after skirmish with British burned Fort Anne and fell back on 

Fort Edward. 

9-10 july: Patriot raiding party led by Maj. William Barton 

captured British General Richard Prescott at Newport, Rhode 

Island; he was exchanged following year for General Charles 

Lee. 

23 July: General Howe with 15,000 troops departed from Staten 

Island on 260 ships for operation against Philadelphia. 

26 july: British Lt. Col. Barry St. Leger, with about 2,000 men, 

half of them Indians and including only about 350 British 

regulars, started his expedition from Oswego, New York, on 

Lake Ontario toward Mohawk Valley and projected link-up 

with Burgoyne near Albany. 

27 july: Advance band of Indians from Burgoyne's force seized two 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 107 

1777-Continued 

loyalist ladies at Fort Edward, New York, and on way back to 

Burgoyne's base at Fort Anne murdered and scalped younger 

one, Jane McCrea. Propaganda spread by patriots about this 

incident had much to do with gathering of militia that helped 

lead to Burgoyne's downfall. 

30 ]uly-17 October: The officially designated Saratoga Campaign 

began day after Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, New York, and 

ended with his surrender. 

31 july: Congress commissioned the Marquis de Lafayette major 

general in Army of the United States. 

3-23 August: St. Leger's force besieged Fort Stanwix, New York, 

American defense post at head of navigation on Mohawk River 

and key to advance down it to Hudson River. Siege was broken 

by approach of relief force led by General Benedict Arnold. 

4 August: Congress, having received letter from Washington asking "to be excused from making the appointment of an officer 

to command the northern army," appointed General Horatio 

Gates to succeed General Philip Schuyler as commander of 

army facing Burgoyne. This move helped to bring out large 

numbers of New England militia, who distrusted Schuyler, to 

reinforce Continental nucleus of northern army. 

6 August: Militia force of 800 led by General Nicholas Herkimer 

enroute to relieve Fort Stanwix was ambushed at Oriskany, 

New York, six miles from Stanwix, by 400 Indians and a few 

whites sent out by St. Leger. Fighting was bitter, but loss figures 

are uncertain-perhaps 200 from Herkimer's force and 100 

Indians. Since Herkimer was turned back this action was a 

tactical defeat for patriots. 

15 August: General Howe's army and fleet entered Chesapeake 

Bay en route to head of bay and march on Philadelphia. Patriot 

forts, ships, and obstructions appeared to bar more direct water 

approach to Philadelphia by way of Delaware Bay and Delaware 

River. 

16 August: Burgoyne on 11 August sent out foraging party of 800 

German and loyalist troops, and subsequently relief force of 

640 Germans, that on this date were both decisively defeated 

in battle of Bennington, Vermont (actually fought in New York 

State), by 2,000 militia led by Col. John Stark. Patriot losses 

were 70 or less, enemy losing 207 killed and 700 captured. 

19 August: General Gates took over command of Northern Army 

from General Schuyler at Stillwater, New York. 

22 August: General Sullivan's division, left behind when Washington moved south to meet Howe, raided Staten Island, New 
108 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1777-Continued 

York. Although it captured about 130 British troops while 

moving toward Richmond, division was stopped and then forced 

to withdraw with loss of at least 170. 

23 August: Seige of Fort Stanwix abandoned by St. Leger after his 

Indians fled-partly a result of Arnold's use of half-wit mes-. 

senger to spread word that Continentals approaching were as 

thick as leaves on trees. 

25 August: General Howe debarked his army at north end of 

Chesapeake Bay at Head of Elk (now Elkton), Maryland. 

31 August-] September: Fort Henry, Virginia (modern Wheeling, 

West Virginia), frontier outpost on Ohio River, attacked by 400 

Indians. After substantial losses on both sides, Indians were 

driven off by arrival of reinforcements on second day. 

3 September: Washington had sent forward recently formed light 

infantry corps to delay Howe's advance from Head of Elk, and 

five miles northeast near Coach's Bridge, Delaware, German 

troops attacked and after spirited action drove back this patriot 

force, with loss of 30-40 killed and wounded on each side. This 

action was only land combat in state of Delaware during 

Revolution. 

11 September: Washington's main effort to stop Howe's advance on 

Philadelphia took place along Brandywine Creek (Brandywine 

Campaign), Pennsylvania, about 25 miles southwest of city. 

Howe outflanked Washington's army and forced its retreat 

after heavy action; the patriots lost more than 1,200 including 

400 prisoners out of 11,000 engaged, and the British forces 

nearly 600 out of 12,500 engaged. 

12 September: Gates' Northern army began to fortify position on 

Bemis Heights, below Saratoga, New York. 

16 September: The British and American armies prepared for a 

major engagement in the vicinity of Warren or White Horse 

Tavern, Pennsylvania, but heavy rain wet cartridge boxes and 

Americans withdrew. 

18 September: Congress at Washington's urging left Philadelphia 

this date and, after meeting briefly at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 

on 27 September, met beginning 30 September at York, Pennsylvania. 

18 September: American detachments raided vicinity of Fort Ticonderoga, New York, capturing 300 of enemy as well as recovering 100 patriot prisoners. While not complete success, this 

raid was ominous blow to Burgoyne's line of communications. 

19 September: With patriot forces strongly entrenched on Bemis 

Heights guarding line of advance, Burgoyne sent out strong 

reconnaissance to test American defenses. When General Ar-
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 109 

1777-Continued 

nold's division advanced in response, British force engaged 

built up to 2,500. In bloody struggle enemy lost about 600, 

Americans about 320, and Burgoyne decided to hold his position 

rather than attempt further advance. This battle is variously 

called first Freeman's Farm, Bemis Heights, Stillwater, or 

Saratoga. 

21 September: Five British regiments launched surprise early 

morning attack on General Anthony Wayne's division of 1,500 

Continentals stationed near Paoli Tavern, Pennsylvania, 20 

miles northwest of Philadelphia. Wayne lost about 150, British 

30 or less, and because British attacked in stealth with bayonets 

the affair became known as the "Paoli Massacre." 

26 September: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, capital and largest city 

of new United States of America, occupied by British army of 

General Howe. 

4 October: In battle of Germantown, Pennsylvania (Germantown 

Campaign), six miles northwest of Philadelphia, Washington 

with 11,000 troops attacked Howe's main body of 9,000. Fog and 

confusion turned early patriot success into defeat, with patriot 

losses of 673 killed and wounded and over 400 captured and 

British losses of 537 killed and wounded and 14 captured. 

6 October: In diversionary move to help Burgoyne, General Sir 

Henry Clinton with 3,000 British, Gennan, and loyalist troops 

attacked and captured Forts Clinton and Montgomery (near 

Bear Mountain), New York, guarding entrance to Hudson 

River narrows through Highlands. British forces lost about 300, 

patriots 250 or nearly half of 600 defenders. 

7 October: Burgoyne, with his dwindling army nearly surrounded, 

sent out another strong reconnaissance toward left of American 

defensive positions at Bemis Heights. Americans with Arnold in 

lead outflanked British and inflicted 600 casualties, four times 

their own loss. After this action Burgoyne withdrew his army 

to Saratoga. This battle is variously called second Freeman's 

Farm, Bemis Heights, Stillwater, or Saratoga. 

8 October: British force under General Sir Henry Clinton occupied 

then destroyed patriot fortifications on Constitution Island 

(opposite West Point.) 

16 October: Part of Clinton's force pushed northward and attacked 

and burned Esopus (modern Kingston), New York. Clinton's 

expedition while not saving Burgoyne helped to persuade 

General Gates to grant him more liberal terms. 

17 October: At Saratoga, New York, General Burgoyne, surrounded 

by 17,000 patriot troops and under intense artillery fire, surrendered his army of 5, 728 officers and men to General Gates. 
110 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1777-Continued 

17 October: Congress established new Board of War consisting of 

three persons not members of Congress (increased to five on 24 

November), another st~p in evolution of Army headquarters. 

22 October: Hessian force of 2,000 attacked Fort Mercer, New 

Jersey, which with Fort Mifflin on Pennsylvania side of Delaware River blocked water route to British forces in Philadelphia. Hessians were repulsed, losing 371, while entrenched 

patriots lost only 37. 

23 October: Guns of Fort Mifflin, Pennsylvania, inflicted heavy 

damage on British warships attempting to break through Delaware River defenses and reach Philadelphia; two warships were 

destroyed. 

10-15 November: Land and floating batteries and warships bombarded Fort Mifflin, Pennsylvania, until patriots were forced to 

evacuate after every gun was silenced. Americans lost 250 in 

killed and wounded, British 12. 

15 November: Congress approved Articles of Confederation, first 

constitution of new United States, but because of required ratification by all thirteen states Articles did not become effective 

until I March 1781. 

20~21 November: Loss of Fort Mifflin made Fort Mercer, New Jersey, untenable, and as British prepared for assault, patriots 

pulled out, thus opening Delaware to British shipping. 

25 November: At Gloucester, New Jersey, patriot force of 300 under Lafayette skirmished with and bested more numerous force 

of Hessians. 

5 December: Vanguard of Howe's army clashed with 600 patriot 

militia at Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania, patriots retreating after 

heavy firing from both sides. 

7 December: Howe moved to attack Washington's main and wellentrenched position at Whitemarsh, Pennsylvania, but after skirmishing decided it was too strong to risk full attack. Casualties 

were about 50 on each side. 

10 December: Patriot raid from Connecticut to Long Island, 

New York, was broken up by British warships and Col. Samuel 

B. Webb and his regiment were captured. 

J1 December: Washington's army, beginning its move toward 

Valley Forge, at Mason's Ford (modern West Conshohocken), 

Pennsylvania, crossing of Schuylkill River met 3,500-man British 

foraging party under Cornwallis and skirmished with it. 

13 December: Action of Congress creating two inspector general 

positions in Continental Army and defining duties to be performed by their incumbents marks establishment of Office of 

The Inspector General. 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 111 

1777-Continued 

17 December: After receiving news on 4 December of Burgoyne's 

surrender French Foreign Minister promised American commissioners in Paris that France would recognize American independence and make treaty. 

19 December: Washington's army moved into winter quarters at 

Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. 

1778 

8 january: Washington in general orders observed that vice of 

gambling was again becoming prevelant and directed "exemplary punishment" of any officer or enlisted man caught gambling, or playing with cards and dice in any way. This order 

was only one of many issued during war to curb gambling. 

25 January: Washington ordered West Point be fortified. 

27 January: Marines and seamen from U.S. Navy sloop Providence 

raided New Providence (Nassau), Bahamas, and seized forts, 

marking first time Stars and Stripes appeared over foreign 

stronghold. 

6 February: Representatives of France and the United States 

signed treaties of alliance and of amity and commerce. 

14 February: Stars and Stripes was first seen and saluted in European waters at Quiberon, France. 

23 February: Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben arrived at Valley 

Forge, where he instituted training program that transformed 

Washington's army into much more effective fighting force. 

26 February: Congress requested states to institute drafts from 

their militia for nine months Continental service in order to 

fill their respective regiments. First national draft in American 

history. 

9 March: As measure to dissuade Americans from ratifying FrancoAmerican treaty of alliance, Parliament approved British Prime 

Minister Lord North's proposals for conciliation, including suspension, as necessary, of all acts passed since 17 53 to which 

Americans objected. 

18 March: British and patriot foraging parties clashed at Quinton's 

Bridge, New Jersey, three miles south of Salem. Patriots, deceived by clever trap, lost about 40, British only one mortally 

wounded. 

20 March: King Louis XVI of France formally received American 

commissioners Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee. 

21 March: Loyalist force made murderous attack on patriot militia 

group at Hancock's Bridge, New Jersey, killing some loyalists 

as well as patriots in process. 

21 March: Final orders issued to General Sir Henry Clinton, who 
112 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1778-Continued 

was to relieve Howe as British commander in North America, 

to send a force of 5,000 to the West Indies and 3,000 men to 

Flqrida, and to withdraw the rest of his troops in Philadelphia 

to New York. 

23-24 April: John Paul Jones, commanding USS Ranger) raided 

Whitehaven, England, nearby St. Mary's Isle off Scotland, then 

engaged and defeated HMS Drake) off Belfast, Ireland. 

30 April: Great chain stretched across Hudson River between West 

Point and Constitution Island to hinder British attempts to 

ascend the river. 

1 May: British force of 700 attacked patriot outpost with hardly a 

tenth of this strength at Crooked Billet Tavern, in Montgomery 

County, Pennsylvania. Patriots lost about 40, British nine. 

4 May: Congress ratified treaties of alliance and of amity and 

commerce between United States and France. 

5 May: Congress approved Washington's plan for a well organized 

inspectorship and appointed General Steuben Inspector General. 

18 May: British Army bade farewell to its commander, Sir William 

Howe, in an extravagant festival-The Mischianza-in Philadelphia. 

20 May: Learning that British were preparing to evacuate Philadelphia, Washington, from Valley Forge, sent out reconnaissance 

force of 2,200 under Lafayette that took a position at Barren 

Hill, Pennsylvania, half way toward city. British force of 5,000 

tried to trap Continentals, but after minor skirmishing Lafayette 

cleverly escaped back across Schuylkill with only minor loss. 

24 May: From Newport, British dispatched raiding party of 500 

that first burned and plundered Warren, Rhode Island, then 

destroyed 22 dwellings and a church in neighboring Bristol. 

25 May': General Howe departed from Philadelphia for England, 

and General Sir Henry Clinton succeeded him as British Commander-in-Chief. 

27 May: Congress approved new establishment for Continental 

Army, including reorganization of infantry, artillery, and 

cavalry units, establishment of provost corps and three engineer 

companies, and other changes. 

6 june: Carlisle Peace Commission, bearing Lord North's proposals for conciliation with Americans, arrived in Philadelphia. 

13-17 june: Congress, meeting at York, Pennsylvania, received 

Lord North's conciliatory proposals and four days later informed 

Carlisle Peace Commission that United States would negotiate 

with Great Britain only on bases of independence and of treaty 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 113 

1778-Continued 

of peace and commerce consistent with treaty already entered 

into with France. 

18 june: British army of 10,000 under Clinton evacuated Philadelphia for overland march to New York, and on same day 

Washington's army left Valley Forge in pursuit. 

28 june: Washington's forward troops under General Charles Lee 

attacked Clinton's column withdrawing to New York at Monmouth, New Jersey (Monmouth Campaign), and last major engagement of war in North developed. Outcome was tactical 

draw, but British losses, including deserters, which may have 

totalled 1,200, exceeded American of 350 or so. 

2 july: American Congress again met in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 

following British evacuation. 

3-4 july: Mixed loyalist-Indian force entering Wyoming Valley, 

Pennsylvania (north and south of modern Wilkes-Barre), first 

defeated patriot defending force and then plundered upper 

valley and massacred prisoners before withdrawing to New York. 

4 july: Lt. Col. George Rogers Clark, on commission from Virginia with about 200 frontiersmen, surprised British post at 

Kaskaskia, Illinois, on east bank of Mississippi River south 

of St. Louis, and captured it without firing a shot. 

8 july: Admiral Jean Comte d'Estaing arrived off Delaware Capes 

with fleet of 16 ships and 4,000 soldiers, first direct French military reinforcement of American patriots. Accompanying fleet 

was newly appointed French minister to the United States, 

Conrad Gerard, first diplomatic representative to new nation. 

11-22 july: D'Estaing's fleet moved to Sandy Hook on 11 July and 

stayed for II days before the French commander abandoned 

hope of getting his ships over the sandbar to attack Lord Richard Howe's inferior British fleet. On the 22nd, D'Estaing sailed 

for Newport. 

18 july: Indians led by Joseph Brant plundered and burned 

settlement at Andrustown, New York. 

20 july: English post at Vincennes, Indiana, like Kaskaskia inhabited mostly by French, agreed to shift its allegiance to American side without resistance, and in early August small party from 

Clark's expedition took over fort and command of local militia. 

27 july: Naval battle off Ushant (modern Ile d'Ouessant), Brittany, 

opened hostilities between France and Great Britain. 

29 july: D'Estaing arrived at Point Judith, Rhode Island, and 

began concerting measures with American General John Sullivan for attack on Newport. 

5 August: French Admiral Suffren forced Sakonnet (East) Passage 
114 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1778-Continued 

at Newport, leading to destruction of number of British ships 

and clearing way for French ships to move up Middle Passage 

and land troops. 

8-9 August: American troops under Sullivan moved into position 

and some French troops landed in Rhode Island for attack on 

Newport. 

10-11 August: D'Estaing re-embarked French troops and sailed out 

to meet Admiral Richard Howe's British fleet off Newport. 

Fleets were dispersed by a violent storm before becoming seriously engaged. D'Estaing then returned off Newport but refused 

to enter passage and disembark troops to cooperate with Sullivan. Instead on 21 August he sailed off to Boston for repairs to 

his fleet, leaving Sullivan's force beseiging Newport stranded. 

29 August: After departure of French, Sullivan's force abandoned 

seige of Newport and while withdrawing to north end of Rhode 

Island was attacked by British at Quaker Hill. In heavy fighting 

Americans lost more than 200 of 1,500 engaged, British more 

than 250 of somewhat larger attacking force. Regiment of 

Rhode Island Negro soldiers distinguished itself in this battle. 

4 September: The United States and The Netherlands signed 

treaty of amity and commerce. 

5-6 September: British raiding force landing near New Bedford, 

Massachusetts, destroyed 70 vessels and large number of buildings there, then destroyed mills and houses at Fairhaven on 

opposite shore of Acushnet River. 

8 September: British force that had raided New Bedford area next 

attacked island of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, destroying 

vessels and seizing large number of sheep and oxen for British 

Army consumption and use. 

13 September: Force of 300 loyalists and 150 Indians raided German 

Flats (modern Herkimer), New York, burning most of its buildings and carrying away livestock; but forewarned patriots had 

taken refuge in fort and casualties were slight. 

14 September: Congress appointed Benjamin Franklin minister 

plenipotentiary to court of France. 

24 September: Two large British foraging expeditions left New 

York City and marched up Hudson, Cornwallis on west side 

with 5,000 men and Knyphausen on east side with 3,000 men. 

Washington sent out small bodies to harass them and check 

movement. 

25 September: Congress appointed General Benjamin Lincoln commander of the Southern Department and requested Virginia 

and North Carolina to come to the aid of South Carolina and 

Georgia with men and supplies without loss of time. 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 115 

1778-Continued 

28 September: British force surprised about 100 sleeping Continental dragoons at Old Tappan, New Jersey, bayoneting 30 and 

capturing 50. 

6-7 October: Force of 400 landing from British ships did heavy 

damage to patriot privateering base near Great Bay (Egg Harbor), New Jersey. 

6-8 October: Continental detachment raided Unadilla, New York, 

where Joseph Brant had established base after settlers evacuated 

in face of Indian pressure. 

15 October: British troops that had attacked Great Bay area surprised advanced post of infantrymen from General Casimir 

Pulaski's patriot legion, sent to drive enemy away, and before 

main patriot body could intervene British killed about 40 

Americans before withdrawing to their ships. 

4 November: Sir Henry Clinton finally carried out orders to detach troops to West Indies; on this date 5,800-man force under 

General James Grant departed New York to take part in expedition against St. Lucia. 

II November: Loyalists and Indians attacked Cherry Valley, New 

York, killing several soldiers and more than 30 non-combatants 

and carrying off 71 prisoners. 

27 November: British expeditionary force of 3,500 sailed from New 

York harbor for attack on Georgia, leaving Clinton with total 

force of about 17,000 in New York. 

17 December: British force from Detroit, increased by Indian 

allies picked up along the way, recaptured Vincennes, Indiana. 

28 December: French island of St. Lucia surrendered to British 

after heavy fighting, marking opening of major Anglo-French 

operations in the West Indies. 

29 December: Savannah, Georgia, was captured by British expeditionary force that had landed on Savannah River below town 

and then outmaneuvered and overwhelmed American defending force under General Robert Howe. British lost only 13. 

Americans lost 83 killed or drowned and 453 taken prisoner. 

1779 

9 january: After 3-day siege British force of 2,000, including Indians, from St. Augustine, Florida, under General Augustine 

Prevost captured Sunbury (Fort Morris), Georgia, and its 200 

Continental defenders. Casualties were light on both sides. 

29 january: Following capture of Savannah British advanced northwestward and occupied Augusta, Georgia, almost without opposition. 

3 February: British force of 200 was defeated by patriot body of 
116 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1779-Continued 

300 under General William Moultrie at Beaufort on Port Royal 

Island, South Carolina. Americans lost 30 in killed and 

wounded, British many more but number is unknown. 

14 February: Group of 700 Carolina loyalists marching to JOlll 

British and loyalists victors in Georgia, after crossing into Georgia was attacked and defeated at Kettle Creek by 350. patriots 

under Col. Andrew Pickens. Patriots lost 32 in killed and 

wounded, loyalists ll 0, and loyalist movement in Carolinas suffered serious setback. 

18 February: Congress established Department of Inspector General, to be commanded by a major general. Steuben served 

as first head of this department. 

24 February: George Rogers Clark led expedition overland from 

Kaskaskia, Illinois, and recaptured Vincennes, Indiana, and its 

British garrison of 80. 

25 February: Congress authorized enlistment of corps of five companies of rangers to protect frontier settlements of Pennsylvania. 

26 February: Royal Governor William Tryon of New York led 

raid from Kings Bridge, New York, eastward, and his 600 troops 

easily overwhelmed General Israel Putnam and 150 militiamen 

at Horseneck Landing (West Greenwich), Connecticut, which 

they then plundered with slight loss. 

3 March: Patriot force of 1,500, mostly North Carolina militia, 

forced British out of Augusta and pursued southward on Georgia 

side of river toward Savannah. Counterattacking British force 

of 900 caught patriots unprepared at Briar Creek, Georgia, 

and inflicted crushing defeat, causing nearly 400 casualties to 

enemy loss of 16 and stopping patriot efforts to recover Georgia. 

11 March: Congress resolved that military engineers in service of 

the United States should be formed into a Corps of Engineers. 

29 March: In view of shortage of white manpower in South Carolina and Georgia Congress recommended that they raise force 

of 3,000 Negroes, to be commanded by white commissioned and 

noncommissioned officers, owners of each Negro to be paid 

up to $1,000, and each that served faithfully through war to be 

emancipated and paid $50. 

29 March: Congress ordered that regulations prepared by Inspector General von Steuben be observed by troops of the United 

States and that the Board of War have as many copies as 

necessary printed. 

19 April: Patriot force under Gose van Schaick destroyed Onondaga 

Castle, New York, in surprise raid. 

9-11 May: British expedition under Admiral Sir John Collier 

conducted devastating raid in Hampton Roads area in Virginia 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 117 

1779-Continued 

capturing or destroying large quantities of ships and supplies to 

an estimated value of 2 million sterling without loss of a man. 

11-I2 May: When main Continental force in South Carolina under 

General Benjamin Lincoln crossed into Georgia and reoccupied 

Augusta; British troops approached Charleston, South Carolina, 

and, finding it thinly defended, pressed for its surrender. News 

of imminent return of Lincoln's troops persuaded British to 

withdraw to Stono Ferry south of Charleston. 

I june: British force moving up Hudson captured patriot forts at 

Stony Point and Verplanck's Point, New York, guarding principal American-controlled ferry crossing between New England 

and area west of river and also entrance of river into Highlands. 

I8 ]une-I5 October: General John Sullivan led expedition of 2,500 

from Easton, Pennsylvania, against New York Indians, with objective of carrying the war home to the Indians of the six nations. Patriot General James Clinton with 1,500 starting from 

Mohawk Valley joined Sullivan on 19 August. After battle near 

modern Elmira and destruction of Indian crops and towns Sullivan turned back. 

20 ] une: Patriot force of l ,200 attacked British and Hessian rearguard at Stono Ferry, South Carolina, with losses of more than 

300 on patriot side and 130 on British; later held their ground 

but soon thereafter withdrew further south. 

