Rent Burden in the 

Housing Choice 

Voucher Program

Multi-Disciplinary

Research Team

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development | Office of Policy Development and Research
Rent Burden in the Housing Choice Voucher Program

Multi-Disciplinary Research Team

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Policy Development and Research

October 2017

Submitted by

Economic Systems Inc.

Falls Church, Virginia

Prepared by

Casey J. Dawkins, Ph.D.

Jae Sik Jeon, Ph.D. candidate

University of Maryland
ii

About MDRT

PD&R developed the Multidisciplinary Research Team (MDRT) vehicle to manage a team of 

qualified researchers. Researchers are selected for their expertise to produce an array of high 

quality, short-turnaround research. MDRT researchers use a variety of HUD and external data 

sources to answer research questions relating to HUD’s priority policies and strategic goals.

Disclaimer

The contents of this report are the views of the contractor and do not necessarily reflect the views 

or policies of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development or the U.S. government.
iii

Contents

Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................... iv

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 

Background ..................................................................................................................................... 2 

Data and Methods ........................................................................................................................... 4 

Findings........................................................................................................................................... 5 

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 32 

References ..................................................................................................................................... 35 

Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 36
iv

Executive Summary

The Housing Choice Voucher (HCV) program, the nation’s largest tenant-based rental assistance 

program, is designed to reduce housing cost burdens for qualifying low-to-moderate income 

households. For those participating in the HCV program, the U.S. Department of Housing and 

Urban Development (HUD) awards housing assistance payments (HAPs) through local public 

housing agencies (PHAs) that cover the difference between 30 percent of a household’s adjusted 

gross income and a payment standard that reflects the cost of renting a standard quality housing 

unit. In theory, HCV recipients should not spend more than 40 percent of their income on rent 

while participating in the program, yet research finds that many HCV participants still experience 

housing cost burdens in excess of this threshold. Some evidence suggests that the scarcity of 

affordable rental housing in areas where HCV participants desire to live may be one factor 

contributing to higher housing cost burdens. Other possible explanations include variable income 

streams that do not keep pace with adjustments to HAPs, poor program compliance monitoring on 

the part of local PHAs, or rising utility costs that are not offset by utility allowances.

This report examines trends in housing cost burden for HCV participants between the years of 

2003 and 2015. We examine cross-sectional data in each of these years and conduct a cohort 

analysis of those participants who initially leased a unit in 2003 or 2008. We find that housing 

cost burdens for HCV participants have risen since 2003, and the year-to-year changes in 

housing cost burden roughly approximate trends in the recent housing market cycle. Housing 

cost burdens have been particularly high for those earning the lowest incomes. Households 

headed by females, nonelderly persons, non-Hispanic Black persons, and persons without a 

disability were more likely than other households to exhibit severe housing cost burdens. 

Participants living in larger single-family homes have experienced higher cost burdens than those 

living in other housing types. These trends have played out unevenly across geography. Housing 

cost burdens have been highest in the South. During the housing boom, rural areas saw the 

highest housing cost burdens. When the market fell into decline, cost burdens fell in all areas, but 

as the market began to recover, severe cost burdens rose in metropolitan areas, due largely to the 

relative increase in housing cost burdens within suburban areas. Residential segregation and the 

limited availability of good neighborhoods offering units for HCV participants at affordable rents 

also shape housing cost burdens. During an era when insufficient affordable housing is being 

built and affordable rental units are becoming more scarce, much of the housing cost burden 

faced by HCV participants is attributable to renting units above local payment standards,

combined with changes in income that do not keep pace with rising rents.
1

Introduction

The housing cost burdens of U.S. renters are reaching historic highs. According to JCHS (2016), 

the number of households spending more than 30 percent of their income on rent rose by 3.6 

million between 2008 and 2014, and the number of households spending more than 50 percent of 

their income on rent rose to a record high of 11.4 million. According to U.S. Department of 

Housing and Urban Development’s (HUD’s) 2015 Worst Case Housing Needs report, of the 

approximately 40.3 million U.S. renters in 2013, 24 percent are severely housing cost burdened, 

spending more than 50 percent of their income on rent. These high housing cost burdens fall 

most heavily on renters who earn the lowest incomes. Of those earning less than 30 percent of 

the Area Median Family Income, 62 percent are severely cost-burdened (Steffen et al., 2015: 

table A-1A).

The Housing Choice Voucher (HCV) program, the nation’s largest tenant-based rental assistance 

program, is designed to alleviate these high housing cost burdens for qualifying low-to-moderate 

income households, while also expanding housing choice in a wider variety of neighborhoods 

that offer beneficial economic and social opportunities. For those participating in the HCV 

program, HUD awards housing assistance payments (HAPs) through local public housing 

agencies (PHAs) that cover the difference between 30 percent of a household’s adjusted gross 

income and a payment standard that reflects the cost of renting a standard quality housing unit 

(McClure, 2005).

This report examines trends in housing cost burden for HCV participants between the years of 

2003 and 2015. We examine cross-sectional data in each of these years and conduct a cohort 

analysis of households that initially leased up in 2003 and 2008. Our research aims to identify 

the household, housing unit, and geographic factors associated with housing cost burdens in the 

HCV program and provide policy recommendations for ways to reduce the prevalence of high 

housing cost burden among HCV-assisted renters. The report begins with a discussion of 

relevant literature addressing housing cost burden in the HCV program, followed by a more 

detailed discussion of the data and methods, a discussion of findings pertaining to seven specific 

research questions, and a conclusion that summarizes the findings and policy implications.
2

Background

Although the HCV program is designed to lower the cost of rental housing for participating 

households, some evidence suggests that many HCV participants still face high housing cost 

burdens. McClure (2005) found that 38 percent of HCV participants in 2002 spent more than 31 

percent of their income on rent and utilities, and 17 percent spent more than 40 percent of their 

income on rent. Williamson (2011) examined data from a sample of about 38,000 households 

residing in Florida’s Low Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) properties and found that about 

35 percent of LIHTC residents receiving vouchers spent more than 30 percent of household 

income on rent. Leopold et al. (2015) conducted a more recent (2013) analysis of HUD 

administrative data and find that 42 percent of HCV recipients earning extremely low incomes

spent more than 30 percent of income on rent. This 42 percent was highest among all HUD’s 

programs, including the Moderate Rehabilitation program, project-based Section 8, other 

multifamily programs, and public housing.

Because HCV program rules prohibit participating households from spending more than 40 

percent of their income on rent at initial lease up, why do so many HCV participants still face 

high housing cost burdens? Many households choose to spend as much as 40 percent of their 

income on rent to obtain housing that is higher quality, larger, or in more desirable neighborhoods.

If higher cost burdens are associated with improved neighborhood quality, then a HCV 

recipient’s realization of these benefits may be a positive policy outcome. Even short-term gains 

in access to certain local public goods, such as high-quality schools, may yield long-term gains 

in a child’s future economic opportunities and well-being. However, if these initially higher cost 

burdens persist or rise over time, as rents rise relative to household incomes, households may be 

unable to remain in the neighborhood to take advantage of beneficial neighborhood amenities. 

Because there is no cap on the percentage of income that can be spent on housing costs after 

initial lease up, HCV participants are at risk of incurring higher housing cost burdens over time if 

rents increase or if utilities rise above the HUD utility allowance. Furthermore, some HCV 

participants may lose their jobs or experience a decline in income after initial lease up even if 

rents remain stable. Although HUD adjusts tenant payments upon annual reexaminations, these 

adjustments may not keep pace with changes in income if income streams vary from month to 

month.

Certain types of households may be more likely to incur higher housing cost burdens than others. 

McClure (2005) found that among all HCV recipients, housing cost burden is particularly high 

for single-parent female-headed households, larger families with children (who need larger 

units), and recipients with extremely low incomes. It is possible that low-income families with 

children are more strongly “tied” to location, due to reliance on local social networks for social 

support and financial assistance (Dawkins, 2006). Likewise, non-White households may 

experience housing market discrimination, limiting their ability to move to adjust housing costs. 

This latter explanation is consistent with McClure’s (2005) finding that households headed by 

African-Americans are more likely than other households to spend more than 40 percent of their 

income on rent.
3

Supply-side conditions may also influence households’ ability to reduce housing cost burdens on

residential mobility. Pendall (2000) found that households receiving tenant-based rental 

assistance are more concentrated in distressed neighborhoods when those neighborhoods have a 

higher concentration of rental housing, despite such households’ tendency to avoid 

neighborhoods with very low rents. Another factor is landlords’ reluctance to participate in the 

HCV program. Unless states or localities have adopted legislation prohibiting the discrimination 

against those receiving tenant-based assistance, landlords’ participation in the HCV program is 

voluntary, and many landlords choose not to participate due to perceived administrative barriers 

or other considerations (Freeman, 2011). Local land use regulations substantially restrict the 

development of affordable rental units for moderate-income workers by ensuring that developers 

profit only by constructing luxury housing. White et al. (2016) show, however, that development 

of economical, unsubsidized rental housing is feasible by presenting a case study of how 

Sarasota and Manatee Counties in Florida accommodated cost-effective design standards and 

streamlined approval processes.

Additional factors may be due to local PHAs’ discretionary decisions on setting local preferences 

for admission and enforcing compliance with HUD program rules. Local PHAs may also 

prioritize admission to households that are more or less likely to incur higher housing cost 

burdens over time. The Quality Housing and Work Responsibility Act of 19981 (QHWRA) 

expanded the discretionary authority of local PHAs and set threshold requirements for the 

incomes of those newly admitted to HUD programs. Since 1998, PHAs have been required to 

ensure that 75 percent of new voucher holders have incomes no greater than 30 percent of the 

Area Median Income (AMI) and that all households spend no more than 40 percent of income on 

housing costs at the time of lease up. Beyond these requirements, PHAs have substantial 

discretion to prioritize assistance to different types of households. Some PHAs place priority on 

housing those recipients who are in greatest need, whereas others place emphasis on those most 

able to move to achieve greater self-sufficiency (Devine et al., 2000). Dawkins (2007) found

that, since the enactment of QHWRA, PHAs increasingly have been admitting smaller families 

headed by older adults and fewer extremely low-income female-headed households with 

children, thus signaling a trend away from the types of households identified by McClure (2005) 

who are most likely to incur high housing cost burdens.

 1 Pub. L. 105–276, Title V.
4

Data and Methods

This research relies on administrative data from HUD’s Public and Indian Housing Information 

Center, or PIC, system to examine trends in HCV housing cost burden between 2003 and 2015. 

The data are assembled from tenant-level databases collected from the HUD-50058 Family 

Report form completed by local PHAs.

We assemble two primary databases for the analyses. The first database is a set of cross-sectional 

household-level files for each year between 2003 and 2015. These files (one for each year) 

include the last household record available for each household in each year for all households 

that have successfully leased up during or prior to the year in question. Using these databases, we 

examine trends in housing cost burden over time for all HCV-assisted households and 

households classified by various household, housing unit type, and geographic characteristics. 

For those participating in the HCV program in the most recent period (2015), we also examine 

the marginal effect of each of these characteristics, holding the others constant, on the odds of an

HCV household experiencing a housing cost burden.

We also construct two longitudinal files of households that leased up in 2003 and 2008. For each 

of these longitudinal files, we follow households over time, appending observations on rental 

spells for each year after initial lease up until either 2015 or the year in which the household exits 

from the HCV program. Using these two longitudinal databases, we examine the duration of 

housing cost burden, emphasizing factors associated with different housing cost burden 

trajectories. The findings section is organized according to more specific research questions.

We define housing cost burden as the ratio of the family’s total contribution to housing payments 

(gross rent minus the household’s HAP) to the household’s total annual adjusted gross income. 

Gross rent is equal to the contract rent plus utility allowance. HAP is defined as the lower of 

gross rent or the payment standard minus the total tenant payment (TTP). We use the terms rent 

burden and housing cost burden interchangeably throughout the report to reflect the percentage

of income spent on rental housing costs. We categorize housing cost burdens into the following 

cost burden categories: no cost burden (spending 30 percent or less of income on housing costs), 

moderate cost burden (spending 31 to 40 percent of income on housing costs), high cost burden 

(spending 41 to 50 percent of income on housing costs), and severe cost burden (spending 51 

percent of income or higher on housing costs). The so-called “30 percent rule” is a standard 

threshold level of housing cost burden that can be traced to the Brooke Amendment to the 1968 

Housing and Community Development Act. Because HCV recipients are required to spend no 

more than 40 percent of income on housing on lease up, we use the 40-percent threshold to 

define a second housing cost burden threshold. The 50-percent threshold corresponds to HUD’s 

definition of severe cost burden in its Worst Case Housing Needs reports. Households with zero 

income, those that receive project-based vouchers, and those that receive HCVs from Moving to 

Work PHAs are excluded from the analyses. Appendix table A1 displays the number of HCV 

households included and excluded from the analyses.
5

Findings

The discussion of research findings is organized according to seven specific research questions. 

The first three questions are addressed using the cross-sectional household-level files for each 

year between 2003 and 2015, with some analyses emphasizing only the cross-sectional file for 

the most recent year (2015). To address the fourth question, we rely on a subset of households 

from the cross-sectional files that exited the program between 2003 and 2015. The final three

research questions are addressed using the two longitudinal files of households that leased up in 

2003 and 2008.

How has the prevalence of housing cost burden changed over time?

To address this question, we calculate housing cost burden for each year (2003 through 2015) for 

each of the housing cost burden categories defined in the previous section. Figure 1 displays, for 

each year, the total number of HCV households spending 30 percent or less of their income on 

rent, 31 percent or more of income on rent, between 31 and 40 percent of income on rent, 

between 41 and 50 percent of income on rent, 51 percent or more of income on rent, and the total 

number of households. Figure 2 displays the percentage of households falling into each of these 

housing cost burden categories by year. (The tables used to construct each of these and 

subsequent figures are provided in the appendix).

Although the total number of HCV-assisted households remained essentially flat during the 

2003-to-2015 period (see appendix table A2), the number of cost-burdened HCV households has 

increased 52 percent from 517,665 in 2003 to 786,958 in 2015 (The number of cost-burdened 

households reached a high of 811,315 in 2014 but fell slightly in 2015). As a share of total HCV 

households in each year, those experiencing any level of cost burden increased by 13 percentage 

points, those experiencing moderate cost burdens increased by 7 percentage points, those 

experiencing high cost burdens increased by 3 percentage points, and those experiencing severe 

cost burdens increased by 4 percentage points.

