# Patent

## Title
Method for patterning large scale nano-fibrous surfaces using capillography

## Abstract

A method of assembling large numbers of nanoscale structures in pre-determined ways using fluids or capillary lithography to control the patterning and arrangement of the individual nanoscale objects and nanostructures formed in accordance with the inventive method are provided. In summary, the current method uses the controlled dispersion and evaporation of fluids to form controlled patterns of nanoscale objects or features anchored on a substrate, such as nanoscale fibers like carbon nanotubes.

## Background
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)
This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/568,563, filed May 5, 2004, the disclosure of which is fully incorporated herein by reference.


STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH
The U.S. Government has certain rights in this invention pursuant to grant No. NAS 7-1407, awarded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of Space Science.


FIELD OF THE INVENTION
The present invention is directed to the controlled patterning and arrangement of groups of nanoscale objects, and more particularly to the controlled arrangement of dense carpets of carbon nanotubes using fluid forces.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Nanoscale structures are becoming increasingly important because they provide the basis for devices with dramatically reduced power and mass, while simultaneously having enhanced capabilities, and previous patent applications have disclosed the advantageous use of such nanostructures in a number of different real-time, molecule specific sensors.
However, assembling large numbers of nanoscale structure in predetermined ways is notoriously difficult. For example, conventional nanoscale structures are arranged by patterning a substrate using e-beam lithography, which, while effective, is time-consuming and expensive. In addition, e-beam lithography requires the use of a limited number of well-defined, rigid substrate materials.
To solve these problems a number of recent publications have suggested the use of “capillarity-driven” assembly of groups of nanotubes. In such a system the dispersion and evaporation of a fluid on a dense mat of nanotubes drives the rearrangement and patterning of the nanotubes on the substrate surface. However, the current methods still fundamentally rely on patterning the substrate to “control” the capillarity-driven effect, and the ultimate nanostructure. For example, Chakrapani, et al. describe the results of capillarity-driven forces on already patterned nanotube structures. (See, e.g., Chakrapani, et al.; PNAS, vol. 101(12), pg. 4009-12 (Mar. 3, 2004)) Likewise, Liu, et al. discuss the use of “laser-etched” carbon nanotube surfaces to drive capillarity-driven effects to form highly controlled carbon nanotube structures. (Liu, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., vol. 43, pg. 1146-49 (2004)) In both of these results the investigators indicated that, if left alone, the capillary-driven forces would produce consistently irregular or irreproducible nanotube structures. As such, these methods still require the use of time-consuming and expensive lithography techniques to ensure the controlled growth of specific two-dimensional carbon nanotube formations.
Accordingly, a need exists for an improved method for inexpensively and controllably forming patterned nanoscale structures.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The current invention is directed to a method of using fluidic forces to controllably arrange and pattern a plurality of anchored nanofeatures to form permanent nanoscale structures.
In one embodiment, the nature of the nanoscale structure produced by the method of the current invention depends on the properties of the fluid used. In one such embodiment, the method uses a fluidic solvent selected from the group of water, ethanol, and acetone.
In another embodiment, the nature of the nanoscale structure produced by the method of the current invention depends on the properties of the nanofeatures, including, the size, shape, and bonding strength to the substrate. In one such embodiment, the method uses a plurality of carbon nanotubes having a diameter of 10 to 50 nm anchored to a substrate.
In still another embodiment, the nature of the nanoscale structure produced by the method of the current invention depends on the drying conditions used to dissipate the fluid. In one such embodiment, a high humidity is maintained around the nanoscale features to ensure a gradual drying process. In another such embodiment, a high temperature or a directed air flow is used on the nanoscale features to speed the drying process.
In yet another embodiment, the nature of the nanoscale structure produced by the method of the current invention depends on the properties of the substrate, including, the orientation of the substrate in space.