2I june: Spain declared war on Great Britain. 

2 july: Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton with 360 men including 70 

dragoons attacked and overwhelmed 90-man patriot dragoon 

force at Poundridge, New York, where church and other buildings were burned. 

5-6 july: British troops numbering 2,600 from New York attacked 

and plundered New Haven, Connecticut, but left with 45 prisoners as militia in substantial numbers began to gather. 

8 july: British force that had attacked New Haven landed at 

Fairfield, Connecticut, and plundered and burned most of town. 

9 july: After burning Fairfield British raiding force looted and 

burned village of Green's Farms, Connecticut. 

II july: Continuing raid along Connecticut coast, British, against 

slight opposition, plundered and burned Norwalk, Connecticut, 

which suffered greatest damage of any place attacked in this 

marauding expedition. 

I6 july: General Anthony Wayne leading 1,350 Continentals 

launched surprise attack on British garrison at Stony Point, 

New York. Patriot casualties numbered 98. British lost 94 killed 

and wounded and nearly 550 captured or missing. Because 

Washington's army could not also recapture Verplanck's Point, 
118 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1779-Continued 

patriots soon thereafter withdrew from Stony Point fortifications 

and British reoccupied them. 

19-22 july: On night of 19-20 July, Mohawk Indian Chief Joseph 

Brant led Indian and loyalist party in raid on frontier settlement of Minisink, New York, 10 miles northwest of Goshen, 

principally to gain booty and food rather than to take lives. 

Militia pursuing raiders on 22 July was overcome near present 

Port Jervis and, of about 160 patriot participants, only 30 survived. 

25 ]uly-13 August: Massachusetts expedition of 2,000 in 20 

armed vessels landed to attack British post established on Penobscot Bay near present Castine, Maine; but while preparations 

were underway British force of 10 more powerful warships 

and 1,600 men arrived from New York and overwhelmed patriots, latter losing 474 men and enemy only 13. 

II August-14 September: In conjunction with Sullivan's expedition against New York Indians, Col. Daniel Brodhead led 600 

men from Pittsburgh up Allegheny River valley and destroyed 

10 Indian villages in northern Pennsylvania, including one at 

modern Warren. 

19 August: Patriot force of 300 under Henry (Light-Horse Harry) 

Lee after long forced march made surprise attack on British 

post at Paulus Hook (in modern Jersey City), New Jersey, 

and, with light loss, killed, wounded, or captured most of its 

British-German combat garrison of 250. 

29 August: Sullivan's force of 4,000 attacked and defeated an Indian-loyalist force at Newtown, New York (6 miles southeast 

of modern Elmira); casualties on both sides were relatively 

light, and patriots did not pursue vigorously after their victory. 

5 September: Patriot body of 150 from Shippan Point (near Stamford), Connecticut, crossed Long Island Sound and surprised 

500 loyalists at Lloyd Neck, New York, capturing most of them 

without losing a man. 

11-12 September: Admiral D'Estaing's French fleet, returned from 

the West Indies to southern coast, began to debark troops at 

Beaulieu, a point 14 miles south of Savannah, Georgia, with 

intention of attacking British in Savannah. 

16 September-10 October: Combined force of 1,500 Americans 

under General Lincoln and more than 5,000 Frenchmen from 

D'Estaing's fleet laid seige to Savannah, Georgia, defended, 

after outposts were gathered in, by about 3,200 British regulars. 

21 September: Following outbreak of war between Spain and Great 

Britain, Spanish Governor of Louisiana Bernardo de Galvez 

attacked and captured British post and garrison at Baton 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 119 

1779-Continued 

Rouge, Louisiana. Capitulation included surrender of Natchez, 

Mississippi, and other British posts on Mississippi River. 

23 September: John Paul Jones on Bonhomme Richard defeated 

British warship Serapis. 

9 October: D'Estaing's fears for safety of French fleet led to FrancoAmerican attack on entrenched British at Savannah, Georgia, 

which was repulsed with heavy casualties, French losing 650 

out of 3,500 engaged, Americans 150 or more out of 1,500, much 

greater than enemy loss of 120 or so. 

25 October: The 3,000 British troops in Newport, Rhode Island, 

which had been held by British since 1776, were evacuated to 

provide additional strength for major British campaign in 

South. 

28 October: Congress established Board of Admiralty and gave it 

control of all naval affairs. Board consisted of three commissioners not members of Congress and two that were. 

I December: Washington's main force went into winter quarters 

at Morristown, New Jersey. During winter of record cold, suffering of troops there was far greater than at Valley Forge two 

years before. 

26 December: General Clinton with 8,700 British troops sailed 

from New York to attack Carolinas and with specific goal of 

capturing Charleston, South Carolina. 

1780 

14-15 january: Patriot General William Alexander led 3,000 men 

across ice to Staten Island, New York, to attack British posts, 

but enemy was not surprised and Americans withdrew with 17 

prisoners and some booty after losing 6 killed and about 500 

"slightly frozen" in bitter winter weather. 

3 February: British force of 550 from Manhattan attacked patriot 

body of 450 at Young's House (Mt. Pleasant), New York, and 

after sharp action forced patriots to retreat. Latter lost 51 killed 

and wounded, 74 captured; British, 23 killed and wounded. 

10-11 February: After a detour to Savannah for repairs and reorganization, Sir Henry Clinton's southern expedition landed 

on Simmons Island and began slow but steady movement toward 

Charleston, South Carolina. 

25 February: Congress, because of lack of financial resources, resolved to call upon the states for specific supplies to support 

the Army and established quotas for each state for the coming 

campaign. 

29 February: Russian issued proclamation of Armed Neutrality 

containing principles for protection of neutral commerce in 
120 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1780-Continued 

wartime, which helped to align European continental nations 

against Great Britain and led to involvement of The Netherlands as combatant. 

14 March: Expedition led by Spanish Lousiana Governor Bernardo de Galvez captured British Fort Charlotte at present 

Mobile, Alabama, then in West Florida. 

1 April: After series of maneuvers placed them in striking distance, 

British forces under General Clinton began siege of patriot 

forces under General Lincoln at Charleston. 

2 April: Force of Indians and loyalists struck exposed settlement 

of Harpersfield, New York, killing several of inhabitants and 

capturing 19. 

14 April: British force under Colonel Tarleton made surprise early 

morning attack on patriot supply depot at Monck's Corner, 

South Carolina, guarded by 500 mounted Continentals and militia. Patriots were routed, with 80 or so casualties and loss of 

200-400 horses, while British claimed only three casualties; also, 

this defeat cut last outside link of American force bottled up 

in Charleston. 

24 April: Patriot sortie from Charleston, South Carolina, overran 

first line of British siege works and inflicted 62 casualties at 

cost of only three, but Charleston defenders were too weak to 

make any greater effort toward breakout. 

6 May: Patriot cavalry group after capturing 18 British soldiers 

south of Santee River moved to Lenud's Ferry, South Carolina, 

to recross river and join larger force of Col. Abraham Buford. Before smaller force could cross river it was struck in 

surprise attack by Tarleton's dragoons, patriots losing more 

than 100 in killed, wounded, and captured and British few or 

none. 

7 May: Fort Moultrie, South Carolina, guarding entrance to 

Charleston harbor, captured by British from land side, American garrison of 200 surrendering without firing a shot. 

12 May: After six-week seige, British forces totalling 17,200 troops 

and seamen forced surrender of Charleston, South Carolina, and 

its garrison of nearly 5,500, about half of them Continentals. 

During siege patriot combat losses totalled about 230, British 

about 265. This surrender was worst such disaster for new 

United States during Revolution; it was followed by British 

overrunning of most of South Carolina. 

21-27 May: Sir John Johnson led raiding party of 400 other loyalists and 200 Indians from Crown Point to Mohawk Valley 

where on 22 May it burned Caughnawaga and on 23 May 

Johnstown, New York, as well as other settlements, slaughtering 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 121 

1780-Continued 

male inhabitants and on 27 May withdrawing with 40 prisoners. 

25 May: At Morristown, New Jersey, two Connecticut regiments 

prepared to march off and go home without orders, in protest 

against no pay and short rations for preceding five months. 

This mutinous conduct, however justified, was suppressed, with 

some leaders lightly punished; but incident presaged more serious mutinies to come among Continental soldiers on same accounts. 

26 May: British expedition of regulars and Indians from Fort 

Michilimackinac, Michigan, was repulsed in attack on Spanish 

settlement at St. Louis, Missouri. 

29 May: Pursuing Buford's Continentals northward, Tarleton attacked force nearly twice his number at Waxhaws, South Carolina, and inflicted crushing defeat on only remaining organized 

patriot body in South Carolina. Tarleton reported his casualties as 19 of 200 engaged, with patriots losing more than 300 

of 400 engaged, including ll3 killed in British bayonet attack. 

Patriots claimed men trying to surrender were bayonetted. 

29 May: Loyalist group near Winnsboro, South Carolina, was defeated and dispersed by patriot irregulars, marking beginning of 

effective patriot resurgence in Carolinas. 

7-23 june: British force from Staten Island launched raid toward 

Morristown because of reported disaffection among Continental 

troops stationed there; but in engagements on 7 June at Connecticut Farms (now Union), and on 23 June at nearby Sp~ingfield, New Jersey, stout American defense turned back British 

and ended their offensive operations in New Jersey. Casualties 

in these engagements are uncertain, but British burning of towns 

involved helped stifle remaining loyalist sentiment in state. 

20 ] une: Premature gathering of loyalists to join planned British 

invasion of North Carolina was broken up by patriots in bitter 

fight at Ramsour's Mill (near modern Lincolnton), North 

Carolina, each side losing more than 150 in killed and wounded. 

Result was weak loyalist support of Cornwallis' invasion when it 

did occur. 

10 july: General Jean Comte de Rochambeau, commanding French 

army of 5,500 troops, arrived with them at Newport, Rhode 

Island, under orders to collaborate with Washington under latter's general direction. 

12 july: Patriot militia under Col. Thomas Sumter made surprise 

dawn attack on larger enemy force including some of Tarleton's 

cavalry at Williamson's Plantation (near present Rock Hill), 

South Carolina, and inflicted heavy loss at slight cost to attackers. 

13 july: Congress unanimously resolved that Maj. Gen. Horatio 
122 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1780-Continued 

Gates of Saratoga fame should take command of the Southern 

Department and set up a committee of five to plan the defense 

of that department. 

16 july: Near Fisher Summit in Bedford County, Pennsylvania, 

raiding party of British and Indians surprised Capt. William 

Phillips' rangers, killed ten and carried Capt. Phillips off prisoner to Niagara. 

21 july: Washington sent sizeable force under General Wayne to 

attack loyalist stockaded blockhouse at Bull's Ferry (present 

West New York), New Jersey, but Wayne's cannon were unable 

to destroy blockhouse, and impetuous and unsuccessful charge 

cost patriots 15 killed and 49 wounded, loyalist defenders sustaining 21 casualties. 

30 july: Patriot force of 600 persuaded loyalist garrison of Fort 

Anderson (Thicketty Fort), South Carolina (10 miles southeast of Cowpens), to surrender without firing a shot. 

1 August: Patriot partisan leader Thomas Sumter with 600 men 

attacked British fortified position at Rocky Mount, South Carolina; but lacking artillery Sumter could not capture inner circle 

of fortified houses and gave up after each side suffered about 

12 casualties. 

1 August: Skirmish at Green Spring, South Carolina, between 210 

Tories of Major Ferguson's command and 196 patriots-a prelude to King's Mountain. Patriots drove back Tories in brisk 

15-minute fire fight in which casualties were proportionately 

heavy on both sides. 

2 August: Party of 500 Indians and loyalists under Joseph Brant 

attacked settlement of Fort Plank, New York, and although unable to capture fort burned most of Canajoharie settlement 

buildings and carried off several women and children as prisoners. 

3 August: As step in his treasonous negotiations, which began in 

May 1779, General Benedict Arnold assumed command of post 

at West Point, New York, and its vicinity with intent of facilitating its capture by British. 

6 August: After unsuccessful attack on Rocky Mount, Sumter's 

partisans attacked British post about 20 miles to east at Hanging Rock, South Carolina, and in sharp fight defeated its loyalist 

garrison, defenders losing nearly 200, patriots 53. 

8 August: George Rogers Clark leading expedition against Britishsupported Ohio Indians defeated them with heavy loss and 

destroyed their settlement on Little Miami River. 

15 August: Detachment under Sumter's command captured British 

post guarding Wateree Ferry, South Carolina, and its garrison 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 123 

1780-Continued 

of 30, together with a large stock of supplies and wagons enroute to British main force under Cornwallis at nearby Camden. 

16 August: In battle seven miles north of Camden, South Carolina, 

British under Cornwallis annihilated patriot army under General Gates, the most crushing defeat suffered by United States 

on a major field of battle during Revolution. Only 700 of 

4,000 in Gates' army were able to rally after battle at Hillsboro, 

North Carolina. Estimates of Americans killed, wounded, and 

captured approach 2,000; dead included General Kalb. British 

losses totalled about 325 out of about 2,240 engaged. 

18 August: In ambuscade two miles from Musgrove's Mill, South 

Carolina, on north bank of Enoree River, patriots inflicted 

about 225 casualties on attacking loyalist force, with patriot 

loss of only 12 in killed and wounded. 

18 August: Tarleton with 160 dragoons and mounted infantry 

surprised Sumter's partisans west of Wateree River at Fishing 

Creek, South Carolina, at cost of 16 casualties. Tarleton killed 

150 patriots, captured 300, and recovered 100 British prisoners 

and most of booty seized at Wateree Ferry three days earlier. 

20 August: Francis Marion, newly commissioned as brigadier general by governor of South Carolina, began his exploits by surprising British guard escorting 150 American prisoners to 

Charleston at Nelson's Ferry (Great Savannah) crossing of Santee River, South Carolina, and killing or capturing 24 of enemy 

as well as releasing patriots. 

4 September: General Francis Marion with group of about 50 

partisans routed Tory force of 250 men at Blue Savannah, 

South Carolina. 

14-18 September: Patriot militia drove in outposts and captured 

Forts Cornwallis and Grierson at approaches to Augusta, Georgia, but were unable to take the city by assault and arrival of 

British reinforcements forced patriots to flee. Action caused new 

outbreak of Tory vindictiveness in area. 

21 September: At Wahab's Plantation (on west bank of Catawba 

River about 10 miles southwest of Charlotte), North Carolina, 

patriot group of 150 surprised 60 loyalists and killed or wounded 

all of them. 

21-25 September: Benedict Arnold and Maj. John Andre, Adjutant General of the British Army, met in woods on banks of 

Hudson inside American lines on night of 21-22 September 

to arrange final details of Arnold's treason. Circumstances dictated Andre seek to return to British lines overland and he was 

captured near Tarrytown, 23 September, in disguise and carrying papers containing information on defenses of West Point. 
124 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

17 80-Continued 

Arnold learned of Andre's capture and escaped to British ship 

in Hudson on 25 September, just before Washington arrived 

at his headquarters to uncover the treason. Andre was left to 

his fate. 

26 September: Advancing into North Carolina, Cornwallis occupied 

Charlotte, but not until after some sharp skirmishing there with 

patriot militia. 

29 September: General Marion with 50 men defeated loyalist body 

of about same size at Black Mingo Creek (20 miles southwest of 

Georgetown), South Carolina, with at least 20 of loyalists killed, 

wounded, or captured. 

2 October: Major Andre was hanged as spy at Tappan, New York. 

3 October: Congress reduced authorized strength of Continental 

Army to 58 regiments-49 infantry, 4 artillery, 4 cavalry, 1 

artificer-and made other provisions for its organization and 

state contributions to it. 

5 October: Congress approved principles embodied in Russia's Declaration of Armed Neutrality. 

7 October: Patriot force of 900 overwhelmed somewhat larger loyalist force led by British regular Maj. Patrick Ferguson at King's 

Mountain, South Carolina. In this battle, turning point of war 

in South in patriot favor, patriots lost 28 killed and 64 wounded, 

enemy losing Major Ferguson and 157 others killed, 163 badly 

wounded, and another 698 captured. 

14 October: At the request of Congress to select a commander to 

replace Gates as head of the Southern Department, Washington 

appointed General Nathanael Greene. 

15-17 October: Indian-loyalist force led by Sir John Johnson attacked Schoharie Valley of New York, but three forts (Upper, 

Middle, Lower) held out and principal damage was to houses 

and crops. 

19 October: After passing through Schoharie Valley Johnson's 

raiding party moved up north bank of Mohawk River where 

it was first attacked in front by much smaller force at Fort 

Keyser, then defeated by patriot force attacking from rear at 

Kock's Field, New York (both in Palatine township). At least 

40 patriots were killed in first attack and losses in second are 

uncertain. 

26 October: Marion dispersed Tory force assembling near Tearcourt Swamp, South Carolina, in surprise attack. Killed three 

and wounded 14, captured horses and other booty without loss. 

30 October: Congress approved Greene as commander of Southern 

Army, ordered Henry Lee's and Stuben's forces to the south, 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 125 

1780-Continued 

and assigned all units drawn from Delaware and states southward to the Southern Army. 

9 November: Cornwallis sent detachment of 140 to attack Sumter's 

militia force of 300, and in surprise (to both sides) early morning meeting at Fishdam Ford, South Carolina, 25 miles northwest of British headquarters at Winnsboro, British were beaten 

with considerably heavier losses than patriots. 

20 November: Tarleton with about 270 dragoons and mounted infantry was defeated by upward of 1,000 militia under Sumter 

at Blackstocks, South Carolina, on south bank of Tyger River. 

British lost at least 30 killed and wounded, patriots only eight 

or nine; but Sumter himself was badly wounded and put out 

of action for weeks thereafter. 

23 November: Force of 80 dismounted Continental dragoons 

crossed Long Island Sound from Fairfield, Connecticut, then 

marched across Long Island and attacked loyalist Fort George 

(near Brookhaven), New York. Patriots lost only one wounded, 

loyalist seven killed or wounded and about 200 captured who 

were taken back to Connecticut. 

3 December: General Greene took command of Southern Department of Continental Army at Charlotte, North Carolina. His 

southern "army" then numbered under 2,500, less than half 

Continentals, and of the whole no more than one-third were 

properly clothed and equipped. 

4 December: At Rudgeley's Mill, South Carolina, Col. William 

Washington's cavalry used fake cannon to procure surrender 

of body of over 100 Tories in fortified log barn. 

12-13 December: Skirmish at Halfway Swamp, South Carolina, 

between Marion's men and British force escorting recruits to 

Hillsboro with inconclusive results. 

20 December: Great Britain declared war on The Netherlands. 

28 December: Patriot group of 280 Continental cavalry and 

mounted militia attacked 250 loyalists at Hammond's Store 

(near modern Newberry), South Carolina, killing or wounding 

150 and capturing 40, and with related operations discouraged 

loyalist support of Cornwallis. 

30 December: British force of 1,200 under traitor (and now British 

Brigadier) Benedict Arnold arrived in Hampton Roads to begin 

raiding expeditions up James River. 

1781 

1-10 january: On l January about 1,500 Pennsylvania Continentals 

principally from regiments under General Wayne mutinied at 
126 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

17 81-Continued 

their winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, and marched 

to and occupied Princeton. Troops claimed their three-year 

enlistments had expired, and demanded immediate discharge 

with back pay due. After 10 days of tense negotiations, about 

1,300 were discharged, many of whom subsequently re-enlisted. 

5-7 january: Arnold's raiding force occupied Richmond, Virginia, 

state capital since May 1779, after brief skirmish with its 

200 militia defenders. Arnold burned tobacco warehouses and 

some private and public buildings before withdrawing on 7th. 

8 January: Detachment of 40 mounted rangers from Arnold's 

raiding force surprised and defeated 150 patriot militia at 

Charles City Court House, Virginia, killing two and capturing 

number of others. 

17 january: About 1,025 Continentals and Militia under General 

Daniel Morgan, left wing of Greene's force, overwhelmingly 

defeated 1,100 British troops under Tarleton at Cowpens, South 

Carolina. In classic double envelopment engagement patriots 

at cost of 12 killed and 60 wounded inflicted 329 combat 

casualties on enemy and captured 600 more of them unwounded. 

20-27 january: Influenced by mutiny of Pennsylvania troops and 

their successful negotiation of grievances, about 500 New Jersey 

Continentals mutinied at their winter quarters at Pompton, New 

Jersey, marched to Chatham, then back to Pompton. This time 

Washington took strong steps to suppress disturbance, surrounding Pompton with loyal troops supported by artillery; mutineers 

surrendered, and two of their leaders were executed. 

22 january: Patriot raiding party from Connecticut attacked loyalist outpost in Morrissania (in modern Bronx), New York, and 

installations in its vicinity including bridge over Harlem River. 

Patriots sustained about 25 casualties and captured 52 prisoners, 

loyalists losing about 50 killed and wounded and capturing 17 

pnsoners. 

24 january: Henry Lee and Francis Marion with combined forces 

raided Georgetown, South Carolina, and captured British commander but, not possessing necessary siege equipment, with: 

drew when British garrison refused to come out and give battle. 

I February: Pursuing Morgan after Cowpens, Cornwallis' army 

of 3,000 first moved to Ramsour's Mills, then eastward to cross 

Catawba River northwest of Charlotte, North Carolina. With 

some loss main British body forced crossing at Cowan's Ford, 

then Tarleton pursuing militia defenders finished dispersing 

them at Tarrant's Tavern (near modern Mooresville), North 

Carolina. 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 127 

1781-Continued 

1 February: British under Maj. James Craig occupied Wilmington, North Carolina. 

3 February: In West Indies, British captured Dutch island of St. 

Eustatius, which had been prime way station for contraband 

trade between Europe and American patriots since early in 

war. Though French recaptured island on 25 November 1781, 

it never regained earlier prominence. 

7 February: Congress replaced Board of War with a Department of 

War under a single Secretary at War, but appointed no one 

immediately to fill the position. 

12 February: Spanish expedition from St. Louis captured British 

post at Fort St. Joseph, Michigan, although holding it only for 

one day before withdrawing. 

14 February: Greene, having joined Morgan, escaped from Cornwallis' pursuing army into Virginia across lower Dan River 

crossings, leaving British temporarily in possession of Carolinas 

but far out of touch with their supply bases. 

20 February: Robert Morris appointed Superintendent of Finance 

by Congress. In this position he became de facto principal supply officer of the Army and by various means managed to provide sinews for the Yorktown campaign. 

25 February: Recrossing Dan into North Carolina, Lt. Col. Henry 

Lee's Continental Legion and local militia caught 400 loyalist 

militia in trap at Haw River, North Carolina, killing 100 or 

more of them and dispersing rest, thereby thoroughly discouraging loyalist support of Cornwallis. 

1 March: Articles of Confederation ratified and on next day Second 

Continental Congress became "The United States in Congress 

Assembled" as governing body of new nation. 

2 March: Skirmish between American detachment under Henry 

Lee and advance guard of British Army under Tarleton at 

Clapp's Mill, North Carolina. 

6 March: In principal action of regular forces during maneuvering preceding Guilford battle, Tarleton's cavalry and 1,000 

British infantry attacked "light corps" of Greene's army at Wetzell's Mill, North Carolina. Weaker patriot force withdrew 

after casualties of 50 or so on each side. 

15 March: In major engagement at Guilford Court House (near 

modern Greensboro), North Carolina, Cornwallis with about 

2,000 regulars defeated Greene's army of about 4,500 including 

2,800 militia, but British suffered exceptionally heavy casualties 

that forced quick withdrawal to seacoast. Patriots lost over 400 

killed, wounded, and missing, British 532 (more than quarter 

of those engaged) in killed and wounded alone. 
128 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1781-Continued 

16 March: First "Battle of the Capes" forming entrance to Chesapeake Bay fought between French and British fleets of about 

equal size. French had slightly the better of action, but left 

British guarding Bay and thus able to reinforce and supply their 

troops in Virginia. 