The year-to-year change in housing cost burden roughly corresponds to the recent housing market 

boom-and-bust cycle and subsequent economic depression. The share of HCV households 

experiencing housing cost burdens rose to a peak of 46 percent of households in 2006, with a 

steady decline during the housing bust period. As the housing market began to recover, the share of 

cost-burdened HCV households rose again, to a higher peak of 48 percent in 2014.

These trends likely reflect larger housing market dynamics. Rental prices peaked in 2007, 

steadily declined from 2007 through 2010, and have risen since (JCHS, 2016). DiPasquale and 

Murray (2017) found that between 1970 and 2010, incomes fell for renters in all but the highest 

income quintile. Between 2000 and 2010, incomes for renters in the lowest income quintile 

fluctuated, falling by 12 percent between 2000 and 2005, rising by 7 percent between 2005 and 

2008, and falling again by 6 percent between 2008 and 2010. These larger trends roughly 

correspond to the housing cost burden trends displayed in figures 1 and 2, suggesting that 

increased rental affordability temporarily lowered housing cost burdens for HCV households 

during the housing bust.
6

Figure 1. HCV Households by Extent of Housing Cost Burden, 2003–2015

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

Figure 2. Proportion of HCV Households With Specified Housing Cost Burden, 2003–2015

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Number of HCV Households

Year

No cost burden (30% or Less) Cost burden (31% or More)

Moderate cost burden (31% - 40%) High cost burden (41% - 50%)

Severe cost burden (51% or more)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

% of HCV Households

Year

Severe cost burden

(51% or more)

High cost burden

(41% - 50%)

Moderate cost

burden (31% - 40%)

No cost burden

(30% or Less)
7

What factors are associated with the prevalence of housing cost burden in the HCV 

program? Has the prevalence of more severe housing cost burdens changed over time 

across different locations and types of HCV households?

To address these questions, we classify households experiencing various housing cost burden 

levels into the following categories:

• Household characteristics (length of program participation, household size, femaleheaded household status, elderly status of household head, disability status of household 

head, presence of children, TTP relative to the HUD minimum rent threshold ($50), 

household income, source of income, race, and ethnicity).

• Housing unit type (number of bedrooms, structure type, year built).

• Geography (U.S. Census region; metropolitan and rural location; central city, suburb, or

rural location; census tract poverty rate; census tract minority (non-White) percentage;

census tract vacancy rate; and census tract median rent).

Tables 1 through 3 display, for those households participating in the HCV program in the most 

recent year (2015), the total number of HCV households, total number experiencing any cost 

burden, and total number experiencing a severe cost burden, along with corresponding row and 

column percentages.

Tables A4 through A9 in the appendix display trends in the “Row percent” column (percentage

of households within a given category that are cost burdened or severely cost burdened) across 

years. Figures 3 through 9 graphically display selected trends from tables A4 through A9 that 

differ significantly from the cross-sectional findings displayed in tables 1 through 3. We begin 

with a discussion of the prevalence of housing cost burdens and severe housing cost burdens by 

various household characteristics.

We might expect those with shorter HCV program durations to be more likely to rely on HCV 

assistance to address temporary conditions of housing instability, perhaps induced by short-term 

job loss or changes in family status compared with long-term program participants who may be 

more heavily dependent on housing assistance to cover rent payments. As displayed in table 1, 

the length of program participation has little relation to the prevalence of any housing cost 

burden, but those with longer program durations are more likely to exhibit severe cost burdens. 

In 2015, participants who had been in the HCV program for 10 years or longer were more than 

twice as likely to exhibit a severe cost burden than those who had been in the program for less 

than 1 year.
8

Table 1. HCV Households by Household Characteristics and Severity of Housing Cost 

Burden, 2015

Total HCV 

Households

Any Cost Burden 

(31% or More)

Severe Cost Burden 

(51% or More)

Number Column 

% Number Row %

Column 

% Number Row %

Column 

%

1,728,756 786,958 46 144,402 8

Length of HCV program participation

< 1 year 273,747 16 124,040 45 16 12,783 5 9

1–4.9 years 404,783 23 182,949 45 23 31,310 8 22

5–9.9 years 472,076 27 217,149 46 28 42,417 9 29

10 years or more 577,939 33 262,707 45 33 57,869 10 40

Household size

1 member 704,952 41 322,973 46 41 51,493 7 36

2 members 362,151 21 178,586 49 23 35,242 10 24

3 members 286,987 17 130,676 46 17 27,460 10 19

4 members 195,379 11 83,422 43 11 17,805 9 12

5 or more members 179,287 10 71,301 40 9 12,402 7 9

Presence of children

No children 937,003 54 431,441 46 55 70,532 8 49

Children 791,753 46 355,517 45 45 73,870 9 51

Household head gender

Male 330,182 19 135,650 41 17 17,868 5 12

Female 1,398,519 81 651,272 47 83 126,522 9 88

Household head age

Nonelderly 1,332,946 77 623,043 47 79 124,544 9 86

Elderly 395,810 23 163,915 41 21 19,858 5 14

Household head disability status

Nondisabled 1,234,653 71 558,666 45 71 116,908 9 81

Disabled 494,103 29 228,292 46 29 27,494 6 19

Income

$5,000 or less 161,699 9 105,101 65 13 64,256 40 44

$5,001–$10,000 503,440 29 223,834 44 28 44,896 9 31

$10,001–$15,000 453,546 26 196,352 43 25 23,462 5 16

More than $15,000 610,071 35 261,671 43 33 11,788 2 8

Income (as percent of AMI)

10% or less 196,882 11 120,295 61 15 70,873 36 49

11–30% 1,053,181 61 452,725 43 58 67,702 6 47

31–50% 392,432 23 178,963 46 23 5,436 1 4

51–80% 78,384 5 33,523 43 4 258 0 0

More than 80% 5,512 0 778 14 0 3 0 0

Primary source of income

Wages 523,356 30 226,586 43 29 25,138 5 17

Government 1,205,072 70 560,069 46 71 118,990 10 83

TTP

$50 or less 74,152 4 68,248 92 9 44,867 61 31

More than $50 1,654,604 96 718,710 43 91 99,535 6 69

Race/ethnicity

White, not Hispanic 584,128 34 256,052 44 33 34,228 6 24

Black, not Hispanic 778,144 45 377,683 49 48 77,107 10 53

Asian/Pacific Islands,

not Hispanic 40,776 2 16,874 41 2 3,740 9 3

Native American, not 

Hispanic 11,131 1 4,863 44 1 821 7 1

More than one race,

not Hispanic 15,468 1 6,500 42 1 1,153 7 1

Hispanic, any race 297,856 17 124,517 42 16 27,276 9 19

AMI = Area Median Income. HCV = Housing Choice Voucher. TTP = total tenant payment.
9

As graphically displayed in figure 3, the relationship between length of program participation 

and severity of cost burden has changed over time. Until 2006, the length of program 

participation had little relation to the severity of cost burden, but afterwards, participants who 

had been in the program for longer periods of time were more likely to experience severe cost 

burdens, particularly after 2011. These trends likely reflect the combination of program rules and 

household choices to consume slightly more expensive housing on initial lease up. If households 

spend up to the program limit of 40 percent of income in their first HCV-subsidized home and 

rents rise over time or household incomes fall, the incidence of severe cost burden would rise, 

particularly for participants who stay in the program but do not move to less expensive housing.

Figure 3. Prevalence of Severe Housing Cost Burden by Length of Program Participation, 

2003–2015

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

We may also expect housing cost burden to vary with household size and the presence of 

children, because larger families may require larger, more expensive homes. Table 1 does not 

fully support this conjecture, as smaller households are slightly more likely to experience a 

housing cost burden, and moderately sized households (two to three persons) are the most likely 

household size group to experience a severe housing cost burden. Figure 4 suggests that this 

relationship has changed over time. Until about 2011, single-person households were less likely 

than larger households to exhibit severe housing cost burdens. Afterwards, the relationship still 

holds, but four-person households became less likely to experience a severe housing cost burden 

as compared with other household size groups. Regarding the influence of various demographic 

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

7%

8%

9%

10%

11%

12%

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

% of HCV Households

Year

< 1 year in HCV program 1 - 4.9 years in HCV program

5 - 9.9 years in HCV program 10 years or more in HCV program
10

characteristics, households headed by females, nonelderly persons, non-Hispanic Black persons, 

and persons without a disability are more likely to exhibit severe housing cost burdens. These 

demographic differences generally held across the entire analysis period.

Figure 4. Prevalence of Severe Housing Cost Burden by Household Size, 2003–2015

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

The higher incidence of severe housing cost burden among households headed by nondisabled 

persons is somewhat unexpected, given evidence that those with disabilities often face more 

severe constraints in the housing market (Souza et al., 2011). In 2015, approximately 29 percent 

of households in the sample are headed by those with a disability. It is possible that households 

with disabled heads rely on more steady income support streams, even if fixed, and live in units 

that are not as likely to increase in price. This finding deserves further exploration in future 

research.

Table 1 points to significant differences in cost burden by income, with lower income 

households exhibiting much higher cost burdens. As of 2015, the majority of HCV households in 

the sample (61 percent) had incomes between 11 and 30 percent of AMI. 11 percent had incomes 

less than 10 percent of AMI, and the remainder had incomes more than 30 percent of AMI. 

Among those with incomes less than 10 percent of AMI, 61 percent experienced a housing cost 

burden, and 36 percent experienced a severe housing cost burden. Also, among those earning 

$5,000 or less, 65 percent experienced a housing cost burden, and 40 percent experienced a 

severe housing cost burden.

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

7%

8%

9%

10%

11%

12%

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

% of HCV Households

Year

1 household member 2 household members 3 household members

4 household members 5 or more household members
11

Figure 5 examines the prevalence of severe housing cost burden by income over time. The gap in 

severe housing cost burdens between those with incomes of 10 percent or less of AMI and those 

with incomes of more than 80 percent of AMI has grown over time, from 35 percentage points in 

2003 to 47 percentage points in 2015. It is notable that in all years but 2003, more than 20 

percent of those with incomes of 10 percent or less of AMI experienced cost burdens of 51 

percent or higher, a level of cost burden that is inconsistent with HCV program rules.

Figure 5. Prevalence of Severe Housing Cost Burden by Income as a Percentage of AMI, 

2003–2015

AMI = Area Median Income. HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

Table 1 also suggests that households relying on government sources of income are more likely 

to exhibit cost burdens and severe cost burdens (households are classified into a given income 

source category if 50 percent or more of income is attributable to that source). Although

government sources of income may be more stable than income from wages, these findings 

suggest that government transfer payments are inadequate to offset rising rents.

Table 2 displays the prevalence of housing cost burden and severe housing cost burden by 

various structural characteristics of the housing units where HCV households reside. Although

HAPs are adjusted for family size and number of bedrooms, households may choose to consume 

larger homes than their HAP is designed to cover. Likewise, rents may be proportionately higher 

for multifamily apartments with more bedrooms if the supply of homes large enough to 

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

% of HCV Households

Year

Income 10% or less AMI Income 11% - 30% AMI

Income 31% - 50% AMI Income 51% - 80% AMI

Income more than 80% AMI
12

accommodate large families is limited. We find that the prevalence of housing cost burdens and 

severe housing cost burdens is highest among those living in larger single-family homes. We do 

not find a significant relationship between cost burden and age of the structure, although those 

living in the oldest housing units (100 years or older) exhibit lower cost burdens than those living 

in newer housing units.

Table 2. HCV Households by Housing Unit Characteristics and Severity of Housing Cost 

Burden, 2015

Total HCV 

Households

Any Cost Burden 

(31% or More)

Severe Cost Burden 

(51% or More)

Number Column 

% Number Row %

Column 

% Number Row %

Column 

%

1,728,756 786,958 46 144,402 8

Number of bedrooms

0 bedrooms 26,853 2 7,386 28 1 1,369 5 1

1 bedroom 463,328 27 172,835 37 22 18,161 4 13

2 bedrooms 628,606 36 312,808 50 40 52,521 8 36

3 bedrooms 490,954 28 234,493 48 30 57,615 12 40

4 or more bedrooms 119,015 7 59,436 50 8 14,736 12 10

Structure type

Single-family 1,008,653 58 501,260 50 64 98,378 10 68

Multifamily 635,699 37 254,939 40 32 40,286 6 28

Other (mfg. home) 84,403 5 30,758 36 4 5,737 7 4

Years since home built

< 10 years 137,616 8 61,701 45 8 9,586 7 7

10–19.9 years 240,674 14 110,503 46 14 19,231 8 13

20–29.9 years 156,572 9 75,742 48 10 14,417 9 10

30–39.9 years 263,809 15 125,476 48 16 23,534 9 16

40–49.9 years 267,814 15 117,552 44 15 21,155 8 15

50–99.9 years 529,898 31 243,112 46 31 46,704 9 32

100 years or more 131,933 8 52,681 40 7 9,738 7 7

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

Figure 6 suggests that the prevalence of severe housing cost burden by structure type has varied 

over time. In all years between 2003 and 2015, those living in single-family homes have

consistently been more likely to exhibit severe housing cost burdens, even though the percentage 

of HCV households living in single-family homes has declined from 64 percent in 2003 to 58 

percent in 2015. Over the same period, the percentage of households living in multifamily homes 

increased from 33 to 37 percent, and the percentage living in other housing types has increased 

from 3 to 5 percent.

Even though very few HCV households live in other housing types (primarily manufactured 

housing), the prevalence of severe housing cost burden among these households has declined 

since 2005. It is possible that these trends reflect changing dynamics in the affordability of 

manufactured homes available for rent by HCV households. This trend deserves further 

exploration in future research.
13

Figure 6. Prevalence of Severe Housing Cost Burden by Structure Type, 2003–2015

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

Table 3 displays the prevalence of housing cost burden and severe housing cost burden by 

various geographic characteristics. Housing cost burdens are most prevalent in the South and 

least prevalent in the Northeast. Many large manufacturing centers in the Northeast have been 

slow to recover from the recent housing market crisis, so housing prices in these areas are likely 

lower than in the South, which has been quick to recover.

