100

GPO YEARS

1861-1961
100

GPO YEARS

1861–1961

A History of United States

Public Printing

Under Direction of the Public Printer

JAMES L. HARRISON

Sesquicentennial Edition

2010
Joint Committee on Printing

111th Congress

January 3, 2009 to January 3, 2011

Charles E. Schumer, Senator from New York, Chairman

Robert A. Brady, Representative from Pennsylvania, Vice Chairman

Patty Murray, Senator from Washington

Thomas S. Udall, Senator from New Mexico

Robert F. Bennett, Senator from Utah

Saxby Chambliss, Senator from Georgia

Michael E. Capuano, Representative from Massachusetts

Susan A. Davis, Representative from California

Daniel E. Lungren, Representative from California

Kevin McCarthy, Representative from California

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Foreword to the 

Sesquicentennial Edition

Fifty years ago, on the occasion of its centennial, GPO published this official account 

of its history. It was Public Printer James Harrison’s hope that this book would “serve 

to stimulate present and future employees of the Government Printing Office, by the 

dedicated efforts of their predecessors, to give their Government its essential printing 

requirements, and provide future historians with an accurate account of the first 100 

years of service of this great institution.” 

This book has more than fulfilled that hope. Indeed, 100 GPO Years has proven 

to be a durable source of information about GPO’s origins, its ability to adapt and 

take advantage of changing technologies and processes, and its critically important 

contribution to the life of the Nation through the production and distribution of 

Government publications.

As we approach GPO’s 150th anniversary in 2011, we remain indebted to this 

book because it serves not only as a window on this great institution’s past but, more 

importantly, as a prologue to GPO’s future. There are vast differences in the way 

GPO carries out its work in this Digital Age, but our mission remains fundamentally 

the same: producing and distributing Government publications—the documents of our 

democracy—to keep America informed.

The men and women of GPO—as well as all those who share daily in the 

production, distribution, and use of Government information—will see in this newly 

reissued history an account of the critically important work their predecessors carried 

out on behalf of the Nation, work which they themselves continue to perform today. 

This book is dedicated to them and those who will follow in their footsteps.

Robert C. Tapella, Public Printer.

iii
iv

Joint Committee on Printing

87th Congress

January 3, 1961 to January 3, 1963

Carl Hayden, Senator from Arizona, Chairman

Omar Burleson, Representative from Texas, Vice Chairman

Mike Mansfield, Senator from Montana

Jack Miller, Senator from Iowa

Wayne L. Hays, Representative from Ohio

Paul F. Schenck, Representative from Ohio

John F. Haley, Staff Director

Paul C. Beach, Assistant Staff Director

Elizabeth T. Anderson, Administrative Assistant

Tempie L. Bailey

Louis E. Shomette

Clifford P. Reynolds

Herbert V. Bibus

Paul L. Zenor
Government Printing Office Officials

[1961]

Public Printer .......................................................................................................................James L. Harrison

Deputy Public Printer ..........................................................................................................Harry D. Merold

Administrative Assistant to the Public Printer ..............................................................Felix E. Cristofane

Special Assistant to the Public Printer .........................................................................Eustis E. Morsberger

Director of Personnel ..........................................................................................................Milton J. Havener

Comptroller ....................................................................................................................Frank Higginbotham

Director of Purchases ......................................................................................................Daniel H. Campbell

Superintendent of Documents ..........................................................................................Carper W. Buckley

Plant Engineer ........................................................................................................................Louis J. Naecker

Technical Director ........................................................................................................Morris S. Kantrowitz

Disbursing Officer ...............................................................................................................Walter Spauls, Jr.

Medical Officer ................................................................................................................Allen S. Cross, M.D.

Planning-Production Manager ...........................................................................Frederick W. Baumann, Jr.

Assistant Planning-Production Manager for Production ................................................Albert O. Luther

Assistant Planning-Production Manager for Planning ............................................................James W. Tew

Assistant Planning-Production Manager for Typography and Design .......................Frank H. Mortimer

Night Planning-Production Manager .............................................................................Arthur O. Daniels

Superintendent of Binding ................................................................................................Harold C. Leonard

Superintendent of Composition .......................................................................................... Morris H. Reaves

Superintendent of Letterpress ................................................................................................Emil M. Cobabe

Superintendent of Offset ......................................................................................................Herbert C. Much

Superintendent of Platemaking ..............................................................................Vincent C. Walkendifer

Superintendent of Field Service ................................................................................ Matthew S. Stepienski

Superintendent, Division of Planning Service ...................................................................Russel L. Weaver

Superintendent, Division of Plant Planning ....................................................................William T. Meany

Chief, Congressional Information ........................................................................................Donald W. Casey

Congressional Record Clerk at the Capitol .......................................................................Raymond F. Noyes

Centennial Celebration Committee

James L. Harrison, Public Printer, ex officio

Harry D. Merold, Deputy Public Printer

Carper W. Buckley, Superintendent of Documents, Chairman

Eustis E. Morsberger, Special Assistant to the Public Printer

Milton J. Havener, Director of Personnel

Frederick W. Baumann, Jr., Planning-Production Manager

Frank H. Mortimer, Assistant Planning-Production Manager for Typography and Design

Harry Schecter, Chairman, GPO Style Board

Albert B. Schneider, Linotype Machinist in Charge

Hilda B. Ingalls, Chief Receptionist

v
vi

THIS HISTORY of public printing is dedicated to Carl 

Hayden, senior Senator from Arizona and dean of the United 

States Senate. He is serving in his 50th year in the Congress 

of the United States and truly exemplifies the American 

Statesman. As a member of the Joint Committee on Printing 

since March 4, 1933, and as its chairman for over 18 years, 

he has been an inspiration to everyone in the Government 

Printing Office who has been privileged to know him.
vii

Foreword

[1961]

This history of U.S. public printing and the Government Printing Office has 

been prepared under my direction and that of former Public Printer Raymond 

Blattenberger in connection with the celebration of the Office’s centennial.

It has been difficult to select appropriate material from the wealth of documents 

relating to the establishment and operation of the Office, and much has necessarily 

been omitted to keep it within reasonable confines.

It was essential to the purpose of the history to include the somewhat lengthy review 

of the events and circumstances which preceded the establishment of the Government 

Printing Office in order to explain its creation by the Congress.

The Office is indebted principally to Harry Schecter, Chairman of the Government 

Printing Office Style Board, for the research and writing which was involved.

It is my hope that this history will serve to stimulate present and future employees 

of the Government Printing Office, by the dedicated efforts of their predecessors, 

to give their Government its essential printing requirements and, also, to provide 

future historians with an accurate account of the first 100 years of service of this great 

institution.

James L. Harrison, Public Printer.
viii

Acknowledgments

[1961]

In 1881, 20 years after the founding of the GPO, R. W. Kerr, an employee, became 

the first historian of the GPO, and copyrighted a History of the Government Printing 

Office (at Washington, D.C.), with a brief record of the Public Printing for a Century, 

1789–1881. The present-day historian is indebted to his predecessor for introducing 

some light into the long-ago Government printing past, for Kerr’s history has lessened 

the burden of laborious searching of source material. Kerr hoped “to impress upon 

the minds of those into whose hands the volume may fall its [GPO] magnitude as 

a printing office, and the power and influence which it wields for the common 

welfare—aside from the steady employment it gives to its many worthy 

operatives * * *.’’

In addition to the Kerr History, the following sources were drawn upon, with 

grateful acknowledgment by this Office:

Adventures of a Tramp Printer, by John Edward Hicks, Midamericana Press, Kansas City, Mo. 

Book in America, by H. Lehmann-Haupt, R. R. Bowker Co., New York.

Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln Association, Springfield, Ill. Edited by

 Roy P. Basler, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, N.J.

Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, by John Spencer Bassett, from The Life of Jackson, by 

 Marquis James, Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, Ind.

History of the National Capital, by W. B. Bryan, Macmillan Co., New York.

Printing in the Americas, by John Clyde Oswald, Gregg Publishing Co., New York.

Reminiscences in 1900, by A. F. Bloomer.

Reveille in Washington, by Margaret Leech, Harper & Bros., New York.

The Sights and Secrets of the National Capital, by Dr. J. B. Ellis, Jones, Junkin & Co., Chicago. 

Thirty Years in Washington, by Mrs. John A. Logan, A. D. Worthington & Co.

Washington: A Not Too Serious History, by George Rothwell Brown, Norman Publishing Co., 

 Baltimore, Md.

Washington and Environs, by John Clagett Proctor.
ix

Contents

Page

Foreword ...................................................................................................... iii–vii

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................viii

Introduction .................................................................................................. xi–xii

Prolog .................................................................................................................xiii

Chapter I. Colonial Publick Printing: 1639–1789 ............................................ 1

II. Free Enterprise Public Printing: 1789–1861 .................................. 7

Government Printing Needs .................................................... 9

Congressional Proceedings ..................................................... 10

Public Printing in New Capital ............................................. 13

Government Printers ............................................................... 16

Congressional Investigations—1828 and 1840....................... 17

1842 Printing Study ................................................................. 20

Contract System Restored in 1846 ......................................... 20

Events Leading to Establishment of GPO—1852–1860 ...... 22

1858 Investigation .................................................................... 24

1860 Investigation .................................................................... 26

III. 100 GPO Years: 1861–1961 ........................................................... 35

GPO in Swampoodle ............................................................... 36

Proceedings and Debates of Congress ................................... 48

New Printing Act .................................................................... 74

GPO in Peace and War ......................................................... 129

Postwar Operations ............................................................... 143

IV. This Is the GPO ........................................................................... 153

Heads of Public Printing: 1852–1961 ................................... 153

100 Years of Growth of Government and GPO ................. 154

Organizational Structure ...................................................... 155

Administration and Planning –Production ......................... 155

History of Building Expansion ............................................ 159

Role in Government .............................................................. 160

Index .................................................................................................................. 163

xi

Introduction

One hundred years ago, on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln and the GPO were 

inaugurated. For Abraham Lincoln, the day was close to the beginning of 4 war years; 

for the GPO it marked the beginning of a century of printing years.

The political climate of the day was one of sharp national division and marked 

by extremely bitter debates in Congress by Northern and Secessionist members. 

South Carolina had already seceded from the Union on December 20, 1860, and on 

February 4, 1861, the Confederate Government had been organized in Montgomery, 

Ala. Washington was thronged with inauguration visitors, with secession and Fort 

Sumter, Cabinet appointments and political jobs, and Lincoln assassination threats the 

chief conversation pieces. The Baltimore Sun of March 5 noted that—

There is no sense of relief here from the tone of the inaugural. It is regarded “as grim-visaged 

war’’ under a smooth, deceptive front.

On March 11, the Sun said:

The rush of office-seekers upon the departments exceed anything of the kind ever before 

known. From all morning till late in the evening, Uncle Abe and each of the members of the 

cabinet are beset by men, women and children.

The Government printing climate, however, was tranquil. In sharp contrast were 

the recent events which led to the beginning of the GPO. From a national issue, 

with the Nation, Congress, and newspapers familiar with the printing situation of 

the 1850’s, Lincoln’s inauguration and almost inevitable civil war caused the GPO’s 

opening to go unnoticed. Washington was now preoccupied with more important 

national matters.

Receiving the blessing of Congress on June 23, 1860, and its opening authorized on 

March 4, 1861, the GPO was aware of its mission, for during the debate on the creation 

of the GPO, Congressman Gurley had outlined its aims and purposes, as follows:

If there is any public service in this country which, in preference to almost any other, 

should be performed by the immediate and special agents of the Government, it is that of 

Congressional and executive printing; and this fact will appear the more obvious if we consider 

that it is necessarily interwoven with the law-making power of each house, and cannot, by 

any possibility, be separated from it. It is no exaggeration to say that it is not only a leading 

but an essential element of national legislation; for the information which it affords must 

always control, to some extent, the action of those engaged in it. Without it, how can gentlemen 

intelligently frame their bills, draw up their reports, or even vote understandingly?

But it is not only a positive, but a daily and almost hourly necessity while Congress is 

in session. It is just as essential to the healthy action of this legislative assembly when here 

convened, as our ordinary food is to the healthy action of our bodies and minds. There exists 

about the same necessity for the regular appearance in print of bills, documents, and reports, as 

for the appearance every morning upon the table of the breakfast.
xii

It is unlike any other department of Government service. For ships you can wait; for guns you 

can generally wait; and, ordinarily, you are in no special hurry for the various munitions of war; 

but you cannot be deprived of your printing for a single day without serious embarrassment and 

loss of time. In the sense, therefore, of a leading element of the law-making power, the public 

printing underlies your armies, it underlies your navies, and every other arm of the national 

service; and in this important particular, therefore, bears no analogy to the other departments 

of the Government.

President Buchanan signed the GPO act on June 23, 1860. The act stated that the 

Superintendent of Public Printing was—

authorized and directed to have executed the printing and binding authorized by the Senate and 

House of Representatives, the Executive and Judicial Departments, and the Court of Claims; 

and to enable him to carry out the provisions of this act, he is hereby authorized to contract for 

the erection or purchase of the necessary buildings, machinery and materials for that purpose.

In compliance with this law, a building and equipment were purchased. (See “1861, 

The Office,’’ p. 36.)

Thus the GPO began its printing career. The shift of focus from a freewheeling 

regime to one of correct operation as a Government enterprise required some 

adjustments. There would be no change in the method of producing Government 

printing, but the accent would be placed on control, an element lacking in the former 

public printing system.

Its birth took place in the aftermath of congressional investigations; it came of age 

in the war which began 5 weeks later, and the 1861 GPO thus became the genesis of 

the present-day GPO.

The following chapters discuss the period from the beginning of American printing 

in New England in 1639 to the formation of the Union in 1789; from the manner of 

supplying the printing needs of the small Nation to the rapidly growing country of 

1861; and then to the 100 years of the Government Printing Office from 1861 to 1961.
xiii

Prolog

But, to return to the consideration of printing, it is plain that it is but the other 

half—and in real utility, the better half—of writing; and that both together are but 

the assistants of speech in the communication of thoughts between man and man. 

When man was possessed of speech alone, the chances of invention, discovery, and 

improvement, were very limited; but by the introduction of each of these, they 

were greatly multiplied. * * * And yet, for the 3,000 years during which printing 

remained undiscovered after writing was in use, it was only a small portion of the 

people who could write, or even read writing; and consequently the field of invention, 

though much extended, still continued very limited. At length printing came. It gave 

10,000 copies of any written matter, quite as cheaply as 10 were given before; and 

consequently a thousand minds were brought into the field where there was but one 

before. This was a great gain; and history shows a great change corresponding to it, 

in point of time. I will venture to consider it, the true determination of that period 

called “the dark ages.’’ * * * To immancipate [sic] the mind * * * is the great task which 

printing came into the world to perform. Discoveries, inventions, and improvements, 

followed rapidly and have been increasing their rapidity ever since.—From a lecture 

on “Discoveries and Inventions,’’ by Abraham Lincoln, delivered on February 11, 1859, at 

Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill.

1

THIS CHAPTER covering the 1639–1789 era of public printing has condensed 

the dramatic period of early American printing into a few pages. Many early 

printing pioneers associated with this period have been necessarily omitted, 

and the story of some of the leading characters has been condensed to become part of 

the overall public printing story.

Although an accounting of 100 GPO years would be confined within the strict 

limits of 1861–1961, it could not be complete unless it were broadened within a wider 

framework of time. A newly created Government department without prior legislative history would in time yield its story of performance. But “100 GPO Years’’ must 

necessarily reach back to the beginning of printing in America, because provincial 

and colonial “publick’’ printers were also government printers and therefore part of 

a history of Government printing. Although “government’’ was the British Crown in 

uneasy control of the provinces, and later with diminished control of the Colonies, the 

pioneer publick printers of America eventually earned a future chapter in a later-day 

Government Printing Office history.

Printing Arrives in New World

Printing reached British America in 

1639, 322 years ago, when Stephen Daye 

(later Day), set up a printing plant in 

Cambridge, Mass., with equipment purchased in England for the use of Harvard Academy (later Harvard College). 

Stephen Day, a locksmith by trade, had 

a son, Matthew, who was versed in the 

art of printing, with his knowledge acquired in England. Thus the first printing in colonial America was performed 

by Matthew Day, who began to set type 

in a newly built house on the bleak shore 

of New England.

The early English Americans who 

arrived on the Mayflower brought with 

them a great tradition in the form of literature and a growing language. Newspapers were important media for the 

struggling colonials as a source of news 

and information, but the chief source of 

revenue for the early public printers was 

official crown printing. Newspapers of 

the day were best equipped to perform 

such work, for they alone possessed sufficient type and paper, in addition to the 

Chapter I

COLONIAL PUBLICK 

PRINTING

1639–1789
2

possession of political agility in their editorial attitude toward both the crown and 

the patriots.

Early Publick Printers

The term “publick printer’’ was applied to those engaged in printing official 

publications. Most Colonies had publick 

printers, although in some places government work was divided among two or 

more leading printers.

Until 1789, the following served as official crown or colonial printers:

Connecticut: William Bradford, Thomas 

Short, Timothy Green, James Parker. 

Delaware: Benjamin Franklin, James Adams, 

Jacob A. Kallen.

Georgia: James Johnston, John Daniel Hammerer.

Maine: Benjamin Titcomb, Jr., Thomas B. 

Wait.

Maryland: William Nuthead, Thomas Reading, Benjamin Franklin, John Peter Zenger, 

William Parks, Jonas Green.

Massachusetts: Stephen Day, Samuel Green, 

Green & Russell, John Foster, James Franklin, 

Thomas Short.

New Hampshire: Daniel Fowle, Thomas 

Furber.

New Jersey: William Bradford, Samuel 

Keimer, Benjamin Franklin, James Parker, Isaac 

Collins.

New York: William Bradford, John Peter 

Zenger, James Parker, William Weyman,1

 Hugh 

Gaine, John Holt, Francis Childs.

North Carolina: James Davis, Andrew 

Steuart. 

Pennsylvania: William Bradford, Jacob Taylor, Andrew Bradford, Samuel Keimer, Benjamin Franklin, John Dunlap, David C. Claypoole. 

Rhode Island: William Bradford, James 

Franklin, William Goddard.

South Carolina: Eleazer Phillips, Lewis Timothy.

Vermont: Timothy Green, Judah P. Spooner, 

Alden Spooner.

Virginia: William Nuthead, William Parks, 

William Hunter, William Rind, John Dunlap 

and James Hayes, John Dixon, Thomas Nicolson.

Censorship

Printing in British North America was 

not easy on printshop proprietors, for in 

1664 censorship was established in Massachusetts. In 1671, the Colonial Governor 

of Virginia said:

But, I thank God, there are no schools nor 

printing, * * * for learning has brought disobedience, and heresy, and sects into the world; and 

printing has divulged them, and libels against 

the best government. God keep us from both.

Royal instructions to the Colonial Governors decreed that—

you are to provide by all necessary Orders that 

noe person have any press for printing, nor that 

any book, pamphlet or other matters whatsoever 

bee printed without your especial leave & license 

first obtained.

In England, the number of printers 

and typefounders was limited, and they 

were licensed and operated under strict 

surveillance, with the same restraints 

placed on colonial printers. In 1735, 

however, John Peter Zenger, publisher 

of the New York Weekly Journal, was acquitted of libel charges brought by Governor William Cosby, who sought to censor Zenger’s attacks on the crown. The 

verdict helped establish freedom of the 

press in America.

Newspapers

The publick printers were hardy and 

daring men who resisted the control of 

the Crown Governors. An independence 

of thought began to assert itself through 

colonial newspapers. The first newspaper in the New World was founded in 

1690, with the lengthy title of Public Occurrences both foreign and domestick, under the sponsorship of Benjamin Harris, 

a London bookseller. In 1704, the Boston 

News-Letter made its appearance. Various 

other papers followed, but no change of 

1 Of Weyman, it is said that in November 

1766 he printed an official address which contained so many typographical errors that he and 

his journeyman were ordered to appear before 

the House with an explanation. An acknowledgment and apology, with a promise not to repeat 

the performance, saved them from punishment.
3

importance occurred until the advent of 

Benjamin Franklin’s Pennsylvania Gazette 

in 1729. Franklin was a man of learning, 

though self-taught; a capable printer; and 

an enterprising and resourceful businessman, and the Gazette reflected its brilliant 

editor and publisher.

Franklin became the publick printer for 

Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and 

Maryland, in addition to printing paper 

money for the Colonies.

Between 1690 and 1820, there were 

published in 30 Colonies and States a 

total of 2,120 newspapers, and many were 

political party organs. With the struggle 

for publick printing awards and equipment and supplies, more than one-fourth 

expired within their first year, and half 

gave up before the end of the second year. 

Thus colonial printers suffered a high 

mortality rate.

Printing Equipment

All type, printing presses, and ink used 

by early colonial printers were imported 

from England. In 1769, roman type was 

first produced by Abel Buell in Connecticut. In the same year, Christopher Sower 

of Philadelphia built the first Americanmade printing press.

In 1723, at 17 years of age, Franklin 

manufactured ink in Philadelphia for his 

employer, and in 1733 set up an ink-making plant, the first effort toward emancipation from poor quality inks imported 

from England. Franklin was the first to 

make and use lampblack as a vital element in producing better printing inks.

For paper, the Colonies achieved early 

independence from English suppliers by 

the establishment by William Bradford, 

in partnership with Samuel Carpenter 

and William Rittenhouse, of a papermill 

in 1690. By late 18th century Franklin 

had established or helped establish 18 

papermills, and by 1787 there was a total 

of 90 mills in the Colonies.

In bookbinding, it is noteworthy that 

the first bookbinder preceded the first 

printer, for John Sanders, “a booke-bynder,’’ set up shop in Boston in 1637.

Continental Congress Printing

At the beginning of the Continental Congress in 1774, the interest of the 

people in congressional proceedings was 

at fever heat, all the more fanned by the 

secrecy enjoined by the members. The 

Rough and Secret Journals from 1774 

to 1789 were written in longhand by 

Charles Thomson, secretary of Congress, 

and were printed in 1821 by Thomas B. 

Wait.

The Journal of Congress and other legislative printing in 1774 were done by 

William and Thomas Bradford of Philadelphia. However, the Journal produced 

by the Bradfords proved unsatisfactory, 

and from January to May 1776 the Journal was printed by Robert Aitken. The 

latter had learned of the dissatisfaction 

of Congress with the Bradfords’ delay of 

printing, and thinking the time opportune for obtaining a part of the printing 

business of Congress, reprinted a copy of 

the Journal as a sample of what he could 

do. Therefore on September 26, 1776, 

the committee on publication, which included Thomas Jefferson, appointed Aitken as congressional printer.

It fell to Aitken’s lot to have a disagreement with Congress, as had the Bradfords before him, for in 1778 the printing 

committee announced that it was “empowered and instructed to employ Mr. 

John Dunlap to continue printing the * * * 

journals instead of Robert Aitken.’’

The Continental Congress on June 22, 

1775, authorized the issuance of Continental currency to finance the Revolutionary War. Called “Continentals,’’ to 

distinguish them from the paper money 

issued by separate colonies, the currency 

was printed from plates engraved by 

Paul Revere.

John Dunlap set the Journal for 1777, 

but it did not reach the press until March 

27, 1779, and he too fell under the ban of 
4

Congress because of his tardiness. The 

delays in printing the Journals induced 

Congress at about this time to pass the 

following resolution:

Resolved, That the Journals, * * * except such 

parts as have been or shall be ordered to be 

kept secret, be printed * * * weekly; and that 

a printer be engaged to print for Congress; and 

also a printer or printers be employed to bring 

up the journals from the time of their present 

publication * * * .

With the effectiveness of a new broom, 

Congress on April 9 swept away Dunlap 

and in his place David C. Claypoole was 

appointed to print for Congress. He immediately began the publication of the 

most interesting, the most serviceable, 

and the costliest of all Journals, and to 

present-day researchers the rarest and 

most valuable.

From October to December 1779, 

Claypoole’s printing charges were nearly 

$20,000 in the currency of that time.

In October 1783, the secretary of Congress was instructed to again employ John 

Dunlap as congressional printer and “to 

inform him that Congress expect he will 

keep his office at the place where they 

may reside,’’ for Congress had no fixed 

home and was moving from one improvised capital to another. Setting up shop 

in Annapolis, the work was delayed, and 

in 1784 the secretary wrote that—

I am sorry the printer [Dunlap] makes no better progress. I wish you would stimulate him 

and urge his completing the Journal of 1783 with 

all possible expedition.

Proceedings of the Journal up to this 

time were printed as separates. On June 

1, 1785, Congress decided that the “whole 

of the Journal ought to be reprinted and 

published.’’ The advertisement inviting 

bids stated that the “proposal must mention the time when the work can be entered upon, and the quantity which can 

be composed daily, and be accompanied 

with specimens of the paper and types.’’ 

In the meantime, however, Dunlap issued the 1784–85 edition of the Journal, 

and continued its printing until 1789.

The Declaration of Independence was 

printed by John Dunlap of Philadelphia 

for the Continental Congress, which, on 

July 4, 1776, “Ordered, That the Declaration be authenticated and printed. That 

the committee appointed to prepare the 

Declaration superintend and correct the 

press.’’ Printed copies of the Declaration of Independence were distributed to 

Congress, and also proclaimed to citizens 

and the Continental Army. Produced 

from handmade paper, the printed copy 

today is in a better state of preservation 

than the official engrossed parchment 

copy in the National Archives in Washington.

Later, in 1787, the printing of the Constitution was placed in the hands of Dunlap & Claypoole who, according to the 

Register of Accounts of the Continental 

Congress, received 3 pounds 10 shillings 

for 100 copies of the Constitution, and 1 

pound 4 shillings for an additional 100 

copies.

Either Dunlap, as “Printer to the 

United States in Congress Assembled,’’ 

or his partner Claypoole, as “Printer to 

the Honorable the Congress,’’ printed the 

Journals of the Continental Congress and 

many other official reports, resolutions, 

and papers, in addition to the Declaration of Independence. Later, in 1796, they 

printed Washington’s Farewell Address. 

Dunlap served Congress from 1778 to 

1783, and both he and Claypoole could be 

regarded as the first official printers for 

the U.S. Government.

Labor

Shortly after the invention of movable 

type by Gutenberg in 1440, a strike of 

compositors in 1471 in Basel, Switzerland, was settled by arbitration by the 

town authorities. This was the first use 

of collective bargaining in the printing 

trade. Later, in 1539, printers in Lyons, 

France, also went on strike, complaining that their day began at 2 a.m., and 

ended at 8 or 9 at night. In addition, the 
5

master printer did not supply sufficient 

food, wages had been reduced, and there 

were too many compulsory holidays 

without pay. Collective-bargaining efforts reduced the workday to 5 a.m. till 8 

at night. History does not indicate other 

working concessions.

From the days of Stephen Day in 1639, 

hired labor was usually augmented by the 

printer’s family—his wife, daughters, and 

sons. Trained journeymen who came to 

the new country as free agents or under 

terms of indenture were also a source of 

skilled help, but the chief source was provided by the neighborhood boy through 

the apprenticeship system. Wage scales between 1754 and 1792 corresponded closely 

to the English rate, with compositors receiving a shilling for a thousand ems of 

handset type and pressmen a shilling for 

a token (240 sheets printed on one side).

There is little evidence of labor troubles in the shops of colonial America, but 

labor was beginning to organize in England and in continental Europe. But the 

impetus of labor organization was made 

evident when New York journeymen 

in 1778 formed an association to secure 

a wage increase by means of a strike. 

Ten years later in Philadelphia, when 

employing printers attempted to reduce 

minimum weekly earnings to $5.831/2, 

local journeymen formed an association 

to resist this action. The local union forbade its members to accept less than a 

$6 minimum and, as a preview of 20thcentury customs, agreed to support journeymen thrown out of work for their refusal to accept the employers’ minimum. 

These indications of the early solidarity 

of printers produced uneasiness among 

employers, for in 1792 a Boston employer 

complained that “the devil seems to have 

got into the journeymen.’’

Summary

The phase of publick printing as a part 

of public printing history ended in 1789 

with the beginning of the First Congress. 

The Revolutionary War had been fought 

and won, and the peace treaty signed in 

Paris in 1783. The Continental Congress 

formed in 1774 in Philadelphia had met 

in eight improvised Capitals in four different States, residing successively in 

Philadelphia, New York, Baltimore, Annapolis, Lancaster and York, Pa., and 

Princeton and Trenton, N.J. In New 

York, the Constitutional Convention had 

completed the formation of the Union 

and the work of organizing the United 

States of America into a whole was the 

business of the period.

“Publick printing’’ became “public 

printing,’’ and various colonial Printers fought for the Federal printing. The 

establishment of a Government printing 

office at first was not considered, for Congress and the Capital had no permanent 

home. The following chapter describes 

Federal printing from the 1st Congress 

to the 36th Congress, which in 1860 established the GPO.

7

Chapter II

FREE ENTERPRISE 

PUBLIC PRINTING

1789–1861

First Congress Meets

The First Congress, under the Constitution, met in the city of New York on 

March 4, 1789, pursuant to a resolution 

of the Congress of the Confederation on 

September 13, 1788. It held its first session 

in the City Hall of that city, remained in 

session 210 days, and adjourned on September 29, 1789. The second session of 

the First Congress began January 4, 1790, 

and terminated on August 12, 1790, also 

in New York. Congress during this session considered many locations for a permanent Capital, and on July 9, 1790, a site 

on the Potomac was approved by a majority of two votes in the Senate and by 

three votes in the House. The debate was 

marked by the first filibuster in the U.S. 

Senate, for there were several candidates 

for the site of the Nation’s Capital.

The third session of the First Congress 

met in Philadelphia, December 6, 1790, 

and convened in Congress Hall, which 

was near Independence Hall. At this session all of the Original Thirteen States 

were represented for the first time. Congress continued to meet in Philadelphia 

until the first session of the Sixth Congress adjourned on May 14, 1800, to reassemble in Washington on November 17.

Government in New Home

With primitive travel facilities, Congress failed to present a quorum for its 

THE ERA OF PUBLICK printing ended with the birth of a Nation and entered into, for want of a better term, the “free enterprise’’ public printing period which closed with the beginning of the GPO in 1861. 

There has been some printing excitement in the quiet working years from 1861 to 

the present which saw the GPO grow from a small printshop to a giant printing office. 

But the printing story of the pre-GPO years from 1789 to 1861 was one of increasing 

drama. It started quietly, for with the establishment of the Capital in Washington in 

1800, the amount of public printing was small. But the country was on the march. 

U.S. population in 1800 totaled 5,297,000, and by 1820 it had grown to 9,618,000. By 

1840 the population had increased to 17,120,000, and in 1861 was 32,351,000. As public 

business expanded, so did its printing needs, and the printing pace quickened.
8

second session, but by November 21, sufficient members had arrived to enable the 

body to begin its legislative work.

In the meantime, the entire Government staff of 136 clerks and officials had 

made their way to Washington by ship 

and stagecoach. All expenses, including 

salaries, were paid by the Treasury.

The Government in 1800 comprised 

five departments: State, with 8 employees; 

Treasury, 75; War, 17; Navy, 16; and PostOffice, 10. These departments opened 

for public business, with only the Treasury boasting its own building. Its 2-story 

building with 30 rooms was situated on 

the south front of the present Treasury 

building, and the other departments set 

up shop in leased quarters.

Early Washington

As part of a GPO history, it would 

be well to describe the Washington of 

1800 when it became the seat of government and the scene of early Government 

printing.

President John Adams moved in on November 1, and addressed a joint session of 

Congress on the 22d. He called the new 

Capital a “wilderness city,’’ but some newspapers were less kind, describing the town 

as “a city of streets without houses, with 

not one solitary attractive feature,’’ and its 

setting “as a mudhole almost equal to the 

great Serbonian bog,’’ with swarms of mosquitoes spreading malaria. A visiting Englishman noted that Washington had “more 

the appearance of a thickly-settled country 

than a city’’; Georgetown was declared “a 

city of houses without streets’’ and Washington “a city of streets without houses.’’

In spite of the geographical wilderness, 

it was no literary wilderness. A local 

shopkeeper said that “Folks are most literary here,’’ and a circulating library was 

founded in 1801, but abandoned by the 

proprietor beacuse it interfered “with his 

grocery and liquor business.’’

The population comprised about 3,000 

citizens, 500 of whom lived in Georgetown, a close-by suburb. In spite of its 

desolate appearance, historians differ on 

the number of homes in the new Capital. One historian noted 47 brick and 119 

frame houses, and another estimated 109 

brick and 253 frame houses.

Thus the Federal Government made 

its appearance on the Washington scene 

in a primitive environment.

First Federal Printing

In 1787, when the Federal Convention for the formation of the Union assembled in Philadelphia, James Wilson, a 

Delegate from Pennsylvania, in a debate 

on publishing the Journals of the House 

and Senate, stated that—

the people have a right to know what their 

Agents are doing or have done, and it should 

not be in the option of the Legislature to conceal 

their proceedings.

With this declaration, Government 

business became public business, for “the 

people have a right to know.’’

The first mention of public printing 

found in the Annals of Congress was in 

relation to printing the laws. A report 

presented by Mr. Sylvester, a member of 

the House, early in the first session of the 

First Congress recommended that proposals be invited for “printing the laws 

and other proceedings’’ of Congress. It is 

presumed that this resolution covered, by 

“other proceedings,’’ the printing of the 

bills and resolutions, and such documents 

and reports as were necessary in the 

transaction of the business of the House.

In May 1789, several petitions were 

presented to the House by those engaged 

in the business of printing in New York, 

praying to “be employed in the printing 

for Congress,’’ but the Annals give no information as to whether any of the petitioners were ever so engaged.

The 1896 Annual Report of the American 

Historical Association printed a compilation of public documents of early Congresses. It showed that House Journals for 

the first and second sessions of the First 
9

Congress (March 4, 1789, to August 12, 

1790) held in New York were printed by 

Francis Childs and John Swaine of that 

city. For the Senate, John Fenno was the 

printer.

Apparently the first document ever 

printed separately for the House was 

the Report of the Secretary of the Treasury 

[Hamilton] to the House of Representatives 

relative to a provision for the support of the 

public credit of the United States, printed 

by Childs & Swaine in 1790.

After Congress had adjourned its 

second session on August 12, 1790, it 

moved to Philadelphia for the third session, which began on December 6, 1790, 

and adjourned on March 3, 1791. Also 

moving to Philadelphia were Childs & 

Swaine and John Fenno, who printed the 

House and Senate Journals, respectively, 

until the end of the Second Congress on 

March 2, 1793.

From 1793 to 1800, these printers, in addition to Samuel H. Smith, produced all 

congressional printing in Philadelphia.

A joint arrangement between committees of the two Houses was entered into 

about 1789, which provided “that 600 

copies of the acts of Congress and 700 

copies of the journals’’ should be printed, 

and directed the Secretary of the Senate 

and Clerk of the House to have the work 

done. This action of the joint committee was subsequently approved by both 

Houses.

It appears that this arrangement did 

not give very general satisfaction, as numerous propositions looking to more expedition, accuracy, etc., in the execution 

of the work were presented in the House; 

but no change was effected for several 

years.

The Senate, up to 1794, sat with closed 

doors, and as the proceedings preserved 

were of meager character, rules governing printing for that body can be judged 

by what is found in the proceedings of 

the House. It was certain, however, that 

the method of doing the work mentioned 

above also prevailed in the Senate from 

the beginning of the First Congress until 

the second session of the Eighth Congress 

[1804].

In 1794, an act was passed making appropriations for the support of the Government and included the first specific 

appropriation for the public printing. 

As the association with other items will 

doubtless appear rather singular to the 

reader of congressional literature of the 

present day, the following extract is of 

interest:

For the expenses of firewood, stationery, and 

printing work, and all other contingent expenses of 

the two houses of Congress, ten thousand dollars.

There was appropriated, in the same 

law, for like purposes: for the Secretary 

of State, including the publication of the 

laws of the first session of the Third Congress, $2,261.67; for the Treasury Department, $4,000; and for the War Department, $800.

Up to the time of the passage of this 

law, printing was paid from the contingent fund of Congress and the departments, without being specifically mentioned in the laws.

Congress and Government, arriving 

in muddy Washington, found but two 

newspapers to produce its documents, for 

only the newspapers had sufficient type, 

paper, and equipment to meet the printing demands of the young Government. 

The Centinel of Liberty and Washington 

Advertiser were printed irregularly, but 

beginning October 31, 1800, the National 

Intelligencer began regular publication.

Government Printing Needs
10

The printing business, although the 

largest in the city, was precarious, for it 

was limited to the period when Congress 

was in session. During the recess, plants 

were partially shut down and printers 

were obliged to seek work elsewhere.

Washington Printing Expands

From 1801, the Intelligencer under 

Smith was the administration’s sole organ, but not in full control of Government printing. The Intelligencer did some, 

and the rest was distributed among other 

printers with proper party affiliation.

Other printers, noting Smith’s wellpaid venture, formed newspaper enterprises to serve the new Congress and the 

citizens of the Capital.

In 1800, Rapine, Conrad & Co. of Philadelphia opened the Washington Book Store 

at New Jersey Avenue and B Street SE. 

As usual with booksellers of that period, a 

printing office formed a part of the establishment. Shortly after, on January 7, 1801, the 

Washington Repository appeared, and combined the features of an almanac and a guide 

to the city, in addition to a list of Members of 

Congress and Government employees—the 

first of which there is any record.

Philadelphia had been the Capital 

from 1790 to 1800 and its printers were 

active in supplying the printing needs of 

the Government. Although very small 

in volume, Government printing was attractive enough for Philadelphia shops to 

follow the printing trail to Washington.

As a result of Thomas Jefferson’s advice 

and encouragement, Samuel H. Smith, 

publisher of the Philadelphia Universal 

Gazette from 1797 to 1800, decided in 1800 

to transfer his printing equipment from 

Philadelphia to Washington. There he 

continued to publish the Gazette in addition to the National Intelligencer, the first 

national newspaper and also the official 

organ of the Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 

and John Quincy Adams administrations 

[1801–29]. The Intelligencer in its first issue stated that the vessel bearing the materials for the new enterprise sailed for no 

less than 6 weeks, via the Delaware River, 

Chesapeake Bay, and Potomac River.

Within a short space of 6 weeks, Washington, Georgetown, and Alexandria had 

four dailies, two triweeklies, and one magazine. The printing of the Congress at that 

time was distributed by officers of the two 

Houses to such printers as they might select. 

Imprints on documents indicate that Rapine, 

Conrad & Co. and the Apollo Press, owned 

by William Duane & Son, Philadelphians 

who had also followed the printing trail to 

Washington, performed public printing.

Congressional Proceedings

The first session of the First Congress 

convened on March 4, 1789, but not until 

April 6 did a quorum appear in the Senate, and in the House not until April 1.

The proceedings of the House during 

the period from 1789 to 1794 were very 

fully reported by enterprising newspapermen, and appeared in at least two 

newspapers while the sessions of Congress were held in New York up to 1790, 

and one or more while the sessions were 

held in Philadelphia.

Information as to the debates of the 

early Senates was exceedingly meager, 

because the Senate sat with closed doors 

to 1794 and the public was admitted only 

at the beginning of the second session of 

the Third Congress [November 3, 1794].

The debates, however, were very inaccurately reported, or printed, and their 

appearance in this imperfect form soon 

gave rise to many complaints and much 

discussion in the House.

In January 1796, a committee reported 
11

in favor of having the debates printed by 

authority of the House, and a proposition 

involving $4,000 for stenographers—

of which amount Smith’s Philadelphia 

Gazette offered to pay $1,500—was submitted. Without further action on the 

report, the committee early in February 

was discharged from further consideration of the subject.

In December 1797, Thomas Carpenter 

petitioned Congress, setting forth that 

he was the editor of the American Senator, published during the late session of 

Congress; that at the commencement of 

the session he had presented a memorial, 

praying its support of his work, i.e., publishing the debates; that he had received 

assurances from numerous individual 

members of their patronage, but that 

the enterprise had proved unfavorable 

to him; and asked for relief in the sum 

of $2,250. A committee was appointed to 

consider the matter, but 2 days later reported that they could not recommend 

relief; and the report was concurred in.

For the next 2 or 3 years no reference to 

the publication of the debates is found in 

the Annals of Congress; but they continued 

to appear regularly in printed form, and 

the country is indebted for the very full 

reports now accessible solely to the spirit 

of individual or private enterprise which 

animated the printers of that time.

National Intelligencer

On November 17, 1800, Congress convened in Washington, and the proceedings of Congress were published in the 

Intelligencer, which was founded with 

a promise that it would be published “on 

the first day of the next session of Congress, * * * to appear three times a week 

* * * and conducted on national principles.’’ The Intelligencer published abbreviated reports of congressional proceedings 

after they were written out and submitted 

to members for revision at their leisure. 

This method caused the publication to be 

frequently weeks in arrears.

Gales & Seaton

Joseph Gales, Jr., had arrived in Washington in 1807, working for Smith’s Intelligencer. In 1809 Gales became a partner, 

and in 1810 acquired sole ownership. 

On October 8, 1812, the Intelligencer announced that William W. Seaton, Gales’ 

brother-in-law, had become a partner:

The editor [Gales] of this paper, finding its extensive concerns too multifarious for the superintendence of any individual though possessed 

of more industry and assiduity than he can lay 

claim to, has taken in connection with him in 

business Mr. William W. Seaton. * * * This arrangement whilst it will leave the editor at liberty to devote more particular attention to the 

Congressional Reports * * *, will, he hopes, ensure greater correctness and better typographical 

execution than heretofore.

The resourceful team of Gales & 

Seaton then entered the field of reporting 

and printing the debates of Congress.

On August 24, 1814, during the War of 

1812, the British destroyed much of the 

city, including the Capitol, President’s 

House, and the Intelligencer’s plant, with 

its type, presses, and paper.

Gales and Seaton were both stenographers, and occupied seats at the side of 

the Vice President in the Senate and of 

the Speaker in the House. One of the perquisites shared with those officials was 

the use of the official snuffbox. Gales was 

the practical printer, and later served as 

mayor of Washington from 1827 to 1830, 

and Seaton filled the same office from 

1840 to 1850.

The Intelligencer covered the debates 

until 1829, when it was cut off from public printing, but it still had an asset, for 

newspapers over the country relied upon 

it for reports of congressional business.

In 1822 a congressional committee 

was appointed and directed to report 

upon the best mode of giving to the 

public a “full and correct statement of 

the debates of the House,’’ and on May 

2 the committee reported that they had 

considered the matter. They were of the 

opinion—
12

that the Government of the United States being 

a Government which essentially depends upon 

public opinion, it is a consideration of the first 

importance that the course pursued by the immediate representatives of the people in Congress should be impartially presented to the 

public view.

A resolution was framed directing the 

speaker to secure, during the approaching recess of Congress, proposals for reporting and publishing, from day to day, 

a correct account of the debates and other 

proceedings of the House, and submit the 

same to the House at the commencement 

of the next session. This proposition 

found many advocates, but the opposition—which was principally founded 

upon the great expense which would attend the enterprise—was too strong for 

the friends of the measure, and all further action was ended by a motion to 

table the report and resolution.

In 1824, the publication of the Annals of 

Congress was commenced under the authority of Congress and it embraced the 

proceedings and debates of both Houses 

from 1789 to 1824. Comprising some 42 

volumes, the Annals also contained state 

papers, public documents, laws, and 

much correspondence. This compilation 

was performed by Gales & Seaton and 

thus preserved for posterity the legislative history of Congress in its first half 

century.

In 1824 Gales & Seaton also began the 

publication of the Register of Debates in 

Congress and the American State Papers. 

The Register was a continuation of the 

Annals of Congress and contained many 

valuable state papers as well as routine 

congressional work. Twenty-seven volumes in book form were published, covering the debates from December 1824 to 

October 1837. This venture was undertaken at Gales & Seaton’s own risk and 

expense, and was the first attempt to publish in separate form the debates of Congress. However, public aid was secured 

and then a subscription was made by 

each House for 500 copies at $5 each. As 

the publishers later explained, the work 

was undertaken “under the excitement of 

the fresh impulse given to national feeling by the visit of Lafayette to this country [1824–25].’’

The first issue of the Register of Debates 

in Congress appeared on December 6, 

1824. Its title page stated that the Register 

comprised the—

leading debates and incidents of the 2d session 

of the 18th Congress: together with an appendix, 

containing the most important state papers and 

public documents to which the session has given 

birth: to which are added, the laws enacted during the session, with a copious index to the whole.

Blair & Rives

In 1831, the Globe, a semiweekly 

owned by Francis P. Blair, began to report 

the debates of Congress. Blair had come 

to Washington from Kentucky with an 

invitation from President Jackson to conduct an organ dedicated to the administration. Shortly after, Jackson introduced 

John C. Rives, a Treasury clerk and also 

a Kentuckian, to Blair. Rives stood 7 feet 

tall, weighed 240 pounds, and was an excellent writer. The firm of Blair & Rives 

was formed, and entered the field which 

for years had been monopolized by Gales 

& Seaton in reporting and publishing the 

proceedings of Congress in book form.

The idea of reporting the full proceedings of Congress originated with Rives, 

and on December 7, 1833, the first issue of the Globe made its appearance as 

a weekly with full reports of congressional activity. Members who desired 

their speeches printed were expected to 

write them out in full.

Up to this time, and for a number of 

years later, these publications were made 

without expense to Congress. Quite full 

reports were also printed by the Intelligencer, Telegraph, and Union at the expense of the proprietors.

The firm of Blair & Rives and its successors remained in business as printers 

of the Globe until 1873, when the GPO 

assumed the printing of the Congressional 

Record.
13

In 1839, congressional debates were 

covered by representatives of some six or 

seven District newspapers, in addition to 

“letterwriters’’ who mailed accounts of 

Congress to out-of-town papers. These 

reporters occupied seats on the floor of 

the House. This arrangement held until December 16, 1857, when the House 

moved into its new hall, and a gallery 

back of the Speaker’s chair was assigned 

to the gentlemen of the press, with official reporters given places on the floor.

The Senate in 1835 had permitted only 

local reporters to enjoy floor privileges, 

with six letterwriters placed in the gallery. The six petitioned the Senate for 

equal accommodations, but later the reporters were returned to the gallery.

In 1847, Congress again considered the 

reporting and publication of its proceedings and debates. The question involved 

the use of Washington papers to print 

verbatim reports of congressional activity without prospect of compensation. It 

was—

an expense which the newspaper never could 

have met but for the actual or anticipated possession of the printing of Congress, which each 

in their turn has enjoyed, and which at the rates 

fixed by law had become sufficiently profitable 

[by the reduction in paper costs, the introduction 

of power presses, and the printing of large extra 

numbers of heavy documents] to justify a heavy 

expenditure in this service.

This problem led the Senate to provide for the reporting and printing of 

its proceedings—the first action of the 

kind by either House. A sum was appropriated, and James A. Houston of 

New York agreed to produce a daily 

and sessional report, the latter in book 

form. The daily was known as the 

United States Reporter, but soon it was 

being issued 1 week late, then 2 weeks, 

and in addition the cost was much 

greater than estimated.

So the Senate went back to newspaper digests of its proceedings, and the 

House continued in the same way, with 

congressional coverage on a pay basis and 

reporting placed in the same class as public printing. A column rate was adopted, 

and the work assigned to a newspaper 

selected by both Houses. By 1851 congressional proceedings were practically 

reported verbatim, instead of portions selected according to the whims of reporters and editors.

As soon as Congress began paying 

for newspaper space for its proceedings, 

Blair & Rives (of the old Globe which had 

been sold out in 1853) revived that paper 

and prepared to print daily and sessional 

reports. Although one or both Houses 

paid other papers for debate printing, the 

Globe soon became the recognized Official Reporter of Congress, carrying that 

title as a column head. Thus the Globe 

held that position until Congress and the 

GPO assumed publication of the Congressional Record in 1873. In 1856, Blair 

sold his interest to Rives, claiming that 

“the business would not support both,’’ 

and Rives continued the publication with 

other associates.

Public Printing in New Capital

In December 1801, during the first session of the Seventh Congress, the first 

proposition to appoint a printer to the 

House was made by Mr. Randolph. This 

plan had the sanction of a committee of 

that body; but the recommendation of 

the committee, owing to opposition to 

multiplying the offices of the House, was 

defeated, with only about 20 members 

voting in favor of it.

A very lengthy discussion occurred 

during the second session of the 

Seventh Congress [in February 1803] in 

the House upon the propriety of printing 
14

public documents; i.e., communications 

from the President and executive departments. The particular document in question was a message from the President, 

and accompanying papers, relating to the 

expenditures from the contingent fund 

of the executive departments for several 

years previous. The discussion took a 

wide range, but the real opposition was 

founded upon the expense, which it was 

estimated would be $10,000. The proposition was finally passed by a vote of 38 to 

28, and the document was printed.

In 1804, in the second session of the 

Eighth Congress, a resolution was passed 

requiring the “Clerk of the House to advertise for proposals for supplying the 

House of Representatives with stationery 

and printing, and to award the contract 

to the lowest bidder.’’

At the next session, the Clerk made 

a report of his action under this resolution, but the papers were lost, and it has 

been impossible to record the difficulties 

which he probably encountered in the 

first attempt at the contract system as 

applied to the public printing. The Senate also took action on the subject in a 

resolution to “appoint a committee to inquire into the expediency of establishing 

permanent rules for the regulating and 

conducting the printing for the Senate.’’ 

The committee to whom the resolution 

was referred reported favorably, and it 

was passed.

First Contract Printing

This system—the letting of the printing to the lowest bidder, and which was 

the first joint attempt to have the printing for the Government executed by contract—prevailed in both Houses of Congress until the passage of the resolution 

of 1819. The work was done in a very 

imperfect manner, and excited from time 

to time an endless amount of unfavorable 

criticism; it was also very expensive and 

unsatisfactory because of delays and inaccuracies in its execution.

In 1840, John C. Rives, testifying before a committee studying the feasibility 

of a national printing office, stated:

I have been told that an important bill was 

lost in 1818, for the want of the printing, that 

cost the Government more than the whole printing of Congress for the 10 years following.

National Printing Office Proposed

In December 1818 (15th Cong., 2d 

sess.), a resolution was passed appointing 

a joint committee of the two Houses of 

Congress to “consider and report whether 

any further provisions of law are necessary 

to insure dispatch, accuracy, and neatness 

in the printing done for the two Houses of 

Congress.’’ In obedience to this resolution, 

a committee was appointed to explore the 

subject. The committee, consisting of Gen. 

James J. Wilson, a Senator from New Jersey and an editor and practical printer, 

and Gen. Thomas A. Rogers, a member 

of the House from Pennsylvania, visited 

New York and Philadelphia, and made 

diligent inquiry in respect to the costs and 

methods of having the work executed.

Three modes of procuring the printing 

of Congress were studied: (1) Continuing the low bidder system, (2) a national 

printing office, and (3) fixed rates. In its 

report of February 19, 1819, the committee rejected the low bidder method 

because—

at the first glance it may strike the mind as the 

most economical, experience and observation do 

not prove it so. Competitors for the work underbid each other, until it is undertaken for a less 

sum than it can be afforded * * *. Hence, both 

Houses have frequently to wait long for interesting and important communications, reports, 

bills, &c. * * * and the loss of time thus incurred, 

considering the daily expense at which Congress 

sits, costs the nation much more than the difference, between the present price, and a more 

liberal allowance, * * * to ensure the dispatch of 

the work.

In addition, low bid prices—

prevent that care and attention * * * which is 

necessary to its neatness and accuracy. These 

documents are not only distributed through this 

nation, but disbursed through Europe, which 
15

are executed in such an inelegant and incorrect 

manner, as must bring disgrace and ridicule on 

the literature, and the press of our country.

The committee felt that a Government 

printing office would be the best and 

most economical method, and reported 

as follows:

How far it is reputable for Congress to endeavor to get their work done below a fair and 

reasonable price, may be a matter of doubt, but 

it does not admit of a question that the compensation ought to be adequate to the object of 

procuring that work to be done at a proper time 

and in a suitable manner. A second mode suggested to and considered by the committee was 

the establishment of a national printing office 

(with a bindery and stationery annexed), which 

should execute the work of Congress while in 

session, and that of the various departments of 

Government during the recess, and should do 

all the binding, and furnish the stationery, for 

the departments, as well as for Congress. To ascertain the amount of expenditures on these objects, inquiries were addressed by the committee 

to the Heads of Departments, attorney general, 

and postmaster general, and an answer received 

from each. Some of the reports were made in 

such a manner as not to enable the committee to 

separate the accounts for printing from those for 

binding and stationery; but the whole amount 

exceeds $41,000. Add to this the expenditures 

of the Senate and House of Representatives on 

the same objects, namely, the former $8,000, and 

the latter $15,000, and the aggregate cost of the 

public printing, binding, and stationery is about 

$65,000 a year, of which probably one-half is 

for printing; and this, it will be remembered, 

does not include the great variety and number 

of blanks executed elsewhere than at the Seat of 

Government from copies furnished by the Departments of the Treasury, War, &c., and which 

might all be done here at a much less expense 

were a National Printing Office established.

The committee are of opinion that such an 

establishment, under the superintendence of a 

man of activity, integrity, and discretion, would 

be likely to produce promptitude, uniformity, 

accuracy, and elegance in the execution of the 

public printing; and they are not certain that it 

would not, in the result, connecting with it a 

bindery and stationery, as already suggested, be 

found the most economical.

However, it qualified this recommendation by suggesting that—

as the principle is somewhat novel, and the details would require some deliberation, the committee have not deemed it advisable, at this late 

period of the session, and amidst the pressure 

which both Houses experience from the accumulation of business important to the nation, 

* * * to submit a proposition on which there 

would probably be a considerable diversity of 

opinion, and consumption of time.

The committee recommendation was 

not acted upon, but for the first time a national printing office had been proposed, 

and the report embodied the idea which 

in 1860 was expanded into the organic 

printing law.

Printing Act of 1819

There still remained the necessity for 

some legislation, and action by Congress 

was imperative. The country had greatly 

increased in population, and the business 

of Congress had been so frequently interrupted or interfered with because of the 

delays and inaccuracies in its printing 

that the resolution of March 3, 1819, was 

hastily framed and passed. It established 

a schedule of prices; provided that each 

House would ballot and elect a printer to 

execute its work; and it further provided 

that, if occasion arose, the same elected 

printer could serve both Houses. 

The 1819 joint resolution follows:

Resolved, etc., That the printing of Congress, 

unless when otherwise specially ordered, shall 

be done in the following form and manner, viz: 

Bills, as heretofore, with English type [14 point] 

on foolscap paper. Rule or table work, in royal 

octavo size, when it can be brought into that size 

by any types not smaller than brevier [8 point]; 

and where it cannot, in such form as to fold conveniently into the volume. All other printing 

with a small pica type [11 point], on royal paper, 

in pages of the same size as those of the last edition of the laws of the United States, including 

the marginal notes.

And the following prices shall be allowed 

and paid for the above described work: For the 

composition of every page of bills, $1; of every 

page of small pica type, plain work, $1; of every 

page of small pica rule-work, $2; every page of 

brevier rule-work, $3.50; and for a larger form 

of brevier rule-work, in proportion.

For the press-work of bills, including paper, 

folding and stitching: for 50 copies, 25 cents 

per page; for 400 copies, $1.25 per page; for the 

press-work of tables, other than those in the 

regular octavo form: for 600 copies, including as 
16

above, $5.50 per form; for the press-work of the 

journals, of 900 copies, including as above, $1 per 

page; for all other printing, in the octavo form, 

of 600 copies, including as above, 871/2 cents per 

page; and for a larger or smaller number, in proportion.

That as soon as this resolution shall have been 

approved by the President of the United States, 

each House shall proceed to ballot for a printer 

to execute its work during the next session of 

Congress; and the person having the greater 

number of votes shall be considered duly elected, 

and shall give bond, with sureties, to the satisfaction of the Secretary of the Senate and Clerk of 

the House of Representatives, respectively, for 

the prompt, accurate, and neat execution of the 

work, and in case any inconvenient delay should 

be, at any time, experienced by either house in 

the delivery of its work, the Secretary and Clerk, 

respectively, may be authorized to employ another printer to execute excess in the account 

of such printer, for executing such work, above 

what is herein allowed, to the printer guilty of 

such negligence and delay: Provided, That nothing herein contained shall preclude the choice 

of the same printer by the Senate and House of 

Representatives.

[The custom of printing the bills of Congress in 

English type is still followed. Nonpareil [6 point] 

has taken the place of brevier type for tabular 

matter, and brevier type is used very extensively 

for extracts.]

Congress, by establishing fixed rates for 

printing, did not anticipate technological 

advances in the printing art. As printing 

skills improved, these rates, unchanged 

until 1846, proved extremely profitable.

The following indicates the printer 

turnover, with breaks in yearly continuity.

Gales & Seaton

Under the law of 1819, the House elected 

Gales & Seaton as its printer from 1819 to 

1827, and again in 1833. They also served 

the Senate from 1819 to 1825, when Duff 

Green was elected by that body, but were 

reinstated in 1833, and reelected in 1835. 

[In 1829, Gales & Seaton’s Intelligencer

imported the first flat-bed cylinder press 

from England. Known as the Napier 

press, it incorporated new principles of 

steampower and paper handling.]

Peter Force

Another Government printer was the 

National Journal which made its appearance in 1823. Peter Force, the Journal’s 

editor and a practical printer, had come 

to Washington in 1815 with his employer, 

William A. Davis. The latter had abandoned a printing business in New York 

to set up shop in Washington to carry 

out a contract for congressional printing. 

Force joined with his employer Davis, 

forming the firm of Davis & Force, doing Government printing in conjunction 

with a stationery and book store. Force 

also published, between 1820 and 1836, 

the National Calendar and Annals of the 

United States, a statistical manual which 

included a list of Government employees. 

Force later served two terms as mayor of 

Washington, 1836–39. He was one of the 

best-informed men of his time on American history, and had assembled the finest 

collection of printed Americana of the 

day. The accumulated historical records 

of Force were purchased in 1867 by the 

Library of Congress for $100,000.

Duff Green

In 1827, in the Senate, Messrs. Duff 

Green, Gales & Seaton, Peter Force, and 

Thomas Ritchie were nominated for 

election as printers to the Senate. Under 

the law of 1819, a majority of all the votes 

cast was necessary to a choice. Two ballots were taken, but with no decision, and 

the election was declared at an end. On 

the first day of the next meeting of Congress, the subject was brought up in the 

Senate by the introduction of the following preamble and resolution:

Government Printers
17

Whereas, in pursuance of a joint resolution of 

the Senate and House of Representatives, passed in 

1819, regulating the subject of printing for the two 

houses of Congress, respectively, an election having 

been had by the Senate, during the last session, for 

a printer to the Senate, and Duff Green having, according to the provisions of said resolution, received 

the greatest number of votes: Therefore, be it

Resolved, That in the opinion of the Senate 

the said Duff Green is duly elected printer to the 

Senate.

After a debate of considerable animation, the resolution was adopted by a vote 

of 25 yeas to 19 nays.

In 1823, Green was invited to Washington by President Jackson. He gave up his 

law practice, and bought the United States 

Telegraph. Green became Senate printer in 

1825, 1827, and 1831, and printer to both 

Senate and House in 1829.

Blair & Rives

Green’s successor was Blair & Rives. 

And upon the demise of Gales & Seaton’s 

National Intelligencer and Green’s Telegraph, Blair & Rives in 1832 built the 

Globe. For a long time after 1832 Blair 

& Rives and Gales & Seaton alternated in 

doing the public printing.

Blair & Rives were first elected printers to the Senate March 3, 1837, and were 

reelected February 27, 1839.

During the extra session of the 5th Congress [1837–38], after 12 ballots on September 5, 6, and 7, 1837, Thomas Allen, 

editor of the Madisonian, was elected House 

printer, and on January 30, 1840, Blair & Rives 

superseded him. Blair & Rives were again 

elected Senate printers February 20, 1841.

Congressional Investigations—1828 and 1840

Public printing up to 1839 was executed 

under the terms of the joint resolution of 

1819, and it was evident that the rates fixed 

by that law were too high and that printing 

profits were large. The affluence of Blair 

& Rives was well known, for in 5 years of 

public printing they had been able to purchase their rented building, in addition to 

townhouses (including Blair Mansion [now 

Blair House]) and country estates.

The first congressional effort to curb 

printing profits under the 1819 law was 

made in 1828, when the House ordered 

an investigation.

No action was taken.

On September 6, 1837, the House considered and then rejected the following 

resolution:

That a committee be appointed to inquire 

into the expediency of separating the emoluments of the public printing of the House from 

the newspaper presses of the country.

On January 30, 1840, the House appointed a Select Committee on Public 

Printing to investigate the state of Government printing affairs. Its mission 

was to report on prices considered just 

and reasonable. It was also directed to 

inquire and report on the propriety and 

expediency of entirely separating Government printing from the newspaper 

publishers. In addition, the committee 

was ordered to explore the practicality 

of a national printing office. This investigation was the first full-scale study of 

public printing, with the conclusion that 

only a Government printing office could 

correct the inherent faults of the system 

in effect.

Rates Reduced

Extensive hearings were held, with former and present Government printers testifying. Commercial printers throughout 

the East also offered testimony. On March 

26, 1840, the committee recommended a 

reduction in printing rates of 15 percent.
18

Committee Findings

One witness testified:

The scale of prices adopted by Congress [in 

1819] is obscure and indefinite in its details, and 

affords facilities for extravagant charges that 

must be invisible to any one not familiar with 

the printing business.

The committee conceded that public 

printing was risky, for—

No man of ordinary sagacity will venture to 

invest a capital of from $40,000 to $50,000 in a 

Congressional printing office, if he is to receive 

no more profit upon the investment than the 

same capital would yield if embarked in a less 

hazardous and more certain business. The extraordinary risks attendant upon such an investment, the unusual wear and tear of the material 

employed, and the many difficulties of such an 

establishment, would seem to require a much 

greater profit to indemnify the proprietor than 

is expected in newspaper and book offices. The 

risk of election, of re-election—the great rapidity, despatch, and punctuality required—the 

illegibility and imperfection of a great portion of 

the manuscript sent—the extra wages for work 

necessarily done at night and on Sunday—the 

necessity of employing a large number of first 

rate journeymen instead of apprentices * * * are 

among the many considerations of disadvantage 

which present themselves to those who are acquainted with Congressional printing. If your 

printer could get fair, legible, and punctuated 

copy, and could calculate with any thing like 

certainty the quantity of work he would be required to do—if he were permitted to work only 

during regular hours, and could be spared from 

labor on the Sabbath—he could afford to do the 

printing for much less than he now receives under the joint resolution of 1819.

The committee also “ascertained that 

there are but two offices in the city capable 

of executing the Government printing—

the Globe and the National Intelligencer.’’

Also explored were the effects of improved printing techniques on printing 

costs. The committee noted:

The office of public printer is much more 

lucrative now than formerly * * * because 

the profits have been considerably augmented, as respects presswork and paper, by 

reduction in the price of the latter, and the 

invention of machine presses, principally introduced * * * within the last 8 years.

Government Office Proposed

The minority favored a greater slash in 

printing rates, and then offered witnesses 

in behalf of a national printing office. It was 

known that France had established a Royal 

Printing-office in 1538, and in 1640 King 

Louis XIII had created the Imprimerie National as a Government printing office. Although Congress in 1819 had rejected the 

idea of a Government printshop, and instead 

had passed the rate-fixing resolution of 1819, 

public printing had increased in volume, with 

proportionate increases in profits. The idea 

was now revived, for the minority report 

showed that current Government printing at 

1819 rates had cost $150,000, but under Government supervision would have cost $80,000.

Fletcher Harper, a New York printer, 

questioned on the feasibility of a national 

printing office, stated:

I do most truly and sincerely believe that it 

would be of immense advantage to the country to 

have a Government printing-office of their own. 