16 April-5 june: Patriots besieged Augusta, Georgia, and captured 

its strongest fortification after building Maham tower (see 23 

April) and mounting 6-pounder on it. Patriot losses during siege 

numbered 40, loyalists 52 killed and 334 captured. 

23 April: Fort Watson, South Carolina (60 miles northwest of 

Charleston on Santee River, at site now covered by waters of 

Lake Marion), and its British loyalist garrison of 120 surrendered to patriots after latter adopted Col. Hezekiah Maham's 

suggestion of erecting a log crib with platform on top from 

which riflemen could deliver plunging fire into stockaded area. 

This strategem worked successfully on several later occasions. 

25 April: Greene, who after Guilford turned toward South Carolina 

instead of following Cornwallis toward Wilmington, North 

Carolina, advanced to Hobkirk's Hill (just north of Camden), 

South Carolina. Lord Rawdon defending Camden chose to attack with only about half Greene's strength of 1,550; in hard 

fought battle British scored tactical victory, but afterward had to 

retreat toward Charleston. British casualties numbered 258 including 38 killed, American, 260 including 18 killed. 

25 April: British, after adding 2,000 more troops to Arnold's in 

Virginia, under overall command of Maj. Gen. William Phillips, 

attacked and defeated 1,000 patriot militiamen defending Petersburg, Virginia. Losses in killed and wounded were about 60-

70 on each side, and although British refrained from burning 

town they destroyed tobacco and shipping. 

27 April: British force under Arnold attacked and scattered patriot 

militia at Osborne's, Virginia, on James River 15 miles below 

Richmond, then destroyed patriot flotilla of two dozen ships 

preparing for operation in Hampton Roads area. 

29 April: General Lafayette, sent by Washington with 1,200 Continentals to check British depredations in Virginia, reached 

Richmond. 

10 May: British abandoned Camden, their main interior post in 

South Carolina. 

10 May: Spanish under Bernardo de Galvez captured British post 

of Pensacola, Florida, after seige that began on 9 March; and 

with Pensacola all of West Forida was surrendered to Spain. 

During siege attacking forces, which reached 7,000 in strength, 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 129 

1781-Continued 

had 227 casualties in killed and wounded; defenders had about 

200 casualties, and 1, 113 British prisoners were taken. 

11 May: British post at Orangeburg, South Carolina, 50 miles 

south of Camden, with garrison of 15 regulars and 70 Tory 

militia surrendered to Sumter's partisans. 

12 May: British garrison at Fort Motte, South Carolina, surrendered to force under Henry Lee and Francis Marion. 

14 May: Tories surprised patriot outpost at Croton River, New 

York, killed commander Col. Christopher Green and Maj. Ebenezer Flagg. Total American losses 44 killed, wounded, and 

missing. 

15 May: Fort Granby, South Carolina, surrendered to Henry Lee. 

20 May: General Cornwallis, marching overland from Wilmington, 

North Carolina, reached Petersburg, Virginia, with 1,500 troops, 

but by taking over command of other British troops in Virginia 

his force soon swelled to 7 ,200. Outflanking Lafayette, he forced 

patriot evacuation of Richmond on 27 May and reached North 

Anna River by 1 June. 

21 May: Lee's Legion attacked and captured two loyalist companies and quantity of needed supplies at Fort Galphin, South 

Carolina, on Savannah River about 12 miles below Augusta, 

losing only one man in doing so. 

21-22 May: Generals Washington and Rochambeau met at 

Wethersfield, Connecticut, to plan joint Franco-American military operations. 

22 May-19 june: General Greene with about 1;000 Continentals 

besieged British post at Ninety-Six, South Carolina, most important British post in interior after evacuation of Camden. Before 

formal siege operations could be completed approaching British 

relief force persuaded Greene to make unsuccessful assault. 

He then had to retreat in face of superior force. During siege, 

patriots lost about 150 in killed and wounded, British 85. 

4 june: Governor Thomas Jefferson and state legislature having 

adjourned to Charlottesville, Virginia, Cornwallis dispatched 

Tarleton with 250 mounted men in raid to capture them. Jefferson escaped by 20-minute margin with most of legislators 

to Staunton, Virginia, on other side of Blue Ridge Mountains. 

5 june: Simultaneously with Charlottesville raid, Cornwallis sent 

400 troops to attack main patriot supply depot at Point of 

Fork (Fort Union), Virginia, on James River 45 miles above 

Richmond. British feinted 500 Continentals under Steuben out 

of position, captured 30-man patriot rear guard, and destroyed 

supplies. 
130 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1781-Continued 

10 june: General Wayne with 1,000 Continentals joined Lafayette's 

force in Virginia. 

14 june: Congress, accepting mediation proposed by Empress of 

Russia and "Emperor of Germany," appointed five ministers 

plenipotentiary to negotiate treaty of peace with Great Britain. 

26 june: During June, British under Cornwallis moved eastward 

to Williamsburg, with Lafayette and his 4,500 rank and file following. On this day detachments of two armies clashed at 

Spencer's Tavern, Virginia, near Williamsburg, with casualties 

of 35 or more on each side. 

3 july: Patriot and French troops attempted to surprise British 

detachments around Kings Bridge, New York, but enemy was 

alerted in time to retire after some skirmishing to defensive 

positions too strong to attack. 

6 july: General Wayne with 900 Continentals moved against 

what he thought was Cornwallis' rear guard at Green Spring 

(near Jamestown), Virginia, but found himself facing British 

army of 7,000. In sharp fight Wayne with Lafayette's help extricated his force, at cost of about 140 casual ties, with British 

losing 7 5 killed and wounded. 

6 July: French army under Rochambeau joined Washington's 

main army at White Plains, New York. 

9 july: Several hundred loyalists and Indians attacked Currytown, 

New York (four miles south of Canajoharie), burning 12 houses 

and killing or capturing a number of people. 

9-24 july: From British base at Suffolk, Virginia, Col. Banastre 

Tarleton conducted raids along south side of James River as far 

west as Bedford County, returning to Suffolk when threatened 

by forces under Anthony Wayne. 

10 july: Patriot militia force of 150 from Canajoharie attacked 

much larger loyalist-Indian party that had raided Currytown 

day before, at Sharon Spring Swamp, New York. Patriots outsmarted and badly defeated enemy force, killing 40 at cost of 

about 15 killed and wounded. 

17 july: Superior patriot numbers forced British garrison at 

Monck's Corner to retreat toward Charleston, and Marion's advance corps attacked withdrawing British at Quimby's Creek 

Bridge, South Carolina, on east bank of Cooper River about 15 

miles from Charleston. After initial success in sharp action 

patriots had to withdraw, Marion's corps sustaining about 50 

casualties and British about 70. 

1 August: Cornwallis occupied Yorkstown, Virginia, which with 

Gloucester Point across York River became main British base in 

Virginia. 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 131 

1781-Continued 

1-19 August: Maj. James Craig with force of 250 British Regulars 

and 380 Tories conducted raids from Wilmington to New Bern, 

North Carolina, entering New Bern on 19 August. 

5 August: Dutch fleet defeated by British in battle of Dogger 

Bank in North Sea. 

6 August: Party of 60 loyalists and Indians attacked Shell's Bush, 

New York (five miles north of Little Falls), but stout defense 

of Shell family from blockhouse killed 20 and wounded six of 

attackers without loss of a man. 

21 August: Having received definite news of planned French naval 

concentration at mouth of Chesapeake Bay, Washington began 

move of his Continentals southward in hope of bottling up 

Cornwallis' army at Yorktown, Virginia. 

22 August: Raiding party of 400 loyalists and Indians attacked and 

destroyed isolated settlements in Ulster County, New York, until 

driven off with considerable loss by patriot militia, principal 

action being on this date at Warwarsing. 

24 August: Pennsylvania volunteers under Col. Archibald Lochry, 

en route to join George Rogers Clark at Kaskaskia, were surprised and virtually annihilated by Indian force under Joseph 

Brant along Ohio River near present-day Aurora, Indiana. 

Americans lost 41 killed, 60 captured. 

25 August: Rochambeau's French army joined Washington's in 

New Jersey, for movement southward toward Yorktown, Virginia. 

30 August: Patriots under Marion set up ambuscade at Parker's 

Ferry crossing of Edisto River, South Carolina, andclaimed to 

have killed or wounded 100 of 200 dragoons sent out from 

Charleston (30 miles to east) to support local loyalist uprising. 

2 September: French fleet of 34 warships under Admiral Fran<,;ois, 

Comte de Grasse, which had arrived off Virginia capes on 26 

August, began landing 3,000 French soldiers brought from West 

Indies, adding materially to forces that would soon besiege 

Yorktown, Virginia. 

5 September: Second "Battle of the Capes" fought outside Chesapeake Bay by French fleet under Admiral de Grasse and smaller 

British fleet. After action, as two main fleets drifted at sea, a 

smaller French fleet from Newport slipped into bay unopposed, 

and on 11 September the two French fleets joined inside bay to 

cut Cornwallis off from any hope of relief by sea. 

6 September: Benedict Arnold led raiding force of 1,700 British 

and German troops against New London, Connecticut, destroying 143 buildings and 12 ships, and in hard fighting captured 

Fort Griswold in Groton on opposite bank of Thames River. 
132 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1781-Continued 

British casualties totalled almost 200; Americans, 140, including 

80 or so killed after they surrep.dered. 

8 September: In one of hardest fought battles of war, Greene with 

2,200 Continentals, state troops, and militia was bested by 

British force of 2,000 at Eutaw Springs, South Carolina, the 

patriots losing more than 500 killed and wounded and British 

700-850 killed, wounded, and missing. Whatever their tactical 

triumph, British were left so weak that they had to withdraw to 

vicinity of Charleston, leaving most of South Carolina under 

patriot control. 

12 September: Force of nearly 1,000 loyalists, with nucleus starting 

from Wilmington on coast, made surprise attack on patriot 

capital of Hillsboro, North Carolina, and at slight cost killed 15 

and wounded 20 defenders and captured more than 200, including Governor Thomas Burke. While withdrawing with 

prisoners later same day loyalist force was attacked by 400 

Continentals at Cane Creek (Lindley's Mill) in sharp action in 

which patriots lost 125 and loyalists more than l 00. 

14 September: Washington and Rochambeau arrived on the Virginia peninsula, conferred with De Grasse to assure he would 

stay in the Bay long enough to complete coup against Cornwallis. 

18-26 September: Washington's and Rochambeau's troops with aid 

of French Navy were transported down Chesapeake Bay and 

landed on north shore of James River near Williamsburg, 

Virginia. 

28 September-19 October: After juncture of American and French 

forces in Virginia they moved from Williamsburg to begin 

seige of British army at Yorktown that lasted until Cornwallis' 

surrender (Yorktown Campaign). 

3 October: About four miles from Gloucester, Virginia, foraging 

party under Tarleton was attacked by French cavalry force and 

pushed back after skirmishing that cost each side about two 

dozen casualties. Larger French forces following, and Virginia 

militia, then began formal seige of Gloucester Point, on opposite 

shore of York River from Yorktown, helping to block Cornwallis 

from escaping overland. 

14 October: American and French detachments took Redoubts 9 

and 10 in British defenses at Yorktown by assault, tightening the 

ring around Cornwallis. 

16-17 October: Cornwallis' effort to ferry his forces across York 

River to Gloucester Point frustrated by storm. 

19 October: British force numbering about 10,000 under Cornwallis 

surrendered to about 11,000 American and 9,000 French soldiers 

and sailors at Yorktown, Virginia. Before surrender, formal 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 133 

17 81-Continued 

siege operations had pushed allied artillery into close-in positions that made British position in Yorktown untenable. British 

casualties during siege totalled 600, American and French 400. 

25 October: British force of 700, including 130 Indians, that on 16 

October had left Oswego, New York, and ravaged Mohawk 

Valley to within 12 miles of Schenectady, attacked on return by 

400 patriot militia at Johnstown. After patriots lost 35 and 

enemy 65 or so, latter withdrew up the valley. 

30 October: After encounter at Johnstown, patriot militia took up 

pursuit of British force now withdrawing toward St. Lawrence 

Valley, and engaged in fire fight with it at Jerseyfield (on West 

Canada Creek near present Poland), New York. Among relatively few casualties was famous loyalist and Indian leader 

Walter Butler. This was last action of any significance in border 

warfare in New York. 

30 October: General Benjamin Lincoln was appointed Secretary at 

War in new Confederation government; he was to serve in this 

position until November 1783. 

18 November: British evacuated Wilmington, North Carolina, 

forces under Maj. James Craig moving to Johns Island, near 

Charleston, South Carolina. 

27 November: Patriot militia under Cols. Isaac Shelby and Hezekiah Maham captured strong British post at Fair Lawn, South 

Carolina. 

1 December: General Greene led 400 patriot troops, half of them 

cavalry, against enemy force of 850 posted at Dorchester, South 

Carolina. After some skirmishing the enemy, thinking Greene's 

whole army was about to attack them, withdrew to within five 

miles of Charleston. 

12 December: In Second Battle of Ushant off Brittany, British 

defeated Franco-Spanish escorting squadron and captured 20 

transports. 

13 December: News of Yorktown surrender was recognized in 

Congress as indicating decisive turn in war and toward peace. 

Among other actions Congress issued proclamation designating 

this date as day of thanksgiving and prayer throughout the new 

nation, and it was so observed. 

28-29 December: Henry Lee attempted attack on Johns Island, 

South Carolina, near Charleston that miscarried when one of 

his columns lost its way. 

1782 

27 February: British House o£ Commons, after receiving news of 

surrender at Yorktown, urged King George III to end war with 

America. 
134 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1782-Continued 

7-8 March: American militia attacked Indian settlement at Gnadenhuetten, Ohio, killing 100 or more men, women, and children, many of them in cold blood, touching off new and vicious 

wave of Indian warfare irt Ohio-Kentucky area. 

9-12 April: In major naval battle off of Saintes Passage in West 

Indies, British fleet of 37 ships defeated French fleet of 33, 

British capturing Admiral de Grasse and his flagship and four 

other French ships. 

12 April: After fall of wartime North Ministry on 20 March, 

representative of succeeding Rockingham Ministry began informal peace talks with Benjamin Franklin in Paris. 

19 April: The Netherlands recognized independence of United 

States. 

8 May: Spanish force from Havana captured New Providence 

(Nassau), Bahamas, its British garrison of over 600, and all of 

Bahamas occupied by British. 

4-5 june: In two-day skirmish three miles northeast of Upper 

Sandusky, Ohio, patriot militia force of about 500 appeared to 

be winning over 300 rangers and Indians when reinforcements 

for latter arrived. Casualties were light in skirmishing and 

withdrawal of patriots, but 10 of latter, including leader Maj. 

William Crawford, were captured and killed by Indians. 

11 july: British evacuated Savannah, Georgia, after occupying it 

for two and one-half years. 

13 july: Hannastown, Pennsylvania, burnt by Indians. Last action 

of Revolution in Pennsylvania. 

7 August: General George Washington established Badge of Military Merit (or Purple Heart) as award for "singular meritorious 

action." Three awards to Revolutionary War soldiers were 

made. 

19 August: Force of 180 frontiersmen pursuing party 9f 240 loyalist 

and Indian raiders caught up with them at Blue Lick (Blue 

Lick Springs, on Licking River), Kentucky. Patriots were routed 

after impetuous attack with loss of 70 killed and captured. 

27 August: Continental Army operations against British regularloyalist force at ferry over Combahee River, South Carolina 

(40 miles southwest of Charleston), is chiefly notably for loss, 

among two Americans killed, of Col. Henry Laurens, gifted son 

of President of Continental Congress and Washington's aide-decamp 1779-81. 

11-13 September: In what has been described at last "battle" of 

American Revolution, Fort Henry, Virginia, withstood 3-day 

attack by 250 Indians and 40 loyalists. (Presumably Indians 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 135 

1782-Continued 

along Great Miami in Ohio would have contended that Clark's 

raid two months later was last.) 

13-14 September: After 4-year siege, Spanish and French forces 

assaulted Gibraltar without success, paving way toward early 

negotiated peace between Great Britain and Bourbon allies. 

27 September: Formal peace negotiations between American and 

British commissioners began in Paris. 

4 November: Americans drove off British foraging party in vicinity 

of Johns Island, South Carolina, and Capt. William Wilmot of 

2nd Maryland Continentals was killed in what is said to be last 

bloodshed of Continental Army in war. 

10 November: George Rogers Clark led 1,050 mounted riflemen 

out of Kentucky north to Indian settlement at Chillicothe 

(modern Piqua), Ohio. Indians escaped with no more than 20 

casualties, but Kentuckians burned Chillicothe and five neighboring towns and destroyed Indian food stores. 

30 November: The United States and Great Britain signed preliminary treaty of peace, recognizing American independence, 

and providing that cessation of hostilities would occur when 

Britain and France signed similar preliminaries. 

14 Decembe1': British troops evacuated Charleston, South Carolina, 

taking with them 3,800 loyalists and 5,000 Negro slaves. Evacuation completed British withdrawal from southern United States. 

24 December: French army of Rochambeau, after moving from 

Virginia to Rhode Island in fall of 1782, embarked from Boston, 

Massachusetts, for home. 

1783 

20 january: Great Britain, France, and Spain signed preliminary 

articles of peace, and in doing so established military armistice 

both among themselves and between Great Britain and United 

States. 

4 February: Great Britain proclaimed cessation of hostilities with 

United States. 

15 February: Portugal recognized American independence. 

10-15 March: Officers of Continental Army at its Newburgh, New 

York, headquarters on lO and 12 March issued addresses complaining of Congress' failure to honor its promise of pensions, 

and of other grievances. On 15 March Washington quelled this 

unrest in masterly response that illustrated his outstanding 

leadership. 

24 1'.-Ianh: Spain recognized American independence. 

11 April: Congress of United States proclaimed cessation of hostilities. 
136 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

1783-Continued 

15 April: Congress of United States ratified preliminary treaty of 

peace signed 30 November 1782. 

18 April: General Washington ordered that cessation of hostilities 

between United States and Great Britain should be publicly 

proclaimed at noon on following day to every regiment and 

corps of Continental Army at and around Newburgh headquarters. 

26 May: Congress ordered General Washington to furlough all 

Continental troops enlisted for duration of war, and subsequently (11 June) authorized Secretary at War to furlough 

troops of middle states not already released. Later, on 3 November 1783, Congress ordered discharge of all furloughed troops. 

17 june: Pennsylvania troops at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, mutinied, 

then marched on Philadelphia and persuaded its garrison to 

join them in demonstrations before Congress to obtain back pay 

and settlement of other grievances before they would accept 

furloughs. Congress fled to Princeton, New Jersey, and Washington sent 1,500 troops to Pennsylvania to suppress outbreak. 

3 September: Definitive treaties of peace signed by Great Britain, 

United States, France, Spain, and The Netherlands. 

24 September: Congress authorized General Washington to discharge "such parts of the Federal Army now in service as he 

shall deem proper and expedient." 

2 October: Washington issued last general order to Continental 

Army. 

25 November: British completed their troop evacuation of New 

York City. Before troop evacuation about 7,000 loyalists had 

left New York for Maritime Provinces, Canada, and Great 

Britain. 

3 December: General Washington ordered reduction of infantry of 

Continental Army to strength of 500 rank and file, and of 

artillery to minimum strength needed to guard stores at West 

Point and elsewhere. 

4 December: Withdrawal of last British troops from Staten Island 

and Long Island ended British occupation of Atlantic coast of 

new United States. 

4 December: General Washington delivered farewell address to his 

officers at Fraunces' Tavern in New York City. 

23 December: General Washington tendered his resignation as 

Commander in Chief of American Army to Congress meeting 

in Annapolis, Maryland. 

1784 

4 january: By this date Continental Army had been reorganized 
AN ARMY CHRONOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 137 

1784-Continued 

into infantry regiment numbering 500 privates, 64 noncommissioned officers, and 30 commissioned officers, and artillery 

corps of about 100. 

14 january: Congress ratified definitive treaty of peace of 3 September 1783 between United States and Great Britain, thereby 

formally ending War of the American Revolution. 

PART THREE 

A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 

HISTORICAL LITERATURE ON THE 

MILITARY HISTORY OF THE 

AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

A Select Bibliography of Historical Literature 

on the Military History of the 

American Revolution 

The body of literature on the military history of the Revolution, 

quite apart from that on its political, economic, and social aspects, 

is voluminous-the product of several generations of historians, 

editors, collectors, memoir writers, and journalists on two continents. This vast published literature, most of it originally written 

in English or later translated into that language, includes both 

secondary works and printed source material. The printed source 

material includes Continental and state records, material from 

British and French archives, personal recollections, memoirs, collections of letters, diaries, journals, orderly books, travelers' accounts, 

and numerous other types of documents. The secondary literature 

includes both books and articles of varying degrees of utility in 

assisting our understanding of the military conflict. 

As an introduction to the listings that follow, a brief note on the 

course of historiography of the War of the American Revolution is 

appropriate. The century that followed the end of the Revolution 

in 1783 was one of rampant American nationalism that sought its 

pantheon of national heroes in Washington and his comrades at 

arms. American historiography of the Revolution, seldom critical 

or impartial, portrayed the war in simple black and white colors 

with American heroes and British villains. British historians and 

memorialists tended to show an opposite bias; but after an early 

wave of self-justifying memoirs by leading participants, British 

writers were not nearly so prolific, since the Revolution was not a 

happy chapter in British history. 

While some of the early writers on both sides benefited from a 

personal knowledge of men and events, nearly all suffered from a 

lack of written source materials since the collection and printing of 

documentary materials was a slow process, one that is, indeed, still 

under way. Some of the earliest histories of the Revolution, for 

instance, contained large sections simply copied verbatim from the 

British Annual Register. However, the collection of sources proceeded apace in the nineteenth century with state governments, 

historical societies, and private individuals, many with chiefly 

141 
142 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

antiquarian or genealogical interests, taking the lead. A whole host 

of memoirs, diaries, journals, letters, recollections, orderly books, 

travelers' accounts and similar material appeared in book form and 

in the historical magazines of the day. Though the editing was 

hardly up to modern standards, any student of the Revolution must 

rely heavily on this material today, and a sampling of it holds an 

important place in the listings in this bibliography. However, the 

major collection effort of the first half of the nineteenth century 

sponsored by the federal government, Peter Force's American 

Archives) never proceeded beyond 1776 because the Secretary of 

State cut off necessary funds. 

In any case, as the collection of sources proceeded, there also 

appeared, under much the same private and state auspices, a good 

many articles and monographs covering battles and campaigns, an 

especially significant number appearing in the course of the Centennial celebration between 1875 and 1883. And then as now 

biographies of military figures were perhaps the most numerous of 

all book-length publications on the American Revolution. The 

nineteenth-century historians and collectors, for all their lack of 

objectivity, did establish a good factual foundation for the more 

critical historians of the twentieth century. If they incorporated 

little critical analysis, the new professional "scientific" historians 

who made their appearance late in the nineteenth century and 

came to dominate American historiography in the twentieth, did 

little to fill the gap in the military realm. Most of them chose rather 

to concentrate on economic, social, and political factors and changes. 

The gap was partially filled by military professionals who doubled 

as historians and by talented amateurs with military interests. Only 

a few of the historians trained in graduate seminars chose to write 

on the military history of the Revolution in the period between 

1900 and 1945. 

The new school of military historians of the Revolution, following the lead of Emory Upton, whose Military Policy of the 

United States (published posthumously by the War Department 

in 1902) drew heavily on the Revolution to demonstrate the 

inefficiencies of that military policy, were critical of the American 

military effort during the Revolution. These historians found the 

secret of American victory more in British blunders and French 

aid than in the efficacy of the American military effort. Francis 

Vinton Greene's The Revolutionary War and the Military Policy 

of the United States) published in 1911, endorsed Upton's critique 

of the militia and Congressional military policy; Charles Francis 

Adams in a series of essays collected in Studies Military and Diplomatic (1911) took on the paragon of American heroes, Washington 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 143 

himself, charging that his conduct of the New York campaign was 

little short of disastrous and that his lack of appreciation of the 

value of cavalry cost the patriots dearly. Much of this approach 

found its way into the debunking literature of the 1920's. 