Table 3 also examines differences in the severity of cost burden across central city, suburban, 

and rural areas. Metropolitan areas are defined as Core Based Statistical Areas (CBSAs), 

including metropolitan and micropolitan areas. Central cities include the CBSAs’ principal cities, 

suburbs include all portions of the metropolitan area that are outside of central cities, and rural 

areas include all areas that are outside of metropolitan areas. Those living in metropolitan areas 

were slightly more likely to experience severe housing cost burdens in 2015. Within 

metropolitan areas, those living in the suburbs were slightly more likely to exhibit severe 

housing cost burdens than those living in central cities.

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

% of HCV Households

Year

Single-family Multifamily Other (mfg. home)
14

Table 3. HCV Households by Geographic Characteristics and Severity of Housing Cost 

Burden, 2015

Total HCV 

Households

Any Cost Burden 

(31% or More)

Severe Cost Burden 

(51% or More)

Number Column 

% Number Row 

%

Column 

% Number Row 

%

Column 

%

HCV households 1,728,756 786,958 46 144,402 8

Geography 

Region

Northeast 421,878 25 161,529 38 21 28,698 7 20

Midwest 324,082 19 156,247 48 20 23,884 7 17

South 583,601 34 291,899 50 38 56,207 10 40

West 374,377 22 168,083 45 22 31,324 8 22

Metropolitan

Metropolitan 1,527,645 88 695,150 46 88 132,278 9 92

Nonmetropolitan/

rural 201,111 12 91,808 46 12 12,124 6 8

Central city

Central city 738,361 43 337,032 46 43 60,294 8 42

Suburb 920,865 53 418,899 45 53 79,795 9 55

Rural 69,530 4 31,027 45 4 4,313 6 3

Census tract characteristics

Median rent per month

Less than $400 14,696 1 5,846 40 1 1,804 12 1

$400–$800 709,735 41 318,074 45 41 50,788 7 35

More than $800 995,830 58 459,584 46 59 90,889 9 63

Vacancy rate

Less than 5% 316,022 18 143,037 45 18 26,743 8 19

5–8% 334,416 19 153,315 46 20 27,775 8 19

Greater than 8% 1,071,973 62 488,268 46 62 89,259 8 62

Poverty rate

10% or less 336,225 20 161,971 48 21 28,365 8 20

11–20% 552,868 32 257,325 47 33 44,196 8 31

More than 20% 833,742 48 365,409 44 47 71,234 9 50

Minority percentage

20% or less 365,094 21 166,167 46 21 21,168 6 15

20–40% 300,062 17 140,054 47 18 21,593 7 15

More than 40% 1,057,701 61 478,489 45 61 101,037 10 70

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

Figure 7 suggests that the differences in severity of cost burden across central city, suburban, and 

rural areas have fluctuated over time. During the housing boom, rural areas saw the highest 

housing cost burdens. When the national housing market and economy fell into decline, cost 

burdens fell in all areas, but as the housing market began to recover, severe cost burdens rose 

again in metropolitan areas, due primarily to the relative increase in housing cost burdens within 

suburban areas. The geographic mobility of HCV households may have also played a role in 

shaping these trends, as HCV households increasingly suburbanized over the analysis period. 

Between 2003 and 2015, the proportion of HCV households living in central cities declined from 

53 percent to 43 percent; the proportion living in suburban areas increased from 33 percent to 53 

percent; and the proportion living in rural areas declined from 14 to 4 percent.
15

Figure 7. Prevalence of Severe Housing Cost Burden by Central City, Suburb, or Rural 

Location, 2003–2015

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

We also examined the severity of housing cost burden by various characteristics of the census 

tracts where HCV households reside. The thresholds used to define breakpoints for each census 

tract category are based on McClure (2005), who examined similar census tract characteristics 

for the 2000-to-2002 period, just prior to our analysis period. Table 3 suggests that housing cost 

burden varies according to census tract characteristics, and the relationships differ by severity of 

cost burden. Households living in census tracts with higher median rents, lower poverty rates, 

and a smaller percentage of minority residents were more likely to exhibit housing cost burdens. 

Households exhibiting severe cost burdens were more likely to live in census tracts with low 

median rents and a high percentage of minority residents.

Figures 8 and 9 examine trends in severe housing cost burden by median rents and census tract 

minority percentage. Across all years, households living in census tracts with the lowest median 

rents were the most likely to exhibit severe cost burdens, although the gap between the most 

expensive and least expensive census tracts has narrowed since 2006. Until 2005, the differences 

in prevalence of severe housing cost burden by census tract minority percentage were small, but 

over time, those living in census tracts with a larger minority percentage have become 

increasingly more likely to experience severe cost burdens, and the differences in severe cost 

burden between neighborhoods with low and high minority percentages have increased over 

time. The next section explores these findings in more detail.

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

% of HCV Households

Year

Central City Suburb Rural
16

Figure 8. Prevalence of Severe Housing Cost Burden by Census Tract Median Rent, 2003–2015

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

Figure 9. Prevalence of Severe Housing Cost Burden by Census Tract Minority Percentage, 

2003–2015

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

% of HCV Households

Year

Tract median rent below $400 per month Tract median rent $400 to $800 per month

Tract median rent above $800 per month

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

% of HCV Households

Year

Tract minority % 20 or less Tract minority % between 20 and 40 Tract minority % more than 40
17

What factors increase the odds of a HCV household experiencing housing cost burden?

The analysis in the previous section examined the influence of each household, housing unit, and 

geographic factor on the prevalence of housing cost burden in isolation. It is more useful to 

examine the marginal contribution of each of these factors while simultaneously controlling for 

the influence of other factors. To address this issue, we estimate two logistic regression models. 

Logistic regressions are models that are used to explain the factors associated with outcomes that 

are binary in nature. We estimate models that account for the factors associated with being costburdened or not and models that account for the factors associated with being severely costburdened or not. Independent variables for these models include the various household, housing 

unit, and geographic factors used to address research question 2. We estimate these models for 

the most recent period for which data are available (2015). Appendix table A10 provides a 

description of the variables used in the regression model. We begin with a discussion of the 

logistic regression coefficients displayed in table 4.

We find that the length of program participation is negatively associated with the odds of having 

any cost burden but positively associated with the odds of having a severe housing cost burden. 

These effects are small and generally consistent with the descriptive evidence presented in the 

previous section. Households most likely to suffer housing cost burdens include those without 

children, those headed by females, those with nonelderly household heads, those without 

disabled household heads, those headed by non-White household heads, those headed by 

Hispanic household heads, those dependent on government sources of income, and those earning 

lower incomes. Households earning the lowest incomes (10 percent or less of AMI) are 1.4 times 

as likely to experience a housing cost burden and 3.9 times as likely to experience a severe 

housing cost burden as those earning 51 to 80 percent of AMI.

Consistent with the descriptive evidence examined in the previous section, households living in 

larger single-family units are more likely to experience a housing cost burden. The effect of the 

number of bedrooms on the odds of a severe housing cost burden is 1.8 times greater than the 

effect of number of bedrooms on the odds of any housing cost burden. Although households

living in newer units are more likely to experience housing cost burdens, the magnitude of this 

effect is small compared with the effect of other housing unit characteristics. These findings 

should be confirmed with additional research that examines HCV use in different housing types.

We also find evidence of significant geographic variation in the odds of experiencing a housing 

cost burden. Consistent with the evidence presented in the previous section, households living in 

the South are more likely to experience a housing cost burden than those living in other regions. 

In contrast to the evidence in the previous section, households living in central cities are more 

likely to experience a housing cost burden, compared with those living in suburban areas. The 

evidence presented in table 4 also suggests that the influence of census tract characteristics on 

housing cost burden changes when controlling for other determinants of housing cost burden. We 

find that households living in census tracts with higher median rents, lower vacancy rates, and 

lower poverty rates are more likely to experience a housing cost burden, although these census 

tract-level effects are small compared to the influence of other factors.
18

Table 4. Factors Associated With the Odds of Any Housing Cost Burden and Severe 

Housing Cost Burden, 2015 (Base Model)

Category/Explanatory Variable Any Cost Burden Severe Cost Burden

Household characteristics

Length of participation – 0.000*** 0.000***

Household size – 0.281*** – 0.448***

Children – 0.211*** – 0.221***

Female 0.117*** 0.172***

Elderly – 0.268*** – 0.622***

Disabled – 0.086*** – 0.481***

Income at 10% or less than AMI 2.298*** 7.028***

Income at 11–30% of AMI 1.644*** 5.033***

Income at 31–50% of AMI 1.744*** 3.440***

Income at 51–80% of AMI 1.596*** 1.806***

Primarily wage – 0.145*** – 0.376***

Non-White 0.079*** 0.087***

Hispanic 0.041*** 0.137***

Housing unit type

Bedroom 0.456*** 0.817***

Single-family 0.338*** 0.300***

Building age – 0.000*** – 0.000***

Geography

Midwest 0.333*** 0.170***

South 0.391*** 0.394***

West 0.227*** 0.219***

Central city 0.114*** 0.120***

Suburb 0.029*** – 0.060***

Neighborhood characteristics

Tract median rent 0.000*** 0.001***

Tract vacancy – 0.005*** – 0.006***

Tract poverty – 0.004*** – 0.003***

Tract minority – 0.001*** 0.002***

Constant – 2.648*** – 9.537***

Number of observations 1,697,242 1,697,242

Wald chi-square 88,679.65*** 183,413.74***

Pseudo R2 0.044 0.234

*** p < 0.01. ** p < 0.05. * p < 0.1.

AMI = Area Median Income.

Notes: Income more than 80% of AMI is omitted. Northeast is omitted. Rural is omitted.

Estimates of the impact of census tract minority percentage are comparable to those discussed in 

the previous section. In the descriptive analysis, census tract percentage of minority residents was

not clearly related to the prevalence of any cost burden, but census tracts with a larger minority 
19

percentage had a higher prevalence of severe cost burden, and the differences in severe cost burden 

between neighborhoods with low and high minority percentages have increased over time.

Taken together, the evidence suggests that some household characteristics, particularly race and 

income, possibly interact in more complex ways with geographic characteristics to shape 

housing cost burdens. For example, the housing cost burdens of non-White households living in 

neighborhoods with higher non-White percentages may reflect the influence of racial segregation 

on non-White households’ housing options. To examine this conjecture, we examine the 

interaction between income, race, and census tract characteristics in table 5.

Table 5 suggests that residential segregation by race and income has an impact on the 

prevalence and severity of housing cost burden. Among non-White persons with the lowest 

household incomes (income 10 percent or less of AMI), higher census tract poverty rates do 

not significantly reduce cost burden despite the lower housing prices found in high-poverty 

areas. For non-White persons earning higher incomes, living in a high-poverty census tract 

lowers housing cost burden, and the magnitude of this effect increases with household income. 

This finding is expected, because higher income households face a potentially larger housing 

cost savings from living in neighborhoods likely to exhibit lower housing costs.

We also find that higher income non-White persons are more likely than White persons to 

experience a cost burden when living in census tracts with a higher percentage of non-White 

residents. The impact of census tract median rents on the cost burden experienced by non-White 

households is statistically significant in most models, but the magnitude of this effect is very 

small.

Taken together, these findings suggest that reductions in residential segregation by race and 

income segregation may improve housing affordability for HCV households, even if local rents 

change in response to household mobility. These results should be confirmed by a general 

equilibrium analysis that examines the simultaneous interaction among housing supply, 

household demand, and household mobility.

What are the income and cost burden levels of families at the time of their last

recertification before exiting the program?

To address this question, we calculate the average housing cost burden upon entering and exiting 

the HCV program, for a subset of households from the cross-sectional files that exited the 

program between 2003 and 2015. As table 6 indicates, households’ cost burdens, income, and 

rent differ little from program entry to exit, although rent and incomes have increased slightly, 

and exit is associated with a slightly higher cost burden. In a separate analysis not discussed in 

this report, we also examined housing cost burden by income at the time of last recertification 

before exiting the program. That analysis revealed that 65 percent of households experiencing 

housing cost burdens at the time of exit had extremely low incomes, and 97 percent of 

households with severe housing cost burdens upon exit had extremely low incomes.
20

Table 5. Factors Associated With the Odds of Any Housing Cost Burden and Severe 

Housing Cost Burden, 2015 (Income, Race*Census Tract Characteristics Interactions)

Category/Explanatory Variable Any Cost 

Burden

Severe Cost 

Burden

Household characteristics

Length of participation – 0.000*** 0.000***

Household size – 0.283*** – 0.449***

Children – 0.208*** – 0.222***

Female 0.119*** 0.178***

Elderly – 0.264*** – 0.619***

Disabled – 0.082*** – 0.466***

Income at 10% or less than AMI 2.235*** 7.371***

Income at 11–30% of AMI 1.647*** 5.314***

Income at 31–50% of AMI 1.739*** 3.704***

Income at 51–80% of AMI 1.533*** 2.129***

Primarily wage – 0.144*** – 0.379***

Non-White 0.089*** 0.477***

Hispanic 0.058*** 0.116***

Housing unit type

Bedroom 0.457*** 0.818***

Single-family 0.340*** 0.305***

Building age – 0.000*** – 0.000***

Geography

Midwest 0.337*** 0.162***

South 0.395*** 0.388***

West 0.230*** 0.209***

Central city 0.125*** 0.115***

Suburb 0.038*** – 0.062***

Neighborhood characteristics

Tract median rent 0.000*** 0.001***

Tract vacancy – 0.004*** – 0.004***

Tract poverty – 0.002*** – 0.001***

Tract minority – 0.002*** 0.002***

Interaction terms (Race x income x neighborhood characteristics)

Non-White x income at 10% or less than AMI x tract median rent – 0.000*** – 0.000***

Non-White x income at 10% or less than AMI x tract vacancy 0.014*** 0.014***

Non-White X income at 10% or less than AMI x tract poverty 0.000 0.000

Non-White X income at 10% or less than AMI x tract minority 0.002*** – 0.003***

Non-White X income at 11–30% of AMI x tract median rent 0.000*** – 0.000***

Non-White X income at 11–30% of AMI x tract vacancy – 0.004*** – 0.019***

Non-White X income at 11–30% of AMI x tract poverty – 0.002*** – 0.005***

Non-White X income at 11–30% of AMI x tract minority 0.001*** 0.002***

Non-White X income at 31–50% of AMI x tract median rent 0.000*** – 0.000*

Non-White X income at 31–50% of AMI x tract vacancy – 0.005*** – 0.037***

Non-White X income at 31–50% of AMI x tract poverty – 0.006*** – 0.014***

Non-White X income at 31–50% of AMI x tract minority 0.001*** 0.006***

Non-White X income at 51–80% of AMI x tract median rent 0.000*** – 0.000

Non-White X income at 51–80% of AMI x tract vacancy – 0.002 – 0.047***

Non-White X income at 51–80% of AMI x tract poverty – 0.011*** – 0.022**

Non-White X income at 51–80% of AMI x tract minority 0.004*** 0.010***

Constant – 2.674*** – 10.019***

Number of observations 1,697,242 1,697,242

Wald chi-square 90,313.88*** 181,904.79***

Pseudo R2 0.045 0.236

*** p < 0.01. ** p < 0.05. * p < 0.1.

AMI = Area Median Income.