* * * I believe that it would be a saving of nearly 

* * * one-half of the amount expended in this way. 

As for the disadvantages, I cannot see any that can 

possibly occur from such an establishment. Many 

of the largest societies in this and other countries 

have establishments of this kind; and I know 

* * * that some of them are not only very convenient, but prove to be the means of saving to 

their proprietors a great deal of money.

William W. Moore, a former congressional superintendent of printing, stated 

that “the whole cost of an office, types, 

presses, and every thing else—the estimate is $56,000.’’ But Rives estimated 

that a national office employing about 100 

persons “would require about $40,000 to 

build, and to furnish with presses, types, 

and fixtures * * *.’’

The minority buttressed its arguments 

in favor of a Government-owned office 

by pointing out that there would be immediate execution of public printing, for 

costly delays in the public printing had 

prevented passage of legislation and stymied the work of executive departments.

In addition, “it has taken 2 days or 

more to elect a printer, which costs a 
19

large sum to the country. * * * the arrangements, delays, and difficulties * * * 

have cost at least $20,000.’’

The minority report rebutted the charge 

that a Government printing office would 

be an “infraction of constitutional principle’’ in doing its own work, and that the 

plan introduced “a new principle in our 

Government.’’ It showed that other Government departments performed public 

service, for—

the officers of the Government are the servants 

of the people, and they have a right to all their 

time and services as long as they pay for them; 

and when offices are created for the use of the 

people, they have the right to attach any conditions they please, calculated to insure a faithful 

fulfilment of the duties.

The minority’s plea for a national 

printing office and a free press was followed by the introduction of the following bill:

* * * That there shall be erected * * * on some 

suitable spot in the city of Washington, to be 

selected by the President of the United States, a 

building of brick, suitable and convenient for a 

printing-office, in which all the printing for Congress, and for the Executive Departments, and for 

the Post-Office Department, shall be performed.

This minority bill failed to pass for 

lack of votes and the 1840 proposal followed the 1819 plan into defeat.

Printers’ Wages, 1815–60

Since 1815, when printers’ wages were 

fixed at $10 per week, Washington printers had been content. But in 1836, the 

printers’ society demanded “an advance 

of about 10 percent on our present tariff 

prices, owing to the advance in the prices 

of products generally.’’ Some of the “high’’ 

prices pointed out by the compositors were 

“beef at 12 cents per pound; lamb, 75 cents 

per quarter; chickens, $2 per dozen; and 

potatoes, 50 cents a bushel.’’ After a month 

of negotiations, the proprietors agreed to a 

10-percent, or $1, increase.

In the 1840 investigation, John C. Rives 

testified that—

the prices paid journeymen printers in 1819 

were $10 per week during the session, and $9 

per week in the recess of Congress. Then, if a 

printer worked a reasonable number of hours 

after night—say 3 or 4 hours—he did not charge 

the employer for it. It is believed that all the 

work the printer then did at night did not * * * 

reimburse the employer for the time he had been 

idle in the day waiting for copy. As the business 

of Congress increased, the night work increased 

in greater ratio, and became very onerous to 

the printers, so much as to destroy the health of 

those who had not very robust constitutions, and 

to injure the eyesight of all. The Typographical 

Society * * * passed a resolution that, for all night 

work, after 6 o’clock P.M. in the summer, and after 7 o’clock P.M. in the winter, the journeymen 

should receive an extra allowance of 16 2/3 cents 

per hour, the same price that was then paid * * * 

for work executed in the day.

Rives also testified that 1840 journeymen wages—

were $11 per week during the session, and $10 

per week during the recess of Congress; night 

work 22 cents per hour, and Sunday work 25 

cents per hour, no matter whether Congress is or 

is not in session.

Describing his workers and their 

wages, Rives stated that his average force 

in December 1836 consisted of 72 men; 31 

boys, of 13 to 21 years; and 14 women, for 

a total of 117.

In 1840, his force consisted of—

 1 foreman to superintend compositors 

 4 proof readers

34 men as compositors

 4 boys as compositors, between 17 and 21 years 

 old, very nearly, if not equal to men 

 2 boys as compositors

The men were paid for the week * * * an average of $12.17 each; the boys an average of $3.45 

each.

* * * upon the presses * * *, three foremen of 

presses, whose average compensation was $14.13 

each; and twelve boys, from 12 to 18 years old, 

* * * $2.59 each.

Piecework rates for composition of 

plain work were 31 cents per 1,000 ems; 

figure work, 461

/2 cents [price and half]; 

rule and figure, 62 cents [double price]. 

Pressman received 41 cents per token of 

250 lever pulls.

In 1850 Samuel Langhorne Clemens 

[Mark Twain] served as a printer apprentice under his brother for $3.50 a week, 
20

which to Sam seemed extravagant—“or 

would have been had it been paid.’’ Moving to New York, he wrote to his brother, 

who on September 10, 1853, printed the 

following letter in the Hannibal (Mo.) 

Journal:

The printers here [New York] are badly organized, and therefore have to work for various 

prices. These prices are 23, 25, 28, 30, 32, and 35 

cents per 1,000 ems. The price I get is 23 cents; 

but I did very well to get a place at all, for there 

are, 30 or 40—yes, 50 good printers in the city 

with no work at all; besides my situation is permanent and I shall keep it till I can get a better 

one. The office I work in is John A. Grays, 97 

Cliff Street, and, next to Harper’s, is the most 

extensive in the city. In the room in which I 

work I have 40 compositors for company. Taking compositors, pressmen, stereotypers, and 

all, there are about 200 persons employed in the 

concern. * * * They are very particular about 

spacing, justification, proofs, etc., and even if I 

do not make much money, I will learn a great 

deal. * * * Why you must put exactly the same 

space between every two words, and every line 

must be spaced alike. They think it dreadful to 

space one line with three em spaces, and the next 

one with five ems.

Various laws relating to the public 

printing were enacted between 1840 

and 1846. Some of these laws provided 

that printing for the departments, the 

Supreme Court, etc., should be done by 

contract. But agitation continued for a 

change in the manner of procuring all 

Government printing, and on August 3, 

1846, the Garrett Davis resolution restoring the contract system became law.

1842 Printing Study

The Committee on Printing issued a 

report on July 17, 1842, commenting on 

the state of affairs existing by virtue of 

public printing practices.

The subject of printers’ charges was 

again taken up and examined. The prices 

were then fixed at 20 percent less than 

those provided for under the law of 1819, 

but in 1843 an appropriation was added 

to the general appropriation law sufficient to make Gales & Seaton’s compensation equal to the prices fixed by the 

resolution of 1819.

At the time of the inauguration of President Harrison [1841], Blair & Rives were 

the printers to the Senate. At the executive 

session of the Senate, held after the new 

President had taken office, Mr. Mangum 

of North Carolina offered a resolution to 

dismiss Messrs. Blair & Rives.

Thomas Allen was elected to replace 

Blair & Rives on June 15, 1841. Gales & 

Seaton became Senate printers again on 

December 5, 1843. In the House, Gales 

& Seaton were elected printers June 11, 

1841, and Blair & Rives, December 7, 

1843.

In 1845, President Polk entered the 

White House. Once again the Globe of 

Blair & Rives lost its job, and the Washington Union, owned by Ritchie & Heiss, was 

granted the printing franchise. The Globe 

establishment was purchased for $35,000, 

one-third cash and the balance in two equal 

installments in 1 and 2 years. As soon as 

Congress assembled, both Houses chose 

Ritchie & Heiss to do the public printing.

On March 3, 1845, the following clause 

in a general appropriation law was approved:

And all Congressional printing executed under an order of either house, made after the 4th 

of March 1845, shall be paid for at prices 20 per 

centum less than those fixed by the joint resolution of March 3, 1819.

Contract System Restored in 1846
21

This new printing law provided that 

public printing be given to the lowest 

bidder, instead of each House electing a 

printer to do work at the rates prescribed 

by law. Earlier, in August 1842, a similar method had been adopted for departmental printing.

The resolution provided that the Secretary of the Senate and the Clerk of the 

House advertise and invite proposals to 

supply the printing needs of the Senate 

and the House, and that the awards be 

made to the low bidders. It also provided 

for a Committee on Printing, consisting 

of three members of the Senate and three 

members of the House of Representatives, 

which had power to adopt such measures 

deemed necessary to remedy any neglect, 

delay or waste on the part of the contractor to execute the work ordered by Congress. This was the beginning of the current Joint Committee on Printing, still 

comprised of just six members.

The new contract printing law went 

into effect at the end of the current Congress, so that Ritchie & Heiss, who were 

printers to both Houses, were able to continue for 2 more years.

This system, which proved the most 

expensive of any tried up to this time, 

and perhaps the most unsatisfactory, remained in operation until 1852.

Wendell Low Bidder

With work thrown open to competition, the bid of Wendell & Van Benthuysen of Albany, N.Y., was the lowest. The 

new deal in public printing, although 

laudable in purpose, had an unexpected 

impact on District printing, for in a short 

time “the printers of the city were left 

emptyhanded with unemployed establishments (dead capital) on their hands.’’

The contract winners immediately 

brought necessary printing equipment to 

the city and set up shop in a building on 

Pennsylvania Avenue near 2d Street. The 

installation and plant were under the supervision of Cornelius Wendell, foreman 

of the Albany plant to whom the new venture had been entrusted. Before the end 

of the contract, Wendell discovered that 

he had overextended himself, for he had 

not anticipated the pressure of producing a great quantity of printed matter in a 

short time, a condition which has extended 

to present-day Congresses. Faced with 

losses, he appealed to Congress for relief. 

Nevertheless, he continued in the printing business, and 4 years later, in 1852, he 

again became officially connected with 

public printing after the contract plan was 

abandoned. In 1852, he was able to provide the largest and best equipped printing establishment the city had ever seen, 

and thereafter executed practically all the 

public printing as a subcontractor for the 

House and Senate printers.

Testimony taken before committees 

of the House and Senate, when printers’ 

losses were investigated in 1852, showed 

that Wendell’s firm took the work at such 

low rates that sufficient profits were not 

possible, and the contractors, although 

they filled their contract, were greatly out 

of pocket.

It can be seen that competition under 

the contract system was fierce. Bids were 

made, and if the contractor made money, 

he would pocket it. If he lost, he said: “I 

unfortunately lost, and surely the Government does not want me to do work for 

them and lose money in the performance.’’ 

The appeal usually met with a response by 

Congress, with deficiencies made up with 

bonuses, sometimes up to $200,000.

The next printer under the contract 

system was James Ritchie, who performed the work up to the expiration 

of his contract; but at the next session 

of Congress claimed damages for loss, 

which were accorded him in the sum of 

$50,000.

Boyd Hamilton followed as contractor 

and executed the printing down to 1852, 

when he failed and gave up the contract. 

The printing for the 6 years under 

the 1846 law cost the Government 

$3,462,655.12, or almost as much as the 
22

printing under the act of 1819 cost during 

the 28 years it was in force. In addition, 

the work was of poor quality, for in 1846 

Senator Benton stated that—

the Government had lost $1 million in a single 

year through the neglect of the public printer to 

print a bill or document required just at the close 

of a session of Congress.

Events Leading to Establishment of GPO—1852–60

The free enterprise period of public 

printing ended on March 4, 1861. The 

events leading to the birth of the GPO 

were cumulative, for the Nation was growing, and Government printing expanded to 

match the increase in Government.

Beginning of End of Private Printing

In late 1852, Congress returned to the 

old practice of electing its own House 

and Senate printers, under rates fixed 

by law instead of the contract system. 

Although the rates of 1852 were moderate, profits soon became swollen by the 

great increase in printing volume. With 

fixed rates and increased volume, profits 

also grew.

The old printing act of 1819 had also 

fixed rates of composition. Congress did 

not adjust these rates until 1845, when 

a 20-percent reduction was ordered. In 

the meantime private printers favored 

with public printing made great profits by exploiting new printing methods. 

Although the 1852 act likewise fixed 

rates of composition, these rates became 

highly profitable to the printers as further advances were made in printing 

technology. Thus these rates provided 

sufficient reason for printers to make 

strenuous efforts to secure Government 

printing contracts.

The Law of 1852

The next general law on the subject, 

and which involved a radical change in 

the system, prices, and mode of executing 

the printing, was passed on August 26, 

1852. The act provided—

That there shall be a Superintendent of the 

Public Printing, who shall hold his office for 

the term of 2 years, who shall receive for his services a salary of $2,500 per annum, and who shall 

give bond with two sureties to be approved by 

the Secretary of the Interior, in the penalty of 

$20,000, for the faithful discharge of his duties 

under this law. The said Superintendent shall be 

a practical printer, versed in the various branches 

of the arts of printing and book-binding, and 

he shall not be interested, directly or indirectly, 

in any contract for printing for Congress or for 

any department or bureau of the Government of 

the United States. The first Superintendent under this law shall hold his office until the commencement of the 33d Congress, and the Superintendents thereafter appointed shall hold their 

offices for 2 years, commencing with the first day 

of the session of each Congress.

In addition to the appointment of a Superintendent of Public Printing to supervise work ordered by Senate and House 

public printers, it also provided that the 

Superintendent should receive matter to 

be printed, not only from the Secretary 

of the Senate and the Clerk of the House 

but also from executive departments.

There was one exception which permitted executive departments to employ printers 

out of the city of Washington to execute such 

department printing required for use out of 

Washington when they could be executed 

elsewhere as cheap as the specified rates.

Although the act of 1852 was a decided 

improvement over that of 1846, the printing under it proved very expensive; but 

the main difficulty was the want of an office with proper facilities for executing the 

printing promptly and uniformly. The demands of the Government had increased to 

such an extent that, up to 1856, no single 

printing office in Washington was capable 

of handling all the printing required; and 

the result was that a variety of styles pre-
23

vailed in the printed documents, which 

gave general dissatisfaction and produced 

much inconvenience. The erection in 1856 

by Mr. Wendell of the large private establishment (which afterward became the 

GPO) on H and North Capitol Streets, 

somewhat relieved these troubles; but, as he 

had to run his chances in getting the work, 

no certain remedy followed his enterprise.

As soon as the printing law of 1852 went 

into effect, the Washington Union, now owned 

by Gen. Robert Armstrong, became the printing contractor for both Houses, thus again 

uniting the press and public printing. During 

the 1852–61 period, the House began the practice of choosing men who were not owners of 

Washington newspapers or of printing plants, 

but the Senate successively elected Union

owners to perform its printing. These in turn 

were General Armstrong, A. O. P. Nicholson, 

William A. Harris, Cornelius Wendell, and 

General Bowman. The only outsider to break 

through was Beverly Tucker, who on September 14, 1853, had established the Washington 

Sentinel. When the 33d Congress assembled 

on December 5, 1853, the Senate elected Mr. 

Tucker as its printer. The Sentinel was doomed 

to an early demise, for the next Congress in 

1855 passed it by.

During 1852–61, the following officials 

controlled public printing under the 1852 

printing act:

Superintendents of Public Printing

John T. Towers, September 1, 1852–December 

6, 1853

A. G. Seaman, December 7, 1853–December 

1857 

Gen. George W. Bowman, December 1857–May 

11, 1859

John Heart, May 13, 1859–March 4, 1861

Congressional Printers

1852, 32d Congress: Gen. Robert Armstrong, 

House and Senate.

1853–55, 33d Congress: General Armstrong, 

House, died while in office and succeeded by 

A. O. P. Nicholson; Beverly Tucker, Senate. 

1855–57, 34th Congress: Cornelius Wendell, 

House; A. O. P. Nicholson, Senate.

1857–59, 35th Congress: Gen. James B. Steedman, House; William A. Harris, Senate. 

1859–61, 36th Congress: Tom Ford, House; 

General Bowman, Senate.

The elected Senate and House printers 

were not always practical printers. The congressional investigation of 1860 disclosed that 

only three House printers between 1852–61 

had the requisite buildings and materials; the 

others were not versed in the art of printing. 

In many cases, elected printers contracted 

with Wendell, who in turn subcontracted all 

work. In 3 years after the contract system was 

abolished, practically all Government printing was produced by Wendell.

First Superintendent Reports

On September 1, 1852, John T. Towers 

was appointed by President Fillmore as the 

first Superintendent of Public Printing. A 

practical printer, he had worked in the office 

of Duff Green when the latter was Senate 

printer in 1830. Mr. Towers was strong for 

unionism, as indicated by the following:

As far back as 1832, in the city of New York, I 

was a member of the first trades union in America, pledged to maintain the 10-hour system, and 

the principles sustained by me then as a journeyman printer have been and ever will be sustained 

by me as an employer.

On December 1, 1853, Mr. Towers submitted his first report to Congress on the 

condition of the public printing. He noted 

that the contract system for executing the 

public printing had been abolished, and 

after listing congressional printing costs, 

closed his report by stating that—

* * * I cannot, in justice to those upon whom the 

burden of the experiment (as it has been called) of 

executing the public printing under the law of 1852 

has fallen, close this report without saying that 

much credit is due to the public printer [Wendell] 

for the manner in which he executed his work. 

* * * he proceeded to fit up an office, ample in material and in machinery of the first class, to execute 

promptly the printing for the Government, and 

has now by far the most complete printing establishment ever used for that purpose. The [printing] 

has been executed with unexampled rapidity * * * 

in a style highly creditable.

New Superintendent

On December 7, 1853, A. G. Seaman 

succeeded Mr. Towers as Superintendent 
24

of Public Printing, and the latter then 

served as mayor of Washington for 1854–

55. On February 13, 1856, after numerous ballots, Wendell was elected House 

printer, and served until March 3, 1857.

Wendell Builds New Plant

Following his election, he erected a modern 

printing plant at North Capitol and H Streets. 

This plant became the GPO in 1861, and it was 

adequate to execute not only all Government 

printing but commercial printing as well.

In 1856, Superintendent Seaman in his 

report to Congress noted that—

the Printer of the House [Wendell], with a spirit 

of enterprise worthy of all commendation, 

erected at a very great expense, and doubtless 

with much risk as to the future productiveness 

of the investment of capital, the most complete 

and extensive printing establishment on this 

continent. The printing of Congress, during 

late years, has increased to such extent that 

there was no building in the city of Washington 

which afforded sufficient space * * * for bringing out the work with desirable expedition and 

neatness; and the tenure by which the Public 

Printer holds his office is so uncertain, that, until now, no one felt disposed to encounter the 

risk involved * * *. The facilities thus afforded 

will not only enable this office to furnish the 

larger orders for printing with greater dispatch, but will also enable it to make still further improvements in the general appearance 

of the public printing.

Although the tenure of House and Senate 

printers was “so uncertain,’’ Wendell was secure, 

for as House printer he could award printing to 

his own plant, and the Senate printer could also 

subcontract the work to Wendell’s plant.

1858 Investigation

On December 9, 1857, the House 

charged the Select Committee on Printing—

to examine into the laws in relation to the printing for the House, the prices paid therefor, and 

the duties of the Public Printer; * * * to inquire 

into the prices paid for binding, engraving, and 

paper used for the printing of Congress, and for 

the publication and binding of the Congressional 

Globe; and * * * to examine into and report to 

the House what change * * * is required in the 

existing [printing] laws * * *.

The condition of public printing had 

deteriorated. Members of the opposition 

in Congress and the newspapers attacked 

the costs and the manner of executing 

Government printing, for the 34th Congress from December 3, 1855, to March 3, 

1857, had ordered the staggering amount 

of $2,258,580 for its own printing. The 

committee was appointed, “if possible, to 

devise a system by which the public work 

* * * can be done in a way to obviate any 

defects which might be found at present 

to exist.’’

Committee Findings

On April 21, 1858, the committee in 

submitting its report to Congress admitted defects in the system. The following 

committee finding describes the pattern 

of handling the public printing and the 

layers of contractors and subcontractors:

The public printer elected by the 33d Congress [1853–55], and the public printer of the 

Senate for the 34th Congress, respectively, contracted with a third party to do the required 

work, reserving to themselves a large percentage, which was as a nett [sic] reward or profit for 

simply taking, under the name of public printer, 

the printing of Congress, and sub-letting it to 

another who did, and is still doing, the work 

for them. The public printer [Wendell] elected 

by the House for the 34th Congress, did the required House printing himself; and, in addition, 

as sub-contractor under the Senate printer, did 

the work of the Senate for that Congress, as he 

did all of the printing for the public printer of 

the 33d Congress and he is now doing the work 

for the public printers of the Senate and House 

of the present Congress. The same party is printing the post office blanks as a subcontractor 

under the gentlemen having that work to do.
25

The per centage paid by the sub-contractor 

referred to, to the various public printers designated—emoluments of their mere sinecure offices amounted to more than $21,000 during the 

month of January last, and will average nearly 

$20,000 per month. This includes no allowance 

of per centage upon the House printing for the 

34th Congress; the sub-contractor mentioned, as 

public printer of that body, did the work himself, 

and thus was saved payment for privilege. The 

gross amount thus paid, as a per centage or bonus 

for the privilege of doing the work, by the subcontractor to the government officials, varies but 

little from $240,000 per year; at the same time he 

realizes, over and above that large profit, a handsome reserve profit for himself.

The same system extended into the 

public binding, for in most cases the 

public printers were also public binders, 

with the same layer of contractors and 

subcontractors—and the same profit percentages. Binding for the 33d Congress 

amounted to $538,458; for the 34th Congress, $384,686. The committee noted 

that blankbooks used in Government 

cost from 30 to 50 percent higher than 

commercial prices, for—

there is no competition for this work, and no 

general contract is made for its execution. It is a 

grand monopoly for a few individuals, who reap 

therefrom enormous profits.

The committee found that Government engraving was “done in a manner 

not dissimilar to that of the printing and 

binding.’’ The total cost of engraving, 

lithographing, and electrotyping for the 

33d Congress cost $829,858, with the 

greater amount of poor quality, in addition to high rates. The committee also 

noted that the Government could have 

saved about 20 percent, or $237,342, by 

proper supervision.

Paper for public printing also received 

some study, and the committee reported 

that—

further checks and safeguards are required, both 

in the purchase and in the use of the paper for 

public printing. The present mode of supply is 

open to great abuses, and there are few or no sufficient checks to correct them.

Congressional Globe printing costs 

were considered, for Rives had received 

$257,421 for publishing the Globe for the 

34th Congress. Rives also enjoyed the congressional frank, for he could mail single 

copies or bound volumes without charge. 

The committee stated that a “responsible 

party * * * has offered to supply the Globe 

* * * at a reduction of $38,000 per annum.’’

The committee was satisfied “that a 

saving * * * of about three-fourths of a 

million of dollars might have been effected by a proper system.’’

Bureau of Public Printing

As in 1819 and 1840, a congressional 

committee once more recommended the 

Government’s entry into the printing 

business. The committee concluded:

To remove these difficulties, and to avoid 

the large expense of the present mode of 

doing the public printing, your committee 

recommend the establishment of a Bureau 

of Public Printing connected with, and under the direction of, the Department of the 

Interior. In this way your committee believe that a large amount of money can be 

annually saved. Taking the congressional 

and department printing and binding and 

the publication of the proceedings and debates together, we think that 40 per centum 

on the gross amount at least can be saved. 

This amount, for 1 year, on the cost of the 

usual and necessary work, would more 

than pay the entire expense of establishing 

the Bureau. But your committee consider 

this annual saving, however important to 

the treasury, to be of minor consideration, 

when compared with the many advantages 

and benefits to be gained by the establishment of a printing Bureau.

The committee was “trusting in better 

fruits from [their] labor,’’ but its recommended bill failed to pass and thus joined 

the aborted 1819 and 1840 national printing office proposals.

Bowman Protests Printing Abuses

In 1856, the House printing bill had 

risen to $433,133, the Senate to $248,169, 
26

and executive departments to $175,334. 

In addition, Superintendent Seaman had 

petitioned Congress for a deficiency of 

$246,611 because congressional printing 

appropriations had been exhausted and 

a large amount of printing had been ordered but the bill had not been paid.

In December 1857, Gen. George 

W. Bowman succeeded Mr. Seaman 

as Superintendent of Public Printing. 

Although Mr. Bowman later became an 

important figure in the 1860 investigation for his arrangements with Cornelius 

Wendell, as Superintendent he made the 

first attack on what he regarded as waste 

of printing money.

On May 12, 1859, John Heart succeeded 

Mr. Bowman as Superintendent of Public 

Printing and served until the establishment of the GPO on March 4, 1861.

1860 Investigation

Both Bowman and Heart were aware of 

the fact that the poor condition of public 

printing had been common knowledge 

for some time. Congressional criticism 

had been made in both Houses, and the 

opposition press was again on the attack.

Urging abandonment of the system and 

divorce of the newspapers from Government, a southern Senator said: “The purpose of public printing is to enlighten the 

public * * * not to enrich the printers.’’

Finally, Congress was forced to act, and 

in January 1860 three congressional committees began hearings. All phases of public printing and binding were explored.

Wendell Key Figure

During the 35th Congress [1857–59], 

the printing abuses which up to this time 

had been of mild degree became considerably more intense. As in earlier years since 

1846, when he first arrived in Washington 

to become overlord of Government printing, Wendell was still the central figure.

On December 17, 1857, the Congress 

had elected William A. Harris as Senate 

printer and James B. Steedman as House 

printer. Harris had been the editor and 

proprietor of the Union, a Washington 

newspaper which favored the administration. When he was elected to the post 

of Senate printer, he sold the Union to 

Cornelius Wendell.

On August 27, 1858, the second in the 

series of famous Douglas-Lincoln debates was held in Freeport, Ill. The debates were fiercely political and marked 

by intense partisanship. Although Wendell performed all public printing and 

favored the administration through his 

Union, Wendell’s support of Lincoln in 

his campaign for Douglas’ Senate seat 

produced an attack by Senator Douglas 

against Wendell and the Union.

As the 35th Congress began, both Senate and House printers immediately after 

their election contracted with Wendell 

for the performance of the public printing for both Houses, and in fact disposed 

of the privilege for certain fixed sums.

Testimony in 1860 disclosed the terms 

between Wendell and Harris by which 

Wendell agreed to execute all of Harris’ 

Senate printing. In return for the—

entire charge, trouble, and expense of [Harris], 

the said Wendell [would] pay to the said Harris the sum of $10,000 per annum for his full 

share of the profits on the said Senate printing 

* * *; or if the said Harris prefers it, such sum as 

may be due to him shall be retained by him from 

the money which may pass through his hands in 

payment for the public printing.

There was one condition, however: 

Senate printing “shall amount to the sum 

of $100,000 or more.’’

It was shown that the printing and 

binding bill for Congress from 1852 to 
27

1860 was $5,201,459, nearly all of which 

Mr. Wendell had executed as contractor 

or subcontractor.

Wendell and Bowman

As the investigation unfolded the ramifications of the public printing story and 

the many characters involved, it became 

clear that Wendell and Bowman had 

played the leading roles. Practically all 

testimony by the many witnesses led back 

to these two men.

General Bowman as Superintendent 

of Public Printing from December 1857 

to May 11, 1859, had instituted many reforms in the public printing and binding. 

These reforms were so effectively carried out as to produce yearly savings of 

$200,000. Bowman’s disposition toward 

economy and rigid adherence to the 

printing laws reduced Wendell’s profits 

by 50 percent. In the 1860 hearings, Bowman testified that—

during the time I was in office there was no 

friendly feeling, for there was a conflict between 

his [Wendell’s] interest and what I considered 

to be my duty under my oath. One ground of 

the difficulty between us was, that he protested 

against my suggesting reforms.

Determined to get Bowman out of 

the way, Wendell offered the Union, his 

money-losing administration paper, to 

Bowman without consideration. In addition, Bowman was to receive $20,000 a 

year so long as Wendell performed public printing, plus Wendell’s assurance 

that Bowman would be awarded Senate 

printing. Bowman then resigned his office to take over the Union.

On February 28, 1860, Mr. Bowman 

appeared before the committee and submitted a “bill of sale’’ signed by Wendell 

on March 26, 1859:

Know all men by these presents that I, 

Cornelius Wendell, * * * for a valuable consideration to me paid by Geo. W. Bowman, 

* * * now Superintendent of Public Printing, 

the receipt whereof I hereby acknowledge, 

do hereby give, grant, bargain, sell, and convey unto the said Bowman, his heirs and assigns forever, the newspaper establishment 

* * * known as the Washington Union, and 

now owned and published by me, together 

with all the property thereunto appertaining, 

meaning to include the name, good will, press, 

and printing and other materials belonging to 

and used in the establishment; provided, however, that said Bowman is to have no part of 

any debts due the establishment, and is to be 

responsible for none of its liabilities. To have 

and to hold to him, the said Bowman, his heirs 

and assigns forever. * * *

Bowman Nomination

The 36th Congress assembled on December 5, 1859. Battlelines were immediately formed for the election of House 

and Senate printers. President Buchanan 

nominated General Bowman as Senate 

printer, and with common knowledge of 

Bowman’s liaison with Wendell, the Senate began a bitter debate. In the investigation which followed the debate, one 

witness testified:

I reckon there is hardly a person in town that 

has not heard these matters talked upon in the 

streets. They were subjects of common conversation for several months past.

The press, which had carried stories of 

the printing situation, almost daily printed 

items concerning the nomination. The 

New York Daily Tribune, on January 5, 

1860, noted that—

Mr. Bowman feels confident of success, as the 

President has made a personal appeal to every 

* * * Senator whom he could reach.

On January 9, the Tribune stated that 

“If the Republican vote could be combined with the opposition to Bowman, he 

might be defeated.’’

In the meantime, the Senate continued 

its debate, and on January 17, the Tribune

reported:

Mr. Wendell transferred his whole printing 

establishment to the foreman and journeymen 

in his office, a few days ago, and, they [Larcombe 

& English] now announce, if Mr. Bowman is 

elected the work will be done by them. This 

mode was contrived as a compromise between 

these hostile interests. * * *
28

House Printer Also Opposed

The post of House printer produced 

another protracted struggle. The first 

ballot was taken on February 13, 1860, 

and balloting was continued, with numerous short postponements, up to 

March 2, when Gov. Tom Ford of Ohio 

was declared elected. Among the candidates was John D. Defrees, who, up to the 

14th ballot, was the leading candidate. 

Although defeated, Mr. Defrees acquired 

a one-third interest in House printing 

because Mr. Ford was “not a practical printer, and knowing nothing of the 

business, [he] agreed to give me an interest in consideration that I should give it 

my personal attention, and help him in 

its management.’’ Mr. Defrees insisted 

that he “ought to have been elected,’’ but 

a year later became the first head of the 

GPO.

After Bowman’s election as Senate 

printer, the differences between himself 

and Wendell had sharpened, for Bowman claimed that Wendell had paid but 

$3,000 of the $20,000 in their contract. 

But Wendell replied that Bowman “had 

made an arrangement with Mr. Rives, 

and that he [Bowman] had forfeited his 

engagement with me.’’

It is possible that this failure led to the 

transfer of Senate work from Wendell 

to Rives, for as Senate printer Bowman 

could bypass Wendell. With his control 

over Senate printing, Bowman did transfer his printing to Rives.

In answer to the question: “What 

was your reason for declining to engage 

Wendell to do your printing?’’ Bowman 

replied:

There were various reasons. I heard objections at every turn, “I hope you intend to have 

nothing to do with that concern.’’ I found a 

sentiment prevailing against it. That was the 

reason.

Larcombe and English, late foremen 

in Wendell’s plant, were now the proprietors by virtue of Wendell’s transfer to 

them. The firm, through Governor Ford, 

the House printer, and John D. Defrees, 

Ford’s agent, was given the subcontract 

for House printing. They were to repay 

Wendell out of their printing profits, and 

the former owner would participate as a 

silent partner.

Hearings Begin

In addition to the testimony dealing 

with the Wendell-Bowman affair, other 

witnesses appeared before the committees.

John Heart, Superintendent of Public 

Printing, when asked his opinion on the 

propriety or necessity of a Government 

printing office, replied:

My opinion is that Government should do 

this printing as it does its writing, by its own 

agents, under its own control, to be executed 

not in conformity to the interests of the contractors but in accordance with the exigencies of the 

Government. I believe that a public printing office could be placed upon such a footing that any 

document, I do not care how voluminous, might 

be returned to the House ordering it within 30 

days. For the best interests of the country, it is 

the only way to correct the present abuses, not 

only in the manner of executing the printing, but 

also the impeding of the public business, which 

so often occurs by reason of the delay in electing 

a printer. Both the public interests and the public 

business would be best consulted by establishing 

a government office.

* * * * *

With [a GPO] permanently devoted to the 

public printing and binding, a very large reduction in the cost of these branches of the 

public service could be effected. And, if under 

the control of a public officer, many important 

reforms in the manner of its execution could 

be introduced, which would still further economize its cost.

Commercial printers of the period 

agreed that the Government could save 

at least 50 percent on its printing costs.

Most witnesses agreed that a Government printing office would be the cheapest and best way of having its printing 

executed, for in 1860, there were Government-owned printing offices in Great 

Britain, France, Prussia, and Austria.

For the public binding, as in public 
29

printing, each House elected its own 

binders, who in turn contracted all work 

to the printers or practical binders. The 

committee devoted much time in exploring the public binding, chiefly on its 

quality and prices.

Printing for the Supreme Court received favorable comment. Produced by 

George S. Gideon since 1845, he testified 

that the work was done for—

20 or 30 percent less than is paid for congressional 

or for executive department work. * * * I do the 

Supreme Court printing a good deal too low. I 

am still willing, however, to continue the printing, although it is a very low price, it being the 

only printing I do for government.

The investigating committee during 

the hearings approved the following resolution:

Resolved, That, in the opinion of the committee, there is nothing in the testimony tending to 

impeach the integrity or efficiency of Mr. John 

Heart, Superintendent of Printing.

Post Office Blanks

A source of large profits was the printing of post office blanks. This printing 

was highly remunerative and many persons applied to the administration for 

the privilege of printing them. Aided by 

timely awards from the Post-Office Department, favored contractors in a 41/2- 

year period made charges for composition which they had never rendered in 

fact, for testimony showed that the work 

was run from stereotype plates which required no composition.

The abuses in the procurement of post 

office blanks were corrected by the act of 

February 15, 1860. With the beginning 

of the investigation, contracts had been 

canceled, and the new law authorized 

advertisements inviting proposals on a 

low-bidder basis.

Superintendent John Heart, in his 

1860 annual report, stated that by the 

adoption of the new postal contract system, “a great saving has been effected.’’ 

He refuted predictions that the new system would cost more than the previous 

one, and showed that average monthly 

printing costs of $3,500 under the 1852 

act had dropped to $844.97 by the new 

act, for a total of nearly $32,000 yearly 

savings.

Congress Debates a GPO

The Washington Star of June 12, 1860, 

reported the following resolution adopted 

by the Select Committee on the Public 

Printing:

Resolved, That the laws regulating the prices 

and mode of printing, and the abuses necessarily growing out of the expenditures therefor, require reform.

Feelings ran high in Congress. Proponents of a Government printing office 

argued that there was no doubt of the 

necessity of the printing reform. In reply, 

the supporters of the contract system argued that a “national office would be a 

measure of great additional expenditure 

by the creation of a bureau, offices, and a 

vast expense, * * * and God only knows 

where it will end.’’

Finally, in the closing moments of debate, this was said:

I prefer to try at least a Government printing 

office to any other mode of executing the public 

printing. We have already tried the other two 

plans. We have tried the plan of electing a Public Printer, and we know how it has resulted in 

the last 2 years. * * * I think there is a universal 

disposition to abandon that mode of executing 

the work. * * *

With these examples staring us in the face, I, 

for one, feel unwilling to return to that system. 

* * * The other two systems having failed, I am 

disposed to try something new. We cannot lose 

a great deal at it. If it fails, then I am for trying 

something else; but I am not in favor of returning to systems which have already worked badly 

in practice.

The system in force at this time is condemned, 

not only by the Senate and House, but by the 

whole country, and deservedly. Good or otherwise, as it may have been in its incipiency, * * * 

abuses have crept into it.

On May 31, the House passed H.R. 22, 

establishing the GPO, by a vote of 120 

yeas and 56 nays.
30

On a resolution to continue the discredited contract system, the Senate vote 

was yeas, 18; nays, 29. By a vote of 31 yeas, 14 

nays, H.R. 22 was passed on June 16, 1860.

After the vote on June 16, both Houses 

joined in ironing out their differences.

The newspapers of the day continued to 

cover the public printing story. The New 

York Tribune on June 21 noted that—

Jefferson Davis gave notice of supplementary 

action today to authorize Secretary of the Interior and Superintendent of Printing, to purchase 

materials for the GPO, so as to fix responsibility, 

instead of having it divided with a Joint Committee on Printing.

GPO Established

On June 23, 1860, Joint Resolution No. 

25, providing for the establishment of 

the GPO on March 4, 1861, was signed 

by President Buchanan. It stated that the 

Superintendent of Public Printing was—

authorized and directed to have executed the 

printing and binding authorized by the Senate 

and House of Representatives, the executive and 

judicial departments, and the Court of Claims, 

and, to enable him to carry out the provisions of 

this act, he is hereby authorized to contract for 

the erection or purchase of the necessary buildings, machinery, and materials for that purpose.

Building Contract Approved

By authorization of the joint resolution, Superintendent Heart contracted 

with Joseph T. Crowell for the purchase 

of the printing establishment formerly 

owned and occupied by Cornelius Wendell. He affirmed that the—

buildings are all of brick, built of best materials 

and in the most desirable manner, * * * are in 

a perfectly sound condition, and the machinery 

and materials are ample and efficient for the 

prompt and satisfactory execution of the printing and binding for all the departments of the 

government * * *.

Agreement between the parties was 

made December 1, 1860, and the Joint 

Committee on Printing approved the contract on January 10, 1861. On January 17, 

Congress passed the following resolution:

To enable the Superintendent of the Public 

Printing to carry into effect the provisions of the 

joint resolution in relation to the public printing, approved June 23, 1860, $135,000: Provided, 

That no part of this appropriation shall be expended until the title to the property purchased 

shall have been examined and approved by the 

Attorney General of the United States.

On March 16, the New York Times 

printed the following item:

The Attorney-General has nearly completed 

the examination of the titles to the Public Printingoffice, purchased by the Government from Mr. 

Wendell [through Joseph T. Crowell, listed owner].

One of the last official acts of Superintendent Heart was the payment of 

$135,000 on March 2, 1861, to Joseph T. 

Crowell. The following letter was sent by 

Mr. Heart to Mr. Crowell:

Enclosed please find my check on the Treasurer 

of the United States for one hundred and thirty-five 

thousand dollars ($135,000), being the amount 

agreed upon for the purchase of the premises at 

the corner of H Street north and North Capitol 

Street, with the buildings, machinery, and materials, known as the Public Printing Office.

And so the recommendation for a national printing office of 1818, and also of 

1840 and 1858, was finally accepted after 

42 years of trial and error in the public 

printing and binding.

Printing Act of June 23, 1860

The organic printing act as passed by 

Congress and signed by President Buchanan follows:

[No. 25.] Joint Resolution in Relation to the 

 Public Printing.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in 

Congress assembled, That the Superintendent of 

Public Printing be, and is hereby, authorized 

and directed to have executed the printing and 

binding authorized by the Senate and House 

of Representatives, the executive and judicial 

departments, and the Court of Claims. And to 

enable him to carry out the provisions of this act, 

he is authorized and directed to contract for the 

erection or purchase of the necessary buildings, 

machinery, and materials for that purpose; said 

contract to be subject to the approval of the Joint 

Committee on Printing of the two Houses of 
31

Congress: Provided, That the sum so contracted 

to be paid shall not exceed one hundred fifty 

thousand dollars.

SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, That it 

shall be the duty of the said Superintendent to 

superintend all the printing and binding, the 

purchase of paper, as hereinafter directed, the 

purchase of other necessary materials and machinery, and the employment of proof-readers, 

compositors, pressmen, laborers, and other 

hands necessary to execute the orders of Congress and of the executive and judicial departments, at the city of Washington. And to enable 

the said Superintendent Moore effectually to 

perform the duties of his office, he shall appoint a foreman of printing, at an annual salary 

of eighteen hundred dollars, and a foreman of 

binding, at an annual salary of fifteen hundred 

dollars; but no one shall be appointed to said 

positions who is not practically and thoroughly 

acquainted with their respective trades. It shall 

be the duty of the said foremen of printing and 

binding to make out and deliver to the said Superintendent, monthly statements of the work 

done in their respective departments, together 

with monthly pay-rolls, which shall contain 

the names of the persons employed, the rate of 

compensation and amount due to each, and the 

service for which it shall be due. They shall also 

make out estimates of the amount and kind of 

materials required, and file requisitions therefor, from time to time, as it may be needed, and 

shall receipt for the same to the Superintendent. And the said foreman shall be held accountable for all materials so received by them: 

Provided, That the Superintendent shall, at no 

time employ more hands in the public printing 

and binding establishment than the absolute 

necessities of the public work may require; and 

further, that the Superintendent report to Congress, at the beginning of each session of Congress, the number of hands so employed, and 

the length of time each has been employed.

SEC. 3. And be it further enacted, That said 

Superintendent shall take charge of and be responsible for all manuscripts and other matter 

to be printed, engraved, or lithographed, and 

cause the same to be promptly executed. And 

he shall render to the Secretary of the Treasury, 

quarterly, a full account of all purchases made 

by him, and of all printing and binding done in 

said office for each of the houses of Congress, 

and for each of the executive and judicial departments. For the payment of the work and 

materials, there shall be advanced to the said 

Superintendent, from time to time, as the public 

service may require it, and under such rules as 

the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, a 

sum of money, at no time exceding two-thirds of 

the penalty of said Superintendent’s bond. And 

the said Superintendent shall settle the account 

of his receipts and disbursements in the manner 

now required of other disbursing officers: Provided, however, That said Superintendent shall 

not be allowed credit at the treasury for payments on account of services rendered in said 

printing establishment, at higher prices than 

those paid for similar services in the private 

printing and binding establishments of the city 

of Washington.

SEC. 4. And be it further enacted, That it shall 

be the duty of the said Superintendent to charge 

himself, in a separate book to be kept therefor, 

with all paper and other materials received by 

him for the public use, and to furnish the same 

to the foremen employed by him, on their requisitions, herein provided for, as the public service 

may require, taking a receipt in all cases therefor from the foreman at the head of the department in which the paper, or other material, has 

been used.

SEC. 5. And be it further enacted, That all the 

printing and binding, and all blank books ordered by the heads of the executive and judicial departments of the government, or of the 

chiefs of the bureaus thereof, and all the printing and binding, and all blank books ordered by 

Congress, or by either house of Congress, shall, 

on and after the fourth day of March, eighteen 

hundred and sixty-one, be done and executed 

under said Superintendent, in accordance with 

the provisions of this act: Provided, That all 

the printing ordered, and to be ordered, by the 

Thirty-sixth Congress, shall be executed by the 

printers of the Senate and House of Representatives, as now authorized by law; but no printing 

or binding other than that ordered by Congress 

or the heads of departments, as aforesaid, shall 

be executed in said office.

SEC. 6. And be it further enacted, That it shall 

be the duty of said Superintendent to receive 

from the Secretary of the Senate and the Clerk 

of the House of Representatives, and from the 

heads of departments and chiefs of bureaus, 

all matter ordered to be printed and bound, or 

either printed or bound, at the public expense, 

and to keep a faithful account of the same, in 

the order in which the same may be received; 

and when the same shall have been printed and 

bound, if the same is ordered to be bound, see 

that the volumes or sheets are promptly delivered to the officer of the Senate, or House of 

Representatives, or department, authorized to 

receive the same whose receipt therefor shall be 

a sufficient voucher, by the Superintendent, of 

their delivery.
32

SEC. 7. And be it further enacted, That the 

Joint Committee on Printing for the two houses 

of Congress shall agree and fix upon a standard 

of paper for the printing of congressional documents, to weigh not less than fifty pounds to the 

ream of five hundred sheets, of twenty-four by 

thirty-eight inches; and it shall be the duty of 

the said Superintendent of the Public Printing 

to furnish samples of said standard paper to 

applicants therefor, and to advertise annually, 

in one or more newspapers having the largest 

circulation in the cities of Boston, New York, 

Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Chicago, 

Washington, Richmond, Raleigh, Charleston, 

New Orleans, and Saint Louis, for the space 

of sixty days prior to the first of July, for sealed 

proposals to furnish the government of the 

United States all paper which may be necessary 

for the execution of the public printing, of quality and in quantity to be specified in the said advertisements from year to year. He shall open 

such proposals as may be made in the presence 

of the Secretary of the Senate and the Clerk of 

the House of Representatives, and shall award 

the contract for furnishing all of said paper, or 

such class thereof as may be bid for, to the lowest bidder, for the quality of paper advertised 

for by the said Superintendent, and determined 

by the Joint Committee of the two houses of 

Congress. It shall be the duty of said Superintendent to compare the paper furnished by the 

public contractor with the standard quality; and 

he shall not accept any paper from the contractor which does not conform to the standard determined upon as aforesaid. And in case of difference of opinion between the Superintendent 

of Public Printing and the contractors for paper, 

with respect to its quality, the matter of difference shall be determined and settled by the Joint 

Standing Committee on Printing of the two 

houses of Congress. In default of any contractor under this law to comply with his contract in 

furnishing the paper in the proper time, and of 

proper quality, the Superintendent is authorized 

to enter into a new contract with the lowest and 

best bidder for the interests of the government 

amongst those whose proposals were rejected at 

the last annual lettings, if it be practicable so to 

do, and if not, then to advertise for proposals, and 

award the contract as herein-before provided; 

and during any interval which is thus created 

by the new advertisement for such proposals, 

the Superintendent shall purchase in the open 

market, by and with the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, all such paper necessary for 

the public service, at the lowest price. For any 

increase of cost to the government in procuring 

a supply of paper for the use of the government, 

the contractor in default and his securities shall 

be charged with, and held responsible for the 

same, and shall be prosecuted upon their bond 

by the Solicitor of the Treasury, in the name of 

the United States, in the Circuit Court of the 

United States, in the district in which the defaulting contractor resides; and to enable the 

Solicitor to do so, the said Superintendent shall 

report to him the default on its happening, with 

a full statement of all the facts in the case. The 

said Superintendent shall keep a just and true 

account of all the paper received from the contractor or contractors, together with an account 

of all the paper used for the purposes of the 

government under this act, and shall report the 

amount of each class consumed in said printing 

establishment, and in what works or publications the same was used, to the Secretary of the 

Interior, at the end of each and every fiscal year.

SEC. 8. And be it further enacted, That whenever any charts, maps, diagrams, views, or other 

engravings shall be required to illustrate any 

document ordered to be printed by either house 

of Congress, such engravings shall be procured 

by the Superintendent of Printing, under the 

direction and supervision of the Committee on 

Printing of the house ordering the same.

SEC. 9. And be it further enacted, That it shall 

be the duty of the said Superintendent annually to prepare and submit to the Register of the 

Treasury, in time to have the same embraced 

in the annual estimates from that department, 

detailed estimates of the salaries, amount to 

be paid for wages, engraving, binding, materials, and for any other necessary expense of said 

printing establishment for the second year. And 

the said Superintendent shall also, on the first 

day of the meeting of each session of Congress, 

or as soon thereafter as may be, report to Congress the exact condition of the public printing, 

binding, and engraving; the amount and cost of 

all such printing, binding, and engraving; the 

amount and cost of all paper purchased for the 

same; a statement of the several bids for materials, and such further information as may be 

within his knowledge in regard to all matters 

connected therewith.

SEC. 10. And be it further enacted, That neither the Superintendent nor any other officer 

to be appointed under this act shall, during his 

continuance in office, have any interest, direct 

or indirect, in the publication of any newspaper 

or periodical, or in any printing of any kind, or 

in any binding or engraving, or in any contract 

for furnishing paper or other material connected 

with the public printing; and any violation of 

this section shall subject the party offending, on 

conviction before any court of competent juris-
33

diction, to imprisonment in the penitentiary for 

a term of not less than one, nor more than five 

years, and to a fine of five hundred dollars.

SEC. 11. And be it further enacted, That if 

the said Superintendent shall corruptly collude 

with any person or persons furnishing materials 

or bidding therefor, or with any other person or 

persons, or have any secret understanding with 

him or them, by himself or through others, to 

defraud the United States, or by which the government of the United States shall be defrauded 

or made to sustain a loss, contrary to the true 

intent and meaning of this act, he shall, upon 

conviction thereof before any court of competent jurisdiction, forfeit his office and be subject 

to imprisonment in the penitentiary for a term 

of not less than three, or more than seven years, 

and to a fine of three thousand dollars.

APPROVED, June 23, 1860.

Summary

The foregoing chapter has provided a 

great amount of historical background of 

pre-GPO history which properly could 

not be regarded as part of a GPO centennial narrative. By spreading out on a 

broad canvas the story of Government 

printing from its infancy to 1861, a better 

perspective of the Office of today can be 

visualized in the light of the extraordinary events which led to a truly Government printing office. Source material was 

derived from congressional committee 

reports and hearings, the Congressional 

Globe, and the newspapers of the day.

35

1861

After the exciting years prior to the 

opening for business on March 4, 1861, 

the Office began its public printing career 

in relative obscurity. The subject of bitter 

debate in 1860 had been overwhelmed by 

the feverish excitement of Lincoln’s inauguration and the imminence of civil war. 

A former newsworthy item in Congress 

and the press, it was not until March 21 

when the press again noted the GPO. On 

that day the Baltimore Sun printed the 

following item:

The Senate also unanimously confirmed the 

nomination of John D. Defrees as Superintendent of Public Printing. This nomination is a 

popular one. He will immediately take possession of and organize the new government printing bureau.

As a newly authorized Government 

agency, the GPO was to suffer the usual 

growing pains and gropings for security 

in the Federal Establishment, and upon 

Mr. Defrees fell the task of reorganizing 

the mode of executing the public printing. A complete system of keeping the accounts, and rendering the proper vouchers 

for work performed, was inaugurated. He 

also set up checks and safeguards for the 

prompt and economical execution of the 

public printing—and he had a building, 

equipment, and labor to begin the job.

Published in 1869, The Sights and Secrets of the National Capital, by Dr. John 

B. Ellis, offered the following profile of 

Mr. Defrees:

He is a plainly-dressed, quiet-mannered 

man, a printer by trade, not above 45 years old, 

smooth-faced, gray-eyed, with a business look 

about him, and he is an Indianian, long publisher of the Indianapolis Journal. By birth he is 

a Kentuckian, of the State which produced Blair 

and Rives, the pioneers of political printing in 

Washington.

* * * he must superintend the entire business 

Chapter III

100

G P O Y E A R S

1861–1961

I

N THE FOLLOWING 1861–1961 chronology of 100 GPO years, the GPO historian has attempted to chronicle the yearly printing highlights in Office history 

as reported by successive Superintendents and Public Printers in their annual 

reports to Congress. Some Printers, perhaps with an awareness of their place in a 

future Office history, were voluble and offered interesting sidelights in their narratives; 

others felt that production statistics were sufficient evidence of their stewardship. The 

chronology has been supplemented by recourse to early historians, the newspapers 

of the day, and congressional hearings and reports. But throughout the 100 years, in 

addition to the printing events of each year, type was being set, presses were running, 

the bindery was producing the finished product, and the energies of the entire plant 

were devoted to public printing and binding.
36

of the office, while all contracts for paper, &c., 

are made by a committee of the Senate and the 

House. The public printing office is therefore 

relieved from all the imputations of corruption 

which used to attach to it, and the character of the 

printer himself has never suffered imputation. He 

is one of the most modest and attentive officials of 

the Government, bright in public affairs, and in 

business a man of parts and powers.* * *

Beginning of Civil War

The year 1861 was an exciting one in 

the Capital. On April 12, Fort Sumter 

was fired upon. President Lincoln made 

the first call for troops 3 days later, at a 

time when citizens of Washington favoring the cause of the Union seemed to be 

in the minority. Throughout the war, rumors of invasion swept the city, and GPO 

printers and other employees not only set 

type day and night but also drilled as soldiers to protect the building and the city. 

(See “1864, Invasion Threat.’’)

Government printing orders mushroomed. Presses jammed every corner. 

Machines in private shops were rented. 

Paper doubled, trebled in cost, and became almost unobtainable, and in 1864 

sold for $560 a ton. Printers demanded 

$24 a week. A private firm lent payroll money to the GPO. Yet in the first 

6 months of operation, the Office saved 

more than its purchase cost of $135,000.

The war years created a scarcity of paper 

and printing ink in both North and South. 

The South particularly felt the pinch, because paper, ink, and type had come from 

the North. In the South, newspapers were 

reduced in size, headlines were omitted, 

and frantic appeals were made for rags 

and materials for making paper. In some 

cases, wrapping paper and the blank side 

of wallpaper were used, with shoeblacking serving as improvised ink. In the 

Confederate States, many printers were 

exempted from military services.

GPO in Swampoodle

Known as Swampoodle, the area 

around the building was truly suburban. H Street to the east was only on a 

map, with grading to the turnpike gate 

at Bladensburg Road completed in 1863. 

Because the Printing Office had been 

placed at North Capitol and H Streets, 

H Street to the west had been graded 

and graveled to New Jersey Avenue in 

1857. There may have been some form 

of transportation for GPO workers, but 

the H Street horsecars did not run until 

9 years later.

The Office

Erected by Cornelius Wendell in 1856 

as a printing office, the GPO was to produce printing and binding for Congress 

and the Federal departments, bureaus, 

and independent offices.

The 1861 report of the Superintendent 

of Public Printing offered the following 

description of the first GPO:

The public printing establishment is situated 

at the northwest corner of square 624, at the corner of H Street north and North Capitol Street. 

The lot is 264 feet 9 inches on H Street by 175 

feet 3 inches on North Capitol Street, containing 

46,397 square feet, and affording ample space 

for any additions or improvements that may 

be deemed desirable. The building consists of 

a printing office and bindery, four stories high, 

with a breadth of 611/2 feet and a depth of 243 

feet; a paper warehouse, 59 feet 7 inches by 79 

feet 2 inches; a machine shop, 22 feet 2 inches by 

25 feet, for repairing and renewing the presses 

and machinery; a boiler house, 20 feet 7 inches 

by 26 feet; a coal house, 23 by 27 feet; a wagon 

shed, 25 feet 4 inches by 24 feet; and stables, 23 

feet by 41 feet 2 inches. These buildings are all 

of brick, built of the best materials and in the 

most durable manner * * *. They are completely 

isolated from any contiguous building, being 

bounded on the north and east by public streets, 
37

on the south by a 30-foot alley, and on the west 

by a vacant lot of 21 feet 9 inches, included in 

the purchase.

In addition, it had a cupola and bell. If 

it were not the largest printing office in 

the country, it was surely the largest in 

Washington.

The modern building contained a 

composing room, proofreading room, 

machine shop, pressroom, wetting and 

drying rooms, bindery room, folding 

room, and office.

Among the items listed in the inventory were 1 timepiece, 5 wrenches, one 

40-horse engine, 104 pressboards, 2 wetting tubs, and a fair assortment of book 

and job type.

The proofroom had eight armchairs, 

two pine desks, and one mahogany desk.

The bindery had only 2 ruling and 2 

cutting machines, in addition to 10 pairs 

of shears, 4 bodkins, and other minor 

equipment.

Pressroom equipment consisted of 23 

Adams presses and 3 cylinder presses.

The stable had 1 black horse and 1 

bob-tail bay horse, 1 wagon, and 1 carryall; the boilerhouse had one 60-horsepower boiler and 525 feet of firehose, 5 

buckets, etc.

All typesetting was done by hand. 

The 1861 composing room contained 93 

double stands for compositors’ cases, 349 

pairs of cases, 19 imposing stones, 108 

chases, 41,300 pounds of type of various 

kinds, and 335 galleys, mostly wooden, 

and 2 small proofpresses.

Neighborhood

In The Sights and Secrets of the National 

Capital, Dr. John B. Ellis thus describes 

the GPO neighborhood:

If you stand on Capitol Hill, at the top of the 

high flight of stairs leading into the Senate, and 

look straight north, you will see the Government Printing Office. It is in dreary contrast to 

the pure whiteness of the Capitol. A long rectangle of sooty brick, domineered by a scorched 

cupola, from whose apparent ashes rises the 

Phoenix of a gilt eagle. This eagle, troubled by 

the proximate confusion of Irish shanties and 

building lots, is less busied with his destiny 

than with the points of his compass, which he 

holds transfixed in his talons, and by these you 

perceive that just to the north is the Catholic 

church of St. Aloysius, noisy with a chime of 

bells, while the settled quarter of the city lie 

west and behind the printing-office.

Making a straight way from Capitol Hill 

across Tiber Creek, which you will cross by 

stepping-stones deposited in its basin, and taking a footpath across lots where geese and pigs 

browse upon plentiful barrenness, you will reach 

the printing-house in 10 or 15 minutes, and hear 

the hum of its machinery.

The near exterior view is no better than the 

remote one. A huge factory of red brick, about 

350 feet long, with the gables and one side facing 

separate streets, and the other side fenced up to 

enclose boiler houses, paper storehouses, wagonsheds, wastepaper barracks, and an accessory wing 

for stereotyping and for a machineshop—this is all 

that a passing pedestrian knows of the GPO.

[See also “1881, GPO Area in 1881.’’]

As John Clagett Proctor, a former Office employee and Washington historian, 

pointed out in 1932, the “passing pedestrian’’ in Civil War days was sometimes 

subject to danger on—

Defrees Street, which ran east and west between 

the block in which stands this old [GPO] building, and upon the heads of the residents of which 

many a compositor has thrown a handful of pi 

[mixed type] he did not care to distribute * * *.

Old Tiber Creek

In Washington: A Not Too Serious History, by George Rothwell Brown, this description of the GPO appears:

Near the original GPO building could be 

found a tributary of old Tiber Creek which 

flowed southwest through swampland toward 

the Capitol. In the spring of the year, this famous 

old creek had a habit of overflowing its banks 

on its upper reaches. Early Irish settlers living 

in the general neighborhood * * * gave to the locality the picturesque, if inelegant, nickname of 

“Swampoodle,’’ more on account of the swamps, 

however, than the poodles, with many goats 

typical to the settlement. Perhaps Swampoodle 

was a corruption of “swamp-puddle.’’ Certainly 

there were both swamps and puddles galore in 

the shadow of the GPO and the Capitol.
38

Old Tiber Creek ran but half a block 

away, entering the area between North 

Capitol and First Streets NE., and then 

took a southwesterly course, crossing 

Pennsylvania Avenue at Second Street. 

It was known originally as Goose Creek.

In 1932, John Clagett Proctor, in exercises dedicating a tablet placed on the old 

building, stated that—

an idea may be had of the size of [Tiber] creek 

by the statement of an old chronicler, that during 

the 1850’s a tavern built on New Jersey Avenue 

close to the stream, and known as Foy’s Hotel, 

was washed away during a flood.

Beginning in 1871, a general and costly 

system of public works improvement 

was begun in the District. About 1876 

Old Tiber Creek, the “indescribable cesspool,’’ went underground, and the greatest nuisance of Washington thereby put 

out of sight.

The area also included three Civil War 

hospitals which served as constant reminders of war. Two blocks to the west 

was Stanton Hospital, and in the block 

immediately to the north was Douglas 

Hospital, each occupying a whole square 

of ground. St. Aloysius Church, on North 

Capitol and K Streets, had been dedicated 

in 1859, but war demands had converted 

the new church into a war hospital.

Washington

An early historian noted that in Washington—

Not a street was lighted up to 1860, excepting Pennsylvania Avenue; pigs roamed the principal thoroughfares; pavements, save for a few 

patches here and there, were altogether lacking. 

An open sewer carried off common refuse, and 

the police and fire departments might have sufficed for a small village rather than for a nation’s 

capital.

The Atlantic Monthly in 1861 pronounced Washington as a “paradise of 

paradoxes, a great, little, splendid, mean, 

extravagant, poverty-stricken barrack for 

soldiers of fortune and votaries of folly.’’

First Annual Report

On December 11, 1861, Superintendent 

John D. Defrees submitted his first annual 

report, stating that the superseded—

law of 1852 provided for the election of a printer 

for each house of Congress, and fixed the rate of 

compensation. * * * This method was liable to so 

many objections other than those of a pecuniary 

character, as shown during its continuance, that 

Congress determined to make a change * * * and 

the result has been such as to vindicate the wisdom of Congress in making the change. * * * it is 

safe to say that a saving of at least $60,000 has been 

effected [for 9 months].

The Superintendent, with a sense of 

awareness of recent printing cost excesses, 

listed comparative figures of “cost at former prices’’ and GPO “amount charged 

and paid,’’ offering evidence of immediate 

savings over the former system.

In its first 9 months the new GPO produced $550,887 of Government printing, including $510,815 for Congress and 

$40,072 for the executive departments.

Number of Hands Employed

The new printing act required—

that the Superintendent shall at no time employ 

more hands in the public printing and binding 

establishment than the absolute necessities of the 

public work may require * * *.

The Superintendent reported that—

No larger force has been or will be employed 

* * * than its wants absolutely demand, and none 

are employed except such as are competent to the 

discharge of the duties required of them.

The Office employed 350 compositors, 

pressmen, bookbinders, and laborers. On 

the rolls were the names of John Larcombe and James English, former owners of Wendell’s establishment, who were 

now GPO employees. Hours were from 

8 to 5 for both day and night forces, with 

1 hour for lunch, and the night force was 

abolished each year with the adjournment of Congress.
39

Work Destroyed

In 1861, the GPO sustained a loss of 

some $15,000 to $20,000 in printed matter when fire destroyed a binding contractor’s building on Louisiana Avenue, 

between 9th and 10th Streets. Later in 

the year, all binding was done at the main 

office.

Engraving Plant Suggested

Superintendent Defrees reported that 

the law establishing the Office made no 

change in the mode of executing GPO engraving and lithographing in private plants 

throughout the country. Therefore—

this office has no control over it than to see that it 

has been done according to the terms of the contracts made by the Printing Committees. It may 

be worth the consideration of Congress whether 

a saving may not also be effected in this branch 

of the public expenditures by directing it to be 

executed in the GPO.

Engraving expenditures in 1861 totaled $118,658.42, reflecting in part war 

printing. [In 1923, 62 years later, the GPO 

began to produce its own engravings.]

1862 

Superintendent Defrees reported that 

printing savings from March 4, 1861, 

to September 30, 1862, amounted to 

$205,506 under pre-GPO costs.

First Strike in Bindery

The 1863 report stated that—

except for a short period during last fall [1862], 

when the workmen were on strike for higher 

wages and a reduction of the hours of labor, the 

operations of the bindery have progressed in a 

satisfactory manner.

Thus was reported the first—and 

last—strike in the GPO.

1863

On October 24, at about 3 p.m., President Lincoln visited the Office on invitation of Superintendent Defrees, and 

spoke briefly to the employees.

According to the Washington Star of 

November 13, President Lincoln sent the 

following note to Mr. Defrees:

Mr. Defrees—Please see this girl who works 

in your office, and find out about her brother, 

and come and tell me.

On December 15, Mr. Defrees wrote to 

a friend:

A poor girl in the employment of the GPO 

had a brother impressed into the rebel service, 

and was taken prisoner by our forces. He desired 

to take the oath of allegiance, and to be liberated. 

She sought an interview with the President, who 

wrote the note, asking me to inquire into the 

facts, which I did, and the young man was liberated on the President’s order.

First Plea for More Space

Because of “the existing [wartime] 

condition of the country,’’ Mr. Defrees reported that 1862 printing costs 

of $549,390 had increased in 1863 to 

$1,404,539. He said:

To meet this increased demand for printing 

and binding, I have been compelled to add to the 

machinery and materials to so great an extent that 

there is no room in the building for any more, 

and yet much more could be profitably employed 

if the present amount of work is to continue. To 

facilitate the work as much as possible I have employed, during the past year, several presses in 

some of the private printing establishments in this 

city, and yet there are several large documents ordered by Congress which are unfinished solely for 

the want of additional presses. * * * I respectfully 

[request] an appropriation to enlarge the building and to increase the machinery and materials 

* * * as I am confident it would result to pecuniary 

advantage of the Government.