In this and other respects, the military professionals and talented 

amateurs were generally more sophisticated than their predecessors 

and they along with a few interested academicians produced some 

solid critical works in the first four decades of the twentieth century 

when most professional historians scorned the military conflict as an 

area for analysis. To cite but a few from the listings below, Louis 

C. Hatch's Administration of the Revolutionary Army (1904), 

though unsatisfactory in many respects, remains today the best work 

dealing with what we would now call personnel administration. 

Admiral A. T. Mahan's Major Operations of the Navies of the War 

of Independence (1913) was a classic analysis by one of the most 

important American strategic thinkers. E. E. Curtis' Organization 

of the British Army in the American Revolution (1926) was one 

of the first works to call attention to the immense logistical 

obstacles the British faced in raising an Army, transporting it, and 

supporting it in America. Hoffman Nickerson's The Turning Point 

of the Revolution; or Burgoyne in America (1928) remains the 

classic study of the battles and tactics of Burgoyne's campaign, even 

though much of its analysis of British policy has been outdated by 

the discovery of new materials. Allen French's The First Year of 

the Revolution (1934) is a similarly meticulously researched account of the events of 1775-76, which perhaps overplays the 

ineptitude of the King's ministers and his commanders in America. 

In the period since the Second World War, the interest of 

professional academic historians in the military conflict has been 

revived. The past three decades have seen the appearance of a great 

body of scholarly writings on the many facets of that conflict. These 

most recent studies, prepared on both sides of the Atlantic, neither 

follow the simple nationalist interpretations of the nineteenth century nor the debunking interpretations of the first part of the 

twentieth but constitute, for the most part, objective analyses. In 

the 1950's and 1960's a dozen general military histories of the 

Revolution appeared, though perhaps the best of the combat 

narratives, Chistopher Ward's two-volume The War of the Revolution, was still the work of a gifted amateur. In addition to the 

general histories, there have been innumerable special studies of 

individual campaigns and battles, military policy, logistics, the 

loyalists, blacks, and numerous other subjects. A revival of interest 

on the British side has produced such works as the study of British 

cabinet I .Xry in Piers Mackesy's War for America, 1775-1783 
144 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

(1964), and Eric Robson's brilliant series of essays in The American 

Revolution in its Political and Military Aspects (1955). The most 

recent general military history of the Revolution, Don Higginbotham's The War of American Independence-Military Attitudes) 

Policies) and Practices (1971), is a good synthesis of the post-World 

War II scholarship. 

As will be apparent from the relative length of the listings, the 

emphasis in writings on the Revolution has always been on biography. And not surprisingly, the most significant recent works have 

been biographies, both of British and American military leaders. 

The best treatments of campaigns and battles, and of the evolution 

of policy and strategy, often emerge from these biographies. On 

the American side, the laudatory tone of the nineteenth-century 

biographies and the debunking tone of those of the twenties and 

thirties have been supplanted by a realistic approach that leaves 

Washington and his principal lieutenants as heroes but of quite 

human proportions. The most recent large-scale treatments of 

George Washington, for instance, by Douglas S. Freeman and 

James A. Flexner, portray him as an able leader but not as the 

marble god of the nineteenth century. Theodore Thayer's Nathanael Greene: Strategist of the Revolution (1960) paints Greene as 

Washington's most able subordinate and in so doing produces one 

of the better accounts of the war in the South. John R. Alden's 

General Charles Lee: Traitor or Patriot ( 1951) rehabilitates the 

character of a controversial American leader, and gives us a detailed 

account of the Battle of Monmouth. Louis R. Gottschalk's trilogy 

on Lafayette (1935-42) dispells much of the myth and legend that 

have surrounded the young French Marquis. 

The recent treatments of British commanders have generally 

been less complete biographies than accounts of their role in the 

Revolution. John R. Alden's General Gage in America: Being 

Principally a History of His Role in the American Revolution 

(1948) treats the first of a series of British commanders in chief in 

America sympathetically. In The Howe Brothers and the American Revolution (1972) Ira D. Gruber is rather less flattering, and 

on the basis of extensive research in hitherto unexploited materials 

contends that their efforts to conciliate the Americans sacrificed the 

"ministry's best prospect of regaining the colonies." William B. 

Willcox's Portrait of a Gener,al) Sir Henry Clinton in the War of 

Independence (1964) is a particularly significant study in the 

psychology of the British commander who held the position longer 

than any other during the Revolution. Franklin B. and Mary Wickwire's Cornwallis) the American Adventure (1970) portrays with 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 145 

considerable sympathy the character and career of the British 

general who lost his army at Yorktown. 

In two volumes, George A. Billias, as editor, has brought together sketches of the major military leaders on both sides, each 

essay written by a different author. The first volume, George Washington's Generals (1964), treats twelve American leaders; the second, 

George Washington's Opponents: British Generals and Admirals 

of the American Revolution (1969), contains sketches of twelve 

British leaders. These volumes serve as the best introduction for 

the general reader to the biography of Revolutionary military 

leaders on both sides. 

The loyalists, long neglected or treated with extreme prejudice 

by American historians, have also come into their own recently as a 

subject for historical study. Three works of recent vintage that 

throw immense light on them are worthy of note-William H. 

Nelson, The American Tory: A Study of the Loyalists in the 

American Revolution, (1961); Paul H. Smith, Loyalists and Redcoats: A Study in British Revolutionary Policy (1964); and Wallace 

Brown The Good Americans: The Loyalists in the American 

Revolution (1969). 

The collection and publication of documents that occupied so 

important a place in the nineteenth century has continued into the 

twentieth, with careful scholarly editing replacing the more haphazard older methods. The journals of the Continental Congress, 

in 34 volumes, edited by Worthington Chauncey Ford and others, 

appeared between 1904 and 1937 and is invaluable for the military student. Edmund C. Burnett's Letters of Members of the 

Continental Congress, in eight volumes, published between 1931 

and 1936 is an indispensable adjunct to the journals. John C. Fitzpatrick's edition of the Writings of George Washington, in 39 

volumes, published between 1931 and 1944 as a contribution to the 

Bicentennial of Washington's birth, is most important of all for 

any study of the military conduct of the war. 

The recent effort, under the auspices of National Historical 

Publications Commission, to publish the papers of prominent 

Revolutionary leaders promises to produce far more comprehensive 

and sophisticated collections. New editions of the papers of John 

Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison and George Mason are in varying states of 

progress and a new edition of Washington's papers is under way, 

though no volume has yet been published. These new editions do 

or will include incoming correspondence and collateral documents 

and valuable explanatory essays and footnotes as well as the letters 
146 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

and papers of the principal. The Naval History Division, Department of the Navy, has also undertaken a most ambitious documentary publication Naval Documents of the American Revolution of 

which six volumes have gotten the story only so far as October 1776. 

For most of the source materials relating to the military conflict on 

land reliance must still be placed on the older less satisfactory 

editions of documents, in many cases those published in scattered 

places in the nineteenth century. The upcoming bicentennial celebration has sparked the reprinting of many of these source materials 

as well as older secondary accounts. 

There are of course, many bibliographies, bibliographic guides, 

and essays on the voluminous literature of the American Revolution. One of the earliest, Justin Winsor's Readers Handbook of the 

American Revolution} published in 1880, is still valuable as a guide 

to the earlier literature, and since that literature stressed the 

military struggle it merits mention here. The normal guides used 

in the study of American History, such as the Harvard Guide to 

American History} recently revised, are also useful for the study of 

the military phase of the American Revolution. And certainly some 

of the best bibliographic guides and essays are to be found in the 

various works cited in the lists below. For the most part specific 

bibliographic essays and surveys of the literature on the Revolution 

concentrate, like the scholars of the first half of this century, on 

causation, politics, economics, diplomacy, and consequences. Jack 

P. Greene's pamphlet The Reappraisal of the American Revolution 

in Recent Historical Literature (Publication No. 68 in the American Historical Association Service Center for Teachers of History 

Series) while a very useful work, takes this approach. The essay of 

Don Higginbotham, "American Historians and the Military History 

of the American Revolution," in the American Historical Review 

(vol. 70, October 1965, 18-34) is almost unique as a sketch of the 

evolution of American historiography on the military conflict. It 

might indeed serve well as an introduction tb this bibliography. 

Two recent bibliographies published by the Library of Congress 

contain useful sections on the military conflict-The American 

Revolution} A Selected Reading List (1968) and Periodical Literature on the American Revolution} Historical Research and Changing Interpretations} 1895-1970} compiled by Ronald M. Gephart 

(1971 ). The latter, in particular, was of considerable aid in 

locating articles from scholarly periodicals for this bibliography. 

Of equal value in identifying the sources in print on French participation in the war in America is the "Checklist of Journals, 

Memoirs, and Letters of French Officers serving in the American 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 147 

Revolution" in Howard C. Rice, Jr. and Anne S. K. Brown, eds., 

The American Campaigns of Rochambeau's Army (1972). 

The bibliographical listings that follow attempt to provide a 

judicious selection from both secondary literature and printed 

sources, covering writings over the broad span of 200 years and 

including published material in both books and scholarly periodicals. The emphasis in the bibliography has been placed on modern 

works, but for reasons that must be apparent from the foregoing 

sketch of historiography of the Revolution, many older works have 

been included. Particularly in handling original sources-diaries, 

journals, orderly books, etc.-printed in historical periodicals in the 

nineteenth and early twentieth centuries sampling techniques have 

been used. 

An effort has been made to classify the secondary works by subject matter with the exception of biographies, listed alphabetically 

by the name of the subject. Classification has been in many cases 

difficult, and the results are something less than exact, since any 

number of works would fall into two or more categories. Since most 

of the printed sources cover more than one and sometimes all 

categories, no effort has been made to classify them by topic. They 

have instead been classified by their nature or type, that is as general 

collections of documents; collections of personal letters and other 

papers; memoirs, journals, diaries, travel accounts, personal recollections, and similar materials; and orderly books. No attempt has 

been made to separate official and unofficial publications, for the 

dividing line, in the case of Revolutionary materials, is somewhat 

indistinct. Classification of documents even under these broad 

headings has not been entirely satisfactory, particularly in distinguishing personal collections and general collections of documents. 

In general the dividing line has been whether the letters, papers, 

or other documents in question were those of a single individual 

like the Writings of Washington or pertained to a number of individuals like Jared Sparks' Correspondence of the American Revolution. Thus collections of documents are listed alphabetically by 

their editors while personal letters and papers are listed alphabetically by the original author or owner thereof. 

This bibliography is intended to be one in military history, not 

political, economic, or social history. And it contains listings of few 

works that relate to the causes of the Revolution or of its political 

consequences. Admittedly, however, military history cannot be 

separated entirely from these other fields for the war was conducted 

within a political, economic, and social context that profoundly 

influenced its outcome. For this reason a sampling of the literature 
148 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

in these other areas has been included as a separate category and 

indeed where works in the economic, political, and social areas 

seem to be particularly valuable for the study of the military conflict they have been included under appropriate topical headings. 

In making selections for inclusion, the compiler has adopted as a 

basic criterion the extent to which a book or article deals with the 

military aspects of the Revolution. The separation is hard to make 

and readers may well quarrel with the inclusion of some works 

and the exclusion of others. For instance, the compiler included 

John R. Alden's The American Revolution, 1775-1783} a general 

treatment of all aspects of the Revolution among the military 

accounts while listing most general accounts of this nature in the 

samplings of non-military literature. The decision was based on his 

judgment that Alden's emphasis on the military conflict justified 

inclusion in the listings of general military histories of the Revolution. There are a number of similar instances. 

Other criteria have been used to select among the entries that 

fulfill the first prerequisite for inclusion. The principal one has 

been the extent to which the book or article appears to be a significant one for either the interested reader or the scholar. However, 

the compiler must confess that he has at times had to exercise 

relatively arbitrary judgment, relying heavily on opinions reflected 

in reviews in learned journals or in specialized bibliographies. 

Because a certain amount of selection has been done, and 

because the compiler did not even seek to find every book or article 

that has ever been written on the military history of the Revolution 

(despite the inclusion of over 1,000 entries), this bibliography 

makes no claim to be a complete listing of such books and articles 

in print. It seeks instead to provide the general reader as well as the 

scholar with a listing of the principal printed works in which he 

may profitably study the War of the American Revolution as waged 

on the North American Continent. It does not deal with manuscript 

or archival sources, even a cursory survey of which would be a formidable task in itself. Some notes on this category of material are, 

however, included at the end of the listings. It does not include, 

either, contemporary newspapers, or the printed proceedings of the 

conventions, assemblies, and legislatures of the original thirteen 

states. These exclusions are perhaps arbitrary, but are generally 

based on the proposition that these materials are more useful to the 

political than to the military historian. 
SECONDARY WORKS 

Reference Works 

Berg, Fred Anderson, Encyclopaedia of Continental Army Units: Battalions, Regiments, and Independent Corps, Harrisburg, Pa., 1972. 

Boatner, Mark M., Encyclopaedia of the American Revolution, New 

York, 1958. 

Boatner, Mark M., Landmarks of the American Revolution: A Guide 

to Locating and Knowing What Happened at the Sites of Independence, Harrisburg, Pa., 1973. 

Boatner, Mark M., Cassell's Biographical Dictionary of the War of Independence, London, 1973. 

Heitman, Francis B., Historical Register of Officers of the Continental 

Army during the War of the Revolution ... , Washington, 1893. 

Katcher, Philip R. N., Encyclopaedia of British, Provincial, and German 

Army Units, 1775-1783, Harrisburg, Pa., 1973. 

Lossing, Bernard]., The Pictorial Field Book of the Revolution, or Illustrations 

fry Pen and Pencil, of the History, Biography, Scenery, Relics, and Traditions 

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Peterson, Clarence Stuart, Known Military Dead During the Revolutionary 

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151 
General Military History of the 

Revolution-Narrative and Critical 

Adams, Charles F., Studies Military and Diplomatic, New York, 1911. 

Adams, Randolph G., Lexington to Fallen Timbers, Ann Arbor, 1942. 

Alden, John R., The American Revolution, 1775-1783, New York, 1954. 

Alden, John R., A History of the American Revolution, New York, 

1969. 

Bancroft, George, History of the United States of America, from the 

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Barrow, Thomas C., "The American Revolution as a Colonial War for 

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Bowers, Ray L., "The American Revolution: A Study in Insurgency," 

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1888. 

Dupuy, Richard E. and Trevor N., The Compact History of the Revo· 

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Gordon, William, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Establishment 

of the Independence of the United States of America: Including an 

Account of the Late War and of the Thirteen Colonies, from their 

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Graham, Gerald S., "Considerations on the War of American Independence," Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, vol. 22, 

May 1949, 22-34. 

Greene, Francis V., The Revolutionary War and the Military Policy 

of the United States, New York, 1911. 

Greene, George Washington, Historical View of the American Revolution, New York, 1865. 

Higginbotham, Don, The War of American Independence-Military 

Attitudes, Policies, and Practices, 1763-1789, New York, 1971. 

Ketchum, Richard M., ed., American Heritage History of the Revolution, New York, 1958. 

Ketchum, Richard M., "England's Vietnam: The American Revolution," American Heritage, June 1971, 6-ll. 

Lancaster, Bruce, From Lexington to Liberty; the Story of the American Revolution, Garden City, N. Y., 1955. 

152 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 153 

McMun, Sir George F., The American War of Independence zn Perspective, London, 1939. 

Mitchell, Joseph Brady, Decisive Battles of the American Revolution, 

New York, 1962. 

Mitchell, Joseph Brady, Discipline and Bayonets, the Armies and Leaders in the War of the American Revolution, New York, 1967. 

Montross, Lynn, Rag Tag and Bobtail, The Story of the Continental 

Army, 1775-1783, New York, 1952. 

Peckham, Howard, The War for Independence: A Military History, 

Chicago, 1958. 

Ramsey, David, The History of the American Revolution, 2 vols. (re· 

print of original 1793 edition), New York, 1968. 

Robson, Eric, The American Revolution in Its Political and Military 

Aspects, New York, 1955. 

Scheer, George F., and Hugh F. Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, Cleveland, 1957. 

Smelser, Marshall, The Winning of Independence, Chicago, 1972. 

Shy, John, "The American Revolution: The Military Conflict Considered as Revolutionary War," in Essays on the American Revolution 

edited by Stephen J. Kurtz and James H. Hutson, Chapel Hill, 

N.C., 1973. 

Soules, Francois, Histoire des Troubles de /'Amerique, ecrite sur les 

Memoires les plus authentique, Paris, 1787. 

Stedman, Charles, The History of the Origin, Progress, and Termination of the American War, 2 vols., London & Dublin, 1794. 

Wallace, Willard M., Appeal to Arms-A Military History of the American Revolution, New York, 1951. 

Ward, Christopher, The War of the Revolution, edited by John R. 

Alden, 2 vols., New York, 1952. 

Winsor, Justin, Narrative and Critical History of America, 6 vols., vol. 

6, The American Revolution, Boston, 1884-89. 
The Causes and Political, Economic, and 

Social Aspects-A Sampling 

Abernethy, Thomas Perkins, Western Lands and the American Revolution, New York and London, 1937. 

Adams, Randolph G., Political Ideas of the American Revolution; 

Britannic American Contributions to the Problem of Imperial 

Organization, 1765 to 1775, 3rd ed., New York, 1958. 

Andrews, Charles M., The Colonial Background of the American 

Revolution, Four Essays in American Colonial History, New Haven, 

Conn., 1924. 

Bailyn, Bernard, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution, 

Cambridge, Mass., 1967. 

Becker, Carl L., The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas, New York, 1933. 

Belcher, Henry, The First American Civil War, First Period, 1775-

177.8, London, 1911. 

Bemis, Samuel Flagg, The Diplomacy of the American Revolution, 

New York & London, 1935. 

Brown, Robert E., Middle Class Democracy and the Revolution in 

Massachusetts, Ithaca, N. Y., 1955. 

Brown, Weldon A., Empire or Independence, A Study in the Failure of 

Reconciliation 1774-1783, Baton Rouge, La., 1941. 

Burnett, Edmund C., The Continental Congress, New York, 1941. 

Butterfield, Herbert, George III and the Historians, revised ed., New 

York, 1959. 

Butterfield, Herbert, George III, Lord North and the People, 1779-

1780, London, 1949. 

Christie, Ian R., The End of the North Ministry, 1780'-1782, London, 

1958. 

Channing, Edward, A History of the United States, vol. 3, The American Revolution, 1761-1789, New York, 1912. 

Colonial Williamburg Inc., They Gave Us Freedom: The American 

Struggle for Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness, as Seen in 

Portraits, Sculptures, Historical Paintings and Documents of the 

Period, 1761-1789, Williamsburg, Va., 1951. 

Coupland, Sir Reginald, The American Revolution and the British 

Empire, London and New York, 1930. 

154 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 155 

Dickerson, Oliver M., The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution, Philadelphia, 1951. 

Donoughue, Bernard, British Politics and the American Revolution: 

The Path to War, 1773-1775, New York, 1960. 

Douglass, Elisha, Rebels and Democrats, Chapel Hill, N. C., 1955. 

East, Robert' A., Business Enterprise in the American Revolutionary 

Era, New York, 1938. 

Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric L. McKittrick, "The Founding Fathers: 

Young Men of the Revolution," Political Science Quarterly, vol. 76, 

June 1961, 181-216. 

Gipson, Lawrence H., The Coming of the Revolution, 1763-1775, New 

York, 1954. 

Greene, Jack P., ed., The Reinterpretation of the American Revolution, 

1763-1789, New York, 1968. 

Greene, Evarts B., The Revolutionary Generation, 1763-1790, History 

of American Life Series, vol. 4, New York, 1943. 

Jameson, John Franklin, The American Revolution Considered as 

Social Movement, Princeton, N.J., 1926. 

Jensen, Merrill, The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of 

the Socio-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, Madison, Wis., 1940. 

Jensen, Merrill, The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American 

Revolution, 1763-1776, New York, 1968. 

Labaree, Benjamin W., The Boston Tea Party, New York, 1964. 

Labaree, Leonard W., Royal Government in America, New Haven, 

Conn., 1930. 

Lacy, Dan, The Meaning of the American Revolution, New York, 1964. 

Lemisch, Jesse, "Jack Tar in the Streets: Merchant Seamen in the Politics of Revolutionary America," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd 

ser., vol. 25, July 1968, 371-407. 

Mcilwain, Charles H., The American Revolution: A Constitutional Interpretation, New York, 1923. 

MacMillan, Margaret, The War Governors in the American Revolution, 

New York, 1943. 

Main, Jackson Turner, The Social Structure of Revolutionary America, 

Princeton, N. J., 1965. 

Miller, John C., The Triumph of Freedom, Boston, 1948. 

Morgan, Edmund S., The Birth of the Republic, 1763-1789, Chicago, 

1956. 

Morris, Richard B. The Peacemakers; The Great Powers and American 

Independence, New York, 1965. 

Morris, Richard B., The American Revolution: A Short History, New 

York, 1955. 
156 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Morris, Richard B. The American Revolution Reconsidered, New York, 

1967. 

Morris, Richard B., ed., The Era of the American Revolution, Studies 

inscribed to Evarts Boutwell Green, New York, 1939. 

Namier, Sir Lewis B., England in the Age of the American Revolution, 

London, 1930. 

Nevins, Allen, The American States During and After the Revolution, 

1775-1789, New York, 1924. 

Palmer, Robert R., The Age of Democratic Revolution; a Political 

History of Europe and America, 1760-1800, vol. I, The Challenge, 

Princeton, N. J., 1959. 

Pares, Richard, George ill and the Politicians, Oxford, 1953. 

Phillips, Paul C., The West in the Diplomacy of the American Revolution, Champaign, Ill., 1913. 

Ritcheson, Charles R., British Politics and the American Revolution, 

Norman, Okla., 1954. 

Rossiter, Clinton L., The First American Revolution: The American 

Colonies on the Eve of Independence, New York, 1953. 

Savelle, Max, "Nationalism and Other Loyalties in the American 

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Stockbridge, J. C., "The Surrender of Cornwallis in England," Magazine of American History, vol. 7, 1881, 321-38. 

Trevelyan, Sir George 0., The American Revolution, 4 vols., London 

and New York, 1899-1913. 

Ubbelohde, Carl, The Vice Admiralty Courts and the American Revolution, Chapel Hill, N. C., 1960. 

Van Tyne, Claude H., The Causes of the War of Independence, Boston 

and New York, 1922. 

Van Tyne, Claude H., The War of Independence, American Phase, 

Boston, 1929. 

Wood, Gordon S., The Creation of the American Republic, Chapel 

Hill, N. C., 1969. 

Wright, Esmond, The Fabric of Freedom, New York, 1961. 

Wright, Esmond, ed., Causes and Consequences of the American Revolution, Chicago, 1966. 
The Military Prelude to Lexington-The 

British Army in America Before the Revolution 

Carter, Clarence E., "The Significance of the Military Office in America, 

1763-1775," American Historical Review, vol. 28, April, 1923, 475-

88. 

Clark, Dora M., "The British Treasury and the Administration of Military Affairs in America, 1754-1774," Pennsylvania History, vol. 2, 

October 1935, 197-204. 

Gerlach, Don R., "A Note on the Quartering Act of 1774," New 

England Quarterly, vol. 39, 1966, 80-88. 

Gipson, Lawrence H., "The American Revolution as an Aftermath of 

the Great War for Empire, 1754-1763," Political Science Quarterly, 

vol. 65, March 1950, 86-104. 