Notes: Income more than 80% of AMI is omitted. Northeast is omitted. Rural is omitted.
21

Table 6. Descriptive Statistics for Households Upon HCV Program Entry and Exit

Number of households that received a voucher between 2003 and 2015 3,993,848 

Number of households that exited the program between 2003 and 2015 1,964,144 

Average length of program participation (years) 4.7 

Average gross rent at beginning of the voucher contract ($) 864.41 

Average income at beginning of the voucher contract ($) 13,359.82 

Average cost burden at beginning of the voucher contract (%) 34.6%

Average gross rent at last recertification before program exit ($) 876.06 

Average income at last recertification before program exit ($) 15,236.34 

Average cost burden at last recertification before program exit ($) 35.2%

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

Tracking cohorts of voucher households over time, what was the duration of housing cost 

burden, and what were the potential causes of increased housing cost burden?

To address this research question and those that follow, we construct a longitudinal cohort-level 

file of HCV households that initially leased up in the year 2003 and track each household from 

this initial lease-up year until 2015 or exit from the program. We also construct a similar cohortlevel file for HCV households that initially leased up in the year 2008 and track these households 

until 2015 or exit from the program. Two cohort years were chosen to determine if the dynamics 

of housing cost burden differ for those entering the program during the housing market upswing 

relative to the period immediately following the housing market bust. We construct a 

longitudinal file for households with multiple years of participation in the HCV program to 

examine how housing cost burdens have changed over time. To examine the duration and causes 

of increased housing cost burden (changes in income versus changes in rent), we examine tables 

that display, across different year-to-year periods, the percentage change in annual income versus 

the percentage change in gross rent, separately for households whose cost burden level increased

(positive change in cost burden) and households whose cost burden level decreased (negative 

change in cost burden) over year-to-year periods.

Table 7 is based on the longitudinal cohort of HCV participants that initially leased up in 2003. 

Shown in table 7 are percentage changes in gross rent and annual income for households

experiencing different cost burden trajectories (positive versus negative changes in cost burden). 

Households are further differentiated by their housing cost burden status at the end of each year. 

Table 8 displays the same information for the longitudinal cohort of HCV participants that 

initially leased up in 2008. Rent and income were calculated in 2015 dollar values using CPI-U 

city average series for all items, not seasonally adjusted, provided by the U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics.
22

Table 7. Percent Change in Housing Cost Burden for HCV Households by Change in Rent and Change in Income (Leased Up 

in 2003)

Year

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

HCV households that leased up in 2003 153,500 129,272 113,266 100,383 90,786 82,077 76,456 71,630 66,734 62,750 58,986 55,423

Mean rent burden (%) 34.7 35.8 36.2 35.3 34.6 34.9 35.1 35.6 35.9 36.4 37.1 36.6

Mean gross rent ($) 1,007 1,013 1,027 1,047 1,053 1,091 1,096 1,087 1,083 1,085 1,084 1,100

Mean income ($) 13,324 13,732 14,120 14,444 14,286 14,620 14,416 14,017 13,982 14,110 14,178 14,627

HCV households that reduced rent burden 63,642 43,854 44,781 47,751 44,594 35,941 28,260 25,227 27,501 27,145 25,051 24,525

Change in rent burden (%) – 6.3 – 8.4 – 9.5 – 10.1 – 8.3 – 7.0 – 8.4 – 8.5 – 7.2 – 7.2 – 7.3 – 9.9

Change in gross rent (%) – 1.0 – 2.5 – 1.1 – 0.6 – 1.3 2.1 – 1.6 – 2.7 – 2.1 – 1.4 – 1.6 – 0.3

Change in income (%) 110.3 138.0 134.4 150.6 114.0 139.5 174.4 68.6 45.7 99.5 90.0 202.8

No rent burden 45,660 29,319 30,600 32,216 32,561 26,352 18,879 16,635 17,889 17,890 16,019 14,511

Change in rent burden (%) – 5.2 – 6.5 – 7.2 – 8.0 – 6.1 – 4.9 – 6.2 – 6.3 – 5.0 – 5.3 – 5.0 – 7.5

Change in gross rent (%) – 0.8 – 2.5 – 1.0 – 0.5 – 1.1 2.4 – 1.2 – 2.5 – 1.8 – 1.0 – 1.2 0.0

Change in income (%) 122.8 108.7 115.9 179.4 94.3 79.5 190.1 85.3 47.9 90.7 56.7 247.0

Rent burden 17,982 14,535 14,181 15,535 12,033 9,589 9,381 8,592 9,612 9,255 9,032 10,014

Change in rent burden (%) – 9.2 – 12.2 – 14.4 – 14.5 – 14.2 – 12.8 – 12.9 – 12.6 – 11.4 – 11.0 – 11.3 – 13.5

Change in gross rent (%) – 1.4 – 2.5 – 1.2 – 0.8 – 1.8 1.4 – 2.3 – 3.3 – 2.7 – 2.0 – 2.2 – 0.9

Change in income (%) 78.5 197.2 174.2 90.9 167.3 304.4 142.9 36.3 41.8 116.4 149.0 138.7

Severe rent burden 736 1,034 1,182 1,336 1,125 912 906 973 1,104 1,130 1,206 1,298

Change in rent burden (%) – 17.2 – 16.5 – 16.6 – 15.9 – 15.9 – 14.5 – 14.9 – 14.7 – 12.6 – 12.4 – 12.5 – 14.7

Change in gross rent (%) – 0.3 – 2.3 – 0.9 0.4 1.0 2.0 – 1.6 – 2.9 – 1.8 – 1.5 – 1.9 – 1.1

Change in income (%) 163.2 97.2 372.1 41.2 156.4 1,055.0 34.1 43.3 35.0 57.0 66.6 790.3

HCV households that increased rent burden 63,105 54,247 41,944 33,341 28,978 30,597 28,635 26,856 29,225 26,084 25,579 22,894

Change in rent burden (%) 16.0 17.4 19.5 16.5 14.5 14.5 15.3 15.9 13.4 15.0 16.0 13.7

Change in gross rent (%) 2.9 3.0 5.3 8.1 4.3 7.1 2.3 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.1 3.0

Change in income (%) 7.7 6.5 6.8 5.0 3.0 7.2 1.6 0.6 3.4 2.7 3.0 4.4

No rent burden 28,839 24,148 15,446 15,841 14,860 15,275 14,234 11,587 14,872 11,899 10,521 11,239

Change in rent burden (%) 0.3 0.9 1.0 1.4 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.2

Change in gross rent (%) 0.5 1.4 3.8 4.5 1.8 4.4 0.8 – 1.1 – 0.3 – 0.1 0.0 1.4

Change in income (%) 16.8 13.0 14.0 12.2 9.5 13.9 8.3 9.8 11.1 9.1 9.2 11.9

Rent burden 34,266 30,099 26,498 17,500 14,118 15,322 14,401 15,269 14,353 14,185 15,058 11,655

Change in rent burden (%) 29.1 30.6 30.3 30.1 29.0 28.6 29.7 27.9 26.5 27.5 27.0 26.7

Change in gross rent (%) 4.9 4.2 6.2 11.4 7.0 9.7 3.9 2.1 2.4 2.3 1.9 4.5

Change in income (%) 0.0 1.3 2.5 – 1.4 – 3.9 0.6 – 5.1 – 6.4 – 4.5 – 2.7 – 1.3 – 2.8

Severe rent burden 6,185 5,793 5,403 3,803 2,830 2,962 3,085 3,288 3,087 3,273 3,512 2,687

Change in rent burden (%) 97.3 89.7 82.0 78.9 82.3 83.4 87.0 76.7 73.0 69.8 69.8 69.1

Change in gross rent (%) 4.4 2.2 3.9 6.1 4.7 7.6 2.0 0.4 1.5 1.0 0.9 2.9

Change in income (%) – 32.1 – 23.8 – 22.2 – 28.0 – 31.5 – 26.5 – 25.9 – 26.2 – 26.5 – 19.9 – 20.7 – 23.4

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.
23

Table 8. Percent Change in Housing Cost Burden for HCV Households by Change in Rent and Change in Income (Leased Up in 2008)

Year

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

HCV households that leased up in 2008 145,861 128,713 115,139 103,651 94,974 87,304 80,201

Mean rent burden (%) 34.8 35.1 35.6 35.8 36.1 36.8 36.2

Mean gross rent ($) 967 986 989 993 1,001 1,005 1,025

Mean income ($) 13,273 13,257 13,060 13,181 13,423 13,562 14,057

HCV households that reduced rent burden 65,619 48,858 41,371 42,736 41,960 36,407 35,809

Change in rent burden (%) – 7.0 – 9.1 – 9.0 – 8.0 – 7.8 – 7.6 – 9.8

Change in gross rent (%) 2.2 – 1.4 – 2.5 – 1.9 – 1.1 – 1.5 – 0.1

Change in income (%) 98.9 111.2 112.1 144.4 36.7 196.3 471.0

No rent burden 46,762 32,322 27,163 27,371 28,041 23,548 21,752

Change in rent burden (%) – 5.8 – 7.3 – 7.1 – 6.0 – 5.9 – 5.4 – 7.5

Change in gross rent (%) 2.3 – 1.2 – 2.3 – 1.6 – 0.8 – 1.1 0.3

Change in income (%) 91.6 145.4 123.2 143.7 31.0 191.9 226.1

Rent burden 18,857 16,536 14,208 15,365 13,919 12,859 14,057

Change in rent burden (%) – 9.9 – 12.6 – 12.7 – 11.5 – 11.7 – 11.5 – 13.4

Change in gross rent (%) 1.8 – 1.8 – 2.8 – 2.4 – 1.6 – 2.1 – 0.7

Change in income (%) 116.9 44.6 90.9 145.7 48.3 204.2 850.1

Severe rent burden 623 1,026 1,154 1,346 1,368 1,348 1,523

Change in rent burden (%) – 16.9 – 16.7 – 16.7 – 14.7 – 14.2 – 13.1 – 15.2

Change in gross rent (%) 3.0 – 1.4 – 2.0 – 1.8 – 1.4 – 1.5 – 0.9

Change in income (%) 447.6 128.9 42.4 357.3 50.4 56.0 784.5

HCV households that increased rent burden 57,583 48,008 44,296 44,607 38,470 38,232 32,733

Change in rent burden (%) 16.9 16.9 17.7 14.5 15.7 16.0 13.6

Change in gross rent (%) 5.7 3.0 1.5 1.1 1.6 1.2 3.2

Change in income (%) 7.2 3.0 0.8 2.4 2.7 2.1 5.3

No rent burden 25,842 22,003 17,907 21,817 17,068 15,906 15,698

Change in rent burden (%) 0.2 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.3

Change in gross rent (%) 3.4 1.2 – 0.1 – 0.4 0.2 0.0 1.7

Change in income (%) 16.9 12.2 10.8 9.4 10.6 9.8 12.9

Rent burden 31,741 26,005 26,389 22,790 21,402 22,326 17,035

Change in rent burden (%) 30.5 30.5 29.2 27.4 27.9 27.1 25.9

Change in gross rent (%) 7.6 4.5 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.0 4.6

Change in income (%) – 0.8 – 4.8 – 5.9 – 4.2 – 3.6 – 3.5 – 1.7

Severe rent burden 5,892 5,071 5,275 4,550 4,525 4,836 3,592

Change in rent burden (%) 100.3 97.3 89.4 82.1 78.3 75.8 73.3

Change in gross rent (%) 6.1 3.1 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.0 3.0

Change in income (%) – 36.3 – 31.8 – 30.6 – 30.3 – 24.8 – 23.8 – 26.1

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.
24

Tables 7 and 8 reveal additional insights into the dynamics of housing cost burden. Across most 

periods, households that reduced their housing cost burden saw small percentage declines in rent 

along with much larger percentage increases in income. Note that between 2014 and 2015, 

households that saw reductions in rent burden saw an average income increase of more than 200 

percent compared with rent declines of less than 1 percent. Comparatively, households that saw 

increases in rent burden experienced declines or small increases in income that were not large 

enough to offset proportionately larger increases in rent. Of particular importance, households 

that experienced increased housing cost burden and became or remained severely cost burdened 

at the end of each period experienced large decreases in income (more than 20 percent in every 

period) while also experiencing an increase in rent. These trends are roughly the same for those 

that entered the HCV program in 2008.

Taken together, tables 7 and 8 suggest that changes in income play a proportionately larger role 

than changes in rent in altering a household’s housing cost burden trajectory. This is an 

important finding, because it suggests that adjustments to HAPs on annual reexaminations may 

not be sufficiently keeping pace with changing housing cost burdens. This finding also suggests 

that housing options that also improve households’ access to employment prospects and earning 

potential can foster large gains in housing affordability, even if rents are higher in those 

locations, as long as tenant rent is not increased proportionally to rising income. This finding 

also suggests that policy arenas that typically lie outside the domain of housing, such as 

workforce development, can go a long way toward lowering housing cost burden for HCV 

recipients.

Are there typical, longitudinal trajectories of housing cost burdens experienced by 

individual HCV households or clusters of households, and are such trajectories associated 

with length of program participation?

This analysis relies on the same 2003 and 2008 cohort files used to address research question 5. 

For this analysis, we construct indicators of whether, in a given year, a household has moved 

since the previous year. This analysis enables us to compare the longitudinal trajectories of 

renters who remained in their existing dwellings with those of renters who moved from their 

initial dwelling. We also examine the trajectories since initial lease up of renters who exit the 

program. These files are used to calculate several descriptive statistics.