In the interest of economy, Mr. Defrees 

added:

Under the law I am compelled to execute the 

orders of Congress and of the Departments, and 
40

can have, of course, no control over the amount 

ordered to be printed, but I hope it may not be 

regarded as improper for me to suggest that a 

great saving to the Government may be made 

by omitting to print many documents which are 

of no general utility, and to ask the attention of 

Congress to the subject.

New Versus Old System

Further comparative printing cost figures were submitted, showing total savings from March 4, 1861, to September 

30, 1863, of $583,935, with the observation that—

The increased cost of labor and materials of all 

kinds has, of course, added greatly to the cost 

of printing and binding done during the last 

year; yet, the saving effected over the prices paid 

under the old system has been very considerable 

* * *.

The character of the printing and binding, in 

material and workmanship, is superior to that 

furnished under any system which has preceded 

the present; and the experiment of the Government doing its own work, both as regards to 

quality and the economy of its cost, may be regarded as completely successful.

The 1863 annual report noted that 

purchases included one horse at $200; 

one pair of mules, $300; and horse-feed, 

$796.91.

1864

On December 6, President Lincoln 

delivered his last annual message to Congress. In existence today are fragments of 

the original draft which served as printer’s copy. Each fragment carries the endorsement of Mr. Defrees, who had cut 

up the draft and distributed them among 

his friends.

On May 18, the New York World and 

the Journal of Commerce had printed a 

proclamation alleged to have been signed 

by Lincoln. The hoax story had been 

written by Joseph Howard, Jr., who was 

arrested immediately on orders from 

Lincoln, who stated that the—

false and spurious proclamation [was] of a treasonable nature designed to give aid and comfort 

to the enemies of the United States, and to the 

rebels now at war against the Government * * *.

Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, an old 

friend of Defrees and an ardent supporter 

of Lincoln’s antislavery fight, petitioned 

the President for Howard’s release.

The President, on August 23, instructed 

Secretary of War Stanton:

Let Howard, imprisoned in regard to the bogus proclamation, be discharged.

Beecher’s letter of thanks was sent to 

Superintendent Defrees, who forwarded 

it to John Hay, Lincoln’s secretary.

Defrees Advises President

For many years, Mr. Defrees had been 

chairman of the Whig Central Committee of Indiana, and had been a delegate to 

the Whig and National Republican conventions of 1848, 1852, and 1856. High in 

party councils and concerned with political 

strategy, Mr. Defrees, on February 7, sent a 

letter to the President suggesting that consideration should be given to an antislavery 

amendment to the Constitution.

Now, why not send a message to Congress 

recommending the passage of a joint resolution 

proposing an amendment to the Constitution 

forever prohibiting slavery in the States and territories?

It would be your measure and would be 

passed by a two thirds vote, and, eventually, 

three fourths of the states, through their Legislatures, would consent to it.

If not done very soon the proposition will be 

presented by the Democracy and claimed by 

them as their proposition. This may look strange 

to those who do not remember with what facility

that party can change front.

On the next day [February 8] Lincoln 

replied:

Our own friends have this under consideration now, and will do as much without a Message as with it.

On February 1, 1865, the resolution 

proposed by the administration was 
41

adopted by the requisite three-fourths of 

the States and became the 13th amendment to the Constitution.

Printing Costs

Mr. Defrees noted that public printing for the fiscal year ending September 

30 cost $328,249. All work produced in 

1864 was listed in his report at prices 

paid under the 1852 act. With 1852 prices 

amounting to $616,899, these comparative figures showed savings of $288,650 

under the new system.

Overall costs, including paper and lithographing, amounted to $1,420,069, compared to $549,390 in 1862. Mr. Defrees 

warned Congress of higher printing costs:

Assuming that the quantity of printing and binding annually required of this office has reached 

its maximum under the existing state of public 

affairs, * * * its cost will, nevertheless, be materially increased; for * * * the price of labor has 

been advanced about 121/2 percent on the average, and the price of paper * * * has advanced 

* * * an average of 65 percent.

The 1864 report also included a reference to the wasteful practices of the former printing system. Mr. Defrees said:

Since the establishment of the GPO no elaborately embellished works * * * have been printed 

by authority of Congress, and, therefore, the cost 

of this description of work has been small for the 

last 4 years, as compared with several years immediately preceding.

Invasion Threat

On July 11, fear swept the city, for the 

Confederate Army under Gen. Jubal A. 

Early, had reached a point 6 miles to the 

north [where Walter Reed Army Medical 

Center now stands]. General Grant sent the 

6th and part of the 19th Corps to Washington, and their arrival saved the city. On the 

following day a skirmish took place, which 

President Lincoln witnessed as a spectator 

at Fort Stevens, exposing himself to fire.

Aiding in the defense of the city was 

the Interior Department Regiment which 

included Company F, composed of GPO 

printers and pressmen. Kerr’s History of the 

GPO states that Company F was formed—

when Washington was threatened from foes 

within and without, for the purpose of assisting 

in guarding Government property, and to repel 

any foe in case the city was attacked. This organization was kept up for a year or two, but as the 

city became filled with soldiers from all sections 

of the land, it was permitted to die out. * * * in 

1864, when Washington was threatened by the 

rebel General Early, [Company F] was promptly 

reorganized, with H. R. Lahee as Captain, W. 

A. Ensminger as First Lieutenant, and Daniel 

Harbaugh as Second Lieutenant. * * * it appears 

that Company F was mustered into the United 

States service about July 11, 1864, and after having been supplied with all the paraphernalia—

including arms and ammunition—the company 

was marched, on the afternoon of that day, to 

one of the forts in the vicinity of the Insane Asylum, where it remained on duty until the following day, when the rebels, having been beaten in 

their fight with the Sixth Army Corps, retreated. 

The printers, having laid aside their weapons of 

destruction, resumed their places in the office.

Agriculture Report

The Superintendent reported that—

One edition of 25,000 copies of the [1863] Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture has been 

printed, bound, and delivered, and the remaining number of copies will be printed as rapidly as 

the number of presses which can be withdrawn 

from the more pressing demands of the War Department can accomplish.

He added that delays in printing congressional documents had “been occasioned by a want of sufficient number of 

presses.’’

1865

On April 14, President Lincoln was assassinated. The newspapers ran special 

editions which covered the “catastrophe’’ 

and the pursuit of the conspirators, but 

no reference was made to indicate that 

Government departments, including the 

GPO, were closed the next day. On April 
42

17, the Star printed an order from the 

Secretary of State:

It is hereby ordered that in honor of the memory of our late illustrious Chief Magistrate, all 

officers and others subject to the orders of the 

Secretary of State wear crape upon the left arm 

for the period of 6 months.

The Treasury, Post-Office, and Interior issued similar orders, but whether 

the Superintendent of Public Printing issued an order is not known. April 19 was 

proclaimed as a day of “humiliation and 

mourning.’’ No newspapers were published and it is certain that the GPO was 

closed that day.

First Expansion

An appropriation of $61,000 granted 

by Congress was used to expand the GPO 

building to the west. The extension was 

60 by 75 feet, 4 stories high, with space 

for nearly 1,000 workers.

Mr. Defrees commented that a description of his new equipment “may 

not be deemed either inappropriate 

or uninteresting.’’ He then stated that 

he had purchased 12 first-class Adams 

presses, manufactured by Hoe & Co. of 

New York at a cost of $36,000. The Office now boasted 57 presses: 35 Adams, 9 

cylinder, 8 Gordon, and 5 hydraulic for 

dry pressing.

From the meager 2 ruling and 2 cutting machines of 1861, the Bindery now 

had 17 standing presses, 14 ruling machines, 7 cutting machines, 3 numbering machines, 5 backing machines, 3 

embossing presses, and 1 smashing machine.

All pressroom and bindery machines 

were driven by two engines: one of 40 

horsepower and one of 10 horsepower.

Growing Work Volume

Superintendent Defrees in 1864 had 

stated that the public printing and binding in 1865 “will approximate the very 

large sum of two millions of dollars!’’ Actual printing costs were $2,227,099. He 

announced that—

the close of the rebellion had caused a considerable decrease in the requisitions of the Executive 

Departments for printing; but with the large 

amount of deferred printing for Congress and 

that which will be ordered at the present session, there will doubtless be enough to work the 

whole establishment up to its full capacity for 

the next 2 years.

Further System Comparisons

Once again Mr. Defrees supplied 

comparative figures of the two printing 

systems—private versus Government. 

Since the founding of the GPO, these 

before-and-after figures had been offered each year, perhaps not in defense 

but as eloquent justification for the 

printing reform act. He showed savings 

by Government operation amounted to 

$165,525, in spite of the “great advance 

in the price of labor’’ since 1861 and earlier, and a 65-percent increase in paper 

costs. Wages for compositors and pressmen in 1861, and for several years previously, had been fixed by their trade society at $14 per week; in February 1863, 

$16; December 1863, $18; June 1864, 

$21; November 1864, $24. The increases 

had been awarded “on account of the 

increased cost of living in this city, and 

is believed to be not too high for good 

workmen.’’

Mr. Defrees also noted that—

Engraving and printing for the War Department, consisting principally of commissions, 

warrants, and discharges for the regular and 

volunteer force, on parchment, * * * amounted 

to $34,353.40, but the return of peace has already 

caused a very great decrease in the requisitions 

for this class of printing.

1866

On April 14, on the first anniversary 

of Lincoln’s assassination, President 

Johnson ordered all Government departments, including the GPO, closed.
43

Wendell Returns

Cornelius Wendell, the Government 

printer from 1846 to 1861, returned to his 

old establishment as Superintendent of 

Public Printing from September 1, 1866, 

to February 28, 1867. The Baltimore Sun

of August 29 reported:

It is announced that Cornelius Wendell, Esq., 

* * * has been appointed Superintendent of Public Printing, vice Defrees. Mr. Wendell was formerly printer to Congress. He came to this city 

[Washington] from Albany, N.Y., about 20 years 

ago, and was long known as the senior member 

of the printing firm of Wendell & Van Benthuysen. He is thoroughly conversant with the business of printing, and will undoubtedly make a 

good officer.

On September 3, the Sun stated that—

Mr. Wendell * * * entered upon the duties 

of his office on Saturday [September 1]. He has 

already made some changes, and among others, 

about a dozen laborers, whose services he judged 

could be dispensed with, have been discharged. In 

the folding-room Mrs. Kate Shortell will supersede Mr. Harrison, and Mr. J. H. Roberts takes 

the place of Mr. Goff as foreman of the bindery.

In his only annual report, he stated that 

with the enlargement of the building and 

the addition of new machinery, he could 

dispense with the aid of private plants 

used during the preceding 5 years.

Although Mr. Wendell had been removed from public printing since 1861, 

his viewpoint had now changed, for he 

stated that—

a considerable amount of the printing and binding for the government * * * is not executed in 

this establishment, or under its control * * *. As 

our facilities are amply sufficient to execute all the 

government printing and binding, and at less cost 

than by private establishments, I can see no good 

reason why they should not be executed here.

Mr. Wendell also reported that the 

printing of the Nautical Almanac had 

been transferred from Cambridge, Mass., 

to the Office, and that “complete arrangements have been made to publish it 

yearly in approved style.’’ [This work is 

still produced in the GPO.]

An act of Congress on July 27 gave the 

Joint Committee on Printing exclusive 

control of contracting for paper for public printing, and for “fixing a standard 

of paper for the different descriptions of 

congressional and executive printing.’’

Wage Increase and 8-Hour Day

The 8-hour day was incorporated in 

the Washington scale of prices in October. It was accepted by the GPO when 

the employees threatened to strike. Mr. 

Wendell wrote to the printers’ society 

that—

hereafter I will pay printers in the GPO a wage 

of $4 per diem [or $24 a week] for 8 hours’ labor, 

in accordance with the scale adopted by your 

Society.

Bullock Press

Wendell in his brief service as Superintendent purchased the Bullock press, the 

mechanical marvel of the day. The press 

cost $25,000 and was invented by William Bullock of Philadelphia. In 1867, 

Dr. A. P. Bernard noted the advantages 

of the press, as follows:

Like the Hoe Press, it carries the forms upon 

the cylinder, but it differs from that press in requiring no attendants to feed it, and in delivering the sheets printed on both sides. It is a great 

improvement also, realized in this press, that 

the sheets are delivered silently, the noisy racks 

of the Hoe Press being wholly dispensed with.

The substitution of an automatic system of 

feeding for hand-feeding, which is one of the 

greatest economical advantages of this press, 

has been effected by introducing the paper 

into the machine, after it has been subjected 

to a moistening operation by passing through 

a shower of fine spray, in the form of an endless 

roll. A single roll will contain several thousand 

sheets, and the printing operation, including 

the cutting of the paper into proper lengths, 

will proceed uninterruptedly until the roll is 

exhausted.

Superintendent Defrees reported that 

the Agricultural Report for 1866 was the 

first book printed on the Bullock press. 

He said that the printing and binding of 
44

189,550 copies of the 692-page book were 

printed at a cost of $159,953, or 84 cents 

per copy.

It is a machine of immense power and rapidity, 

and the work turned out by it will compare very 

favorably with that executed by any other power 

press in present use.

1867

On March 1, John D. Defrees again 

assumed the post of Superintendent of 

Printing, displacing Cornelius Wendell. The salary of Superintendent had 

been increased from $3,000 to $3,583.33. 

By now, comparative statistics of the 

two printing systems stopped appearing, for the system of Government as 

its own printer was proved successful. 

Public printing this year amounted to 

$1,599,218.

Horace Greeley, the first president of 

the New York Printers’ Union organized on January 19, 1850, an editor, for 3 

months a Congressman, and a Presidential candidate in 1872, noted complaints 

by Government and GPO workers of 

their small pay. He suggested that they 

return to Kansas or Nebraska instead of 

beseeching Congress for larger salaries; 

besides, “Washington is not a nice place 

to live in. The rents are high, the food 

is bad, the dust is disgusting, the mud 

is deep, and the morals are deplorable.’’

1868

Superintendent Defrees reported that 

the GPO had printed Expressions of Condolence and Sympathy on the Assassination 

of President Lincoln. He noted that Congress had authorized 3,000 copies of—

a very handsomely printed and bound volume of 

962 quarto pages, with a correct likeness of the 

late President engraved on steel. * * * As exaggerated statements of the cost * * * were made in 

the newspapers, I will state that the actual cost of 

printing and binding was $18,179.54.

Patent Printing

Beginning November, all Patent Office work, formerly executed in private 

offices in Washington, was added to the 

business of the Office. With a staff of 41 

workers, including 2 proofreaders and 

33 hand compositors, the GPO began its 

patent printing career.

Another printing acquisition occurred 

in July, when the Commissioner of Customs transferred all his printing and 

binding to the GPO. Formerly done by 

private printing offices in various customs ports, the transfer “suddenly precipated a large amount of business.’’ It 

seemed to be a happy arrangement, for 

in November 1869 the Commissioner 

of Customs informed the Printer “that 

[GPO work] was very far superior * * * 

to any of the kind I have ever seen in any 

customhouse, and incomparably superior 

to the general average of books.’’

1869

On April 15, Almon H. Clapp of New 

York became Congressional Printer, a 

new title for the head of the GPO. Mr. 

Clapp had founded several newspapers 

in Buffalo, N.Y. Taking over the GPO, 

he sold his interest in the Buffalo Express,

and shortly after, Mark Twain purchased 

an interest in the Express.

On February 22, 1867, Congress had 

authorized the election of “some competent person, who shall be a practical 

printer, to take charge of and manage 

the Government Printing Office,’’ and 

provided “that the person so selected 

shall be deemed an officer of the Senate, and shall be designated Congressional Printer.’’ This new official was to be 

governed in the discharge of his duties by 
45

the laws then in force in relation to the Superintendent of Public Printing, and the 

latter office was abolished. The salary was 

now $4,000.

Work Increase

With the acquisition of patent and 

customs work in 1868, the Office also 

acquired control of a Treasury printing 

plant on May 11, 1869. Producing confidential printing, it was permitted to continue as a branch office, but under direct 

control of the GPO. However, some of its 

equipment, including “stereotype implements and * * * an electrotype apparatus 

complete,’’ was moved to the Office. In 

this indirect manner the Office on September 15 entered the platemaking field 

which had previously been performed by 

private plants. Mr. Clapp predicted that 

Office production of stereotypes would 

yield a saving of at least $5,000 per annum. In 1870, after 1 year of operation, 

he reported that his books showed a “satisfactory’’ saving of $9,193. In 1871, savings were $12,537, and in 1872, $18,854.

Once again the Office showed signs of 

growing pains, for Mr. Clapp in his annual report recommended an addition 

on North Capitol Street adjoining the 

original building. “Indeed, it is impossible now to crowd within its walls sufficient machinery and operatives to keep 

up with the demands made upon its resources.’’

Disbursements during the year included 25 barrels of sawdust at 25 cents 

each; horseshoeing expense, $111.24; and 

wagon grease, $4.

“Globe’’ Printing

There were signs that the Congressional 

Globe printing contract of F. & J. Rives 

was being eyed by printers with political 

connections. Early in 1869 the Chicago 

Tribune noted that bids had been invited, 

and printed the following dispatch from 

Washington:

Within a few days all the proposals will have 

been received from various parties for printing 

the debates of Congress. This is a big job, and all 

the jobbers, little and big, will endeavor to get in 

upon it. Now, it is plain that these debates can 

be printed at only two places in the District—at 

the Globe office, where they have been printed 

these many years, and which is provided with 

about $200,000 worth of presses and material, or 

at the GPO, which is also adapted to do so large 

an amount of work. Besides these two offices, 

there are none in the District of Columbia which 

can get out the debates in newspaper shape every 

day, and be also at work upon the Globe for the 

bindery. If, therefore, Mr. Forney, Mr. Moore, or 

anybody else, means to bid for this contract, let 

Congress look to it that the lucky contractor is 

not to get the money, and the work afterwards 

return to the GPO for necessity’s sake. This is 

the probability, that some speculator, without a 

cent in his pocket, may be, will bid for this contract, expecting to compel the proprietors of the 

Globe to let their office to him, or expecting, if 

he fail to get the Globe office, that Congress will 

afford him relief by opening the hospitality of 

the GPO. In the latter case the work will be paid 

for twice over. Up to this time the Rives family has been a good servant of the Government. 

There has never been any issue about the Globe’s

reliability or integrity. My private belief is, that 

Government ought to print its own testaments, 

but it is sure that no new outsider can do any 

better. * * *

1870

The GPO continued to expand as the 

Navy Department and Paymaster General’s printing plants were placed under 

its control.

Plea for Increased Space

Once again the Congressional Printer 

called attention—

to the imperious necessity of an increase of 

building accommodation to meet the pressing 

wants of the office, * * * for the work gradually increases; all the available room * * * is occupied; * * * a large amount of binding * * * 

is accumulating without the hope of reaching 

it in years; * * * [and] the Government has an 

abundance of vacant land adjoining the present building on which to erect a commodious 

addition * * *.
46

He also noted that—

a question of safety to the persons engaged in the 

present building has been raised by the public 

press, causing much alarm and discontent on the 

part of the employees * * *.

Information Leak

The Office found itself in difficulty 

when certain official documents had been 

published in advance of their transmission to Congress, “much to the discomfiture of the Departments to which they 

relate, and to the scandal of the GPO. In 

view of the fact that it seems next to an 

impossibility now to prevent these occurrences by the strictest vigilance,’’ Mr. 

Clapp recommended that Congress “by 

judicious legislation, with proper penalties,’’ could prohibit and prevent further 

leaks to the press.

First Office Investigation

On July 15, the Joint Committee on 

Printing submitted the Anthony report 

on a study of GPO working conditions 

and Office administration.

In addition to layoffs, the core of the 

quarrel seemed to concern the manner of 

measuring a man’s type output based on 

accepted production standards and piece 

rates. Typesetters received $4 a day, or 

60 cents per 1,000 ems piece-work. Tests 

designed to measure a worker’s product were instituted, and if a man’s relative earnings fell below $3.50 a day, the 

worker was transferred to the piece department or discharged. There were two 

classes of composition: solid text matter 

requiring steady and laborious work, 

but lean in em count; and tabular work, 

known as fat or “phat,’’ which would 

total in much easier fashion many times 

the number of ems secured in the lean 

work. It was claimed that favored workers were rewarded, in detriment to others, with fat work and therefore were less 

subject to discharge.

Extensive testimony in the hearings 

was devoted to the GPO practice of 

awarding fat composition in contrast to 

the mode of distribution in private printing plants. Of interest to veteran printers 

of today were the 1870 methods of auctioning fat “takes’’ to speedy typesetters, 

or else compositors would “take their 

chances’’ by tossing em quads [“jeffing,’’ 

known to printers since 1650] or draw 

lots to decide the winners.

Mr. Wendell, former private printing 

contractor and Superintendent of Public 

Printing in 1866–67, appeared as a witness and testified.

Typical of the charges made by a group 

of discharged workers was the following, 

which conveyed the flavor of a period 5 

years after the war had ended:

That the Congressional Printer has discharged Union soldiers from his office, and kept 

at work men who never fired a gun in behalf of 

their country, and has now in his employ a man 

who left this city at the outbreak of the rebellion 

and served three years in the rebel army.

In its findings, the Joint Committee on 

Printing stated that—

[it] need not remind Senators how often applications for service in the GPO are made, not on 

the ground that the applicants are good printers, 

but on the ground that they are good republicans. Among the grievances alleged * * * is that 

having rendered good service to the republican 

party, [printers] have been superseded by others 

of inferior political claims. 

However necessary it may be under our system of government to make political orthodoxy 

a test of office, * * * it must be plain that the 

introduction of that system into the mechanical 

service of the Government is fatal to efficiency, 

subordination, and responsibility.

In summary, it said:

Your committee do not pretend to say that the 

management of the GPO by the present Congressional Printer has been perfect. But it does 

appear to them that there is no just ground for 

the allegations of incompetency, extravagance, 

mismanagement, or tyranny on his part * * *. 

The allegations * * * are not sustained by the 

evidence, and the services of the Congressional 

Printer appear to have been faithful, and in results valuable to the Government.
47

1871

The Congressional Printer referred—

with much pleasure to the enlargement of the 

building for the accommodation of this Office, 

under the appropriation of $45,000 made by 

Congress * * *. Through the good judgment, 

economy, and taste of the Architect of the Capitol, * * * this addition has been erected in a neat, 

substantial manner * * *.

Pay Increase Recommended

With the large increase of business, 

Mr. Clapp noted that the “accumulation 

of labor and responsibility’’ of foremen 

and clerks was not “adequately remunerated.” He recommended that the “chief 

clerk, financial clerk, and foremen of 

printing and binding be paid $2,500 a 

year each, and other clerks be paid $2,000 

each,” for in “no subordinate Department * * * is the labor and responsibility 

so great, and the compensation therefor 

so small, as in this Office.’’

Chicago Fire

Union printers in the Office cheerfully 

donated the “price of 1 day’s work’’ to alleviate the suffering caused by the Chicago fire. In addition, $500 was collected 

independently.

1872

In his annual report, Mr. Clapp noted 

that “the demand for executive printing 

and binding grows with each year, as 

the country expands in population and 

the interests of the Government become 

enlarged.’’ Government printing had 

increased 15 percent over the previous 

year, and with anticipated Government 

growth, the “enlarged building is barely 

adequate to meet the present necessities 

* * *.’’ He therefore recommended the 

erection of “a wing on the west line of the 

property.’’

He also called the attention of Congress to the condition of the building 

which had been affected by the newly established grade of H street:

This grade has been raised—though I have 

formally protested against it—so as to fill up 

the western entrance * * * considerably above 

the floor, while the pavement of the sidewalk is 

sloped toward, instead of from, the wall of the 

building, thus precipitating the roof and sidewalk water upon its foundation and exposing 

the press-room, which is filled with valuable and 

delicate machinery, to a moisture which will be 

injurious alike to property and the health of the 

operatives. So long as it is not practicable to elevate the floor of the press-room, with its vast 

and valuable machinery, to the grade of the 

sidewalk, that grade should be depressed so as 

to relieve the building of all accumulating water 

underneath its first floor and save the machinery 

from the inevitable consequences of a moisture 

which contracts rust.

After this complaint, Mr. Clapp paid a 

tribute to his—

faithful corps of subordinates * * * [which] have 

enabled the Congressional Printer to discharge 

his duties with comparative ease and comfort, 

and, he trusts, to the public satisfaction and 

benefit.

Paper Suppliers

With Office paper needs under the 

Joint Committee on Printing and the 

guarding against faulty paper supplies in 

the hands of the Congressional Printer, 

the maintenance of quality standards was 

a continuing problem.

Department Printing Funds

The law of May 8, 1872, effective July 

1, 1873, changed the mode of financing 

department printing and binding. Under 

the law, each department or public office 

would be supplied with its printing needs 

in accordance with definite appropriations, 

which were not to be exceeded. Mr. Clapp 

suggested to Congress that the aggregate of 

departmental printing allocations should 
48

not exceed the amount granted to the GPO, 

for the latter’s funds would be exhausted. 

In this manner the Office would be forced 

to suspend operations.

Electric Clocks

An expenditure of $470 for electric 

clocks appeared in listing “disbursements 

on account of the public printing.’’ This 

was the first appearance of the word 

“electric’’ in any annual report, with 

power possibly derived from batteries 

(see also “1882, Electricity Arrives’’).

New Job for Office

On January 3, the first issue of the Patent Office Official Gazette printed by the 

GPO made its appearance. Published 

weekly, it included excerpts from patents, decisions, and related matters.

1873–74

The faults of public printing in the 

years prior to 1861 which had led to the 

birth of the GPO in 1861 began to be repeated in the reporting and printing of 

congressional proceedings and debates. 

The Congressional Globe of Blair & Rives, 

and more recently of F. & J. Rives & Bailey, had reported and printed congressional activities since 1833, and even after 

the GPO was formed.

Globe printing from 1861 to 1871 had 

cost $744,117. In both Congress and the 

press there was criticism concerning the 

bulk and excessive cost of Globe printing. With the expiration of the printing 

contract on March 4, 1871, Congress was 

reluctant to renew this contract. In the 

meantime Rives & Bailey were forced to 

borrow $150,000 for operating costs until 

a decision was reached.

In Congress, it was admitted that— 

there was so much complaint of the expense 

of the Globe * * *. The first and most obvious 

method is to stop talking. That is what makes 

the Globe cost so much.

Finally, Congress awarded $400,000 

to Rives to continue Globe printing until March 4, 1873. The New York Times

commented: “The Globe publishers got 

their $400,000, but [Congress] will deprive them of this profitable contract 

in the near future.’’ Some Members of 

Congress felt that the amount was from 

$100,000 to $200,000 more than it was 

worth.

At the same time, the Joint Committee on Printing was directed to publish 

advertisements once a week for 4 weeks 

in one paper in each of nine cities, including New York, Chicago, and San 

Francisco, inviting proposals for reporting and printing, together or separately, 

the debates of Congress until 1879. The 

Times objected to a long-term contract, 

for it noted that “6 years—the period for 

which the contracts were proposed—

would give a company work enough 

to make the establishment of an office 

here [Washington] profitable for any 

printer.’’

Several printers submitted bids. The 

Congressional Printer likewise offered 

an estimate based on text composition of 

solid brevier [8 point] type, and extracts 

to be set in nonpareil [6 point], of “$1.50 

for each and every 1,000 ems, printer’s 

measurement,’’ including tabular work 

and all other work or services.

After evaluation of the bids by the 

Joint Committee on Printing, Congress 

on March 3, 1873, passed the following:

Proceedings and Debates of Congress
49

* * * Provided, That until a contract is made, the 

debates shall be printed by the Congressional 

Printer, under the direction of the Joint Committee on Printing on the part of the Senate.

The Times of the next day printed the 

following dispatch from Washington:

The Senate amendment * * * which sent the 

printing of the Globe to the GPO was concurred 

in by the House by a very large majority. This 

is believed to be the final action of Congress on 

the matter. * * * After the Congressional Printer 

shall have completed arrangements to do the 

work [March 5], it is hardly probable that any 

effort to get the work into the hands of private 

parties can succeed.

In this manner, Congress cleared away 

the last trace of the free enterprise printing period by transferring to the GPO 

the “important and laborious work’’ of 

the Congressional Record, the name selected by the Joint Committee on Printing. Thus for the first time in American 

history, printing for the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of Government was now housed under one roof—

the GPO.

The first Office-produced Record made 

its appearance on March 5, 1873. This 

transition from private to public printing 

was noted by the Times of March 7:

The debates of the extra session of the Senate are 

now printed at the GPO in quarto form * * *. 

The paper is styled the Congressional Record, and 

is decidedly neat in appearance and convenient 

in shape.

The Congressional Printer in his annual report stated that—

The change in the form and style of this publication from that previously followed by the Globe 

was induced by a desire to secure comeliness, 

convenience, and economy for the work; and I 

am gratified in the assurance that it meets the 

hearty approval of the Senate and such members 

of the House of Representatives as have given 

the matter their careful attention.

The publication of the proceedings and debates during the special session of the Senate 

gave fair opportunity for testing the capacity 

of this Office for the work; and I am fully convinced, under that experience, that promptness 

and economy are secured by the transfer. The 

facilities of the Office are so extensive, that 

prompt publication of the proceedings and 

debates of any day’s session, no matter how extended or voluminous, will be assured the following morning without a peradventure, if the 

copy thereof is promptly furnished the Printer. 

Of the economy of performing this service at 

the Government Printing Office, there can be no 

doubt. Its resources are so manifold, and its economy of labor and material is such, that at least 30 

percent of the money heretofore expended in accomplishing this work will be saved to the Government through the present arrangement.

On March 17, the Times printed this 

item:

Those who have been accustomed to read 

the Congressional Globe in the form in which it 

was furnished during the sessions of Congress 

will remember how ungainly and inconvenient 

it was. The Congressional Record * * * is a great 

improvement. * * * each page is divided into two 

broad columns; the type is clear and full; and the 

sheets are stitched together. The work is creditable to the GPO * * *.

On May 18, the Committee on Printing met to consider a new contract for 

Record reporting and printing. Only 

three printers and the GPO submitted bids. For the previous session, Rives 

had been paid $246,555.50. In a proposal 

made in December 1872, he had specified 

his charges, suggesting that if—

the work will remain in our hands for 6 years, 

we can make much more favorable contracts for 

materials, and we should feel justified in multiplying our labor-saving machines; and we are 

willing to give these advantages to the Government.

As a further inducement, he offered 

to “make an abatement of 21/2 percent’’ 

from the gross amount on work done for 

the 44th Congress [1875–77], and an additional abatement of 5 percent for the 

45th Congress. The committee, however, 

rejected all bids except that of the GPO, 

and then awarded the contract to the Office, which had offered $161,809.06 compared with the $246,555.50 paid to Rives.

On December 1, the 43d Congress assembled, with the GPO, on its early experience, now geared to the production of 
50

the Record. The Office adapted itself to 

the new order, conforming to all congressional printing demands, except in one 

instance. The one failure “was caused by 

a protracted session of the Senate, which 

continued until 7 a.m.’’ It should be 

remembered that the Record was all 

handset, for not until 31 years later [1904] 

was the typesetting machine introduced 

into the GPO.

It is interesting to note that the acquisition of the Record required the purchase 

of one Webster’s Dictionary at $12, a 

Holy Bible at $3.50, and McPherson’s Political History at $2.50.

A further footnote was the fact that 

the Congressional Printer received a salary of $4,000 per year, but was responsible for Government printing totaling 

$1,757,769.

In closing his 1874 annual report, Mr. 

Clapp noted that 161 issues of the Record

had required 50 percent more columns 

than the advertised proposals, but nevertheless final production costs were almost 

20 percent below his initial estimate.

A. F. Bloomer, in Reminiscences in 1900,

recalled the names of Office printers who 

produced the first Record:

M. D. Helm was the foreman; Aven Pearson, assistant foreman; W. H. Hickman, bankman; and 

among the proof readers were Melvin (“Bones’’) 

Noyes, Maj. Frank Glenroy, A. T. Cavis, H. G. 

Ellis, and Dave McIntosh; and Capt. O. F. Dunlap was one of the copy holders. B. A. Ford was 

the maker-up.

Recommendations to Congress

With added responsibilities and increased work, changes were necessary 

in the fiscal structure of the GPO. In his 

report, Mr. Clapp requested increased 

working funds, with the following recommendation:

The financial demands of this Office have 

now reached a point where it becomes necessary that section 3 of the law of June 23, 1860, 

relating to the public printing and binding, shall 

be so amended as to authorize the Secretary of 

the Treasury to advance to the Congressional 

Printer, from time to time, as the public service 

may require it, and under such rules as said Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, a sum of 

money not exceeding at any time the full penalty 

of his bond, to enable him to pay for work and 

material.

The penalty of the bond of the Congressional 

Printer is $80,000. He is now allowed by law 

to draw two-thirds of that amount, $53,333.33, 

in advance, to compensate labor and purchase 

material. This is inadequate to accomplish that 

purpose, and an amendment of the law in accordance with this suggestion is a matter of absolute 

necessity, to enable this Office to compensate the 

labor and purchase the material now required in 

the prosecution of its business.

Binding Backlog Cleared

The large amount of congressional 

binding accumulated prior to 1869, in 

addition to increased business since, was 

nearly completed. The Congressional 

Printer reported that GPO resources 

could now be applied to current demands 

of the Government.

1875

In November 1864, GPO craftsmen 

received $24 a week. This rate was fixed 

by law and the craft societies were content with a hold-the-line policy, but in 

1875 criticism was directed at Mr. Clapp 

for maintaining inflated wage scales. He 

resisted efforts to reduce his workers’ 

pay, and his annual report reflected his 

strong opposition toward the proposed 

economy.

Pneumatic Tube to Capitol

On July 15, 1870, Congress considered 

the feasibility of a pneumatic tube between the GPO and the Capitol. Issued 

on March 1, 1875, the Anthony report 

stated:

That the Committee on Printing having 

learned, in the spring of 1870, that pneumatic 

tubes were successfully used in London, Paris, 

Berlin, and elsewhere for the prompt transmis-
51

sion of messages, letters, and parcels, thought 

that such a mode of conveyance between the 

Capitol and the GPO would be of great practical benefit, for the speedy transmission of proofs, 

bills, and reports, and would materially aid legislation.

Interested in speedy service from the 

Office, Congress appropriated $15,000 for 

the project, and digging began in 1873. 

Initial work showed that the shell which 

would house the tube could not support 

the weight of the earth. The contractor 

admitted “a failure,’’ but promised better 

performance if he were permitted to try 

again. After $12,000 of the $15,000 had 

been spent, Congress reluctantly decided 

to drop the idea. The report concluded:

The publication of the Congressional Record 

at the GPO makes it more desirable than before that there should be some mode of rapid 

transportation of copy, proofs, instructions about 

printing, orders for the Record, &c.

Bicycle messengers continued to shuttle between the two points, and the tube 

idea was never revived, although Public 

Printer Stillings in 1906 urged Congress 

to study the matter. (See “1906, Pneumatic Tube.’’)

1876

An act approved July 31 provided—

that so much of all laws or parts of laws as provide for the election or appointment of Public 

Printer be, and the same are hereby, repealed, 

to take effect from and after the passage of this 

act; and the President of the United States shall 

appoint, by and with the advice and consent of 

the Senate, a suitable person, who must be a 

practical printer, and versed in the art of bookbinding, to take charge of and manage the Government Printing Office, from and after the date 

aforesaid; he shall be called Public Printer, * * *.

Under this law Mr. Clapp exchanged 

the title of Congressional Printer for 

Public Printer through appointment by 

President Grant, and remained in office 

until Mr. Defrees, former Superintendent 

of Public Printing, was commissioned by 

President Hayes on June 1, 1877.

House Investigation

On May 12, a House committee submitted its report of a thorough investigation into the operation of the GPO. Every 

phase of activity had been explored, with 

chief emphasis placed on excessive costs 

of executing public printing, including the Congressional Record. Charges 

had been made that Office management 

was “extravagant to a degree that would 

bankrupt any private establishment in 

the country.’’ There were some practices, 

particularly in cost accounting, which required correction. Also involved was the 

disparity between hours and wages of the 

Office compared to private industry.

Spearheading a drive for the recapture of Congressional Record printing was 

Franklin Rives, the former printer of the 

Congressional Globe. Deposed by Congress in 1873, Rives charged that the—

Government had lost at least $100,000 in testing the question whether its public agents could 

print the debates more cheaply than its welltried private contractors. I will only add that if 

again intrusted with the printing of the debates 

I will do the work in such a manner as to prove 

myself worthy of the renewal of the confidence 

of the Government.

In this manner Rives sought a return 

to private production of the Record, a system which had been discredited in 1872.

Executive printing by the Office was 

also attacked by Theodore L. De Vinne, a 

well-known commercial printer of New 

York. Offering comparative cost figures 

on individual jobs, he claimed that he 

could have executed the work at prices 

far below the GPO.

 De Vinne also maintained that Office 

pay scales of $24 a week, or 60 cents per 

1,000 ems piecework, were 50 percent 

higher than wages paid in New York, 

which were $20 weekly and 50 cents per 

1,000 ems piecework. In addition, the 

GPO worked an 8-hour day, compared 
52

to 10 hours in New York. Questioned on 

piecework practice in the trade, he stated 

that piecework was the cheapest way of 

setting bookwork, not only in New York 

but “it is the usage all over the world, as 

far as I know.’’ As to the wage differential between the GPO [in Washington] 

and New York, he stated: “I have heard 

it alleged that the expenses of living here 

were a great deal higher.’’

John G. Judd, a former Office employee 

and member of the firm of Judd & Detweiler, also testified. He agreed with De 

Vinne that GPO rates were also higher 

than in Washington private industry, for 

he paid $4 a day for 10 hours’ work compared to the same pay in the Office for 8 

hours. Composition in his own plant cost 

50 cents per 1,000 ems in contrast to 60 

cents in the GPO.

On comparative printing costs, Judd 

insisted that GPO charges were about 40 

percent higher than his own.

The hearing also produced information 

about vote leave for Office employees. 

In returning to their respective States 

for voting, workers received their daily 

wages for periods of “2 to 10 or 12 days. 

Only to Philadelphia and Brooklyn and 

New York, I think.’’

A committee minority recommended 

that—

it would be in the interest of economy to remove 

the publication of the Congressional Record from 

the GPO and award the same to Mr. Franklin 

Rives.

It added that if the Record contract had 

been awarded to Rives & Bailey, large 

savings to the Government would have 

been effected.

Further findings charged that during 

the past 7 years it had cost the Government $31/2 million more to maintain the 

GPO than would have been required to 

pay for the same quantity and quality of 

work under private contract. [In 1878, 

Mr. Defrees in his annual report printed 

comparative tables of the two printing 

systems which refuted the above charges. 

(See “1878, Printing Savings.’’)]

The committee minority was determined to strip the GPO of its public 

printing monopoly and return to the free 

enterprise system, for it claimed that—

the theory which persuades the Government to 

enter the lists as a gigantic competitor with its 

own people is wrong, the several branches of industry and their honorable profits belonging by 

right to the people; that * * * it is wise to take immediate steps toward the discontinuance of the 

Public Printing-Office; that the * * * proposition 

of Franklin Rives * * * for the printing and binding the debates of Congress should be accepted 

* * *; that the printing and binding for the Executive Departments should be done under the 

control of the heads thereof, with authority to 

contract for the same upon the most advantageous terms to be obtained through the processes 

of competition; that, as it is necessary to have the 

printing and binding ordered by the two Houses 

of Congress done in the city of Washington, and 

as at the present time there are no private establishments in the city possessing the necessary facilities for the successful and satisfactory execution of this work, it is not judicious to remove it 

at once from the Public Printing-Office, but that 

the interests of the Government require its removal from that office as soon as any responsible 

private party with the facilities will undertake it 

upon reasonable terms; that whatever satisfactory contracts can be made for the execution of 

this class of work, the Public Printing-Office and 

all the property used in connection therewith 

should be disposed of according to law, and the 

proceeds returned to the Treasury of the United 

States.

The minority recommendations were 

not adopted, but fiscal and personnel 

reforms were instituted and the GPO 

continued to print the Record and all 

other congressional and executive printing. However, the airing of Office 

problems produced one byproduct, for 

testimony concerning GPO printers’ 

wages resulted in a sharp cut the following year. (See “1877.’’)

Agriculture Reports

By act of Congress on August 14, 1876, 

200,000 copies of the Commissioner 

of Agriculture report were ordered to 

be printed. By 1877, orders had risen 
53

to 300,000, with 224,000 to the House, 

56,000 to the Senate, and 20,000 for the 

Department of Agriculture. As demand 

and popularity spread, the 1884 edition 

increased to 400,000 copies and in 1892, 

500,000. The first Agriculture report was 

issued in 1849 by the Commissioner of 

Patents as a part of his own annual report, 

and directed to be compiled by the Secretary of the Interior. Entitled “Part II, Agriculture,’’ the report had been published 

by the Patent Office, for all Federal work 

in agriculture was centered in that bureau because of the close affinity between 

agriculture and scientific farming which 

was dependent on chemicals.

These reports were the forerunners 

of the present-day Agriculture Yearbook

which began in 1894. Highly desirable to 

Members of Congress, they were distributed without charge and public demand 

was heavy. The “bestseller’’ of the day 

received selective distribution, for Congressmen could please voters with book 

favors and thus the report was excellent 

political ammunition during election 

campaigns.

In 1873, Geo. Alfred Townsend, in 

Washington: Outside and Inside, wrote as 

follows:

In 1873 it was said that “No enlightened 

Government in this age can do without public 

documents,’’ but the whole system of distributing them should be changed. There are, perhaps, 3,000-odd counties in the United States. 

Let Government content itself with presenting a 

copy of every public work to these, and let it sell 

the rest to the people at cost price.

Of the agricultural report the extraordinary 

number of 220,000 copies have been ordered for 

last year alone, at a cost of about $180,000, or 

about 85 cents a copy. This cost is enough to pay 

the President, Vice President, all the Cabinet Officers, the Speaker of the House, and two-thirds 

of the first-class foreign ministers. In these reports are 450,000 pounds of paper, or 225 tons, 

enough to take 225 double-horse wagons to pull 

them.

As an example of the demand for public documents, Congressman Abraham 

Lincoln on May 25, 1848, wrote the following to a constituent:

I will place your name on my book, and send 

you such documents as you desire, when I can 

get them.

The entire [Mexican] war correspondence is 

in course of printing, and will be the best electioneering document, when completed. I will 

then send you a copy of it.

Beautifully printed according to typographic standards of the day and still 

maintained in the modern Agriculture 

Yearbook, the 1875 report contained 536 

text pages and 128 pages of cuts. No cuts 

had been specified originally, and the 

Public Printer petitioned Congress for 

financial relief, stating that the sum appropriated was considerably less than the 

estimate.

In 1880, the Commissioner of Agriculture complained that—

The delay in getting the annual report * * * before Congress for distribution to the people * * * 

is something that can and should be remedied. 

The report of 1879 * * * is not yet out of the 

GPO, and will not be in the hands of the farmers 

until the spring of 1881 * * *. If the department 

was intrusted with its own printing it could be 

done in a reasonable time, and with no more expense than is now incurred in the GPO, which 

appears to be so overburdened with Congressional and other work * * *. The edition of our 

annual report is usually 300,000 and while larger 

than that of any annual book ever published, is 

not yet half large enough to meet the reasonable 

and pressing demand.

Although the Public Printer was correct in his demands for fiscal responsibility on the part of Agriculture, the real 

issue involved the financing procedures 

between Congress, the Treasury, and 

the department, for the Office could not 

grant credit without proper guarantees 

from authorized sources.

By 1918, however, Agriculture was 

eminently satisfied with GPO work, for 

it noted that the “printing of the Yearbook * * * on a halftone perfecting press 

recently installed at the GPO has resulted 

in a considerable reduction in the cost of 

production, with an improvement in the 

appearance of the publication.’’ In 1921, 

it was first placed on sale by the Superintendent of Documents for $1.25. Later 
54

Agriculture Yearbooks in 1952 and 1954 

achieved such bookmaking excellence 

that they were chosen as one of the Fifty 

Books of the Year by the American Institute of Graphic Arts.

1877

Mr. Defrees, on his third appearance 

on the Federal printing scene but with 

the new title of “Public Printer,’’ took 

over the GPO on June 1, 1877. In the 

meantime, the salary of the new post 

had dropped to $3,600, compared to the 

$4,000 paid the Congressional Printer.

Two months before, GPO workers felt 

the effects of the 1876 hearings which 

had charged that Office pay rates were 

50 percent higher than in New York. 

On March 4, Congress reduced the $24 

weekly wage of skilled workmen to 40 

cents per hour, or $19.20 a week, and 

piece rates were cut from 60 cents per 

1,000 ems to 40 cents.

The following year, however, GPO 

printers petitioned Congress for restoration of the former scale, stating that furloughs had reduced their average compensation to about $800 a year. Although 

the committee was sympathetic, it noted 

that the same conditions prevailed in private establishments and insisted that the 

present rates were fair, for—

the purchasing-power of money over every necessary of life has greatly increased, so that 50 

cents today will buy more than 60 cents could 

have bought at any time during or since the war 

* * *.

New Type

In Kerr’s History of the GPO appeared 

the following:

An order was sent from the office to a New 

York typefounder in July 1877 for 60,000 

pounds of type. This amount was subsequently 

increased about 15,000 pounds, making perhaps 

the largest single order ever given by a printing 

office, or filled by a typefounder, since the art 

of printing was discovered. The long primer 

type in use in the Document Room alone will 

weigh about 50,000 pounds, the brevier type 

about 35,000 pounds, and the nonpareil something over 25,000 pounds. Of course, to keep 

these enormous fonts in the best working order, almost daily requisitions are made upon 

the founder for “sorts.’’

1878

In annual report, Mr. Defrees indicated an awareness of Office equipment 

needs. He said:

Improvements in machinery for more rapid 

and economical manufacture of newspapers and 

books are constantly being made, and those who 

do not use them work to great disadvantage.

Seeing no reason why the GPO should not 

avail itself of some of these improvements, two 

large presses, on which to print the Congressional 

Record, and other work, * * * have been put into 

it. More work can be done on these presses than 

can be done on 12 Adams presses, and by the 

employment of one-third the number of employees * * *.

Nine book-sewing machines have also been 

put in operation, by which books are sewed with 

wire instead of thread, and at greatly reduced 

cost.

Submitting a breakdown of bindery 

costs, he showed that weekly operation 

of one machine cost $99, with equivalent 

production by hand at a cost of $515.98, 

for annual savings of $21,632. On the 

basis of economies produced by laborsaving machinery, the Printer made a 

“considerable reduction’’ in printing 

charges.

Outside Fire Escapes

Not part of a printing history but as 

a footnote to the times was the erection 

of outside fire escapes at a cost of $2,244, 

“so that should a fire occur in defiance of 

every possible precaution, they would afford additional and ample means of escape’’ (see also “1883, Fire Safeguards—

and Bows and Arrows).
55

“Globe’’ Plates

This year Congress authorized $100,000 

for the purchase of 63,000 bound and unbound volumes of the Congressional Globe,

86,000 stereotype and composition plates, 

a two-story brick structure in the rear 

of the Globe building on Pennsylvania 

Avenue, and the copyright for the complete work.

Extending back to the 1st session of the 

23d Congress which began December 2, 

1833, the plates and volumes covered the 

Globe’s contribution to congressional history. Mr. Defrees recommended the construction of a fireproof vault for the plates, 

but with only two complete sets of the 

printed volumes, the disposition of the remainder was in the province of Congress.

Thus the Rives estate disposed of the last 

of its public printing assets. (See “1919’’ for 

final disposition of Globe plates.)

Transportation

The Public Printer listed the purchase 

of one bay horse at $175; one black mare, 

$150; one pair mules, $260; the hire of one 

mule at 75 cents a day for 17 days at a cost 

of $12.75; and pasturage of one horse for 

4 months, $4. Also a bill of $6.50 for veterinary services and medicine.

1879

With a congressional authorization of 

$43,800, this year saw the erection of two 

extensions of the original Office, one to the 

west and one to the south. As work volume grew, so did the GPO, but even with 

the additions the plant was crowded, 

for it had produced almost 19 million 

pamphlets and documents and over 

247,000 blankbooks.

Mr. Defrees complained that “the 

enormous increase of public printing and 

binding is such as to require the enlargement of the building in which the work 

is done. There is not half room enough 

* * *.’’ Mr. Defrees continued to discuss 

his space problems with the Architect 

of the Capitol, who was responsible for 

the GPO building. Feeling the weight of 

advancing years, for he was now 70, he 

sent the following note to the Architect 

on March 8:

My Dear Sir: I am so stiff in the joints that I 

cannot climb your [Capitol] steps.

You being a young, spry gentleman, would it 

be asking too much for you to come to the Printing Office on Monday morning, say 10 o’clock.

Congress authorized the enlargement 

after the Architect of the Capitol testified 

that—

the old portion of the structure [is] now so overweighted that its condition is very dangerous, 

imperiling the property stored there and the 

lives of the persons employed in the building. 

In many cases the joists have sagged at least 2 

inches from a straight line. Heavy trucks and 

weights are constantly being moved over the 

floors, causing considerable vibration; and the 

motion of the machinery has also the same effect. * * * If a break should come * * * the probabilities are that the whole of the old portion of 

the building would come down like a house of 

cards. Notwithstanding its insecure condition, 

large numbers of persons are engaged on every 

floor, there being as many as 600 or 700 persons 

* * *.

This year Mr. Defrees spent $105 for 

“erecting telephone line from the Capitol 

to the GPO.’’

1880

Public printing expenditures for the 

year totaled $2,034,750, slightly under 

the record production of 1865, when 

$2,227,099 was spent during the last war 

year.

Congress Authorizes War Records

In 1874 Congress had authorized the 

publication of The War of the Rebellion:
56

a Compilation of the Official Records of the 

Union and Confederate Armies. The War 

Records Office began work on the history, and on December 1, 1880, first copy 

reached the GPO and composition began immediately. Mr. Defrees estimated 

that the series would make 96 volumes of 

10,050 copies each, aggregating 964,800 

volumes.

“Globe” Volumes

Of the many incomplete Globe volumes purchased in 1878, the Public 

Printer estimated that $185,000 would be 

required to produce 1,000 complete sets. 

He “respectfully called’’ the attention 

of Congress to the number of odd volumes which either could be completed or 

should be sold “at public auction to the 

highest bidder as waste paper.’’

1881

On January 31, 1882, the Committee 

on Printing submitted a report involving payment for 49 hours of lost time 

suffered by GPO employees during “the 

illness and obsequies of the late President 

Garfield.’’

A committee of employees petitioned 

Congress for relief, which was granted 

after the First Comptroller of the 

Treasury, in “an elaborate opinion,’’ 

ruled that the employees were “entitled 

to the payment of such wages as might 

have been earned during the period of 

suspension.’’

GPO Area in 1881

In Kerr’s History of the GPO is a description of the GPO neighborhood of 

1881:

The surroundings of the office have undergone a great change in the past 20 years. When 

the establishment came into the possession of 

the Government in 1861, there were very few 

residences and not any places of business in its 

immediate vicinity. The square lying directly 

north of the office * * * was occupied by but 

a single residence. Now there are not less than 

150 brick houses on this one square—the average value of which cannot be less than $3,000. 

On all that property lying north of H street to 

K, and extending east to First Street northeast, 

there were, 20 years ago, less than a dozen residences; but within the past 10 years more than 

100 houses have been erected, and are occupied 

by clerks, professional and business people, and 

employees of the office. The property lying 

south and southeast of the office has also been 

vastly improved, and hundreds of new houses 

erected. H street both east and west of the office is assuming metropolitan airs, in a business 

way, and is capable of furnishing man or beast 

with all the necessaries of life, and many of the 

luxuries.

The Office area of the 1880’s was also 

described in Adventures of a Tramp Printer,

by John Edward Hicks, who quoted an 

itinerant printer who had visited Washington:

The glory that had been Swampoodle’s 

was flown; its most noted thoroughfare, Cabbage Alley, had vanished; and the Tiber, the 

stream that once overflowed the early Irish of 

Swampoodle, was controlled. The once turbulent section had become a quiet residential 

district where the clock on St. Aloysius toned 

out the time of day in chiming the quarters, the 

halves and the hours. * * * The GPO was considered so far out from town that printers employed there seldom met the newspaper printers from downtown.

Office Workrooms

Kerr’s History also described the GPO 

typesetting rooms and the proofroom 

(then termed the “Brainery’’), in addition 

to other workrooms. The following offers an intimate glimpse into the equipment and work practices of 80 years ago 

as contrasted to the modern-day GPO.

Document Room

The second floor of the main building, including the addition of 1865, is known as the 

Document Room. From 250 to 300 compositors 

can be accommodated here, in addition to floorhands, makers-up, and laborers.

The amount of composition performed in 

the Document Room in the course of a year is 
57

simply enormous; the regular monthly average 

is about 35 million ems, printer’s measurement, 

giving a yearly total of 420 million ems, which, 

if paid for by the piece, would amount to over 

$200,000 for composition alone in the Document 

Room. There are now in constant use 202 double 

stands, 2,400 pairs of cases, 30 imposing-stones, 

more than 200,000 pounds of type, besides about 

150 fonts of type used for title-pages and headings, 400 chases of all sizes, 6 proofpresses, including three 21/2 by 6 feet, and one Washington 

press, 24 by 38, and about 20 cabinets for extra 

type and cases.

Piece Department

On the same floor is the Piece Department. 

Employed are some 60 to 80 compositors, engaged principally upon work for the Supreme 

Court, the Court of Claims, etc. Some of the 

more expert compositors in the Piece Department earn from $75 to $100 per month. Their 

constant employment, however, is much more 

uncertain than that of their more favored brethren in other portions of the office. The Court 

work is always required at the earliest possible 

moment, and when the money is exhausted, the 

force is relegated to private life, and sometimes 

this enforced idleness lasts for two and three 

months in the year.

Specification Room

In the [Patent] Specification Room about 70 

or 80 of the most rapid typesetters in the office 

are employed during the greater part of the year.

The compositors employed in this room are 

paid for their labor by the piece—which, by the 

way, I believe to be the only correct system of 

discharging obligations for the composition of 

type—and, as a result, there is less jar and dissatisfaction among these compositors than in any 

other single branch of the establishment. The 

material in this room consists of about 10,000 

pounds of long primer type, 3,000 pounds of 

nonpareil, and 10 or 12 fonts of types for titlepages, headings, etc., about 100 pairs of cases, 11 

imposing-stones, and the usual complement of 

other auxiliaries that are comprised in the furnishing of a complete printing office.

“Record” Composing Room

The Congressional Record Room is located on 

the fourth floor of the south wing of the new 

extension * * *. The number of hands employed 

is 1 Foreman, 1 Assistant Foreman, 7 proofreaders, 3 copy-holders, 2 makers-up, 3 floorhands, 1 messenger, 3 laborers, and about 60 

to 80 compositors. This force, of course, varies 

somewhat during the sessions of Congress, and, 

with the exception of the Foreman and one 

laborer, is dismissed at the close of the session.

Proof Room

To the proof-reader more than to any other 

single individual is the author of a work indebted for the good or bad appreciation of his 

production. He is unbiased and unprejudiced, 

and reads the book with an eye only to its perfection. If he is competent and worthy of his 

calling, he is as unsparing in his silent criticisms as he is nimble with his pencil. He does 

not stop to criticise it for its statements of facts 

or fancy—although his constant reading may 

often enable him to correct the former and 

ornament the latter—but only for the beauty 

and symmetry of the language used, and for its 

correct orthography and grammar. The class 

of matter passing through a large establishment like the GPO necessarily embraces treatises upon all the known sciences, and involves 

a knowledge * * * of all the modern and dead 

languages. It is not an uncommon occurrence 

for the proof-readers in the office to correct 

the quotations of authors in the ancient and 

modern languages, and yet * * * not one in the 

whole corps has ever had the advantage of a 

collegiate or classical education. The French, 

the German, and the Latin tongues are cleverly handled by several of the workmen in 

the Proof Room, and all their information on 

these subjects has been acquired while serving at the printing business. “Influence,’’ as the 

term is understood in Washington, cannot be 

permitted to exercise its wonted avoirdupois in 

the Proof Room, where men must be selected 

solely for their fitness.

The Proof Room is on the second floor, communicating directly with the Document Room 

and Foreman’s Office. In it are employed from 

10 to 12 proof-readers who read by copy, 6 to 8 

silent or second readers, 2 preparers of copy, 3 

revisers, a copy-holder to each of the first readers, and 1 messenger, all under the supervision 

of a chief, himself a proof-reader. Almost every 

kind of work excepting the Congressional Record,

the blank work, and the weekly issue of patents, 

is read in this room.

Press Room

The machine that has contributed most to 

the world’s material progress is the printing 

press. No other machine can compare with it in 

contributing to the enlightenment of mankind. 

From the rude and simple press upon which 

Dr. Franklin learned his trade, to the marvelous printing presses of the present day, the best 

talent and most consummate mechanical skill 

have been diligently employed in bringing the 

printing machine to its highest perfection. Several years ago it was believed that the very acme 

of rapidity and completeness had been attained; 

but later still, more rapid and more complete 

printing presses were brought out and placed 
58

in operation. Without entering into a history 

of the progress of printing presses, we may 

take for comparison the capacities of the Hoe 

Presses of different eras. The single-cylinder 

Hoe Press of 1843 printed 1,200 papers, on one 

side, per hour; the double-cylinder Hoe Press of 

1853 printed 2,500 to 3,000 papers, on one side, 

per hour; the four-cylinder Hoe Press of 1858 

printed 8,000 to 10,000 papers, one one side, 

per hour; the eight-cylinder Hoe Press of 1863 

printed 16,000 to 22,000 papers, on one side, per 

hour; the Hoe Double-Web Perfecting Press 

prints, cuts, pastes, and folds 30,000 papers, on 

both sides, per hour!

* * * The clank and clatter of 60 ponderous 

machines, with the whirr and buzz of running 

wheels, and the hurrying to and fro of an army 

of workmen and workwomen, give to the Press 

Room an air of bustle and business which is not 

perceptible in the other departments of the office. 

* * * Here every style of press is seen: from the 

small Allen Press, upon which are printed the envelopes used by the President of the United States 

in sending messages to disappointed office-seekers, to the huge Bullock Press, the triumph of 

mechanism as applied to printing presses, capable of producing 240 impressions every minute.

The Bullock Press runs about 9 months in the 

year, and completes about 500,000 volumes. All 

publications of 20,000 or over are printed on this 

press. * * *

Under the old or contract system, the work in 

the Press Room was all done by men and boys; 

but for the past 15 or 20 years women have taken 

the place of boys altogether, and they are found 

to be much more attentive to their work, and 

give greater satisfaction, and endure the labor 

with less complaint.

If the printing continues to increase in the 

same ratio for the next 20 as it has in the past 

20 years, it will require a room with double the 

capacity of the present one to do the press-work 

for Uncle Sam.

Bindery

The Bindery is located on the third story of 

the GPO building, and occupies the entire floor, 

including the east and west wings * * *.

The employees, 240 of whom are females, are 

divided as follows: forwarders, 140; finishers, 59; 

rulers, 21; sewers, feeders, and laborers, 297. [In 

1860, the Bindery had 46 employees, but by 1880 

the force had grown to 551. The following table 

from Kerr’s History offers comparative employment and equipment statistics, in addition to the 

meager Bindery equipment which performed 

public binding in 1860. In that year the GPO 

plant was regarded as the finest in the country.]

1860 1880

Persons employed (male and female) 46 551

Ruling machines in operation........... 2 21

Cutting machines ruining ................. 2 10

Standing presses in use ...................... 4 36

Board cutters ...................................... 1 5

Wire sewing machines....................... — 13

Numbering and paging machines.... — 17

Perforating machines......................... — 3

Stamping presses................................ — 5

Smashing machine ............................. — 1

Sewing machines................................ — 2

Cloth cutting machine ....................... — 1

Knife grinding machine .................... — 1

Backing machines .............................. — 7

Plows and presses............................... — 53 ____ ____

Total machines 9 175

1882

On April 15, Sterling P. Rounds of 

Illinois was appointed Public Printer by 

President Arthur to succeed John D. Defrees. The latter had served 121

/2 years in 

three separate tours of duty under Presidents Lincoln, Johnson, Grant, Hayes, 

and Arthur.

Electricity Arrives

After the purchase of electric clocks 

in 1872, “electric’’ reappeared this year 

when disbursements included “Electrical 

plant, consisting of two dynamos, lamps, 

and all other necessary fixtures and labor, 

$3,839.69.’’

On April 5, 1884, Mr. Rounds sent the 

following to the Architect of the Capitol:

If you will call at this Office this P.M. you will 

confer a favor on me, as we are about to put in 

a Boiler and Engine to run the Electric Lights, 

and I would like to have you confer with Mr. 

Lincoln our Chief Engineer.

In his 1884 report, Mr. Rounds stated:

The Edison system of electric light, which was 

introduced in the Record room [by Mr. Defrees], 

has been extended to the press and document 

rooms, with very gratifying results. The light 

produced is cheaper than gas, far superior in all 

respects, and is much preferred by the employees.
59

1883

Mr. Rounds’ 1882 annual report contained little information of Office activities, for he had served but 21

/2 months 

of the fiscal year. However, his report 

of 1883 indicated sweeping reforms in 

Office procedure and work methods. 

Displaying great vigor, he proceeded 

to revitalize the Office. This year the 

salary of Public Printer had been increased from $3,600 to $4,500.

Reorganization

An Office survey showed that machinery in use consisted of “old and discarded 

patterns and badly worn, which caused 

great delay and needless expense * * *.’’ 

His reorganization, “the magnitude of 

which can scarcely be realized,’’ covered 

many sections of the Office. Inaugurated 

reforms included:

Better procurement of lithographing 

and engraving, which had aggregated 

$274,000 the previous year. By requesting 

advance estimates, he was able to reduce 

expenditures by nearly $100,000.

Stricter inspection of paper shipments 

by the appointment of a paper expert.

A change in the pay disbursing system 

for over 2,100 workers by providing a suitable room for the disbursing officer, fixing 

specific paydays, and paying off in groups 

of 25 each. The new system “works admirably, avoids all confusion, and there is 

a great saving of time.’’ Under the former 

irregular system, with the Public Printer 

limited to amounts of money to be withdrawn from the Treasury, payroll funds 

were exhausted early and workers turned 

away until a later day.

Appointments

With the passage of the Civil Service 

Act on January 16, and the blanketing in 

of about 10 percent of 132,800 Government workers, Mr. Rounds was forced 

to change appointment procedures. 

The GPO had always operated under 

the spoils system, with political affiliation the controlling factor. This custom 

authorized each foreman to hire or discharge at will, and no employee records 

were kept, except for his position on the 

payroll.

By instituting reforms in the selection 

and appointment of employees, he confidently believed that—

shorter hours of service, and better pay than 

prevails in outside offices, * * * has resulted in 

making the force * * * of such skill and efficiency 

as was never exceeded, if equaled, in any other 

printing establishment in the world.

Mr. Rounds also reported that—

I found a very heavy force of employees at work, 

and no vacancies in any positions. I also found 

that the distribution of patronage and places 

was not in accordance with equal justice to all 

States—since the District of Columbia, adjacent 

and Eastern States were represented by a very 

much larger number than their proper quotas, 

while the Western and Southern States had far 

less than the number to which they would be 

entitled on a fair division of the patronage. It 

has been my aim to correct this [so] that the 

States last named have now a better representation in the office than at any previous time.

Drying Room Abolished

A casualty of the modernization program was the ancient system of wetting 

and then drying paper before running on 

presses. For many years the process had 

been abandoned in all first-class printing 

offices for the modern dry paper plan. 