Grant, Charles S., "Pontiac's Rebellion and the British Troop Moves 

of 1763," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 40, June 1953, 

75-88. 

Huston, John W., "The British Evacuation of Fort Pitt, 1772," Western 

Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, vol. 48, October 1965, 317-29. 

Mowat, Charles L., "The Southern Brigade: A Sidelight on the British 

Military Establishment in America, 1763-1775," journal of Southern 

History, vol. 10, February 1944, 59-77. 

Shy, John W., Toward Lexington, The Role of the British Army in 

the Coming of the Revolution, Princeton, N. J., 1965. 

Shy, John W., "Quartering His Majesty's Forces in New Jersey," New 

Jersey Historical Society Proceedings, new ser., vol. 78, April 1960, 

82-94. 

Skull, G. D., "General Sir Frederick Haldimand in Pennsylvania," 

Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 8, 1884, 

300-309. 

Sosin, Jack M., Whitehall and the Wilderness, Lincoln, Neb., 1961. 

157 
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166 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

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Kite, Elizabeth S., "French 'Secret Aid'; Precursor to the Franco-American Alliance, 1776-1777," French American Review, vol. I, April-

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Perkins, James B., France in the American Revolution, Boston, 191 I. 

Stevens, John Austin, "The Duke de Lauzun in France and America," 

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Stinchcombe, William C., The American Revolution and the French 

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Stone, Edward Martin, Our French Allies. Rochambeau and his Army, 

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191 
192 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

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Van Tyne, Claude H., "French Aid Before the Alliance of 1778," 

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Whitridge, Arnold, "Beaumarchais and the American Revolution," 

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Spain in the War 

Caughey, John W., Bernardo de Galvez in Louisiana, 1776-1783, Berke· 

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Haarman, Albert W., "The Spanish Conquest of British West Florida, 

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Kinnaird, Lawrence, "The Spanish Expedition against Fort St. Joseph 

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Kinnaird, Lawrence, ed., Spain in the Mississippi Valley, 1765-1794, 

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Utrilla, J. F. Yela, Espana Ante la Independencia de los Estados Unidos, 

2 vols, Sevida, Spain, 1925. 

193 
Intelligence and Psychological Warfare 

(Including Arnold-Andre Conspiracy) 

Abbott, William, The Crisis of the Revolution) New York, 1899. 

Bakeless,John, Turncoats, Traitors, and Heroes, Philadelphia, 1960. 

Bakeless, Katherine, Spies of the Revolution) Philadelphia, 1962. 

Berger, Carl, Broadsides and Bayonets) the Propaganda of the American 

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Butterfield, Lyman H., "Psychological Warfare in 1776; The JeffersonFranklin Plan to Cause Hessian Desertions," American Philosophical 

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Decker, Malcolm, Ten Days of Infamy: An Illustrated Memoir of the 

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Flexner, James T., The Traitor and the Spy) New York, 1953. 

:French, Allen, General Gage's Informers, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1932. 

Johnston, Henry P., "The Secret Service of the Revolution," Magazine 

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Lossing, Benson J., The Two Spies: Nathan Hale and john AndreJ 

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O'Dea, Anna, & Samuel A. Pleasants, "The Case of John Honeyman: 

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Pennypacker, Morton, General Washington's Spies) Brooklyn, N. Y., 

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Pennypacker, Morton, The Two Spies: Nathan Hale and Robert Townsend) Boston, 1930. 

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Van Doren, Carl C., Secret History of the American Revolution) New 

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194 
Blacks in the Revolution 

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Brown, Wallace, "Negroes and the American Revolution," History 

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Greene, Lorenzo J., "Some Observations on the Black Regiment of 

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Kapan, Sidney, The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution, 1770-1800, Washington, 1973. 

Quarles, Benjamin, The Negro in the American Revolution, Chapel 

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Quarles, Benjamin, "The Colonial Militia and Negro Manpower," 

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195 
Prisoners of War 

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Bowie, Lucy L., "German Prisoners in the American Revolution," 

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Howe," American Historical Review, vol. 37, July 1932, 721-22. 

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196 
Military Medicine 

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197 
Maps 

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198 
Music 

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199 
Civil-Military Relations 

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200 
Lists of Soldiers 

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Burgess, Louis A., ed., Virginia Soldiers of 1776, 3 vols., Richmond, 

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Clark, A. H., ed., A Complete Roster of Colonel David Waterbury Jr.'s 

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202 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

tary and Naval Service During the War of the Revolution, 1775-

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McAllister, J. T., Virginia Militia in the Revolutionary War, Hot 

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203 
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Pell, John, Ethan Allen, Boston & New York, 1929. 

Holbrook, Stuart H., Ethan Allen, New York, 1940. 

Jellison, Charles A., Ethan Allen: Frontier Rebel, Syracuse, 1969. 

Anderson, Edward Lowell, Soldier and Pioneer, a Biographical Sketch 

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Sargent, Withrop, Life and Career of Major john Andre, Adjutant 

General of the British Army in America, Boston, 1862. 

Arnold, Isaac N., The Life of Benedict Arnold, His Patriotism and His 

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Decker, Malcolm, Benedict Arnold, Son of the Heavens, Tarrytown, 

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Sherwin, Oscar, Benedict Arnold: Patriot and Traitor, New York, 1931. 

Sparks, Jared, The Life and Treason of Benedict Arnold, Boston, 1835. 

Sullivan, Edward Dean, Benedict Arnold, Military Racketeer, New 

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Wallace, Willard M., Traitorous Hero, The Life and Fortunes of Benedict Arnold, New York, 1954. 

Paine, Ralph D., joshua Barney: A Forgotten Hero of the Blue Water, 

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Clark, William Bell, Gallant john Barry, 1745-1803; The Story of a 

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Griffin, Martin I. J., Commodore john Barry, Philadelphia, 1897. 

Clark, William Bell, Captain Dauntless: The Story of Nicholas Biddle 

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Bakeless, John E., Daniel Boone, New York, 1939. 

Chalmers, Harvey and Ethel Brant Morton, joseph Brant: Mohawk, 

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Eggleston, Edward and Elizabeth E. Seelye, Brant and Red jacket, New 

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Stone, William L., Life of joseph Brant, 2 vols., New York, 1838. 

·wood, L. A., War Chief of the Six Nations, Toronto and Glasgow, 

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Maclay, Edgar Stanton, Moses Brown, Captain, USN, New York, 1904. 

Doggett, Samuel Bradlee, Seth Bullard of Walpole, Massachusetts, A 

204 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 205 

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Fonblanque, E. B. De, Political and Military Episodes .. . derived from 

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Hudleston, Francis G., Gentleman johnny Burgoyne, Misadventures of 

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Lewis, Paul, The Man Who Lost America: A Biography of Gentleman 

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Bradley, Arthur G., Sir Guy Carleton (Lord Dorchester), Toronto, 1907. 

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Bakeless, John E., Background to Glory; the Life of George Rogers 

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Willcox, William B., Portrait of a General: Sir Henry Clinton in the 

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Bargar, B. D., Lord Dartmouth and the American Revolution, Charleston, S.C., 1965. 

Davidson, Chalmers G., Piedmont Partisan: The Life and Times of 

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Ewing, Thomas, George Ewing, A Gentleman, A Soldier of Valley Forge, 

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Alden, John R., General Gage in America: Being Principally a History 

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206 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Patterson, Samuel W. Horatio Gates, Defender of American Liberties, 

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Valentine, Allen, Lord George Germain, London, 1962. 

Boyd, Thomas, Simon Girty, New York, 1928. 

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Brady, Cyrus Townshend, Commodore Paul ]ones, New York, 1900 

Buell, Augustus C., Paul ]ones, Founder of the American Navy, A 

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De Koven, Mrs. Reginald, Life and Letters of john Paul ]ones, 2 vols., 

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Russell, Phillips, john Paul ]ones, Man of Action, New York, 1927. 

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Patterson, Samuel W., Knight Errant of Liberty: The Triumph and 

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Boyd, Thomas A., Light Horse Harry Lee, New York and London, 1931. 

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Bowen, Francis, Life of Benjamin Lincoln, Boston, 1847. 

Bass, Robert D., Swamp Fox, London, 1960. 
208 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

James, William Dobie, A Sketch of the Life of Brig. Gen. Francis Marion 

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Waterman, Joseph M., With Sword and Lancet: The Life of General 

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Roseman, Kenneth R., Thomas Mifflin and the Politics of the American Revolution, Chapel Hill, N. C., 1952. 

Armstrong, John, Life of Richard Montgomery, Boston, 1834. 

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Higginbotham, Don, Daniel Morgan, Revolutionary Rifleman, Chapel 

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Bentalow, Paul, A Reply to judge johnson's Remarks on an Article in 

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Bancroft, George, joseph Reed: A Historical Essay, New York, 1867. 

Eliot, Ellsworth, The Patriotism of joseph Reed, New Haven, Conn., 

1943. 

Reed, William B., The Life and Correspondence of joseph Reed, 2 vols., 

Philadelphia, 1847. 

Roche, John F., joseph Reed: A Moderate in the American Revolution, 

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Stryker, WilliamS., The Reed Controversy, Trenton, N.J., 1876. 

Forbes, Ester, Paul Revere and the World He Lived In, Boston, 1942. 

Goss, Elbridge Henry, Life of Colonel Paul Revere, 2 vols., Boston, 

1891. 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 209 

Keirn, D. B. Randolph, Rochambeau, U.S. Gen. Doc. 537, 59th Cong., 

1st sess., Washington, 1907. 

Weelen, Jean Edmond, Rochambeau, Father and Son: A Life of the 

Marechal de Rochambeau, and the journal of the Vicomte de 

Rochambeau, trans. by Lawrence Lee, preface by Gilbert Chinard, 

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Whitridge, Arnold, Rochambeau, New York, 1965. 

Hannay, David, Rodney, London & New York, 1891. 

Macintyre, Donald, Admiral Rodney, London, 1962. 

Mundy, Godfrey B., The Life and Correspondence of the Late Admiral 

Rodney, 2 vols., London, 1830. 

Cuneo, John R., Robert Rogers of the Rangers, New York, 1959. 

Goodman, Nathan G., Benjamin Rush, Philadelphia, 1934. 

Cumberland, Richard, Character of the Late Lord Viscount Sackville, 

London, 1785. 

Martelli, George, ]emmy Twitcher: A Life of the Fourth Earl of Sandwich, London, 1962. 

Bush, Martin H., Revolutionary Enigma: A Reappraisal of General 

Philip Schuyler of New York, Port Washington, N.Y., 1969. 

Gerlach, Don R., Philip Schuyler and the American Revolution in New 

York, 1733-1777, Lincoln, Neb., 1964. 

Lossing, Benson J., Life and Times of Philip Schuyler, 2 vols., New 

York, 1872-73. 

Tuckerman, Bayard, Life of General Philip Schuyler, 1733-1804, New 

York, 1905. 

Read, D. B., The Life and Times of General fohn Graves Simcoe, Commander of the "Queen's Rangers" During the Revolutionary War, 

and First Governor of Upper Canada, Together with some account 

of Major Andre and Captain Brant, Toronto, 1901. 

Moore, Howard P., The Life of General fohn Stark, New York, 1949. 

Cronau, Randolph, The Army of the Revolution and Its Organizer, 

New York, 1913. 

Doyle, Joseph B., Frederick William Von Steuben and the American 

Revolution, Steubenville, Ohio, 1913. 

Kapp, Friedrich, Life of Frederick William Von Steuben, Major General 

in the Revolutionary War, New York, 1859. 

Palmer, John M., General Von Steuben, New Haven, 1937. 

Driver, Carl S., fohn Sevier, Pioneer of the Old Southwest, Chapel 

Hill, N.C., 1932. 

Valentine, Alan, Lord Stirling, New York, 1969. 

Whittemore, Charles P., A General of the Revolution: fohn Sullivan 

of New Hampshire, New York, 1961. 

Bass, Robert D., Gamecock, New York, 1961. 

Gregorie, Ann K., Thomas Sumter, Columbia, S. C., 1931. 
210 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Hall, Charles Swain, Benjamin Tallmadge: Revolutionary Soldier and 

American Businessman, New York, 1943. 

Bass, Robert D., The Green Dragoon: The Lives of Banastre Tarleton 

and Mary Robinson, New York, 1957. 

Coffin, Charles, Life and Services of Major General john Thomas, New 

York, 1844. 

Sheppard, John H., The Life of Samuel Tucker, Commodore in the 

American Revolution, New York, 1921. 

Martyn, Charles, The Life of Artemas Ward, the First Commander in 

Chief of the American Revolution, New York, 1921. 

Chipman, Daniel, Memoir of Col. Seth Warner, Middlebury, Vt., 1948. 

Cary, John H., joseph Warren: Physician, Politician, Patriot, Urbana, 

Ill., 1961. 

Frothingham, Richard, Life and Times of joseph Warren, Boston, 1865. 

Callahan, North, George Washington, Soldier and Man, New York, 

1972. 

Carrington, Henry B., Washington, the Soldier, 2nd ed., New York, 

1899. 

Cunliffe, Marcus, George Washington: Man and Monument, Boston, 

1958. 

Custis, George Washington Parke, Recollections and Private Memoirs 

of Washington, Washington, 1859. 

Fitzpatrick, John C., George Washington Himself, Indianapolis, Ind., 

1933. 

Ford, Paul L., The True George Washington, Philadelphia, 1896. 

Ford, Worthington Chauncey, George Washington, 2 vols., New York, 

1900. 

Flexner, James T., George Washington in the American Revolution, 

1755-1783, Boston, 1968. 

Freeman, Douglas S., George Washington: A Biography, 8 vols., New 

York 1948-57. Vols. 3-5 treat of Washington and the Revolution. 

Frothingham, Thomas G., Washington, Commander in Chief, Boston, 

1930. 

Hughes, Rupert, George Washington, 3 vols., New York, 1926-30. 

Irving, Washington, Life of George Washington, 5 vols., New York, 

1855-59. 

Johnson, Bradley Taylor, General Washington, New York, 1894. 

Knollenberg, Bernhard, Washington and the Revolution: Gates, Conway, and the Continental Congress, New York, 1940. 

Marshall, John, The Life of George Washington, 5 vols., Philadelphia, 

1804-07. 

Lossing, Benson J., Washington and the American Republic, New 

York, 1870. 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 211 

Nettels, Curtis P., George Washington and American Independence, 

Boston, 1951. 

Stephenson, Nathaniel Wright, and Dunn, Waldo, George Washington, 

2 vols., New York, 1940. 

Swiggett, Howard, The Great Man: George Washington as a Human 

Being, Garden City, N.Y., 1953. 

Vestal, Samuel Curtis, Washington, the Military Man, Washington, 

1931. 

Boyd, Thomas A., Mad Anthony Wayne, New York and London, 1929. 

Pleasants, Harry, Anthony Wayne, West Chester, Pa., 1936. 

Preston, John Hyde, A Gentleman Rebel, New York, 1930. 

Spears, John R., Anthony Wayne, New York, 1903. 

Stille, Charles J., Major General Anthony Wayne and the Pennsylvania 

Line in the Continental Army, Philadelphia, 1893. 

Wildes, Harry E., Anthony Wayne, Trouble Shooter of the American 

Revolution, New York, 1941. 

Allman, Clarence Brent, Lewis Wetzel, Indian Fighter, The Life and 

Times of a Frontier Hero, New York, 1961 

Clark, William Bell, Lambert Wickes: Sea Raider and Diplomat, New 

Haven, Conn., 1932. 

Hay, Thomas Robson, and M. R. Werner, The Admirable Trumpeter: 

A Biography of General james Wilkin.~on, New York, 1941. 

Jacobs, James R., Tarnished Warrior, New York, 1938. 

Wager, D. E., Col. Marinus Willett: The Hero of the Mohawk, Utica, 

N.Y., 1891. 

Tiffany, Osmond A., A Sketch of the Life and Services of Gen. Otho 

Williams, Baltimore, Md., 1851. 

Stewart, Mrs, Catesby Willis, The Life of Brigadier General William 

Woodford of the American Revolution, 2 vols., Richmond, Va., 1973. 
Biographical Articles 

Rife, Clarence W., "Ethan Allen, An Interpretation," New England 

Quarterly vol. 2, October 1929, 561-84. 

Stevens, John A., "Benedict Arnold and His Apologist," Magazine of 

American History, vol. 4, _1880, 181-91. 

Wyatt, Frederick and William B. Willcox, "Sir Henry Clinton: A 

Psychological Exploration in History," William & Mary Quarterly, 

3d ser., vol. 16, January 1959, 3-26. 

Caley, Percy B., "The Life Adventures of Lieutenant Colonel John 

Connolly: The Story of A Tory," Western Pennsylvania Historical 

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Johnston, Henry P., "Colonel Christian Febiger of the Virginia Line," 

Magazine of American History, vol. 7, 1881, 188-203. 

Hart, Charles H., "Colonel Robert Lettis Hooper, Deputy Quartermaster General in the Continental Army and Vice President of New 

Jersey," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 35, 

1912, 60-91. 

Read, Elizabeth, "John Eager Howard, Colonel of Second Maryland 

Regiment," Magazine of American History, vol. 7, no. 4, October 

1881, 276-82. 

Walker, Mabel G., "Sir John Johnson, Loyalist," Mississippi Valley 

Historical Review, vol. 3, December 1916, 318-46. 

Stille, Charles J., "The Marquis de Lafayette in the American Revolution," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 19, 

no. l, April 1895, l-21. 

Author not listed, "Christopher Ludwig, Baker-General in the Army 

of the United States during the Revolutionary War," Pennsylvania 

Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 16, 1892, 343-48. 

Rossman, Kenneth R., "Thomas Mifflin, Revolutionary Patriot," Pennsylvania History, vol. 15, January 1948, 9-23. 

Roche, John F., "Was Joseph Reed Disloyal," William and Mary 

Quarterly, 3rd ser., vol. 8, July 1951, 406-17. 

Whiteridge, Arnold, "The Marquis de la Rouerie, Brigadier General 

in the Continental Army," Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings, vol. 79, 1967, 47-63. 

Spalding, Oliver L. Jr., "The Military Studies of George Washington," 

American Historical Review, vol. 29, 1924, 674, 675-80. 

King, George H. S., "General George Weedon," William & Mary Quarterly, 2d ser., vol. 20, April 1940, 161-66. 

212 
SOURCE MATERIAL 

General Collections of Documents 

The Annual Register, ... London, 1775-1783. 

Balch, Thomas, ed., Papers Relating Chiefly to the Maryland Line During the Revolution, Philadelphia, 1855. 

Bouton, Nathaniel, ed., ... Documents and Records relating to the 

State of New Hampshire during the Period of the American Revolution, Concord, N.H., 1874, vol. 8 of New Hampshire Provincial and 

State Papers. 

Brown, William H. et als, Archives of Maryland, 71 vols., Baltimore, 

1883-1970. On Revolution see particularly vols. 10, ll, 16, 18, 45, 

47-48. 

Brumbaugh, Gaines Marcus and Margaret R. Hodges, eds., Revolutionary Records of Maryland, Washington, 1924. 

Brumbaugh, Gaines Marcus, ed., Revolutionary War Records, vol. I, 

Virginia, Baltimore, 1967. 

Burnett, Edmund C., ed., Letters of Members of the Continental Congress, 8 vols., Washington, 1921-36. 

Candler, Allen D., ed., The Revolutionary Records of the State of 

Georgia, 3 vols., Atlanta, 1908. 

Clark, William Bell, and William James Morgan, eds., Naval Documents of the American Revolution, vols. l-6 published, Washington, 1964-72. A publication of the Naval History Division, U. S. 

Department of the Navy these volumes cover the years 1774-76 and 

are but the beginning of one of the most massive documentary collection efforts on the Revolution ever undertaken. 

Clark, Walter, ed., State Records of North Carolina, 16 vols., Goldsboro 

and Winston-Salem, N. C., 1895-1914. 

Commager, Henry S., and Morris, Richard B., eds., The Spirit of 

Seventy-Six; the Story of the American Revolution as Told by Participants, 2 vols., Indianapolis, 1958. 

Delaware Historical Society, "Minutes of the Council of Delaware State 

from 1776 to 1792," Papers, vol. 6, Wilmington, Del., 1887. 

Delaware, Public Archives Commission, Delaware Archives, 5 vols., 

Wilmington, Del., 1911-19. Vols. 2 and 3 are military and naval 

records of the Revolution. 

Durand, John, ed., New Materials for the History of the American 

Revolution, translated from documents in the French Archives, New 

York, 1889. 

215 
216 THE WAR OF THE AMERICA~ REVOLUTION 

Fernow, Berthold, ed., New York in the Revolution, vol. 15 of Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New York 

published by State Board of Regents, Albany, 1853-57. 

Fitzpatrick, John C., ed., Calendar of the Correspondence of George 

Washington Commander in Chief of the Continental Army, with the 

Officers, (from originals in \Vashington Papers, Library of Congress), 4 vols., ·washington, 1915; Calendar of Correspondence . 

with the Continental Congress, l vol., \Vashington, 1906. 

Force, Peter, ed., American Archives: Consisting of a Collection of 

Authentic Records, ... 9 vols., Washington, 1837-53. 

Ford, Worthington C., ed., The journals of the Continental Congress, 

1774-1789, 34 vols., Washington, 1904-37. 

Ford, Worthington C., ed., Defenses in Philadelphia, Brooklyn, 1897. 

Gerlach, Larry R., Comp., The American Revolution: New York as a 

Case Study, Belmont, Calif., 1972. 

Gibbes, R. W., ed., Documentary History of the American Revolution 

Consisting of Letters and Papers Relating to the Contest for Liberty, 

Chiefly in South Carolina in 1781 and 1782, 3 vols., Columbia, S. C., 

1853. 

Great Britain, Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the 

Manuscripts of the Earl of Dartmouth, 3 vols., London, 1887-96. 

Great Britain, Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the 

American Manuscripts in the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 

London, 1904-09. 

Great Britain, Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Manuscripts of Mrs. Stopford-Sackville of Drayton House, Northamptonshire, 2 vols., London, 1904-10. 

Great Britain, Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report on the Manuscripts of the Late Reginald Hastings, 4 vols., London, 1930-47. 

Hansard, Thomas C., ed., The Parliamentary History of England from 

the Earliest Period to the Year 1803 . .. , 36 vols., London, 1806--20. 

Hinman, Royal R., ed., A Historical Collection, from Official Files 

&C of the part sustained by Connecticut during the War of the 

Revolution, Hartford, Conn., 1842. 

Hoadly, C. J. and L. W. Labaree, ed., The Public Records of the State 

of Connecticut ... with the journal of the Council of Safety, 1776-

1781, II vols., Hartford, Conn., 1894-19. Vols. l-5 on Revolution. 

Jones, Charles C., ed., The Seige of Savannah in 1779, as Described in 

Two Contemporaneous journals of French Officers in the Fleet of 

Count D'Estaing, Albany, 1874. 

Kallish, Martin, and Andrew MacLeish, The American Revolution 

through British Eyes, Evanston, Ill., 1962. 

Kroger, Alfred, Geburt der USA: German Newspaper Accounts of the 

American Revolution, Madison, Wis., 1962. 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 217 

Linn, John B., ed., Minutes of the Board of War ... 1777 ... and Other 

Papers Relating to the Revolutionary War, Harrisburg, Pa. 1874. 

Linn, John B., et als., ed., Pennsylvania Archives, 9 series, 138 vols., 

Philadelphia and Harrisburg, 1852-1949. Material on Revolution 

scattered in various volumes but particularly in 2nd and 3rd series. 

Mather, Frederic G., ed., New York in the Revolution as Colony and 

State, compiled by the State Comptroller, Albany, 1861. 

Mcllwaine, H. R., ed., Official Letters of the Governors of the State of 

Virginia, 3 vols., Richmond, Va., 1926-29. 