For all households, we calculate—

• Average total duration (years).

• Average duration in rent burden (years), separately for all households and households 

that have ever experienced a rent burden.

• Average duration in severe rent burden (years), separately for all households and 

households that have ever experienced a rent burden.

• Percentage that are rent burdened at beginning of the voucher contract.

• Percentage that are severely rent burdened at beginning of the voucher contract.

• Percentage that are rent burdened at least 1 year.
25

• Percentage that are severely rent burdened at least 1 year.

• Percentage that are rent burdened consecutively during the voucher contract.

• Percentage that are severely rent burdened consecutively during the voucher contract.

For the subsample of households that exited the HCV program during the analysis period, we 

also calculate—

• Percentage that are rent burdened at the time of last recertification before exiting the 

program.

• Percentage that are severely rent burdened at the time of last recertification before exiting 

the program.

For the subsample of households that moved at least once during the analysis period, we also 

calculate—

• Average number of moves.

• Percentage that reduced rent burden upon mobility.

• Percentage that reduced rent burden upon mobility and became not burdened.

• Percentage that reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and became not burdened.

• Percentage that reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and became burdened.

• Percentage that increased rent burden upon mobility.

• Percentage that became rent burdened upon mobility.

• Percentage that became severely rent burdened upon mobility.

• Percentage that increased rent burden upon mobility and became severely rent burdened.

Table 9 reports each of these longitudinal statistics for the two cohorts of HCV participants: 

households that initially leased a unit in 2003 and households that initially leased a unit in 2008. 

We report separate statistics for households that exited the program before 2015 and households

that moved from their initial residential location.

On average, households that initially leased a unit in 2003 participated in the HCV program for 

about 6 years. Households that leased up in 2008 participated for about 5 years, although this 

shorter duration likely reflects the shorter observational period for the 2008 cohort. Despite these 

differences, both cohorts exhibit an average rent-burden duration of about 2 years and spend less 

than 1 year on average in a severely cost-burdened state. Among the HCV households that have 

ever experienced any rent burden, those entering the program in 2003 spend an average of about 

4 years in a rent-burdened state, and those entering the program in 2008 spend an average of 

about 3 years in a rent-burdened state.
26

Table 9. Longitudinal Statistics for HCV Households, 2003 and 2008 Cohorts

Category/Explanatory Variable

Leased 

a Unit 

in 2003

Leased 

a Unit 

in 2008

All HCV households 204,213 176,949

Average total duration (years) 6.3 5.3

Average duration in rent burden (years) 2.4 2.1

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever experienced rent 

burden only) 3.7 3.3

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.4 0.3

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced severe rent burden only) 2.1 1.9

Percent rent burdened at beginning of the voucher contract 37.3 39.6

Percent severely rent burdened at beginning of the voucher contract 3.1 3.0

Percent rent burdened at least 1 year 64.3 62.8

Percent severely rent burdened at least 1 year 18.0 16.3

Percent rent burdened consecutively during the voucher contract 16.4 17.3

Percent severely rent burdened consecutively during the voucher contract 0.9 0.7

All HCV households who exited the program 121,132 82,526

Average total duration (years) 4.5 3.4

Average duration in rent burden (years) 1.8 1.4

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever experienced rent 

burden only) 2.8 2.4

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.3 0.2

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced severe rent burden only) 1.7 1.5

Percent rent burdened at the time of last recertification before exiting the 

program 42.9 40.9

Percent severely rent burdened at the time of last recertification before exiting 

the program 6.2 5.8

All HCV households who moved since initial lease up 39,092 30,348

Average number of moves 1.4 1.3

Average total duration (years) 9.3 6.8

Average duration in rent burden (years) 3.7 2.9

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever experienced rent 

burden only) 4.4 3.6

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.6 0.5

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced severe rent burden only) 2.2 1.8

Percent who reduced rent burden upon mobility 42.5 42.2

Average change in income upon mobility ($) 1,026 990

Percent who reduced rent burden upon mobility and became not burdened 

(burden ≥ no burden) 15.4 15.9

Percent who reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and became not 

burdened (severe burden ≥ no burden) 2.3 2.4

Percent who reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and became 

burdened (severe burden ≥ burden) 3.6 3.4

Percent who increased rent burden upon mobility 45.5 45.5

Average change in income upon mobility ($) 506 389

Percent who became rent burdened upon mobility (no burden ≥ burden) 21.8 21.4

Percent who became severely rent burdened upon mobility (no burden ≥

severe burden) 1.0 1.0

Percent who increased rent burden upon mobility and became severely 

burdened (burden ≥ severe burden) 1.4 1.4

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.
27

Although more than 60 percent of households experience no cost burden upon entering the HCV 

program, a substantial share (37 percent in 2003 and 40 percent in 2008) experience some level 

of cost burden, and about 3 percent experience severe cost burdens. Because program rules 

preclude households from spending more than 40 percent of their income on rent at the time of 

lease up, this latter percentage suggests that either some PHAs are not adequately monitoring 

compliance with the program rules or some HCV households spend more on utilities beyond 

what their utility allowance covers.

Across most statistics, the differences between the 2003 and 2008 cohort are small, which 

suggests that overall housing market conditions had little influence on the trajectory of those 

entering the program at different points in the housing market cycle. Given this, the remainder of 

this discussion focuses on the 2003 cohort, for which we have data over a longer observational 

period. For these households, 64 percent experienced a cost burden of at least 1 year, and 16 

percent experienced cost burdens throughout their duration of tenure in the HCV program. 

Notably, 18 percent of households experienced at least 1 year of severe cost burden.

The middle portion of table 9 examines similar trajectories for households that exited the program 

to determine if length of program participation plays a role in the trajectories observed. Households 

that exit the HCV program tend to spend less time in a cost-burdened state, but, as a ratio of the 

total average duration spent in the program, those that exit spend about the same average 

proportion of time in a rent-burdened state as all HCV households (38 percent). Of those that exit 

the program, about 43 percent are cost burdened upon exiting the program, and 6 percent are 

severely cost burdened. This percentage is twice as high as the percentage of those that enter the 

program and incur a severe cost burden upon initially leasing a unit.

The bottom portion of table 9 describes various transitions between different levels of cost 

burden upon residential mobility. The most noteworthy finding is that, among the 39,092 (19 

percent) of households that leased up in 2003 and moved at some point later in their HCV tenure, 

households were more likely to transition from not experiencing a cost burden to experiencing it 

upon mobility (22 percent), compared with initially experiencing a cost burden but no longer 

experiencing it upon mobility (15 percent). This finding suggests that households that move may 

be more likely to do so in order to occupy larger units or units in more expensive neighborhoods. 

Again, income changes seem to play an important role in reducing housing cost burden upon 

mobility. Among households with rent burden that declined upon mobility, the average change in 

income was more than $1,000.

Do households accept high housing cost burdens to maintain stability in a unit?

Households may accept high rent burdens to live in high-amenity neighborhoods that are closer 

to work, particularly if few housing options in the surrounding housing market offer comparable 

amenities at a lower cost. To examine how households’ acceptance of higher cost burdens upon 

initial lease up influences their cost burden trajectories over time, while also examining the 

impact of housing options in the surrounding market, we calculate similar longitudinal statistics 

to those used to address question 6, emphasizing how households’ trajectories differ with respect 

to: (1) initially renting a unit above or below the local payment standard, (2) the Fair Market 
28

Rent (FMR) for the surrounding area, and (3) the percentage of census tracts where HCV 

households reside where median rents are above the FMR. Whereas the second variable controls 

for the average level of housing costs within the region, the third variable reflects the range of 

neighborhoods where HCV households can use their voucher without likely having to pay a rent 

that is higher than the payment standard. Due to the small number of census tracts in many rural 

counties, the second variable is calculated only for households living in U.S. metropolitan areas 

(Core Based Statistical Areas, including metropolitan and micropolitan areas).

To determine how households’ longitudinal trajectories are influenced by the decision to initially 

live in a more expensive housing unit, table 10 displays the same longitudinal information from 

the previous analysis, focusing on the comparison between households initially renting a unit 

above the payment standard and households initially renting a unit at or below the payment 

standard. Because no large differences emerged in findings between the 2003 and 2008 cohorts, 

table 10 focuses only on the 2003 cohort. Appendix table A11 displays comparable information 

for the 2008 cohort.

It is useful to further elaborate on the significance of the comparison between households renting 

units above and below the payment standard. If gross rent is equal to or lower than the payment 

standard, then rent burden is simply equal to total tenant payment divided by income. In this

case, TTP is usually equal to 30 percent of a household’s adjusted monthly income, so the rent 

burden would be 30 percent or below in this case, regardless of the level of the payment 

standard. However, if rent increases at the same time that income declines, and after the change,

rent becomes higher than the payment standard, HCV households might experience an increase 

in rent burden, because the HAP is not sufficient to reduce a household’s cost burden to 30 

percent. If gross rent is higher than the payment standard, rent burden is equal to ([gross rent –

payment standard + TTP] / income). If rent increases and income declines, rent burden will 

always increase unless the payment standard is set higher than the newly increased rent. These 

relationships suggest that the level of the payment standard interacts with income and rent to 

jointly influence housing cost burden.

Approximately 36 percent (73,045) of households initially leasing a unit in 2003 leased a unit 

with a rent above the payment standard. Of these households, 95 percent were cost-burdened 

upon lease up, and 43 percent remained cost-burdened throughout the analysis period. By 

comparison, only 5 percent of households leasing a unit below the payment standard were costburdened upon lease up, and only 2 percent of these households experienced housing cost burden 

throughout the analysis period. Households leasing a unit above the payment standard also 

exhibited longer cost burden durations, were more likely to exhibit severe cost burdens, and were 

more likely to exhibit a cost burden upon exiting the program. Households initially living in in a 

high-cost unit were also more likely to exhibit a lower cost burden upon residential mobility. An 

interesting comparison is how initially living in high-cost versus low-cost units affects changes 

in cost burden state for households that move. Whereas households living in low-cost units were 

more likely to transition from not having a cost burden to having one upon mobility, those living 

in high-cost units were more likely to transition from having a cost burden to not having one. 

These trends suggest that HCV households are sensitive to housing cost and will adjust housing 

to the extent possible to reduce their cost burdens.
29

Table 10: Longitudinal Statistics by Initial Rent Payment, 2003 HCV Cohort

Category/Explanatory Variable

Rent ≤ 

Payment 

Standard

Rent > 

Payment 

Standard

All HCV households 131,168 73,045

Average total duration (years) 6.4 6.1

Average duration in rent burden (years) 1.7 3.8

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever experienced rent 

burden only) 3.4 3.9

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.4 0.5

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced severe rent burden only) 2.1 2.1

Percent rent burdened at beginning of the voucher contract 5.3 94.7

Percent severely rent burdened at beginning of the voucher contract 2.6 4.1

Percent rent burdened at least 1 year 46.1 97.0

Percent severely rent burdened at least 1 year 15.4 22.6

Percent rent burdened consecutively during the voucher contract 1.7 42.7

Percent severely rent burdened consecutively during the voucher contract 0.6 1.4

All HCV households who exited the program 75,808 45,324

Average total duration (years) 4.6 4.4

Average duration in rent burden (years) 1.1 2.9

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever experienced rent 

burden only) 2.6 3.0

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.2 0.3

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced severe rent burden only) 1.7 1.8

Percent rent burdened at the time of last recertification before exiting the 

program 24.9 73.0

Percent severely rent burdened at the time of last recertification before exiting 

the program 5.0 8.4

All HCV households who moved since initial lease up 25,853 13,239

Average number of moves 1.4 1.4

Average total duration (years) 9.3 9.1

Average duration in rent burden (years) 3.0 5.2

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever experienced rent 

burden only) 3.9 5.2

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.6 0.7

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced severe rent burden only) 2.2 2.2

Percent who reduced rent burden upon mobility 37.7 51.8

Average change in income upon mobility ($) 1,059 974

Percent who reduced rent burden upon mobility and became not burdened 

(burden ≥ no burden) 11.2 23.7

Percent who reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and became not 

burdened (severe burden ≥ no burden) 2.3 2.4

Percent who reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and became 

burdened (severe burden ≥ burden) 2.7 5.2

Percent who increased rent burden upon mobility 47.5 41.5

Average change in income upon mobility ($) 620 254

Percent who became rent burdened upon mobility (no burden ≥ burden) 24.6 16.2

Percent who became severely rent burdened upon mobility (no burden ≥ 

severe burden) 1.3 0.4

Percent who increased rent burden upon mobility and became severely 

burdened (burden ≥ severe burden) 1.3 1.7

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.
30

Table 11 examines how conditions in the surrounding housing market influence household 

trajectories over time. We examine two indicators of housing market conditions: FMR for the 

surrounding metropolitan housing market and the percentage of census tracts within the 

surrounding metropolitan area where HCV households reside that have median rents above the 

FMR. Again, due to the similarity in results between the 2003 and 2008 cohort, table 11

emphasizes only results for the 2003 cohort. Refer to Appendix table A12 for comparable results 

for the 2008 cohort.

The proportion of HCV households experiencing a cost burden upon lease up and the proportion 

of HCV households that are rent burdened throughout their participation in the HCV program are 

inversely associated with FMR. This counterintuitive finding is likely explained by the relatively 

higher cost burdens found in rural areas over the majority of the analysis period.

The second set of columns in table 11 focuses in those living in metropolitan and micropolitan 

areas only, placing emphasis on the degree of choice across neighborhoods in those areas. 