Even in Benjamin Franklin’s time, paper was moistened for running on handpresses. It was then hung up to dry on 

strings, and in cold weather the frozen 

paper would have to be thawed before 

the opposite side could be printed.

The drying room employing 35 workers was abolished, and the new system 

produced better quality printing, plus 

yearly savings of about $25,000.
60

Piecework in Bindery

Noting that discipline “in a great workshop like the GPO’’ was important, Mr. 

Rounds declared that it had “neither place 

nor space for indolent employees or drones.’’ 

An inspection of production or “day’’ tables 

caused the Public Printer to place 130 bindery sewers on a piecework basis, instead of 

$11 per week. He stated that—

worthy, industrious, and careful sewers can earn 

as much, * * * while those who were not returning a quid pro quo with the needle very naturally fell back to their places in the rear.

Slow Presses

He also found “numerous old-fashioned printing presses, nearly all of which 

have been almost constantly running day 

and night for a long series of years.’’ He 

recommended their replacement with a 

“new style, two-revolution, fast-cylinder 

press—42 by 56—costing about $2,500.’’ 

With a sheet double the old press size 

and twice as fast, the capacity of the new 

presses would be four times as great.

“Congressional Record’’

The Record department received a 

careful and thorough reorganization, 

with new type and machinery, and improved workflow methods. The result 

achieved better regularity and promptness of issue, improved typographical 

appearance and, with rare exceptions, in 

time for the morning mails. In addition, 

he questioned—

the propriety of printing in the Record speeches 

which were never delivered before Congress 

[which] has at times been discussed in Congress 

and by the press of the country. If it should be 

decided to stop this practice it would materially 

lessen the expense of this publication. [The practice still prevails in 1961.]

1880 Census Printing

Census work expanded as the country 

grew. The 1880 census typesetting job in 

1883 was well advanced, but the GPO 

had “as high as twenty tons of long primer, 

brevier, and nonpareil type; probably the 

largest amount of ‘live matter’ ever kept 

standing at one time in this or any other 

country.’’ Estimated cost was $835,461. 

When census work was completed, many 

thousands of work-hours were necessary 

to distribute and reclaim the type for further use.

Confidential Printing

The GPO printed certain publications 

which were confidential until release. Although its “secret’’ classification did not 

concern national defense, the contents 

were secret so that no undue advantage 

would be derived by premature publication. Mr. Rounds felt that the Office had 

been “unjustly criticized’’ when certain 

papers were made public before official 

release. He suggested that “rigid examination into the facts will show * * * undue publicity occurred through no fault 

of this office.’’ In the following year, he 

noted that—

GPO regulations * * * have been sufficient to 

protect the confidence reposed, and in no single 

instance has there been a complaint that confidential matter was given out from this office.

Fire Safeguards—and Bows 

and Arrows

In spite of the erection of outside fire 

escapes in 1878, Mr. Rounds was still concerned over the safety of the all-woodeninterior GPO building and instituted 

additional fire prevention measures. In 

the bindery, 500 female employees were 

organized into companies of 40 each, 

with a captain in charge, and a trial drill 

demonstrated that 600 bindery men and 

women could be cleared from the building in 1 minute. Neighbors of the GPO 

became familiar with the frequency of 

Office fire drills, and the spectacle of 500 

bindery women leaving the third floor 

via fire escapes invited a large crowd of 
61

more-than-curious citizens who were 

more interested in visual excitement than 

in the serious business of fire safety. To 

frustrate prying eyes on drill days, the 

ladders were covered with canvas strips. 

Also installed were two canvas fire escapes (chutes; also known as portable fire 

escapes) which extended from the upper 

floor to the ground.

By the “kindly cooperation of [the] 

Architect of the Capitol,’’ 3-inch water mains, “which barely gave sufficient 

water for daily office use, and * * * inadequate for fire purposes,’’ were replaced, so that the Office now had “more 

than double the former supply, and quite 

ample to render the new fire apparatus in 

every way efficient.’’

Mr. Rounds noted that hinges on all 

outside doors “have been changed so as 

to open either way, and egress cannot 

thereby be obstructed.’’

Other safety devices were installed, 

but to the present-day reader the one of 

special interest was the use of bows and 

weighted arrows, by which lifelines were 

shot or thrown through upper windows 

so that hooks and ropes could be attached 

as a means of escape. The GPO historian 

can find no clue as to the identity of the 

bow-and-arrow operator, but he may 

have been an Indian printer.1

Of further interest are the following 

operating directions:

IN CASE OF FIRE BREAK THE GLASS

TO GET THE KEY

1. If the roof be not over 90 feet high, use a 

leaden-headed arrow with string attached to 

the loop on the arrow.

Take the inner end of the string from inside of the Ball. Lay the Ball on the ground so 

as to deliver the string easily.

Endeavor to shoot the arrow to fall on roof 

as nearly as possible directly over the window 

with which communication is to be established.

If the window is low, shoot the arrow into 

the room through the window.

2. If the height is too great to be reached by a 

trailing line, use the light arrow having a light 

line wrapped about its point. This line should 

be 150 ft. long.

With the above fire safety measures, 

the Public Printer said that—

it therefore may be fairly stated that for the first 

time in the history of the office it is reasonably 

safe from fire, and its employees from danger of 

loss of life or limb caused by a stampede or want 

of sufficient egress.

Mr. Rounds also informed the Architect of the Capitol that “with the new fire 

organization and with these added facilities, I believe this office will be as safe 

from fire as it can well be made.’’

1884

The Public Printer advised Congress 

that the installation of 14 “improved 

modern fast presses’’ had reduced printing charges for the next fiscal year by 

$339,000. His report showed that new 

presses were printing 19,000 to 20,000 

double-size sheets per day at the same 

expense and running time as the old 

badly worn presses were producing 5,000 

smaller sheets. Public printing expenditures for the year reached a new high of 

$2,994,050.

1 It also may be conjectured that the following from Reminiscenses in 1900 will provide some 

information:

“Tom Hughes made his first appearance in 

the GPO early in the seventies. He had been 

scout guide, and Indian fighter in the Far West 

for many years, but with approaching age 

sought a less exciting and more peaceful life. 

There were frequent Indian delegaions to see 

the ‘Great Father,’ and Tom nearly always called 

on the Indians at their hotel, knowing more or 

less of them and being able to talk with them 

in their own language, of whatever tribe they 

may have been members. About 1886, not long 

before Tom’s death, ‘Buffalo Bills’s Wild West’ 

show came to town, and Colonel Cody invited 

him to ride on the ‘Deadwood stage’ in the street 

parade, an invitation which was accepted* * * .” 
62

Cholera-Carrying Paper

The Public Printer suggested to Congress that contracting for paper supplies 

with the lowest bidder was not the best 

method, for bids had been submitted below the cost of production, resulting in 

inferior quality. His chief concern, however, involved the use by contractors of 

imported rags for Office paper. Because 

of the threat of a cholera plague in the 

United States, the Treasury had placed 

an embargo on the importation of such 

rags from cholera-infested countries. He 

stated:

If there is danger in the use of these rags at 

the [paper] mill, it would seem that the disease 

would be communicated in bundles, packages, 

and paper * * * received at this office. In view 

of the expected approach of cholera, and in the 

name of the 2,300 people under my charge, * * * 

I respectfully submit that this is a proper question for Congress.

Thus the 1880’s presented industrial hazards unknown today.

Civil Service

Mr. Rounds hoped that new Civil Service Commission regulations concerning Office appointments would relieve 

him “from the heavy tax on his time’’ so 

that he could devote his efforts to “more 

important practical operations of the office.’’ He added that—

the GPO is * * * a workshop—a manufactory—the standard required of its employees 

should only be that of skill and efficiency, and 

as in all successful private establishments of the 

kind, employees, * * * falling below the average, 

should give place to others better qualified. * * *

The selection of foremen and assistant foremen was based on “true merit, 

practical workmanship, and a thorough 

knowledge of the duties * * *,” and these 

officers, “generally without political influence, have by faithful and devoted 

service contributed largely to [GPO] success.’’

1885

The Public Printer reported that since 

the adjournment of Congress—

I have purchased one of the latest improved 

fast web presses, calculated especially for printing the Record; [it] will print and fold the whole 

daily edition * * * within 1 hour. * * * This work 

was formerly printed on drum-cylinder presses, 

with a capacity not exceeding 1,000 per hour.

Lithographing and Engraving

As in the previous year, Mr. Rounds 

further lowered plate costs. In addition, 

he urged tighter control over low-bidder 

contract awards by the Joint Committee 

on Printing, for “it is not as a rule for the 

best interests of the Government to award 

this class of work to those who may submit the lowest bid.’’ His experience in the 

past showed many cases of delays and inferior work from plants with insufficient 

capability, and emphasized that “a poor 

engraving is worse than none.’’

Tight Printing Money

Congressional sessions of the period 

consisted of short and long sessions, and 

printing appropriations were scaled according to length of congressional activity. The House had reduced printing 

appropriations by $500,000 for the oncoming long session, compared to the 

previous long sitting. In an unusual plea 

to the Senate Appropriations Committee to override the House cut, the Public 

Printer stated:

* * * If less is appropriated for the long session, in my judgment a deficiency will be necessary. There is plenty of work to be done.

He further stated that—

the better way would be for Congress to place a 

check upon its orders for printing (if there is a 

desire to reduce the expense of printing), rather 

than to make the orders and then neglect to provide sufficient funds * * *. The Public Printer 
63

cannot be expected to keep a force day and night 

to deliver the large quantity for printing for 

Congress * * * and the daily Record with an expenditure no larger than is necessary when Congress is not in session and none of these requirements are made upon him.

Hiring of Personnel

Mr. Rounds complained about the 

pressures exerted on him for Office positions. President Cleveland was obsessed 

by the same problems, for he wrote to a 

friend: “I have fallen into the habit, lately, 

of wrestling with this cursed office-filling 

even in my dreams.’’

This year there were 2,255 employees 

—about 800 females and 1,500 males. 

Included were 200 laborers and certain 

bindery workers, but the main force consisted of—

those who have served a regular apprenticeship 

* * * in their respective trades. * * * Their tenure 

should not depend upon Congressional or other 

influence, and as long as they render faithful 

service they should be protected by law. Their 

usefulness must be impaired if they are constantly disturbed * * * [and] they are subject to 

furlough or discharge without cause. * * * The 

Public Printer [should be] able to withstand the 

constant pressure for position.

Washington Monument

On February 17, President Arthur ordered the several executive departments 

and the GPO “be closed on February 21 

to enable the employees to participate in 

the ceremonies attending the dedication 

of the Washington Monument.’’

1886

In 1883, Mr. Rounds had recommended 

to Congress that his employees be placed 

on equal leave footing with other departments. He asked that workers be given 

some annual leave, in contrast to the 30-

day annual leave enjoyed by Government 

as a whole. He submitted that—

as a matter of right and justice to GPO employees, who have ever been faithful, day and night, 

* * * that they too can be favored with a leave of 

absence. * * * A more faithful and devoted class 

of employees cannot be found in any department 

* * *.

In 1884, he renewed his plea, stating 

that “15 days’ annual leave will be more 

satisfactory.’’

A further recommendation for equity 

was made in 1885, but in 1886 the battle 

was won. Effective July 1, the GPO was 

granted 15 days’ annual leave. According 

to the Washington Evening Star of July 

2, “Public Printer Rounds yesterday issued an address to GPO employees congratulating them upon the success of the 

movement to obtain for the employed 15 

days’ leave annually with pay.’’ Later, on 

July 6, the Star said that the Public Printer 

had reported “to resolutions thanking 

him, [and] the kindly feelings and sentiments expressed * * * are fully reciprocated.’’ Thus through the advocacy 

of Mr. Rounds, Office workers received 

their first leave with pay.

New Public Printer

Within 2 months, however, Mr. 

Rounds resigned as Public Printer and 

was succeeded on September 13 by 

Thomas E. Benedict of New York. The 

Star announced that “Mr. Benedict took 

over today, and was sworn in by Judge 

Lawrenson who had sworn in all Public 

Printers.’’ The Star also noted that—

the foremen of printing, binding, paper warehouse, stable, etc., were called in and presented 

to the new chief. Mr. Benedict, after greeting 

each one individually, addressed them collectively. He announced that each was continued in 

his present position for the time being, or until 

he should further communicate with them * * *.

In his annual report to Congress, Mr. 

Benedict stated that the leave won for 

the GPO by Mr. Rounds was “a just and 

beneficent measure,’’ and urged the 

adoption of a similar appropriation 

for the next fiscal year. In addition, he 
64

recommended semimonthly paydays, so 

that his employees could—

escape from habits of credit-buying which are 

highly detrimental to proper thrift and economy. 

The employees of the GPO are many of them 

the hardest-worked and poorest-paid servants of 

the Government, and they are fully entitled to 

the consideration of Congress.

Although he “found the office well 

equipped in many respects, and its 

vast machinery generally in intelligent 

hands,’’ he followed the tradition established by his predecessors by stating that 

many improvements were necessary and 

a “much greater economy is possible.’’

His recommendations included a request for greater storage space and a new 

set of boilers. The boilers were 14 years 

old and had been installed with the Office one-third its present size.

* * * they are now entirely deficient in capacity; 

and their continued use * * * is believed dangerous to life and property. During the recent cold 

weather it was impossible to furnish heat in certain divisions (a serious and costly defect), and 

the office is dangerously liable * * * by an accident to the boilers.

He also pledged his administration—

to execute the necessary work as efficiently as 

possible, * * * check any tendency to extravagance in the public printing and binding, must 

meet with resolute denial the constant temptations to exceed his powers, and must seek to 

make use of the best modern facilities and methods in conducting [GPO] business.

Branch Office

On September 17, the Washington 

Evening Star announced that arrangements had been made for the establishment of a GPO branch office in the basement of the State Department. “A small 

cylinder press will be used and the office 

will be under the GPO.’’

New Typesetting Machine

This year saw the perfection of the 

Linotype by Ottmar Mergenthaler. Its 

immediate effect on the printing of that 

period was electric, but the far-reaching 

implications were not immediately grasped 

by the graphic arts industry.

The development of the Linotype was 

best described by Mergenthaler in his 

own words:

The history of our enterprise is one of evolution. We started by printing one letter at a time 

and justifying the sentences afterward; then we 

impressed into papier-mache one letter at a time, 

justified it, and made a type from it by after process. Next, we impressed a whole line and justified it, still leaving the production of type as a 

second operation; but now we compose a line, 

justify, and cast it all in one machine and by one 

operation.

In 1866, the idea which eventually developed into the Linotype was conceived 

by a group of reporters, including two 

House and Senate reporters. The group 

sought to avoid the tedious work of transcribing shorthand notes into longhand, 

then waiting for the slow process of hand 

composition by printers. By equipping 

the early typewriters with a typeface 

which would be printed on transfer paper 

and then transferred to a stone by a lithographic process, the Congressional Record

could be printed. The project failed, but 

in 1876 it was revived with the help of a 

Baltimore manufacturing expert, who 

recommended a cousin, Ottmar Mergenthaler. In 1883, after much trial and error, 

the first machine was produced.

On July 3, 1886, the editorial page of 

the New York Tribune was composed 

on the Linotype, and the entire issue of 

July 6 demonstrated the practical success of the machine. Shortly afterward, 

Linotypes were installed by the Chicago 

News, Louisville Courier Journal, and 

Washington Post. It can be seen that the 

machine was offered first to newspapers, 

for they had financed the Mergenthaler 

Printing Co. In 1904, 18 years later, an 

improved version of the machine was installed in the GPO.

Although the Linotype was a success, 

other inventors continued the search for 
65

a better typesetting machine. Among 

these was the Paige Co., which became 

bankrupt in 1894. Also a loser was Mark 

Twain, who had invested $2,000 in the 

company, and later increased his holdings to $190,000, a staggering amount in 

those days.

By 1904, 1,520 patents for composing 

machines had been granted by the Patent 

Office.

As the Linotype spelled doom to the 

hand typesetting method, 1886 also saw 

the end of the old-fashioned nomenclature of type sizes. Brevier, minion, small 

pica, etc., gave way to the point system, 

based on the division of the pica into 

12 equal parts. Adopted by American 

typefounders, it was accepted 12 years 

later by English typefounders. Thus the 

traditional colonial type names became 

obsolete.

Political Activity

President Cleveland on July 14 directed a circular “To the heads of departments in the service of the general 

government,’’ warning them and their 

subordinates against using “their official 

positions in attempts to control political 

activities in their localities.’’ He said:

Officeholders are neither disfranchised nor forbidden the exercise of political privileges; but 

their privileges are not enlarged, nor is their 

duty to party increased to pernicious activity by 

officeholding.

1887

In his second annual report, Public Printer Benedict, with more time to 

study the GPO in action, stated:

While this office is undoubtedly the largest of 

its kind in the world, and is unique in its character and purposes, in its growth and work, the 

intellectual and business development of the Nation, yet it falls far short of embodying that perfection of mechanical resources * * * for which it 

is designed. [The GPO] should represent, in its 

personnel, machinery, and material, the highest 

development of skill and the latest and most efficient appliances of mechanical invention. Nothing less will suffice for the most rapid and economical production of the public printing, and 

nothing less * * * will meet the demands of an 

instructed public sentiment for the best attainable service * * *. In view of the constant growth 

of the country, and the continued enlargement of 

the business and necessities of the Government, 

due both to the natural growth of the Departments and the creation by Congress of new bureaus, commissions, etc., the enlargement and 

better equipment of this office is now an absolute 

and pressing necessity.

Accent on Plate Printing

He instituted immediate reforms, the 

first of which was the greater use of electrotypes instead of letterpress [printing 

directly from type]. Mr. Benedict stated:

The first step demanded to insure better facilities for meeting the accumulated and current 

work of the office seemed to be to adopt the best 

and most modern methods of electrotyping, 

and to put a complete stop to letter-press work. To 

that end, as far as possible within the space at 

my disposal, I not only increased the facilities of 

the Foundry, but practically renewed the plant 

for electrotype work, so that it was soon capable 

of electrotyping or stereotyping all the type set in 

the Document divisions, in addition to the blank 

forms of the Job Division. The relief afforded 

both the Composing and the Press rooms were 

immediate, and the results during the year past 

have exceeded my most sanguine expectations, 

and I am satisfied this measure has contributed 

more largely toward securing the increased output of the office than any other improvement 

adopted.

Other changes included new presses, 

discarding “slow and worn-out’’ presses, 

and the introduction of laborsaving machinery throughout the workrooms. 

The Bindery, however, “was found in 

many respects the best equipped division 

* * *, having a vast stock of machinery 

and being capable of executing any class 

of work * * *.’’

In addition, three Document proofrooms were merged under one respon-
66

sible head in a single well-arranged 

room, with an ample library and under 

prescribed rules as to style. He also “endeavored to lessen the cost of proofreading and correcting by putting a limitation 

to the demands of Departments and authors in the matter of wholesale revision 

or proof-editing.’’ [From 1887 to 1961, 

the problem of authors’ alterations has 

continued to affect printing costs.]

Through consolidation, improved 

workflow measures, and general overhaul of every division, he maintained 

that efficiency was at its best level “in 

the history of the office.’’ Output of $21

/2

million reached a new high, with actual cost $262,000 less than the previous 

year in spite of increase in work and the 

“payment of a gratuity [annual leave] of 

$95,000 to employees for the first time in 

history.’’

Leaves of Absence

With the first giant step taken by the 

statute of 1886 granting 15 days’ annual 

leave to GPO employees, Mr. Benedict 

made a fresh assault toward the 30 days 

enjoyed by other Government workers. 

He pointed out that—

[GPO] employees certainly render as necessary 

and faithful service, are the equals of any class of 

public servants in intelligence, and are entitled 

by their surroundings to the equal consideration 

of the Government.

Personal Printing Eliminated

As a part of the new deal in Office administration, the Public Printer discontinued all private and illegal work in the 

office.

There had gradually arisen a practice of doing work for officers of the Government and 

private individuals not authorized by law, and 

this practice had grown to such an extent that it 

not only embarrassed the execution of the public 

work but made serious inroads on [printing and 

binding] appropriations. No such work is now 

executed in the office.

Additional Electric Lighting

The Public Printer recommended the 

extension of—

the electric-light plant to all parts of the working divisions, * * * [for] the use of gas is very 

expensive, and the heat arising from its use day 

and night in the crowded and illy-ventilated divisions should no longer be permitted for reasons of humanity, if the economic reasons are not 

considered of sufficient importance.

Demand for Increased Wages

Mr. Benedict acknowledged that Office craft workers were petitioning Congress for a wage increase. In his annual 

report he noted that the—

rates of wages as fixed by law are now insufficient. Believing * * * that just compensation is 

necessary to faithful service, I am prepared to 

fully indorse any such claim based upon recognized merit or upon evidence that the Government rates are now below those prevailing in 

private printing offices.

In addition to increased wages, Mr. 

Benedict supported the effort toward 

providing premium pay for nightwork 

by stating:

It is just and proper that Congress should make 

some provision for extra pay for night labor. The 

rule allowing such extra pay is now universal in 

the printing trade. Much night work is required 

to be done during the sessions of Congress, and 

those assigned to such work at the same pay for 

day work justly feel that they suffer hardship.

Printing Apprentices Opposed

For the first time in any GPO annual 

report, the word “apprentice’’ appeared 

this year. Traditionally, the apprentice 

was a necessary manpower element even 

in the early publick printing shops. From 

the ranks of apprentices had come the 

journeymen, and many printers, particularly Benjamin Franklin, had made 

important contributions to the rise of the 

Nation. If the Office had any apprentice 

system, various Public Printers seemed to 

be mute on the subject until 1887, when 
67

Mr. Benedict stated:

The number of apprentices September 13, 1886, 

was 71. This number has since been diminished 

and the number now * * * is 35. I am led to 

doubt both the expediency and legal authority of 

the appointment of apprentices to do the work 

of Government printing, and no such appointments have been made by me. The rates that 

have been paid for such labor * * * are absurdly 

large in comparison with the compensation for 

the same class of labor in private printing offices 

* * * [and] are larger than the same persons can 

earn at full piece rates in the composing divisions. If it is desirable to employ apprentices in 

[GPO] work, Congress should define their legal 

status and designate their compensation. My 

own judgment is that the Government should 

employ only skilled labor, and that it is not 

beneficial to any class of mechanics to learn their 

trades in the public service. [The Printing Act of 

1895 authorized the employment of 25 apprentices, but no apprentices were officially hired 

until 1922.]

Apprentices in Washington private 

plants received $3 a week for the first 

year, and a $1 increase every 6 months 

thereafter. At that time they served 4 

years, making about $10 weekly the last 

year.

Division Annual Reports

This year the Public Printer’s annual 

report included the first individual reports of division heads. This innovation 

permitted them to submit an accounting 

of their activities, and also to air their difficulties. Offering some insight into the 

schooling of apprentices is the following from the Assistant Foreman, Third 

Document Division:

Apprentices, of whom I now have 18, * * * cannot be expected to perform as much work, nor 

yet do it so well, as more skilled workmen, although * * * I am proud of their progress in the 

“art preservative’’ [due] to the fact that very soon 

after my taking charge of the room I distributed 

them among the journeymen. This has tended 

to inspire them to better deeds and better work. 

They are boys, however, and stand in the way of 

thorough discipline.

The same foreman painted this picture of 

good housekeeping in his section:

No compositor is permitted to have dead type 

about his frame; and he is expected to keep the 

premises occupied by him neat and clean. To 

this end I make frequent inspection, and at time 

when least expected—often, in fact, before 8 

a.m.

The Proof-Room Division reported 

that—

If a good proportion of the compositors are employed upon tabular work the proof room has 

no difficulty in keeping abreast of them; but if, 

as frequently happens, almost the entire force of 

compositors is employed upon solid matter, the 

greater amount of reading required throws the 

proof room behind and embarrasses the office in 

various ways. * * *

The work of the office emanates from so many 

different sources and covers such a wide range of 

subjects, that it is impossible to hope for an entire uniformity of style. Some progress toward 

uniformity has been recently made, however, by 

issuing * * * such rules as have been found applicable to the general work of the office. These 

rules can probably be amplified * * * in the near 

future. [This was probably the first GPO Style 

Manual (See “1933, Revision of Style Manual.’’).]

The Foreman of Binding listed needs 

for new equipment, but complained of 

other matters. There was a critical shortage of workspace, and he noted that certain changes would “reduce the crowded 

condition of the sewing room * * * and 

[give] the sewing women a better chance 

for health.’’ He also recommended “that 

the wheels of the trucks used in the bindery be bound with rubber, so that they 

will not destroy the flooring so rapidly, 

and also add to the quiet of the office.’’

Building Investigated

Necessary fire prevention measures 

introduced in 1883 in the 30-year-old 

building appeared to be insufficient in 

the eyes of the city. An investigation by 

a grand jury of the Supreme Court of the 

District of Columbia recommended further safety measures. Its report stated:

To fire-proof this building would be to virtually 

reconstruct it, but certainly provisions should be 

made to protect the lives of the persons engaged 

in it.
68

Certain corrective measures were taken, 

but a later report stated:

The precautions taken to guard against fire we 

find to be much improved of late, [but] we must 

strongly condemn the building being used in the 

manner it now is; as, stored with heavy printing 

presses, type, material, etc., the building is subjected to far too heavy a strain. * * * We think 

that the building is neither of sufficient size nor 

properly adapted for the purposes for which it 

is used.

Standard Type Recommended

Although the Linotype was in use by 

newspapers, the Office continued to set 

type by hand, and type purchased from 

many typefounders presented problems. 

The Foreman of Printing reported to the 

Public Printer as follows:

I would respectfully call attention to a very 

grave evil which has grown up to the purchase 

of type, and suggest that there could be no better time to correct it than the present. There is in 

the office now type from at least a dozen different 

foundries. It is a well-known fact that while the 

[type] bodies of the different foundries are approximately the same, yet no two of them will accurately justify together, and their mixture causes 

much annoyance, waste of time, and many accidents. No amount of care can keep them separate 

in an office as large as this, and consequently more 

or less trouble constantly arises from this source. 

It is an evil with no compensating benefits in the 

way of competition in price or superior material, 

and should, I think, be corrected.

Pay Raise

The daily average pay for the piecework compositors in the Specification 

Room [Patents] increased from $3.80 in 

July 1886 to $4.16 in November 1887, and 

the quality of the work improved with 

the increased earnings, according to the 

annual report of Mr. Benedict.

1888

In 1888, the Joint Committee on Printing, aided by two additional members 

who were practical printers, was directed to investigate the GPO. There 

were charges of printing delays and irregularities in making appointments and 

dismissals, particularly the discharge of 

ex-soldiers and sailors and their widows 

and orphans, who in that period received 

veterans’ preference.

The committee offered the following 

findings:

(1) The management of the GPO is thoroughly 

honest and efficient. * * * It is today turning out 

more work and better work than has ever been 

done before in its history * * * and compares favorably with the best of private printing offices.

(2) There has been no unusual delay in furnishing necessary documents and the committee 

found none worthy of notice.

(3) The law has been duly observed in making appointments and dismissals from office. 

The large discharges of September–October 

1886 were made irrespective of party politics and 

were necessary. While it is natural that politics 

will always enter somewhat into appointments, 

the office is simply a workshop and it should 

be freed from political influences. It also found 

that there were more than double the number of 

veterans and dependents employed in the GPO 

than under the previous administration.

Work Output

The Public Printer reported the greatest volume of work in Office history. 

Statistics showed increases over 1885 of 

24 percent in department work; and 58 

percent in printed pages and 84 percent 

in work for Congress, which represented 

the largest amount of work ever delivered for a similar period.

Space Shortage and Weather Note

Mr. Benedict also called the attention 

of Congress to the lack of proper space 

in workrooms and for paper storage. For 

the Office, as a whole, the space shortage 

affected the health and comfort of the 

employees. In addition, he stated that—

In some of the divisions artificial lighting is required daily, and this, in summer, renders the 

heat intolerable, and the eye-sight and general 
69

health of many employees suffer in consequence. 

The near proximity of the office stables and 

those of adjoining property-owners, as well as 

the filthy condition of adjacent alleys and rows 

of tenements, add to the general unhealthiness 

of the office, due to the malarious neighborhood 

in which it is built, and calls * * * for the erection of a new and capacious building in another 

and more convenient locality for the purpose of 

the public printing. [Some 17 years later in 1903, 

a new building was erected to the south of the 

old building, but the GPO remained in the same 

locality.]

The inadequacy of the paper warehouse was also acute. He noted that—

its condition is especially worthy of attention. 

This division suffers seriously for want of proper 

space, and the service of the office is embarrassed 

* * * by the inability to carry a stock of paper 

sufficient to meet the large and hurried demands 

frequently made. At the time of the great blizzard [of 1888], in March last, with its attendant 

interruption of transportation, the office nearly 

came to a stand-still through the exhaustion of 

the meager supply of paper * * *.

Increased Annual Leave

The move to provide GPO workers 

with annual leave was begun in 1883, 

and in 1886, 15 days’ leave had been 

granted by Congress. Although other 

departments received 30 days, the 15 

days was gratefully accepted. This year 

the Office achieved the 30-day leave status long enjoyed by Government. Notwithstanding an 81

/3-percent increase in 

the work force required to compensate 

for the additional annual leave, and a 

more rigid enforcement of the 8-hour 

law, the present force was 10 percent 

lower than the force inherited by Mr. 

Benedict in 1886.

1889

On May 7, Frank W. Palmer of Illinois 

became Public Printer. He was to serve 

two separate terms, totaling about 13 

years. As had his predecessors, he complained of old presses and type, but his 

first concern was the dangerous condition 

of the GPO building. He reported that—

The present structure is wholly inadequate 

* * *. It is ill-lighted, ill-ventilated, and so far 

short in dimensions of the requirements of public service, that much of the work is done at a 

disadvantage. For instance: there is room for 

the storage of only a few days’ supply of paper 

for the press-room and bindery. An unusual 

catastrophe [flood] like that which recently befell Johnstown, Pa., or a recurrence of a storm 

such as swept the Atlantic coast in March 1888 

* * *, would in all probability cause a stoppage 

of work * * *.

To avoid the danger of collapse, three 

rows of posts about 10 feet apart were 

installed as additional support for the 

length of the workrooms in the three 

lower stories. Fire prevention measures 

were also inadequate, for—

with all these precautions the building is liable at 

all times of the day and night to destruction by 

fire. * * * Thus the only durable remedy would 

be the construction * * * of a fireproof building 

on a new site * * *.

1890

Mr. Palmer reported that “in response 

to urgent appeals by some of my predecessors and myself,’’ Congress in August 

authorized $250,000 for the acquisition of 

ground by purchase or condemnation of 

a proposed site running south to F Street 

and Massachusetts Avenue.

With this promising start, Mr. Palmer 

then recommended an appropriation by 

Congress for the erection of a fireproof 

structure “in the interest of economy, of 

security to Government property, and 

of humanity.’’ He added that “the new 

structure should be commenced at the 

earliest possible day and prosecuted to final completion with the utmost vigilance 

and dispatch.’’

A commission consisting of the Secretary of the Treasury, the Public Printer, 
70

and the Architect of the Capitol was directed to report to the Senate. Invitations 

to landowners were advertised, and the 

commission devoted much time in exploring all aspects, including soil quality, 

of the proposed site and on December 10 

submitted a report. The Joint Committee on Printing on February 26, 1891, 

approved the report and recommended 

that Congress appropriate the authorized 

funds.

However, the next day—February 

27—the following amendment to the 

appropriation bill was adopted by Congress:

Provided, That the appropriation * * * 

approved August 13, 1890, to provide 

accommodations for the GPO, * * * be hereby 

suspended.

Rebellion Records Printing

In 1880, the GPO began printing the 

Official Records of the Rebellion. Ten years 

later, 31 of the authorized 96 volumes 

had been completed, and work on this 

monumental job was continuing.

New Presses

The Office now boasted 88 printing presses, mostly cylinder. Nine new 

presses were purchased, and Mr. Palmer 

requested $100,000 for additional presses 

to replace wornout presses.

1891

The Office was invited by the War Department to take over several small printing establishments. A printshop was supplied by the War Department and thus 

the GPO acquired another branch office. 

The Adjutant-General, in his annual report, stated that the change “proved entirely successful, evidenced * * * by the 

expeditious manner’’ in which this work 

was produced.

New Type and Presses

The Public Printer’s previous request 

for $100,000 to replace wornout type and 

presses was approved by Congress and 

leading typefounders and press manufacturers were invited to submit sealed 

proposals. Of interest to veteran printers 

may be the names of companies awarded 

contracts: Barnhart Bros. & Spindler of 

Chicago and George Bruce’s Son & Co. 

of New York, low bidders for new type; 

Walter Scott & Co. and C. Potter, Jr. & 

Co. of Plainfield, and Farmer, Little & 

Co. and Montague & Fuller of New York, 

press equipment. In an additional appropriation, new presses were supplied by 

Miehle Printing Press & Manufacturing 

Co., Chicago; Cranston Printing Press 

Co., Norwich, Conn.; and A. D. Farmer 

& Son, New York.

Office Continues to Grow

Both the country and GPO continued to grow. Congress spent 

$1,345,972, and the executive and 

judicial branches spent $1,396,135, for a 

total of $2,742,107 for public printing 

and binding. For administering this 

large amount, the Public Printer received a $4,500 salary.

1892

After rejecting the new building proposal on February 27, 1891, Congress revived the measure on March 9, 1892. It 

again authorized the Joint Committee 

on Printing to ascertain a site for a new 

GPO. On December 12 of the same year, 

the committee suggested a site which 

encompassed K and L Streets NE., and 

First Street and Delaware Avenue, the 

area now covered by tracks leading to 

Union Station.
71

New Typesetting Method

In 1892, the Lanston Monotype machine 

was placed on the market. The new machine 

produced lines of type with single characters, 

as compared to the line of type in one slug of 

the Linotype. The machine in later years was 

the instrument by which the GPO produced 

“acres’’ of tabular and technical composition. 

[In 1961, the greatest battery of Monotypes in 

the world is found in the GPO.]

Effect of Linotype on Wages

When the Linotype machine was introduced in Washington in 1892, the 

newspaper scale proposal requested a 

6-hour shift for daywork.

The publishers countered with a proposal for a 7-hour shift, with a weekly 

wage scale of $21 for daywork and $23.62 

for nightwork. This rate remained in effect for 10 years, or until 1902.

1893

The inherent dangers of the old building were dramatically brought into sharp 

relief when Ford’s Theatre on 10th Street 

collapsed on June 9, causing 28 deaths. 

Used as a record division of the War Department, the building was similar to the 

GPO, and its employees expressed grave 

apprehension of a similar disaster to 

themselves. In the meantime the Office 

rented five buildings for storing printed 

matter, as the present buildings could not 

support increased weight. Mr. Palmer 

noted that three of these buildings were 

fire hazards, and the transfer of materials 

from storage to the main building caused 

added labor, delay, and expense.

On June 13, Mr. Palmer alarmed by the 

Ford Theatre collapse, wrote to the Architect of the Capitol:

In view of the great calamity which occurred 

on Friday last * * * and the public attention 

thereby drawn to the condition of the GPO 

building, I respectfully request you to make, at 

once, a thorough inspection of all portions of this 

building, so that whatever additional safeguards 

for the protection of the lives of employees may 

be deemed necessary, may be promptly provided.

No action was taken.

Acts Printed From Type

From the beginning of the Nation, 

all acts of Congress had been scribed by 

hand. On December 12, Public Law No. 

1, of the 53d Congress, 2d session, was 

the first act printed from type. Known as 

the enrolled bill format, its authorization 

also permitted acts to be “hand scribed in 

any emergency, especially during the last 

6 days of a session, when demands on the 

compositors run exceedingly heavy.’’

1894

With political fortunes restored, 

Thomas E. Benedict supplanted Mr. 

Palmer and returned as Public Printer on 

May 3.

Large Layoffs

On May 14, he ordered large layoffs. 

The furloughing of workers was the rule 

for many years before 1894, as Congress 

alternated in short and long sessions. In 

a short-session year, congressional work 

would disappear and the volume of departmental work could not fill the gap, 

and therefore layoffs were imperative. 

Although layoffs were usually of mild 

degree, the 1894 episode was a sharp 

blow to the many who were left stranded 

on the Washington scene.

On the theory that his predecessor may 

have overstaffed the Office, Mr. Benedict quoted the law which stated that 

the “Public Printer shall not at any time 

employ * * * more hands than the absolute necessities of the public work may 
72

require.’’ As the New York Daily Tribune

noted in its May 21 issue:

Reducing Printing Office Expenses; Mr. 

Benedict Serves Notice of Discharge on

Large Number of Employees

An unknown number of GPO employees, estimated to be about 700, have received copies of 

the following notice from Mr. Benedict:

“Being satisfied that the best interests of the 

public service and the efficient performance of 

the work of the GPO necessitates a reduction in 

the number of employees, it becomes my duty to 

direct the foreman of printing to inform you that 

your services would not be required after the day 

of this notice. Cashier will settle any balance of 

wages due you at the earliest possible moment 

convenient with the duties of his desk.’’

The Tribune added:

Ever since Mr. Benedict resumed charge of the 

Office, reports have been current that he intended 

to reduce the force, but the notices yesterday 

came with no less a shock. * * * More removals 

are looked for this week, as it is said that Mr. 

Benedict’s intention is to restore the force to 

something near the total number employed 

when he left it 5 years ago, which was 2,200. 

At the close of [Public Printer] Palmer’s term of 

service the number on the rolls was 3,600.

No Progress on New Building

This year saw no action by Congress on 

either an addition or a new building. The 

Chief Engineer of the U.S. Army had submitted a report to the Joint Committee on 

Printing confirming the need for increased 

workspace. He estimated safety-insuring 

measures in the old building could be 

installed for about $41,000, but the building would not be perfectly safe without 

tearing it down and reconstructing it. He 

also noted that—

near the smokestacks, in a high wind, additional 

vibration is transmitted to the walls, and when 

printing presses are running, continual vibrations in the walls can be distinctly felt.

Mr. Benedict made an impassioned 

plea for congressional action, for the—

time has arrived for taking up the work of reconstructing this office, and a failure * * * to report 

fully to Congress the serious aspect * * * would 

be a serious, if not criminal, neglect of duty.

In addition, he suggested that the new 

printing bill which was being considered 

by Congress, if it became law, would 

create “conditions which will add largely 

to the work * * * and make necessary a 

very large addition to its present working 

and storage space.’’ In somewhat milder 

language, he suggested that Congress 

would have acted long before—

but for conflicting opinions regarding the best 

location and facilities. Any contention as to 

the future location of the Office should not be 

allowed to affect action for immediate relief, 

* * * [but] the need of an annex building is pressing and vital.

1895

The one-note theme of the pressing need 

for a new building continued in the annual 

report for 1895. The need was constant 

and each Public Printer had expressed 

impatience with makeshift expedients of 

adding floors to present buildings and the 

erection of tiny annexes which formed a 

colony of small workshops which did not 

alleviate or solve the overall space problem. Mr. Benedict stated that—

All past attempts at relief have been mere makeshifts; there is no true solution of the difficulty 

in any other plan that has been suggested, for 

the reason that no other plan provided space for 

continuing work while rebuilding was going on. 

The new building should be equipped to meet 

all the demands of the public service promptly 

and economically, and enable the Government 

to exhibit to the printing and binding trades of 

this country the practical workings of the highest achievements in these trades, both in finished 

product and in methods pursued to secure the 

most desirable results.

Increased Printing Demands

Compounding the shortage-of-workspace problem, printing demands were 

accelerated by the new printing act passed 
73

January 12. (See “New Printing Act,’’ p. 

74.) The act created an increased demand 

for Government publications because of 

the free distribution to the people of a 

price catalog which would be sold by the 

newly created Documents Division.

Mr. Benedict also compared the work 

volume of his former term as Public 

Printer in 1887 in contrast to the current 

year. He showed that in 1887, a longsession congressional year, the Office had 

used 2,718 tons of paper and had printed 

286,491 pamphlets; in 1895, a shortsession year, 4,757 tons of paper and 

1,182,955 pamphlets, for an increase of 69 

and 500 percent, respectively. In the following year, paper use increased to 5,457 

tons, or 101 percent over 1887.

New Plate Vault

A much-needed plate vault with 3 

miles of shelving was constructed beneath the North Capitol Street wing.

Paper Contracts

Mr. Benedict recommended to Congress that paper contracts should receive closer control for low bidders had 

attempted to supply inferior paper to 

save themselves from financial loss. Inspection of such paper supplies forced 

the rejection of thousands of reams of 

below-standard paper. Nine cases were 

appealed, but the GPO was supported in 

each case by an arbitrator. Mr. Benedict 

added:

* * * it is not for the best interests of the Government to award paper contracts on the basis of the 

lowest bids, unless the bidders are known to be 

reliable manufacturers or control plants of sufficient capacity to produce promptly the quantity 

and quality required * * * to make it possible for 

books to be preserved for posterity.

New Powerplant

Electric power was first used in the 

GPO in 1882. As of 1895, the powerplant capacity was 1,400 16-candlepower 

lamps, which was inadequate to properly 

light one-third of the Office and the remainder was poorly lighted by gas. Accordingly, a new electric plant was installed.

In 1896 the entire Office was lighted 

by electricity. With this new power, it 

was found that the introduction of motors presented a safety problem, for many 

machines were operated by women who 

were wholly without experience in handling such apparatus. By installing automatic circuit breakers on each motor, 

workers were protected against carelessness and ignorance.

Office in Classified Service

A movement begun by a large majority of employees for the extension of civil 

service to the trades in the GPO was successful when the President on August 1 

placed the Office in the classified service. 

Known as the GPO Rules, the Office was 

divided into 10 classes, or grades, and 

specified that—

any male citizen of the United States not under 

21 or over 45 years of age and any female citizen 

not under 18 or over 35 years of age may be examined for positions in the GPO.

However, on August 22, President 

Cleveland amended the Rules by removing “or over 45’’ and “or over 35,’’ thus 

eliminating the age ceiling.

By this move, the employees hoped 

to protect their positions. Mr. Benedict 

questioned such protection by stating 

that “I regret to say that civil service 

rules cannot remove the cause for large 

reductions in force after each short 

congressional session.’’

In addition, he stated that “in view of 

the oft-repeated remark that this Office 

had fallen under the ‘baneful influence of 

the spoilsman,’’’ he printed a table showing the number of years worked by employees:
74

25 to 35 years and over............................... 125

20 to 24 years and over .............................. 202

15 to 19 years and over .............................. 324

10 to 14 years and over .............................. 617

5 to 9 years and over .................................. 1,230

4 years and over ......................................... 1,372

3 years and over ......................................... 1,538

2 years and over ......................................... 2,094

1 year and over .......................................... 2,545

Piece System Abolished

This year saw the abandonment of the 

traditional piece system of typesetting. 

Mr. Benedict stated that it was done—

With a view to securing greater economy, a 

higher standard of typographical excellence, 

greater harmony, a more equitable distribution of wages, and the steady employment of 

the maximum number of compositors. Under 

the part piece and part time system * * *, the 

large amount of tabular and “fat’’ copy set at 

piece rates prevented a fair distribution of earnings among employees of equal skill and worth 

and caused constant trouble * * * because of the 

anxiety of men to work in the piece divisions. 

* * * The typographical divisions are now 

working with the utmost harmony and zeal, 

and marked improvement is evident in the general work * * *.

Office Force Increase

The creation of a Documents Division 

and the transfer of departmental printing 

plants to the charge of the Public Printer 

caused an increase in the force. The 

change from the piece system of composition to timework also caused a considerable increase of compositors. With 

the foregoing increases, employees now 

numbered 2,677.

On January 12, Congress passed a comprehensive act codifying the public printing laws. The greater part related to size 

of editions and the distribution of publications.

The two main features were: (1) the 

centralization of printing, and (2) establishment of the office of the Superintendent of Documents. It also fixed the 

compensation of printers, pressmen, and 

bookbinders, and set up the working organization of the Office.

For the first time, the apprentice system was officially recognized, but in performance the following provision was 

not effected until 1922, when an apprentice school was set up.

The Public Printer may employ such number 

of apprentices, not to exceed 25 at any one time, 

as in his judgment will be consistent with the 

economical service of the office.

The Printing Act of 1895 attempted 

to limit the overgenerous distribution 

of Government publications. It became 

the organic printing act, outlining the 

duties and functions of the GPO. Its 

primary achievement was the creation 

of a Public Documents Division, under 

a Superintendent of Documents, but it 

also contained some loopholes which 

permitted the continuation of certain distribution practices. As the infant division 

grew older and gained experience, later 

amendments to the act placed Government book selling on a businesslike basis. 

The New York Daily Tribune of December 6, 1894, commented on the new act, 

as follows:

While it will not accomplish all that the 

friends and advocates of reform in the present 

system and methods have been striving for at 

each successive Congress for many years, the 

new law will be a long step in the right direction. 

Under its operation the cost of the public printing and binding will be materially reduced and 

a system established which will result not only 

in a more intelligent distribution of Government 

publications, but in placing copies of all of them 

in depositories throughout the country where 

they will be convenient of access to persons who 

may desire to consult them. The bill also proNew Printing Act
75

vides for the distribution among public libraries 

and other depositories of the vast accumulation 

of old documents—numbering nearly 1 million 

volumes—which now occupy valuable space in 

the Capitol and elsewhere in Washington, and 

against further accumulations of the same sort. 

It also provides for a monthly catalogue of current publications, giving the price for each and 

the place where it can be obtained, and for an 

index of the publications ordered at each session 

of Congress.

* * * * *

It is estimated that a yearly saving of several 

hundred thousand dollars will result * * *, and 

it appears certain that many abuses which now 

prevail will be destroyed or greatly curtailed in 

extent.

Documents Division

The act imposed new duties, including 

the appointment of a Superintendent of 

Documents, on the Public Printer. The 

act directed the Superintendent to—

receive and care for all surplus documents in the 

possession of Government offices; assort and catalog them; supervise their distribution and sale; 

catalog and index monthly and annually all documents published; in fine, to render accessible to 

librarian and the public generally the vast store 

of Government publications.

Mr. Benedict found it necessary to secure a Superintendent of Documents 

possessing—

superior practical ability and literary attainments. After much reflection, I appointed [on 

March 26] Mr. F. A. Crandall, of Buffalo, N.Y., 

* * * whose recommendations * * * were of the 

highest, and who possessed an additional qualification that he would have nothing to unlearn in 

order to carry out the evident intention of Congress * * *.

The new division was set up in leased 

quarters on the sixth floor of the Union 

Building on G Street NW. near Seventh. 

And once again, the Public Printer lamented, “space was too limited to hold all 

the documents committed to my charge 

by law.’’

The new Superintendent then began 

the giant task of taking over 134,000 

publications accumulated by the departments, hundreds of boxes from the 

House and Senate document rooms, and 

over 21,000 publications in the GPO. 

The machinery of distribution to 420 depository libraries designated by Congress 

was perfected, and the enormous task of 

cataloging all Government publications 

from 1789 was begun. The next year the 

Division received almost 487,000 publications, and depository libraries had increased to 1,321.

Functions

1. To sell at cost any public document in its 

charge, the distribution of which is not specifically directed by law.

2. To receive from any Government office any 

document published for sale, which sale must be 

made under the provisions of section 61.

3. To have general supervision of the distribution of all public documents (with exceptions as 

enumerated).

4. To prepare and print at the close of each 

Congress a Comprehensive Index (Document 

Catalog) of public documents.

5. To prepare and print at the close of each 

regular session of Congress a Consolidated Index (Document Index) of congressional documents.

6. To index such single volumes of documents 

as the Joint Committee on Printing shall direct.

7. To receive all accumulations of documents 

from the several executive departments, bureaus, 

and offices of the Government, and annually to 

take over their surplus for distribution or sale.

8. To prepare and publish a Monthly Catalog 

of Government publications, which shall show 

the publications printed during a month, where 

obtainable, and the price thereof.

9. To thoroughly investigate the condition of 

the designated [library] depositories.

10. To distribute the documents as issued to 

the designated depositories.

Depository Libraries

The task of the Superintendent of 

Documents was further increased by 

the maintenance of mailing lists and the 

shipment of Government publications 

to depository libraries. Under the printing laws, Senators, Representatives, 

and Delegates selected libraries within 

their districts. There were three classes 

of libraries: Designated, geological, and 
76

remainder, each with its own mailing 

list, and the Division devoted all its energies to satisfy these libraries. Free distribution by 1902 totaled over 500,000 

publications. The first Superintendent 

and his successors were appalled by the 

waste inherent in this distribution, and 

later annual reports voiced their objections.

The Superintendent was dismayed by 

the “bewildering congeries of volumes, 

numbers, and parts * * * of Congressional 

documents.’’ Because of the perpetuation 

of improper terms describing Government publications, his task in classifying 

publications was made extremely difficult. For example, a congressional publication would be entitled: “Part 2 of part 

2 of volume 4 of part 5 of No. 1 of part 2, 

volume 14, of the House Executive Documents of the 51st Congress, 2d session.’’ 

He stated:

Of course the present system was not devised by 

anybody. There was never anybody who could 

have devised it. Like Topsy, it “jist growed.’’

He further noted that—

One might as well try to commit to memory the 

lettering on a Chinese tea chest as charge one’s 

mind with such a rigmarole.

The Superintendent reported that first year’s 

sales amounted to about 3,000 documents for 

$1,000.

1896

Mr. Benedict acknowledged with 

“great pleasure * * * the aid of Congress 

in the carrying out of many reforms and 

improvements advocated by my predecessors and myself for many years.’’ He 

added:

The office owes its creation to Congress. The 

initial plans to expand it to the constantly growing needs of the Government, and to make it 

worthy, in mechanical appliances and progressive 

methods, of the character and intelligence of the 

American people, have almost invariably originated with the printing committees of Congress 

or with patriotic members of the two bodies.

As an example, he stated that in 1882—

Senator Anthony, chairman of the Joint Committee on Printing, interrupted a tariff debate to 

offer a resolution which * * * was “important to 

the salvation of human life.’’ The resolution related to the overloaded floors of the GPO.

This early recognition of the inherent 

dangers of the old GPO building was not 

remedied until 1896, but Mr. Benedict 

was proud “to state that the office is in 

first-class condition,’’ and that his efforts 

toward a more efficient and safer GPO 

had been crowned with success.

Almost with a sense of elation, he enumerated plant improvements of the past 

and present fiscal year:

Full completion of additions to working 

space.

Completion of new seven-story west wing 

and other floors.

Erection of new boiler house and boilers, machine shop, and storage sheds.

New heating plant, toilet rooms, and ventilation and filtration systems, in addition to providing better light and improved facilities for 

cleanliness and for promoting the comfort and 

convenience of employees.

Filled with a sense of accomplishment, he nevertheless added that “it is 

not intended to convey the impression 

* * * that the improvements affect in any 

way the argument in favor of providing a 

new GPO at as early a date as possible.’’ 

Renewing the appeal for a new building 

in view of the inevitable growth of public 

printing, he stated that—

when built, the office should be one of the attractions of the capital city, and it should possess 

the highest economic, mechanical, and scientific 

achievements in the arts of printing and binding 

of the present day. Its lines should be laid upon 

plans broad and comprehensive enough to meet 

not only the demands of the near future, but the 

necessities of the coming century.

[The Public Printer’s prophecy was 

fulfilled in 1903, when his dream became 
77

reality with the completion of a new building on North Capitol and G Streets NW. 

But his vision of the “coming century’’ 

did not encompass the vast 1961 GPO 

printing complex.]

Authors’ Alterations

In a circular to Government departments, Mr. Benedict reemphasized a determination to adhere to his authorization 

from Congress that “the forms and style 

in which printing and binding * * * shall 

be executed * * * shall be determined by 

the Public Printer * * *.’’ His target was 

the—

wholesale editing of proof sheets—a privilege so 

dear to the hearts of many gentlemen engaged in 

literary work * * * for the Government. Whatever fancied necessity may have existed in the 

past for the furnishing of type proofs * * * for the 

encouragement of literary style or to give opportunity for the insertion of belated ideas, it does 

not exist in this age of the typewriter.

[It has been said that authors would dispense with most of their alterations if 

they had to pay on the spot for making 

them.]

The Fad of Photoengraving

The newly developed art of photoengraving first made its appearance in 

1881. Although in later years the process 

achieved striking effects in illustration 

work, according to Mr. Benedict the process fell short of the proved advantages of 

woodcuts. In his report he acknowledged 

the “just criticism of the imperfect illustrations [halftones] appearing not infrequently in Government publications.’’ Of 

interest to present-day [1961] printers is 

his following comment:

In former days woodcuts were almost exclusively 

used for * * * text illustrations, and uniformly 

good results were easily possible. The cheap and 

numerous methods of producing engravings 

at the present time have caused something like 

artistic chaos in the GPO, and apparently the 

photo-engraving process, particularly the kind 

known technically as “half-tone,’’ is considered 

by some in authority as equal to any demand for 

illustration of documents.

No doubt the various photographic processes 

of zinc etching have produced remarkable results in cheap popular newspaper and magazine 

illustrating, but it is not always desirable for the 

Government to copy fads. The production of 

new engraving houses are peculiarly characteristic of the time; but they have burdened the GPO 

with rather too much responsibility for results 

that are a grievance to good printers everywhere.

Civil Service

With the GPO under the classified 

civil service, the Public Printer stated 

that new appointees selected from the 

certified lists averaged as well as those 

selected heretofore at the will of the appointing power.

Early Proofroom

An early historian has provided the 

following description of the 1896 GPO 

proofroom:

I will now take the reader back to the GPO 

proper, at North Capitol and H streets. We are 

ushered immediately into the proof-reading department, on the ground floor. Here is the greatest aggregation of critics known to the “art preservative,’’ and it well deserves the title of “the 

brainery.” Through the hands of the editors and 

readers passes every scrap of copy that is eventually issued in book form by this mammoth 

printery. The copy is carefully examined, edited, 

“style’’ is indicated, and then it is sent to the various composing rooms, whence it returns, accompanied by the proof sheets of the printer’s work, 

which are read, first by copy, then silently, and 

sent to the printers for correction. With these 

men is reposed authority as to the technicalities 

of “style’’ on all Government work. Many of the 

readers are accomplished linguists, and to their 

varied linguistic acquirements some have added 

the benefits of foreign travel. One of them carries a commission from King Kalakaua as consul 

from the Hawaiian Kingdom to Mexico; another 

over 30 years ago helped to establish the first 

state printing office in Egypt, under the personal 

supervision of the Khedive, and not only reads 

nearly all modern and dead languages, but is 

a master of the hieroglyphics of the Pyramids. 

Several of these gentlemen read proof in from 

7 to 10 languages, while others are experts in 

the unexcelled rule-and-figure-work so often 

seen and admired in Uncle Sam’s publications. 
78

The office employs the International [Webster’s] 

Dictionary, as well as Worcester’s, the Standard, and Century, the Century Cyclopedia of 

Names, Lippincott’s Gazetteer, together with a 

large library, embracing every obtainable book 

of reference. Another feature of importance is 

the system by which the old-time copy holder is 

eliminated and, instead, two experienced proof 

readers work together, alternating proof from 

time to time, each alike responsible for the accuracy of the work done by the desk.

1897

On March 31, former Public Printer 

Palmer returned to the Office. Dispossessed 

by Mr. Benedict on May 2, 1894, favorable 

political winds blew Mr. Palmer back into 

office. Mr. Benedict and Mr. Palmer had 

in effect been playing Printer “musical 

chairs,’’ for each had served two separate 

terms, displacing each other in turn.

Pressure for New Building

Mr. Palmer returned to find the new 

seven-story annex in operation. Expressing 

the view that its erection seemed to settle 

the “long-disputed question whether or 

not the office should remain on its present site,’’ he returned to the subject of 

his “greatest solicitude’’—a new GPO. 

He recommended extension of the office 

south to G Street NW. In addition, he 

noted that the Office was paying $18,560 

in rent for outlying buildings, particularly 

a warehouse east of the B. & O. railroad 

tracks. In transporting materials to and 

from the warehouse, he cited the necessity of teams crossing and recrossing the 

tracks, “accompanied by delays and danger from the frequent passage of railway 

trains.’’

Electric Power

Within the year all presses were converted from belting to electric motive 

power. It was noted that on cloudy or 

rainy days, the load on the engines was so 

great that there was no power reserve in 

case of accident to the engines. Two generators were purchased, one 300 kilowatt 

and one 125 kilowatt. The new power 

source eliminated all belting in workrooms, and provided “absolute freedom 

of stoppages’’ which were the rule when 

a twisted belt around the shafting would 

shut down the entire Office.

1898

For the second time since its founding 

immediately prior to the war in 1861, the 

GPO was faced with war printing. On 

February 15, the battleship Maine was 

blown up in Havana Harbor. The country angrily demanded a declaration of 

war, but factfinding was necessary to determine the cause. After an investigation, 

war was declared on Spain on April 21, 

and the role of the GPO as war printer 

was described by Mrs. John A. Logan in a 

book entitled 30 Years in Washington.

In the spring of 1898 great excitement followed the blowing up of the Maine in Havana 

Harbor. Congress was impatient to declare war, 

but was prevailed upon to await the report of 

the naval court of inquiry and the message of 

the President accompanying it. On March 28, 

these were ready for the printer, and on account 

of the peculiar conditions of the situation, it was 

desired that Congress should have them the next 

day. At 3 p.m. of the 28th, the originals for 24 

full-page illustrations and 1 lithograph in colors 

were sent to the GPO and the force was at once 

set to work to have these illustrations made. The 

manuscript arrived at 6 p.m. and was immediately parceled out to hundreds of compositors, 

and when all in type it made 298 large pages—a 

good-sized book.

Complete printed and illustrated copies 

bound in paper covers were laid on the desks of 

Senators and Representatives 2 hours [10 a.m.] 

before Congress assembled the next morning 

[29th]. All through the night busy fingers were 

setting up the type, making up the pages and 

stereotyping them; fast presses were dropping 

the printed and folded sheets at every tick of the 

watch; other busy hands were gathering them 

and pasting on the covers, while others were 

sending complete books away in the mails.
Washington in 1800 when it became the seat of government and the scene of early Government printing. Georgetown buildings (left foreground). Three-arched stone bridge (left center) built in 1792 to carry the post road (K Street) across Rock Creek, and (to the right of bridge) 

Robert Peter’s house and tobacco shed. In the distance are to be seen houses along F Street (left) and along Maine Avenue to the riverfront. (Courtesy Library of Congress)
First page of Annals of Congress begun in 1824 by Gales & Seaton. The Annals was the 

first attempt to preserve for posterity the proceedings and debates of Congress from 

1789 to 1824.
First issue of Register of Debates in Congress, December 6–8, 1824, printed by Gales & 

Seaton, containing congressional debate on manner of welcoming General Lafayette 

on his visit to the United States.
The Congressional Globe, volume 1, No. 1, founded by Blair & Rives on December 7, 

1833. The Globe reported congressional proceedings and debates until March 4, 1873, 

when it was succeeded by the Congressional Record.
First GPO-produced Congressional Record, successor to The Congressional Globe.
Washington about 1850. Bird’s-eye view showing Capitol with low dome and the built-up northwest section. The White House, Smithsonian 

Institution, and projected Washington Monument are prominent. Old Tiber Creek can be seen in center, and the future GPO area in lower right is mainly farmland. (Courtesy of Library of Congress)
Original GPO building built by Cornelius Wendell in 1856. Became the first Government Printing Office on March 4, 1861.
Composition Room.

WENDELL’S PRINTING OFFICE IN 1859.

Power Pressroom.
Stiching Room.

Proprietor’s Sanctum.
1881 GPO and Workrooms.
GPO Bullock press, 1867, the mechanical marvel of the day.

Congressional Record Composing Room.
Electrotype and Stereotype Room.

Main Pressroom. Note overhead shafting which supplied motive power. A twisted 

belt or machine breakdown would halt all production.
Binding Department.

Main Composing, or Document Room.

Fire safety in GPO by means of Indian bows and arrows, 1883. See page 61.
GPO building about 1895.

1903 building.
Main Proofroom, 1904.

Job Section Proofroom, 1904.
Electrotype molding, 1912.

Electrotype finishing, 1912.
Bindery, about 1900.

Job pressroom and pressfeeders, 1910.
GPO stable and delivery fleet, about 1900.

Electric trucks, 1911.
Carpenter Shop staff and product, 1912.

Electrical Shop, 1912.
Bindery, 1912.

Hand Section, about 1912. Note Cooper-Hewitt gas lights, and derby wearer on left.
Job Section imposing stones, 1914.

Paymaster’s office, 1914, with oldstyle large currency.
Patents Linotype operator, 1914

Patents makeup and imposition, 1914.
Bowling alleys with Public Printer Carter in right lane, 1922.

Harding Hall, 1922.
Documents Division stockroom, 1922.

The old GPO building in 1935, 3 years before it gave way to present main building.

Bronze plaque in main building lobby.

The Government Printing Office in 1961.
Battery of Linotype and Intertype machines.

The Proofroom.
Dow etching machine–Photoengraving Section.

Electrotype finishing.
High-speed Congressional Record web press. Also used for income tax forms and 

Federal Register.

Stereotyping.
Offset Preparation Section.

Offset presses.
Sewing machines–Book Edition Section.

Folding machines–Pamphlet Section.
Postal card presses.

Sheet-fed cylinders–Main Press Section.
Tests and Technical Control Division.

Central refrigeration and air conditioning machinery–Power Section.
Finance and Accounts Division.

Electronic Data Processing Section.
Documents Division bookstore–the GPO end result.

Documents book storage area.
Personnel Division.

Medical Section.
Division of Planning Service.

Division of Plant Planning.
Purchasing Division.

Printing Procurement Section.

Commercial Planning Section.
Harding Hall.

Cafeteria.
Paper warehouse opposite GPO.

Freight cars delivering paper to warehouse third floor, which is level with Union Station 

railroad siding.
79

Breakthrough on New Building

The long years of campaigning for a 

new building came to an end when Congress, on July 1, appropriated $225,000 

for the purchase, by condemnation proceedings, of land for an extension.

An appraisal board held hearings and 

testimony was offered by owners and 

tenants who were faced with the prospective loss of their businesses. Mr. Palmer 

then suggested that “in the interest of 

economy and for the security of property 

and human life, the proposed extension 

of the GPO to be commenced and completed at the earliest possible day.’’

Documents Division Reorganized

The Document Division of the GPO, 

begun in 1895, received its first reorganization. Based on its infant experience, the 

Division was organized into six sections: 

Bookkeeping and correspondence, Sales, 

Catalog, Library, Mail, and Stock.

The Superintendent of Documents 

made the first protest against the free 

distribution of Government publications. 

His successors for many years pressed 

the issue, but no relief was effected until 

1933, when Congress, under the stimulus 

of economy, declared that all documents 

should be sold. The problem had been reviewed from time to time, but the 1895 act 

directed that the Superintendent of Documents “shall have general supervision 

of the distribution of all documents.’’ At 

the same time, however, the act granted 

authority to departments to continue free 

distribution. The Superintendent advocated legislation to centralize distribution 

within his own division. He noted that—

For upwards of 60 years public documents 

have been distributed free to both libraries and 

individuals. The distribution * * * has broadened from a few Congressional documents in 

the beginning to include almost everything published. Bills for the public printing have grown 

from about $46,000 in 1833 to nearly $2 million 

in 1897 * * *.

During the past 40 years the documents 

have been printed in such large editions and 

distributed with such liberal prodigality as to 

cheapen them in the estimation of the people at 

large. They * * * were broadcast without regard 

* * * to the wishes of the recipients, and as a 

consequence were not only not appreciated, but 

were regarded with contempt. [There were] 

instances * * * where retiring members of 

Congress shipped out by the carload the documents that had accumulated to their credit.