Mcllwaine, H. R., ed., journals of the Council of State of the State of 

Virginia, 1776-1781, Richmond, Va., 1931-32. 

Meng, John L., ed., Dispatches and Instructions of Conrad Alexandre 

Gerard, 1778-1780, Baltimore, 1939. 

Moore, Frank, comp., Diary of the American Revolution from Newspapers and Original Documents, 2 vols., London, 1860. 

Morison, Samuel Eliot, ed., Sources and Documents Illustrating the 

American Revolution, 1764-1788, and the Formation of the Federal 

Constitution, 2d ed., New York, 1965. 

Morris, Richard B., ed., The Ame1·ican Revolution, 1763-1783, A Bicentennial Collection, New York, 1970. 

Myers, Thomas Bailey, ed., Cowpens Papers: Being the Correspondence 

of General Morgan and Prominent Actors, Charleston, S. C., 1881. 

New Jersey, State of, Minutes of the Council of Safety of the State of 

New jersey, 1777-1778, Jersey City, 1872. 

New Jersey, State of, Selections from the Correspondence of the Executive of New jersey from 1776 to 1786, Newark, N. J., 1848. 

New Jersey, State of, Documents Relating to the Colonial and Revolutionary History of New jersey, 2nd series, 5 vols., covering Revolu~ 

tion, Trenton, N.J., 1901-17. 

New York State, Secretary of State of, Calendar of Historical Manuscripts Relating to the War of the Revolution, in the Office of the 

Secretary of State, Albany, 1868. 

Niles, Hezekiah, Principles and Acts of the Revolution, New York, 1826. 

Abridged edition, edited by Alden T. Vaughan under title Chronicles of the American Revolution, New York, 1965. 

Palmer, William P., and Flournoy, H. W., eds., Calendar of Virginia 

State Papers and Other Documents, 1652-1869, Richmond, Va., 

1875-93. Vols. l-3 pertinent to Revolution. 

Paullin, Charles 0., ed., Out-Letters of the Continental Marine Committee and Board of Admiralty, August, 1776-September, 1780, New 

York, 1914. 

Pennsylvania, Commonwealth of, Minutes of the Provincial Council of 

Pennsylvania 13 vols., Harrisburg, 1850-53. 

Pettingill, Roy, ed., Letters from America, 1776-1779, Boston, 1924. 
218 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Rankin, Hugh F., ed., The American Revolution, New York, 1964. 

Rice, Howard C., and Anne A. K. Brown, trans. & ed., The American 

Campaigns of Rochambeau's Army, 1780, 1781, 1782, 1783, 2 vols., 

Princeton, N. J., and Providence, R. I., 1972. 

Roberts, Kenneth L., ed., March to Quebec: journals of the Members 

of Arnold's Expedition, New York, 1938. Revised edition, Garden 

City, N. Y., 1959. 

Russell, John, ed., Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in New England, 10 vols., Providence, 1856-65. 

Vols 7-9 on the Revolutionary period. 

Saffel, William T. H., comp., Records of the Revolutionary War, New 

York, 1858. 

Salley, A. S., ed., Documents Relating to the History of South Carolina 

during the Revolutionary War, Columbia, S. C., 1908. 

Salley, A. S., ed., journal of the Commissioners of the Navy of South 

Carolina ... 1776 ... 1780, 2 vols., Columbia, S.C., 1912-13. 

Saunders, William L., ed., The Colonial Records of North Carolina, 

10 vols., Raleigh, N. C., 1886-90. 

Sparks, Jared, ed., Correspondence of the American Revolution, 4 vols., 

Boston, 1853. 

Stevens, Benjamin F., ed., Facsimiles of Manuscripts in European 

Archives Relating to America, 26 vols., London, 1889-1895. 

Stone, William L., ed., Letters of Brunswick and Hessian Officers During the American Revolution, Albany, N. Y., 1891. 

Stoudt, John J., Ordeal at Valley Forge; a day-by-day chronicle from 

December 17, 1777, to june 18, 1778, compiled from the sources, 

Philadelphia, 1963. 

Thwaites, Reuben Gold and Louise P. Kellogg, eds., The Revolution 

on the Upper Ohio, 1775-1777, Madison, Wis., 1908. 

Thwaites, Reuben Gold and Louise P. Kellogg, eds., Frontier Defense 

on the Upper Ohio, 1777-1778, Madison, Wis., 1912. 

'I hwaites, Reuben Gold and Louise P. Kellogg, eds., Frontier Advance 

on the Upper Ohio, 1778-1779, Madison, Wis., 1916. 

Thwaites, Reuben Gold and Louise P. Kellogg, eds., Frontier Retreat 

on the Upper Ohio, 1779-1781, Madison, Wis., 1917. 

Tolman, James T., ed., Loyalist Narratives from Upper Canada, Toronto, 1946. 

Trumbull, J. H. and Charles J. Hoadly, eds., The Public Records of 

the Colony of Connecticut, 15 vols., Hartford, Conn., 1850-90, Vols. 

14-15 cover the first phase of the Revolution. 

Uhlendorf, B. A., ed & trans., The Seige of Charleston with an Account 

of the Province of South Carolina, Diaries and Letters of Hessian 

Officers from the Von jungkenn Papers in the William L. Clements 

Library, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1938. 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 219 

Vollmer, Arthur, ed., Backgrounds of Selective Service, Selective Service 

Monograph No. 1, vol. II: Military Obligations, The American 

Tradition, 9 parts, Washington, 1947. 

Wharton, Francis, ed., Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of 

the United States, 6 vols., Washington, 1889. 

Wheeler, Richard, Voices of 1776, New York, 1972. 

Willard, Margaret W., ed., Letters on the American Revolution, 1774-

1776, Boston, 1925. 
Collections of Personal Letters and Papers 

Adams, John, The Adams Papers, Series 1, Diary and Autobiography, 

4 vols., edited by L. H. Butterfield, 1961; Series 2, Adams' Family 

Correspondence, 2 vols., edited by L. H. Butterfield, 1963; Series 3, 

General Correspondence, 3 vols., edited by L. Kinvin Wroth and 

Hiller B. Zober, 1965; Series 4, Portraits, 1970. All published in 

Cambridge, Mass. 

Anonymous, "Letters of a French Officer, written at Easton, Pennsylvania in 1777-1778," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 35, June 1911, 90-102. 

Aylett, William, "Correspondence of Col. William Aylett, Commissary 

General of Virginia," Tyler's Quarterly Historical and Genealogical 

Magazine, vol. l, 1919-1920, 87-110; 145-61. 

Barbe-Marbois, Fran<;ois, Marquis de, Our Revolutionary Forefathers, 

Letters of Barbe-Marbois during his Residence in the U.S. as Secretary of the French Legation, 1779-1785, translated and edited by 

E. P. Chase, New York, 1929. 

Barrington, Samuel, Barrington Papers, 2 vols., edited by D. Bonner 

Smith, London, 1937-41. 

Baurmeister, Carl S., Revolution in America; Confidential Letters and 

journals, 1776-1784, of Adjutant General Major Baurmeister of the 

Hessian Forces, translated and annotated by Bernard A. Uhlendorf, 

New Brunswick, N. J., 1957. 

Bland, Theodorick, The Bland Papers, edited by Charles Campbell, 2 

vols., Petersburg, Va., 1840-43. 

Boudinot, Elias, Life, Public Services, and Letters, edited by J. J. 

Boudinot, Boston, 1896. 

Bowdoin, James, The Bowdoin and Temple Papers, 2 vols., Massachusetts Historical Society Collections, 6th Series, vol. 9; 7th Series, vol. 

6, Boston, 1897-1907. 

Brown, Tarleton, Memoirs of Tarleton Brown, a Captain in the Revolutionary Army, written by himself, Barnwell, S. C., 1894. 

Clarke, George Rogers, George Rogers Clarke Papers, 1771-1784, edited 

by James A. James, Illinois State Historical Library Collections, 

vols. 8 and 19, Springfield, Ill., 1912, 1926. 

Clinton, George, Public Papers of George Clinton, First Governor of 

New York, 10 vols., edited by Hugh Hastings, Albany, N. Y., 1899-

1914. 

220 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 221 

Colden, Lt. Gov. Cadwallader, The Colden Letter Books, 2 vols., New 

York, New York Historical Society, 1877-1878. 

Conyngham, Gustavus, Letters and Papers Relating to the Cruises of 

Gustavus Cunyngham, A Captain of the Continental Navy, 1777-

1779, edited by Robert W. Neeser, New York, 1915. 

Cooke, Nicholas, "Revolutionary Correspondence, 1775-81," American 

Antiquarian Society Proceedings, vol. 34, 1926, 231-53. 

Copley, JohnS., Letters and Papers of john Singleton Copley and Henry 

Pelham 17 39-177 6, Massachusetts Historical Society Collections, vol. 

71, Boston, 1914. 

Cornwallis, Charles, The Correspondence of Charles, First Marquis 

Cornwallis, edited by Charles Ross, 3 vols., London 1859. 

Cresswell, Nicholas, The journal of Nicholas Cresswell, 1774-1777, 

New York, 1924. 

Dickson, William, The Dickson Letters, edited by James 0. Carr, 

Raleigh, N. C., 1901. 

Evelyn, W. Glanville, Memoirs and Letters of Captain W. Glanville 

Evelyn, 1774-76, edited by D. G. Scull, 1879. 

Fersen, Axel Comte de, Lettres d'Axel a son pere pendant la Guerre de 

l'Independ.ence d'Amerique, edited by Comte F. U. Wrange, Paris 

1929. 

Franklin, Benjamin, The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 17 vols. published, edited by Leonard Labaree, New Haven, 1959- . 

Gage, Thomas, The Correspondence of General Thomas Gage with the 

Secretaries of State, and with the War Office and Treasury, 1763-

1775, edited by Clarence W. Carter, 2 vols., New Haven, 1931-33. 

Galloway, Joseph, Letters to a Nobleman on the Conduct of the War 

in the Middle Colonies, London, 1780. 

Gates, Horatio, "The Southern Campaign, 1780 Gates at Camden, Letters of Major General Gates from June 21 to August 31, 1780. Orders 

Issued by General Gates to the Southern Army," Magazine of American History, vol. 5, 1880, 241-320. 

George the Third, The Correspondence of King George the Third from 

1760 to December 1783, edited by Sir John W. Fortescue, 6 vols., 

London and New York, 1927-28. 

George the Third, Correspondence of George Ill with Lord North, 

1768-1783, edited by W. Bodham Donne, London, 1867. 

Graves, Admiral Thomas, The Graves Papers and Other Documents 

Relating to the Naval Operations of the Yorktown Campaign, july 

to October, 1781, Naval Historical Society Publications, vol. 7, New 

York, 1916. 

Greene, Nathanael, "Letters of Nathanael Greene to Colonel Jeremiah 

Wadsworth," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 

vol. 22, 1868, 211-16. 
222 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Greene, Nathanael, Letters by and to General Nathanael Greene, with 

Some to His Wife, edited by George H. Richmond, New York, 1906. 

Hamilton, Alexander, The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, edited by 

Harold C. Syrett, 11 vols, published, New York, 1961-

Hood, Samuel, Letters Written by Sir Samuel Hood in 1781~82-83, 

edited by David Hannay, London, 1895. 

Hughes, Hugh, Memorial and Documents in the Case of Col. Hugh 

Hughes, Deputy Quartermaster General in the War for Independence, Washington, 1802. 

Huntington, Ebenezer, Letters Written by Ebenezer Huntington during 

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Irvine, William, "Extracts from the Papers of General William Irvine," 

Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 5, 1881, 259-

75. 

Izard, Ralph, Correspondence ... from the Year 1774 to 1804, vol. I, 

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Jefferson, Thomas, The Papers of Thomas jefferson, edited by Julian 

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Johnson, Sir William, The Papers of Sir William johnson, edited by 

James Sullivan and others, 13 vols., Albany and New York, 1921-

62. 

Jones, John Paul, Life and Correspondence of john Paul ]ones, Including His Narrative of the Campaign of the Liman, from Original 

Letters and Manuscripts in the Possession of Miss janette Taylor, 

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Kemble, Stephen, The Kemble Papers, 1773-1789, Collections of the 

New York Historical Society for the Years 1883, 1884, New York, 

1884-85. 

Lafayette, Marie Joseph Paul ... , Marquis de, Memoirs, Correspondence and Manuscripts of General Lafayette, published by his 

family, 3 vols., London, 1837. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, The Letters of Lafayette to Washington, 1777-

1779, edited by Louis Gottschalk, New York, 1944. 

La Rouerie, Charles-Armand Tuffin, Marquis de, "Letters of Colonel 

Armand (Marquis de la Rouerie), 1777-1791," New York Historical Society Collections, vol. 11, 1878, 287-396. 

Laurens, Col. John, Army Correspondence of Colonel john Laurens in 

the Years 1777-78, edited by William Gilmore Simms, New York, 

1867. 

Lee, Charles, The Lee Papers ... 17541-1811, 4 vols., New York Historical Society Collections, vols. 4-7, New York, 1872-75. 

Lee, Richard Henry, Letters of Richard Henry Lee, edited by James C. 

Ballagh, 2 vols., New York, 1911. 

Lincoln, Rufus, The Papers of Captain Rufus Lincoln of Wareham, 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 223 

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Mason, George, The Papers of George Mason, edited by Robert A. 

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Morton, Robert, "Papers Relating to the Battle of Brandywine," Pennsylvania Historical Society Bulletin, vol. 1, 1846, 40-63. 

Moylan, Stephen, "Selections from the Correspondence of Col. Stephen 

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Robbins, Armi Ruhamak, Journal of the Rev. Armi R. Robbins, a 
A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 235 

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236 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

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A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 237 

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Vose, Joseph, journal of Lieutenant Colonel joseph Vase, April-july 

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238 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

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Walters, Michael, journal ... of a Member of the Expedition against 

Sandusky in the Year 1782, edited by John P. McLean, Cleveland, 

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Ware, Joseph, "Expedition Against Quebec," New England Historical 

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edited by John C. Fitzpatrick, 4 vols., Boston, 1925. 

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Wells, Bayze, "Journal of Bayze Wells of Farmington in the Canadian 

Expedition, 1775-77," Canadian Historical Society Collections, val. 

7, I 899, 239-96. 

Weeks, William, Five Stars Gathered from Revolutionary Fields, edited 

by Hiram Bingham Jr., Cambridge, Mass., 1901. 

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Served as Corporal, Sergeant, Ensign, and Lieutenant in the American Army of the Revolution," Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings, 2nd ser., val. 6, 1890, 78-160. 

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1816. 

Wister, Sally, Sally Wister's journal: A True Narrative Being a Quaker 

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vol. 6, Ju1 1862, 208-12. 

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Young, William, "Journal of Sergeant William Young, Written during the Jersey Campaign of the Winter of 1776-1777," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vo1. 8, 1884, 255-78. 
Orderly Books-American 

Arnold, Benedict, "Regimental Memorandum Book, Written while at 

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Elbert, Samuel, "The Order Book of Samuel Elbert, Colonel and Brigadier General in the Continental Army, October, 1776 to November 

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19. 

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Gamble, Robert, "Orderly Book of Captain Robert Gamble of the Second Virginia Regiment commanded by Colonel Christian Febiger, 

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Grimke, John F., "Order Book of John Faucheraud Grimke," South 

Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine, vol. 13, 1912, 1-100. 

Henshaw, William, Orderly Book of Colonel William Henshaw of the 

American Army, April 20-September 26, 1775. Including a Memoir 

by Emily Washburn, and Notes by Charles C. Smith, with additions 

by Harriet E. Henshaw. Boston, 1881. 

Henshaw, William, "The Orderly Books of Colonel William Henshaw: 

239 
240 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

October I, 1775 through October 3, 1776," American Antiquarian 

Society Proceedings, vol. 57, 1947, 17-234. 

Heth, William, "Orderly Book of Major William Heth of the Third 

Virginia Regiment, May 15-July I, 1777 ," Virginia Historical 

Society Collections, vol. II, 1892, 317-26. 

Hutchinson, Israel, "Orderly Book," Massachusetts Historical Society 

Proceedings, vol. 16, 1878, 336-64. 

Kirkwood, Capt. Robert, "The Journal and Orderly Book of Capt. 

Robert Kirkwood of the Delaware Regiment of the Continental 

Line," Delaware Historical Society Papers, vol. 16, Wilmington, 

Del., 1910. 

Lauber, Almon W. ed., Orderly Books of the Fourth New York Regiment, 1776-1780; the Second New York Regiment, 1780-1783 by 

Samuel Tallmadge and Others. With the Diaries of Samuel Tallmedge, 1780-1782 and john Barr, 1779-1782, Albany, New York, 

1932. 

Lewis, Andrew, Orderly Book of that portion of the American Army 

stationed at or near Williamsburg, Virginia, under the command 

of General Andrew Lewis, from March 18th 1776 to August 28, 1776, 

Richmond, Va., 1860. 

Muhlenberg, Maj. Gen. John Peter, "Orderly Book, 26 March-20 December 1777," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 

vol. 33, 1909, 257-78, 454-74; vol. 34, 1910, 21-40, 166-89, 336-60, 

438-77; vol. 35, 19ll, 59-89, 156-87, 290-303. 

Porter, Col. Phineas, "Orderly Book of Phineas Porter," Mattatuck 

Historical Society Publications, vol. 3, Waterbury, Conn., 1928. 

Stewart, Walter, "Orderly Book of the Pennsylvania State Regiment of 

Foot, May 10 to August 16, 1777," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 22, 1899, 57-70, 196-210, 301-20, 475-78. 

Stubblefield, George, "Orderly Book of the Company of Captain George 

Stubblefield Fifth Virginia Regiment, from March 3, 1776 to July 

10, 1776, ... ,"Virginia Historical Society Collections, new ser., vol. 

6, 1887, 41-191. 

Wayne, Anthony, "Orderly Book, Fourth Pennsylvania Battalion, Col. 

Anthony Wayne, 1776," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 29, 1905, 470-78; vol. 30, 1906, 91-103, 206-19. 

Wayne, Anthony, "General Wayne's Orderly Book," Michigan Historical Society Collections, vol. 34, 1905, 341-734. 

Wayne, Anthony and Horatio Gates, Orderly Book of the Northern 

Army, at Ticonderoga and Mt. Independence from October 17, 1776, 

to january 8, 1777, Albany, N.Y., 1859. 

Weedon, George, Valley Forge Orderly Book of General George 

Weedon of the Continental Army under the Command of Gen'l 

George Washington in the Campaign of 1777-78, New York, 1902. 
Orderly Books-British and Loyalist 

Cary, A. D. L. and Stoupler McCole, Regimental Records of the Royal 

Welsh Fusiliers (Late the 23rd Foot), London, 1921. 

De Lancey, Oliver, Orderly Book of the Three Battalions of Loyalists 

Commanded by Brigadier General Oliver DeLancey, 1776-1778, 

New York, 1917. 

O'Callahan, E. B., ed., john Burgoyne's Orderly Book, Albany, N. Y., 

1860. 

Newsome, A. R., ed., "A British Orderly Book, 1780-1781," North 

Carolina Historical Review, vol. 9, 1932, 273-98. 

Stevens, Benjamin F., ed., Sir William Howe's Orderly Book at Charlestown, Boston and Halifax, june 17, 1775 to May 26, 1776 to which 

is Added the Official Abridgement of General Howe's Correspondence with the English Government During the Siege of Boston and 

Some Military Returns, London, 1890. 

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Magazine of American History, vol. 6, 1881, 204-16. 

241 

Notes on the Manuscript Sources 

Despite the large amount of source material on the military history of the American Revolution that has been printed, there is also 

a very great deal that exists only in manuscript. As noted in the 

introduction, however, this bibliography does not purport to provide any detailed listing of manuscript sources, so that what follows 

may be considered a general introduction to the subject, indicating 

only the most important depositories to which the student may 

want to turn_ 

For the British side, of course, the British Public Record Office 

and the British Museum in London are both important sources 

for the official materials on the British war effort. Charles M. 

Andrews' Guide to the Materials for American History to 1783, in 

the Public Record Office of Great Britain (2 vols., Washington, 

1912) and Andrews and Frances C. Davenport's Guide to the Manuscript Materials for the History of the United States to 1783, in 

the British Museum, in Minor London Archives, and in the Libraries of Oxford and Cambridge (Washington, 1908) are both still 

useful guides. It is not necessary to go to England, however, to consult many of these records; some portions of them have been copied 

and may be found in the Library of Congress. They are described 

in Grace Gardner Griffin, A Guide to Manuscripts Relating to 

American History in British Repositories Reproduced for the 

Division of Manuscrips of the Library of Congress, (Washington, 

1946). And many of the British headquarters papers have found 

their way to the William L. Clements Library at the University 

of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. These include the papers of 

Sir Thomas Gage, Lord George Germain, Sir Henry Clinton and 

other notables. These were originally described in Howard H. 

Peckham, Guide to the Manuscript Collections in the William L. 

Clements Library, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1942; Peckham's guide was 

updated by William S. Ewing in 1953. 

Colonial Williamsburg Inc. has also acquired numerous British 

papers, among them those of Sir Guy Carleton, commander in 

Canada and the last of the British commanders in chief in North 

America. A good summary of the whole matter of the location of 

British military papers is Henry P. Beers, "The Papers of the 

British Commanders in Chief in North America, 1754-1783," 

243 
244 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Military Affairs) vol. 13, 1949, 79-94. Other British papers may be 

found in the Canadian Archives, and of course there is a great deal 

of manuscript material on French and Spanish participation in 

their respective archives. 

On the American side the manuscript sources are quite scattered. The main federal repositories are the National Archives and 

the Library of Congress. The most important single collection at 

the Library of Congress is the Washington Papers which contain in 

a very real sense the headquarters papers of the Continental Army. 

There are also collections of numerous other military figures in 

the Library Manuscript Division and copies of manuscripts housed 

elsewhere, both in Britain and America. The collections at the 

National Archives, since the transfer of the Papers of the Continental Congress from the Library to that repository, are now of 

equal importance. However, the records of the Revolution at the 

Archives do not include any such systematic collection of papers 

on the Continental Army as those for the Union Army during the 

Civil War, or for the U. S. Army during World Wars I and II. 

There are, however, numerous fragmentary records that the student 

cannot afford to neglect. A Preliminary Inventory of the War 

Dep,artment Collection of Revolutionary War Records was published by National Archives in 1971. 

Each of the original thirteen states played its part in the military 

effort and the archives of these states, most of them relatively 

unexploited, are a rich source for the history of the Revolution. 

Most state archival agencies have published guides to at least some 

of their holdings, and these should be consulted. 