Generally, HCV recipients living in metropolitan areas with fewer census tracts with median 

rents below the FMR are more likely to be cost-burdened at the beginning of the voucher 

contract, cost-burdened at least 1 year, cost-burdened consecutively throughout the contract 

period, and cost-burdened when leaving the HCV program. Affordable housing choice also plays 

a role in households’ mobility over time. Whereas 17,067 households living in areas with greater 

choice moved since lease up, only 10,314 households living in areas with fewer choices moved 

since lease up. Taken together, these results point to the importance of neighborhood options in 

helping HCV households to alleviate housing cost burdens.
31

Table 11: Longitudinal Statistics for HCV Households That Leased a Unit in 2003 (Market 

Characteristics)

FMR Percent of Tracts With 

Rents Above FMR

Category/Explanatory Variable < 600 600–850 > 850 < 40% 40–55% > 55%

All HCV households 81,107 62,827 58,976 72,246 56,373 59,096

Average total duration (years) 5.1 6.4 7.8 7.0 6.5 5.7

Average duration in rent burden (years) 2.2 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.6

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced rent burden only) 3.3 3.9 4.0 3.8 3.8 3.6

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have 

ever experienced severe rent burden only) 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.3 2.1 2.0

Percent rent burdened at beginning of the voucher contract 46.2 34.2 28.6 29.1 33.6 48.9

Percent severely rent burdened at beginning of the voucher 

contract 3.9 2.6 2.5 3.6 1.9 3.3

Percent rent burdened at least 1 year 65.9 64.4 62.5 60.6 63.1 70.8

Percent severely rent burdened at least 1 year 16.1 19.0 19.4 19.1 17.6 18.2

Percent rent burdened consecutively during the voucher 

contract 23.9 13.8 8.8 11.2 13.6 22.9

Percent severely rent burdened consecutively during the 

voucher contract 1.4 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.5 1.1

All HCV households who exited the program 60,214 36,586 23,509 37,940 30,048 40,208

Average total duration (years) 4.1 4.7 5.6 5.0 4.7 4.3

Average duration in rent burden (years) 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced rent burden only) 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.8

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have 

ever experienced severe rent burden only) 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.7

Percent rent burdened at the time of last recertification 

before exiting the program 48.4 40.8 32.4 36.4 40.3 49.7

Percent severely rent burdened at the time of last 

recertification before exiting the program 6.5 6.2 5.7 6.3 5.7 6.5

All HCV households who moved since initial lease-up 13,406 13,579 11,890 17,067 9,849 10,314

Average number of moves 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.5

Average total duration (years) 8.5 9.3 10.1 9.6 9.2 8.9

Average duration in rent burden (years) 3.7 4.0 3.4 3.4 3.8 4.2

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced rent burden only) 4.3 4.7 4.3 4.2 4.6 4.7

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have 

ever experienced severe rent burden only) 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.1 2.1

Percent who reduced rent burden upon mobility 41.4 43.6 42.5 41.4 42.9 44.1

Average change in income upon mobility ($) 1,007 1,109 925 1,040 945 1,072

Percent who reduced rent burden upon mobility and became 

not burdened (burden -> no burden) 15.5 16.5 14.2 14.6 15.6 16.7

Percent who reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and 

became not burdened (severe burden -> no burden) 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.2 2.4

Percent who reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and 

became burdened (severe burden -> burden) 3.5 4.2 2.9 3.2 3.6 4.4

Percent who increased rent burden upon mobility 44.8 46.6 45.4 45.4 44.9 46.7

Average change in income upon mobility ($) 412 647 428 488 560 498

Percent who became rent burdened upon mobility (no burden 

-> burden) 21.1 24.4 19.8 20.5 22.4 23.9

Percent who became severely rent burdened upon mobility 

(no burden -> severe burden) 1.3 1.0 0.8 1.3 0.8 0.9

Percent who increased rent burden upon mobility and 

became severely burdened (burden -> severe burden) 1.9 1.3 1.1 1.7 0.8 1.5

FMR = Fair Market Rent. HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

Note: Rural areas excluded in calculation of percentage of tracts with rents above FMR.
32

Conclusion

We conclude with a recap of the report’s most important findings.

Findings

• The percentage of HCV households experiencing a housing cost burden has fluctuated 

over time.

The number and share of HCV households experiencing a housing cost burden has 

increased since 2003, and the year-to-year trend in HCV cost burden roughly corresponds

to the recent housing market boom/bust cycle. Despite this overall trend, when we 

compare households that lease up during the housing market upswing with those that 

lease up during the bottom of the housing market cycle, longitudinal trajectories are 

remarkably similar for these two cohorts. The difference between cross-sectional 

comparisons across years and the longitudinal findings suggests that households are slow 

to adjust to changing housing market conditions, once a unit has been secured. A lack of 

housing choice in neighborhoods where units can be rented below the FMR reduces the 

likelihood that households will move for the purpose of reducing housing costs.

• HCV housing cost burdens persist over time and are not always reduced by residential 

mobility.

Among households entering the program in 2003, 64 percent experienced a cost burden 

of at least 1 year, 16 percent experienced cost burdens throughout their duration of tenure 

in the HCV program, and 18 percent experienced at least 1 year of severe cost burden. 

Households that moved from their initial neighborhoods were more likely to become cost 

burdened than to eliminate cost burden on mobility. On the other hand, households

initially living in high-cost units were more likely to transition from having a cost burden 

to not having one. These findings suggest that, although some households that move may 

be more likely to do so in order to consume larger units or units in more expensive 

neighborhoods, HCV households are sensitive to housing cost and will adjust housing to 

the extent possible to reduce their cost burdens.

• The prevalence of housing cost burden declines dramatically with income.

The gap in housing cost burden between those earning the highest and lowest incomes 

has grown over time. Generally speaking, changes in income play a proportionately 

larger role than changes in rent in explaining these trends. Across most periods studied, 

households that reduced their housing cost burden saw small percentage declines in rent,

along with much larger percentage increases in income. Comparatively, households that 

saw increases in rent burden experienced declines or small increases in income that were 

not large enough to offset proportionately larger increases in rent. These trends are 

roughly the same for those that entered the HCV program in 2008, suggesting that 

housing market dynamics played a less significant role in shaping the long-term 

dynamics of households’ cost burden trajectories.
33

• The prevalence and severity of housing cost burden varies by length of program 

participation, household composition, and demographic characteristics.

By 2015, households that had been in the HCV program for longer periods of time were 

more likely to have more severe cost burdens. Across most years, single-person 

households were less likely than larger households to exhibit severe housing cost 

burdens. Households headed by females, nonelderly persons, non-Hispanic Black 

persons, and persons that did not have a disability were more likely to exhibit severe 

housing cost burdens.

• Households living in larger single-family homes are more likely to exhibit housing cost 

burdens than those living in other types of housing.

By 2015, 12 percent of those living in homes with three or more bedrooms experienced a 

severe cost burden, whereas only 5 percent of those living in studio apartments 

experienced a severe cost burden. The prevalence of cost burden was highest for 

households living in single-family homes, second highest for those living in multifamily 

homes, and lowest for those living in other housing types. In all years, households living 

in single-family homes have consistently been more likely to exhibit severe housing cost 

burdens, even though the percentage of HCV households living in single-family homes 

has declined over time.

• The geography of housing cost burden is uneven.

Housing cost burdens have been most prevalent in the South and least prevalent in the 

Northeast. Trends in rural areas relative to central cities and suburban areas fluctuated 

over the analysis period. During the housing boom, rural areas saw the highest housing 

cost burdens. When the market fell into decline, cost burdens fell in all areas, but as the 

market began to recover, severe cost burdens rose in metropolitan areas, due largely to 

the relative increase in housing cost burdens within suburban areas. Trends at the census 

tract level have also varied over time. Across all years, households living in census tracts 

with the lowest median rents were the most likely to exhibit severe cost burdens, 

although the gap between the most expensive and least expensive census tracts has 

narrowed since 2006. Until 2005, the differences in prevalence of severe housing cost 

burden by census tract minority percentage were small, but over time, households living 

in census tracts with a larger minority percentage have experienced an increasingly 

higher incidence of severe cost burden, and the differences in severe cost burden between 

neighborhoods with low and high minority percentages have increased over time. Our 

findings also suggest that residential segregation by race and income shape the 

prevalence and severity of housing cost burden.

• Payment standards play an important role in shaping households’ housing cost burden 

trajectories.

Local PHAs have discretionary authority to set payment standards at 90 to 110 percent of 

FMR, but payment standards above 110 percent of FMR must be approved by HUD. If 

FMRs rise, PHAs may elect not to change payment standards as long as the payment 

standard remains between 90 and 110 percent of the FMR. Since households must cover 

the proportion of rent that lies above the payment standard, failing to adjust payment 

standards to reflect rising market rents may place an undue housing cost burden on low-
34

income voucher recipients. We find that renting a unit above the payment standard is 

strongly associated with the prevalence of housing cost burden. Those leasing a unit 

above the payment standard exhibited longer cost burden durations, were more likely to 

exhibit severe cost burdens, and were more likely to exhibit a cost burden upon exiting 

the program.

• Housing markets that provide greater affordable housing choice enable HCV 

households to reduce housing cost burdens over time. 

HCV recipients living in metropolitan areas with fewer affordable neighborhoods are 

more likely to be cost-burdened at the beginning of the voucher contract, cost-burdened 

at least 1 year, cost-burdened consecutively throughout the contract period, and costburdened when leaving the HCV program. Affordable housing choice also plays a role in 

households’ mobility over time. Whereas 17,067 households living in areas with greater 

choice moved since lease up, only 10,314 households living in areas with fewer choices 

moved since lease up. These trends appear to interact with metropolitan levels of racial 

segregation. Taken together, these results point to the importance of local government 

policies that encourage affordable rental housing development and neighborhood options 

in helping HCV households to alleviate housing cost burdens.
35

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Locational Outcomes. Assisted Housing Research Cadre Report. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research.

Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University (JCHS). 2016. The State of the Nation’s 

Housing. Cambridge, MA: President and Fellows of Harvard College.

Leopold, Josh, Liza Getsinger, Pamela Blumenthal, Katya Abazajian, and Reed Jordan. 2015. 

The Housing Affordability Gap for Extremely Low-Income Renters in 2013. Washington, DC: 

Urban Institute.

McClure, Kirk. 2005. “Cost Burden in the Housing Choice Voucher Program,” Cityscape 8 (2): 

5–20.

Pendall, Rolf. 2000. “Why Voucher and Certificate Users Live in Distressed Neighborhoods,”

Housing Policy Debate 11 (4): 881–910.

Souza, Maria Teresa, Robert A. Collinson, Marge Martin, Barry L. Steffen, David A. 

Vandenbroucke, and Yung-Gann David Yao. 2011. 2009 Worst Case Housing Needs of People 

With Disabilities. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 

Office of Policy Development and Research.

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and Yunn-Gann David Yao. 2015. Worst Case Housing Needs 2015 Report to Congress. 

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Development and Research.

White, Tom, Charlie Wilkins, and Edward J. Pinto. 2016. Economical Rental Housing by Design 

for Communities that Work. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute International Center 

on Housing Risk.

Williamson, Anne R. 2011. “Can They Afford the Rent? Resident Cost Burden in Low Income 

Housing Tax Credit Developments,” Urban Affairs Review 47 (6): 775–799.
36

Appendix

Table A1. HCV Households Included and Excluded From Analyses

Year

HCV Households Excluded 

From Analyses

Total Included (TBV recipients with income 

above $0 administered by non-MTW agencies)

2003 418,627 1,613,348

2004 442,032 1,602,917

2005 503,394 1,589,316

2006 577,068 1,675,208

2007 535,958 1,709,899

2008 532,131 1,740,256

2009 533,377 1,733,080

2010 501,353 1,741,422

2011 463,472 1,750,422

2012 420,299 1,746,608

2013 452,187 1,707,830

2014 456,106 1,705,190

2015 481,036 1,728,756

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher. MTW = Moving to Work. TBV = tenant-based voucher.

Table A2. HCV Households by Extent of Housing Cost Burden, 2003–2015

Year

No Cost 

Burden 

(30% or Less)

Any 

Cost Burden 

(31% or More)

Moderate 

Cost Burden

(31–40%)

High 

Cost Burden 

(41–50%)

Severe 

Cost Burden

(51% or More) Total

2003 1,095,683 517,665 360,794 78,500 78,371 1,613,348 

2004 1,011,929 590,988 400,695 95,364 94,929 1,602,917 

2005 904,844 684,472 447,381 117,583 119,508 1,589,316 

2006 909,791 765,417 496,044 134,108 135,265 1,675,208 

2007 999,470 710,429 473,754 116,054 120,621 1,709,899 

2008 1,095,772 644,484 435,053 101,988 107,443 1,740,256 

2009 1,066,702 666,378 440,855 110,858 114,665 1,733,080 

2010 1,070,330 671,092 444,345 109,283 117,464 1,741,422 

2011 1,033,761 716,661 460,935 123,229 132,497 1,750,422 

2012 986,171 760,437 490,866 130,585 138,986 1,746,608 

2013 952,359 755,471 472,499 136,247 146,725 1,707,830 

2014 893,875 811,315 499,697 149,189 162,429 1,705,190 

2015 941,798 786,958 505,710 136,846 144,402 1,728,756 

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

Table A3. Proportion of HCV Households With Specified Housing Cost Burden, 2003–2015

Year

No 

Cost Burden 

(30% or Less)

Any 

Cost Burden 

(31% or More)

Moderate 

Cost Burden

(31–40%)

High 

Cost Burden 

(41–50%)

Severe 

Cost Burden

(51% or More)

2003 67.91% 32.09% 22.36% 4.87% 4.86%

2004 63.13% 36.87% 25.00% 5.95% 5.92%

2005 56.93% 43.07% 28.15% 7.40% 7.52%

2006 54.31% 45.69% 29.61% 8.01% 8.07%

2007 58.45% 41.55% 27.71% 6.79% 7.05%

2008 62.97% 37.03% 25.00% 5.86% 6.17%

2009 61.55% 38.45% 25.44% 6.40% 6.62%

2010 61.46% 38.54% 25.52% 6.28% 6.75%

2011 59.06% 40.94% 26.33% 7.04% 7.57%

2012 56.46% 43.54% 28.10% 7.48% 7.96%

2013 55.76% 44.24% 27.67% 7.98% 8.59%

2014 52.42% 47.58% 29.30% 8.75% 9.53%

2015 54.48% 45.52% 29.25% 7.92% 8.35%

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.
37

Table A4. Percent of HCV Households Experiencing Any Housing Cost Burden 

(31 Percent or More) by Household Characteristics

Year

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Household characteristics

Length of HCV program participation

< 1 year 37.8 43.8 49.0 48.2 44.4 41.0 41.9 41.8 42.7 45.9 44.6 47.4 45.3

1–4.9 years 32.7 38.5 44.8 47.4 42.4 37.7 39.4 39.6 42.4 45.0 45.2 48.4 45.2

5–9.9 years 26.7 32.3 40.4 45.3 41.6 36.6 38.0 38.0 40.4 43.2 44.2 47.5 46.0

10 years or more 24.2 28.2 34.5 38.4 35.7 32.3 34.1 34.7 38.3 41.1 43.2 47.1 45.5