Beginning in 1897, the Superintendent’s annual report included an itemized statement of each sale, including 

many individual sales at 5 or 10 cents 

each. Also listed were sales of the Congressional Directory at 15 cents.

1899

In 1898, Congress had passed a bill for 

the construction of a fireproof building 

“at a total cost, including approaches, elevators, lighting and heating apparatus, 

not exceeding $2 million.’’

In accordance with the provisions of 

this appropriation, plans and specifications were prepared by the Engineer Department of the Army, and approved by 

Public Printer Palmer. The Chief of Engineers of the Army was assigned to take 

charge of the construction.

In preparing the site for the new extension, it was necessary to demolish 

the temporary three-story brick warehouse fronting on Jackson Alley. Records, public documents, and workshops 

were transferred to a fireproof annex on 

H Street, and additional storage space 

leased on L Street nearby.

During excavation work beginning 

about July 10, 1899, Mr. Palmer stated 

that “conditions have been more favorable than anticipated in relation to foundation work; the soil is better, the amount 

of water is less, and the weather has been 

better than there was reason to expect.’’ 

These favorable conditions reduced 

foundation costs to $100,000, which was 
80

below the estimated $150,000. However, 

the Public Printer added—

The prices of building materials have risen in 

such an unprecedented and unlooked-for degree 

that, although a margin of nearly 10 percent was 

left in the original estimate, * * * it will be necessary to increase the limit of cost by another 10 

percent or else abandon some of the most important and necessary features of the building.

Miscellaneous Income

Listed as income this year were the 

following unrelated items: Sale of five 

old horses, $175.25; sale of four old wagons, $135.25; proceeds of waste gold leaf, 

$4,308.81; and six old elevators, $304.50.

Pay Increase

In March, Congress added the following amendment to an appropriation bill:

Provided, That * * * the Public Printer may, 

during fiscal year 1900, in his discretion, pay all 

printers and bookbinders employed in GPO at 

the rate of 50 cents per hour for time actually 

employed, beginning July 1, 1899.

It was estimated that the increase 

would amount to $286,000. The increase 

placed the two crafts on the same level as 

the pressmen, who had been awarded 50 

cents an hour, or $4 a day, in 1895.

Presidential Papers

The Superintendent of Documents 

reported that the massive job of distributing the compilation of the Messages 

and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897,

by Congressman James D. Richardson, 

had been accomplished. Published in 3 

editions, aggregating 36,000 sets of 10 

volumes each, the Superintendent stated 

that—

Great credit is due the Post-Office Department 

for the promptness and accuracy with which 

more than 300,000 volumes * * * have been delivered, not a single case of loss having been reported that could not be traced.

Although compiled as a Government 

document, the Papers were copyrighted 

by Mr. Richardson. After initial distribution to Members of Congress, the transfer 

of printing rights to a publisher produced 

a congressional investigation. Testimony 

indicated that a contract for “exclusive 

use of the plates for 10 years, with a royalty of 75 cents per set for all sets sold,’’ 

had, up to 1900, produced $11,320 for the 

compiler.

1900

Forty GPO Years

A new century found the Office a 

busy and booming printshop. From its 

experimental days in 1861 to the present, 

its expansion had matched the growth of 

the Nation. Its role in Government was 

secure and the uneasiness of the early 

years had been dispelled. It had grown 

into a “printing city,’’ and the huge new 

building would dwarf the small cluster 

of tiny workshops known as the GPO. 

From a product of about $550,000, it 

now produced almost $5 million of 

printed products. The Office had ceased 

to be an experiment and the temporary 

printing reform movement was on solid 

ground.

New Library of Congress Unit

The new century witnessed another 

acquisition to the Office printing domain. On May 8, 1900, the Public Printer 

received a letter from Herbert Putnam, 

Librarian of Congress. The letter requested the establishment in the Library 

of a printing and binding branch under 

the control of the Office. The Librarian 

stated that there were books which could 

be spared only for a short time; certain 

valuable books required full binding and 

could not be removed from the building; 

and that library binding required special 
81

treatment not usually performed in main 

GPO. In addition, Mr. Putnam desired 

the convenience of Library catalog card 

printing within his own building. Congress authorized the purchase of necessary materials, and the branch was placed 

into active operation.

[The primary stated purpose for the 

branch was Library binding, and printing was secondary. On May 1, 1960, however, the binding unit was returned to the 

GPO, but a small force was retained for 

rare book binding and for laminating old 

manuscripts and maps. Printing continued 

to be performed in the unit.]

Further Pay Increases

After the grant of 50 cents an hour to 

printers and binders in 1899, other classes 

of skilled mechanics petitioned Congress 

for a similar rate increase. Effective July 

1, 1900, the following crafts received the 

increase: blacksmiths, carpenters, electricians, electrotypers, leather parers, machinists, plumbers, saw grinders, steam 

fitters, and stereotypers. Painters were 

on a slightly lower level, their pay being 

increased from $3.20 per day to $3.50 per 

day. Other pay increases affected female 

operatives, as follows: Directresses, from 

$2.24 to $2.50 daily; gold workers, numberers, press feeders, and sewers, $1.92 to 

$2; folders, $1.83 to $2.

New Powerplant

Anticipating increased power demands 

when the new building was completed, 

the Public Printer awarded contracts for 

two 800-horsepower, cross-compound, 

condensing engines, each provided with 

a direct-connected, 600-kilowatt, electric generator. These contained all the 

latest improvements known to electrical science. Also purchased were four 

300-horsepower, Scotch-type marine 

boilers, with economizers and a specially 

constructed steam main.

Rebellion Records Completed

In 1880, the GPO had begun the monumental task of printing the official story 

of the War Between the States. Congress 

had considered the compilation in 1864, 

and in 1874 provided funds for the work 

entitled War of Rebellion, Compilation of 

Official Records of Union and Confederate Armies. Through the years this work 

had progressed, and in 1900 the job was 

finished. Altogether there were 129 volumes, an additional index volume, and 

37 parts of an atlas to supplement the 

main body. The series served as source 

material for many historians of the war 

period, and represented the greatest single job in Office history.

1901

On December 15, the Washington 

Times, in an article entitled “World’s 

Greatest Printing Office,’’ reported that 

the new building had required 12,700,000 

pounds of structural steel. It also noted 

that “the huge structure’’ had used between 11 and 12 million handmade red 

bricks. Statistically, the steel, converted 

into rails, would lay a railway track 43 

miles long, the distance from Washington to Baltimore. The same steel could 

be used to build three gigantic bridges 

across the Potomac River at Washington, 

or could be used to construct “74 locomotives of the most powerful type.’’

New Stable—and 

New Transportation

In 1900 Mr. Palmer had reported that 

the stable on leased property on G Street, 

between North Capitol and First Streets 

East, cost $2,600 a year. With the GPO 

subject to rental termination at the end of 

each year, he recommended construction 

of a fireproof stable to the west of the new 

building in course of construction.
82

No action was taken, but in the current 

year the Public Printer renewed his recommendation with an added argument:

To the foregoing reasons for the proposed acquisition of a site for a stable may be added this 

one, viz, that in the event that the use of electric 

automobiles should prove more practicable than 

horses and wagons for transporting the products 

of the GPO, the supply of the necessary electric 

currents for charging the automobiles could 

be furnished from the power plant of the new 

building.

It seems that the horse-and-buggy age 

was near its end.

1902

The Army officer in charge of the new 

building construction had expressed a 

hope that the building would be completed about September 1902. In a later 

report, he stated that “the great activity 

prevalent in all of the building trades has 

made it impossible to get the work done 

on time.’’ Present prospects indicated 

occupancy would be delayed “until the 

spring or summer of 1903.’’

Census Printing

The Twelfth Census of 1900 comprised 

10 volumes and was completed this year. 

Congress in 1899 had allowed 2 years not 

only for the great task of enumeration 

and tabulation but of publication as well. 

The Director of the Census advised the 

Public Printer that—

the Twelfth Census has been published more 

speedily after enumeration than any census since 

that of 1840. The results * * * of that year were 

all comprised in a volume of 840 pages; while 

those of 1900 required more than 10,000 pages, 

therefore it seems reasonable to say that the present census has been issued with greater speed 

than any other in the history of the Government.

To which the Public Printer replied.

* * * the speed attained * * * was due in large 

degree to the perfection in which the copy was 

prepared * * * and the promptness with which 

those of your subordinates * * * returned proofs, 

conditions which have not existed in connection 

with the printing of the reports in any former 

census.

Documents Division

The Division continued its rapid 

growth, handling the enormous number 

of 1,645,000 documents, including depository library distribution. The task of 

cataloging public documents was being 

done by 11 catalogers. The Superintendent noted that this specialized field of 

cataloging was a most difficult problem. 

He hoped that “library schools will give 

the subject * * * more attention in the future, as there will always be a demand for 

experts in that branch of the profession.’’

Sheepbound Books

Another change affected the standards 

of bookbinding. Traditionally, sheepskin 

was regarded as the best material for 

covering fine books. Also traditionally, 

sheepbound books suffered the greatest 

deterioration, and the Superintendent 

stated that “Very few librarians like the 

sheep binding, even if it were equal * * * 

to cloth, which it is not.’’

Congress also approved a change to the 

“best grade of cloth and for the assignment of a distinctive color to the publications of each department.’’

Bureau of Labor Plant Abolished

This year the printshop in Labor was 

abolished, with department work returned to GPO.

Purchases

No action had been taken to supplant 

horses and wagons with electric automobiles, but the GPO purchased a Model 

Rambler bicycle for $30, and repairs to 

its fleet of delivery bicycles totaled $87.90.
83

1903

Mr. Palmer reported that the construction of the new extension—

is so nearly completed that all portions of it are 

now occupied by operatives, machinery, and materials. Commodious as the new structure is, it is 

not large enough to accommodate all of the force 

of employees.

Therefore three divisions—specifications and branch binderies and the 

Documents Division—were moved from 

the Union Building on G Street to the 

old GPO building at a rental saving of 

$17,000.

The move of the Division from its 1895 

birthplace was a huge operation. The Superintendent reported that—

To plan and execute the removal of nearly 1 million books and pamphlets, office furniture, etc., 

without interruption to the current work of the 

office was no light task. The work was accomplished * * *.

Once again the theme of “new building’’ which had dominated Public Printers’ annual reports for many years was 

sounded again. It now became the new 

new building, and was to be reiterated 

for over 30 years. Mr. Palmer stated that 

the increase of work was so great that—

it is manifest the inflammable portion of the old 

building * * * should be replaced as soon as practicable by a seven-story fireproof structure to secure necessary room for the prompt execution of 

requisitions and to protect property and human 

life from fire. Until such time as Congress shall 

authorize the proposed additional improvement, 

the old building will be occupied by a portion of 

the working force of the office and for storage 

purposes.

To provide the present-day reader with 

a cross-section view of the new building 

layout, the following description was 

printed in the annual report of 1903:

The first floor * * * is occupied by the press 

and roller divisions; the second floor by a portion 

of the folding division and the supervising and 

clerical force of the office; the third floor by the 

folding division; the fourth floor by the bindery; 

the fifth and sixth floors by typographical and 

proof divisions; and the seventh floor by the divisions devoted to job work, and electrotype and 

stereotype foundry.

The Public Printer further noted 

that—

A pneumatic-tube system for the rapid transmission of copy and proof to the various portions of 

the office has been installed, and is in successful 

operation. * * * It will be an important aid in 

the economy of time at all hours of day or night, 

but especially in the execution of “rush’’ work, 

of which there is abundance during sessions of 

Congress * * *.

With descriptions of other modern features, he cited the following convenience:

A novel and useful feature * * * is a plant for 

the supply of drinking water, without the accompaniment of ice, to all the operatives, * * * 

supplied from tanks of filtered water in the basement, and the temperature of the water reduced 

to a palatable degree by passage through an ammonia plant.

Stable Moved

In 1900 and 1901, the Public Printer 

had recommended the erection of a new 

stable to the west of the new building. 

Congress had taken no action, but the 

growth of Washington forced the Office to find a new stable. The stable on 

G Street East was on the site of a proposed new railway station [Union Station], and with the approval of the Joint 

Committee on Printing, leased quarters 

were taken on L Street, east of North 

Capitol Street.

Office “Sick Room’’

A small room, located on the third 

floor of the old building, was set aside as 

a “sick room.’’ Its equipment consisted 

of a cot, a blanket, and a small supply of 

medicines, all contributed by GPO employees. This room was the nucleus of the 

first emergency “hospital’’ in a Government establishment.
84

In 1905 a former GPO employee returned to the Office as Medical Director; 

and in 1907, an emergency room was installed, with an additional physician and 

matron.

1904

Arrival of Machine Age

The words “Linotype’’ and “Monotype’’ finally made their appearance on 

the GPO scene. Although in practical 

operation in the United States since 1886, 

the delayed introduction of the Linotype 

into the GPO was the result of several 

factors. Perhaps the most important was 

the available supply of machines. Newspapers had priority because they had 

financed the machine’s experimental 

development. However, various Public 

Printers may have had reservations as to 

their practicality, for Mr. Palmer in his 

annual report questioned “their economy 

or adaptability.’’ The following appeared 

in the 1904 annual report:

In June 1904, contracts were made by the 

Public Printer with the Mergenthaler Linotype 

Co. for the purchase of 46 double magazine 

typesetting machines, at a cost of $3,600 each, 

and with the Lanston Monotype Co. for 28 typesetting machines, at a cost of $3,150 each. The 

time for the delivery of these machines, in accordance with the provisions of the contracts, 

was 3 months, and for their trial by the GPO 60 

days. On the delivery of the Mergenthaler Linotype machines, 7 of them were installed in the 

Job Division, 35 of them in the Congressional 

Record Division, and 4 in the branch of this office in the Congressional Library building. The 

purchase of a limited number of these machines 

was made with the view of testing the practicability of their use in the publication of the widely 

varying kinds of official documents issued by 

this office. At the date of publication of this report, sufficient time has not elapsed to determine 

the questions of their economy or adaptability. It 

has been the policy of the office in the selection 

of operators for both classes of typesetting machines to choose compositors already in service 

here, and they have shown thus far commendable skill in their work upon the machines.

In 1905 the Public Printer disbursed 

$183,700 for the Linotypes and $90,152 

for the Monotypes.

The introduction of typesetting machines was particularly timely, for Mr. 

Palmer reported “the number of requisitions for work in the GPO * * * was 

without a parallel in the history of the 

office,’’ and printing appropriations were 

over $7 million, a record high.

New Presses

The new building also required 

new presses, and the Office purchased 

34 presses at a cost of over $150,000. 

Included were 3 special Potter web 

perfecting; one 2-roll rotary Hoe web 

perfecting, with duplicate set of gear 

wheels; 11 No. 3 Miehle; and five 2-roll 

single large cylinder Hoe. Also eight automatic press feeders for $6,136. Other 

divisions likewise were modernized, the 

foundry acquiring five electric furnaces 

for $2,574, and the Bindery four Dexter 

folders, $11,700.

1905

Beginning September 6, Public Printer 

Palmer became prominent in the news. 

Mr. Palmer had served two terms 

totaling over 13 years as the sixth 

Public Printer, and his total tenure was 

longer than any of his predecessors. That 

fact, combined with the heavy expenditures for new typesetting machines and 

resistance by the crafts to those machines 

in the belief that their jobs would be 

endangered, caused a bitter controversy. 

A special committee was set up to study 

the introduction of modern machines 

into the Office. On September 9, President Roosevelt relieved Mr. Palmer. 

Oscar J. Ricketts, Foreman of Printing, was 

designated as Acting Public Printer. For 

the permanent post, several candidates 

were mentioned, including William S. 
85

Rossiter, Chief Clerk of the Census Bureau; H. T. Brian, GPO Chief Clerk; and 

John S. Leech, Public Printer of the Philippines, who became U.S. Public Printer 

in 1908. However, Charles A. Stillings of 

Massachusetts was appointed by President Roosevelt on November 28, 1905.

Thus Mr. Stillings began his administration on a quiet note. However, beginning with 1906 until 1908, his term could 

be regarded as one of the stormiest in Office history.

Revision of Printing Laws

Congress recognized the need for new 

legislation to correct the growing abuses 

in the public printing, and set up the 

Printing Investigation Commission.

Cost of Public Printing

In 1905, William S. Rossiter, Chief 

Clerk of the Census Bureau and who 

in 1908 conducted an investigation of 

the GPO, wrote an article on Federal 

and State public printing for the Atlantic Monthly. He cited statistics showing 

the growth of Federal printing. In 1880, 

printing volume was $2,034,750; 1890, 

$4,905,881; 1904, $7,080,906. As Government increased its services, he noted that 

individual States likewise expanded, for 

New York public printing in the same 

period had increased 349 percent; and 

Massachusetts, 220 percent. But for the 

States as a whole, average printing expenditures had increased 76 percent.

1906

This year began quietly but before it 

had run its course, both Mr. Stillings and 

the GPO were the objects of a printing 

investigation and were also projected 

into the middle of an international controversy over spelling reform.

Printing Delay Investigation

The 59th Congress had begun business 

on December 3, 1905, and adjourned on 

June 30, 1906. The last day was characterized by the usual last-minute scramble 

of Congress to leave a sweltering Washington. Many bills had been passed, and 

President [Theodore] Roosevelt, accompanied by his Cabinet, traveled to the 

Capitol to sign into law engrossed bills as 

they were received from the Office.

The events of June 30 can best be described by the published report in the 

New York Times of July 1—the day after.

Congress Adjourns; Delay by Printers

The 1st session of the 59th Congress came 

to an end at 10 p.m., hours after it should have 

ended. * * * The incapacity of the GPO was responsible for keeping both branches in session at 

least 8 hours beyond the time originally set. * * *

Bills passed were not properly enrolled, in addition to a $3 million appropriation blunder.

It seemed that the GPO had collapsed 

under the weight of congressional work, 

and the printing on parchment of new 

bills awaiting Presidential signature was 

hopelessly muddled. The Times continued:

The President was obliged to waste the best 

part of a day sitting around in the Capitol with 

his Cabinet to sign bills. The Senate * * * was 

obliged to sit and swelter throughout the hottest 

afternoon and night of the summer.

During the wait for GPO printing, the 

Senate raked the Public Printer and the 

Office with charges of incompetency and 

the production of poor work for Congress. As a result of the charges—and the 

delays—the Committee on Printing was 

ordered to investigate the causes.

On August 23, the investigating committee reported its findings, concluding 

that—

nothing had been developed in the course of this 

investigation which would justify a conclusion 

that the present administration of the GPO is 

not distinctly creditable.
86

The Times in an editorial on August 24 

stated:

Praise for Public Printer

The Senate Committee has acquitted the 

Public Printer in connection with blunders that 

attended the closing of Congress. He was not 

slow, but was “positively expeditious’’ in dealing 

with the flood of laws. And his admirable work 

was performed with a smaller force than dealt 

with less work in the preceding Congress. It is 

a pleasing finding * * * [that] the Public Printer 

will rest undisturbed in possession of the bouquet presented to him when everybody was expecting * * * a big stick.

The committee further recommended 

the inauguration of a time-record system 

which would “preclude much irresponsible criticism.’’ It also suggested that the 

four bicycle messengers who carried material from the Capitol to the GPO, “the 

distance being great,’’ should not be diverted by deliveries to executive departments.

Spelling Reform

However, the GPO was not permitted 

to rest, for on August 24 a bomb burst over 

the Office, with the effects reverberating 

throughout the English-speaking world. 

With urging by the Spelling Reform 

Committee, financed by Andrew Carnegie 

headed by Prof. Brander Matthews and 

composed of noted educators and scholars, President Roosevelt directed that the 

Public Printer adopt the committee’s 300 

recommended words based on a simplified pattern. His directive follows:

My Dear Mr. Stillings: I inclose herewith copies of certain circulars of the Simplified Spelling Board, which can be obtained 

free from the board at No. 1 Madison Avenue, 

New York City. Please hereafter direct that in 

all Government publications of the Executive 

Departments the 300 words enumerated in circular shall be spelled as therein set forth. If anyone asks the reason for the action, refer him to 

Circulars 3, 4, and 6 as issued by the Simplified 

Spelling Board.

Most of the criticism of the proposed step is 

evidently made in entire ignorance of what the 

step is, no less than in entire ignorance of the 

very moderate and common-sense views as to 

the purposes to be achieved, which views are so 

excellently set forth in the circulars to which I 

have referred. There is not the slightest intention to do anything revolutionary or initiate any 

far-reaching policy.

The purpose simply is for the Government, 

instead of lagging behind popular sentiment, 

to advance abreast of it and at the same time 

abreast of the views of the ablest and most practical educators of our time as well as of the most 

profound scholars—men of the stamp of Professor Lounsbury and Professor Skeat.

If the slight changes in the spelling of the 300 

words proposed wholly or partially meet popular approval, then the changes will become permanent without any reference to what public 

officials or individual private citizens may feel; 

if they do not ultimately meet with popular approval they will be dropt [new style], and that is 

all there is about it.

They represent nothing in the world but a 

very slight extension of the unconscious movement which has made agricultural implement 

makers and farmers write “plow’’ instead of 

“plough’’; which has made most Americans 

write “honor’’ without the somewhat absurd, 

superfluous “u’’; and which is even now making 

people write “program’’ without the “me’’—

just as all people who speak English now write 

“bat,’’ “set,’’ “dim,’’ “sum,’’ and “fish,’’ instead 

of the Elizabethan “batte,’’ “sette,’’ “dimme,’’ 

“summe’’ and “fysshe’’; which makes us write 

“public,’’ “almanac,’’ “era,’’ “fantasy,’’ and 

“wagon,’’ instead of the “publick,’’ “almanack,’’ 

“aera,’’ “phantasy,’’ and “waggon’’ of our greatgrandfathers.

It is not an attack on the language of Shakespeare and Milton, because it is in some instances 

a going back to the forms they used, and in 

others merely the extension of changes which, 

as regards other words, have taken place since 

their time.

It is not an attempt to do anything far-reaching or sudden or violent; or indeed anything 

very great at all. It is merely an attempt to cast 

what slight weight can properly be cast on the 

side of the popular forces which are endeavoring to make our spelling a little less foolish and 

fantastic.

Prescribing tho for though, thru for 

through, thoro for thorough, etc., and 52 

past participles, such as fixt for fixed, exprest for expressed, in addition to many 

other deviations from accepted spelling, 

the order became a national and international issue. Protagonist and antagonist 

forces formed battlelines, although those 
87

opposed far outnumbered the reform 

advocates. Newspapers throughout the 

country printed newsstories, editorials, 

the list of the offending 300 words, and 

“Letters to the Editor’’ departments were 

swamped. Day after day, the battle continued unabated. The New York Times

on August 25 reported:

The President Adopts Simplified Spelling

Spelling Reformers Here Rejoice and 

Expect Cause Will Now Make Rapid

Progress

President Roosevelt has endorsed the Carnegie spelling reform movement. He issued 

orders to Public Printer Stillings that hereafter 

all messages from the White House shall be 

printed in accordance with recommendations 

of the Spelling Reform Committee. * * * The 

President’s official sanction * * * is regarded 

as the most effective and speediest method of 

inaugurating the new system throughout the 

country. * * *

The Times noted that Mr. Stillings had 

called for—

a meeting of all editors in the departments and 

those who have to do with the preparation of reports and other documents * * *. [He] expects 

* * * to put it up to the makers of copy to have it 

correctly spelled, so that all his printers and proofreaders will have to do will be to follow copy.

There is now no uniformity in orthography 

or style of capitalization and punctuation in 

the work of the departments, and Mr. Stillings 

hopes to have that matter taken up and settled as 

well as the spelling reform.

The New York World on August 

25 suggested that, under the proposed 

system, a Thanksgiving proclamation 

would read as follows:

When nearly three centuries ago, the first settlers kam to the kuntry which has bekom this 

grat republick, tha confronted not only hardship and privashun, but terible risk of their lives. 

* * * The kustum has bekum nashnul and 

hallowed by immemorial usaj.

The reform of 1906 immediately raised 

the question as to whether the order applied not only to executive documents but 

also to legislative documents. With the 

adjournment of Congress on June 30, no 

congressional reaction was recorded but, 

the Times noted, if Congress refused—

to accept the reform, it was bound to create a lot 

of confusion and bother in the Printing Office 

to have two systems of spelling in vogue. It will 

create considerable extra expense, for it will be 

certain to render necessary an extra force of 

proofreaders. No man can read one style one 

minute and the other style the next.

When the bills for this extra work begin to 

come in and the Appropriations Committees 

begin to examine Mr. Stillings, the fun will 

begin to be lively. The chairman of the House 

Committee, scrutinizing every red cent of the 

$900 million Congress will have to appropriate, is going to find a most attractive field in the 

doubled bills from the printery.

But throughout the United States, 

Great Britain, and Canada the battle 

continued. The New York State Commissioner of Education declared that he 

“didn’t believe in telling people how to 

spell,’’ and that his department would 

not follow President Roosevelt.

From London came reports that the 

reform movement was greeted in “anything but a sympathetic spirit.’’ A paper 

declared that “the President overrates his 

powers,’’ and “declined to believe that 

scholarly and cultivated Americans will 

sacrifice the history and meaning of the 

language by adopting the ‘Carnegie jargon.’’’

In the meantime, the man most concerned, the Public Printer with his White 

House orders, announced, according to 

the Times, that “he had no doubt that 

every department * * * will speedily 

adopt the recommendation * * * [and] 

appointed a Commission to revise the 

Manual of Style of the big printery.’’

Congress returned to work on December 3, and the overwhelming sentiment 

against spelling reform was made evident.

The issue was finally resolved on December 13, when the Committee on 

Printing submitted its report, “Standard 

of Orthography for Government Publications.’’ The committee stated that pre-
88

vious literature of Government publications reflected the spelling in vogue at the 

time of its printing. It added:

Until Congress shall see fit to order the printing * * * in some form of spelling other than 

that generally accepted by the people, it would 

* * * be the part of wisdom for the Government 

in all its branches * * * to adhere to a uniform 

system of spelling, * * * the [system] already 

most generally recognized and accepted by the 

people.

* * * it is evident that public sentiment, as 

reflected in the newspapers, magazines, and 

other publications, has not been favorable to the 

proposed innovation * * *. It is therefore a condition and not a theory with which Congress 

has to deal. * * * Moreover, Congress has no 

assurance, even if it should leave present conditions undisturbed, that the next succeeding 

administration would not revoke the present 

order. * * *

The sentiment in Congress is such that * * * 

in the printing done for Congress the standard 

dictionaries will continue to be the accepted 

authority. * * * any departure from the recognized standards of orthography cannot with 

safety, satisfaction or economy be taken until 

Congress and the Executive shall agree upon 

the adoption of other orthographic methods.

As the New York Times had prophesied on August 30, the spelling reform 

was circumvented by Congress in the 

form of a rider to the printing money bill.

No part of the compensation provided by this 

act shall be paid to the Public Printer unless he 

shall, in printing documents authorized by law 

or ordered by Congress or either branch thereof, 

conform in the spelling thereof to the rules of 

orthography recognized and used by accepted 

dictionaries of the English language.

And on a division there were—142 yeas, and 

25 noes. So the amendment was agreed to. (Congressional Record, Dec. 12, 1906.)

Public Printer Surveys Office

After 1 year in his new post, Mr. Stillings instituted a reorganization of the official force so that competent individuals 

could supervise the work.

In addition, he was critical of purchasing procedures, which in some cases were 

safeguarded by law but, in other cases, 

unsystematic and wasteful. Requesting 

stricter controls in the buying and receiving of GPO purchases, Mr. Stillings received authority from Congress to install 

new cost, audit, and inventory systems.

He also, as had preceding Public Printers, recommended that—

The old building should be razed to the ground 

and the material sold to the highest bidder; a 

new building should be erected, thoroughly 

modern and fireproof * * *.

Documents Library

The Superintendent of Documents reported that his 10-year-old Division had 

built up a library of historical and present 

Government publications totaling 82,449 

documents and maps. He stated that—

this collection, the most complete in the world 

of U.S. Government publications, has never cost 

the Government one cent; * * * [it is] the most 

useful working tool this Office possesses * * *.

He resisted a move in the interest of 

economy that the collection should be 

transferred to the Library of Congress.

To separate the Office from its reference library 

would make the routine accomplishment of its 

routine work as difficult as to steer a ship to port 

without a rudder.

1907

Public Printer Stillings reported on the 

adaptation of new business methods in 

the GPO and the purchase of machinery 

and equipment capable of meeting present and projected needs of Government. 

Considerable progress had been made in 

the development of new accounting systems, which could supply precise information instead of conjectural estimates. 

He also had developed an organizational 

concept which divided the GPO into 

work groups consisting of grand divisions, divisions, sections, and groups, all 

resulting in closer supervision and expedition of public printing and binding.
89

A consolidation of all manufacturing units in the new building left the old 

building available for storage, in addition 

to the Machine Shop Division and a portion of the Supply Division. The Documents Division was installed in the sevenstory annex building on H Street.

The American Printer of April reported 

that Mr. Stillings was penalizing Office 

employees for damage to equipment or 

spoilage of printing.

Mirrors Abolished

Mr. Stillings further compounded his 

troubles by banning mirrors in ladies’ 

restrooms in the Office. The American 

Printer in June noted Mr. Stillings’ attempt to curb the vanity of his female 

workers. In an article entitled “Stillings 

the Brave,’’ the Printer said:

’Tis given to but few men to receive full appreciation of their merit during their own lives. 

Most of them must wait for history to lay before 

posterity the facts of today, ere the world grants 

its need of praise in words or monuments. Hence 

it is that Public Printer Stillings need expect 

nothing other than he is getting for his recent order whereby mirrors have been subtracted from 

the entire Government Printing Building. Perchance, in the girls’ main dressing-room of each 

department there may yet remain a single lonely 

exception subdued, and a sufferer from glassial 

strabismus; but the rank and file of the genus 

Mirror is vanished and gone, so to speak. And 

the girls? Yes, they’re mad; and they say “It’s 

just too mean for anything’’; and “we didn’t either, waste time fussing with our hair and hats!’’ 

And Stillings, stern and uncompromising to the 

principle, though genial and smiling to the girls 

themselves, goes about his daily duties with the 

reward of a good conscience and nothing else, 

for his heroic ruling that, perhaps, knocked the 

mercury-backed bubbles of frizzled vanity into a 

cocked hat. We say “perhaps’’ for, in the absence 

of mirrors, one cannot “see’’ if the hat be cocked 

or not. “O wad some power the giftie gi’ us, to 

see ourselves’’ in the mirror once more! But no; 

and there is exceeding sorrow in the GPO for the 

girls—and also for “Stillings the Brave.’’

Depository Library History

The Documents Division, by act of 

Congress, was responsible for providing 

public documents to congressional-designated colleges and libraries.

The free distribution of Government 

publications was first authorized by Congress in 1813. These documents were sent 

to State and Territorial legislatures, incorporated universities and colleges, and 

historical societies. An allotment of 200 

copies was more than sufficient for the 

needs of that early day.

In 1857, the Secretary of the Interior 

was charged with “receiving, arranging, 

safe-keeping, and distribution’’ of public 

documents “of every nature, already or 

hereafter directed by law to be printed 

or purchased for the Government.’’ The 

general printing act included public and 

school libraries, but the indiscriminate 

distribution to 615 authorized institutions with inadequate shelfroom or clerical labor produced an enormous waste of 

printing and paper. The Superintendent 

advocated a cut in the congressional quota 

and in the number of depositories as the 

only remedy for the “chronic document 

indigestion.’’

He urged more selective distribution 

by Congress in the free distribution of 

Government publications. On the one 

hand, horse or cattle books were sent 

to districts in which automobiles and 

electric cars held sway and where cattle were represented only in butcher 

shops and dairies. On the other hand, 

rural districts were flooded with Flags 

of Maritime Nations or single volumes 

of Messages and Papers of the Presidents,

instead of books published specially for 

their use.

In 1907 Congress approved a more systematic method of numbering congressional documents, as compared to the 

former crazy-quilt pattern in use.

Census Bureau Printshop

Congress authorized the abandonment 

of a Census Bureau printshop, and all 

work was transferred to the GPO.
90

1908

The 1908 annual report failed to convey the great confusion of this printing 

year. Public Printer Stillings was suspended by President Theodore Roosevelt 

on February 5. Then followed in succession Henry T. Brian, Acting Public 

Printer until June 9, when John S. Leech 

of Illinois took over as Public Printer. 

Leech served until November 30, and 

was replaced by Samuel B. Donnelly of 

New York on the next day. On December 

8, 1 week later, Mr. Donnelly submitted 

his annual report to Congress.

Investigation of Office

On February 5, President Roosevelt 

verbally and by letter had instructed William S. Rossiter to investigate the general 

conditions in the GPO. At the same time, 

the Washington Evening Star reported 

that “Public Printer Stillings had been 

suspended by Roosevelt on representations said to be of a startling nature.’’

The Rossiter report of February 29 

covered the following subjects:

(1) The operations of the Audit System and 

allied companies.

(2) Financial operations.

(3) Method of purchasing supplies.

(4) Expenditures for travel.

(5) Organization, plant, and volume and cost 

of product (purchase of typesetting 

machines).

(6) Attitude and feeling of employees.

(7) Favorable aspects of Mr. Stillings’ administration.

(8) General aspects of the Federal printing 

question.

(9) Summary.

Of chief importance was the study of 

(1), which concerned fees paid for a new 

GPO audit system. Following were (5), 

(6), and (7).

New Accounting System

For 30 years the GPO had maintained 

the same scale of printing charges. Composition was charged at 50 cents an hour, 

plus 40 percent for nonproductive labor 

and miscellaneous charges, for a total 

of 70 cents per hour. Through the years 

to 1906, other factors had entered into 

production costs, and the cost system in 

effect became approximate rather than 

precise.

The extraordinary industrial growth 

of the Nation had created companies 

specializing in the business of systematizing plants. Mr. Stillings recognized 

the need of some accounting reform, and 

requested that Congress provide funds 

“For the purchase and installation of and 

instruction in cost, audit, and inventory 

systems.’’ He signed agreements with a 

New York firm known as the Audit System. Three separate contracts beginning 

September 6, 1906, were made. When the 

contract was canceled by the President on 

February 13, 1908, total costs, including 

supplies and furniture, were $138,110.

Comparative Costs

The committee noted that a Post Office 

Department fiscal reorganization cost 

$61,000. The Interior Department had 

been systematized for $14,000. From testimony offered, the committee concluded 

that the GPO, on the basis of other printing plants, should have been handled 

successfully from $10,000 to $35,000, the 

latter an extreme maximum.

Purchase of Typesetting Machines

The committee found that composing 

machinery purchased in the years 1904–

08 amounted to $965,528. It concluded 

that “having avoided their installation 

until long after they had become indispensable in every other large office, the 

GPO had gone to the other extreme.’’ 

However, it admitted that there was no 

question concerning the value of typesetting machines, for they were necessary 

fixtures in every progressive job office as 

well as in newspapers of any consequence. 
91

It also noted that 50 duplex Monotype 

keyboards purchased for $60,000 had arrived, but Office officials seemed reluctant to put them into service, with but 1 

or 2 machines necessary.

The committee also found that the Office now had 207 composing machines, 

and it appeared that insufficient time had 

“been taken for tests and properly accustoming the force to the most efficient use 

of this machinery.’’ It also asserted that 

“no economy can result unless the product equals or exceeds the work of three 

men by hand composition’’; but that 

GPO production did not exceed that of 

two men.

Attitude of Employees

Mr. Rossiter expressed the view that 

newspaper statements of employee dissatisfaction and irritation had been much 

exaggerated. It was generally agreed that 

Mr. Stillings found the Office much demoralized in discipline, organization, 

and productive capacity. In his 1906 annual report, Mr. Stillings had stated that 

certain corrective measures were necessary. The committee agreed that these 

efforts to improve conditions necessarily excited opposition in some quarters 

and of course created enemies of all who 

were indolent or inefficient. In addition 

to these elements, there were others who 

were inclined to be antagonistic for a variety of reasons.

Questioning of employees disclosed 

that too many administrative orders were 

ill-judged, severe, and unnecessary, producing a climate of insecurity and dissatisfaction. Further direct questioning of 

section representatives showed that compositors, proofreaders, pressmen, and 

Linotype and Monotype operators knew 

of no grievances of any kind against Mr. 

Stillings. However, the bindery charged 

discriminations against their association, 

and electrotypers and stereotypers complained of too much overtime and certain 

working rules.

Overall, the committee concluded, Mr. 

Stillings “had not been a good judge of 

men, but at the same time could not be 

accused of any intentional wrongdoing.’’

Favorable Aspects of Mr. Stillings

The Committee concluded that—

few men were better acquainted than Mr. Stillings with the printing business in its various 

branches. Having a strong constitution and unbounded energy, he appeared to have spared neither strength nor time in his devotion to the work 

of the office as he saw it.

He introduced discipline where little had existed, and endeavored to weed out incompetent 

persons and to secure a larger per capita product.

He established a hospital * * * and a system of 

rigid sanitary supervision, both * * * of real and 

lasting benefit.

Successor to Mr. Stillings

Immediately after the report was 

submitted to the President, speculation 

arose as to the selection of a new Public 

Printer. On the basis of his report, Mr. 

Rossiter was being sponsored by certain 

groups, and the Washington Evening Star

of March 2 noted that “Employees of the 

office are on the tiptoe of expectancy as to 

who will succeed Mr. Stillings as Public 

Printer.’’ The Star on March 17 printed 

this headline: “President decides to name 

William S. Rossiter.’’ But shortly after, 

John S. Leech of Illinois was appointed.

At the time of his appointment, Mr. 

Leech was in Manila serving as the Philippine Public Printer. The Washington 

Post of June 9 reported that—

John S. Leech arrived in Washington from Manila, by way of San Francisco and Bloomington, 

Ill., his parents’ home. * * *

Mr. Leech comes “from the trade,’’ to speak 

in craft vernacular. He comes from a high position in the Government service to a higher, and 

even more active, office in the same service. * * * 

he learned the printing trade on the Bloomington Pantagraph. In 1889 he came to Washington 

as a compositor in the GPO, and later served as 

proofreader and foreman of the 5th Division.

Mr. Leech is an honorary member of Columbia Typographical union * * * and twice has represented that union in conventions of the ITU.
92

Wage Increase

On October 1, Public Printer Leech 

advanced the wages of 84 Linotype 

operators and 137 Monotype operators. 

Mr. Leech stated that the experimental 

stage of machine composition had long 

since passed, and that operators in the 

Office had not been receiving compensation comparable to that paid by private 

concerns in large cities.

Printers and bookbinders received 

50 cents per hour, with from 5 to 10 

cents added in the case of proofreaders, 

makers-up, or other occupation requiring 

special skill.

After 4 months of Leech’s administration, the GPO “situation’’ again became 

critical, for on October 31 the Post reported that—

Public Printer Leech will be relieved of his 

office after election, according to present intentions, and will be replaced by Samuel B. 

Donnelly. * * *

Mr. Leech has gone to his home in Illinois to 

remain until after election. The exacting work 

incident to the preparation of the printing office 

for the approaching session of Congress [December 7] has so broken Mr. Leech’s health that it is 

by the orders of his physician that he is to take 

a rest.

Donnelly Becomes Public Printer 

On December 1, the Post stated:

Samuel B. Donnelly, the newly appointed 

Public Printer, took the oath of office at the * * * 

White House yesterday * * *, succeeding John S. 

Leech, whose resignation had been accepted by 

the President * * * a precedent was established, 

as it is said that never before has a Public Printer 

or similar official been sworn in to his new duties 

at the executive mansion.

Mr. Donnelly, former president of the 

International Typographical Union in 

1899 and 1900, declared that—

I came to Washington to accept the position 

as head of the world’s largest printshop under 

strong protests from the officers and members of 

the New York Building Trades [he bad been a 

member of its board].

The Post also noticed Mr. Leech’s departure:

When the retiring Government printer 

[Leech] was leaving the office after his last day’s 

work there, * * * he was met at the door by more 

than a thousand of the employees, both women 

and men, who tried to show * * * the good feeling that existed in the office toward him.

“Record’s” 35th Anniversary

During the investigation and debate 

over a new Printer, however, the Office continued its printing work for the 

departments and Congress, and particularly the Congressional Record, whose beginning on March 5, 1873, had been created by another printing investigation. 

On March 4, the Washington Evening 

Star printed an article entitled “Record’s 

35th Anniversary; Congressional Publication Reaches Mature Age; Was Begun 

as Temporary Expedient While Bidders 

Fought.’’

At the present time 28,000 copies of the Record are printed, and the 3 presses have a combined capacity of 32,000 copies of a 120-page 

Record per hour.

1909

During the years 1904–08 the GPO 

had been the Government’s “problem 

child,’’ and the newspapers of the day 

had devoted much space to the series of 

investigations and the parade of successive Public Printers. Under Mr. Donnelly, however, the equilibrium of the 

Office was restored and for the next 

several years the GPO was to achieve an 

uncommon anonymity. According to Mr. 

Donnelly’s annual reports, the state of the 

public printing seemed to be in better, if 

not quieter, condition, and the following 

GPO printing years provided little excitement.
93

New Cost Ascertainment

Work production this year totaled 

$6,237,483. Congress for the first time 

placed the Documents Division on its own 

feet as a Government bureau, and its operating costs of $323,198 were not included 

in public printing and binding charges. 

This change caused a 5-percent reduction 

in bills for Government printing.

Branch Offices Acquired

This year marked the entry of the 

Treasury, Interior, and Agriculture branch 

printing offices into the GPO family.

1910

Further new business for the GPO 

was the awarding of a Post Office contract for printing postal cards beginning 

in February. Although the new work 

caused paper and mechanical difficulties, 

the Office produced 156,834,000 cards in 

October.

Motor Age Arrives

After consulting with other Government departments, as well as several 

commercial firms, all of whom had adopted electric trucks, the Public Printer 

recommended the substitution of trucks 

for his present horse-and-wagon delivery 

service.

In 1912, six electric trucks were purchased for $17,373. Old traffic equipment 

was sold, but six horses and two trucks 

were retained.

Paper Control

Pointing out departures from printing 

law, Mr. Donnelly advised departments 

that all paper for public printing must be 

purchased by GPO, so as to discourage 

department practice of furnishing paper 

for use in public printing and binding. 

The Office was now producing looseleaf 

binders and binding devices.

Plan To Reduce Accidents

In 1910, there were 770 industrial accidents in the GPO. The Medical and 

Sanitary Officer, appalled by the many 

industrial accidents in the Office, recommended that contracts for the purchases of 

“swiftly moving or power-driven machinery’’ should include an indemnity bond of, 

say 5 or 10 percent of total cost of machine 

for its useful life. A bond provided by the 

manufacturer would, after an accident, 

yield funds for the purchase of safety devices and guards to be placed on the machine. Such indemnification would insure 

to the Government “the saving of large 

sums of treasure * * * that is and would be 

otherwise wasted, so far as prevention and 

repetition of accidents are concerned.’’ 

It would insure the employee against 

“The receipt of possible injuries to 

limbs that mere money could not hope 

to offer adequate compensation.’’ And 

would insure the manufacturer “Relief 

from mental anguish, responsibility, and 

worry after an accident.’’

This humanitarian recommendation 

was not adopted, but industry recognized the problem by installing builtin safeguards. Workers, through safety 

committees and education in industrial 

good housekeeping practices, were able 

to reduce accident incidence.

Sunday Eulogy Edition

Congress in 1910 required the printing of a Congressional Record Sunday 

eulogy edition, at an extra expenditure of 

$7,803.27. By printing this edition in the 

Monday Record, the volume of Sunday 

work was reduced.
94

Documents Recommendations

The Superintendent noted the great 

waste in free distribution of Government 

publications. As an example, the Patent 

Office Official Gazette was sent to 3,190 

congressional designees. The Printing 

Investigation Commission sent a circular to the Gazette mailing list of 3,190. 

Of this number 1,543 (less than half) 

requested continued delivery, while 903 

did not want it. In addition, 744 failed to 

reply to repeated inquiries.

The sale of coupon books for purchasers of public documents was adopted, 

and books of twenty 5-cent coupons were 

sold for $1. Thus the purchaser was not 

compelled in every instance to either purchase a money order or to risk enclosing 

the amount in cash. This device stimulated sales.

1911

The Public Printer reported as follows:

In recognition of increased Office efficiency, he recommended a wage increase 

for employees.

The Joint Committee on Printing approved lighter weight paper for the Congressional Record and other Government 

printing, in addition to the elimination 

of unnecessarily heavy paper stock items 

from the Paper Catalog. These efforts toward economy met with hearty approval 

of departments.

Three bridges, on the second, third, 

and fourth floors, were constructed to 

cross the courtyard of new building.

A new money order press was purchased, thus materially reducing printing 

costs.

Pension Proposed

This year, 9 years before passage of 

original Federal Retirement Act of May 

22, 1920, the Public Printer recommended 

a Government pension for 250 Office 

employees over 65 years of age.

1912

Mr. Donnelly reported the following:

Increased individual production effected a 5-percent reduction in printing 

charges, saving Congress and the departments about $300,000.

A new garage was built on a vacant 

lot adjoining H Street Annex at a cost of 

$17,870.69.

The Public Printer noted that he had no 

control over volume of printing and binding. His responsibility consisted solely of 

GPO management and to control the cost 

of producing work authorized by law, 

but Office work was controlled by Congress and heads of executive departments 

and Government establishments.

Wage Increase

In considering wages, a congressional 

committee noted that Office employees 

enjoyed—

numerous advantages over the employees of 

commercial plants, such as greater permanency 

of employment; a month’s leave on full pay each 

year; extra pay for night, Sunday and holiday 

work; and shorter hours in many instances.

Printers and bookbinders were increased from 40 to 50 cents an hour, and 

pressmen, from 50 to 55 cents.

Superintendent of Documents

The Superintendent reported that he 

sold documents only to the public, that 

he did not give away public documents, 

but did supply free price lists.

He also requested an advertising appropriation—

so that thousands of dollars’ worth of books on 

our shelves, gathering dust and benefiting no 

one, would be turned into cash money if the 
95

public could be made aware of their existence 

and the modest selling prices.

The Check List covering Government 

publications from 1789 to 1909 was published and received acclaim from library 

world.

1913

On June 26, Cornelius Ford of New 

Jersey succeeded Mr. Donnelly as Public 

Printer. The new Public Printer submitted the following modernization 

recommendations to Congress:

That portion of the Monotype keyboard equipment first installed should be 

discarded, as it is now obsolete, and there 

should be installed 50 style “D’’ keyboards, 

90-em scale, in place of the 100 Monotype 

style “C’’ keyboards. Such a change would 

result in further decreased cost of production of Monotype composition.

In line with the changes in the Monotype equipment, there should also be an 

allowance in the appropriation act for the 

changing of the old Linotype machines to 

later models, and also a sufficient amount 

allowed for the installing of several of the 

latest improved Linotype machines.

The Joint Committee on Printing restricted free distribution of embossed stationery to Members of Congress.

1914

The highlights were:

Mr. Ford replaced 20- to 30-year-old 

presses now obsolete, and installed a new 

Congressional Record press and an offset 

press. [This is first appearance of “offset’’ 

in GPO annual reports.]

A new restroom on fifth floor was established for female employees “suffering from industrial fatigue; * * * a very 

humane and necessary adjunct to office.’’

The Congressional Record of May 6 contained 366 pages, the greatest in Office 

history. Requiring several days of production, it contained voluminous railroad records read into the Record by Senator La 

Follette of Wisconsin.

Field Offices Restricted

To prohibit the establishment of additional branch offices by the GPO, the 

following provision was included in the 

act of August 1, 1914:

No money appropriated by any act shall be 

used for maintaining more than one branch of 

the GPO in any one building occupied by any 

executive department or departments of the 

Government, nor shall any branch of the GPO 

be established unless specifically authorized by 

law.

1915

Congress adjourned after a 7-month 

session and several years of continuous 

sessions. The low volume of department 

work caused the elimination of the night 

force, forced a reduction of employees 

on the day shift, and necessitated shortperiod furloughs for all employees. Government departments responded quickly 

to the President’s appeal to provide work 

for the Office.

The Comptroller General decided that 

Office employees were entitled to leave of 

absence of 30 working days.

Offset Section Proposed

Mr. Ford urged that the GPO be permitted to adopt the new offset printing 

process:

Notwithstanding that new machinery has 

been purchased during the past year, much yet 

remains to be done to bring the plant up to the 

highest point of efficiency. Day-by-day increased 

demands are being made upon the Public Printer 

in the amount of printing and rapidity of execu-
96

tion. In line with progress and the advancement 

of new methods in the printing industry, I have 

taken up the question of offset printing with the 

ultimate object of installing this process. Offset 

presses and a suitable photomechanical process 

for the preparation of printing plates (zinc and 

aluminum) could probably be installed for about 

$60,000. The installation of this method will, in 

my judgment, provide for a wider range of work 

at greater speed and less cost. Between 6,000 and 

8,000 square feet of space would be required for 

offset presses and photomechanical equipment. 

[In 1926, the GPO formally entered the offset 

field.]

1916

Mr. Ford renewed a recommendation 

for a new offset division estimated to cost 

$80,000, which would enable production 

of large quantities of work at greatly reduced cost.

Congress again was asked to consider 

seriously a new building to replace the 

condemned old building so that space 

could be allocated for a new offset press 

section and to relieve overcrowded workrooms.

The Documents Division approached 

$200,000 in document sales, with over 47 

million documents sold, a 63-percent increase over 1915.

Patent Office printing was suspended 

again for lack of printing funds.

Mr. Ford again petitioned Congress 

for a pay increase for printers and bookbinders, whose pay was fixed by law. He 

stated that fairness and justice to the men 

required an increase from 50 cents to 55 

cents per hour.

Mr. Ford renewed request first made 

in 1911 for Government pension for Office workers ranging in age from 60 to 

80 years. He suggested that productive 

capacity of Office could be materially increased if some means could be found to 

encourage retirement, and younger persons employed. [The Federal Retirement 

Act was passed in 1920.]

1917

Declaration of war on April 6 resulted 

in the greatest demand in history on GPO. 

Preparedness and war activities required 

printing and binding far exceeding that 

of any previous year, for the war emergency demanded urgent and rush delivery of printing orders submitted at a 

moment’s notice. Orders ranged from 

1,000 to 25 million each, and were executed 

together with current congressional and 

departmental work, on a 24-hour basis.

In spite of such pressure, the daily 

average number of employees increased 

by only 145. Total operating expense 

increased 28 percent, because of extra 

night forces and overtime.

Production Miracles

The work force, aided by new work 

methods and the recent modernization 

program which had retired obsolete 

equipment, was able to meet the unprecedented demand for vitally needed 

war printing. The policy of replacing 

obsolete equipment with modern 

machinery paid handsome dividends 

during the crisis. New presses installed 

in 1916 accomplished a 30-percent 

output increase compared to the old 

presses. Also a factor was the ingenuity 

displayed in making combinations of 

forms and resulting economical runs.

In spite of the war climate, Post Office requirements had to be met. Postal 

cards totaled 1,063,649,044, a 3-percent 

increase over 1916. Under the paper regulations, the Post Office supplied about 

7 million pounds of stock, but the supply became exhausted several times, and 

caused a halt in production.

Bindery output increased 40 percent 

over 1916, with an increased work force 

of 400. To insure delivery, it was necessary in many instances to substitute 

cheaper but durable materials, with resultant savings of about $100,000.
97

Price Line Held

The scale of prices for public printing 

and binding held firm, although supplies 

and materials advanced in price, in some 

cases as much as 300 percent.

Paper Supply

The Joint Committee on Printing refused to award paper contracts at prices 

larger than in previous years. Paper was 

purchased in the open market at varying 

prices, and through direct personal appeals, Mr. Ford was able to obtain sufficient supplies of paper. He noted that 

paper costs represented 281

/2 percent of 

total printing charges, whereas in 1916 

paper represented but 18 percent.

Plant Maintenance

With the Office on a nonstop schedule, 

including Sundays and holidays, insufficient time was available for machine 

repairs. Considering the large number of 

productive machines, the force of trained 

mechanics kept the wheels turning with 

a minimum amount of lost time. For 

their fine efforts in maintaining production and to match salaries paid in private 

business, a slight wage increase was given 

to machinists, electricians, carpenters, 

and painters.

There were 1,612 industrial accidents 

during the year, an amount regarded 

as small because of the increased force 

working under high pressure and the 

hundreds of machines in constant operation.

Office Becomes Own Supplier

Difficult supply conditions in the trade 

turned GPO efforts toward self-sufficiency.

Approximately 30,000 pounds of ink 

was produced at substantial savings, in 

addition to convenience of manufacture 

on the premises.

After considerable testing, book lining or marble papers were also produced. 

This paper was formerly purchased, in 

some cases in foreign countries. Carboned papers, used in manifold books, 

were manufactured in the Office at onethird the outside cost.

Type metal, a vital necessity for the 

typesetting machines, was produced by 

the metal room, with a daily output of 

8 tons of linotype metal and 31

/2 tons of 

monotype metal. By salvaging and remelting dead type, the Office was able 

to reduce its annual purchase of 125,000 

pounds of virgin lead, antimony, and tin.

New Legislation

The act of March 3, 1917, abolished a 

printing branch in the State, War, and 

Navy Building, with work transferred to 

main GPO.

The same act transferred jurisdiction 

over contracts and purchases from the 

Secretary of the Interior to the Public 

Printer when Congress was not in session.

New Building Needed

Mr. Ford again advised Congress of 

imperative need for new building. The 

new building occupied in 1903 had 

been declared inadequate even before 

completion, and Public Printers since 

had appealed for more working space. 

The progressive increase in workload 

was greater than expected, in addition 

to many changes in Office organization. 

These unforeseen changes, usually by act 

of Congress, included:

(a) Transfer to GPO of six large branch printing offices from various departments to relieve 

their space problems. This work was shifted to 

GPO without provision for additional space.

(b) Departments had abolished publication 

mailing divisions because of similar GPO functions. All mailing was now centralized in the 

GPO, already suffering space shortage.

(c) A Post Office contract for postal card 

printing required about 4 million cards daily, 

with space necessary for hundreds of rolls of 
98

stock and provision for safekeeping cards awaiting shipment. A new division was established 

separate from rest of Office.

(d) Printing of money order forms also required establishment of a new division, likewise 

creating additional storage problems.

(e) Entrance of GPO into manufacturing activities induced by supply shortages, such as inks, 

rollers, carbon and lining paper, type metal, all 

of which required considerable working space.

Mr. Ford also noted that the Office 

needed more storage space for supplies, 

room for installation of offset presses and 

accompanying photomechanical equipment, and more room for production 

divisions which needed more equipment, 

but without room to place it. Therefore 

a new building on site of old GPO was 

an “absolute, imperative, and immediate 

necessity.’’

Pay Increases Suggested

Numerous resignations took place this 

year, with many requests for transfer to 

other departments offering more attractive salaries for the same work. Congress 

attempted to halt the exodus by prohibiting transfers at a higher rate for 1 year, 

but Office employees continued to resign 

and then wait out 1-year prohibition. Mr. 

Ford pleaded that “without the consent 

of Congress, I cannot offer such inducement [higher wages] to those employees 

whose salaries are regulated by law.’’ 

He once more requested an increase for 

printers, pressmen, and bookbinders, and 

recommended that these crafts be paid 60 

cents an hour.

1918

War activities were responsible for a 

printing product of over $12,205,000, far 

in excess of any year in Office history. The 

immediate preceding years had produced 

successive record highs, but the many 

new bureaus and expansion of work in 

established departments demanded enormous quantities of printing and binding 

for immediate use. Warwork naturally 

received priority over routine work. 

About 900 more workers were added, 

and most divisions were on three 8-hour 

shifts. With an unlimited number of orders on hand, planning procedures were 

adopted so that a vast quantity of finished 

work was produced advantageously and 

at a cost less than commercial prices.

A greater part of the huge workload, 

in addition to the customary work for 

Congress and the various departments, 

was the military printing demand.

The Army required millions of copies 

of drillbooks, handbooks, regulations, etc., 

clothbound, for immediate delivery. The 

Navy also needed vast quantities of printing and binding, with charges for these two 

departments totaling over $41

/2 million.

War agencies demanded—and received—75 million thrift cards, 25 million questionnaires and blanks, 27 million 

notices of classifications, and numerous 

orders ranging from 1 to 5 million each.

Agriculture was furnished many millions of posters, pamphlets, and circulars 

in food-for-war campaigns, and 18 million Farmers’ Bulletins were also printed.

The old-line agencies contributed to 

the printing pressure. In addition to 350 

annual reports with runs ranging from 

1,000 to 450,000 copies, the departments 

also required about 100 dated periodicals, including 8 daily, 22 weekly, and 58 

monthly publications, running between 

500 and 200,000 copies.

Office Prices Versus Commercial

Mr. Ford noted that printing needs 

were “increasing by leaps and bounds.’’ 

He also noted that departments had purchased considerable printing from commercial sources, and that charges were 

higher than the Office scale of prices. 

Such charges, he claimed, varied from 2 

to 470 percent higher, but approximately 

60 percent could have been saved if the 

work had been performed in this Office.
99

Without making any reflection whatever, it 

is evident that * * * bureaus of the Government 

have paid excessive prices for printing. * * * all 

printing and binding * * * should be handled by 

the Public Printer, who is in reality the official 

printer for the Government and who should be 

responsible for all of that work.

Mr. Ford recommended—

immediate legislation that will require all printing and binding orders * * * to be placed direct 

with the Public Printer and to be done in the 

GPO, with proviso that such work as cannot at 

any time be handled in the GPO may be let out 

by the Public Printer on contract to commercial 

printing offices.

New Machinery Funds

After the purchase excesses of 1904–07, 

Congress had placed fiscal restraints on 

the amount of GPO purchases. Fretting 

over his inability to meet printing demands within fixed money limits, Mr. 

Ford in his annual report stated:

Experience shows that the output of a new 

machine generally is from 30 to 50 percent 

greater than that of the old one it replaces, and 

the initial cost is thus soon made up. The Public Printer’s expenditure for machinery is fixed 

at not over $100,000 per year. In ordinary times 

and with ordinary prices prevailing, this limited 

amount could possibly be gotten along with, but 

under present conditions of constantly increasing prices, together with the urgent need for 

more machinery in order to produce the larger 

amount of work demanded from this Office, a 

$100,000 limit for machinery is altogether insufficient, and is a very serious detriment to the 

service. The Public Printer should be free to 

purchase the machinery he knows is needed if 

he can so arrange it out of his total appropriation, and I recommend that he be authorized to 

expend, if needs of the service so demand, up to 

$200,000 for machinery out of the regular appropriation for printing and binding.

Secret Work

With the country at war, the Office and 

its war printing presented a sensitive security problem. Mr. Ford reported that—

Secret and confidential publications, of which 

there were very many, were handled throughout the Office under strict and ironclad regulations, preventing any premature publicity or any 

breach of confidence * * *.

Printing Prices Reduced

The year presented an interesting 

anomaly of increased costs and wages, 

accompanied by a 5-percent reduction 

in charges to departments. Wages were 

necessarily increased to retain certain 

classes of labor, but through improved 

supervision and the hearty cooperation of 

employees—

all of whom realized that their chance of helping win the war lay right in this office, the individual output was gradually increased until 

it met and then overcame the larger operating 

expense * * *.

Post Office Printing

Although the accent was on warwork, 

the Post Office was also busy. Over 1,151 

million postal cards were printed, representing an increase of 88,338,162 over 

1917. The successful handling of this 

class of work was emphasized when 

the Office, under competitive bidding, 

secured a 4-year contract for printing 

postal cards, effective January 1.

Paper

Securing an adequate supply of paper 

assumed serious proportions. The Joint 

Committee on Printing had made awards 

for about one-half of estimated needs, 

but later canceled most of the contracts 

because of increases in cost of production. By open-market buying, the Public 

Printer procured a large amount of paper 

stock, but embargoes on railroads and 

scarcity of fuel at papermills occasioned 

delays in delivery.

Documents Division

The operations of this Division involved the distribution of over 44 1

/2 million publications, the sale of 7,853,886 
100

pamphlets and books, the handling of 

over 297,000 letters requesting information, the compilation of catalogs and 

price lists, and the maintenance of 1,150 

mailing lists with over 1 million names.

End of War

Signing of the Armistice on November 11 found the Office in full swing on 

largest output in history. All productive 

divisions operated on three 8-hour schedules. Shortly after, a letup was apparent 

because of wholesale cancellation of war 

printing. This slowing down was of short 

duration, for work held back by departments and printing for postwar recovery 

began to pour in. In addition, Congress 

was in session 91

/2 months, requiring 

more than normal quantity of printing.

1919

This printing year was marked by an 

extremely heavy personnel turnover of 

5,000 employees because of transfer, resignations, and death.

Congress on March 1 approved a bill 

which provided funds to the City Post 

Office for heat, light, and power supplied 

by the GPO plant. Public Printers’ yearly 

reminders finally bore fruit, for about 

$45,000 would now be paid to the Office.

Wage Increase

Congress authorized bonus payment 

of 8.6 cents an hour to workers in lieu of 

pay increase. Printing charges to departments were increased 5 percent because 

of the bonus and increased cost of materials.

Reclamation of “Globe’’ Plates

About 440,000 pounds of excellent 

metal, valued at $45,000, was reclaimed 

from old plates of the Congressional Globe

and Congressional Record. The Globe,

predecessor to the Record, dated back to 

1833, and these plates had been in the 

Globe vault in a building at the rear of 

Third Street, near C Street NW. The reclaimed metal thus entered the production stream of the Office, and the vault 

was used for storage of Office records.

New Building

Public Act 314, approved by Congress 

on March 1, directed that practically 

all Government printing and binding 

should be done in GPO. As in former 

years, Mr. Ford reemphasized the need 

for a new building.

Public Documents

Publications totaling 61 million were 

distributed, the great bulk representing 

free distribution by departments. Mr. 

Ford was “convinced that the present 

method of free distribution is conducive 

of waste in that publications in many 

cases go to persons who can put them 

to no good use.’’ Mailing lists totaled 

1,170, and had over 1 million names. 

Typists, catalogers, and indexers continued in short supply, because low salaries 

set by law forced them to accept similar 

positions elsewhere at better pay; some 

positions authorized by law could not be 

filled; and salaries were entirely too low 

for eligibles who would not accept the 

only offer possible under law.

Mr. Ford recommended review of unrealistic departmental printing orders. 

He suggested printing orders should 

cover only official and initial distribution, and not anticipated public demand, 

thus permitting the Office to satisfy 

demand when it developed.

He also recommended establishment 

in GPO of a centralized bureau of distribution and information through which 

the public “shall be correctly informed as 

to the activities of the Government.’’
101

1920

Congress was in session for about 11 

months, with congressional work exceeding the previous year by 57 percent.

Public Act 23, approved August 2, 

1919, directed an increase to 75 cents an 

hour for printers, pressmen, and bookbinders. The pay increase, however, did 

not meet commercial rates, and there was 

steady attrition in all classes of skilled 

workers who not unnaturally were attracted by higher wages in private plants. 

This increase, together with mounting 

costs of paper and materials, required a 

10-percent increase in printing charges.

A total of 700 million postal cards was 

produced. For the first time, stock for 

this work, formerly purchased by the 

Post Office and furnished to GPO, was 

purchased direct by the Public Printer.

The paper supply situation became 

critical when advertisements failed to attract bids, but personal pleas to the paper 

trade by Mr. Ford produced sufficient 

stock to meet Government needs. All 

employees were cautioned to avoid waste, 

and spoilage allowance was reduced.

Public Documents

Mailing lists totaled 1,159, with 

1,066,000 names. The Joint Committee 

on Printing reduced printing of reports, 

documents, and publications to 1,000 

copies, thus limiting free distribution 

by departments and tending to increase 

sales. Over 55 million publications were 

distributed in 1920.