In still yet another embodiment, the nanoscale structures formed in accordance with the current method are trenches or complete or partial circular or semi-circular structures.
In still yet another embodiment, the nanoscale structures formed in accordance with the current method have a size of as small as 5 microns.
In still yet another embodiment, the nanoscale structures of the current invention are used to form field emission displays, thermal radiators, hydrodynamic structures, or micro-templates for tissue growth.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein:
FIG. 1a to 1e is a schematic view of an embodiment of a capillographic micro-patterning technique in accordance with the current invention.
FIGS. 2a to 2f show top view micrograph pictures of the formation of patterned nanotube surfaces according to the invention.
FIG. 3 shows a graphical depiction of data showing the lateral capillary forces on adjacent particles.
FIGS. 4a and 4b show micrograph and schematic images of the lateral attractive forces on adjacent glass tubes.
FIGS. 5a to 5d show a schematic view of a demonstration of the capillographic micro-patterning technique in accordance with the current invention.
FIG. 6 shows a micrograph of an embodiment of a nanostructure in accordance with the current invention.
FIGS. 7a to 7d show top view micrograph pictures at different resolutions of a first embodiment of a patterned nanotube surface according to the invention.
FIG. 8 is a graphical depiction of the controlled feature size of nanotube surfaces made in accordance with the method of the current invention in comparison with the size of features formed in accordance with a variety of prior art references.
FIGS. 9a and 9b are top view micrograph pictures of a second embodiment of patterned nanotube surfaces according to the invention.
FIGS. 10a and 10b are top view micrograph pictures of a third embodiment of patterned nanotube surfaces according to the invention.
FIG. 11 is a series of top view micrograph pictures of a fourth embodiment of patterned nanotube surfaces according to the invention.
FIGS. 12a to 12c are a series of top view micrograph pictures of a fifth embodiment of patterned nanotube surfaces according to the invention.
FIG. 13 is a top view micrograph picture of a sixth embodiment of a patterned nanotube surface according to the invention.
FIGS. 14a and 14b are top view micrograph pictures of a seventh embodiment of patterned nanotube surfaces according to the invention.
FIGS. 15a and 15b are top view micrograph pictures of an eighth embodiment of patterned nanotube surfaces according to the invention.
FIG. 16 is a top view micrograph picture of a ninth embodiment of a patterned nanotube surface according to the invention.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
The current invention is directed to a method of assembling large numbers of nanoscale structures in pre-determined patterns using fluids or capillary lithography to control the patterning and arrangement of the individual nanoscale objects, a technique that will be referred to herein as “capillography.”
In summary, the current method uses the controlled dispersion and evaporation of fluids to form controlled patterns of nanoscale objects or features anchored on a substrate, such as nanoscale fibers like carbon nanotubes. Shown in micrographs in FIGS. 1a and 1e. Specifically, FIG. 1a shows a substrate 10 having a dense array of nanofibers 12 thereon prior to reorientation, and FIG. 1e shows those same nanofibers after reorientation. FIGS. 1b to 1d, schematically show one embodiment of the controlled patterning method of the current invention. As shown in FIG. 1b, in a first step a substrate 10 having a plurality of anchored nanoscale features 12 is wetted by a droplet or film of liquid material 14. In a second step of the process, as shown by the arrows 16 in FIG. 1b, the liquid film disperses over and through the plurality of anchored nanoscale features 12 (see, e.g., FIG. 1c), as the liquid film 14 continues to dissipate, the anchored nanoscale features are pulled together into collective nanostructures 18 by the capillary forces exerted by the liquid film, as shown in FIG. 1d. A micrograph of the large collective structures 18 of the individual nanoscale features 12 formed on the surface of the substrate when the liquid film is fully dissipated from the surface of the substrate after is shown in FIG. 1e. Micrographs showing the progression of this formation process on an actual sample are also provided in FIGS. 2a to 2f. (Note the same reference numerals are used in the collective groups of FIGS. 1 and 2 to provide a direct comparison.)
As discussed above, the current inventive method uses fluidic forces to controllably arrange and pattern individual nanofeatures into large collective nanostructures. The principle behind this process lies in the nature of the interaction between the nanofeatures and the liquid. For example, when objects pierce a fluid interface, those objects are subject to surface tension related forces, according to the equation:




  
    
      
        F
        =
        
          γ
          ⁡
          
            [
            
              
                
                  2
                  ⁢
                  a
                  ⁢
                  
                    
                  
                  ⁢
                  sin
                  ⁢
                  
                    
                  
                  ⁢
                  α
                
                c
              
              +
              
                2
                ⁢
                
                  sin
                  ⁡
                  
                    (
                    
                      α
                      +
                      θ
                    
                    )
                  
                
              
            
            ]
          
        
      
    
    
      
        (
        1
        )
      
    
  




where γ is the force, and α and θ describe the contact area between the object and the liquid. A plot of the force on these particles based on the distance between the particles is plotted in FIG. 3, in the subset to FIG. 3 a schematic diagram of α and θ are provided. The plot of forces shown in FIG. 3 is taken from Urso et al., “A Two-dimensional Study of the Rupture of Funicular Liquid Bridges”, (Chemical Engineering Science 57 (4): 677-692, February 2002), the disclosure of which is incorporate herein by reference. In short, for small particles that pierce an interface, but are supported by a solid surface, such as the anchored nanofeatures of the current invention, the interaction energies are many times larger than kT, the thermal energy. Further, it is well-known that for identical particles the interactions are always attractive. For example, for  ̃10 nm radii spherical particles immersed in water, with an edge-to-edge separation distance of 2 radii, the attraction energy is  ̃100 kT. An SEM image of two glass tubes undergoing this lateral attractive force is provided in FIG. 4a, with arrows drawn in to illustrate the direction of the lateral forces. The SEM pictures shown in FIG. 4a are taken from Velev et al., “Direct Measurement of Lateral Forces” (Langmuir, 9(12): 3702-3709, December 1993), the disclosure of which is incorporate herein by reference. A schematic of the operation of this lateral attractive force is provided in FIG. 4b. 

Accordingly, when a substrate having a plurality of nanofeatures arranged thereon is treated with a liquid material, a liquid-air interface is created, and the result is a large number of nanofeatures piercing the liquid-air interface (see, e.g., FIG. 5a). As a result, large lateral capillary forces act on the fibers. As the liquid retreats during dewetting or evaporation, these attractive forces in turn cause assembly of the individual nanofeatures into large-scale nanostructures (see, e.g., FIGS. 5b to 5d). Contrary to etch-out or lift-off processes associated with lithography, the current nano-patterning technique does not carve out or add material, but uses these fluidic forces to simply comb surface-pinned fibers (just like hair on a head). Since nanocarpet fibers are grown normal to a substrate and are lightly anchored at their base, capillographic patterns have a natural corrugation (of height given roughly by the nanotube length), unlike surface-flush patterns resulting from drying solutions of freely floating fibers (and spheres). The SEM micrograph of FIG. 6 provides an extreme close up of a nanostructure formed in accordance with the current technique and illustrates both the “combing” or reorientation of nanofibers, and the corrugation of the surface that results from the reorientation.
Although the current technique uses fluids to simply reorient nanofeatures without for the most part permanently removing them from the surface, it should also be understood that because of the strong van der Waals forces holding the nanofeatures together after reorientation, the nanostructures are sturdy, and, in particular, unaffected by additional wetting and drying processes. Accordingly, these nanostructures are fixed once the orientation method of the current invention has been completed.
Although not to be bound by the theory described above, during the reorientation process brought on by the wetting and drying of the nanofeatures, some of the nanofeatures are pulled in either a radial or linear direction. In addition, in some cases the fluidic forces can even dislodge some of the nanofeatures from the substrate leaving unoccupied voids. The result of these collective linear or radial reorientations is the formation of trench-like or semicircular formations. By controlling the substrate, the properties of the nanofeatures, the properties of the liquid material, and the drying processes; the size, shape and orientation of the collective nanostructures that result from the capillographic arrangement of the individual nanofeatures can be controlled. A summary of the different control methods in accordance with the current invention, and the patterns formed as a result of those methods is provided in Table 1, below.







TABLE 1







Methods of Controlling Capillography Process









Parameter
Methods
Results





Drying time
Varying the humidity,
Changes in regularity



temperature, or airflow
of patterns, size, and



across the surface.
degree of completion &




maturity


Wetting Liquid
Changing the volatility
Formation of trench


(volatility)
of the liquid, e.g., to
structures



high volatility liquids
perpendicular to the



such as acetone,
retreating front of the



methanol, other organic
liquid.



solvents.


Wetting Liquid
Changing the surface
Lower surface tension


(surface
tension of the liquid,
yields→ easier soaking


tension)
such as by using
of nanocarpet and



surfactant solutions,
larger “nests.” (See



low MW “PDMS”
definition following



(poly(dimethylsiloxane))
table.) Higher surface



that will evaporate.
tension yields smaller




nests.


Wetting Liquid
Using a non-volatile
Ensure full completion


(no evaporation)
liquid (i.e., higher MW
of nests, and nests



PDMS) that will still
with a more polygonal



soak nanocarpet such
pattern. Material still



that evaporation is
wetted for use in



prevented.
liquid environments.


Wetting Liquid
Using a liquid with a
Formation of trenches


(suspension of
high volume fraction of
in nanocarpet in a


microparticles)
particles in solution,
crack pattern.



such as polystyrene



microspheres in water.