Household size

1 member 30.8 34.6 38.1 39.1 35.5 32.1 33.4 33.8 36.5 39.8 43.5 47.5 45.8

2 members 34.3 39.0 45.6 48.2 43.8 39.4 41.0 41.6 44.0 46.8 48.1 51.7 49.3

3 members 33.2 38.7 46.0 49.6 45.5 40.2 41.9 41.7 44.3 46.5 44.9 47.8 45.5

4 members 30.9 36.5 45.1 49.5 45.0 39.4 41.2 40.8 42.9 44.8 42.5 45.3 42.7

5 or more 

members 30.4 36.2 45.1 49.8 45.9 40.1 41.4 40.5 42.5 44.0 39.8 41.8 39.8

Presence of children

No children 30.8 34.6 38.8 40.5 36.7 33.3 34.5 35.0 37.7 40.8 44.0 47.8 46.0

Children 33.0 38.5 46.4 50.0 45.7 40.4 42.1 41.9 44.2 46.5 44.5 47.3 44.9

Household head gender

Male 29.1 32.5 36.9 38.5 34.4 30.6 31.7 32.0 34.3 36.7 39.0 42.6 41.1

Female 32.7 37.8 44.3 47.2 43.0 38.4 39.9 39.9 42.4 45.1 45.4 48.7 46.6

Household head age

Nonelderly 33.3 38.4 45.2 48.1 43.9 39.1 40.7 40.8 43.2 45.8 45.8 49.0 46.7

Elderly 26.3 29.5 33.5 35.2 31.6 28.3 29.1 29.4 32.0 34.8 38.6 42.6 41.4

Household head disability status

Nondisabled 31.8 36.6 43.2 46.0 41.9 37.3 38.7 38.8 41.2 43.6 43.9 47.2 45.2

Disabled 32.8 37.6 42.7 45.0 40.7 36.4 37.8 38.0 40.3 43.5 45.1 48.6 46.2

Income

$5,000 or less 45.3 51.2 59.5 61.4 58.6 55.3 57.1 58.8 61.3 63.2 64.1 66.7 65.0

$5,001–$10,000 30.8 35.3 40.4 42.8 38.7 33.9 35.3 35.2 37.9 41.2 42.5 46.1 44.5

$10,001–$15,000 30.9 35.8 41.8 43.5 38.7 34.2 35.5 35.7 38.3 40.8 42.0 45.6 43.3

More than $15,000 28.3 33.2 41.1 45.5 41.6 36.9 38.3 37.9 39.8 41.8 41.7 45.0 42.9

Income (as percent of AMI)

10% or less 41.6 46.9 57.0 60.4 57.5 52.8 54.0 54.7 56.9 58.9 59.7 62.9 61.1

11–30% 30.1 34.8 40.3 42.7 38.5 34.0 35.3 35.3 37.8 40.5 41.5 45.0 43.0

31–50% 32.6 38.0 44.2 47.3 43.0 38.1 39.6 39.6 41.9 44.5 44.6 47.8 45.6

51–80% 26.2 30.5 37.7 40.9 38.2 35.4 36.7 37.0 39.2 41.1 42.4 45.0 42.8

More than 80% 7.1 8.5 12.0 10.7 9.7 10.9 11.2 10.2 10.3 11.3 11.7 14.8 14.1

Primary source of income

Wages 30.7 35.8 42.6 46.4 42.2 36.7 38.2 37.8 39.7 42.1 41.9 45.3 43.3

Government 32.7 37.4 43.3 45.3 41.2 37.2 38.5 38.8 41.4 44.1 45.1 48.5 46.5

TTP

$50 or less 65.1 72.1 83.9 86.6 86.6 84.5 85.8 87.5 89.4 89.8 91.0 92.3 92.0

More than $50 30.2 34.9 41.0 43.9 39.6 35.0 36.4 36.3 38.7 41.4 42.1 45.5 43.4

Race/Ethnicity

White, not Hispanic 34.5 39.3 43.9 44.8 40.1 36.2 37.4 37.6 38.9 41.2 41.6 45.0 43.8

Black, not Hispanic 31.6 37.3 45.3 49.6 46.0 40.5 42.6 42.6 44.9 47.5 47.5 51.1 48.5

Asian/Pacific 

Islands, not 

Hispanic 29.2 28.0 32.7 36.8 35.2 31.0 31.2 31.1 34.3 36.3 39.4 42.9 41.4

Native American, 

not Hispanic 34.3 39.2 45.5 46.8 42.1 38.6 39.3 39.9 41.0 42.3 42.0 44.5 43.7

More than one 

race, not Hispanic 37.9 41.1 46.0 46.3 44.6 41.8 40.3 38.2 42.4 43.8 43.3 46.6 42.0

Hispanic, any race 27.4 31.1 37.2 40.1 35.3 31.2 31.7 31.2 35.6 38.7 41.7 44.2 41.8

AMI = Area Median Income. HCV = Housing Choice Voucher. TTP = total tenant payment.
38

Table A5. Percent of HCV Households Experiencing Severe Housing Cost Burden 

(51 Percent or More) by Household Characteristics

Year

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Household characteristics

Length of HCV program participation

< 1 year 4.6 5.3 6.1 5.5 5.0 4.7 5.1 4.8 5.2 5.0 5.5 4.9 4.7

1–4.9 years 5.4 6.5 8.3 9.0 7.6 6.3 6.8 7.0 7.9 8.1 8.3 9.1 7.7

5–9.9 years 4.6 5.6 7.6 8.8 7.9 6.7 7.1 7.2 8.0 8.4 8.9 10.0 9.0

10 years or more 4.1 5.0 6.7 8.0 7.3 6.5 6.9 7.2 8.1 8.7 9.7 11.1 10.0

Household size

1 member 3.6 4.4 5.3 5.6 5.0 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.6 6.1 7.2 8.2 7.3

2 members 5.2 6.2 8.0 8.5 7.5 6.7 7.2 7.8 8.6 9.1 10.1 11.1 9.7

3 members 5.8 7.2 9.1 9.8 8.6 7.6 8.3 8.2 9.2 9.7 10.0 10.9 9.6

4 members 5.5 6.8 9.1 9.9 8.6 7.4 8.1 8.4 9.1 9.3 9.6 10.8 9.1

5 or more 

members 5.2 6.5 8.6 9.8 8.4 7.0 7.5 7.1 8.1 8.1 7.4 7.9 6.9

Presence of children

No children 3.5 4.3 5.4 5.8 5.2 4.6 4.8 5.1 5.9 6.4 7.5 8.5 7.5

Children 5.8 7.1 9.2 9.9 8.6 7.5 8.3 8.4 9.2 9.6 9.8 10.7 9.3

Household head gender

Male 2.9 3.5 4.5 4.9 4.3 3.8 3.8 4.0 4.6 4.8 5.4 6.1 5.4

Female 5.3 6.4 8.1 8.7 7.6 6.7 7.2 7.3 8.2 8.7 9.3 10.3 9.0

Household head age

Nonelderly 5.4 6.6 8.4 9.0 7.9 6.9 7.5 7.7 8.6 9.1 9.7 10.7 9.3

Elderly 2.2 2.7 3.4 3.9 3.3 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.4 3.7 4.7 5.6 5.0

Household head disability status

Nondisabled 5.5 6.8 8.6 9.2 8.0 7.1 7.6 7.8 8.7 9.2 9.7 10.7 9.5

Disabled 2.8 3.5 4.5 5.1 4.5 3.9 4.1 4.1 4.7 5.0 5.8 6.6 5.6

Income

$5,000 or less 21.4 25.3 32.3 34.6 32.8 30.2 32.1 32.9 35.5 37.3 38.7 41.6 39.7

$5,001–$10,000 3.9 5.1 6.8 8.1 7.1 6.0 6.5 6.4 7.3 7.9 8.9 10.1 8.9

$10,001–$15,000 1.5 2.1 3.3 4.1 3.6 3.1 3.4 3.5 4.0 4.3 5.1 6.1 5.2

More than $15,000 0.4 0.7 1.2 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.4 1.9

Income (as percent of AMI)

10% or less 19.5 23.0 30.6 33.7 31.7 28.2 29.3 29.4 31.4 32.9 34.4 37.8 36.0

11–30% 3.0 3.9 5.3 6.0 5.2 4.3 4.5 4.5 5.2 5.5 6.5 7.6 6.4

31–50% 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.6 2.0 1.4

51–80% 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.3

More than 80% 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Primary source of income

Wages 2.4 3.0 3.9 4.4 3.7 3.1 3.4 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.8 5.7 4.8

Government 6.0 7.3 9.2 9.8 8.6 7.5 7.9 7.9 8.9 9.4 10.0 11.1 9.9

TTP

$50 or less 35.7 41.6 52.2 55.5 54.2 50.9 53.0 53.7 56.4 58.0 59.1 61.9 60.5

More than $50 3.1 4.0 5.3 5.9 5.0 4.2 4.6 4.6 5.3 5.6 6.2 7.1 6.0

Race/Ethnicity

White, not Hispanic 4.0 4.8 5.9 6.2 5.3 4.7 4.9 4.8 5.4 5.7 6.0 6.6 5.9

Black, not Hispanic 5.7 7.1 9.2 10.2 8.9 7.7 8.4 8.6 9.5 9.8 10.4 11.7 9.9

Asian/Pacific 

Islands, not 

Hispanic 3.3 3.8 5.4 7.2 6.4 5.6 5.6 5.5 6.7 7.3 8.6 9.7 9.2

Native American, 

not Hispanic 4.6 5.5 7.6 7.9 7.3 6.1 6.9 7.0 7.5 7.4 8.4 8.2 7.4

More than one 

race, not Hispanic 6.7 7.6 9.0 8.1 7.6 6.9 6.7 6.4 7.5 7.7 7.7 8.7 7.5

Hispanic, any race 5.0 5.8 7.3 7.9 6.7 5.9 6.0 6.2 7.5 8.0 9.4 10.1 9.2

AMI = Area Median Income. HCV = Housing Choice Voucher. TTP = total tenant payment.
39

Table A6. Percent of HCV Households Experiencing Any Housing Cost Burden 

(31 Percent or More) by Housing Characteristics

Year

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Housing unit type 

Number of bedrooms

0 18.7 20.6 22.8 22.5 20.1 17.7 17.9 17.2 18.0 20.0 23.4 27.1 27.5

1 24.2 26.7 30.0 30.1 26.2 22.9 23.1 22.8 24.8 27.5 31.6 36.7 37.3

2 35.1 40.1 46.2 48.7 44.2 39.4 41.2 41.8 44.5 47.6 49.1 52.5 49.8

3 33.7 39.8 48.1 52.7 48.7 43.4 45.5 45.3 47.7 50.0 48.1 50.6 47.8

4 or more 39.0 44.7 54.7 61.6 58.5 52.5 53.8 53.2 55.0 56.6 52.8 54.3 49.9

Structure type

Singlefamily 36.2 41.8 48.1 51.8 48.0 42.7 44.1 43.8 46.7 49.7 49.2 52.1 49.7

Multifamily 23.6 26.5 32.9 34.3 29.6 26.6 28.2 28.9 32.6 35.6 38.3 42.5 40.1

Other 

(mfg. home) 39.4 44.9 47.8 46.0 41.8 37.2 38.3 39.9 27.7 27.2 28.2 32.2 36.4

Years since home built

< 10 38.0 42.6 48.0 49.9 45.1 39.9 41.5 41.7 43.7 46.5 45.8 48.5 44.8

10–19.9 36.0 40.4 46.7 47.5 42.4 37.7 39.2 39.7 42.1 45.3 45.7 48.6 45.9

20–29.9 33.7 38.8 45.2 48.0 43.3 38.5 40.3 41.7 44.7 47.8 49.1 51.8 48.4

30–39.9 29.9 34.1 40.1 42.2 38.5 34.8 36.8 37.9 40.8 44.0 45.7 49.4 47.6

40–49.9 30.6 34.4 41.6 45.1 40.5 36.0 36.9 36.6 38.9 40.9 42.7 46.3 43.9

50–99.9 29.9 35.3 41.9 45.5 41.9 37.8 39.1 38.9 41.2 43.3 43.5 47.3 45.9

100 or more 26.2 31.2 37.6 39.4 35.8 31.5 32.6 30.6 32.4 34.6 35.5 39.2 39.9

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.