Other manuscript collections relating to the military history of 

the Revolution are so widely dispersed throughout the United 

States as almost to defy any short description. State and local historical societies, not only in the original thirteen states, but in a 

number of others have important holdings, as do various state and 

public libraries. The Nathaniel Greene Papers, for instance, are 

at the William L. Clements Library at the University of Michigan, 

the Horatio Gates Papers at the New York Historical Society, the 

Henry Knox and Artemas Ward Papers at the Massachusetts Historical Society. At least some of the papers of Daniel Morgan are in 

the New York Public Library. The Draper Collection at the Wisconsin Historical Society is perhaps the most important repository 

for holdings on frontier history during the Revolution. This is but 

a beginning of the list. The best guides are Philip M. Hamer, ed., 

A Guide to Archives and Manuscripts in the United States) New 

Haven, 1961, and the Library of Congress' National Union Catalog 

of Manuscripts) which attempts to provide a complete listing of 

manuscript collections in the United States annually. 
Index 

Acadia, Canada: 103 

Acushnet River: ll4 

Adams, John: 101 

Adams, Samuel: 87 

Adjutant General: 40, 91 

Adjutant General's Corps, ancestor: 91 

Administration: 38, 41, 182-84 

Albany, N.Y.: 8, 61, 97, 107 

Albany Congress: 16 

Alexander the Great: I, 3 

Alexander, Brigadier General William 

(Lord Stirling): 48, 97, 106, II9 

Allegheny River: 16, liS 

Allen, Ethan: 26, 89-90, 93 

Ambassador to U.S., first: ll3 

Amboy, N,J.: 50-52, 104 

American Turtle (submarine): 101 

Ammunition 

artillery and small arms: 6 

procurement and distribution: 27 

Andre, Major John: 123-24 

Andrustown, N.Y.: 113 

Annapolis, Md.: 87-88, 136 

Armies 

American suspicion of: 38, 83 

Continental. See Middle Department; 

Northern Department (Army); 

Southern Department (Army); 

development of: 1-4 

Armor, body: 3 

Army, Department of, ancestor: 99 

Arnold, Major General Benedict 

in British service: 77, 81, 125-26, 131 

in Canada invasion: 33-35, 90, 93-96, 

99 

at Crown Point: 26 

at Fort Ticonderoga: 26, 89 

in New York theater: 49-50, 102, 107-

108 

in Saratoga campaign: 6{}-61, 107-109 

treason: 72-73, 122-24 

Articles of Confederation: 38, IIO, 127 

Articles of War: 30, 102 

Artillery 

245 

branch established: 95 

chief of: 40 

first unit: 96 

organization, unit: 40 

types and employment: 5-8 

Ashley River: 70 

Assize of Arms: 2 

Assunpink Creek: 50, 104 

Augsburg, War of the League of: 14 

Augusta, Ga.: 74, 115-17, 123, 128 

Aurora, Ind.: 131 

Austrian Succession, War of: 14 

Badge of Military Merit (Purple Heart): 

134 

Bahamas: 134 

Baltimore, Md.: 104-105 

Barras, Admiral Louis, Comte de: 79 

Barren Hill, Pa.: 112 

Barton, Major William: 106 

Basking Ridge, N.J.: 104 

Baton Rouge, La.: 118-19 

Battle, last: 134 

Baum, Colonel Friedrich: 60 

Bay of Fundy, Canada: 103 

Bayonet, development and employment: 

3, 5-6, 63, 66-67, 109 

Beaufort, S.C.: 70, 116 

Beaulieu, Ga.: 118 

Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron: 

99 

Bedford, N.Y.: 48 

Bedford County, Va.: 130 

Belfast, Ireland: 112 

Bemis Heights, N.Y.: 61-62, 108-109 

Bennington, Vt.: 60-61, 81, 107 

Bermuda: 93 

Black Mingo Creek, S.C.: 124 

Blackstocks, S.C.: 125 

Blue Lick (Springs), Ky.: 134 

Blue Mountain Valley, HMS: 97 

Blue Savannah, S.C.: 123 

Board of Admiralty: 119 

Board of War (and Ordnance): 38, 63, 

73, 99, 110, ll6, 127 
246 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Bonhomme Richard (Continental ship): 

ll9 

Bordentown, N.J.: 50-51 

Boston, Mass.: 24-27, 33-35, 39, 45, 66, 

86, 88-89, 91-93, 95-98, 135, 159 

Boston "massacre": 86 

Boston Port Bill: 87 

Boston Tea Party: 24, 87 

Bound Brook, N.j.: 105 

Bounty system: 39 

Bouquet, Colonel Henry: 19 

Braddock, Major General Edward: 16-21 

Brandywine Creek, Pa.: 55, 108 

Brant, Joseph: ll3, ll5, 118, 122, 131 

Breed's Hill: 27, 91 

Breymann's Redoubt: 62 

Briar Creek, Ga.: ll6 

Bristol, R.I.: 93, 96, 112 

British Army 

bibliography: 157, 172 

military heritage from: 30 

strength, periodic: 27, 42, 100, 115 

Revolutionary War problems: 41-44, 

81-82 

withdrawal from U.S.: 136 

British East India Company: 86-87 

British Navy: 15, 39, 45-46, 68, 77, 93-

94, 96-97, 99-100, 110, 113-16, 118-

19, 128, 131, 133-34 

Broad River: 74 

Brodhead, Colonel Daniel: liS 

Bronx, N.Y.: 126 

Brookhaven, N.Y.: 125 

Brooklyn Heights, N.Y.: 46-48, 101 

Brown Bess musket: 5-6 

Brunswick, N.J.: 50-52, 104, 106 

Buford, Colonel Abraham: 70, 73, 120 

Bull's Ferry, N.J.: 122 

Bunker Hill: 27-29, 91, 159 

Burgoyne, Major General John: 27, 54-

62,67,76,90, 98, 106-109, Ill, 163 

Burke, Thomas: 132 

Bushnell, David: 101 

Butler, Walter: 133 

Cadwalader, Major General John: 50 

Cambridge, Mass.: 33, 91, 93, 96-97 

Camden, S.C.: 70-71, 74, 123, 128 

Campbell, William: 93 

Canada theater: 13-15, 19-20, 22, 26, 29, 

33-36, 42, 45, 49-50, 53-54, 58, 68-

72, 87, 91, 93-96, 98-100, 102-103, 

136, 160 

Canajoharie, N.Y.: 122, 130 

Cane Creek, N.C.: 132 

Canister rounds: 6 

Cannae: 76 

Cape Breton Island: 15 

Cape Charles, Va.: 128, 131 

Cape Henry, Va.: 100, 128, 131 

Capes, Battles of: 128, 131 

Carbines: 6 

Carleton, Major General Guy: 49-50, 95, 

98, 102 

Carlisle Peace Commission: ll2-13 

Carolinas campaign: 70-77, 97, ll9, 121-

33 

Carroll, Charles: 98 

Cartagena: 14, 19 

Castine, Maine: 118 

Castle William and Mary: 88 

Casualty, last: 135 

Catawba River: 73-74, 123, 126 

Caughnawaga, N.Y.: 120 

Cavalry 

armament and tactics: 5-7 

supremacy of: 2 

units established: 103 

Cedars, Canada: 99 

Chad's Ford, Pa.: 55 

Chambly, Canada: 94 

Chaplains: 92 

Chariton Creek, Va.: 98 

Charles City Court House, Va.: 126 

Charleston, S.C.: 45-46, 68-71, 74, 76-77, 

81, 87, 89, 99-100, ll7, 119-20, 123, 

128, 130-33, 135 

Charlestown, Mass.: 27, 87 

Charlotte, N.C.: 73, 124-25 

Charlottesville, Va.: 129 

Chase, Samuel: 98 

Chatham, N.J.: 126 

Chaudihe River: 33, 93 

Cheraw Hill, N.C.: 74 

Cherry Valley, N.Y.: 115 

Chesapeake Bay theater: 55, 77-80, 97, 

107-108, 128, 131-32 

Chester, Pa.: 55 

Chestnut Hill, Pa.: 110 

Chew Mansion: 58 

Chief of Artillery: 40 

Chief Engineer: 41, 91 

Chief Surgeon: 41 

Chillicothe, Ohio: 135 

Christiana Creek, Del.: 98 

Citizen soldier, reliance on. See Militia 
INDEX 

Civil authority, supremacy of: 22, 38 

Clapp's Mill, N.C.: 127 

Clark, Lieutenant Colonel George 

Rogers: 68, 113, 116, 122, 131, 135 

Clinton, Major General Henry 

arrival in America: 27, 90 

in Carolinas: 97, 119 

at Charleston: 45, 70, 99-100, 119-20 

as commander in chief: 64, 111-12 

in New Jersey theater: 64-66, 113 

in New York theater: 45, 54, 62, 67-

68, 70, 72,76-77,79, 109, Ill, ll5 

at Newport: 50, 104 

and Virginia theater: 77-80 

Clinton, Brigadier General James: ll7 

Clothier General: 41 

Coerceive Acts: 24, 87 

Collier, Admiral John: ll6 

Colombia: 14 

Colonies 

European rivalry for: 13-21 

military heritage: 22-23 

Column formations: 6 

Combahee River: 134 

Combined operations: 129 

Command, unity of: 27, 53, 79 

Command and staff. See Continental 

Army, command and staff structure 

Commissary Department: 63 

Commissary General of Military Stores: 

92 

Commissary General of Musters: 41, 91 

Commissary General of Stores and Provisions: 41, 63, 91 

Committee of Correspondence: 86 

Common Sense (Paine): 96 

Communications facilities: 41 

Compo Hill, Conn.: 105 

Concentration, principle of: 27, 33-34, 80 

Concord, Mass.: 25, 29, 87, 89 

Congress, Continental: 25-40, 46, 54, 58, 

61-63, 68, 71-73, 87-108, ll0--14, ll6, 

1!9, 121-22, 124, 127 

Congress, U.S.: 127, 130, 133, 135-37 

Connecticut theater: 20, 32, 48, 95, 110, 

117, 126 

Conscription: 39, 111. See also Manpower; Recruiting 

Constitution Island, N.Y.: 93, 96, 109, 

112 

Continental Army (see also United States 

Army) 

bibliography: 176-77 

247 

branches authorized: 41, 91-92, 95 

command and staff structure: 26, 30--

32,40-41,91-92,110,116 

evolution of: 37-41 

financing: 37 

foreigners in: 54-55 

formation: 29-33 

strength, periodic: 38-39, 46, 49-50, 54, 

96, 124, 136-37 

territorial organization: 40, 91, 97 

troop units. See Troop units 

uniforms: 26 

unit organization. See Troop units 

Continental Association: 88 

Continental Navy: 33, 92-99, 1ll-12, 119, 

128, 186-87. See also Privateers 

Cooch's Bridge, Del.: 108 

Cooper River: 70, 130 

Cornwallis, Major General Charles 

in Carolinas and Georgia: 70--76, 123-

29 

in New Jersey and Pennsylvania: 49-

57, 103-105, llO 

in New York theater: ll4 

in Virginia theater: 129-30 

at Yorktown and surrender: 76-81, 

130-32 

Corps of Engineers, ancestor: 91 

Corrc;!spondence, Committee of: 86 

Correspondence, Secret Committee of: 

95, 97 

Council of War: 41, 65 

Courts-martial: 32 

Cowan's Ford, N.C.: 126 

Cowpens, S.C.: 74, 81, 126 

Craig, Major James: 127, 131, 133 

Crawford, Major William: 134 

Crisis (Paine): 104 

Critique of operations: 81-83 

Crooked Billet Tavern: ll2 

Croton River: 129 

Crown Point, N.Y.: 26, 90--91, 100, 102, 

106, 120 

Cruzier (sloop): 90 

Currency system: 37, 41, 71, 73,91 

Currytown, N.Y.: 130 

Dan River: 127 

Danbury, Conn.: 105 

Dawes, William: 25 

Dayton, Elias: 97 

Deane, Silas: 97, 102, 111 
248 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Declaration of Causes and Necessities of 

Taking Up Arms: 91-92 

Declaration of Independence: 35-36, 96, 

98-100 

Declaration of Rights and Grievances: 

85, 88 

Declaratory Act: 85 

Defense (Maryland ship): 97 

Delaware theater: 103-104, 108, 125 

Delaware Bay: 107 

Delaware Capes: 113 

Delaware River region: 49-51, 55-74, 81, 

98, 103-104, 107, 110 

Demobilization: 136 

Desertions: 49 

Detroit, Mich.: 68, 115 

Diana (schooner): 90 

Dinwiddie, Robert: 16 

Director General and Chief Physician: 92 

Discipline 

punishments for infractions: 5 

state of: 26, 30-32, 41 

Disease, casualties from: 35 

Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: 49 

Dogger Bank battle: 131 

Dorchester, S.C.: 133 

Dorchester Heights, Mass.: 27, 35, 97-98 

Doudel, Captain Michael: 92 

Draft. See Conscription; Manpower, procurement and retention; Militia 

Dragoons, authorized: 103 

Drake, HMS: 112 

Dunmore, Lord: 89-90, 94-96, 100 

Dynastic wars: 3-4 

East Boston, Mass.: 90 

East River area: 46, 48, 101 

Easton, Pa.: 117 

Economic and financial conditions: 36-

37, 71-73, 182-84 

Economy of force, principle of: 55 

Edisto River: 131 

Egg Harbor, N.j.: 115 

Elizabethtown, N.j.: 97 

Elk River: 55 

Elkton, Md.: 55, 108 

Elmira, N.Y.: 68, 117-18 

Engineers 

chief of: 41, 91 

operations by: 1-2 

units authorized: 40, 112, 116 

England. See British Army; British 

Navy; Parliament; United Kingdom 

Enlistment periods: 32-33, 36, 39, 49, 95, 

102, Ill 

Enoree River: 123 

Esopus, N.Y.: 109 

Estaing, jean, Comte d': 65-66, 68, 113-

14, 118-19 

Europe 

colonies, rivalry for: 13-21 

military heritage: 1-4 

Eutaw Springs, S.C.: 76, 132 

Ewing, james: 50 

Executions: 5, 100, 102, 124, 126 

Fair Lawn, S.C.: 133 

Fairfield, Conn.: 105, 117, 125 

Fairhaven, Mass.: 114 

Falcon, HMS: 92 

Ferguson, Major Patrick: 73, 122, 124 

Feudal system: 2-4 

Finance, Superintendent of: 73, 127 

Finance Corps, ancestor: 91 

Financial conditions. See Economic and 

financial conditions 

Fishdam Ford, S.C.: 125 

Fisher Summit, Pa.: 122 

Fishing Creek, S.C.: 71, 123 

Flagg, Major Ebenezer: 129 

Flags, contemporary: 96, 105-106, Ill, 

178-80 

Florida theater: 13-14, 65, 68, 85, 105, 

112, 120, 128 

Fontenoy, Battle of: 8 

Foreigners in Continental Army: 54-55 

Fort Anderson, S.C.: 122 

Fort Anne, N.Y.: 106-107 

Fort Charlotte, Ala.: 120 

Fort Clinton, N.Y.: 62, 109 

Fort Cornwallis, Ga.: 123 

Fort Cumberland, Canada: 103 

Fort Duquesne, Pa.: 16-19 

Fort Edward, N.Y.: 60, 106-107 

Fort Galphin, S.C.: 129 

Fort George (now Brookhaven), N.Y.: 125 

Fort Granby, S.C.: 129 

Fort Grierson, Ga.: 123 

Fort Griswold, Conn.: 131 

Fort Henry, Va.: 108, 134 

Fort Independence, N.Y.: 104 

Fort johnson, N.C.: 90 

Fort Keyser, N.Y.: 124 

Fort Lee, N.J.: 48, 103 

Fort Mcintosh, Ga.: 105 

Fort Mercer, N.j.: 110 
INDEX 

Fort Mi!Rin, Pa.: llO 

Fort Montgomery, N.Y.: 62, 96, 109 

Fort Morris, Ga.: 115 

Fort Motte, S.C.: 129 

Fort Moultrie, S.C.: 45, 70, 120 

Fort Niagara, N.Y.: 68, 122 

Fort Plank, N.Y.: 122 

Fort St. Joseph, Mich.: 127 

Fort Stanwix, N.Y.: 58-61, 107-108 

Fort Sumter, S.C.: 26 

:Fort Ticonderoga, N.Y.: 26, 33-35, 49-

50, 58-60, 89, 91, 93, 97, 102, 106, 

108 

Fort Union, Va.: 129 

Fort Washington, N.Y.: 49, 103 

Fort Watson, S.C.: 128 

Fortescue, John: 19 

Fortifications, ancient and contemporary: 

2, 7-8. See also Siege operations 

Fowey, HMS: 90 

France: 40, 43, 136. See also French 

Army; :French Navy 

alliance with: 62, 64-66, 111-12, 191-

92 

colonial empire: 13-14, 85 

military aid from: 54, 82, 97-99, 191-

92 

threat to colonies by: 24 

Franklin (Continental ship): 99 

Franklin, Benjamin: 16, 98, 101-102, Ill, 

114, 134 

Fraunces' Tavern: 136 

Frederick the Great: 6-7, 42 

Freeman's Farm, N.Y.: 61, 109 

French Army: 54, 62, 64-67, 72, 82, 130-

33, 135, 191-92 

French and Indian War: 14, 16-21, 58, 

82 

French Navy: 65-66, 68-70, 77, 79-80, 82, 

ll3-14, llll-19, 128, 131-34, 191-92 

Gage, Major General Thomas: 17-18. 2·1-

29, 35,85,87,90,93 

Galvez, Bernardo de: 118, 120, 128 

Gambling, curb on: Ill 

Gaspee affair: 86 

Gates, Major General Horatio: 22, 30, 

49, 121-22 

as Adjutant General: 32 

as Board of War president: 63 

in Carolinas campaign: 71, 73, 121-24 

in Saratoga campaign: 58-63, 107-109 

249 

George III of England: 29, 44, 53, 86--

87, 91, 93, 133 

Georgetown, S.C.: 70, 105, 126 

Georgia theater: 14, 26, 40, 68-70, 92, 97, 

105, 114-16 

Gerard, Conrad: 113 

Germain, Lord George: 44, 53-54, 61, 72, 

77 

German Flats, N.Y.: ll4 

German troops (all included under Hes· 

sian troops) 

Germantown, Pa.: 57, 109 

Germany: 21 

Gibraltar: 135 

Gloucester, Mass.: 92 

Gloucester, N.J.: llO 

Gloucester, Va.: 132 

Gloucester Point, Va.: 80, 130, 132 

Glover, Colonel John: 48 

Gnadenhuetten, Ohio: 134 

Golden Hill battle: 86 

Government organization: 37, 43, 82, 127 

Governor's Island, N.Y.: 101 

Grant, Brigadier General James: ll5 

Grape shot: 6 

Grasse, Admiral Fran<;ois, Comte de: 79-

80, 131-32, 134 

Graves, Admiral Thomas: 7!}-80 

Great Bay, N.j.: 115 

Great· Brewster (Light· House) Island, 

Mass.: 92 

Great Bridge, Va.: 95 

Great Lakes region: 13-16 

Great Miami River: 135 

Great Savannah, S.C.: 123 

Greek city·states: 1 

Green, Colonel Christopher: 129 

Green Mountain Boys: 89-90, 93 

Green Spring, S.C.: 122 

Green Spring, Va.: 79, 130 

Greene, Major General Nathanael: 81-

82 

in Carolinas: 73-77, 124-25, 127-29, 

132-33 

at Long Island: 46 

in New Jersey and Pennsylvania: 56-

57 

in .Kew York theater: 49, 81 

in Princeton-Trenton campaign: 49-

51 

as Quartermaster General: 63, 71-73 

in Virginia theater: 127 

Green's Farms, Conn.: 117 
250 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Greensboro, N.C. See Guilford Court 

House, N.C. 

Guerrilla warfare: 15, 17-19, 22, 70-71, 

83, 122-25 

Guilford, Conn.: 105 

Guilford Court House, N.C.: 76, 127-28 

Gunpowder, introduction of: 3 

Gustavus Adolphus: 6 

Gwynn Island, Va.: 100 

Hale, Captain Nathan: 102 

Halfway Swamp, S.C.: 125 

Halifax: 35, 45, 103 

Halifax, HMS: 94 

Hamilton, Alexander: 96 

Hammond's Store, S.C.: 125 

Hampton, Va.: 94 

Hampton Roads, Va.: 77, 79, 116, 125, 

128 

Hancock, John: 88 

Hancock's Bridge, N.J.: Ill 

Hanging Rock, S.C.: 122 

Hannastown, Pa.: 134 

Hannibal: 76 

Harlem Heights, N.Y.: 48, 101 

Harlem River: 46, 126 

Harpersfield, N.Y.: 120 

Havana, Cuba: 134 

Haw River: 127 

Head of Elk, Md.: 55, 108 

Heath, Major General William: 49, 104 

Henry II of England: 2 

Henry, Patrick: 88 

Herkimer, N.Y.: ll4 

Herkimer, Brigadier General Nicholas: 

60, 107 

Hessian troops: 41-42, 50-51, 55, 58, 82, 

101, 104, 107-10, 117-18, 131, 175 

Hickey, Thomas: 100 

Hillsboro, N.C.: 71, 74, 123, 125, 132 

Hobkirk's Hill, S. C.: 76, 128 

Hog Island, Mass.: 90 

Hope Island, R.I.: 96 

Horseneck Landing, Conn.: 116 

Hortalez et Cie.: 99 

Mostilities, end proclaimed: 135-36 

Howe, Admiral Richard: 45-46, 65-66, 

101, 113-14 

Howe, Major General Robert: 105, 115 

Howe, Major General William: 42, 76 

arrival in America: 27, 90 

at Boston: 35, 93, 98 

at Bunker Hill: 27 

as commander in chief: 35, 93 

at Halifax: 45, 98 

and Hudson River plan: 45-54 

at Long Island: 46-48, 101 

in New Jersey and Pennsylvania: 50, 

52, 57, 100, 103, 105-107 

in New York theater: 45-53, 100, 102-

103 

in Philadelphia area: 53-58, 64, 106-

10, 112 

Hubbardton, Vt.: 106 

Hudson Highlands: 90, 93, 109, ll7 

Hudson River plan: 45-54, 106 

Hudson River region: 14, 33-34, 45-49, 

53-61, 103, 105, 109, 112, 114, 117 

Hutchinson's Island, Ga.: 97 

lie d'Ouessant, France: ll3, 133 

Illinois theater: 68 

Independence, movement toward and 

recognition: 35-36, 96, 98-100, 112, 

134-35 

India: 15, 81 

Indiana theater: 68 

Indians 

as allies: 15 

bibliography: 168-69 

operations by and against: 43, 58-61, 

67-68, 93, 106-108, 113-15, 117-18, 

120, 122. 124. 130-31, 133-35 

Infa.ntry 

armament, formations and tactics: l, 

3, 5-8, 10, 26 

combat arm established: 91 

organization: 40 

as Queen of Battles: 5 

Inspector General (and Department): 

llO, 112, 116 

Intolerable Acts: 24, 87 

Iroquois confederacy: 15, 68 

Isle aux Noir, Canada: 100 

Jamaica: 14 

Jamaica, N.Y.: 48, 101 

James River region: 77, 79, 125, 128, 130, 

132 

Jefferson, Thomas: 100, 102, 129 

Jenkins' Ear, War of: 14 

Jersey City, N.J.: ll8 

Jerseyficld, N.Y.: 133 

John's Island, S.C.: 70, 133, 135 

Johnson, John: 96, 120, 124 

Johnstown, N.Y.: 120, 133 
Il'>DEX 

Jones, John Paul: ll2, ll9 

Judge Advocate General: 40-41, 92 

Kalb, Brigadier General Johann de: 55, 

71, 105, 123 

Kaskaskia, III.: ll3, 116, 131 

Kennebec River: 33, 93 

Kentucky theater: 67-68, 134-35 

Kentucky (Pennsylvania) rifle: 21-22 

Kettle Creek, Ga.: ll6 

King George's War: 14 

King William's War: 14 

King's Bridge, r\.Y.: 46, 48, 90, !16, 130 

King's Mountain, S.C.: 73-74, 77, 81, 83, 

122-24 

Kingston, N.Y.: 62, 109 

Kip's Bay, N.Y.: 48, 101 

Knights: 2-3 

Knox, Major General Henry: 33, 40, 81, 

95, 97 

Knyphausen, General Wilhelm von: 55, 

114 

Kock's Field, N.Y.: 124 

Kosciuszko, Brigadier General Thaddeus: 