1921

Government Wastepaper

Mr. Ford protested to Congress that 

the Office, under law, was burdened with 

the handling of all departmental wastepaper. This year over 12 million pounds 

was baled and shipped, but moneys received reverted to the Treasury, and the 

costs incurred were included in printing 

charges. He regarded this procedure as 

an unfair burden, for such paper required 

pickup and handling by the Office, and 

in addition, paper from the departments 

contained—

much filth, discarded lunches, old clothing and 

shoes * * *. This undesirable accumulation has 

attracted an army of rats and vermin to the GPO 

* * *, which is a printing plant and not a junk 

yard.

On April 5, George H. Carter of 

Iowa became Public Printer. As clerk to 

the Joint Committee on Printing for 12 

years, Mr. Carter was familiar with GPO 

operations, and as a practical printer, was 

versed in the graphic arts. Taking over 

from Mr. Ford, Mr. Carter stated that—

President [Harding] simply but impressively 

instructed me to operate the “big shop” on a 

strictly business basis, to stop wastes and extravagances in the public printing and binding as far 

as was within the power of the Public Printer, 

and to place the personnel of the office above all 

suspicion as to honesty and integrity. * * * [The 

Office] is entitled to be treated as a big business 

proposition, free from all partisan bias and selfish interests.

Economy Keynote

Mr. Carter immediately instituted 

numerous economies in printing and 

binding. He also returned $2,400,000 in 

unspent printing funds to the Treasury. 

Assuming office with less than 3 months 

of the fiscal year remaining, he resisted 

the temptation to “stock up’’ on equipment and plant improvements, ignoring 

the “precedents of this office * * * in an 

orgy of purchases * * * with an unexpended balance.’’

Another step toward economy concerned the Public Printer’s annual report. 

On June 16, Congress had authorized a 

reduction in the size of annual reports, 

and Mr. Carter promptly cut his current 
102

report to 56 pages, in sharp contrast to the 

716-page report of 1920. Extensive—and 

expensive—statistical tables were omitted, 

with only 12 pages in 1921 compared to 

almost 700 in 1920. Removed from public 

gaze forever were lengthy tables listing, 

by department, every publication printed 

in the GPO; each individual sale by the 

Superintendent of Documents; each purchase of paper, engravings, equipment, 

materials, and supplies; and the earnings 

of Office employees, according to hours 

worked and total wages.

Savings in Paper

As clerk to the Joint Committee on 

Printing, which controlled the awards 

of paper contracts, he had acquired experience in gaging the state of the paper 

market. In his annual report he stated 

that on January 31, the Joint Committee 

had opened bids for the annual supply of 

paper. The committee concluded that the 

quoted prices were too high and therefore rejected all proposals. Three weeks 

later, on February 21, a declining paper 

market had lowered bids by $684,638. 

A 3-month supply was ordered, and by 

June 1 prices had declined an additional 

25 to 50 percent. The wisdom of the committee in rejecting the early proposals for 

the Government had saved $1 million by 

withholding paper awards.

New Accounting Division

This year saw the beginning of the U.S. 

Bureau of the Budget. To provide the 

fullest cooperation to the new Bureau, 

the GPO consolidated the accountant’s 

and cost accounting sections into the Division of Accounts, under the direction of 

a Superintendent of Accounts, who also 

served as budget officer.

Centralized control over all accounting activities, which included 65,000 accounts, in addition to an accurate cost 

system, financial reports, and work and 

pay records of 4,500 employees, produced 

important savings. The Office, in conjunction with the Budget Bureau, set up 

an interdepartmental Permanent Conference on Printing, with the Public Printer 

as permanent chairman. Approved by 

the President, the conference effected 

substantial economies in public printing. 

The GPO supplemented the conference 

by the organization of a Requisitions Review Board, which examined all printing 

and binding requisitions for the purpose 

of effecting further economies and standardization of similar printing needs of 

various departments.

Postal Guide Printing

For the first time the GPO printed the 

Official Postal Guide. This publication had 

for many years been printed in Albany, 

N.Y. On April 21 the Joint Committee on 

Printing authorized the Public Printer to 

undertake the printing of the Guide. On 

May 3 first copy was received, corrections 

were made up to July 1, and on July 9, 

the Postmaster General received 91,711 

copies of the 928-page Guide and 12,000 

copies of a 628-page abridged edition.

Government printing produced the 

immediate effect of reducing the former 

$1.50 price to $1, and additional monthly 

supplements from 75 cents to 50 cents.

“Record” Issued on Time

The Joint Committee on Printing had 

established a midnight deadline for the 

submission of “Extensions of Remarks’’ 

by Members of Congress in the Congressional Record. Some Congressmen had 

developed the habit of sending in copy 

for such “speeches at all hours of the 

morning.’’ Placing the Record on a regular schedule, the Public Printer avoided 

delays in mail deliveries to distant points.

With an inflexible deadline, the night 

force on a Saturday half workday produced an entire edition of 32,500 copies 

in 4 hours. The force set a new produc-
103

tion mark when the 64-page issue was 

set, plated, printed, wrapped, and delivered to the Post Office by 7:45 a.m.

Work Expands

Congress, in 1919, widened the scope 

of public printing performed by the 

GPO. When it passed an act which required that—

On and after July 1, 1919, all printing, binding, 

and blank-book work for Congress, the Executive Office, the judiciary, and every executive department, independent office, and establishment 

of the Government, shall be done at the GPO, 

except such classes of work as shall be deemed 

by the Joint Committee on Printing to be urgent 

or necessary to have done elsewhere than in the 

District of Columbia for the exclusive use of any 

field service outside of said District.

The effect of the law placed in the Office 

all printing formerly financed by funds 

other than regular printing appropriations. Known as repay work, it had been 

executed by Government field printing 

plants or procured from contract printers 

in various parts of the country. Mr. Carter 

recommended legislation which would 

confine all individual department printing needs in one specific fund, instead of 

a small printing allocation supplemented 

by a larger fund diverted from another 

lump-sum authorization.

Printing Charges Reduced

Economies achieved in work operations and savings in paper purchases produced substantial reductions in the scale 

of charges. Composition costs were reduced 10 cents per 1,000 ems, and postal 

card costs were lowered by 36 percent, 

for a saving to the Post Office of $168,112. 

In addition, charges for printing congressional speeches were cut by 25 percent.

Reduced Personnel and More Work

The Public Printer reported a reduction of 510 employees on the rolls. With 

new printing appropriations available on 

July 1, the departments flooded the office 

with copy, stocking up more than double 

the number of folios on hand at the same 

time in 1920. Because of the vast quantity 

of copy on hand, the Office made special 

efforts to obtain slug-casting machine operators. However, strike conditions in the 

trade and keen competition for machine 

operators handicapped the Office in obtaining an adequate number of competent operators.

Retirement Act in Effect

On August 20, 1920, the civil service 

employees’ retirement act became effective. In the first fiscal year of the act’s operation, 179 employees retired, of whom 

123 retired at 65 years, and 56 at 70 years. 

Of the total 317 employees eligible for 

retirement on August 20, 1920, 164 received 2-year extensions.

The Public Printer noted that—

The retirement act has not been in operation 

long enough to fully determine all of its weak 

and strong points, but it is apparent already that 

even the maximum retirement pension of $720 

a year, which only 70 out of 179 received, is in 

many cases grossly inadequate compensation for 

employees who have devoted most of their lives 

to faithful service of the Government.

Government Bookstore

Local sales of Government publications had grown rapidly with the establishment of information bureaus and 

headquarters of various national organizations in Washington. Noting the 

increased demand for documents, the 

Superintendent of Documents was 

directed to set up a retail bookstore on 

the first floor of the Documents building. 

Designed for the convenience of the public who formerly had to ride in a freight 

elevator to the sixth floor, the bookstore 

would provide better service and would 

be helpful not only to the public but also 

to Government employees.
104

The Public Printer once more advocated a policy of selling publications at 

cost rather than the prevailing giveaway 

distribution.

Employee Welfare

Interested in improving working conditions from the humanitarian point of 

view and the resulting increased efficiency 

from a “well-contented and physically 

fit work force,’’ Mr. Carter began an employee welfare program. Employees were 

forced to eat cold lunches on workbenches 

or be serviced by peddlers who roamed 

through the building. The largest printing office in the world had no place for 

recreation or assemblage of employees, 

for these were the “good old days,’’ not 

only typical of the GPO but also of other 

industrial establishments of the time.

The first step was the alteration of the 

eighth, or attic, floor of the main building, which served as a playroom for rats 

amid heaps of rubbish. Its 20-year-old 

roof was badly cracked, and heavy rains 

leaked through to the seventh floor containing a million dollars’ worth of machinery.

Plans were drawn to erect a full floor in 

place of the attic and to provide an adequate cafeteria, rest and recreation rooms, 

a much-needed photoengraving plant, 

and metal and storage rooms. The recommendation received the hearty approval of 

the Joint Committee on Printing.

1922

The conversion of the almost useless 

attic into an eighth floor was completed 

when Harding Hall, named in honor 

of the first printer-President, was dedicated on Christmas eve, 1921. Harding 

Hall now became the center of Office 

recreational activities. Here Christmas 

parties were held for children of employees. During Friday lunch periods an 

employee orchestra provided music for 

employees “who go back to their tasks 

* * * with a smile and a cheer that are 

readily reflected in the increased effi

ciency of a happy and contented lot 

of employees.’’ The first organization 

granted the use of Harding Hall was 

GPO Unit No. 1 of the United Veterans of American Wars, composed of 500 

employees who had served in the Civil, 

Indian, Spanish, and World Wars.

Operated by the employee-controlled 

Cafeteria & Recreation Association 

which had been organized in 1921, the 

cafeteria opened for regular service on 

January 23, 1922. The association was incorporated in 1951. Also available were 

rest and recreation rooms, and its equipment included two fine pianos, a $1,600 

concert grand, and four bowling alleys.

There was noted an immediate increase 

in Office production from “a more competent and contented lot of employees.’’ 

The Washington Evening Star made a 

study of the new facilities and estimated 

that GPO employees were saving $200,000 

a year in the reduced cost of meals.” The 

Public Printer felt that the Star may have 

overstated the case, “but there is no doubt 

that the cafeteria, serving a full-course 

luncheon for 25 cents, had reduced the 

cost of living for [GPO] employees many 

thousands of dollars annually.’’

Apprentice School Opens

Because of the shortage of skilled 

craftsmen and a reduced work force, 

Mr. Carter recommended an apprentice-training program. The Office had 

abandoned its loose apprentice system in 

1886 after Mr. Benedict had rejected the 

role of Government in producing skilled 

workers at Government expense.

In 1895 Congress had authorized the 

employment of 25 apprentices to receive 

training in the graphic arts. Twentyseven years passed, and during that 

period no Public Printer had taken 
105

advantage of the law (see “1895, New 

Printing Act’’) to provide an adequate 

reservoir of trained craftsmen to carry on 

the work of the Office.

Mr. Carter stated that it is “highly essential that the GPO resume the work of 

training its own workers.’’ He also advocated the opportunity for war veterans 

to receive vocational training, and noted 

that the GPO employed 433 war veterans—Civil War, 20; Spanish War, 124; 

and World War, 289.

A nationwide civil service examination 

was taken by 162 apprenticeship candidates. Of that number, 118 qualified for 

appointment, including 20 Office messengers—

who had become inspired by their close association with the work of this office to learn a useful 

trade. The school began a work which it is hoped 

the Government will never discontinue again.

The first apprentices were appointed 

on July 5, 1922, when the Joint Committee on Printing stated that “it is a good 

American doctrine to give the American 

boy a chance to learn a trade.’’ However, 

indentured apprentices were forbidden to 

marry during their training period. (See 

“1923, Apprentice school expanded.’’)

Readjustment of Wages

The Public Printer requested that 

Congress take some action toward a uniform system of adjusting GPO wages. 

The current wage adjustment procedure 

required some reform so as to meet new 

conditions, for there was constant inequality between the statutory wages for 

printers, pressmen, and bookbinders, and 

the discretionary wages fixed by the Public Printer for all other crafts, including 

bindery workers.

A bill pending in the Senate provided 

that wages of all skilled and unskilled 

workers should be subject to discussion 

between the head of an establishment 

similar to the GPO and a trade representative. The bill failed to pass.

Office Workweek

The Office was on a 44-hour, 51

/2 -day 

workweek. The practice of working 6 

full days had developed, with the Saturday half holiday of 4 hours devoted to 

work at double time. Mr. Carter objected 

to 52 hours’ pay for 48 hours’ work.

He therefore suggested a reduction of 

the 30 days’ annual leave to 14 days, plus 

52 Saturday half holidays, for a total of 

40 days. In addition, he recommended 

14 days’ sick leave, a privilege enjoyed by 

Government, but denied to the GPO.

Recognition of Women Employees

Mr. Carter made a gallant gesture toward the 900 GPO women employees, 

who comprised more than 22 percent of 

the entire force. Stating that little or no 

recognition had been given to women 

workers, he—

determined that, as far as it lies within my 

power, women employees should be granted the 

same opportunity and equal regard for service 

as the men who had heretofore monopolized all 

the supervisory and better paid positions * * *. 

Accordingly, for the first time in [GPO] history, 

several thoroughly competent women workers 

were advanced * * *.

Among those promoted were Josephine 

Adams, Assistant Superintendent of Documents; Martha Feehan, Assistant Foreman of 

Day Proofroom, which had nearly 200 employees, mostly men; and Mary T. Spalding, Foreman of Bindery Machine Sewing Section. Also, 

for the first time in the 60 years of Office history, 

a woman was appointed secretary to the Public 

Printer in the selection of Mary A. Tate.

New Financial Plan

In 1921 the Public Printer had recommended a “one fund’’ plan for departmental printing appropriations. This 

year he reported with “much gratification that Congress * * * adopted substantially all of the recommendations * * * for 

revising and making more businesslike 

[GPO] fiscal affairs * * *.’’ He had recommended that—
106

the antiquated method of handling part of the 

printing appropriations by means of allotments 

through this Office be discontinued and thereafter all printing appropriations be made to the 

various departments, with simply a sufficient 

direct [GPO] appropriation to provide it with a 

working capital until other funds were available 

by repays from departmental appropriations * * *.

The plan was adopted by Congress effective July 1. The Office received a direct appropriation of $2 million as working capital for the year, against which it 

was authorized to charge all printing and 

binding done for Congress in an amount 

not to exceed that sum. At the same time 

it authorized departments to incorporate 

all printing items in one appropriation, in 

contrast to the former allocation method 

which was usually supplemented by juggling other nonprinting funds.

Congress also adopted another recommendation to consolidate Office leave 

funds, formerly provided in deficiency 

appropriations which supplemented the 

regular printing appropriation. A further fiscal change involved the printing 

of congressional speeches. From $75,000 

to $150,000 a year had been turned over 

to the Treasury as miscellaneous receipts 

for this printing, but the expense was a 

dead loss to the GPO, for the production 

costs were charged against other Government printing. This expense under the 

law would now be charged against congressional working capital.

Control Over Periodicals

On May 11, Congress vested in the 

Bureau of the Budget the authority to 

approve the printing of departmental 

periodicals.

GPO Pulp and Paper Mill

Mr. Carter reported serious consideration of the establishment of a GPO paper 

mill. He stated that—

paper is the only material, aside from cover 

cloths, entering into the production of a book 

that is not made by the GPO. All the type, electrotypes, stereotypes, type metal, inks, rollers, 

glue, and paste used in the GPO are manufactured in this Office.

He also anticipated the new photoengraving section which would produce 

line-cuts and halftones in 1923.

He insisted that a GPO papermill 

“supplying 135 square miles of paper every year is not a radical innovation or the 

idle dream of a Government-ownership 

enthusiast.’’

In 1916, as clerk of the Joint Committee on Printing, he had drafted a bill for 

such a purpose. Similar bills had been introduced in almost every Congress since, 

but without success. Mr. Carter noted 

that the Nation owned vast national forests, and that—

Government timber could be cut into Government pulp wood for the making of Government 

pulp, from which, with the aid of Government 

water power, there could be manufactured Government paper upon which to print Government 

publications by a Government plant that has 

been in operation at Government expense for 

more than 60 years.

Improved Purchasing Procedures

In addition to a Government papermill, he offered other paper recommendations. He noted that paper needs in 

the preceding year took 37 cents of every 

printing dollar, but the current cost was 

27 cents. With the Office using from 40 

to 50 million pounds of paper each year, 

there was also need for centralized purchasing, a central warehouse, and better 

standardization of specifications.

He found that various Government 

agencies, including the GPO, were competing with each other, often purchasing the same grade of paper from the 

same contractor at various prices. Even 

the Clerk of the House and Secretary of 

the Senate bought paper for Members 

of Congress. Therefore a central agency 

should be set up to purchase paper on one 

schedule according to a single standard 

of specifications, inspected in a uniform 
107

manner, and stored in a central warehouse for issue to the various branches 

of Government. He excluded, of course, 

paper for printing U.S. currency.

Testing Section Created

The Printing Act of 1895 required that 

the Public Printer—

shall compare every lot of paper delivered by 

any contractor with the standard of quality fixed 

upon by the Joint Committee on Printing and 

shall not accept any paper which does not conform to it in every particular.

Many former Public Printers had complained of poor-quality paper, and the act 

attempted to set up better controls. Originally, paper samples were tested by other 

Government departments, particularly 

the Bureau of Standards and Department 

of Agriculture. These bureaus were remote from the Office and were preoccupied with their own work, with the result 

that sometimes “our big presses had to be 

held up for hours * * * awaiting reports 

from the outside laboratories.’’

Faced with testing problems of paper 

and other printing materials, Mr. Carter 

established a Testing Section on April 5, 

1922. Organized with six employees and 

a yearly outlay of $13,000, the Section 

slowly expanded to conduct research and 

tests on paper, type metal, printing and 

stencil inks, bindery adhesives, detergents, 

lubricants, textiles, leathers, threads, and 

other printing and binding materials. It 

set an example for commercial industries 

and trade associations, and in later years 

worked in cooperation with these groups.

The Section produced immediate savings which overcame the total cost of the 

laboratory by manufacturing a stencil ink 

for Government use at a cost of 32 cents 

a pound, compared with $1.95 to $3 a 

pound from commercial sources.

The Public Printer noted that the Section—

had already aided materially in bringing about a 

more cordial feeling and understanding between 

the Government and contractors doing business 

with the GPO. * * * The work of the section bids 

fair to become one of the outstanding features 

of the GPO, and the results of its investigations 

* * * of inestimable value to the printing trade 

in general.

Fire Menace

The Public Printer “again most seriously invited’’ the attention of Congress 

to the inherent fire hazards of the old 

building. He stated:

If a fire once got underway, * * * nothing 

could stop the flames until they had wiped out, 

not only the old building but also the new building and the Documents Office as well.

He added:

Government would come to a standstill, and 

Congress would have nowhere else to go for the 

timely printing of the Congressional Record and 

bills, reports, and other papers required in the 

course of legislation.

In summary, he suggested that the 

Government owned the land on which 

the new building could be erected; that 

the necessary $3,500,000 for the new 

building had been offset by 2 years’ savings of $4,413,962 in unspent appropriations returned to the Treasury; and that 

there was “yet time to save this great 

establishment from destruction by fire 

which seems inevitable sooner or later.’’

“Style Manual” Revision

The Style Manual received a thorough 

revision. Approved by the Joint Committee on Printing and the Permanent 

Conference on Printing, the Manual was 

instrumental in reducing authors’ alterations.

There had been no revision of the Manual for 9 years and the style of Government printing had seriously deteriorated 

through lack of uniformity and disregard 

of the rules for good printing usage. A 

Board of Revision [later the Style Board] 

was designated by the Public Printer to 
108

study the best authorities on writing and 

printing. Accepted as official style by 

all departments of the Government, the 

Manual would “insure greater uniformity of style and serve as a model for all 

good writers and good printers’’ (see also 

“1933, Revision of Style Manual’’).

Documents Expanded

By act of Congress approved May 27, 

the Superintendent of Documents was 

given authority to print and sell, without limit, any Government publication. 

Thus the Superintendent of Documents 

became the “greatest book salesman in 

the United States.’’

The Superintendent of Documents 

noted that the production of Government 

publications in the last 13 years was twice 

as large as the number issued in the 121 

years of Government from 1789 to 1909.

New Power Source

On July 1, Congress approved a plan 

which permitted the Office to receive its 

power from an enlarged Capitol Power 

Plant. In one step, it avoided replacement 

of rundown boilers and also eliminated 

the burden of supplying free power to 

the Post Office. The practical abandonment of the GPO plant produced a daily 

saving of 1 million gallons of water, provided much-needed space for storage and 

carpenter and paint shops, and a decrease 

of employees by 42 men.

Printing of “U.S. Reports”

By direction of Congress in an act approved July 1, the Office undertook the 

printing and sale of the official Reports 

of the U.S. Supreme Court. Ever since 

the Supreme Court was established, its 

reports had been published by a private 

company. Although the GPO had been 

capable of doing this work for many 

years, the Government had to procure all 

reports from the publisher, who was permitted to copyright and sell them to the 

public at a generous profit.

1923

The fiscal year 1923 proved to be one 

of the most important in GPO history. By 

an aggressive and progressive improvement program, the Office inaugurated 

new divisions and procedures designed 

to increase its usefulness to Government 

and the printing industry in general. By 

establishing the Photoengraving, Testing, and Planning Divisions; by purchase 

of more efficient machinery; by expanding its apprentice training facilities; by 

introducing the first wage collectivebargaining procedure, resulting in the 

Kiess Act in 1924—these and many other 

measures were aimed toward creating a 

bigger and better GPO.

Department Printing Funds

Beginning this year, printing appropriations were made direct to departments, 

as compared to the old system of making 

the entire printing appropriation to GPO 

and then allotting portions of this fund 

to various departments. This radical but 

commonsense plan was proposed by Mr. 

Carter and accepted by Congress. The 

GPO, under the new procedure, received 

working capital against which only congressional printing could be charged. All 

work now performed by the Office, except for Congress, was placed on a repay 

basis and handled in the same manner as 

though the Office were a private printer. 

The method was more businesslike, more 

satisfactory, and simpler in operation, 

and compelled departments to scrutinize 

more closely their printing expenditures 

and publication orders.

Congress also accepted Mr. Carter’s 

recommendation that departments be 

provided with only one fund for printing and binding, contrasted to the former 
109

GPO allotment and separate department 

appropriation. By so doing, printing accounts were greatly simplified and better 

supervision was maintained over expenditures.

The Public Printer said: “Known as 

the largest printing plant in the world, it 

[GPO] shall also be known as the most efficient plant in the world.’’

Words of Praise

Contrary to the general belief that 

commercial printers viewed with alarm 

the continued growth of the GPO, the 

United Typothetae of America, composed of the employing printers in the 

United States and Canada, passed the 

following resolution:

Whereas the Public Printer [George H. 

Carter] has in so many ways evidenced a sympathetic and intelligent understanding of the problems confronting a Master Printer; and

Whereas through the solution of the problems 

in the GPO our problems are rendered less difficult; and

Whereas his program for the selection and development of apprentices is progressing in such 

a favorable manner, an excellent example for us 

to follow; and

Whereas the GPO is a striking illustration of 

what can be accomplished with less government 

put into business and more business put into 

government; and

Whereas the Public Printer, assisted by his 

staff and associates, has done so much to make 

this convention an enjoyable and memorable one 

for all in attendance: Therefore be it

Resolved in convention assembled, That the 

sincere thanks of this convention be, and are 

hereby, extended to the Public Printer.

Annual Reports Reduced

In 1921 Congress authorized departments to discontinue or curtail the printing of annual reports. The cost of printing these reports fell from $360,436 in 

1920 to $207,721 in 1922, for a saving of 

$152,715. Printed copies for this period 

fell from 481,700 to 370,904.

The Public Printer also conformed to 

the annual report economy by eliminating many pages of useless statistics in his 

own reports. From a cost of $17,404.06 

for GPO annual reports 1918–20, costs 

for 1921–23 were reduced to $1,155.42.

New Paper Standards

By adopting a uniform 8- by 101

/2 -inch 

letterhead, $50,000 a year was saved; also, 

with approval by the Joint Committee 

on Printing, millions of envelopes for 

congressional mail were reduced from 12 

to 4 sizes.

Postwar Printing

The return to peacetime by the Army 

and Navy was shown by total defense 

printing costs of $967,153.42 in 1923, 

compared to the printing bill of $41

/2

million in 1918. In contrast, Veterans’ 

Bureau printing requirements jumped 

from 315,000 copies in 1922 to 3,402,000 

in 1923.

Photoengraving Section

For the first time, the GPO became selfsufficient by producing its own engravings and illustrations. A modern Photoengraving Section was established on 

the new eighth floor at a cost of $17,000. 

Since the beginning of the GPO in 1861, 

all engraving work was produced in private plants scattered throughout the East 

and Midwest. In 1922, engravings and 

illustrations purchased from the industry 

totaled $277,260.

Equipment

The Office continued to grow, 

with printing equipment estimated at 

$3,235,053 at 1923 market prices. In addition to 167 printing presses ranging 

from 64-page rotaries to small job presses, 

there were 99 slug-casting machines, 100 

Monotype keyboards and 126 casters. In 
110

the bindery, there were 52 booksewing 

machines; 35 folding machines; and 2 

combined gathering, stitching, and covering machines.

Congress approved the Office’s request 

for an increase in new machinery authorizations from $100,000 to $200,000, but 

because of exorbitant prices demanded 

for new machinery, less than one-third 

was expended.

New “Record” Presses

The outstanding transaction of the 

year was the purchase of two 64-page 

web presses for the Congressional Record 

and similar-size publications. Greatly 

needed for a long time, these presses 

cost $122,350, with each press capable of 

producing 12,000 64-page Records per 

hour. They supplanted a 64-page press in 

constant operation for 21 years, and two 

32-page presses which were 29 and 38 

years old. The new presses incorporated 

pasters and wire stitchers, and could be 

operated in 32-page units, and gather 

in signatures of 8 to 64 pages. A special 

Record pressroom, close to trimmers and 

mailers, was set up on the second floor, 

with nearby conveyors which required 

only 5 minutes to reach the post office 

and on to outgoing trains for all mailed 

publications.

Surplus War Material

Through the cooperation of the Joint 

Committee on Printing, Bureau of the 

Budget, and other Government agencies, 

the Office was the recipient of war-surplus machinery, equipment, and supplies 

valued at $263,000.

This gift consisted of eight presses, 

five slug-casting machines, and nine 

trucks, plus great amounts of paper 

stock and about 3 million envelopes, 

with the latter eagerly accepted by the 

Superintendent of Documents for mailing publications.

General Pershing Linotype

Among the slug-casting machines received was the famous General Pershing 

Linotype.

In 1918, with the outbreak of World 

War I, General Pershing set up a printing plant in Chaumont, France. A Model 

No. 5 Linotype of American manufacture was found in a small French printing office. The machine was inducted 

into service, although it had to be converted from a French keyboard to English, and its slugs increased from French 

height to American height. Placed on a 

motortruck, as part of a mobile printing plant, it accompanied the troops 

throughout the course of the war, always 

close to the battlefront and several times 

subjected to heavy shellfire. After the Armistice, it was dismantled and shipped to 

Camp Humphreys, Va. Later transferred 

to the GPO, it now set congressional bills 

instead of Pershing’s war orders. Retired 

from active service in 1926, it stands in a 

place of honor in Harding Hall.

Paper Supply and Standards

The GPO received 949 carloads of 

paper during 1923. With an accurate inventory system, paper requisitioning was 

rapid and production speeded. The Permanent Conference on Printing, working 

in cooperation with the Public Printer, 

endeavored to centralize the purchase of 

Government paper and also to standardize paper specifications, with storage in 

a central warehouse. Paper standardization had been the rule for 30 years, and 

was based on standards fixed by the Joint 

Committee on Printing. Action on the 

proposal was designed to extend these 

quality standards to overall Government 

paper supplies, for the GPO bought 10 

times more paper than all other Government agencies combined.

Office efforts to standardize paper received warm support from the paper industry and the United Typothetae of America.
111

Planning Division

On May 1, a Planning Division was 

created under the general supervision of 

a Production Manager. Combining the 

Estimating and Jacket Writing Section 

functions, in addition to simplifying sizes 

of publications and selection of suitable 

grades of paper, the new Division became 

the control center of the Office.

Administrative Offices Changed

For the first time since occupancy of the 

1903 building, administrative offices were 

rearranged in the interest of better and 

more efficient transaction of public business. The Deputy Public Printer’s office 

was moved from the second to the third 

floor. The Chief Clerk was transferred to 

space vacated by the Deputy Public Printer, 

and the Public Printer moved into the 

Chief Clerk’s old quarters.

Apprentice School Expanded

On July 5, 1922, the Apprentice School 

had opened its doors. In 1895 there were 

only a few hundred journeymen in the 

GPO, as compared with the more than 

1,500 at the present time. Even under 

union rules the Office was entitled to approximately 200 apprentices. Mr. Carter 

therefore recommended an increase to 

200, which Congress adopted on February 20, 1923.

The act also provided for a waiver of 

the 20-year maximum age limit for apprentice war veterans.

On July 11, a second apprentice examination was held, with 84 qualifying out 

of 104 candidates. Appointments were 

made to 82 apprentices, with periodic increases until the authorized 200 were in 

training.

Schoolrooms were set up with necessary printing equipment. Competent instructors were provided, but attendance 

at local night schools was compulsory. 

After initial typesetting indoctrination—

for patriotic motives, the boy’s first copy consists 

of Washington’s Farewell Address, Jefferson’s 

Eulogy of Washington, Lincoln’s Gettysburg 

and Inaugural Addresses, and the “Star-Spangled Banner.’’

With this introduction to practical 

typesetting, the boys received on-the-job 

training in production divisions. Few 

craftsmen anywhere could boast of such 

an all-round and comprehensive education in all phases of printing. After 4 

years of training, apprentices were promoted to journeyman status.

Wage Bill

The Office was in need of additional 

competent workmen, particularly in the 

printing trades. With the present wage 

scale fixed by law, it was impossible to 

retain some of the best workers or to attract other skilled men to fill their places. 

Higher pay scales elsewhere caused many 

resignations, with the additional factor of 

“outrageously high rentals exacted by the 

local real estate combine.’’

In 1922, upon recommendation by Mr. 

Carter, a collective-bargaining wage bill 

was reported favorably by the House 

Committee on Printing. No action was 

taken by the House because of the closing 

rush of business.

The wage bill was reintroduced in 

1924, after conferences between the Public Printer and a scale committee of nine 

members, three each from the printers, 

pressmen, and bookbinders. The new 

bill incorporated an additional provision 

for the right of employees to select a wage 

committee to act in wage conferences, 

with the privilege of appeal by either 

party to the Joint Committee on Printing 

for final decision.

Referendum votes were held, and all 

crafts, except the printers, agreed. Hearings were held, and the bill was favorably 

reported again. (See “1924, Kiess Act 

Passed.’’)
112

New Building Needed

The perennial problem of the need for 

a new building to relieve extreme space 

shortages and overcrowding was highlighted in spectacular fashion by two fires 

in the old building. The fires were believed to be of incendiary origin, and the 

annually expressed fear of fire destroying 

the old building, with possible destruction 

of the new building and documents warehouse, came close to reality. Such destruction would have disrupted many of the 

essential activities of Government and the 

timely printing of the Congressional Record

and bills, reports, and other legislative papers. All necessary printing would have 

been halted until a new plant could be 

erected over the ashes of the old. The Public Printer strongly recommended early 

and favorable consideration by Congress.

Cafeteria Anniversary

On January 23, the new cafeteria was the 

scene of a banquet celebrating its first anniversary. The Washington Herald noted 

that 1,000 employees attended the banquet 

to honor Public Printer Carter, who was 

“responsible for establishment of the eating 

place.’’ Speeches, “musical features,’’ and 

dancing completed the program.

First Annual Outing

As part of the new policy of better employee welfare, the Cafeteria and Recreation Association sponsored the first annual outing of Office employees on July 

23 at Chesapeake Beach, Md. Employees 

were invited to “bring the whole family 

and have a good time,’’ which included 

“bathing, dancing, boating, fishing, and 

crabbing,’’ in addition to prizes for “all 

kinds of athletic games.’’

Office Becomes a Theater

On October 24, the GPO served as host 

to the United Typothetae of America 

convention held in Washington. The entertainment program was termed “An 

Evening With the Public Printer.’’ A 

one-act play entitled “Laying the Case’’ 

was presented by printer-actors, with the 

cast including one Slip Sheet, a banana 

merchant, and Type Hi, a royal laundryman.

1924

After the exciting improvements made 

in 1923, the GPO proceeded to consolidate the advantages created by new divisions. Increased production and reduced 

waste were the themes of the year, with 

continued efficient service to Government.

Money Order Forms

More money order forms for the Post 

Office were printed than in any year 

since the Office began this work 17 years 

ago. Totaling 189,692,000 forms, the demand was regarded as the best and surest barometer of business conditions and 

general prosperity in the country.

Bonus Bill

A job of special urgency and importance was the printing of over 40 million 

forms required by the Soldiers’ Adjusted 

Compensation Act (bonus act). Fifty 

percent of the huge order was printed, 

wrapped, and mailed in 10 days, with the 

balance on its way 20 days later.

Congressional Printing

The printing requirements of the Congress were heavy. The Congressional Record exceeded all other years with a total 

of 19,475 pages. Bills totaling 17,547 were 

printed during the year, with 1 bill making a volume of 400 pages. Hearings on 

the Attorney General and Teapot Dome 

matters required 3,418 and 3,579 pages, 

respectively.
113

Blank Paper

By act of June 7, Congress consolidated practically all Government 

blank-paper business under the supervision of the Public Printer. This 

added 5 million pounds to the 40 million pounds of paper purchased by the 

Office, with charges to departments of 

over $400,000.

Office Breaks Permit Frauds

The Department of Justice and Bureau 

of Internal Revenue made quick and 

profitable use of the new Testing Section. Vast quantities of whisky had been 

illegally withdrawn from bonded warehouses by the use of counterfeit withdrawal permits. Experts agreed that the 

permits used were counterfeits of the 

genuine permits printed by the Office. The 

Testing Section provided vital testimony 

that the counterfeit paper varied from allwood pulp to 95 percent rag content, but 

GPO paper used for printing contained 

only 50 percent rag stock. In addition, 

paper watermarks on the counterfeits 

were printed in the wrong direction. 

Convictions were obtained by this evidence.

Labor Supply Problems

A 31-percent labor turnover occurred 

in 1924, due chiefly to difficulty of getting and retaining printers at rates 

fixed by law. The situation became so 

serious that in September, 20,000 posters were distributed throughout the 

country, and displayed in every first-, 

second-, and third-class post office. 

Posters were also mailed to libraries, 

schools, and labor organizations, in addition to distribution by the Veterans’ 

Bureau and the Department of Labor. 

Over 1,000 letters were received, and 

148 printers were obtained.

Kiess Act Passed

On June 7, the Kiess Act became 

law. It authorized the Public Printer to 

regulate and fix rates of pay for GPO 

em-ployees by a wage conference with 

each of the trades. The bill was passed 

without a dissenting vote and ended the 

traditional role of Congress in fixing the 

pay of printers, pressmen, and bookbinders at long and irregular intervals.

The committee report stated:

It does not seem at all feasible for Congress 

to undertake to establish specific wages for all 

printers, job compositors, proofreaders, linotype 

operators, monotype keyboard operators, revisers, imposers, makers-up, copy editors, platen 

pressmen, cylinder pressmen, web pressmen, 

press feeders, bookbinders, rulers, bookbinder 

machine operators, electrotype finishers, electrotype molders, stereotypers, photoengravers, 

machinists, knife grinders, saw filers, castermen, 

carpenters, cabinetmakers, electricians, plumbers, engineers, and numerous other trades required in the operation and maintenance of the 

GPO. The wages and compensation for these 

various groups ought to be determined in the 

same manner as any large industrial concern negotiates with its employees.

The legislative landmark in Government labor relations follows:

The Public Printer may employ, at such rates 

of wages and salaries, including compensation 

for night and overtime work, as he may deem 

for the interest of the Government and just to the 

persons employed, except as otherwise provided 

herein, such journeymen, apprentices, laborers, 

and other persons as may be necessary for the 

work of the GPO; but he shall not, at any time, 

employ more persons than the necessities of the 

public work may require or more than two hundred apprentices at any one time. The minimum 

pay of all journeymen printers, pressmen, and 

bookbinders employed in the GPO shall be at 

the rate of 90 cents an hour for the time actually 

employed. Except as hereinbefore provided, the 

rate of wages, including compensation for night 

and overtime work, for more than 10 employees 

of the same occupation shall be determined by 

a conference between the Public Printer and a 

committee selected by the trades affected, and 

the rates and compensation so agreed upon shall 

become effective upon approval by the Joint 

Committee on Printing; if the Public Printer 

and the committee representing any trade fail 
114

to agree as to wages, salaries, and compensation, 

either party is granted the right of appeal to the 

Joint Comittee on Printing, and the decision of 

said committee shall be final; the wages, salaries, and compensation determined as provided 

herein shall not be subject to change oftener than 

once a year thereafter. Employees and officers of 

the GPO, unless otherwise herein fixed, shall 

continue to be paid at the rates of wages, salaries, 

and compensation (including night rate) authorized by law on June 7, 1924; until such time as 

their wages, salaries, and compensation shall be 

determined as hereinbefore provided.

Higher wages established under the 

act made it possible to attract and retain 

competent workmen, with new scales 

comparing favorably with commercial 

rates. In addition to wage rates, the act 

for the first time authorized time and a 

half for overtime and a 15-percent bonus 

for nightwork.

The establishment of wages, as provided 

in the Kiess Act, is limited to rates of pay, 

and is conducted between the Public 

Printer and committees of employees 

representing the various crafts. Rates 

agreed upon must be approved by the 

Joint Committee on Printing before they 

can be made effective and, in case of failure of the Office and employees to agree, 

the Joint Committee on Printing makes 

the final decision. Wages for non-craft 

groups are set by the Public Printer at figures derived from wage studies covering 

industry and Government.

Increase in Printing Charges

The passage of the Kiess Act increased 

wages by $1,150,000 annually and necessitated a 14-percent increase in printing 

charges for congressional and departmental work, and an estimated additional 

3 percent on July 1, 1924.

Apprentice System Expanded

Apprentices now receiving printing instruction numbered 133. A third entrance 

examination was held March 26, providing an additional eligible list of 168.

1925

New Patents Section

Printing for the Patent Office was now 

the biggest single job in the GPO, with 

50 to 60 slug-casting machines working 

8 hours a day throughout the year. To expedite production, a new Patents Section 

was created on October 1, with 40 slugcasting machines, supplemented by the 

Linotype Section, and 4 cylinder presses, 

all devoted to specialized patent printing, 

and within the framework of inflexible 

time schedules.

Post Office Work

A record-high volume of 1,595,376,890 

postal cards was produced this year. Average daily card production was 22 million, 

with a single-day record of 26 million. This 

was made possible by three new postal-card 

presses, marvels of production and mechanical perfection. Each press produced 

6,400 cards a minute, and together over 7 

million for an 8-hour workday.

Money order production also reached 

a new high, with 220,500,600 forms. The 

enormous volume of Post Office work 

required the localization of this work on 

one entire floor.

Type Production

With the largest battery of typesetting 

machines in any printing plant in the 

world, the GPO produced 2,128,394,700 

ems of type which, if stretched out in average newspaper column width, would 

make a string 210 miles long. This typeproducing unit consisted of 147 slug-casting machines, 120 Monotype keyboards, 

and 126 Monotype casters.

It required 275 proofreaders to read 

this type production, but if one individual were to read Government word 

volume, he would have to outlive Methuselah, and even then lose ground to the 
115

continuing flood from the vast army of 

Government writers.

Another gage of Office capability would 

be the production of the Holy Bible, including the Old and New Testaments, in 

1 day. By using all available employees and 

machines, the required 31

/2 million ems of 

type could be set in 6 hours, with presswork and binding performed in 18 hours. 

At least 1,000 copies, bound in cloth, could 

be delivered in 40 hours.

Likewise, the paper used for the Congressional Record in the 1st session of the 

69th Congress, cut into a strip of Recordwidth size, would make a band 37,232 

miles long, or encircle the earth at the 

Equator and halfway around again.

New Division Created

On December 29, the Buildings Division, which was charged with the 

maintenance and upkeep of buildings, 

machinery, and equipment, became the 

Construction and Maintenance Division, 

under a Superintendent.

Baseball Anniversary

This year marked the 50th anniversary 

of the National Baseball League. John A. 

Heydler, its president, had been a GPO 

compositor from February 15, 1889, to 

June 30, 1893. In addition, he had been 

a “valued and esteemed member’’ of the 

GPO baseball team.

On Mr. Heydler’s visit to the GPO this 

year, he was escorted through the shop 

by Mr. Carter. On April 8, the Office received a gift of six Golden Jubilee baseballs for the 1925 GPO team.

1926

On March 4, the Office celebrated its 

65th anniversary in Harding Hall. Congratulatory addresses were delivered 

by members of the Joint Committee 

on Printing. Guests of honor were the 

daughter and son of the first Superintendent of Printing, John D. Defrees.

President Coolidge wrote:

* * * Starting in a small way in the administration of President Lincoln, your office has come 

to be one of the important factors in the quick 

dispatch of Government business. It is said to be 

not only one of the largest plants of its kind in the 

world but also one of the most efficient. Its personnel may well be proud to maintain that record.

Please extend to them my greetings 

and best wishes.

Congressional Printing

Congress became the largest customer 

of the GPO, superseding the Post Office. 

The 1st session of the 69th Congress required more printing than any other 1st 

session, and exceeded the work produced 

for many entire Congresses.

For the first time the Congressional 

Record was published on two new web 

presses, which, together with the three 

old Record presses, permitted the Office 

to produce a 256-page Record. In spite of 

night sessions and an unusual quantity of 

tabular matter, the Record was delivered 

on time, except in eight instances.

A record-breaking number of 18,885 

separate bills was introduced in the first 

session. The initial printing of bills was 

only the beginning, for each bill underwent many alterations in the legislative 

process, with changes in committee, on 

the floor, and in conference requiring 

many complete reprintings.

In addition to the Record, bills, hearings, calendars, etc., the GPO produced 

the new Code of Laws of the United 

States. One volume of 1,718 pages was 

set, proofread, revised, printed, and 

bound in 17 days after order.

New Building Authorized

The first break in the critical space 

problem occurred when Congress authorized $1,250,000 for an eight-story build-
116

ing on G Street NW., west of the present main building. The old building on 

North Capitol and H Streets NW., however, remained a fire menace.

Modernization—and Offset

The Public Printer noted that GPO 

manufacturing equipment could not remain static. “Modernization’’ was the 

constant keyword in 1926, and 20 new 

presses, including 2 large offset presses 

[GPO’s entrance into offset field], 48 new 

model slug-casting machines, fifty 90-em 

scale Monotype keyboards, and numerous new machines for the platemaking and photoengraving sections were 

installed. Monotype casting machines 

were equipped with electrically heated 

metal pots, and the conversion from gas 

to electricity removed the unsightly overhead flues. Slug-casting machines were 

equipped with automatic metal feeders.

The Bindery received a new case-making machine with a capacity of 12,000 clothbound covers daily, compared with 2,500 

covers produced by the old machines.

Presses received automatic feeders, 

with a total 5-year reduction of 45 handfeeders. In addition, dehumidifiers were 

installed to improve atmospheric conditions and to reduce static problems in 

paper handling.

The metal room acquired a 5-ton pot to 

reprocess old type and plates, producing 

almost 8 million pounds of new metal.

First Apprentices Graduated

Twenty Office-trained apprentices successfully completed a 4-year training period, thus achieving journeyman status. 

The first graduating class consisted of 16 

printers, 2 electrotypers, 1 stereotyper, and 

1 machinist. After many years of public 

printing, the GPO had produced its own 

journeymen. Somehow the GPO had 

overlooked the centuries-old trade custom 

of indenturing young men as printing apprentices, but in this manner the Office 

belatedly assured itself of a steady supply 

of well-trained craftsmen.

Sesquicentennial Award

The Office was awarded a Gold Medal 

of Honor for its printing display at the 

1926 Sesquicentennial Exposition in 

Philadelphia.

Public Printer Travels

Mr. Carter visited England, Germany, 

Italy, and France to study machinery, 

paper, leather, ink, type metal, and other 

printing elements used in foreign printing and binding. Many plants were 

visited, including the sister Government 

printing offices of England, France, 

Germany, and the Vatican.

Laborsaving Book

To expedite typesetting production, 

a small book entitled “Syllabication,’’ 

a guide to proper word division at line 

ends, was issued to Office printers. [In 

1958, General Services Administration 

ordered 100,000 copies for typists in Government. ]

1927

After an investigation into District of 

Columbia government printing because 

of poor quality and high cost, the Federal 

Bureau of Efficiency authorized all District printing to be placed in the GPO.

Testing Unit Reorganized

The value of the Testing Division to 

the Office and the printing trade was 

recognized by the Public Printer. On 

August 16, the Testing Section was reorganized and a Technical Director appointed, with the new unit designated 

as the “Division of Tests and Technical 
117

Control.’’ Research in printing materials and paper investigations were to be 

continued, together with the manufacture and supply of ink, type metal, press 

rollers, and bindery glue.

1928

Work continued on the new building 

west of the main building and extending 

to Jackson Alley. The building consisted 

of eight stories, a basement, and one-story 

garage. According to the Washington Star,

GPO floorspace would approximate the 

Woolworth Building in New York City, 

the world’s largest skyscraper.

Saturday Declared Holiday

The Office worked an 8-hour, 6-day 

workweek, totaling 48 hours. With 30 

days’ annual leave, plus legal holidays, 

and Saturday half holidays during summer, the actual workweek averaged 41 

hours. By act of Congress, full Saturday 

holidays were granted, reducing the average workweek to 38.4 hours.

Monotype Leaded Composition

On August 1, production of machineleaded monotype began, avoiding task of 

hand leading and reducing lead casting.

Government Publication Rules

The Superintendent of Documents issued the following rules:

Names or advertisements cannot be printed 

on publications sold by Superintendent of Documents.

Special covers with advertisements cannot be 

added to Government publications. 

Government official seal and imprint cannot 

be used in commercial reproductions of Government publications.

Purchasers adhere to public sales price.

Although Government publications are in the 

public domain and cannot be copyrighted by the 

Government, it is permissible to reproduce them 

in whole or in part for any proper purpose, provided that the reprint is clearly distinguishable 

from the official publication and due credit is 

given to the Government unit which prepared it.

1929

Strikes and foundation troubles delayed the occupancy of new building west 

of main building on G Street. The Public 

Printer suggested timely consideration 

for a new building to replace original 

1856 building at North Capitol and H 

Streets NW. Estimated cost, $4 million.

Printing Procurement

Congress authorized the Office to purchase printing from outside sources. This 

work consisted of tabulating cards which 

the Office could not produce and other 

specialty work, including maps. This 

authority was later expanded to meet 

World War II printing demands.

Mr. Carter noted that the wartime 

printing production record in 1919 had 

been exceeded by the 1929 peacetime 

printing product. Notwithstanding vast 

production of wartime printing and 

binding, a much smaller force established new records for nearly every class 

of work.

Watermark Adopted

The Joint Committee on Printing 

adopted an Office recommendation 

for watermarking rag-content paper, 

beginning March 1, 1929. A watermark 

consisting of a U.S. seal and four open 

stars indicated 100 percent rag content; 

three stars, 75 percent; two stars, 50 percent; one star, 25 percent.

Congressional Speeches

The Joint Committee on Printing 

authorized the Office to imprint “Not 
118

printed at Government expense’’ on reprints of Members’ speeches derived 

from the Congressional Record.

Authors’ Alterations

Corrections made after typesetting cost 

$215,000, with one congressional publication requiring almost $17,000 in changes, 

more than entire charge for setting the 

original copy. The Permanent Conference on Printing and the Bureau of the 

Budget, recognizing this waste, stated:

The practice of many authors of making corrections after page (and galley) proof has been 

submitted by the printer has again been brought 

to the attention of the conference. While investigation shows that this evil is being corrected 

gradually, there is still room for improvement, 

and those who submit manuscripts for printing 

are again asked to so prepare their copy that extensive changes will not be necessary after the 

material has been put in type.

1930

New Harding Hall

In 1929, the Joint Committee on Printing had authorized the hall’s enlargement. Low ceilings, center columns, and 

small seating capacity had limited its 

usefulness, and on May 23, 1930, a new 

hall seating 1,800 was dedicated. In attendance were Members of Congress; many 

labor and printing industry officials; 

Herbert Putnam, Librarian of Congress; 

Frederic W. Goudy, famous type designer; 

and Maj. Thomas Defrees, son of the 1861 

GPO Superintendent.

New Art Service

To design distinctive publications, two 

printing designers were added to the 

staff, thus providing an art service for 

departments and enabling the Office to 

keep pace with progress in the graphic 

arts.

Greatest Patent Workload

Without notice from the Patent Office, 

the GPO found itself almost overwhelmed 

by a flood of patent specifications. Effective June 1, an increase in patent fees induced the Nation’s inventors to beat the 

fee deadline. Contributing to the rush was 

a Patent Office requirement that specifications should be printed the fourth week 

after approval. The giant issue of the June 

24 Official Gazette contained 3,174 patents, 

4 times the normal number.

Blankbooks

The printing acts of 1895 and 1919 required that in addition to printing and 

binding, “all blankbook work shall be 

done at the GPO.’’ In spite of the law, 

departments were procuring blankbooks 

from outside sources. Through a study 

made by the Permanent Conference on 

Printing, and the reaffirmation of printing laws by the Joint Committee on 

Printing on February 28, 1929, all blankbook work was restored to GPO. By the 

adoption of 19 standard blankbooks in 

place of 375 varieties formerly used, important savings were effected.

“Record” Receives New Format

The first change in Congressional Record

type dress since the replacement of hand 

composition by typesetting machines in 

1904 was made this year.

From the beginning of Record production in 1873, only minor changes had 

been made in the original format. Approved by the Joint Committee on Printing, the new type dress introduced an 

entirely new and more legible typeface, 

with greater readability and better typographic appearance.

Tariff Printing

Beginning in late 1929 and extending 

into early 1930, the new Smoot-Hawley 
119

tariff law revision made its impact on the 

Office. Requiring the greatest amount 

of printing in the history of legislation, 

the hearings, bills, reports, and other 

documents made “tariff’’ the dominant 

note in the GPO. Hearings alone totaled 

20,033 type pages, and tariff debates in 

both Houses filled 2,800 pages of the 

Congressional Record. Final proofs of the 

completed bill, including 1,253 numbered Senate amendments, reached the 

Office at 6:50 p.m., Monday, March 24, 

1930. Totaling 535 pages, 1,500 copies of 

the largest bill printed in any congressional printshop reached the Capitol at 

7:30 a.m. the next day, with the balance 

of the total 10,742 copies delivered 31

/2

hours later.

But the tariff struggle was not over. 

Copy for comparative tariff tables 

reached the Office the same day [March 

25]. Tabular composition, the most difficult typesetting chore of a printer, requiring 111 pages of 20-inch depth struck the 

already weary tariff printers. Proofs sent 

out 2 days later were returned the second 

night following, with delivery of 1,000 

copies made to the Capitol at 8 a.m., the 

second day thereafter.

Superintendent of Documents

Notwithstanding the general business 

recession, almost 69 million copies of 

Government publications were distributed for Congress and the departments. 

In addition, 81

/2 million copies were sold 

in spite of the poor economic climate, 

with sales $477,000 greater than in 1929.

New Building Occupied

On August 20, a modern, eight-story 

building was turned over to the Public 

Printer. Many divisions, including the 

apprentice, offset, and photoengraving 

sections, happily escaped from cramped 

quarters to brand new and spacious 

workrooms. The extension brought total 

floorspace to 954,000 square feet.

Money for New Equipment

On recommendation of the Public 

Printer, Congress increased yearly authorizations for new equipment from 

$200,000 to $300,000, thus providing 

funds for new and more efficient machines to replace obsolete equipment. 

With additional money for equipment, 

the Bindery and Platemaking Division 

received up-to-date machinery. Fifteen 

high-speed presses were purchased in 

addition to 34 Monotype casters and 10 

keyboards.

Magazine Web Presses Installed

There was also installed in July of 

this year, the first of four magazine web 

presses, delivering 64 pages in complete 

signatures. [These four presses were all 

installed in a 16-month period—the second in September 1931 and the third and 

fourth in November 1932.]

Constitution Anniversary

By direction of President Hoover, GPO 

employees received a half-day holiday on 

Friday, September 17, for the observance 

of the 150th anniversary of the signing of 

the Constitution.

Saturday Half Holiday

For several years, Government workers enjoyed Saturday half holidays during the 4 summer months, but GPO employes were not included. On urging by 

the Public Printer, Congress expanded 

the provisions of the act, placing the Office on a 44-hour, 51

/2 -day week.

Civil War Veterans

The Office employed many veterans of 

the Civil War. The distinction of being the 

last GPO Civil War veteran was awarded 

to Capt. Samuel G. Mawson, who retired 

a few years ago.
120

1931

Because of reduced overtime and the 

hiring of unemployed printing workers, average earnings in the GPO were 

reduced $116.17 this year. The decrease 

was accepted willingly by employees who 

were glad to be relieved of longer hours 

and eager to share their jobs with depression victims. In addition, the employees 

contributed thousands of dollars to unemployment relief funds of trade and 

social groups.

The Public Printer urged Congress to 

permit a 40-hour, 5-day week, and the 

trade unions thanked him for a 51

/2 -day 

workweek and for campaigning for a 

5-day week. He also opposed a move to 

reduce wages, pointing to corresponding 

loss of efficiency and morale in “the most 

energetic organization in the Federal service.’’ In addition, Office employees, during World War I, had performed long 

and arduous warwork instead of yielding to the allurement of higher wartime 

wages elsewhere.

Congressional Printing

The largest single Congressional Record

of 256 pages was printed in 1 night. With 

the Senate adjourning at 3 a.m., March 4, 

6,000 copies were printed and delivered 

by 8 a.m. A previous Record of 366 pages 

in 1914 required several days’ work before issuance.

A new 64-page web press was added 

to the group of high-speed presses for the 

Record.

“Writings of George Washington’’

Work on this 25-volume set progressed. 

George W. Jones of London, famous dean 

of master printers, designer of the Granjon 

type used by the Office for the first time in 

the Washington series, noted “that such beautiful work * * * from the GPO will exert a 

big influence on American printing * * *.’’

Printing Industries Conference

On March 16 and 17, the GPO was 

host to an international printing conference attended by 374 printing experts and 

engineers. Cosponsors were the Printing Industries Division of the American 

Society of Mechanical Engineers and 

the United Typothetae of America. The 

theme was on research in the industry, 

with all sessions held in the Office. It further strengthened the role of the GPO in 

the trade, and its cooperative efforts with 

scientific and trade groups for improved 

standards and consideration of problems 

of mutual interest.

“Globe” Finally Dies

The last surviving relic of the printing 

of congressional proceedings by private 

contractors passed from the possession 

of the GPO this year. Known as the 

Congressional Globe vault, the two-story 

brick structure was located in an alleyway between Third and Fourth Streets 

NW., close to Pennsylvania Avenue, and 

near the old Globe building. The Globe,

supplanted by the GPO-printed Congressional Record in 1873, was the official record of congressional proceedings 

since 1853.

In 1878 Congress had appropriated 

$100,000 for the purchase of the vault, 

including 70,000 Globe plates and a 

quantity of bound and unbound volumes.

Used for the storage of old records 

and files, the building and its ownership 

were forgotten until this year, when the 

District of Columbia government began 

a $20 million municipal project. Blocking progress was the old vault, until 

someone broke into the building and 

discovered Office records. With ownership established in the Public Printer, 

the latter, with approval of the Joint 

Committee on Printing, transferred 

possession without charge to the District 

of Columbia.
121

Thus ended the saga of private Government printing. But the Globe chapter 

should not be closed without mentioning some of the historic records unearthed in the old vault.

Original drawings of printing inventions up to 1880 were found. They had 

been used in a large atlas entitled The 

Growth of Industrial Art, printed by the 

GPO in 1888. The Linotype of 1886 was 

not included, but the atlas compared the 

experimental typesetting machines with 

the hand composition method.

New Welfare Facilities

The Green Room, appropriately 

named and dedicated on St. Patrick’s 

Day by Rev. Francis J. Hurney, began 

operation as an employee gameroom and 

lounge near Harding Hall.

Group Insurance

Appalling cases of distress had come 

to the attention of the Public Printer. He 

noted that families of deceased employees 

were left without adequate estates for the 

support of dependents. The small return 

of Federal retirement compensation in 

most cases barely paid for funeral expenses which, by law, had first claim on 

these meager funds. In an effort to meet 

this situation, Mr. Carter encouraged the 

formation of a Group Life Insurance Association. Chartered on May 1, the association quickly attracted 2,500 employees, 

with insurance totaling $2 million. [The 

plan served Office employees until 1954, 

when the Federal contributory life insurance law became effective. See “1954, 

Government Life Insurance.’’]

70th Anniversary

Ceremonies celebrating the 70th anniversary of the Office were held in Harding Hall, March 4, with Senator Moses, 

chairman of the Joint Committee on 

Printing, presiding.

1932

Dark Days and the Economy Act

This year of depression and sinking 

economic conditions led to the passage of 

the Economy Act. Placing a ceiling of $10 

million on all expenditures for printing 

and binding, the following stringent measures were necessary beginning July 1:

Allotment of printing funds by the Director 

of the Budget were reduced 20 percent.

Congressional printing requirements were 

cut 35 percent, but it became evident that the 

congressional session would create a deficit. 

Without operating funds, the Public Printer 

threatened to discontinue all congressional 

printing, including the Record and bills. With a 

provision of $500,000 additional money, a crisis 

was averted, but with the continued presence of 

Congress, a further deficit was incurred, with 

almost $200,000 carried over to the already cut 

following fiscal year.

But the heaviest blows fell on GPO 

and other Government personnel. Hardwon gains in Office working conditions 

were swept away during this critical period. Beginning July 1, the Economy Act 

canceled all prior earned leave for the 

balance of the fiscal year. Employees who 

had used leave prior to July 1 may have 

been possessed of great wisdom or luck, 

but others, victims of the calendar, lost 

vacations, plus accrued leave. The unfortunate then began a vigorous but futile 

legislative battle to recoup their losses 

in equivalent time or cash. Many recovery bills were sponsored by sympathetic 

Congressmen, but none were passed. 

[One half of the lost leave was restored 

on April 21, 1933, by a decision of the 

Comptroller General.]

With the Office relieved of its obligation to pay for annual leave, the Treasury 

gained $945,413. In addition, during the 

same period, expenditures for wages 

and salaries were reduced by $159,082, 

because employees were forced to take 

leave without pay, principally on account 

of sickness.
122

Overall, wages and salaries were reduced one-eleventh by shortening the 

51

/2 -day workweek to 5 days. In this 

indirect manner the dream of unionists 

was fulfilled, for the GPO was the first 

Government establishment to adopt the 

5-day week. This action was endorsed by 

the Chamber of Commerce of the United 

States, the American Federation of Labor, and printing trade unions and organizations. The American Printer reported 

that “the large majority of printing executives accept the idea of the 5-day week 

and believe that its general adoption by 

the printing industry is not far off.’’

Offset Printing Increases

The relatively new art of offset printing continued to expand. Producing over 

89 million chargeable impressions, the 

Offset Section included four presses, a 

duplicating machine, and fully equipped 

platemaking and graining rooms.

Depression Hits Post Office

The depression also produced a severe 

drop in Post Office printing. Reflecting 

the faltering economy, money orders 

decreased 26 million, and 119 million 

fewer postal cards were printed. In sharp 

contrast, and also a significant economy 

indicator, was the increase of 8 million 

change-of-address cards. The Post Office, hard hit by the Economy Act and 

poor business, reduced its printing expenditures by over $211 million.

Another side effect of the trying times 

was the reduction in Treasury income tax 

forms which decreased 11

/2 million copies to a total of 471

/2 million, compared 

to over 94 million in 1924.

Tabulating Cards

The Office printed over 262 million 

tabulating cards for Government use 

in 1932. Equipped with 16 specially designed tabulating card presses, the GPO 

produced these cards at prices substantially lower than commercially made 

cards.

Economies Suggested

With the emphasis on economy, the 

Public Printer was requested by Congress to suggest remedies and savings 

in Government printing. The following 

were submitted for consideration:

(1) Unite all printing authorizations for any 

department in a single item to centralize control 

over expenditures.

(2) Prevent unauthorized printing by duplicating plants in various Government departments and establishments.

(3) Restrict activities of field printing plants.

(4) Abolish free distribution of Government 

publications by Members of Congress, with an 

annual saving of $500,000.

(5) Proposal to extend facilities of Superintendent of Documents for sale of all Government 

publications.

(6) Compliance with law requiring estimates 

and reports on printing congressional documents by Printing Committee of each House.

(7) Reduce Congressional Record to “substantially a verbatim report of proceedings’’ as provided by law, with a saving of $260,000 annually.

(8) Restrict Agriculture Yearbook to 640 pages, 

saving $100,000.

(9) Discontinue printing eulogies of deceased 

Members, saving about $30,000 annually.

(10) Better preparation of patent specification 

copy.

(11) Eliminate duplication of publications by 

overlapping Government agencies.

The above were designed to reduce 

Government printing costs. Some but 

not all of the recommendations were incorporated into the Economy Act with 

sizable savings, but Congress rejected the 

others, particularly the reduction of the 

Congressional Record.

Air Conditioning Arrives

Industrial air conditioning reached the 

GPO, when the Plate Vault Office in the 

basement, inaccessible to outside air and 

light, was selected for the initial installation. [In 1961 air conditioning is the rule, 
123

but in 1932 it was the exception.] The 

change from a hot and dusty atmosphere 

to one of comfort received expressions of 

gratitude from the fortunate workers.

New Maintenance Division

A manufacturing establishment of the 

size and scope of the GPO, with buildings and equipment valued at over $101

/2

million, required constant maintenance 

and attention. Consequently the Maintenance Division was organized under a 

Mechanical Superintendent.

Apprentice School Anniversary

On July 5, the School completed its 

10th year when a gathering of its graduates and other interested employees assembled in the Green Room. A resolution 

was presented by the Alumni Association 

to Mr. Carter. In part, it thanked him for 

his “foresight, effort, and sympathetic 

understanding’’ in establishing the apprentice system so that “an opportunity 

was afforded American youths to embark upon a worthwhile career.’’

In the 10 years there were 488 appointments in the various branches of the 

graphic arts trades, with 266 completing 

the 4-year course.

On September 15, 41 additional apprentices achieved journeyman status, 

but Economy Act provisions froze their 

pay at the 4th-year apprentice level.

As of December 1, 139 apprentices 

were in training, 61 fewer than the maximum of 200 authorized by law. Because 

of great unemployment in the printing 

trades, a moratorium was placed on new 

apprentice hiring, thus permitting the 

hiring of more journeymen.

In appreciation of the work of the Apprentice School and the interest of Mr. 

Carter in vocational training, the 11th 

Annual Conference on Printing Education was held in the Office on June 

27–29. The theme of the conference was 

“Printing, the Mother of Progress.’’ In attendance were 150 teachers and leaders 

in printing education from the United 

States and Canada.

Old Building Receives Plaque

On May 18, a bronze plaque was placed 

on the original GPO building on North 

Capitol and H Streets. In fitting ceremonies, John Clagett Proctor, chairman 

of a committee authorized by Congress, 

presented the plaque to the Public Printer. 