Table A7. Percent of HCV Households Experiencing Severe Housing Cost Burden 

(51 Percent or More) by Housing Characteristics

Year

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Housing unit type 

Number of bedrooms

0 3.3 3.7 4.8 4.9 4.3 3.7 3.8 3.3 3.8 4.0 4.4 5.1 5.1

1 2.0 2.2 2.7 2.7 2.3 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.4 2.5 3.1 3.8 3.9

2 5.1 6.1 7.5 7.7 6.7 5.8 6.1 6.3 7.1 7.4 8.4 9.4 8.4

3 6.5 8.1 10.5 11.7 10.3 9.1 9.9 10.1 11.3 11.9 12.5 13.7 11.7

4 or more 7.2 9.0 12.7 15.1 13.5 11.3 12.1 11.9 13.3 14.0 13.8 15.1 12.4

Structure type

Single-family 5.7 7.0 8.9 9.8 8.6 7.4 8.0 8.1 9.2 9.8 10.4 11.4 9.8

Multifamily 3.1 3.7 4.9 5.0 4.3 3.9 4.0 4.3 5.0 5.3 6.1 7.0 6.3

Other 

(mfg. home) 5.7 7.1 7.7 7.5 6.6 5.9 6.5 6.4 5.0 4.5 5.1 6.2 6.8

Years since home built

< 10 5.7 6.6 8.1 8.3 7.0 6.1 6.6 6.8 7.6 7.9 8.2 8.7 7.0

10–19.9 5.4 6.5 8.3 8.5 7.0 6.3 6.6 6.6 7.4 7.9 8.3 9.2 8.0

20–29.9 5.4 6.5 8.2 8.5 7.6 6.6 7.1 7.2 8.1 8.6 9.6 10.6 9.2

30–39.9 4.4 5.3 6.9 7.3 6.6 6.0 6.5 6.9 7.7 8.3 9.2 10.2 8.9

40–49.9 4.5 5.6 7.3 8.1 6.9 6.0 6.4 6.5 7.4 7.6 8.3 9.1 7.9

50–99.9 4.3 5.5 7.2 8.2 7.2 6.3 6.8 7.1 8.0 8.3 8.8 10.0 8.8

100 or more 4.5 5.6 6.8 7.1 6.3 5.3 5.6 5.1 5.6 6.1 6.7 7.7 7.4

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.
40

Table A8. Percent of HCV Households Experiencing Any Housing Cost Burden (31 Percent or More) by 

Geographic Characteristics

Year

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Geography 

Region

Northeast 24.8 29.4 35.5 37.7 34.3 30.7 29.8 27.6 29.2 30.8 31.3 36.1 38.3

Midwest 34.5 40.8 46.8 49.8 47.1 42.1 43.9 44.9 47.3 50.0 50.0 51.9 48.2

South 36.0 41.5 47.4 50.4 46.6 39.9 42.4 41.9 45.0 48.4 48.9 52.7 50.0

West 32.0 35.2 42.4 44.9 38.2 36.1 38.0 40.8 43.1 45.4 47.4 49.6 44.9

Metropolitan

Metropolitan 30.1 34.9 42.0 45.5 41.2 36.6 38.0 38.0 40.3 43.0 44.2 47.7 45.5

Nonmetropolitan/rural 41.1 46.0 48.3 46.6 43.8 39.9 41.3 42.4 45.1 47.3 44.6 47.0 45.7

Central city

Central city 30.2 34.1 41.7 45.6 42.6 39.6 40.5 39.7 41.7 42.4 43.3 47.2 45.5

Suburb 29.4 34.7 41.7 45.2 40.2 34.5 36.2 36.6 39.1 44.7 45.5 48.2 45.6

Rural 45.7 51.4 52.3 49.3 43.8 39.8 41.3 42.5 45.6 46.1 43.0 45.8 44.6

Census tract characteristics 

Median rent per month

Less than $400 33.0 39.3 41.5 42.7 41.0 36.8 36.8 36.5 39.2 38.3 37.7 40.4 39.8

$400–$800 35.8 41.8 46.6 47.9 43.0 37.6 39.2 39.6 42.4 45.3 44.2 47.1 44.8

More than $800 29.1 33.2 40.8 44.5 40.6 36.7 38.0 37.8 40.1 42.6 44.5 48.1 46.2

Vacancy rate

Less than 5% 30.1 33.7 40.4 43.0 38.2 35.1 36.7 37.3 39.1 41.8 43.8 47.3 45.3

5–8% 31.8 36.1 42.6 45.3 40.4 36.6 37.8 38.4 40.7 42.4 44.1 47.7 45.8

Greater than 8% 32.5 37.9 44.2 47.1 43.1 37.8 39.2 39.0 41.7 44.6 44.6 47.7 45.5

Poverty rate

10% or less 36.0 40.4 47.0 50.8 47.1 42.8 44.1 43.6 45.4 46.5 47.7 50.7 48.2

11–20% 33.6 38.5 44.4 46.7 42.2 37.7 39.2 39.3 42.1 45.0 46.0 49.1 46.5

More than 20% 28.0 33.0 39.6 41.9 37.1 32.5 33.8 34.3 36.8 41.5 41.8 45.4 43.8

Minority percentage

20% or less 37.9 43.2 47.9 48.8 44.1 40.0 41.7 41.8 43.9 46.2 45.0 47.4 45.5

20–40% 35.3 40.4 46.1 48.3 43.9 39.0 40.2 39.7 42.1 45.6 45.6 48.9 46.7

More than 40% 27.7 32.2 39.7 43.5 39.4 34.7 36.1 36.2 39.0 42.2 43.7 47.4 45.2

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.
41

Table A9. Percent of HCV Households Experiencing Severe Housing Cost Burden (51 Percent or More) by 

Geographic Characteristics

Year

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Geography 

Region

Northeast 3.7 4.6 5.7 6.4 5.7 5.1 4.8 4.4 4.9 5.1 5.5 6.5 6.8

Midwest 4.6 5.9 7.6 8.2 7.5 6.4 6.9 7.2 8.0 8.3 8.5 9.0 7.4

South 6.4 7.6 9.3 9.6 8.5 7.3 8.1 7.8 8.9 9.5 10.4 11.5 9.6

West 3.6 4.4 6.4 7.1 5.6 5.0 5.6 6.9 7.6 8.0 8.9 9.8 8.4

Metropolitan

Metropolitan 4.6 5.7 7.4 8.2 7.2 6.3 6.7 6.9 7.7 8.1 8.8 9.9 8.7

Nonmetropolitan/rural 6.2 7.2 8.2 7.7 6.2 5.7 5.9 5.9 6.9 7.0 6.8 7.0 6.0

Central city

Central city 4.2 5.2 7.1 8.0 7.3 6.6 6.9 6.6 7.6 7.9 8.6 9.7 8.7

Suburb 4.7 5.9 7.5 8.3 7.2 6.1 6.6 7.1 7.8 8.1 8.8 9.6 8.2

Rural 6.2 7.3 7.9 7.0 6.1 5.6 5.9 5.9 6.9 7.1 7.0 7.1 6.2

Census tract characteristics 

Median rent per month

Less than $400 6.3 8.3 8.8 8.9 11.6 11.0 10.4 10.5 11.6 12.4 12.4 13.2 12.3

$400–$800 5.4 6.5 7.8 7.8 7.0 6.1 6.5 6.6 7.4 7.8 7.9 8.4 7.2

More than $800 4.2 5.3 7.2 8.1 7.0 6.1 6.6 6.8 7.6 8.0 9.0 10.3 9.1

Vacancy rate

Less than 5% 3.8 4.7 6.3 7.0 6.0 5.3 5.7 6.1 6.8 7.3 8.3 9.4 8.5

5–8% 4.4 5.4 7.0 7.6 6.6 5.8 6.2 6.5 7.1 7.4 8.2 9.3 8.3

Greater than 8% 5.2 6.3 7.9 8.4 7.6 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.9 8.4 8.8 9.6 8.3

Poverty rate

10% or less 4.7 5.8 7.7 8.8 7.7 6.7 7.1 6.9 7.7 8.0 8.7 9.8 8.4

11–20% 4.7 5.7 7.2 7.6 6.6 5.8 6.3 6.4 7.3 7.7 8.4 9.3 8.0

More than 20% 4.8 5.9 7.4 7.8 7.0 6.1 6.5 6.9 7.8 8.1 8.7 9.6 8.5

Minority percentage

20% or less 4.6 5.6 6.8 7.0 6.1 5.4 5.8 5.6 6.3 6.6 6.5 6.7 5.8

20–40% 5.0 6.1 7.6 8.0 7.0 6.1 6.5 6.3 7.2 7.2 7.5 8.3 7.2

More than 40% 4.8 5.9 7.7 8.6 7.6 6.6 7.1 7.5 8.4 8.7 9.6 10.8 9.6

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.
42

Table A10. Variable Definitions for Logistic Regression Models (Tables 4–6 in Text)

Variable Definition

Dependent variable

Any cost burden 1 = A household experiences any cost burden (31% or more)

Severe cost burden 1 = A household experiences a severe cost burden (51% or more)

Independent variables

Household characteristics

Length of participation Length of participation (days)

Household size Number of household members

Children 1 = A household has at least one child

Female 1 = A household head is female

Elderly 1 = A household head is elderly

Disabled 1 = A household head is disabled

Income at 10% or less than AMI 1 = Total annual income 10% or less than AMI

Income at 11–30% of AMI 1 = Total annual income 11–30% of AMI

Income at 31–50% of AMI 1 = Total annual income 31–50% of AMI

Income at 51–80% of AMI 1 = Total annual income 51–80% of AMI

Primarily wage 1 = Primary source of income is wage

Non-White 1 = A household head is non-White

Hispanic 1 = A household head is Hispanic

Housing unit type

Bedroom Number of bedrooms

Single-family 1 = Single-family (detached/attached) home

Building age Age of housing unit

Geography

Midwest 1 = Midwest (Census region)

South 1 = South (Census region)

West 1 = West (Census region)

Central city 1 = Central city

Suburb 1 = Suburb

Neighborhood characteristics

Tract median rent Census-tract level median gross rent

Tract vacancy Census-tract level vacancy rate

Tract poverty Census-tract level poverty rate

Tract minority Census-tract level percentage of minority population

AMI = Area Median Income.
43

Table A11. Longitudinal Statistics by Initial Rent Payment, 2008 HCV Cohort

Category/Explanatory Variable

Rent ≤ 

Payment 

Standard

Rent > 

Payment 

Standard

All HCV households 110,266 66,683

Average total duration (years) 5.3 5.3

Average duration in rent burden (years) 1.2 3.6

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever experienced rent 

burden only) 2.7 3.7

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.3 0.4

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced severe rent burden only) 1.8 1.9

Percent rent burdened at beginning of the voucher contract 6.4 94.4

Percent severely rent burdened at beginning of the voucher contract 3.2 2.7

Percent rent burdened at least 1 year 42.2 96.8

Percent severely rent burdened at least 1 year 13.4 21.2

Percent rent burdened consecutively during the voucher contract 1.9 42.7

Percent severely rent burdened consecutively during the voucher contract 0.7 0.8

All HCV households who exited the program 50,856 31,670

Average total duration (years) 3.4 3.4

Average duration in rent burden (years) 0.7 2.5

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever experienced rent 

burden only) 2.0 2.5

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.1 0.2

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced severe rent burden only) 1.5 1.6

Percent rent burdened at the time of last recertification before exiting the 

program 21.2 72.7

Percent severely rent burdened at the time of last recertification before exiting 

the program 4.7 7.5

All HCV households who moved since initial lease up 19,085 11,263

Average number of moves 1.3 1.3

Average total duration (years) 6.8 6.8

Average duration in rent burden (years) 2.1 4.2

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever experienced rent 

burden only) 3.0 4.3

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.4 0.5

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced severe rent burden only) 1.8 1.8

Percent who reduced rent burden upon mobility 36.0 52.8

Average change in income upon mobility ($) 1,058 903

Percent who reduced rent burden upon mobility and became not burdened 

(burden ≥ no burden) 10.7 24.8

Percent who reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and became not 

burdened (severe burden ≥ no burden) 2.2 2.8

Percent who reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and became 

burdened (severe burden ≥ burden) 2.5 4.9

Percent who increased rent burden upon mobility 47.9 41.3

Average change in income upon mobility ($) 515 141

Percent who became rent burdened upon mobility (no burden ≥ burden) 25.4 14.6

Percent who became severely rent burdened upon mobility (no burden ≥ 

severe burden) 1.3 0.4

Percent who increased rent burden upon mobility and became severely 

burdened (burden ≥ severe burden) 1.2 1.7

HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.
44

Table A12. Longitudinal Statistics for HCV Households That Leased a Unit in 2008 

(Market Characteristics)

FMR Percent of Tracts With 

Rents Above FMR

Category/Explanatory Variable < 600 600–850 > 850 < 40% 40–55% > 55%

All HCV households 74,563 55,417 46,523 45,710 58,030 60,173

Average total duration (years) 4.6 5.4 6.3 6.0 5.3 5.1

Average duration in rent burden (years) 2.0 2.3 2.2 2.0 2.2 2.3

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced rent burden only) 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.3

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have 

ever experienced severe rent burden only) 1.8 1.8 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8

Percent rent burdened at beginning of the voucher contract 42.5 39.6 35.1 34.9 38.8 43.8

Percent severely rent burdened at beginning of the voucher 

contract 3.3 3.3 2.2 3.6 2.9 2.6

Percent rent burdened at least 1 year 62.5 65.4 60.3 58.9 63.2 66.4

Percent severely rent burdened at least 1 year 14.7 18.0 16.9 16.4 17.1 16.4

Percent rent burdened consecutively during the voucher 

contract 21.2 16.8 11.7 12.9 16.4 20.4

Percent severely rent burdened consecutively during the 

voucher contract 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.6

All HCV households who exited the program 46,038 24,372 11,935 14,832 26,576 32,184

Average total duration (years) 3.2 3.5 3.9 3.6 3.5 3.4

Average duration in rent burden (years) 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.4

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced rent burden only) 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have

ever experienced severe rent burden only) 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5

Percent rent burdened at the time of last recertification 

before exiting the program 42.5 41.4 34.0 35.1 40.4 43.8

Percent severely rent burdened at the time of last 

recertification before exiting the program 5.7 6.3 5.1 5.9 5.7 5.8

All HCV households who moved since initial lease-up 11,867 11,082 7,302 6,953 11,552 10,448

Average number of moves 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.3

Average total duration (years) 6.5 6.9 7.3 7.1 6.9 6.7

Average duration in rent burden (years) 2.8 3.1 2.8 2.7 2.9 3.1

Average duration in rent burden (HCV households have ever 

experienced rent burden only) 3.4 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.6 3.6

Average duration in severe rent burden (years) 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4

Average duration in severe rent burden (HCV households have 

ever experienced severe rent burden only) 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.7

Percent who reduced rent burden upon mobility 40.9 42.0 44.7 44.3 41.3 42.3

Average change in income upon mobility ($) 925 1,157 827 899 1,011 1,043

Percent who reduced rent burden upon mobility and became 

not burdened (burden -> no burden) 15.4 16.1 16.4 15.8 15.9 16.1

Percent who reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and 

became not burdened (severe burden -> no burden) 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.4

Percent who reduced severe rent burden upon mobility and 

became burdened (severe burden -> burden) 3.1 3.7 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.5

Percent who increased rent burden upon mobility 43.8 47.5 45.4 45.3 44.7 46.7

Average change in income upon mobility ($) 389 448 294 311 324 483

Percent who became rent burdened upon mobility (no burden 

-> burden) 20.7 24.1 18.7 18.2 21.4 23.7

Percent who became severely rent burdened upon mobility 

(no burden -> severe burden) 1.2 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.2 0.9

Percent who increased rent burden upon mobility and 

became severely burdened (burden -> severe burden) 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.2

FMR = Fair Market Rent. HCV = Housing Choice Voucher.