55 

Lady Washington (Continental ship): 99 

Lafayette, Marie, Marquis de: 55 

arrival in America: 105 

commissioned major general: 107 

in :'>lew Jersey theater: 65, II 0 

in Philadelphia area: l12 

in Virginia theater: 77, 128-30 

at Yorktown: 79-81 

Lake Champlain region: 34, 45-46, 49, 

58,90, 92-93,100,102 

Lake George: 33, 49, 58, 90 

Lake Marion: 128 

Lake Ontario: 58 

Lancaster, Pa.: 108, 136 

Laurens, Colonel Henry: 134 

Last battle: 134 

Last casualty: 135 

League of Augsburg, War of: 14 

Lee (schooner): 95 

Lee, Arthur: 102, Ill 

Lee, Major General Charles: 22, 30, 45, 

49-50,65-66,99, 104, 106, 113 

Lee, Sergeant Ezra: 101 

Lee, Henry: 118,124,126-27,129,133 

Lee, Richard Henry: 98-100 

Legion organization: l-2 

Lef\ud's Ferry, S.C.: 120 

Lexington, Mass.: 25-26, 29, 89 

Licking River: 134 

251 

Light-House (Great Brewster) Island, 

Mass.: 92 

Lincoln, Major General Benjamin: 60-

61, 68-70, 73, 105, 114, 117-18, 120, 

133 

Lindley's Mill, S.C.: 132 

Linear formation: 6-7, 82-83 

Lines of communication: 7-8 

Little Miami River: 122 

Lloyd Neck, N.Y.: 118 

Lochry, Colonel Archibald: 131 

Logistical support and operations. See 

Supply systems and operations 

Long Island, N.Y.: 46, 55, 101, llO, 125, 

136 

Long Island, S.C.: 45, 100 

Long Island Sound: 105, ll8, 125 

Louis XIV of France: 4, 6, 8 

Louis XVI of France: Ill 

Louisbourg: 15, 20 

Louisiana theater: 13-14, 118 

Loyalists: 43, 45--46, 54, 58, 60-61, 68, 70, 

73, 93, 95, 97, 105, 109, 111, ll3-l6, 

118, 120, 122-32, 134-36, 173-74 

Lynnhaven Roads, Va.: 100 

Macedonian empire: I 

Machias, Maine: 90, 103 

Madras: 15 

Maham, Colonel Hezekiah: 128, 133 

Maham tower: 128 

Maine theater: 33, 93 

Mamaroneck, N.Y.: 103 

Maneuver, principle of: I, 3, 18, 27-29, 

48, 52, 74, 79 

Manhattan Island: 46, 48--49, 101, 119 

Manley. Captain John: 95 

Manpower, procurement, retention and 

reduction: 5, 7, 37--40, 46, 72, 102, 

104, Ill, 116, 136-37. See also Conscription; Militia; Volunteer forces 

Manufactures: 36 

Marblehead, Mass.: 88 

lHargarella, HMS: 90 

:.\brine Committee: 94 

Marines, Continental: 94, 97, Ill 

Marion, Brigadier General Francis: 70, 

123-26, 129-31 

Martha's Vineyard, Mass.: ll4 

Martin, Josiah: 90, 96 
252 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Maryland theater: 29, 91, 97-98 

Mason, George: 86, 99 

Mason's Ford, Pa.: llO 

Mass, principle of: 27, 46, 74, 79 

Massachusetts theater: 15, 20, 24-26, 29, 

32, 87-89, 90, liS 

Massachusetts Government Act: 87 

McConkey's Ferry, Pa.: 50 

McCrea, Jane: 60, 107 

Mecklenburg Resolves: 90 

Medical Department, ancestor: 92 

Medical services: 92, 197 

Mercenaries. See Hessian troops 

Metuchen, N.J.: 106 

Mexico: 14 

Middle Department: 97 

Middle Passage, R.I.: ll4 

Middlebrook, N.J.: 55 

Military justice system: 32, 91, 102. See 

also Articles of War; Courts-martial 

Military policy, trends in: 83 

Military Stores, Commissary General of: 

92 

Militia 

bibliography: 185 

British system: 2 

Colonial period: I 1-15, 22-23, 25, 88 

National Guard ancestor: 12-13 

Revolutionary War period: 26, 29, 32, 

36, 38-40, 46, 49, 60-62, 73-76, 82-

83, 89, 92, 101, 104-105, 107, 116-

18, 123-28, 130-34 

tradition of: 2 

Minisink, N.Y.: liS 

Minute Men: 25, 88, 92 

Mischianza: 64, Il2 

Mississippi River and Valley: 13-14, ll9 

Mohawk River: 107, 124 

Mohawk Valley: 58-60, 68, 106, II 7, 120, 

133 

Monck's Corner, S.C.: 120, 130 

Monmouth Court House, N.J.: 65, 67, 

ll3 

Monongahela River: 16-18, 20 

Montcalm, Major General Louis, Marquis de: 20-21, 34 

Montgomery, Brigadier General Richard: 22, 30, 33-35, 93-96 

Montgomery County, Pa.: 112 

Montreal: 14, 33-35, 91, 93-95, 99 

Montresor's Island, N.Y.: 102 

Moore's Creek Bridge, N.C.: 97 

Mooresville, N.C.: 126 

Morale, national: 35, 50, 71-72, 81-82, 

101, 104 

Morgan, Brigadier General Daniel: 81 

in Canada invasion: 33 

in Carolinas: 74-76, 126 

at Saratoga: 60-62 

Morris, Robert: 73, 127 

Morrisianna, N.Y.: 126 

Morristown, N.J.: 52, 71-72, 82, 104-105, 

ll9, 126 

Moultrie, Brigadier General William: 

Il6 

Mount Pleasant, N.Y.: ll9 

Musgrove's Mill, S.C.: 123 

Muskets: 3, 5, 7. See also Rifles 

Musters, Commissary General of: 41, 91 

Mutinies: 72, 125-26, 136 

Mutiny Act: 86 

Nancy, HMS: 95 

Nantasket, Mass.: 99 

Nantasket Point, Mass.: 92 

Napoleon Bonaparte: 6 

Narrangansett Bay: 86, 93, 96 

Nassau (New Providence): 97, Ill, 134 

Natchez, Miss.: ll9 

Nation in anns concept: 83 

National Guard, ancestor: 12-13 

Navigation Acts: 98 

Near East: I 

Negro troops: 36, 100, I 14, ll6, 195 

Nelson's Ferry, S.C.: 123 

Netherlands: 33, 67, 114, 120, 125, 131, 

134, 136 

New Bedford, Mass.: I 14 

New Bern, N.C.: 90, 131 

New Brunswick, N.J.: 50-52, 104, 106 

New England theater: 26, 29-33, 45, 53-

54, 58-61 

New Hampshire theater: 26, 32, 60, 96 

New Haven, Conn.: ll7 

New Jersey theater: 39, 49-58, 104, 126, 

131 

New London, Conn.: 131 

New Providence (Nassau): 97, Ill, 134 

New York City: 45-46, 50-58, 62, 65-71, 

77-81, 86-87, 89-90, 100, 104, 114-

15, 117, 119, 136, 161 

New York State theater: 14-16, 20, 26, 

33-34, 48-49, 54, 60, 67-68, 90-91, 

93-94, 96, ll7-18, 133, 161 

Newberry, S.C.: 125 

l':ewburgh, N.Y.: 135-36 
INDEX 

Newport, R.I.: 50-53, 66, 70-72, 77-79, 

88, 93, 96, 104. 106, 112-14, ll9, 131 

Newtown, N.Y.: 68, 117-18 

Ninety-Six, S.C.: 70, 74, 129 

Noddle's Island, Mass.: 90 

Nook's Hill, Mass.: 35 

Norfolk, Va.: 95-96 

Norman conquest: 2 

North, Lord hederick: 44, 111-13, 134 

North America, struggle for: 13-21 

North Anna River: 129 

North Carolina theater: 40, 45, 68, 70-

71,73-77,96,98, ll4, ll6 

North Sea battle: 131 

Northern Department (Army): 33, 40, 50, 

58-60, 91, 107-108, 163-64 

Norwalk, Conn.: 117 

Nova Scotia: 15-16, 36 

Objective, principle of: 79 

Occoquan Creek, Va.: 100 

Offensive, principle of: 52, 79 

Officer corps 

appointments in: 38, 41,91 

geographic selection: 30 

grievances against Congress: 135 

nobility, domination by: 2, 4-5 

Ohio theater: 122, 134 

Ohio River and Valley: 15-17, 87, 131 

Old Tappan, N.J.: 115 

Olive Branch Petition: 91 

Onondaga Castle, N.Y.: ll6 

Orangeburg, S.C.: 129 

Ordnance Corps, ancestor: 92 

Ordnance technicians: 40 

Organization, troop units. See Troop 

units 

Oriskany, N.Y.: 60-61, 107 

Osborne's, Va.: 128 

Oswego, N.Y.: 58, 106, 133 

Otter, HMS: 97 

Paine, Thomas: 96, 104 

Panic, battlefield: 48 

Paoli Tavern, Pa.: 109 

Paris, Treaty of, 1763: 85 

Parker, Admiral Peter: 45, 104 

Parker's Ferry, S.C.: 131 

Parliament: 24-25, 85-88, 96, Ill, 133 

Patience Island, R.I.: 96 

Paulus Hook, N.J.: 118 

Pay system and scales: 30, 92 

Paymaster General: 41, 91 

253 

Peace negotiations and treaties: 101, lll13, 130, 133-37 

Pearl Harbor, similarity t<~: 26 

Peekskill, N.Y.: 49, 105 

Peggy Stewart (ship): 88 

Pelham, N.Y.: 102 

Pell's Point, N.Y.: 48, 102 

Pennsylvania theater: 11-13, 29, 49-50, 

68, 77, 91, 98, 116, llS, 125-26; 131, 

134, 136 

Pennsylvania (Kentucky) rifle: 21-22 

Penobscot Bay: 118 

Pensacola, Fla.: 128 

Perth Amboy, N.J.: 50-52, 104 

Petersburg, Va.: 128-29 

Phalanx formation: 1 

Philadelphia, Pa.: 25-26, 53-58, 62, 64-

65, 87, 89, 104-13, 136 

Phillips, Captain William: 122 

Phillips, Major General William: 77, 128 

Pickens, Brigadier General Andrew: 70, 

ll6 

Pickering, Timothy: 73 

Piqua, Ohio: 135 

Piscataway, N.J.: 105 

Pitt, William: 19 

Pittsburgh, Pa.: 118 

Plains of Abraham: 20, 34 

Point aux Trembles: 34, 95 

Point of Fork, Va.: 129 

Point Judith, R.I.: 113 

Poland, N.Y.: 133 

Pompton, N.J.: 126 

Population: 36 

Port Jervis, N.Y.: liS 

Port Royal, Nova Scotia: 15 

Port Royal Island, S.C.: 116 

Portail, Major General Louis Ie Begue 

du: 55 

Portland, Maine: 94 

Portsmouth, N.H.: 88 

Potomac River: 100 

Poundridge, N.Y.: 117 

Prescott, Brigadier General Richard: 106 

Prevost, Major General Augustine: 68, 

ll5 

Prince William County, Va.: 101 

Princeton, N.J.: 50-53, 104, 126, 136, 161 

Privateers: 42, 98, 115. See also Conti· 

nenta1 Navy 

Prohibitory Act: 96, 98 

Propaganda: 26, 86, 89, 107, 194 

Protestant Reformation: ll 
254 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Providence (Continental sloop): Ill 

Providence, R.I.: 86, 88 

Provost corps: 112 

Prudence Island, R.I.: 96 

Pulaski. Brigadier General Casimir: 55, 

115 

Punishments, military: 32 

Purple Heart, instituted: 134 

Putnam, Major General Israel: 22, 46-

48, 55, 60, 116 

Quaker Hill, R.I.: 114 

Quartering Act: 87 

Quartermaster Corps, ancestor: 91 

Quartermaster Department: 63 

Quartermaster General: 40, 63, 72-73, 91 

Quebec: 14, 20-21, 33-34, 82, 93-96, 98 

Quebec Act: 87 

Queen Anne's War: 14 

Queen of Battles: 5 

Quiberon, France: Ill 

Quimby's Creek Bridge, S.C.: 130 

Quinton's Bridge, N.J.: ll1 

Ramsour's Mills, S.C.: 126 

Randall's Island, N.Y.: 102 

Ranger (Continental ship): 112 

Rangers, Continental: 116, 122 

Rations 

allowances: 30, 94 

in European armies: 5 

Rawdon, Lord Francis: 128 

Recruiting. See Manpower; Militia; 

Volunteer forces 

Reeder River: 95 

Religious tolerance: 87 

Religious wars: 3-4 

Reserve, tactical: 7 

Revenue Acts: 85-86 

Revere, Paul: 25 

Rhode Island theater: 98, 135 

Richelieu River: 33, 90 

Richmond, N.Y.: 108 

Richmond, Va.: 77, 126, 128-29 

Ridgefield, Conn.: 105 

Rifles: 21-22, 83. See also Muskets 

Rochambeau, Jean, Comte de: 72, 79, 

129-31, 135 

Rockingham, Lord Charles: 134 

Rocky Mount, N.C.: 70, 122 

Rogers, Major Robert: 20, 103 

Roman empire: l-3, 76 

Royal American Regiment: 19 

Rudgeley's Mill, S.C.: 125 

Russia: 7, 119, 124, 130 

Rutledge, Edward: 101 

Ruses: 61, 108, 125 

Sag Harbor, N.Y.: 105 

St. Augustine, Fla.: 105, I 15 

St. Eustatius Island: 127 

St. George's Island, Md.: 100 

St. Johns, Canada: 33, 90-91, 93-94, 106 

St. Lawrence River and Valley: 14, 33-

34, 93-95, 99-100, 102, 133 

St. Leger, Major General Barry: 58, 60-

61, 106-108 

St. Louis, Mo.: 127 

St. Lucia Island: ll5 

St. Mary's Isle, England: 112 

Saintes Passage, West Indies: 134 

Sakonnet Passage, R.L: 113-14 

Salem, Mass.: 87-88 

Sandy Hook, N.J.: 66, 97, 100, 1!3 

Santee River: 120, 123, 128 

Saratoga campaign: 61-62, 81, 83, 106-ll, 

163 

Savannah, Ga.: 68-71, 76, 90, 97, ll5-16, 

118-19, 134 

S.avannah River: 70, 115, 129 

Saxon tradition: 2, 11 

Scandinavian nations: 2 

Schoharie Valley, N.Y.: 124 

Schuyler, Major General Philip: 22, 33-

34, 55, 58-61, 91, 93, 96, 107 

Schuylkill River: llO, 112 

Scorpion, HMS: 96 

Sea power, influence of: 15-16, 42-53, 82 

Secret Committee of Correspondence: 95, 

97 

Secretary at War: 38, 73, 127, 133, 136 

Security, principle of: 18, 48 

Serapis, HMS: 119 

Seven Years' War: 14, 16, 21, 24, 43, 85 

Sharon Spring Swamp, N.Y.: 130 

Shelby, Colonel Isaac: 133 

Sheldon, Elisha: 103 

Shell's Bush, N.Y.: 131 

Shippan Point, Conn.: 118 

Siege operations: 2, 8-9, 20, 107-108, ll8, 

120, 128-29, 131-33, 135 

Simmons Island, S.C.: 1!9 

Simplicity, principle of: 57-58 

Skenesborough, N.Y.: 58, 106 

Slaves: 98, 116, 135 

Smuggling: 87 
INDEX 

Sons of Liberty: 86 

Sorel, Canada: 95, 99-100 

South America: 13 

South Carolina theater: 14, 40, 45, 68-71, 

73, 76, 90, 93, 95, 114, 116-17, 120, 

128, 132 

Southern Department (Army): 40, 68, 71, 

73, 97, 114, 121--,25, 165-66 

Spain: 13, 43, 67, 85, 98, Il7-18, 120, 

127-28, 133-36, 193 

Spanish Square: 6 

Spanish Succession, War of: 14 

Spencer's Tavern, Va.: 130 

Springfield, Mass.: 105 

Staff structure. See Continental Army, 

command and staff structure 

Stamford, Conn.: I 18 

Stamp and Sugar Acts: 24, 85 

Stark, Brigadier General John: 22, 60, 

107 

State, Department of, ancestor: 95 

State Island, N.Y.: 66, 100-101, 106-107, 

119, 136 

Staunton, Va.: 129 

Stephen, Brigadier General Adam: 105 

Steuben, Major General Friedrich Wilhelm von: 55, 63-64, 81, 111-12, 116, 

124. 129 

Stillwater, N.Y.: 107, 109 

Stirling. Lord. See Alexander, Brigadier 

General William 

Stonington, Conn.: 93 

Stono Ferry, S.C.: I I 7 

Stony Point, N.Y.: 67-68, I I 7-18 

Stores and Provisions, Commissary General of: 41, 63, 91 

Strategic plans: 44--45, 53 

Strategy, conduct of: 44, 170-71 

Submarine, first attack by: 101 

Suffolk, Va.: 130 

Suffolk Resolve: 87 

Suffren de Saint-Tropez, Admiral Pierre 

Andre de: 113 

Sullivan, Major General John: 46-48, 50, 

55-58, 66-68, 100, 107, 113-14, I 17-18 

Sullivan's Island, S.C.: 45, 100 

Sumter, Brigadier General Thomas: 70-

71, 122-23, 125, 129 

Sunbury, Ga.: 115 

Superintendent of Finance: 73, 127 

Supply systems and operations: 21 

bibliography: 182-84 

Colonial: 25 

255 

Continental Army: 33, 35-38, 41, 63, 

71-72, 74, 119, 127 

European: 5 

Surgeon, Chief: 41 

Surprise, principle of: 7, 29, 48, 52, 79, 

104, 106, 109, 113, ll5-18, 120, 123, 

126, 132 

Swallow (packet) : 89 

Switzerland: 2, 21 

Tactics 

bibliography: 178-80 

changes in: 3, 82-83 

columnar formation: 6 

effect of weapons on: 3, 5, 12-13 

linear formation: 6-7, 82-83 

Revolutionary War period: 5-9, 20, 83 

Tamar, HMS: 93 

Tappan, N.Y.: 124 

Tarleton, Lieutenant Colonel Banastre: 

70-71. 73-76, 117, 120, 123, 125-27. 

129-30, 132 

Tarrant's Tavern, N.C.: 126 

Tarrytown, N.Y.: 123 

Tax measures 

British: 24-25, 85-86 

Continental Congress: 37 

Tea Act: 86 

Tearcourt Swamp, S.C.: 124 

Tennessee theater: 73 

Terrain, tactical use: 5. 7, 42 

Territorial organization: 40, 91, 97 

Thames River: 131 

Thicketty Fort, S.C.: 122 

Thirty Years' War: 3-4, 6 

Thomas, Brigadier General John: 98 

Three Rivers, Canada: 99 

Throg's Neck, N.Y.: 102 

Tories. See Loyalists 

Total war, concept of: 83 

Training programs: 41, 63-64, 83, Ill 

Transportation systems: 36-37, 41, 63 

Treaty of Paris, 1763: 85 

Trenton, N.J.: 50-53, 57, 103-104, 161 

Trois Rivieres, Canada: 99 

Troop units 

authorizations and reductions: 29, 32, 

38-39, 89-91, 94, 96, 102-104, 112, 

I 16, 124, 136-37 

histories of: 

organization: 32, 40-41, 57 

Tryon, William: 94, ll6 

Tryon County, N.Y.: 60 
256 THE WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Tudor, William: 92 

Turtle Bay, N.Y.: 92 

Tyger River: 125 

Ulster County, N.Y.: 131 

Unadilla, N.Y.: 115 

Uniforms: 26, 178-80 

United Kingdom (see also British Army; 

British Navy; Parliament) 

colonial empire: 13-14, 85 

military policy: 24 

militia system: 2 

Revolutionary War problems: 41-44, 

67, 81-82 

United States, name adopted: IOI 

United States Army, birthday: 30, 90-91. 

See also Continental Army 

United States Marine Corps, birthday: 94 

United States Navy, birthday: 93-94 

Unity of command: 27, 53, 79 

Upper Sandusky, Ohio: 134 

Ushant, France: 113, 133 

Valcour Island, N.Y.: 102 

Valley Forge, Pa.: 58, 62-64, 82, 110-13 

Van Schaick, Gose: 116 

Vauban, Marshal Sebastien: 8, 80 

Vergennes, Charles, Comte de: 54, Ill 

Verplanck's Point, N.Y.: 67, 117 

Vincennes, Ind.: 113, 115-16 

Virginia theater: 29, 45, 67, 73-74, 76-80, 

88, 90-91, 98-99, 114, 127-30, 135 

Virginia Resolves: 86 

Volunteer forces: 15-16, 22-23 

Volley fire: 7 

Wahab's Plantation, N.C.: 123 

War of Austrian Succession: 14 

War Department: 38, 127 

War of Jenkins' Ear: 14 

War of League of Augsburg: 14 

War of Spanish Succession: 14 

Ward, Major General Artemas: 26 

Warfare, contemporary: 4-9 

Warren, Pa.: 108, 118 

Warren, R.I.: 96, 112 

Warwarsing, N.Y.: 131 

Washington, General George: 16-17, 22, 

64-67, 72, 86, 92, 129, 134, 136 

at Bost9n: 32-36, 97 

and campaign of 1777: 54-55, 60 

and Canada campaign: 33-34 

civil authority, deference to: 38 

as commander in chief: 30-33, 38-41, 

44-46, 49, 51-52, 72, 81-83, 91, 135-

36 

criticized: 49, 63 

dedication and influence: 30, 38, 50-5!, 

81 

as disciplinarian: 30-32, Ill, 135 

farewell to officers and resignation: 136 

and Indian attacks: 67-68 

at Long Island: 46-48, 101 

and mutinies: 72, 125-26 

in New Jersey theater: 49-53, 55, 65, 

67, 103-107, 119,122, 131 

in New York theater: 46-59, 67, 79, 81, 

98, 101-102, 114, 130 

in Pennsylvania theater: 49-50, 55-58, 

103, 108, 110 

in Philadelphia area: 65, 108-10 

powers granted to: 104 

regular forces, stress on: 39, 63, 83 

and Saratoga campaign: 60 

sea power, appreciation of: 44 

and Southern campaigns: 70 

in Trenton-Princeton campaign: 50-

52, 104 

at Valley Forge: 58, 62-64, 110-13 

in Yorktown campaign: 77-81, 131-33 

Washington, Major General William: 74-

76, 125 

Wateree Ferry, S.C.: 122-23 

Wateree River: 123 

Waterways, British use: 42 

Waxhaws, S.C.: 70, 73 

Wayne, Major General Anthony: 65, 67-

68, 77-79, 109, 117, 122, 125-26, 130 

Weapons (see also by name) 

ancient development: 2 

bibliography: 178-80 

cavalry. See Cavalry, armament and 

tactics 

infantry. See Infantry, and armament 

and tactics 

tactics, effect on: 3, 5 

Webb, Colonel Samuel B.: 110 

West Canada Creek, N.Y.: 133 

West Conshohocken, Pa.: 110 

West Falmouth, Maine: 84 

West Greenwich, Conn.: 116 

West Indies: 13-15, 33, 65-68, 81, 112, 

115, 118, 127, 131, 134 

West New York, N.j.: 122 

West Point, N.Y.: 67, 72-73, 111-12, 122-

23, 136 
INDEX 

Wethersfield, Conn.: 129 

Wctzell's Mill, N.C.: 127 

Wheeling, W. Va.: 108 

White Horse Tavern: 108 

White Plains, N.Y.: 48, 102-103, 130 

Whitehall, N.Y.: 58, 106 

Whitehaven, England: ll2 

Whitemarsh, Pa.: 58, llO 

Williamsburg, Va.: 79, 89, 130, 132 

Wilmington, N.C.: 76, 96-97, 127-29, 

131-33 

Wilmot, Captain William: 135 

Winnsboro, S.C.: 73 

257 

Wolfe, Major General James: 20-21, 34 

Woodhull, Brigadier General Nathaniel: 

101 

Wright, James: 97 

Wyoming Valley: 68, 113 

York, Pa.: 58, 63, 108, ll2 

York River: 77-81, 130, 132 

Yorktown campaign: 76-82, 127, 130-33, 

167 

Young's House, N.Y.: 119 

Zorndorf, battle of: 7 

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