The inscription read:

ORIGINAL

GOVERNMENT

PRINTING OFFICE

Erected 1856

By CORNELIUS WENDELL

Purchased by the Government

1861

————

JOHN D. DEFREES

Appointed First Public Printer

By President Lincoln

March 23, 1861

————

Erected by the Permanent Committee

on Marking Historic Sites

1933

The 1933 Economy Act, effective April 

1, removed some of the hurts inflicted by 

the 1932 act by restoring annual leave, but 

at a 15-day rate compared to the former 

30 days. In addition, the 15-percent night 

differential was reinstated, and overtime 

rates were again revived. Additional reductions in force were necessary, and 138 

employees within 5 years of retirement 

and with 30 years’ service were included, 

but were entitled to maximum annuity 

granted under the act. But the promotion 

freeze, pay cuts, and reduced printing appropriations continued.
124

Rare Documents Preserved

Numerous rare historic papers and 

documents of the First Congress, including Washington’s First Inaugural Address in his own handwriting, unearthed 

from Senate files, were restored and 

bound by skillful Office bookbinders.

Recovery Program Aided

The printing of emergency work for 

relief and recovery agencies set up to 

combat the depression caused a change in 

the complexion of Office work. Immense 

orders for blank forms, circulars, pamphlets, etc., replaced the former principal 

output of bookwork. With the emphasis 

transferred from typesetting to jobwork, 

the pressroom and bindery carried the 

burden of production, thereby forcing 

cuts in personnel of the Printing Division 

for lack of work, but at the same time 

requiring more employees in the Presswork and Binding Divisions.

Requiring immediate delivery, work 

for the National Recovery Administration, Agricultural Adjustment Administration, Public Works Administration, 

and many other emergency agencies 

forced the GPO on a 7-day, 24-hour basis 

to accomplish continuous production.

For the final 51

/2 months of 1933, over 

502 million copies of various kinds of 

printing matter were produced, but the 

primary commodity of paper was the 

most important element. During the 

above period, 772 carloads of paper were 

delivered, and the splendid cooperation of paper dealers and manufacturers 

made it possible to meet the tremendous 

demands.

Thus the Office played its part in pulling the Nation from the depths of depression. The production of NRA codes and 

posters, AAA forms, Civil Works Administration relief checks, and all other 

printing requirements proved its ability 

to meet peacetime emergencies without 

any loss of momentum in other work.

New Building Needed

The need for replacing the original 

GPO building, now an old dilapidated 

storehouse and a fire hazard, became 

urgent. With the approval of the Joint 

Committee on Printing, the Public Printer 

offered a proposal to the Special Board 

on Public Works for the erection of a 

$4 million fireproof building.

Revision of “Style Manual’’

A new and thoroughly revised Style 

Manual was issued on March 1. For the 

first time in 46 years of Manual history, 

representatives of Government departments were invited by the Public Printer 

to participate in its preparation and to 

make a thorough revision based upon 

general principles and modern English 

usage. The text of the new Manual received unanimous approval of both the 

Department Advisory Board, consisting 

of well-known Government editors, and 

the permanent GPO Style Board, whose 

membership consisted of men whose 

duties exposed them to the problems of 

translating copy into type.

Permanent Conference on Printing

The Permanent Conference on Printing, established in 1921 at the suggestion 

of the Public Printer and approved by the 

Bureau of the Budget, was abolished by 

Executive order on June 10, 1933. Consisting of 33 department printing representatives, with the Public Printer as permanent 

chairman, the conference held monthly 

meetings at the GPO. Its primary purpose 

had been “to investigate and propose uniform standards, businesslike methods, 

and proper economies in the public printing and binding and the distribution of 

Government publications.’’

Many economies were effected by the 

conference, with average annual savings 

of about $325,000. During its life, important procedures were adopted, including 
125

legislation for direct appropriations for 

printing and binding instead of the former 

allotment plan; letterheads of standardized paper stock and size, with restrictions on the use of embossed stationery; 

standardization of 172 printed forms for 

common use by all departments; reduced 

envelope sizes from a dozen varieties to 4 

standards; publications from 50-odd sizes 

to 8 standards; and many other procedures 

in need of correction. Its recommendations not only produced immediate savings but these savings have been extended 

to this anniversary year.

Document Prices Increased

Prior to 1932, publications sold by 

the Superintendent of Documents were 

marked up 10 percent above cost of production. The Economy Act of 1933 increased the markup to 50 percent and 

placed the sale of public documents on a 

more realistic basis.

1934

On July 2, Augustus E. Giegengack of 

New York succeeded George H. Carter 

as Public Printer. Mr. Carter had served 

13 years as head of the GPO.

Record Production Year

All time production records were 

made this year, with the GPO producing 

over 1251

/2 million copies of publications.

In addition to the 1-pound, 302-page 

Congressional Record for June 16 which 

required 231

/2 tons of paper, congressional committees, executive departments, and independent establishments 

all demanded printing. In response 

to the President’s desire to hasten the 

return of normal economic conditions, 

a vast amount of recovery printing was 

required by 54 emergency activities. A 

total of 77,000 jobs passed through the 

plant, and included almost 21 million 

copies of NRA codes, 22 million consumers’ 

cards, and a 4-column weekly tabloid newspaper, the Blue Eagle, of 50,000 copies.

Money orders, considered to be a reliable criterion of the Nation’s economy, 

reached a total of 220 million, and over 

11

/2 billion postal cards were printed, 

both classes of work setting new production records.

With the record departmental and 

emergency printing output of the year, 

over 36,000 tons of paper was used.

Office Aids in Fraud Conviction

Testimony of the Technical Director 

resulted in the conviction of men using 

fraudulent visas. Tests indicated that paper used was not of GPO grade or quality, 

and type did not match Office typefaces.

40-Hour Week

On March 28, Congress authorized the 

5-day, 40-hour week for the Office, although other departments continued on 

a 5 1

/2 -day week.

American Legion Post Formed

In July 1934, the GPO American Legion Post was organized with over 400 

members, including a 38-piece band.

Charge Reductions

With lower operating costs, the Office 

reduced printing charges by 10 percent 

on February 1, 1933, and on July 1, 1934, 

an additional cut of 5 percent was made.

1935

With the upward trend in production 

of 1934 and anticipated increases in 1935, 

methods new to the GPO but not new to 

commercial establishments were intro-
126

duced to improve Office product and to 

reduce costs. Among these were the elimination of brass leads and rules, which 

had been used in the trade for many decades; type measure changeover from the 

unit to the point system; a new process 

for making press rollers; and a quicker 

drying ink formula. Other much-needed 

equipment, including presses and bindery machines, contributed to necessary 

modernization.

The Economy Act restored 5 percent 

of the pay cuts authorized in 1933, and 

a group hospitalization plan and a Federal credit union were made available to 

employees.

Government Work Waived

This year Congress permitted GPO to 

waive its control over Government specialty printing, such as fanfold, snapout, 

and punched forms, thus permitting 

agencies to purchase direct from manufacturers.

New Building

The continuing need for a new building to replace the 1856 building was 

highlighted by an editorial in the Washington Times of March 6. Entitled “Suppose It Collapses,’’ it quoted from a Public Printer letter to the House:

Every precaution has been taken to the end 

that employees be protected and not exposed to 

unnecessary dangers, but no measure of caution 

which can be devised would be adequate protection against the most serious of all hazards—fire 

and probable building collapse. * * * Buildings 

and elevators of their condition and type of construction could not be used * * * in any other 

large city in the United States. It is only because 

they are located in Washington and federally 

owned that they are allowed to remain in service.

The perennial plea for a new building was finally answered when the Joint 

Committee on Printing approved an 

initial appropriation of $2 million, with 

a total limit of $5,885,000, for the construction of a new eight-story building 

to displace the old building. Included 

was money for a warehouse facing the 

new building, and designed to receive 

paper shipments from railroad sidings 

and to house the postal card and money 

order sections. Provision was also made 

for connecting tunnels to expedite paper 

deliveries from the warehouse to work 

divisions.

New Typography Section

Mr. Giegengack appointed a Director of Typography and reorganized the 

Layout Section of the Planning Division 

for modernizing and improving the typographic appearance of Government 

publications.

Apprentice School Reopened

With the depression tapering off, the 

moratorium on apprentices was lifted with 

the reopening of the Apprentice School 

on October 16. Composed of 96 boys and 

4 girls from 28 states, the class resumed 

the on-the-job training program begun in 

1922. Instead of the former 4-year apprenticeship term, the new class would now 

serve 5 years to provide greater experience 

in each phase of the graphic arts.

1936

On March 28, the GPO celebrated its 

75th anniversary at the Wardman-Park 

Hotel. In attendance were over 1,000 

employees and guests. Congratulatory 

messages were received from the White 

House and Government officials.

Warehouse Contract Awarded

Floor plans for the new warehouse 

were approved by the Public Printer, and 

the Treasury Department awarded the 

contract on October 2, with demolition 
127

beginning October 12 and excavation on 

November 9.

New Leave Law

Congress on March 14 restored to employees almost all of the leave confiscated 

by the Economy Act of 1932. By increasing leave from 15 to 26 days, the law fell 

short of the 30 days’ annual leave granted 

prior to 1932, but at the same time provided for 15 days’ sick leave, a benefit 

heretofore denied to the GPO but enjoyed by other departments.

Efficiency Rating System

A new work evaluation system patterned after Civil Service Commission 

standards was instituted. Replacing the 

old numerical system, the new method 

developed more reliable information in 

the analysis of employee value, in addition to an appeal provision.

New Agency Printing

The Social Security Board made its 

appearance on the Office printing scene 

with an order for 50 million copies of its 

basic circular.

1937

Post Office work continued to make 

new records in each successive year, indicating complete recovery from the depression. A new high was the production 

of 282 million money order blanks and 

almost 21

/2 billion postal cards in the section set up to handle these items.

[This production has been exceeded 

only twice: in fiscal 1951 when the postal 

card was increased from 1 to 2 cents and 

in 1958 when the rate went to 3 cents. 

The 1951 production was 41

/2 billion 

cards; 1958’s fiscal year production was 

31

/2 billion.]

Beginning of End of Old GPO

The approaching demolition of the 

original GPO building neared, when 20 

million stored copies of publications were 

moved to leased quarters at 612 G Street 

NW.

1938

As a result of complaints by many 

departments and agencies over the increased cost of Government printing, 

President Roosevelt in late 1937 initiated 

an investigation of Office operations and 

cost procedures.

New Cost-Accounting System

As a followup to the investigation, the 

Public Printer reorganized cost-accounting procedures. With the GPO compared 

with commercial printing plants, it was 

advisable to adopt comparable costaccounting methods used by the industry.

Thus each job would stand on its own 

feet, with all administrative, production, 

maintenance, and service costs, all carrying cost accounts, reflected in department 

printing charges.

Threat to Patent Printing

An ominous cloud suddenly appeared 

over the Office this year. Patent Office 

printing had been produced by the GPO 

since 1868. In 1937 the House Appropriations Committee instructed the Commissioner of Patents to submit a study 

on the cost of Patent Office printing. 

The Commissioner reported that an offer to print his work by offset printing 

methods would yield annual savings of 

over $100,000. Suddenly the Government and the Office were faced with 

a critical problem, for the production 

of patent work by reproduction would 

have been a blow to the proper function-
128

ing of the Patent Office, in addition to 

vitiating the role of the GPO as a Federal printing office.

A change in method would require 

legislation, for under the printing laws 

all Government printing had to be produced in the Office, unless the Joint 

Committee on Printing directed otherwise. The Printing Committee was advised to investigate the matter, but the 

Appropriations Committee nevertheless 

recommended a reduction of $100,000 in 

the patent printing budget in anticipation 

of the savings expected to result from 

changes in printing methods.

Beginning on April 30, 1937, efforts to 

secure Patent Office printing had been 

made by a Washington firm. Initial overtures promised savings of $168,000 yearly, 

but were later revised downward on November 23, 1937, to $106,500. A further 

reduction to $94,500 was made when the 

promoters began to realize that reproduction of the Official Gazette, valued 

at $12,000, would be difficult and that it 

would be unprofitable. In testimony before the Joint Committee on Printing, a 

company spokesman stated “it would be 

better to leave the Gazette as it is now, 

or as work that should be done by the 

GPO,’’ and therefore relinquished the 

Gazette.

New Post Created

On June 1, the office of Administrative 

Assistant to the Public Printer was established. The new office was given charge 

of the business management of the Office, and the Deputy Public Printer became responsible for production.

Warehouse Completed

On February 4, the new warehouse was 

turned over to the GPO. The 3-story-andbasement building, built of reinforced 

concrete, was designed to accommodate 

600 carloads, or 25 million pounds, of 

paper at one time. Special congressional 

legislation was required to permit the 

construction of a Union Station-warehouse bridge over First Street NE., so 

that freight cars could enter the building 

on the warehouse third-story level.

Building Contract Awarded

After more than 20 years of unsuccessful efforts by Public Printers to secure 

adequate housing for the GPO, Congress 

was finally convinced that the group of 

11 ancient buildings dating back to 1856 

should give way to a new fireproof building. The Public Printer had made up a 

booklet to present the GPO’s case, showing graphically the condition of the old 

building: warped and checked columns, 

leaking walls, overcrowded conditions, 

uneven floors and fire hazards. It apparently won the Congress over. With contracts awarded for the present 8-story 

Building 3, demolition began June 27.

1939

An informal ceremony was held February 21, when Public Printer Giegengack laid the cornerstone of the new 

building. This ceremony marked progress toward the completion of Building 

3 in 1940.

A sealed copper box placed in the cornerstone contained a Bible; a flag; photographs of President Roosevelt and Public 

Printer Giegengack; annual reports of 

the Public Printer; Roster of Employees; 

Congressional Directory, 76th Congress, 

1st session; Congressional Record, February 20, 1939; Official Register; copies of 

all Washington newspapers; and sundry 

other publications.

Division of Personnel Created

Pursuant to an Executive order of June 

24, 1938, the Public Printer established 

the Division of Personnel, effective Feb-
129

ruary 1, 1939. The new Division combined all employee relations.

Outside Procurement Permitted

The Office permitted various departments to procure about $2 million of 

printing which could not be produced 

economically within the plant. A greater 

part of this amount was for business 

forms printing. Bids on this type of printing which the Office could not handle 

showed great fluctuations, and in many 

cases appeared to be exorbitant. If the expected demand increased and prices were 

not stabilized within reason, the GPO 

would consider the purchase of necessary 

equipment. [In 1948, the Office entered 

the business forms field, adding one more 

weapon to its printing armament.]

Library Unit Moves

After 39 years in the venerable Library of 

Congress building, the GPO Library unit 

moved into the new Annex building on February 1. Geared to serve the printing needs 

of the Library of Congress, the GPO branch 

consisted of the Composing and Binding 

Sections. Equipment comprised 12 slugcasting machines, in addition to a complete 

pressroom and bindery. The unit produced 

about 38 million library cards and other library work, and with adequate space the 

Bindery would endeavor to reduce a backlog of 314,000 volumes needing rebinding.

1940–45

The so-called “phony’’ war which began in Europe in 1939 may have lulled 

some nations into believing that “it 

couldn’t happen here.’’ But in the United 

States, defensive measures were already 

in being. The military manpower draft 

was in operation, and powerful military 

and industrial forces were being organized into a readiness posture if the Nation were to be involved in war. It was 

also recognized that printing would be 

vital to a war effort.

The GPO story up to 1940 contained 

elements of drama, but the story of Government printing during World War II 

was one of continuing and serious drama, 

for never in its history had the Office 

been faced with such heavy military and 

civilian printing demands.

WARTIME PRODUCTION

The soldier and sailor may fight a war 

and push the enemy back on all fronts—

by air, by water, by land; the manufacturer and farmer may produce essential 

tools and sustenance; the civilian branch 

of the Government may maintain controls on theq home front—all highly essential; but without the printer and his 

constant flow of printed technical manuals, orders, regulations, etc., neither the 

soldier, the sailor, nor the others could 

carry on in this technical age.

The wartime record of the production divisions was at a rate which even 

the Public Printer believed to be impossible. In 1940 the dollar cost of the output of the Office was $20,150,203. In the 

following year it jumped to $26,794,775, 

and commercially procured printing 

totaled an additional $1,798,962. Thus 

GPO in Peace and War
130

the dollar output of the plant increased 

321

/2 percent. Officials felt that this was 

the ultimate of possible accomplishment. 

However, production continued to show 

increases, until, in 1945, the home plant 

produced $36,035,211—781

/2 percent 

above the 1940 figure.

No one could say specifically, “It was 

this improvement or this change in procedure or this organizational setup that 

increased output.’’ It was no one thing 

but hundreds of little shortcuts and bits 

of greater efficiency that made wartime 

accomplishments possible.

There were very few administrative 

or organizational changes made in production divisions. Few were necessary or 

possible. The Office was a smoothly running, efficiently working organization 

at the beginning of the war and continued as such. Little could be done to increase the output of machines except to 

use them for longer hours. There were 

also very definite limitations to human 

endurance. Increased production resulted very largely from improvements 

in methods and procedures, which consisted of streamlining workflow procedures, craftsmen’s ingenuity in improvising devices to speed production, and 

other timesaving and laborsaving “gimmicks’’—all these contributed to “impossible’’ production miracles. All production divisions participated in devising 

work simplification methods, some small 

and apparently unimportant, but impressive in the aggregate.

The following pages cover the important printing highlights of 1940–45, 

as contrasted to less exciting GPO peace 

printing years. The history of this period is 

presented in greater detail, for it is a story of 

a GPO geared to intense production.

Office Goes to War

The importance of printed matter in 

the operation of Federal Government 

was reemphasized during the emergency. 

The heads of U.S. fighting forces stated 

that with the unprecedented influx of 

new personnel, ships could not sail until 

manuals describing their gear and equipment were printed and delivered, plane 

pilots would be grounded without vitally 

needed printing, and bombs could not be 

dropped unless certain printed jobs were 

produced to show the bombardier how 

and where. Every gun, every tank, and 

every piece of ordnance equipment required printing for its manufacture, operation, and maintenance. The war could 

not have been financed without the printing of savings bond publicity, in addition 

to recruiting posters and myriad inspirational advertising devices designed for 

the uplift of those who “had been left 

behind’’ so that the war effort would be 

backed by citizen dollars. Every war activity required printing to keep it going.

With the world situation approaching 

the critical stage, the GPO once again became a war agency. Vitally needed printing required by defensive measures prior 

to Pearl Harbor began to flood the Office, 

which was placed on a war footing, and 

on December 7, 1941, was on an all-out 

basis. “Couldn’t be done’’ printing was 

changed to “it had to be done,’’ and with 

a responsibility which couldn’t be sidestepped, “it was done.’’

Progress came in part through trial 

and error. Some of the plans tried proved 

ineffectual and had to be abandoned in 

favor of others which promised to be 

more productive. Success in furnishing 

required printed matter on or near the 

designated date appeared to be the best 

criterion for evaluating the efficacy of 

the organization and specially developed 

procedures.

In looking back over the problems involved, there stands out clearly and with 

absolute certainty the fact that if this 

country were ever again confronted with 

an emergency as serious as World War II, 

printing should be considered and classified as a critical and essential service. It 

should receive high priority ratings and 

be declared essential in the distribution 
131

of manpower, equipment, and materials.

War Printing Problems

Public printing in wartime, as many 

employees learned in the hectic years 

from 1940 to 1945, was no easy task. Even 

in peacetime, problems of management 

were never small.

However, peacetime problems were 

simple compared to the avalanche which 

struck the GPO. There were times when 

it seemed that it could please no one. 

Commercial printers, many of whom lost 

almost 100 percent of their business when 

restrictions on manufacturing were imposed immediately after Pearl Harbor, 

brought pressure on Congress to limit 

the Office to production of congressional 

work and to farm out all departmental 

and agency printing. Some Government 

departments (notably the rapidly expanding War and Navy Departments and 

the emergency war agencies) objected 

because the Office insisted on producing 

printing in a form consistent with the 

printing laws and with established principles of economy and efficiency. Some of 

these agencies sought permission from 

the Joint Committee on Printing to obtain all their work on waiver, without 

supervision by the Office. Others found 

deliveries were too slow, quality of work 

was unacceptable, the printed book or 

pamphlet was filled with typographical 

errors, war grades of paper were flimsy, 

the finished work was delivered in damaged condition, and so on without end. 

These complaints were also carried to the 

Joint Committee on Printing, whose lot 

during the war was not a happy one.

Early in the war, production problems 

began to multiply. Paper manufacture 

was placed under rigid War Production 

Board control. Before the war the GPO 

stocked 728 different kinds and sizes of 

paper; during the war the number fell to 

447. Metals needed for type and printing 

plates became scarce, then disappeared 

from the market. Bookbinding materials 

were found to be essential ingredients of 

implements of war, and stockpiles evaporated. Office chemists worked overtime 

in their laboratories, trying experiment 

after experiment in an effort to develop 

substitute materials.

As if these difficulties were not enough, 

the personnel situation became acute. 

In the early stages of the war, the Office 

interposed no objection to the release of 

employees seeking positions connected 

with the war effort, nor were military 

deferments requested. As a result, 

many experienced and highly qualified 

employees were lost and replacements 

could not be found. Only after the situation 

became critical, did the GPO require 

justification for release, and deferment 

for a limited number of keyworkers was 

requested.

These were only a few of the difficulties that plagued the Office, for every day 

produced new problems.

For example, paper costs increased from 

$6,012,829 to $9,108,646, and production 

costs from $14,137,374 to $19,484,991. Personnel jumped from 6,059 to 7,313. The 

upswing began almost immediately after 

the President’s proclamation of a limited 

state of emergency in September 1939.

The increase of $81

/2 million in printing and binding in this first emergency 

year represented almost 42 percent of the 

1939 total. Two factors enabled the Office 

to cope with this upswing: First, the increase in plant capacity; and second, the 

resort to commercial procurement.

Size of Plant

Increased plant capacity resulted from 

the completion of the new building in 

1940 and new warehouse in 1938. These 

two buildings increased the actual floorspace 294,899 square feet, and the effective area much more, because floorload 

capacity in storage areas was substantially greater in the new buildings than 

in the old ones, for a total floor area of 

1,374,281 square feet, or 311

/2 acres.
132

Mechanical Equipment

In 1940, mechanical equipment included 126 slug-casting typesetting machines, 100 Monotype keyboards, and 130 

Monotype casting machines. There were 

202 presses of all types. Heavy machines 

in use in the Binding Division totaled 

245. Most of the machines were standard 

commercial equipment, but some had 

been specially adapted for highly specialized Government jobs. Only a small part 

of the equipment was new, but it was in 

good operating condition.

Commercial Procurement

The increased plant capacity was insufficient to meet in full the sudden 

demands. However, 80 percent of the 

additional orders was absorbed by the 

Office, and the remaining 20 percent was 

procured on contract from commercial 

printers at a cost of $1,798,962. This was 

the first time in Office history that commercial printers and binders had been 

made GPO partners. Previous purchases 

had been limited to specialty forms and 

were small in amount.

The venture into commercial procurement was an emergency measure 

and was one of the factors which later 

led to the establishment of a clear-cut 

policy. The enactment of the Selective 

Training and Service Act in September 

1940 resulted in the immediate placement of large printing orders. By the 

end of 1940, the GPO had procured 

for Selective Service alone 144,515,061 

pieces of printing, at a cost of $286,164. 

In May 1941, the Treasury Department 

launched its savings-bond-and-stamp 

program. Representative single orders 

were for 10 million advertising folders, 

931,000 four-color posters, and 20 million stamp albums. Presses could not be 

tied up for this type of work, for it was 

imperative that plant capacity be kept 

available to produce rush orders which 

were daily increasing in number.

It became obvious in the last quarter 

of 1940 that the GPO would be unable 

to produce in its own plant all the printing and binding required for the defense 

program. The Public Printer found himself faced by the need of a policy which 

would affect the Office and the entire 

printing and publishing industry. Three 

courses of action were open:

1. To grant waivers on all work beyond the 

capacity of the plant and allow departments and 

agencies to procure printing and binding without Office control.

2. To increase plant, equipment, and personnel sufficiently to produce the maximum printing needs of the country at war.

3. To utilize commercial facilities then available or capable of being made available for producing surplus work under contracts let by the 

GPO.

The easiest course would have been 

the one followed during World War I—

that of permitting the agencies to procure their own printing. Under this plan 

agencies made their own contracts for 

printing, with the plant of their choice, 

and at a price which they were willing 

to pay. However, this procedure had 

shown results considerably short of success. An investigation of war contracts 

and procurement methods of Government agencies, held after World War I, 

showed such startling waste of Government funds that a general strengthening 

of laws, including the public printing 

law, resulted.

The commercial industry, panicky 

over its temporary loss of business because of conversion of the national economy to a war status, was prejudiced toward adoption of the third course—that 

of commercial procurement. The Public 

Printer also favored this plan, but foresaw a time when he would be forced to 

compete for commercial facilities with 

the country’s rapidly expanding war 

plants. He was unwilling to commit 

himself to this policy until he was given 

assurance by the industry that it would 

continue its cooperation during the entire 
133

period of the emergency. For the purpose 

of securing such assurance, leaders of the 

graphic arts industry were called to discuss the three possible courses of action. 

At this conference, held in the last week 

of March 1941, was born the Office policy 

for procurement of printing from commercial sources.

Printing Industry Drafted

Authority for the purchase of printing 

by the Public Printer was provided by the 

act of February 28, 1929, supplemented 

by rules and regulations issued by the 

Joint Committee on Printing governing 

the purchase of printing under the provisions of this act and the War Powers 

Acts. The committee’s regulations were 

effective as of July 1, 1942. The decision 

of the Public Printer to use this authority gave rise to many urgent problems. 

The most pressing were organization 

of the printing industry to do the job, 

and organization and training of a force 

within the Office capable of controlling 

commercial production, including assignment of equipment and scheduling 

of operations.

Most printing plants were eager to cooperate, as the war had greatly reduced 

normal printing and they, too, were 

handicapped by a shortage of paper and 

supplies.

The first step in the preparation for 

industry’s participation was to secure the 

acquiescence of men qualified to commit the entire industry—or a large part 

of it—to the program. This agreement 

was secured largely through the Public 

Printer, who had wide contacts with publishers and trade associations. An informal advisory committee in some 35 cities 

throughout the United States was organized. Through them, the GPO was able 

to maintain close contacts with the trade, 

to disseminate information, and to obtain favorable action in placing contracts 

for difficult jobs. Local leaders were often able to exert more effective pressure 

on members of their organizations than 

could the Office in Washington.

Early Difficulties

During the emergency, orders were 

placed with approximately 1,900 firms, 

and inevitably mistakes were made in 

placing jobs. The GPO tried to accomplish too many diverse purposes at the 

same time: To rotate bid opportunities to 

all applicants, to secure the job at the lowest and best bid, and to make the award 

to an advantageously located plant. However, any qualified bidder was permitted 

the opportunity to quote. All openings 

were advertised in a public reception 

room, and a horde of printers’ representatives descended on Washington, culled 

over the list, selected jobs they wished to 

produce, and asked for and received the 

specifications. This completely destroyed 

the planned order of rotation and geographical allocation of jobs. It also prevented a check of the qualifications of the 

bidder. Another disadvantage was that it 

permitted certain qualified firms to overload their plants with Government jobs 

of their own selection so that delinquencies were almost inevitable. A low bid 

would turn up from a New York printer, 

when the GPO preferred bids from the 

Chicago or San Francisco area.

The handling of commercial procurement improved with experience, and 

dependable firms were soon identified. 

Performance records led to some concentration of production in the larger 

manufacturing and shipping areas of the 

United States. Transportation became 

increasingly difficult, and efforts were 

made to place printing orders in locations 

requiring minimum use of transportation facilities.

Contracts were awarded on the basis 

of a firm’s business reputation. The 

vast majority of awards were made in 

accordance with usual Federal purchasing 

procedure, under which bids were invited 
134

and a contract let to the lowest qualified 

bidder.

Later, contracts were negotiated upon 

the basis of a set price, determined by 

GPO cost experience with the same or 

equivalent jobs and on prices formerly 

quoted by widely separated firms seeking 

similar jobs.

Standard-Rate Contracts

During 1942, there was a gradual increase in the amount and variety of printing procured from commercial sources. 

As the total volume of Government 

printing increased, commercial procurement mounted proportionately and 

reached its peak in 1944 and 1945, when 

it totaled approximately $50 million annually. By this time, the printing economy had improved, and fewer printers 

voluntarily sought GPO work. Specifications were sometimes circulated among 8 

or 10 firms and returned with no bid, and 

sometimes jobs were placed too close to 

requested delivery date.

A remedy was required, and the Public 

Printer announced a program of so-called 

standard-rate contracts, established under authority of the Second War Powers 

Act, permitting negotiation of contracts. 

Under this arrangement quotations and 

established rates were established for all 

operations involved in many classes of 

work.

Under the standard-rate procedure, 

the Office could select any printer who 

had agreed to the rates by signing the socalled contract; the GPO had merely to 

put out the work in rotation. As wages 

rose and costs mounted from year to 

year, rates were adjusted. Standard rates 

served as an excellent basis for negotiation of contracts for classes of work 

which could neither be bid nor placed 

under standard rates and were so used, 

providing far greater opportunity to 

negotiate rates equitably. Without this 

greater flexibility in placing awards and 

the added benefits of GPO warehouses, 

the job could not have been done as well 

as it was.

MILITARY RUSH ORDERS

One of the most important procurement jobs was the buying of War Department technical manuals. Schedules 

provided for printing these publications in 21 days and were approved 

only after the Public Printer had 

engaged in lengthy negotiations with 

contractors. The original agreement 

allowed a 10-percent premium payment 

over GPO standard rates, provided 

delivery was made as scheduled. The 

work was rotated among five contractors in New York, and the program was 

instrumental in securing urgently 

needed wartime publications on a regular schedule. After the war, the program was extended to contractors in 

several cities, on the basis of standard 

rates without premium.

On many occasions, it was necessary 

to reduce the normal 21 days allowed 

for production. U.S. troops crossed the 

Rhine at Remagen over a bridge which 

was assembled from specifications and 

instructions printed in a manual produced in 10 days.

Form-Printing Programs

Any large organization—particularly 

a military organization—requires large 

numbers of forms. It was to fill this need 

that the Office established two formprinting programs: (1) The depot-forms 

program, for forms ordered through the 

Adjutant General’s Office central headquarters; and (2) the decentralized-form 

program, to permit direct ordering of 

“limited’’ quantities for stockpile use by 

the depots. The Office supplied the contractors and established the rates, and in 

the months of June–August 1945, more 

than half a billion forms were printed.
135

CIVILIAN AGENCY ORDERS

Overnight Offset Program

Another program of equal importance 

and volume was the overnight offset 

program, established to assist war agencies in the prompt distribution of orders, 

regulations, releases, and similar material. Beginning July 1, 1942, 5 contractors, all located in Washington, produced 

7 units of 20,000 impressions daily, 6 days 

a week. The principal beneficiaries were 

the War Production Board, the Office of 

Price Administration, the Office of Defense Transportation, and the War Food 

Administration, but it was also used by 

many other agencies.

The overnight program averaged some 

125,000 impressions daily for a 3-year period, using more than one-half billion 

sheets of paper.

EXPANSION OF PLANNING 

PROCEDURES

The Planning Division underwent 

more emergency reorganization and expansion than any other unit in the Office, 

for the Division received the full impact 

of the expanded demand for Government 

printing. Office customers were Congress 

and old-line departments and agencies, 

and it was in this Division that requisitions 

for printing and binding were received 

and evaluated. Planners had to make decisions as to which orders were to be accepted for production in the plant and 

which were to be procured commercially. 

The Office learned by experience, and 

it came out of the war with an efficient, 

smoothly functioning organization which 

in a single year furnished some $80 million 

worth of printed matter to the Government 

with minimum delay and at minimum cost.

Planning in First 2 Years

By the spring of 1941, requisitions 

for mushrooming defense agencies had 

reached such a volume that the work 

had overflowed the GPO and was being 

procured commercially under the plan 

established. On trial, it became clear that 

this plan could operate only through an 

organization specially trained for handling contract work. It further appeared 

desirable to assign highly trained and 

efficient planners to full-time work on 

specific programs. The first such assignment was to the defense savings program 

of the Treasury Department. Selective 

Service System activities became so large 

and important that they, too, were segregated from the normal flow of work. In 

rapid succession other agencies went into 

programs which called for specialized 

service.

Office space was allocated for a group 

unofficially designated as the “termite section,’’ because oldtime employees felt that 

the commercial procurement program 

was undermining the Office and eating 

away the long-established principle of 

producing all Government printing in the 

Office. This group was first known as the 

Emergency Work Section, and, after reorganization under a Director, was called 

the Emergency Service Section.

The highly specialized nature of problems confronting the Section led it into 

pitfalls which would have been avoided 

under normal conditions. As planners, 

the duties of these employees consisted 

of writing specifications, suggesting 

provisions in contracts, and carrying on 

necessary liaison with departments and 

agencies. The Purchasing Division certified bids, selected contractors, and made 

all awards. It acted only after consultation with the Comptroller to assure that 

all Government requirements had been 

met. The Production Manager determined the schedule on preparatory work 

to be performed in the GPO for commercially procured jobs, basing his schedule 

on availability of men and machines over 

and above those required to complete 

publications already scheduled and in the 

Office workstream.
136

Departmental prodding and their own 

zeal led planning personnel to continue 

operations beyond the planning into 

the procurement and production stages. 

They encroached on functions of the 

Purchasing Division, the Division of Accounts, and the Production Manager. In 

a desire to secure commercial deliveries as promptly as possible for agencies 

which were hamstrung until they got 

their printing, Emergency Service personnel made commitments which other 

divisions felt they were not authorized 

to make. They established schedules for 

delivery to departments and found themselves dependent on the plant for type 

composition or plates, on the Purchasing 

Division for drawing of orders and procurement of paper, and on the Accounts 

Division for approval of incurred bills.

Although the Production and Purchasing Divisions were performing miracles 

as their part of the procurement procedure, there was not always complete harmony between them and the Planning 

Division. The Public Printer tried to 

work out the problems by transferring a 

number of technical assistants to the Purchasing Division and limiting the functions of the Emergency Service Section 

to department liaison, production plans, 

specification writing, and jacket preparation. Writing of contracts, certification 

of bids, contacts with contractors, and all 

operations were centered in Purchasing.

The reorganization worked to better 

advantage. It removed objections to the 

opportunist procedures of the Emergency 

Service Section, yet it left something to be 

desired in the way of centralization.

The clear definition of duties and responsibilities of the Planning and Purchasing Divisions in commercial procurement eliminated duplication of 

effort and the resulting conflicts.

Production Planning Assistant

On April 16, 1943, the Public Printer 

removed Planning from the Production 

Divisions and placed it under a Production Planning Assistant to the Public 

Printer. Planning activities were broken 

down into four classifications, as follows: 

(1) Planning Service, to handle requisitions, schedules, and department liaison; 

(2) Plant Planning, for plans, estimates, 

and jacket preparation on Office production; (3) Commercial Planning, for 

all planning operations on commercially 

procured printing; and (4) Typography 

and Design, performing the functions indicated by its name.

Scheduling Board Created

To insure coordination of planning 

and production, a Scheduling Board was 

also created. The Board consisted of representatives from each Planning Division 

and from the Production Manager’s office. It considered every requisition about 

which there was any doubt as to the ability to perform the work on schedule and 

determined which jobs should be produced in the plant, which should be purchased commercially, and which should 

be returned to the originating agency 

with a waiver. Action was taken within 

48 hours of receipt of the requisition, 

with all schedules receiving Office-wide 

approval. No production section was permitted to change specifications nor to deviate from the scheduled order of work 

on the jobs. No planner was permitted 

to obtain work at the expense of other 

scheduled jobs. Under this plan the percentage of accomplished schedules was 

improved, and a record of performance 

was achieved which was a genuine factor 

in winning the war.

Commercial Purchases Consultant

Immediately after the decision was 

made to procure surplus printing commercially, a situation arose which seriously hampered operations of both Planning and Purchasing Divisions. It seemed 

that every printinghouse head who had 
137

railroad fare came to Washington to try 

to get GPO contracts. Officials wasted 

time in conferences with the appellants. 

Purchasing and Planning personnel tried 

to do their work surrounded by printing 

salesmen, and it was not uncommon to 

find 25 or 30 in the Purchasing and Planning Divisions at one time.

On April 1, 1942, the Public Printer 

appointed a Consultant on Commercial 

Purchases, authorized to speak for the 

Public Printer in all matters pertaining 

to commercial procurement policy. Installed in quarters near the front entrance 

to the Office, he received all callers, answered questions, heard complaints, 

and gave advice on GPO procurement, 

and during the first few months held an 

average of 500 interviews monthly. When 

an official felt that he needed a personal 

conference with a contractor, the conference was held in the office of the Consultant. This method afforded each visitor 

a courteous, sympathetic, and intelligent 

hearing—and an authoritative answer. 

It eliminated possible attempts to bring 

pressure against Office executives and assured uniform treatment, and it also relieved a condition of confusion bordering 

on chaos.

Warehouses Established

The need for field facilities became 

evident very soon after the Office resorted to commercial procurement. Little difficulty was found in placing contracts for 

printing, provided paper was furnished. 

Quotas placed on commercial printers 

made it impossible for them to allocate 

from limited stocks sufficient paper to 

print large quantities. In the early months 

of the war there were no quotas and the 

GPO had normal inventories of paper. 

Contracts were placed within a radius of 

a few hundred miles from Washington, 

because all finished work, regardless of 

its subsequent distribution, was delivered 

to the requisitioning agency in Washington and distributed by it. It was a simple 

task to ship paper, often by GPO trucks, 

to contractors. Printing media (patterns, 

shells, tenaplate molds, reproduction 

proofs, etc.). were also furnished.

Government departments and agencies found that quick nationwide or even 

worldwide distribution of large orders 

rendered shipment from Washington 

impractical. The Army established publication depots at locations convenient 

to troop concentrations throughout the 

United States. The Navy had similar issuing offices in this country and abroad. 

Other departments likewise decentralized.

Commercial procurement practices 

were modified to keep pace with improvements instituted by GPO customers. 

With distribution from field stations, it 

was patently ridiculous to deliver publications to Washington from San Francisco 

to be reshipped to a War Department 

depot at Ogden, Utah. Clearly, deliveries 

should be made directly to distribution 

centers in widely separated parts of the 

country, with production in the general 

vicinity of the distribution point.

The war emergency decentralization 

of the Office began July 1, 1942, with the 

establishment of a warehouse in Chicago. 

Later, warehouses were opened in New 

York, San Francisco, Dallas, and Atlanta. 

Still later, in 1944, purchasing offices (not 

warehouses) were established in St. Louis 

and Philadelphia.

The first timid venture into commercial procurement outside the District 

of Columbia area had shown the delay 

occasioned by advertising for bids and 

awarding all contracts from the GPO. 

Negotiated and standard-rate contracts 

were set up, and warehouse managers 

were authorized to purchase printing 

under them or under the bid procedure. 

The Office had also learned the difficulties of supervision by remote control. It 

knew the value of a GPO representative 

in each area to supervise production and 

maintain personal contact with the printers. Accordingly, the functions of the 

storekeeper, purchasing agent, and tech-
138

nical liaison man were combined in the 

managers of the warehouses, with skilled 

technicians appointed to these positions. 

At the peak of their operation, the warehouses employed some 85 people.

The statement was made that without 

the warehouses it would have been impossible for the GPO to meet wartime 

printing needs. This was true not only 

because of the huge volume of warehouse 

business but also because of wartime restrictions and shortages. Commercial 

printers could print only if the GPO furnished paper, and the GPO could furnish 

paper in the quantities needed only if 

it could be manufactured in advance of 

need and stored where it would be available quickly.

The warehouses were a wartime expedient and were liquidated as of December 31, 1945.

Paper Specialist Appointed

The shortage of printing paper was a 

major problem. During the war years, 

27,000 carloads, or some 1,350 million 

pounds of paper of all kinds was used. 

Total Government requirements were 60 

percent of mill capacity on some grades 

and an overall average of some 40 percent. Paper was not rationed to the GPO; 

it enjoyed no priority and was forced to 

compete with commercial printers and 

other Government departments for the 

limited supply available.

Shipments of woodpulp from Scandinavian countries, principal suppliers of 

this commodity, were cut off in 1939 by 

the outbreak of the European war. As 

early as July 1941, the Office of Production Management (later the War Production Board) warned of an impending 

shortage of all types of paper. Newsprint 

supplies were especially hard hit by lessthan-normal Canadian production, by 

transportation difficulties, and by severe 

winter weather in the Northern States.

Another contributing factor limiting 

paper manufacture was competition of 

war industries for essential ingredients. 

Cellulose fibers employed in the making 

of pulps essential in paper manufacture 

were also used in processing smokeless 

powder. Chlorine, used as a bleach, was 

requisitioned for war uses, and because 

of the lack of this chemical, printing paper became dull gray and peppered with 

specks. Adequate sizing was beyond the 

reach of papermills, and writing inks 

spread and feathered on improperly 

sized sheets.

Difficulties in procuring sufficient paper forced the Public Printer in 1943 to 

appoint a printing-paper specialist to establish new procedures. These resulted in 

great savings of time and often enabled the 

Office to meet short-delivery schedules.

Traffic Section Organized

During the 4 war years the GPO became one of the largest shippers in the 

country. It consigned to warehouses in 

Chicago, New York, Atlanta, Dallas, and 

San Francisco an aggregate of 27,000 carloads (1,350 million pounds) of printing 

paper and other supplies. The finished 

product was reshipped to hundreds of 

destinations in the United States and to 

Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Alaska, and the 

Canal Zone. Nearly 225,000 bills of 

lading and many thousands of drayage 

tickets and post office receipts for parcelpost shipments were required, compared 

to less than 100 bills of lading in peacetime.

This decentralization forced the GPO 

into the transportation field. Early in the 

war the Office had assumed responsibility 

for direct distribution of printed material to its point of use. After experiencing 

delay in delivery, loss of shipments, and 

excessive shipping charges, it was apparent that the huge volume of material required a qualified transportation specialist. The Office of Defense Transportation 

detailed a member of its staff as consultant and adviser, who established orderly, 

economical, and expeditious transporta-
139

tion procedures. The arrangement was 

so satisfactory that the employee was 

transferred to the GPO in July 1944, and 

on August 1 of that year a Traffic Section 

was established.

Through the operation of the Section, the Internal Revenue Bureau saved 

$200,000 in a single year because it followed GPO advice in distributing income tax blanks. In that year more than 

7,000 tons (200 carloads) of paper was required for the forms. The Traffic Section 

worked out a plan which permitted most 

advantageous and economical distribution to 500-odd cities where collectors’ 

offices were located. Estimates of shipping costs and time schedules for delivery 

by railway freight and by express were 

made, and it was found that distribution 

by freight would be as dependable and 

not materially slower than express. It was 

recommended to the Bureau that freight 

be used, and that method has been used 

exclusively since.

PRODUCTS DEVELOPED 

FOR SPECIAL NEEDS

Some of the most interesting problems presented to the GPO during the 

war concerned the development of new 

products—special types of identifiable 

paper for specific uses, new and better 

adhesives, new formulas for metal, etc. 

In solving these problems, the Division of 

Tests and Technical Control performed 

outstanding service.

Ration Paper

One of the first problems of the war 

arose in connection with ration stamp 

printing. Rationing program planners 

realized that all these stamps in effect 

were currency of the realm, and must 

be printed so as to render them difficult 

of duplication by counterfeiters. Printing alone could not accomplish this end; 

a paper characterized by peculiarities 

which the typical counterfeiter could not 

detect and would not suspect to exist must 

be devised. Such paper was perfected 

and patented by Office chemists, who 

devised built-in safety features which were 

completely hidden and changed from 

time to time to further baffle counterfeiters. One of the special papers was so 

manufactured that on exposure to ultraviolet light, a fixed proportion of its fibers 

emitted a yellow fluorescence.

A statistician estimated that the 73 billion stamps printed in a 2-year period 

would be enough to spin a 17-inch web 

14 times around the earth. A total of 

20,681,000 pounds of safety paper was 

manufactured for the ration program.

Prisoner-of-War Stationery

Office chemists also achieved the 

perfection of sensitized paper for use in 

prisoner-of-war stationery.

Censorship of such mail had presented 

an acute problem in World War I. A message written in lemon juice in the pages of 

a magazine had entered into the widely 

publicized “Black Tom’’ case of that war.

Shortly after the outbreak of hostilities 

in 1941, the War Department requested 

the Office to develop a paper which 

would reveal writing in pure water and 

in all invisible and sympathetic fluids.

Office research chemists conducted 

experiments, and produced an improved 

paper used exclusively for transmission of 

messages by war prisoners and internees, 

and it became increasingly difficult for an 

enemy agent to transmit a message by use 

of water and dry inks.

Soldier-Ballot Paper

The enactment of the Soldier Ballot 

Act on April 1, 1944, necessitated the 

printing of forms which could be positively recognized as genuine. A safety 

feature was suggested to the Armed 

Forces and promptly accepted by them. 
140

It involved printing, on both sides of the 

paper, a continuous, overall design identifiable on every ballot. The ink was invisible under daylight and artificial light, 

but fluoresced brightly when exposed to 

ultraviolet rays.

MILITARY PRINTING

Navy Department

Navy demands presented one of the 

most difficult problems. In March 1942, 

the Navy Department stated that procurement of its printing through the Office was so slow and undependable that 

the war effort was being impeded. A 

general waiver was requested permitting them to purchase all printing commercially. The Public Printer forwarded 

the complaint and the request to the Joint 

Committee on Printing for recommendation and decision. The chairman of the 

committee denied the request for the following reasons:

1. It would be inconsistent with law.

2. Investigations conducted by the committee indicated that service in general was all that 

could be expected and that in many instances it 

was exceptional.

3. Responsibility for some of the delay was 

properly that of the requisitioning bureaus in 

the Navy Department.

4. Responsibility for some of the delay could 

not be placed on any individual or agency but 

was inherent in the nature of the work.

5. Steps had been taken to eliminate delays 

chargeable to the Printing Office.

6. Government departments and agencies 

had been allowed to negotiate directly for their 

printing in World War I. A survey conducted in 

1919 showed that this practice had resulted in 

overcharges ranging from 2 to 471 percent on 95 

percent of the work involved.

After several conferences, an agreement was reached, under which the Navy 

pledged itself to place its orders early 

enough to make production physically 

possible and to return proofs promptly. 

The Office agreed to grant a waiver if 

there was doubt that it could produce or 

procure any job in the time allowed.

War Department

Printing for the War Department presented the same difficulties as Navy work. 

The volume was prodigious and production schedules almost impossible. By the 

end of May 1943, War Department printing alone was 50 percent greater than for 

the entire Government in peacetime, and 

delivery requests were completely unrealistic.

The GPO was fully aware of the 

vital need for printing in the prosecution of the war. But it knew no magic 

formula which would place printed matter 

in War Department warehouses the day 

it was ordered. The Office suggested 

other methods, including the anticipation 

of Department needs, especially on big 

jobs, so the GPO could select printers in 

advance of orders and arrange for the 

manufacture and delivery of paper to its 

proper place. It also requested a more even 

flow of requisitions permitting full utilization of facilities continuously instead of 

being overloaded one period and underutilized the next.

A working basis was finally reached. 

To insure delivery according to schedule, 

emergency jobs were to be produced in 

the Office. Standard manuals (largely 

reprints) were to be procured commercially. Suitable paper was stored in the 

warehouses. The GPO furnished printing media (tenaplate molds, shells, and 

patterns for printing plates, reproduction 

proofs, etc.) direct to participating printers, and production continued simultaneously all over the country. All followup 

was the responsibility of the War Department and resulted in marked improvement in deliveries.

UNITED NATIONS PRINTING

Although a history of 100 GPO years 

assumes that all Government printing was performed within the plant in 
141

Washington, except for commercial 

procurement made necessary by World 

War II, the Office found itself removed 

far from its home base in 1945. With 

both VE-day and VJ-day near at hand, 

50 nations assembled in San Francisco 

on April 25, 1945, to form the United 

Nations. Soon thereafter, the Office was 

commissioned by the State Department 

to obtain the printing for the United 

Nations Conference.

Just as the Conference itself was without precedent in the diplomatic world, 

so was the nature of its printing requirements unique. No predetermined plan 

could be worked out to meet the demands.

Early information indicated that a 

daily journal would be published. Very 

little other printing was anticipated and 

the assignment was turned over to the 

San Francisco Warehouse. Development 

of a large-scale printing operation was 

soon indicated, however, as organization 

plans progressed.

Reinforcements were flown in from 

the GPO in Washington. The overnight 

publication of the Conference journal 

was a “must’’ job, as was the printing of 

the tremendous quantities of miscellaneous forms, passes, tickets, etc., necessary to meet the requirements of the plenary and commission sessions.

All the general printing needs of the 

Conference demanded delivery schedules established in terms of hours, not 

days, for every job was required the day 

it was ordered. Only through herculean 

efforts were jobs delivered in accordance 

with tight schedules.

Planning and procurement problems 

were further increased when officers of 

the U.S. delegation approached an Office representative requesting assistance 

in preparing the delegation’s report to 

the President. Delivery requirement 

forced simultaneous production with 

that of the United Nations Charter, but 

the jobs were organized in such a way 

as not to conflict with each other. The 

Charter was scheduled for delivery at 

the final session, whereas the report to 

the President was estimated to make 

approximately 150 pages; however, the 

finished book contained 372 pages. One 

thousand copies of this report were to 

be delivered from San Francisco, and 

the remainder—24,000 copies—from 

Washington.

The final days of Charter printing 

was made extremely difficult by rapid 

changes in plans, departure from the 

original production schedule, and unforeseen difficulties which developed in 

handling the English, Spanish, French, 

Russian, and Chinese versions.

The intricacies of international diplomacy gave rise to delicate situations in 

selection of format, type, and continuity. All these matters had to be resolved 

so that equal prominence and position 

were accorded each translation. The 

languages themselves presented almost 

insurmountable problems.

All Chinese type had to be set by 

hand, and few Chinese compositors 

were available for the job. A contract 

for the composition was arranged with a 

local Chinese newspaper publisher, with 

less than two full workdays available for 

setting all type and printing of several 

jobs.

After type was set, extensive correction had to be made because of text 

changes. After the type had been set in 

approved form, a GPO employee made 

up the type into pages, and the forms finally went to press—at 2:30 a.m. on the 

day delivery was required.

The Russian section caused almost as 

much trouble as the Chinese. Only one 

Russian machine operator could be located. As changes came in, the type was 

set and reset repeatedly. Finally, OK 

for press was given—at 4 p.m. on the 

day before the delivery deadline—and 

forms were locked and sent to the press-
142

room. At 6:30 p.m. a call was received to 

hold all forms for further corrections. It 

was not until 2:30 a.m. of the following 

day that printing began.

Because of the delay in sending Chinese and Russian forms to press, it was 

impossible to make the entire press run 

of 1,000 copies of each and allow time for 

binding and delivery. Hence, six preliminary copies of each language were struck 

off. These were to be used as signature 

copies and the run completed later. On 

examination, it was discovered that a 

character had dropped out of the Chinese 

section. A compositor found the necessary character, inked it, and struck it in 

by hand in each copy. It can safely be 

stated that never before had GPO 

ingenuity been so taxed to produce a job.

Recognition of Service

With the United Nations organized, 

the European war ending with VE-day, 

and the arrival finally of VJ-day, the 

Office resumed its peacetime activities.

Later, on June 24, 1947, the Medal for 

Merit Board recognized the outstanding service of the GPO to the Nation by 

awarding the Certificate of Merit to the 

Public Printer.

The citation in part follows:

The President of the United States of 

America awards this Certificate of Merit to 

Augustus Edward Giegengack for outstanding fidelity and meritorious conduct in aid of 

the war effort against the common enemies 

of the United States and its Allies in World 

War II.

In accepting the certificate, Mr. 

Giegengack said:

Although this certificate carries my name as 

the recipient of the award, I feel that I merely 

hold it in custody for the 7,000 employees of the 

GPO, and I am proud to accept it in their behalf. 

Their efforts made the award possible. It was 

they who made up the task force which accomplished the objective. Their share in the honor 

is greater than mine and my chief satisfaction 

today is that I have received this recognition as 

their representative.

Return to Peace

Thus concludes the story of GPO in 

peace and war. The Office filed away 

its printing wound stripes and domestic 

battle stars, and returned to more normal 

peacetime pursuits, producing once again 

“Infant Care’’ and Farmers’ Bulletins in 

huge quantities, with battle plans and 

bombing charts part of the past.

With the sharp curtailment of production from a peak of nearly $80 million to 

less than $50 million in 1945, an opportunity was provided, for the first time in 

5 years, to devote time and attention to 

necessary changes in methods and procedure.

For the future there would be a steady 

expansion of Government functions and 

Government printing requirements.

New “Record’’ Format

For the second time since 1873, and 

the first since 1930, the Congressional 

Record received a typographical facelifting in 1941 for the First Session of the 

77th Congress.

Designed by the Director of Typography and Design, the new format gave 

the Record an improved appearance, increased readability, saved space, and its 

two columns were increased to three. 

Estimated annual savings of almost 

$124,000 were increased in performance 

to $150,000 because of cost reductions 

in every phase of Record production. 

Approved by the Joint Committee on 

Printing, the new format also produced 

savings of 45 percent in reprinting 

Members’ speeches.

Eisenhower Welcome

On June 18, 1945, General Eisenhower 

returned to Washington to address a joint 

session of Congress. On that day, GPO 

employees were released from 11 a.m. to 

3 p.m. to participate in the welcome.
143

1946

After many years of strenuous efforts 

by the Joint Committee on Printing and 

the Public Printer to control the production and growth of department field 

printing plants throughout the country, 

the Bureau of the Budget transferred supervision of a number of general service 

plants to the GPO. Designed to achieve 

economy and timeliness of service, the 

operation was placed under a new Field 

Service Division, with a Field Service 

Manager in charge.

Field Printing Plants

Effective July 1, the control of Treasury 

printing plants in 15 cities passed to the 

GPO. The taking over of the Treasury 

plants was a very small beginning. In practically every State could be found departmental printing and duplicating plants. 

A 1946 survey disclosed 389 such plants, 

with an equipment investment of over 

$13 million, operating costs of over $261

/2

million, and employing 7,721 persons.

Another factor which provided the 

impetus toward correction of field plant 

printing abuses was a complaint of the 

Printing Industry of America, Inc., representing over 2,000 employing printers. In a letter to the Joint Committee on 

Printing, concern was expressed over the 

use of Government printing equipment 

in competition with private industry.

In addition, the war had reduced the 

supply of printing machinery, and Federal departments with war priority had 

closed out the market. The emergency 

over, these wartime plants were taking 

no steps to declare such equipment surplus, and in some cases were soliciting 

business from other departments to justify their continued operation.

Mr. Giegengack made recommendations for consolidation and elimination 

of plants, in addition to operational 

changes. He further recommended that 

the GPO, Bureau of the Budget, and 

Joint Committee on Printing participate 

in a study leading to the revision and 

codification of the printing laws.

Patent Reprints

A new plan was also set up for reprinting patents. Produced commercially, 

a contract printer had accumulated a 

3-month backlog, with new work increasing daily.

With authority vested in the Office, the 

Field Service Division utilized the field 

plant in Washington to produce reprints 

at about 90 cents per page and with almost immediate delivery. The Patent Office reported that for the first time in several years the public could receive copies 

of patents without delay. Estimated 

savings for 9 months totaled more than 

$100,000.

Supreme Court Printing

With the formation of the Union in 

1789 and the division of the Government 

into executive, legislative, and judicial 

branches, each segment had controlled its 

own printing requirements. Beginning 

in 1861, the new GPO took over all executive and legislative work, in addition 

to some courtwork, but excluding the 

Congressional Globe. But throughout the 

years, Supreme Court advance opinions 

were handled by private printers. The 

last of the line was Pearson’s, a Washington printer who closed shop in 1946.

The Court presented its printing problem to the Office, and after several alternatives were considered, a well-guarded 

unit was set up in the Supreme Court 

basement. Late in September 1946, after 

Postwar Operations
144

careful selection of personnel and the introduction of improved work methods, 

the office formally began printing opinions, in addition to preliminary prints 

and the U.S. Reports, under rigid Court 

requirements. The transition from private to Government printing was successful, and the Court Reporter thanked 

the Public Printer “for very fine cooperation.’’

1947

The enormous demand for paper during World War II extended into the postwar year of 1947. During the war, the War 

Production Board or Civilian Production 

Administration could, under their war 

powers, commandeer paper stocks for 

the Office. But when these war agencies 

had served their purposes, the GPO lost 

its procuring arms. Paper inventories 

were at a dangerously low point. The 1st 

session of the 80th Congress extended 

from January 3 to December 19, and at 

the close of the session there remained 

but 2 days’ supply of paper. If Congress 

had continued, costly substitution would 

have been necessary.

With annual requirements of 180 million pounds of paper, invitations to the 

paper trade yielded only 51 percent coverage. The situation required some positive action so that the Office could carry 

on its functions.

In 1916 the House Committee on 

Printing had reported favorably a bill 

authorizing the Public Printer to erect or 

purchase a pulp-and-paper mill to provide “necessary paper for Government 

printing and binding at all times at a fair 

price’’ and to protect the Government 

from suppliers who “refuse to furnish 

necessary paper for the operations of the 

Government, except at exorbitant and 

noncompetitive prices.’’ The bill contemplated use of wood, minerals, and other 

materials found on public lands. [In 1922, 

Public Printer Carter had also urged a 

Government papermill.] The House bill 

died, but in 1947 the Joint Committee on 

Printing reopened the question of a GPO 

papermill.

By direction of the committee, Mr. 

Giegengack wrote to approximately 100 

paper manufacturers asking for sale proposals of their property to the Government. Of the 30 replies received, only 3 

expressed willingness to negotiate; the 

remainder were not interested. The Public Printer therefore recommended that 

Congress consider long-range measures 

to provide unfailing sources of paper 

supplies. [Subsequent easing of the paper market and the acquisition of large 

quantities of war surplus paper stocks effectively relaxed the problem.]

“Record” Daily Digest

The first suggestion from Congress for 

quick reference to the daily Record had 

been made in 1927, when a Congressman 

stated:

Newspapers do not have time to read through 

the entire Record to find what they want; and 

frequently throw it in the wastebasket; * * * they 

say life is too short to go through it to find what 

they want.

This problem was resolved when, pursuant to the provisions of Public Law 

601, 79th Congress, entitled “Legislative 

Reorganization Act of 1946,’’ a Record 

daily digest appeared on March 17, 1947. 

Averaging about seven pages, the digest 

offered a quick-reference guide to congressional activities of the day, in addition to committee meeting schedules and 

proposed legislation.

Plastic Printing Plates

At the outbreak of war in 1941, the 

Government found it necessary to supply lightweight printing plates to combat 

areas and foreign newspapers. Although 

the art was in an experimental stage, 
145

the Office began immediate production. 

From 1941 to 1947, 600,000 plates were 

made in the Platemaking Division, and 

developments originating or perfected in 

the GPO were adopted as standard trade 

practice by commercial platemakers.

Apprentice School Reopened

Closed during wartime because of military service for young men of apprentice 

age, the Apprentice School reopened in 

August. Unlike the first apprentices of the 

1922 class, the new group was limited to 

75 returned employee veterans of World 

War II who had permanent civil service 

status.

1948–1949

Augustus E. Giegengack resigned as 

Public Printer on March 15, and Deputy 

Public Printer John J. Deviny was appointed by President Truman to succeed him. Mr. Giegengack had served 

14 years, longer than any predecessor in 

Office history.

Congressional Words of Praise

Shortly before his resignation, Mr. 

Giegengack appeared before the House 

Appropriations Committee, and submitted 

his fiscal report. After a lengthy hearing, 

Congressman Norrell remarked:

I want to say that you gentlemen are doing a 

magnificent job over there. I think I voice the 

sentiment of Congress * * *, but I do not see how 

you do the tremendous volume of business that 

you handle.

Printer Shortage

With the country enjoying postwar 

prosperity and the printing trade on a 

full-employment basis, there was a pronounced shortage of printers. The problem was met when the Civil Service 

Commission made a nationwide newspaper, radio, and circular publicity campaign to recruit personnel.

Commercial Division Reduced

The Commercial Planning Division 

which had purchased almost $225 million worth of printing from U.S. printers during the recent war was reduced 

to the level of a section with its procurement functions returned to the Purchasing Division. The Division, with a peak 

employment of 213 workers, was an important procuring arm when vital war 

printing was needed.

On July 1, 1948 the Joint Committee 

on Printing issued the first of a new series of regulations, entitled Government 

Printing and Binding Regulations, which 

encompassed the most complete, farreaching changes in the Government’s 

printing program, particularly with regard to field printing, which had taken 

place in a quarter century.

Code of Federal Regulations

Typesetting began on the 50-volume 

compilation of Government department 

regulations derived from the Federal Register. Estimated to require more than 100 

million printed pages, publication proceeded at a rate of two volumes weekly.

Kiess Act Operation

Beginning this year wage offers under 

the 1924 Kiess Act were being made by 

the Public Printer on the weighted average of union pay scales of the 25 largest 

cities in the United States, as reported by 

the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the Department of Labor.

On December 18, 1948 a 12-percent 

pay increase was approved by the Joint 

Committee on Printing. Since 1939, the 

Kiess Act procedures had lifted wages of 

Office craft workers by 80.3 percent.
146

Annual Reports Discontinued

For the first time since 1852, when 

Superintendent of Printing Towers submitted to Congress his first annual report 

on the state of the public printing, the 

yearly accounting of Office activities was 

abandoned. Of necessity, the reports of 

the war years of 1940–46 had been discontinued, and the 1947 report closed the 

series. The reports had ranged from 716 

pages in 1920 to 43 pages in 1934. In the 

interest of economy, the annual reports of 

the Public Printer and of division heads 

were now typed for public inspection, 

but the GPO would not typeset its own 

reports.

1950

The GPO again became a “war’’ 

agency with the outbreak of hostilities in Korea. Commercial procurement 

was necessary, and the 1943 record of 

nearly $38 million was almost matched 

by the $34 million of 1950. Warehouses 

were again established in New York and 

Chicago, but were closed in 1953.

New Printing Equipment

The Public Printer urged Congress 

to increase his present $300,000 authorization for new machinery to $600,000. 

Dollar purchasing power had dropped, 

and new equipment was necessary to 

cut costs by increased production. In addition, three new Congressional Record

presses were expected to cost almost $1 

million. With an expected $6 million 

earned surplus to be returned to the 

Treasury by the Office, Congress agreed 

to the suggested increase. Designed to 

print the Record, Federal Register, and 

other publications, a reduction in page 

margins would permit the presses to use 

46-inch paper rolls instead of 48 inches, 

thus saving about $10,000 to $12,000 annually in paper costs.

1951

In 1946, the GPO had acquired 15 field 

plants from the Treasury. At that time the 

Public Printer had recommended consolidation of the plants. Effective this year 

there were now six field printing plants 

located in New York, Chicago, Denver, 

San Francisco, Seattle, and a Washington branch known as the GPO Departmental Service Office. The Washington 

plant was the largest, consisting of offset 

presses; it had no letterpress equipment. 

Furnishing typewriter composition with 

simulated typefaces, this reproduction 

work was performed in the branch and 

main GPO, with a volume of $2 million 

annually.

Document Steel Shelving

This year saw the removal of old 

wooden boxes from Documents storerooms. Serving as documents shelves 

since the beginning of the GPO in 1861, 

these ancient boxes were replaced by steel 

shelves at a cost of $200,000. The change 

from flammable boxes to fireproof metal 

shelves increased storage capacity and reduced fire hazards.

Document Sales

The Superintendent of Documents 

reported a record volume of sales and 

number of documents distributed. Over 

13

/4 million orders were received, with 

sales of 40,360,814 publications yielding 

$3,809,042. In addition, over 661

/2 million 

publications were distributed for the 

departments and Congress.

A House Appropriations Committee member noted the steady increase in 

popularity of Government publications, 

and questioned whether more document 

sales were—

brought about by the increase of bureaucracy in 

Government * * * or the fact that more people 
147

are reading now than in previous years * * * 

or [if] it is due to pressure groups getting their 

members to write in.

The Superintendent replied:

I think that more and more people are reading more and more Government publications 

* * * (and some of them are tough reading), [it] 

is a healthy sign. More people are aware of what 

the Government is doing; part of it is a public 

awareness of the great problems facing the Government. * * *

The best answer is * * * that it is a fine thing 

for our democracy * * *.

Two years later, the Superintendent 

stated:

This is at a time [1953] that reading and printing are supposed to be fading into the lost arts 

and giving way to radio, television, and movies, 

but in the field of Government publishing, there 

is a tremendous growing interest on the part of 

the public in the issuances of the Federal Government.

1952

Authorized in 1950, three new Record 

presses were installed this year. After 

a break-in period, the presses would be 

available for the next session of Congress. 

In 1954 the Public Printer reported that 

the presses had effected a—

phenomenal reduction in the cost of certain 

printing other than the Record, while cutting 

costs by about $25,000 yearly and assuring its 

regular issuance in a far more efficient manner. 

* * * these presses have saved $701,422.71 during 23 months of operation against their cost of 

$941,000.

By 1955, savings totaled $1,130,000 

after 34 months of operation. The greater part of the savings were made in the 

printing of income tax forms and instructions. In addition, Internal Revenue had 

saved about $350,000 annually in distribution costs.

1953

On February 28, Public Printer Deviny 

retired and Philip L. Cole became Acting 

Public Printer on March 1.

On April 28, Raymond Blattenberger 

of Pennsylvania, appointed as Public 

Printer by President Eisenhower, took 

over the direction of the Office.

New Accounting Procedure

Under the new Accounting Procedure 

Act, the GPO adopted a uniform departmental business-type budget, financed 

by a continuing revolving fund of $10 

million. In the following year the Public Printer reported that this new fiscal 

arrangement had removed the need of 

yearly appearances before the House Appropriations Committee to justify Office 

working capital loans which had ranged 

from $71

/2 to $20 million.

In addition, he stated that savings in 

administrative overhead under the new 

budget system had produced savings of 

about $800,000.

Modernization Program

On October 5, the Committee on Modernization of Machinery and Equipment was established. The Committee 

was directed to replace old or obsolete 

equipment with modern, more efficient 

machinery to reduce operating costs; to 

render more rapid service to customer 

agencies; and to eliminate excessive repairs on inefficient machines which become outmoded by recent engineering 

improvements. Purchases were approved 

only when real savings justified the expenditure.

Fiscal Plan

Effective July 1, Congress established 

a revolving fund for expenses necessary 

for the operation and maintenance of the 
148

GPO (except the Office of the Superintendent of Documents).

Internal Revenue Printing

In planning the regular income-tax 

instruction pamphlet for 1952 the Superintendent of Documents suggested the 

possibility of printing the forms with the 

instructions in one self-mailer pamphlet 

and switching production to the Record

presses. This matter was discussed with 

Internal Revenue officials and approval 

obtained for a test run on the old Record

presses of 3 million copies of several combinations of forms with the instructions 

for trial in the Boston and Indianapolis 

areas.

The test product was termed successful 

by the Bureau of Internal Revenue and 

48 million packages for nationwide use 

were printed in 1953 on the three new 

Record presses, then speedisealed in the 

Bindery, and delivered as self-mailers 

ready for addressing by the Department. 

The presses printed the instructions on 

newsprint, and the forms on writing paper, the forms being spot-pasted to the 

instructions for easy removal by the taxpayer. The entire product came off the 

press complete, freeing many flatbed 

presses and folding machines for other 

work. Forty million 24-page packages 

and 8 million 32-page packages together 

with an additional 7,728,000 copies of 12-

page instructions and 132,530,000 fourpage forms were printed on the three 

new Record web presses.

The total savings realized by producing this work in the fiscal year 1953 on 

the new Record presses is estimated as 

follows:

Savings in paper, presswork, and

binding charges in GPO..................... $275, 000

Savings in assembling, stuffing, and 

mailing, including $70,000 savings 

on window envelopes by Internal 

Revenue................................................. 351,000

Total savings to Bureau of 

Internal Revenue............................ $626,000

It should be noted that this program 

required almost 3 months continuous uninterrupted production on all three of the 

new Record presses, running two shifts a 

day five days a week.

The printing included 3 package 

products, 5 instruction products, and 1 

instruction form product. To print this 

tremendous volume of work called for 

an expenditure of 33,280,277 press impressions at an average of 17,000 per hour 

over a period of 55 working days from 

September 14 to November 30.

The total was broken down as follows:

 9,132,600 copies of 32-page packages

38,377,400 copies of 24-page packages

12,233,400 copies of 12-page packages

 28,300,000 copies of 4-page forms

 1,310,000 copies of 8-page instructions

 500,000 copies of 24-page instructions

 8,500,000 copies of 12-page instructions

 2,713,000 copies of 4-page instructions

1954

The Public Printer testified before the 

House Appropriations Committee that 

the new accounting procedure, realignment of work shifts which reduced premium pay for nightwork, and streamlining of work and materials handling 

procedures had produced important 

economies.

New Offset Division

On March 28, the Public Printer recognized the fast-growing offset process 

by establishing the Offset Division under 

a Superintendent of Offset. For the first 

time in history, offset work had achieved 

status and was making deep inroads into 

the traditional letterpress method. By 

1957, the Division’s 10 presses had increased to 40.
149

Security Measures Revived

Congressional investigations searching 

for subversion in Government caused the 

reinstitution of wartime security regulations. Although the country was at peace, 

cold war conditions required the safeguarding of security work. Employees 

handling sensitive matter were given full 

investigations, special workrooms were 

set up, and all security matters were 

placed under a full-time security officer.

Purchase Limitation Removed

Congress removed annual limitation on machinery and equipment purchases. Limited by the Joint Committee 

on Printing after the 1904–08 “spending 

orgy,’’ the removal of fiscal restraints permitted the purchase of needed machinery 

and equipment in the interest of modernization and improvement of facilities.

Safety Record

On May 5, the Office received two 

honor awards for its low injury rate from 

the National Safety Council. With an accident frequency rate 59 percent lower 

than the commercial trade average and 

a severity rate 81 percent lower than the 

industry average, the GPO ranked first 

in U.S. printing safety.

Government Life Insurance

On August 29, GPO workers were 

covered by the Federal Employees’ 

Group Life Insurance Act of 1954, which 

provided Government life insurance at a 

biweekly rate of 25 cents for each $1,000 

of salary. Employee contributions were 

matched by the Office.

In 1956, the employees’ Group Life Insurance Association, organized on May 

1, 1931, entered into a contract with the 

U.S. Civil Service Commission in accordance with section 10 of the 1954 act, 

whereby its assets and insurance liability were transferred to the Commission. 

This action dissolved the association, but 

enabled members to keep their insurance 

so long as they continued premium payments to the Commission.

1955

Tabulating Card Purchases

Effective July 1, all Government agencies were notified by the GPO that they 

could negotiate contracts for tabulating cards direct from card manufacturers. Based on a recommendation by the 

Hoover Commission, the new procedure 

would cut costs, paperwork, and delay.

Federal Printing Volume

In 1955 the Hoover Commission on 

Organization of the Executive Branch of 

the Government made a survey of Government business enterprises. In its study 

of Federal printing, it stated that overall 

Government printing expenditures for 

1954 were estimated at $370 million. The 

GPO spent about $71 million, of which 

$8 million was for Congress. Of the total, 

$14 million was procured by the Office 

from commercial sources, and an additional $30 million was contracted for executive agencies.

The Commission further noted that the 

total cost of printing for executive departments was estimated at $285 million, with 

about $63 million by the GPO. The balance was performed by 327 departmental 

printing and duplicating plants, of which 

196 were operated by the military services. 

Presumably the grand total of the estimate 

included the output of every small office 

duplicator in the agencies.

Paperwork in Government

The Commission study also reported 

that exclusive of the tons of paper for 
150

printing typeset and reproduced matter, 

the Government also created about 25 

billion pieces of paper, all produced by 

750,000 employees at an annual cost of 

over $4 billion. Placed end to end, this 

paperwork would reach to the moon 13 

times. Federal offices turned out more 

than a billion individual letters each year. 

Rental of tabulating machines cost over 

$36 million annually, and more than 5 

billion punchcards were used. In 1954, 

there were more than 24 million cubic 

feet of Government records, enough to 

fill 7 Pentagon-sized buildings or space 

equal to 36 Empire State Buildings.

The Commission did not indicate 

the portion of Government paperwork 

which was translated into type by the 

GPO.

1956

The Modernization Committee recommended the purchase of $11

/2 million 

worth of new machinery, which it estimated would produce yearly savings of 

$537,591, with purchase cost recovered in 

3 years. Included were 10 new, modern, 

and speedy offset presses to replace 25 old 

letterpresses.

Rush Work

Premium surcharges for “urgent’’ 

printing reached an all time high of almost $21

/2 million this year. Publications 

requiring special handling were given 

right-of-way in Office production divisions, but the agencies were taxed with 

extra charges for those particular jobs 

which did not lend themselves to orderly 

production.

1957

This year a $1,323,000 contract for air 

conditioning the GPO was awarded. In 

addition, automatic elevators throughout 

the Office were installed for $278,000.

New Retirement Plan

Effective July 1957, employees were 

covered into the new civil service retirement fund. The 61

/2-percent Office contribution amounted to about $2 million 

yearly.

Modernization Program

In 1956 the Joint Committee on Printing authorized over $2 million for a modernization program. This year the committee granted an additional $13

/4 million 

for new equipment. Included were 17 

typecasting machines for about $270,000; 

11 Monotype keyboards and casters, 

about $115,000; and 11 offset presses, 

about $765,000. The total value of all Office plant machinery and equipment was 

approximately $121

/2 million.

Personnel Drop

The Public Printer reported that personnel in his 4-year tenure had dropped 

from 7,399 in April 1953 to 6,294 in April 

1957, for a net decrease of 1,105.

Printing Volume

Congressional printing which in 1867 

had amounted to 52.3 percent of Office 

printing was only 12.6 percent in 1957. 

Congressional printing services for fiscal 

year 1957 cost $11,863,430—the greatest 

amount for any year since the establishment of the GPO in 1861. Printing from 

commercial sources, first begun on a 

large scale in fiscal year 1941, amounted 

to about $251

/2 million in 1957, constituting more than 27 percent of all charges.

Paper Supplier

In 1924, Congress had centralized 

all Government paper purchases in the 
151

GPO, with sales of about $400,000 to 

Government departments. This year 

blank paper totaled almost $71

/2 million.

1958

Space problems again appeared. Yearly 

pleas for more space had been made from 

1861 to 1940, but the erection of the main 

building in 1940 indicated a halt in GPO 

expansion. But 1956 storage problems and 

the hauling of paper from leased quarters 

15 miles from the Office accented the need 

for a new building. On July 23, 1956, the 

Joint Committee on Printing had ordered 

a study of a proposal for a new warehouse 

to the west of the present main building. Estimated to cost $5,251,000 and to 

produce annual savings of $244,686, the 

building was approved by the Joint Committee on May 12, 1958. In 1959 the Senate 

approved the new warehouse bill, but the 

House failed to act.

Presidential Papers

Early this year typesetting began on 

the 1957 compilation of the public messages and statements of President Eisenhower. For the first time since 1899, when 

Richardson’s Compilation of Messages and

Papers of Presidents, 1789–1897, appeared 

in 10 volumes, an official medium of 

Presidential actions would be published. 

Authorized by Congress under the Federal Register Act, the National Archives 

undertook the task of assembling the expressions and official acts of Presidents. 

Presidential proclamations, Executive 

orders, and other White House documents were published in the Federal Register, but Presidents’ utterances were scattered in newspapers, the Congressional 

Record, and White House press releases. 

As of 1961, volumes covering 1953–59 

were completed, but no formal decision 

had been reached to close the historical 

gap between 1897 and 1952.

1959

Data Processing

The first electronic equipment for 

payroll and cost accounting work was 

installed. Formerly prepared on punchcard equipment, this work would now be 

processed by modern machinery at a saving of $500 a month. In 1960, a complete 

data-processing system was set up, with 

expected annual savings of $60,000.

Government Paper Specifications 

Standards

The Joint Committee on Printing 

compiled and issued standard specifications for all paper for nationwide use and 

in its regulations prescribed these standards as mandatory in the preparation of 

procurement documents for paper stocks 

and in specifying paper stocks to be used 

in printing, binding, or duplicating.

Apprentice Increase

On October 22, 1956, the training of 

apprentices was resumed on a full scale, 

with the appointment of 50 men. On May 

12, 1958, 75 were added, and this year 81 

additional apprentices were appointed to 

relieve worker shortage in the industry. 

The Public Printer reported that “they 

are producing as well as learning.’’

1960

Government Health Insurance

Beginning July 1, all employees were 

covered into the Federal health insurance 

plan. The Public Printer believed that 

the Office contribution would approximate $330,000. Compared with the somewhat inadequate private plans of former 

years, GPO workers now received better protection. As far back as January 5, 
152

1889, a small number of employees had 

formed the GPO Mutual Relief Association, whose “objects and purposes * * * 

[were] to provide a fund * * * in the event 

of sickness or other disability.’’

Weekly benefits of $10 were paid, but 

were limited to not more than 6 weeks 

yearly. Dues were $1 a month, and payments were expected to cover all doctor 

bills and medicines, but the bylaws included a prohibition of benefits for “sickness arising from excessive indulgence or 

indiscretion.’’

Plant Improvements

The GPO was now 90 percent air conditioned.

All elevators had been converted to automatic operation.

Ten fast-running presses for congressional bills were modernized and overhauled to give a 100-percent increase in 

speed and 10 years additional longevity.

Personnel

The Public Printer reported 6,289 employees on the rolls compared to 7,399 in 

1953, his first year of office, a reduction 

of 1,110.

Documents Division

The Division reported sales of 

$9,075,000. Earnings above expenses 

permitted a return of $4,400,000 to 

the Treasury. Of 130 million publications handled by Documents, 50 million 

represented sales and 80 million for 

congressional, depository library, and 

departmental distribution.

1961

Public Printer Blattenberger resigned 

as of January 31, and Deputy Public 

Printer Wilson became Acting Public 

Printer, but died on March 4.

On March 8, the Joint Committee on 

Printing designated Felix E. Cristofane, 

Comptroller, as Acting Public Printer. On 

March 9, President Kennedy nominated 

the Staff Director of the Joint Committee 

on Printing, James L. Harrison of the District of Columbia, as Public Printer. He 

was confirmed by the Senate on March 16 

and took the oath of office on March 17.

Within less than 2 months after taking 

over the direction of the GPO, as this history goes to press, Public Printer Harrison 

has filled all organizational vacancies in 

the Office. He appointed a Deputy Public Printer, an Administrative Assistant, 

and a Special Assistant. He combined the 

functions of Planning and Production 

under a Planning-Production Manager 

and broadened the scope and authority of 

several officials under the Planning-Production Manager. He consolidated commercial specification writing and printing procurement under the Director of 

Purchases. A new Comptroller, a Deputy 

Comptroller, and an Assistant Comptroller were appointed. These promotions 

brought about numerous other elevations 

along the staff’s lower echelon. He announced that these appointments, made 

from Office personnel, were designed, in 

each case, to provide improved service to 

the Government.

100 GPO Years

On March 4, the Office began its centennial celebration.
153

SUPERINTENDENTS OF PUBLIC PRINTING: 1852–61

John T. Towers, September 1, 1852–December 6, 1853.

A. G. Seaman, December 7, 1853–December 1857.

George W. Bowman, December 1857–May 12, 1859.

John Heart, May 13, 1859–March 4, 1861.

GPO SUPERINTENDENTS OF PUBLIC PRINTING

John D. Defrees, March 23, 1861–August 31, 1866.

Cornelius Wendell, September 1, 1866–February 28, 1867.

John D. Defrees, March 1, 1867–April 14, 1869.

CONGRESSIONAL PRINTER

Almon W. Clapp, April 15, 1869–July 31, 1876.

PUBLIC PRINTERS

Almon W. Clapp, August 1, 1876–May 30, 1877.

John D. Defrees, June 1, 1877–April 14, 1882.

Sterling P. Rounds, April 15, 1882–September 12, 1886.

Thomas Benedict, September 13, 1886–May 6, 1889.

Frank W. Palmer, May 7, 1889–May 2, 1894.

Thomas Benedict, May 3, 1894–March 30, 1897.

Frank W. Palmer, March 31, 1897–September 8, 1905.

O. J. Ricketts (Acting), September 9, 1905–November 27, 1905.

Charles A. Stillings, November 28, 1905–February 5, 1908.

William S. Rossiter (Acting), February 6, 1908–June 7, 1908.

Capt. Henry T. Brian (Acting), June 8, 1908.

John S. Leech, June 9, 1908–November 30, 1908.

Samuel B. Donnelly, December 1, 1908–June 20, 1913.

Cornelius Ford, June 20, 1913–April 4, 1921.

George H. Carter, April 5, 1921–July 1, 1934.

Chapter IV

T H I S I S T H E G P O

THIS SUMMARY chapter consists of comparative statistics showing relative 

growth of Government and the GPO for the past 100 years; the Office organizational structure; the difficulty in pinpointing the role of the GPO in the 

executive, legislative, or independent branches of Government; and statistical data 

pertaining to GPO plant, equipment, and production.

Heads of Public Printing: 1852–1961
154

Augustus E. Giegengack, July 2, 1934–March 15, 1948.

John J. Deviny (Acting), March 16, 1948–May 5, 1948.

John J. Deviny, May 6, 1948–February 28, 1953.

Philip L. Cole (Acting), March 1, 1953–April 27, 1953.

Raymond Blattenberger, April 28, 1953–January 31, 1961.

John M. Wilson (Acting), February 1, 1961–March 4, 1961.

Felix E. Cristofane (Acting), March 7, 1961–March 17, 1961.

James L. Harrison, March 17, 1961–.

48, but it was later found that each committee could be segmented into many 

subcommittees so that today overall committees total about 250. The standing 

committees with their normal functions, 

and subcommittees formed to study the 

diverse aspects of a complex Government 

and society, all require printing.

Departments

In 1861 the Federal Establishment 

consisted of five departments, not including the Attorney-General’s Office (later 

Justice) and the Post-Office which were 

members of the Government team but not 

full-fledged departments. (In 1870 Justice 

became a department, and in 1872 the Post 

Office acquired full status.) Today the 

Federal setup consists of 75 departments 

and independent agencies, with innumerable boards, bureaus, offices, divisions, 

and international commissions—all with 

printing needs to be met.

In 1800, Washington had 136 Federal 

employees. In 1861, there were 36,672 

in the Federal service, and in 1961 there 

were 2,374,208 civilian employees.

For the armed services, in 1800 there 

were 5,400 in the Navy and 525 in the 

Marine Corps. No information on the 

Army available. By 1860, the military 

numbered 27,958, but in 1861 [a war 

year] it had risen to 217,112 and in 1865, 

to 1,062,848. In 1961, the Armed Forces 

totaled 2,476,435. These personnel also 

create the need for GPO printing.

As the Nation has grown, so has the 

GPO, and the 100 GPO years parallel a 

similar period of national growth. The 

following comparisons illustrate the expansion of the Nation and the necessary 

increase in GPO services as Government 

became big business.

Government in 1861 and 1961

The Union on March 4, 1861, consisted 

of 24 States and the 9 Territories of Arizona, Colorado, Dacotah, Idaho, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, Utah, and 

Washington. Today, the GPO serves the 

printing needs of a Government which 

has grown to 50 States, and territories 

and possessions.

In 1610, British America had a population of 210. By 1800 the population had 

risen to 5,308,483, and in 1861 [the beginning of the GPO], 32,351,000. As of 1961, 

the country had grown to about 183 million.

Congress

The 36th Congress in 1861 was composed of 48 Senators, 175 Congressmen, 

and 9 Delegates from the Territories. 

The 87th Congress numbers 100 Senators, 437 Congressmen, and a Resident 

Commissioner from Puerto Rico.

In 1861 a total of 59 standing and joint 

committees conducted the affairs of Congress. In 1946, the Legislative Reorganization Act reduced the then number of 

standing, joint, and select committees to 

100 Years of Growth of Government and GPO
155

The Public Printer is solely responsible for the administration of the Office. 

However, the Joint Committee on Printing, consisting of three Members of the 

Senate and three Members of the House 

of Representatives, is directed to adopt 

and employ such measures as in its discretion it deems necessary to remedy any 

neglect, delay, duplication, or waste in 

public printing, binding, and distribution 

of Government publications. The Joint 

Committee fixes the standards of paper 

used in public printing and approves contracts for such paper and other materials. 

It also passes on wage agreements which 

the Public Printer is authorized by the act 

of June 7, 1924, to enter into with committees representing the various trades in 

the GPO, and acts generally as the board 

of directors of the GPO.

Management

Entire management of the Office, including appointment through civil service of all personnel (the Public Printer 

is the only exception), is by law vested 

in the Public Printer, who is required 

to be a practical printer versed in the art 

of bookbinding. He is appointed by the 

President of the United States by and 

with the advice and consent of the Senate. In directing the various functions 

and activities of the GPO, the Public 

Printer is aided by the Deputy Public 

Printer and an Administrative Assistant. 

The Deputy Public Printer assumes the 

duties of the Public Printer in the absence 

of that official and is directly responsible 

to the Public Printer for all production, 

planning, and field service functions. 

The Administrative Assistant assumes 

the duties of the Public Printer in the absence of both the Public Printer and the 

Deputy Public Printer and is responsible 

to the Public Printer for all administrative functions of the Office.

Purpose

The Government Printing Office executes orders for printing and binding 

placed by Congress and the departments, 

independent establishments, and agencies of the Federal Government; furnishes, on order, blank paper, inks, and 

similar supplies to all governmental activities; distributes Government publications as required by law, and maintains 

necessary catalogs and a library of these 

publications; prints, for sale to the public, 

such documents as are not of a confidential nature.

Working Capital

Congress each year appropriates direct 

to the Public Printer working capital to 

which is charged the cost of printing and 

binding for Congress. All other Government establishments pay to the Public 

Printer, from appropriations under their 

control, the cost of printing and binding 

which they may order, these payments 

being deposited by the Public Printer in 

the Treasury to the credit of the working 

capital and becoming at once subject to 

requisition by the Public Printer for authorized expenditures.

Administration and Planning-Production

Administering the building and plant 

is an organization of management and 

work divisions under the overall control 

of the Public Printer. For efficient manOrganizational Structure
156

agement purposes the Office is divided 

into two groups: administration and 

planning-production.

ADMINISTRATION

The Administrative Assistant is responsible to the Public Printer for the 

proper handling of the administrative 

functions of the Office. The divisions 

under his supervision are: Personnel, Finance and Accounts, Purchasing, Maintenance, Tests and Technical Control, 

Disbursing Office, and Public Documents.

The Director of Personnel is responsible for the proper handling of the administrative functions of the office in the 

absence of the Administrative Assistant.

The Security Officer, charged with responsibility for procedures to safeguard 

the Office and the printing it produces, 

reports to the Planning-Production Manager.

Division of Personnel

The Director of Personnel is responsible for the administration of the personnel program. Essential functions are 

recruitment, examining, placement, promotion, performance evaluation, training, wage and salary administration, 

organizational surveys, employee development, employee relations, apprentice 

training, and the protective, custodial, 

and medical services. This official represents the Office in its relations with the 

Civil Service Commission and the Interagency Advisory Group. He is chairman 

of the GPO Board of Civil Service Examiners and a member of the Executive 

Safety Committee.

The Medical Section is maintained under the supervision of the Medical Officer for the treatment of employees who 

may be taken suddenly ill or receive injuries while on duty. It is equipped with 

five beds. A Medical Officer and six registered nurses carry out these duties, and 

also give physical examinations to determine the ability of employees to perform 

their regular duties. The Medical Officer 

also determines the physical qualifications of all appointees before they are accepted for positions in the Office.

The Apprentice School is authorized 

by law for the training of young men 

and women in various branches of the 

printing trades. More than 600 have been 

trained since its establishment in 1922. 

On graduation, after serving a 5-year indenture, apprentices become journeymen 

at their respective trades, and are given 

permanent employment in the Office 

without further examination. Apprentices are appointed through civil service 

examination. The School is limited to 200 

apprentices at any one time. In addition 

to technical training as printers, bookbinders, pressmen, stereotypers, electrotypers, photoengravers, or machinists, 

the apprentices are required to complete 

certain related studies deemed essential 

in their work. Apprentices also aid in 

production work. There are presently 

197 apprentices in training, of whom 46 

were assigned in 1956, 73 in 1958, and 78 

in 1959.

Division of Finance and Accounts

All fiscal and legal matters, which 

include cost estimates; appropriations; 

payrolls; time, leave, retirement, and 

disability records; legal work; budgets; 

computing; cost analysis; billing; general bookkeeping; auditing; ratemaking; 

statistics; files; traffic, etc., are under the 

supervision of the Comptroller in the 

Division of Finance and Accounts. The 

magnitude of the job and the volume of 

detail involved may be realized by recalling that the Division must compute the 

exact amount of time spent by each of 

the approximately 6,000 employees on 

the thousands of different jobs in process 

throughout the Office, and determine 

the cost of each job and the amount to 

be collected from the customers—gov-
157

ernmental agencies. The annual and sick 

leave earned and used by each employee 

must be recorded. Payrolls totaling over 

$3 million a month must be prepared and 

audited. This involves the computation 

of retirement deductions, overtime, etc. 

The audit of vouchers covering all purchases by the Office, which total over $60 

million annually, is done in this Division.

Purchasing Division

This Division has charge of all purchases and stores, including printing 

procured from commercial sources; arranges for the sale of wastepaper and old 

materials; and supervises the telephone 

exchange.

The Division purchases and stores approximately 180 million pounds of paper 

annually and issues from an average inventory of 31 million pounds. Its procurement of commercial printing approximates $30,000,000 annually and its total 

yearly purchases are about $55,000,000.

Office of the Disbursing Officer

The Disbursing Officer has general 

supervision over all moneys spent for 

payroll purposes, supplies, etc., and all 

moneys received in payment for work 

performed.

Maintenance Division

The Maintenance Division is responsible for the maintenance and repair 

of all buildings and equipment of the 

Government Printing Office, including electrical, machine, pipe and sheet 

metal, automobile, carpentry, painting, 

and box-making. All engineering, drafting, and specification writing involving 

problems pertaining to the development 

of machinery to improve the quality and 

production of the work of the Office are 

performed by the engineering force in 

the Office of the Plant Engineer. The 

preparation of drawings, specifications, 

and recommendations to the Purchasing 

Division for award on various materials 

used in the Office, as well as the analysis 

of bids and recommendation of awards 

for machinery, are functions of the Division. The utilization of equipment is 

carefully studied and, as far as possible, it 

is kept in efficient service.

A study is made of all patents submitted 

to the Office to determine their usefulness 

in printing operations. Patents of value to 

the GPO have been processed through the 

Department of Justice, and several useful 

patents have been obtained in this manner.

The function of the Maintenance Division includes: operation of powerplant 

and buildings equipment; maintenance 

of production machinery and equipment; 

installation of new machines and equipment; distribution of utilities, including 

water, gas, electricity, air, and steam; engineering, including specification writing and drafting; safety and fire protection; construction and repair of furniture 

and fixtures; improvement in working 

environment (modernization); dispatching, recording, and filling of all orders 

for repairs and service.

Division of Tests and Technical 

Control

Laboratory work is performed in this 

Division in connection with technical 

specifications for paper and other printing material, and here also is carried out 

the testing of all purchased material for 

the purpose of maintaining standards of 

quality. This Division consists of four 

sections—type-metal foundry, ink plant, 

roller and adhesives, and laboratories for 

testing and analyzing paper and all other 

printing supplies.

The Metal Section remelts type metal 

into pigs, restoring any exhausted component in accordance with laboratory 

chemical tests so that the metal may be 

used again. The melting room is entirely 

mechanized with specially designed new 

equipment.
158

The other two production units of 

this Division are the Ink Section and 

the Roller and Adhesives Section, which 

manufacture certain writing and printing inks, rollers, and a variety of bookbinding adhesives.

The laboratories are completely 

equipped and devoted exclusively to 

printing and bookbinding problems and 

research in the field of the graphic arts. 

Valuable aid is rendered to other Government departments and to the printing industry at large through its research 

publications and cooperation in solving 

problems pertaining to the technique 

of the graphic arts and to materials employed therein. Laboratory assistance, involving expert knowledge of papers and 

inks, is also given to other departments 

in detection of forgeries and is in many 

ways helpful toward solution of their 

varied technical problems.

Superintendent of Documents

One of the main divisions of the GPO 

is the Office of the Superintendent of 

Documents, which has charge of the 

distribution and sale of Government 

publications. The Documents Division 

prepares and issues catalogs, indexes, and 

price lists of Government publications 

originated by the different departments 

and agencies on a wide variety of subjects. The Monthly Catalog of U.S. Government Publications lists all publications 

issued each month and the prices of those 

for sale. Government publications are 

sold to the public by the Superintendent 

of Documents at the actual cost of paper, 

presswork, and binding, plus 50 percent, 

as required by law. He is authorized to 

allow a discount of 25 percent to bookdealers and to purchasers of 100 or more 

copies on condition that the purchaser 

adheres to the established sales price and 

that no advertisement be overprinted. 

Coupons, good until used, are sold in sets 

of 20 for $1; or remittance for publications ordered may be made by check or 

money order payable to the Superintendent of Documents.

There is a direct appropriation which 

covers the expenses of the office of the 

Superintendent of Documents.

Cafeteria, Recreation & 

Welfare Association

An important activity for the convenience and welfare of the employees is 

the Cafeteria, Recreation & Welfare Association. This employee association operates a large cafeteria on the eighth floor 

adjacent to a spacious auditorium and 

recreation rooms, and also sponsors several athletic clubs and operates the bowling alleys.

PLANNING-PRODUCTION

The Deputy Public Printer is in charge 

of the productive group. He is responsible to the Public Printer for the work of 

all production divisions, including direct 

responsibility for the Field Service Division.

The Planning-Production Manager’s 

Office, which has immediate supervision of all printed matter produced, includes the following divisions: Planning, 

Typography and Design, Composing, 

Platemaking, Letterpress, Offset, and 

Binding. All offset printing operations 

are under a Superintendent of Offset. 

The printing branch of the Library of 

Congress is also under the direction of 

the Deputy Public Printer and the Planning-Production Manager.

Planning

Division of Plant Planning.—Work is 

planned for the most efficient, effective, 

and economical method of production. 

Cost estimates are furnished the ordering 

office; specifications are made and schedules prepared for performance of operations within the plant.
159

Division of Planning Service.—Receives 

requisitions for Government printing 

and binding procured from or through 

the Office, issues waivers on that portion 

of the work which cannot be procured by 

or produced in the GPO, and prepares 

specifications and schedules for work 

procured.

Typography and Design.—This Division is responsible for the preparation of 

format, design, and artwork in connection with new publications; determination of acceptable copy for illustrations; 

and display reproduction and establishment of standards of quality.

Production

Composing.—The setting of type and 

its arrangement for the printing of all 

matter, including linotype, monotype, 

hand composition, proofreading, repro 

proofs, and lockup, are included under 

this activity.

Platemaking.—Production of stereotype, electrotype, plastic, rubber, and 

photoengraving plates required for the 

various kinds of letterpress printing.

Letterpress.—Includes the actual production of impressions from type and 

plates. Illustrations in colorwork range 

from one to four colors.

Offset.—Covers the preparation of offset copy, making of negatives and offset 

plates, and offset presswork.

Binding.—Binding of all pamphlets, 

books, and blankwork, and the repairing 

and rebinding of old books, documents, 

and manuscripts.

Production divisions are under the direct supervision of the Planning-Production Manager.

Field Service

Field Service Division.—Operates 

plants in New York, Chicago, Denver, 

Seattle, San Francisco, and Washington, 

D.C., under direct supervision of the 

Deputy Public Printer, to fulfill the requirements of Government departments 

and agencies in those areas.

History of Building Expansion

At the time the 1856 building was 

erected and fitted up as a printing office 

by Cornelius Wendell, its facilities were 

considered amply sufficient to execute 

all work required by both Houses of 

Congress, and also to perform any work 

which might be obtained from private 

sources. Purchased by the Government 

by authorization of the 1860 printing act, 

this building became the first GPO.

By 1865, the plant was swamped with 

Civil War printing, and expansion was 

necessary. After repeated and urgent calls 

upon Congress for money, a four-story 

addition (60 by 76 feet) was erected at the 

west end of the structure in 1865; and in 

1871 another four-story addition, of the 

same general style of construction (about 

93 feet by 61 feet), was built immediately 

south of the H street section, fronting on 

North Capitol Street.

In 1879 a fireproof building (53 by 87 

feet), four stories high, with an L-shaped 

extension (60 by 60 feet), was erected south 

of the western portion of the H Street section. An additional story was placed on 

this building in 1894.

In 1880–81 a lot on H Street (west of 

the H Street section) was purchased and 

a stable erected, and in 1881 a second fireproof four-story extension (59 by 94 feet), 

was erected just west of the North Capitol Street section.

In 1885, a brick storehouse (16 feet 10 

inches by 100 feet and three stories high) 

was built south of the main building and 

connected with it by a bridge over an alley. A one-story plumbing and paint shop 
160

(16 feet 10 inches by 65 feet 9 inches) was 

also erected on the same lot.

In 1888–89 an additional story was constructed upon the south center fireproof 

section, which had been erected in 1881.

In 1896, a new seven-story building 

was erected to the west of the GPO and a 

fifth story added to the south wing.

Building No. 1 on North Capitol and 

G Streets was completed in 1903, with 

building No. 2 added to the west of No. 

1 in 1930. The warehouse and the new 

main building (No. 3) were completed in 

1938 and 1940, respectively.

Role in Government

Although established by Congress in 

1860, and accordingly a creation of Congress, many questions have arisen concerning the GPO’s true position in relation to Government. It is an element of 

Government and a working member of 

the Federal Establishment. Various acts 

of Congress, Executive orders, Supreme 

Court decisions, and Attorney General 

and Comptroller General rulings have 

placed it in service for the executive, legislative, and independent branches.

In 1875, Chief Justice Waite declared:

In short, the GPO superintendent seems to 

have a department of his own, in which he is in a 

sense supreme. Certainly he is not under control 

of any of the executive departments. Apparently 

he is more responsible to Congress than to any 

other authority.

On May 21, 1883, President Arthur issued the following Executive order:

* * * it is hereby ordered that the several Executive Departments, the Department of Agriculture, and the Government Printing Office be 

closed on Wednesday, the 30th instant, to enable 

the employees to participate in the decoration 

of the graves of the soldiers who fell during the 

rebellion.

In 1892, the chairman of the Joint 

Committee on Printing stated:

The Printer is the Congressional Printer. True, 

his name has been changed to that of Public Printer, but nonetheless he has always been considered, 

is considered today, and I think always will be, as 

the creation of Congress, subject to its immediate direction, without interference by any of the 

executive officers of the Government.

The enactment of the 1895 printing law 

granted broad authority in the Joint Committee on Printing by providing that—

The Joint Committee on Printing shall have 

power to adopt such measures as may be deemed 

necessary to remedy any neglect or delay in the 

execution of the public printing.

The GPO was not placed under civil 

service until June 13, 1895, when President Cleveland issued an Executive order 

blanketing all its employees into the classified service. Serious question was raised 

at that time as to whether the President 

had this authority under the Civil Service 

Act of January 16, 1883.

In 1898 the Attorney General made 

this finding in reference to the civil service status of the GPO:

I therefore am of the opinion that the 

employees in the office of the Public Printer are 

not subject to classification and examination 

under the Civil Service Act; that the GPO is not 

an executive branch of the Government within 

the meaning of that term in the Civil Service 

Act; and that it is not under the control of, 

nor a branch or division or office of any of the 

executive departments, and the provisions of the 

Civil Service Act cannot lawfully be applied to 

the officers or employees therein.

Senator Root, one of the foremost authorities on governmental matters, in discussing printing legislation in the Senate 

in 1912, declared:

The office of the Public Printer is an anomaly 

in our system of administration. * * * The GPO 

is not in any executive department and has no 

supervision, and has never had any supervision, 

except the supervision of Congress. * * * Now, 
161

either Congress ought to make its own supervision adequate, if it is going to perform that duty, 

and create for it adequate machinery and fix upon 

somebody the responsibility, or else it ought to put 

this bureau in an executive department. Whichever Congress chooses to do is all right; but the 

office is today a lost child, and has been ever since 

I have known anything about the administration 

of the Government of the United States.

In the same discussion, another Senator remarked: “The President has no 

authority to give orders to the Public 

Printer on any subject,’’ to which Senator 

Smoot, chairman of the Joint Committee 

on Printing, replied, “None whatever; 

* * * he is responsible to Congress alone.’’

An act of March 3, 1917, made the Joint 

Committee on Printing a continuing body 

and thus took from the Secretary of the 

Interior the jurisdiction over certain contracts and purchases by the Public Printer 

when Congress was not in session.

In 1928, Public Printer Carter in testimony before the House Appropriations 

Committee offered what is perhaps the 

best definition of the GPO:

Mr. Murphy. Mr. Carter, for the benefit of 

the committee and the record you might state 

at this time how the GPO is governed. We have 

in Congress a Joint Committee on Printing. You 

might state what they do in the way of supervision of the GPO.

Mr. Carter. Senator Root once said in a debate in the Senate that the Printing Office is an 

anomaly in our system of administration, it is 

neither under Congress nor any executive department. The Public Printer is appointed by 

the President and confirmed by the Senate, but 

other than that the President does not exercise 

any active control of its management. The Joint 

Committee on Printing acts as board of directors for the GPO and to that body the Public 

Printer has to look for advice and counsel, and 

for the approval of many of his purchases, such 

as paper and machinery. Otherwise, the GPO 

is an absolutely independent establishment and 

the Public Printer has to assume entire and sole 

responsibility for its management. However, the 

Joint Committee exercises, and has always exercised, in my experience of 20 years, a very close 

and keen observation over the operation of the 

Office. Our purchases of machinery have to be 

submitted to that committee.

Mr. Murphy. To what extent, Mr. Carter, 

must you secure the approval of that committee 

when you go to purchase improved machinery 

or make contracts for paper, or carry on any 

other activity for the benefit of your Office?

Mr. Carter. All of the annual contracts for 

paper are awarded by the Joint Committee. All 

of the open-market purchases of paper, even as 

little as 10 pounds of any special kind of paper, 

must come before the Joint Committee for its approval. All purchases of machinery and equipment amounting to over $1,000 must have the 

approval of the Joint Committee.

The Joint Committee also has control over 

the publication of the Congressional Record, the 

Congressional Directory, and many other special 

publications of Congress.

The committee also has the power to remedy 

any neglect, delay, duplication, or waste in public printing and binding.

Further than that, in the case of adjustment 

of wages under the Kiess Act, the negotiations 

must be made, in the first instance, by the Public 

Printer and a committee representing the trade 

affected, but any new scale cannot go into effect 

unless it receives the approval of the Joint Committee on Printing.

So, on the whole, I think the Joint Committee 

acts efficiently as a board of directors for the GPO 

in carrying out its varied duties under the law.

In 1932, a Comptroller General’s decision stated that the GPO was a part of the 

legislative branch and therefore was not 

subject to legislation applicable only to 

the executive departments and independent establishments of the Government.

The 1943 act relating to selective service deferment of persons employed by 

the Government contained the following 

provision:

For the purposes of this section and Executive Order No. 9309, the GPO and the Library of 

Congress shall each be deemed to be an agency 

in the executive branch of the Government.
162

Conclusion

There may have been a too-heavy emphasis in this GPO history on the typesetting and press units. Equally important also were the many unsung but quietly 

efficient sections throughout GPO. The maintenance workers; electrical and machine 

shop; the delivery section, darting around the city with the early-morning delivery 

of the Congressional Record; men in the Superintendent of Documents stockrooms 

filling worldwide orders for Government publications; bindery women; paperhandlers throughout the GPO—all these are the GPO in action and all members of a 

public service organization.

This has been a story of planning specialists, of men skilled in the graphic arts and 

drawn from every corner of the country. Of men translating copy into ems of hot 

metal type; of proofreaders searching for the gremlins which creep into a line of type; 

and the compositors, pressmen, binders, and all others in the assembly line of production who join in keeping the Nation informed.

Printing presses, composing equipment, and bindery machines constitute—appropriately—a considerable part of this history.

However, the truly important fiber which has been woven into the fabric of the 

GPO’s centennial history is people. Although they are not specifically recorded, there 

are nameless thousands who, by their dedication and diligence, have been responsible 

for the GPO’s past achievements and are the promise of future success.

The close relationship of the Joint Committee on Printing to the Government 

Printing Office during this entire century is exemplified by the fact that two of its 

staff directors, George H. Carter and James L. Harrison, have been appointed as 

Public Printer.

Senator Carl Hayden, to whom this book is most appropriately dedicated, is now 

serving in his 19th year as chairman of the Committee. During the first nine of those 

years the Committee staff was headed by Ansel Wold. Mr. Wold’s total service in that 

position spanned approximately 27 years, longer than any other man. He worked with 

five chairmen; Senators Hayden, Jenner, Moses, and Fletcher, and Representative 

J. Walter Lambeth.

Following his retirement in 1948, Mr. Wold was succeeded by Paul C. Beach, who, 

subsequently, was a staff colleague of Public Printer James L. Harrison.

Finally, the co-relationship of the GPO-Joint Committee on Printing again was renewed this year with the advent as staff director of John F. Haley, who was associated 

with the GPO for a number of years.
163

accounting procedures 90, 103, 106, 127, 147

Accounting Division 103

Adams presses 42

Adams, James 2

Administrative Assistant to the Public Printer 128

administrative offices 111

Adventures of a Tramp Printer 56

Agricultural Adjustment Administration 124

Agriculture Reports 41, 52, 53 

air conditioning 122, 150, 152

Aitken, Robert 3 

Allen, Thomas 17, 20

American Historical Association 8

American Legion post 125

American Senator (newspaper) 11

American State Papers 12

Annals of Congress (newspaper) 8, 11, 12

annual reports 67, 109

annual reports, GPO 146

Anthony Report (1870) 46

Apollo Press 10

apprenticeship 66, 67, 74, 104, 111, 114, 116, 123, 145

Armstrong, Gen. Robert 23

author’s alterations 77, 118 

automobiles 93

baseball 116

Benedict, Thomas E. 63, 65, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77

bible in one day 115

bicycle messengers 51, 82

bills from type 71

bindery 42, 50, 54, 58, 60, 67, 96, 110, 116, 132

Blair & Rives 12, 17, 20, 35, 48

Blair House (Blair Mansion) 17

Blair, Francis P. 12

blank books 25, 31, 118

Blattenberger, Raymond 147, 150, 154

Blue Eagle (newspaper) 125

Board of Revision see Style Board

Bonus Act 112

bookbinders 3, 124

bookbinding 25, 31, 50, 54, 82

bookselling 75

bookstore, GPO 103

bowling alleys 104

Bowman, Gen. George W. 23, 26, 27, 28

Bradford, Andrew 2

Bradford, William 2, 3

branch offices 64, 70, 93, 95

Brian, Henry T. 85, 90

Buchanan, James x, 27, 30

Budget Bureau, U.S. 102

Buildings Division 115

buildings see GPO Buildings 

Bullock presses 43, 58

Bureau of Public Printing (proposed) 25,

cafeteria 104, 112

Cafeteria & Recreation Association 104

Cafeteria, Recreation, & Welfare Association 158

Carpenter, Samuel 3

Carpenter, Thomas 11

Carter, George H. 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 

109, 116, 118, 123, 144

censorship 2

Census Bureau 82, 89

Census, 1880 60

Centinel of Liberty (newspaper) 9

Check List of U.S. Public Documents, 

1789-1909 95

Childs, Francis 2, 9

Childs & Swaine 9

Cholera 62

Civil Service 59, 62, 73, 77, 127

Civil War 36, 41

Civil War veterans 121

Civil Works Administration 124

Clapp, Almon H. 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51

classified service see Civil Service

Claypoole, David C. 2, 4

Clemens, Samuel Langhorne (Mark Twain) 19

Clerk of the House 22

Code of Federal Regulations 145

Cold War 149

Cole, Philip L. 147

Collins, Isaac 2

Committee on Printing (Congress) (1842) 20

Company F see Interior Department Regiment 

(Civil War) 

composition 56, 57

confidential printing 60

Congress, first 7, 10

Congressional debates 12, 13

Congressional Globe (periodical) 12, 13, 18, 20, 24, 25, 

45, 48, 49, 51, 55, 56, 101, 120

Congressional Globe stereotype plates 55, 100, 120

Congressional mandate 103 

Congressional Printer (1869 title) 44

Congressional printing 49, 115, 120

Congressional proceedings, printing of 48, 49, 50

Congressional Record 13, 49, 50, 52, 57, 60, 92, 93, 

102, 112, 115, 120, 125, 144

Congressional Record Daily Digest 146

Congressional Record format 118, 142, 144

Congressional Record presses 95, 110, 115, 147, 148

Congressional Record Sunday Eulogy edition 93

Congressional speeches 117

Constitution 4

Continental Congress 3, 4

Continentals 3

contract printing 14, 21, 22, 136

Coolidge, Calvin 116

cornerstone laying, 1939 130

Cosby, William 2

cost accounting 127

Crandall, Francis A. 74, 75

credit union 126

Cristofane, Felix 152

Crowell, Joseph T. 30

crown (colonial) printers 2

Customs, Commissioner of—printing for 44

cylinder presses 42, 58

Davis & Force 16

Davis, Garrett 20

Davis, James 2

Davis, William A. 16

Day, Matthew 1

Day, Stephen 5

Daye, Stephen 1, 2

Declaration of Independence 4

Defrees, John D. 28, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 

51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 59, 125

Index
164

depository libraries 75, 76, 89, 90

Deputy Public Printer 130, 154, 157, 160, 161

designers, printing 118

DeVinne, Theodore L. 51

Deviny, John J. 145, 147

Dexter folding machines 84

Disbursing Officer 157

distribution of Government publications 75, 79, 94, 

101, 158

District of Columbia Government printing 116

Documents Division 75, 79, 83, 89, 99, 100, 101, 146, 

152, 158

Donnelly, Samuel B. 90, 92, 93, 94, 95

Douglas Hospital 38

distribution of Government publications 108

Duane, William (& Son) 10

Dunlap, John 2, 3, 4

Early, Gen. Jubal A. 41

Economy Act (1933) 121, 122

Economy Act (1935) 126

Eisenhower, Dwight D. 142, 147

electricity 48, 58, 66, 73, 74, 78, 81, 108

electronic data processing 151

electrotype see platemaking

elevators 80, 126, 150, 152

Emergency Work Section 136

employee outing/picnic 112

employee welfare 104

English, James 38

engraving 25, 39, 59, 62

equipment 37, 43, 57, 58, 99, 110, 119, 147, 148

Federal Convention (Constitutional Convention) 8

Fenno, John 9

field offices 96

field printing plants 103, 143, 146

Field Service Division 159

Fillmore, Millard 23

Finance & Accounts Division 156

fire escapes 54

fire safety (GPO Buildings) 54, 60, 107, 112

Force, Peter 16, 17

Ford, Cornelius 95, 96, 99, 101

Ford, Tom Gen. 23, 28

Ford’s Theatre Fire, 1893 71

form printing 134

Foster, John 2

Fowle, Daniel 2

Franklin, Benjamin 2, 3

Furber, Thomas 2

furloughs 95

furloughs see also layoffs

Gaine, Hugh 2

Gales & Seaton 11, 12, 16, 17, 20

Gales, Joseph Jr. 11

Garfield, James A. 56

General Pershing linotype 110

Georgetown 8

Gideon, George S. 29

Giegengack, Augustus E. 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 

142, 143, 145

Globe, The see Congressional Globe

Goddard, William 2

Goose Creek 38

Gordon presses 42

government health insurance 151

Government life insurance 149

government publication rules 117

GPO Buildings — authorization to construct or 

expand 42, 55, 79, 115, 118, 119, 126 

GPO Buildings — condition 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 76, 

107, 112, 124, 126, 128

GPO Buildings — renovation & expansion 42, 47, 

55, 56, 70, 71, 72, 76, 78, 79, 81, 83, 94, 98, 100, 

104, 107, 112, 115, 116, 118, 119, 121, 123, 114, 

126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 137, 159, 160

GPO Buildings – space problems 39, 42, 45, 55, 69, 

70, 72, 76, 78, 79, 97, 107, 112, 115, 124, 126, 151

GPO neighborhood 36, 37, 38, 56

GPO organization & reorganization 59, 79

GPO site 24, 36, 56, 70, 78

GPO Style Board see Style Board

GPO Style Manual see Style Manual 

Granjon (typeface) 120

Grant, Ulysses S. 51

Great Depression 121, 122, 123, 124

Greeley, Horace 44

Green & Russell 2

green room 122

Green, Duff 17, 23

Green, Jonas 2

Green, Samuel 2

Green, Timothy 2

group insurance 122, 127

H.R. 22 (36/1, 1860)

halftones 77

Hamerer, John Daniel 2

Hamilton, Boyd 21

Harding Hall 105, 118

Harding, Warren G, 104

Harper, Fletcher 18

Harris, William A. 23, 26

Harrison, Benjamin 20

Harrison, James L. 152

Harvard College 1

Hayes, Rutherford B. 51

health insurance 151

Heart, John 23, 26, 28, 29, 30

hiring 63

Hoe presses 58, 84

Holt, John 2

Hoover Commission of Organization of the 

Executive Branch of the Government 149

Hoover, Herbert 119

horses 55, 80, 81

Houston, James A. 13

hundredth anniversary of GPO 152

Imprimerie National (France) 18

indexes 76

ink 3, 97

Intelligencer see National Intelligencer 

Interior Department Regiment (Civil War) 41

Interior, Department of 25

Internal Revenue printing 44, 145

investigation of GPO (1908) 90

investigation of GPO (1938) 127

investigations by Congress 17, 18, 51, 52, 68, 69, 85, 

127

Jackson Alley 111

Jackson, Andrew 17

Jefferson, Thomas 3

jeffing 46

Johnson, Andrew 42

Johnston, James 2

Joint Committee on Printing 21, 30, 32, 46, 49, 56, 

68, 94, 97, 105, 143, 150, 151, 155

Joint Resolution 25 (36/1, 1860) 30, 31

Jones, George W. 120

Journal of Congress (Continental Congress) 3, 4
165

Journal, House 9

Journal, Senate 9

journeymen 2, 5, 18, 23, 27, 66, 111, 113, 116, 123, 

156

Judd, John G. 52 

Kallen, Jacob 2

Keimer, Samuel 2

Kiess Act (1924) 108, 111, 113, 114, 145, 161

Korean Conflict 146

labor & labor relations 4, 39, 46, 66, 71, 81, 91, 95, 

113

Labor bureau plant 82

Lafayette, Marquis ( French General) 12

Lanston Monotype see Monotype

Larcombe & English 27, 38

Larcombe, John 38

layoffs 46, 71, 95

layout section 126

leave 63, 66, 69, 105, 121, 123, 127

Leech, John S. 85, 90, 92 

letterwriters (reporters) 13

Library of Congress 16, 88

Library of Congress branch (GPO) 80, 129, 158

life insurance 121, 149

Lincoln assassination 41

Lincoln-Douglas Debates 26

Lincoln, Abraham visits GPO 39

Lincoln, Abraham 35, 40, 41, 42, 44, 53

Linotype 64, 65, 71, 84, 91, 95, 110, 121

Linotype see also slug-casting machines

lithographing 25, 31, 39, 41, 59, 62

low bid system 14, 21, 24, 29

Madisonian (newspaper) 17

Maintenance Division 115, 123, 157

Mangum, Mr. (Senator) 20

Matthews, Brander 86

Mawson, Capt. Samuel G. 119

medical section 83, 156

Mergenthaler Linotype see Linotype

Compilations of Messages and Papers of the Presidents

1789–1897 80, 89, 151

Miehle presses 70, 84

military printing 98, 129, 134, 139, 140

mirrors 89

modernization 116, 149, 150, 152

Modernization of Machinery & Equipment 

Committee 147, 150

money orders 94, 98, 112, 114, 122, 125, 127

Monotype 71, 84, 91, 95, 109, 114, 116, 117, 119, 132, 

150, 159

Moore, William W. 18, 31, 45

morale 90, 120

Napier press 16

National Calendar and Annals of the United States

(periodical) 16

National Intelligencer (newspaper) 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 

17, 18

National Journal (newspaper) 16

national printing office proposed 14, 17, 18, 26

National Recovery Administration 124

Nautical Almanac 43

Navy Department 8, 45, 98, 109, 131, 137, 140, 154

neighborhood around GPO see GPO site

newspapers 2, 9, 13, 23, 24, 26

Nicholson, A.O.P. 23

Nicholson, Thomas 2

Nuthead, William 2

Official Gazette (Patent Office) 48, 94, 118, 128

Official Postal Guide 102

offset printing 95, 96, 119, 122, 127, 135, 148, 158, 

159

orchestra, GPO 104

outing, annual 112

Palmer, Frank W. 69, 72, 78, 79, 81, 83, 84

paper 25, 36, 47, 59, 73, 93, 94, 97, 99, 101, 102, 107, 

109, 110, 114, 132, 139, 140, 144, 151

paper mill proposed 106, 144

paper warehouse (building 4) 126, 128

papermills 3

paperwork 149

Parker, James 2

Parks, William 2

Patent Office 44, 53, 96, 114, 118, 122, 127, 143

patent printing 44, 115, 119, 129, 145

Paymaster General 45

Pennsylvania Gazette 3

pensions 94, 96, 103

perfecting presses 53, 58, 84

periodicals 32, 98, 106

Permanent Conference on Printing 102, 107, 110, 

118, 124

Pershing Linotype 110

Personnel Division 128, 156

phat 46

Philadelphia Gazette (newspaper) 11

Phillips, Eleazar 2

photoengraving 77, 106, 116, 159

Photoengraving Division 10, 108, 119

piece system 19, 46, 51, 60, 68, 74

Planning Division 108, 111, 135, 145, 158

plastic printing plates 144, 159

plate printing 65, 100

plate vault 73

platemaking 45, 83, 106, 116, 122, 159

Platemaking Division 119, 145, 158

pneumatic tube system 50, 83

Polk, James 20

Post Office 8, 29, 42, 80, 90, 93, 96, 99, 101, 103, 112, 

114, 122, 127

postal cards 93, 96, 101, 103, 114, 122, 125, 127

Potter presses 84

presidential papers 151

presses 3, 18, 42, 54, 57, 60, 61, 84, 109, 116, 119, 120, 

122, 146, 147, 148, 150, 152

Printing Act of 1819 15, 22

Printing Act of 1846 20, 21, 22

Printing Act of 1852 22, 23

Printing Act of 1860 30, 159

Printing Act of 1895 67, 74, 79, 105, 118, 160

printing appropriations 26, 62, 84, 105, 108

printing charges (charges to agencies) 93, 97, 98, 

103, 114, 125, 127

printing costs 15, 17, 18, 23, 25, 26, 38, 40, 41, 42, 51, 

85, 94, 122, 127

printing costs — comparison between old and new 

systems 40, 41, 42, 44

printing costs (cost to the Government) 16, 17, 18, 

21, 27, 41

Printing Industries Conference (1931) 120

printing investigation, 1840 (Congressional) 17, 19

printing investigation, 1842 (Congressional) 20

printing investigation, 1858 (Congressional) 24

printing investigation, 1860 (Congressional) 23, 26, 

27, 29

printing investigation, 1887 (Congressional) 67

printing investigation, 1870 (Congessional) 46

printing investigation, 1876 (Congressional) 51

printing investigation, 1905 (Congressional) 85
166

printing investigation, 1908 (executive) 90, 92

printing machinery 37, 42, 57, 58, 95, 99, 109, 119, 

132, 146, 150

printing presses, colonial 3

printing rates see printing charges

prisoner-of-war stationery 139

private printing 66

Proctor, John Clagett 37, 38, 123

procurement of printing 117, 129, 132, 133, 134, 136, 

146, 157

production 45, 68, 93, 96, 103, 125, 131, 150

Production Division 159

proof room 56, 57, 67, 77, 159 

proof sheets 77

Public Documents Library 89

Public Printer (title established) 51

Public Printing, Select Committee on (1840) 17, 24

Public Printing, Select Committee on (1860) 29

Public Works Administration 124

Public occurrences both foreign and domestick 

(newspaper) 2

“publick” printers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

purchasing 88

Purchasing Division 159

Rapine, Conrad, & Co. 10

ration coupons 139

Reading, Thomas 2

recovery agencies (1930s) 124

Register of Debates in Congress (periodical) 12

retirement 96, 103, 123, 150

Revere, Paul 3

revolving fund 147

Richardson, James D. 80, 151

Ricketts, Oscar J. 84

Ritchie & Heiss 20, 21

Ritchie, James 21

Ritchie, Thomas 16, 17

Rittenhouse, William 3

Rives & Bailey 48, 52

Rives, F. & J. 45

Rives, F. & J. & Bailey 49

Rives, Franklin 51, 52

Rives, John C. 12, 14, 18, 19, 25, 28

Rogers, Gen. Thomas A. 14

role of GPO in Government 103, 128, 160

Roosevelt, Franklin D. 127

Roosevelt, Theodore 84, 85, 87, 90

Rossiter, William S. 85, 90, 91

Rough and Secret Journals (Continental Congress) 3

Rounds, Sterling P. 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63

rush work surcharges 150

safety 67, 72, 93, 149, 157

sale of documents 74, 75, 79, 94, 96, 103, 108, 125, 

146, 152

Scheduling Board 136

Seaman, A.G. 23, 24, 26

Seaton, William 11

secret work 99

Secretary of the Senate 9, 16, 21, 22, 31, 32, 106

security measures 149

Select Committee on Printing (House) (1858) 24, 29

Select Committee on Public Printing (House) (1840) 

17

Sentinel see Washington Sentinel

Sesquicentennial Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1926 116

seventy-fifth anniversary of GPO 126

seventieth anniversary of GPO 121

sheepskin binding 82

Short, Thomas 2

sick leave 105, 127

sick room 83

Sights and Secrets of the National Capital 35, 37

Silvester (Sylvester), Peter 8

sixty-fifth anniversary of GPO 115

slug-casting machines 109, 110, 114, 116, 129, 132

Smith, Samuel H. 9, 10, 11

Smoot-Hawley tariff act 118

Social Security printing 127

soldier ballot paper 139

space problem see GPO Buildings — condition

Spanish American War 78

specialty printing waiver 126

spelling reform 86, 87, 88

Spooner, Alden 2

Spooner, Judah P. 2

St. Aloysius Church 38, 56

stable 36, 37, 69, 81, 83, 159

Stanton Hospital 38

State Department 8, 64, 141

steam power 81, 157

Steedman, General James B. 23, 26

stereotype see platemaking

Steuart, Andrew 2

Stillings, Charles A. 51, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91

strike in bindery 39

Style Board 107, 124

Style Manual 67, 107, 124

Superintendent of Accounts 102

Superintendent of Documents 74, 75, 79, 80, 88, 94, 

103, 108, 110, 117, 119, 122, 125, 146, 148, 158

Superintendent of Public Printing 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 

29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 51

Supreme Court 20, 29, 57, 67, 108, 143, 143, 160

Swaine, John 9

Swampoodle 36, 56

syllabication 116

tabulating cards 117, 122, 149

tax forms 122, 139, 148

Taylor, Jacob 2

Telegraph see United States Telegraph 

telephones 55, 157

termite section 135

Test and Technical Control Division see Testing 

Section

Testing Section 107, 108, 113, 116, 157

Thirteenth Amendment (U.S. Constitution) 41

Thirty Years in Washington 78

Thomson, Charles 3

Tiber Creek 37, 38, 56

Timothy, Lewis 2

Titcomb, Benjamin Jr. 2

Towers, John T. 23

traffic, plant 140

transportation 55, 81, 133, 138

Treasury Department 8, 9, 15, 42, 45, 62, 93, 121, 

122, 132, 135

trucks, electric 82, 93

Truman, Harry S. 145

Tucker, Beverly 23

Twain, Mark see Clemens, Samuel Langhorne 

type 3, 15, 37, 48, 54, 57, 60, 65, 68, 70, 114, 117, 141, 

159

type measurement 46, 126

type metal 97, 107, 117, 131, 157

type sizes 65

typesetting machines 50, 64, 65, 71, 84, 90, 97, 114, 

118, 121, 132

Typography & Design Division 126, 136, 158, 159
167

Union Building 83

Union, The (newspaper) 13

unions 23

United Nations 140

United States Reports (Supreme Court) 108, 143

United States Reporter (newspaper) 13

United States Telegraph (newspaper) 12, 17

United Typothetae of America 109, 110, 112, 120

United Veterans of American Wars 104

Universal Gazette 10, 11

veterans 20, 111, 119

Veterans Bureau 109, 113

volume of work 68, 80, 103, 125, 131, 133, 150

wages 19, 42, 43, 47, 50, 51, 54, 60, 67, 68, 71, 74, 80, 

81, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98, 101, 105, 112, 113, 114, 120, 

122, 123, 125

Wait, Thomas B. 2, 3

War Department 8, 140

War of 1812 11

War of the Rebellion official records 56, 70, 71, 81

war surplus material 110, 144

warehouses 78, 126, 128, 131, 137, 146, 151, 160

wartime printing 36, 78, 96, 97, 99, 100, 130–142

Washington Advertiser (newspaper) 9

Washington Book Store 10

Washington Monument 63

Washington Repository (newspaper) 10

Washington Sentinel (newspaper) 23

Washington Union (newspaper) 20, 23, 26, 27

Washington, D.C. established 7, 8

Washington’s First Inaugural Address 124

waste paper 101

watermark 113, 117

web magazine presses 120

Wendell & Van Benthuysen 21

Wendell, Cornelius 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 36, 43, 

44, 46, 123, 159

wetting/drying paper 59

Weyman, William 2

Wilson, Gen. James J. 14

women workers 19, 58, 67, 73, 89, 95, 105

workforce 38, 74, 103, 113, 145, 150, 152

working conditions 46, 55, 68, 104, 121

workrooms 57

workweek 118, 119, 122, 125

World War I 98, 99, 100, 110, 117

World War II 129–140, 144

Writings of George Washington 120

Zenger, John Peter 2

100 Years (and a little more)

Year	 Page Year	 Page

1639–1789 1

1789–1861 7

1861 35

1862 39

1863 39

1864 40

1865 41

1866 42

1867 44

1868 44

1869 44

1870 45

1871 47

1872 47

1873 48

1874 48

1875 51

1876 51

1877 54

1878 54

1879 55

1880 55

1881 56

1882 58

1883 59

1884 61

1885 62

1886 63

1887 65

1888 68

1889 69

1890 69

1891 70

1892 70

1893 71

1894 71

1895 72

1896 76

1897 78

1898 78

1899 79

1900 80

1901 81

1902 82

1903 83

1904 84

1905 84

1906 85

1907 88

1908 90

1909 92

1910 93

1911 94

1912 95

1913 95

1914 95

1915 95

1916 96

1917 96

1918 98

1919 100

1920 101

1921 101

1922 104

1923 108

1924 112

1925 114

1926 115

1927 116

1928 117

1929 117

1930 118

1931 120

1932 121

1933 123

1934 125

1935 125

1936 126

1937 127

1938 127

1939 128

1940–1945 129

1946 143

1947 144

1948 145

1948 145

1950 146

1951 146

1952 147

1953 147

1954 148

1955 149

1956 150

1957 150

1958 151

1959 151

1960 151

1961 152
168