Fix the
Flow in thin (less than
Formation of more well-


nanocarpet
height of nanocarpet)
defined (and smaller)


“roots”
layer of curable PDMS or
nests, i.e. “ideal”,



“RTV” (room temperature
with no (or reduced



vulcanized polymer) and
degree of) ripping from



then cure/crosslink the
substrate.



liquid prior to nesting.


Substrate
Use a flexible
Nests on



substrate, such as
curved/flexible



adhesive tape, stick to
substrates for



top of nanocarpet then
application to non-flat



peel-off and flip over
surfaces.



prior to nesting.









For example, FIGS. 7a to 7d show different micrograph resolutions of a particular embodiment of the controlled nanostructures of the current invention wherein the nanostructure takes a semi-circular form, referred to herein as a “nest” nanostructure. As shown in FIGS. 7a to 7d, collectively, “nest” nanostructures having diameters of  ̃5 μm were formed by the controlled capillographic method of the current invention. However, as discussed above by modifying the wetting or drying conditions, the size and nature of the nanofeatures, the orientation and material of the substrate, the size of these nest features can be controlled. FIG. 8 reports the results of a series of experiments using a variety of different conditions for substrates covered in carbon nanotubes. As shown, by varying the conditions under which the capillography process is performed the size of the nanostructures can be controlled from less than 10 μm to over 100 μm. In addition to data from the current process, FIG. 8 also plots data from other groups to show where the features formed according to those methods fall along this plot. This prior art data is indicated by arrows and letters (“a” is from S. Li. et al., J. Phys. Chem. B 106 9274-9276 (2002); “b” is from M. A. Correa-Duarte et al., Nano Letters 4 (11) 2233-2236 (2004); “c” is from H. Liu et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 43 1146-1149 (2004); and “d” is from N. Chakrapani et al., PNAS 101 409-4012 (2004)). As shown, the prior art methods only provide a single nanostructure size, none of these prior art groups describe a process for controllably varying the size of the nanostructures. In addition, all of the prior art results fall within a much narrower size distribution range, between about 10 μm to about 90 μm.
For example, it has been determined that keeping a high level of humidity allows for the gradual and complete rearrangement and patterning of the nanofeatures, resulting in the formation of progressively larger nest structures, while increasing the speed of the drying process prevents the complete formation of nests. In addition, because the “completion” of the “nests” depends on the drying conditions, the shape and nature of these semi-circular nanostructures can also be controlled by modifying the drying and wetting conditions. FIGS. 9 and 10 show semi-circular nanostructures formed under different drying conditions. In FIGS. 9a and 9b the drying was conducted slowly under high humidity conditions such that well-defined complete semi-circular formations are provided. In contrast, in FIGS. 10a and 10b the drying process is accelerated in 10 a using an airflow, such as from a fan directed at the surface, and in 10b by using a solvent having a much higher volatility. As shown, in FIGS. 10a and 10b, the nanostructures formed have large trenches and nests with open sides, indicating incomplete formation of the nests and very fast drying of the fluid. Similarly, FIG. 11 shows a series of micrographs taken of nanostructure formation under increasingly humid conditions. As shown, as the humidity increases both the number and density of nanostructures increases.
But, more than just altering the arrangement and density of nanostructures on the surface of the substrate, drying conditions also alter the structure of the nanostructures. For example, FIGS. 12a to 12c show a series of micrograph pictures of “nest” formations on a substrate under different drying conditions with FIG. 12a being the quickest drying sample and 12c being the slowest. As shown in FIG. 12c, a more measured drying process allows for the creation of a nest formation having very sharp distinct walls, while at faster conditions the nanotubes are not given sufficient time to form the sharp intersections between cells. Accordingly, by varying the drying conditions of the dewetting process the number, density, packing, and shape of the nanostructures formed in accordance with the present method can be controlled.
Moreover, because the size of the nests and trenches depends on the length and construction of the nanofeatures, another method of varying the pattern or size would be to supply progressively larger or smaller nanofeatures. For example, because the nanostructures are formed by the radial bending of a nanofeature downward toward the surface of the substrate, as shown in the micrograph of FIG. 6, there is a direct relation between the length of the nanofeatures and the area of the ultimate nanostructure. Accordingly, in one embodiment of the invention, the size of the nanostructures formed by the method of the current invention is controlled by the length and diameter of the nanofeatures disposed on the substrate. In such an embodiment, different regions of the substrate may be covered by nanofeatures of different proportions to form a series of variable dimensioned nanostructures. Moreover, although nanostructures only as small as 5 μm are discussed above, sub-micron sized nanostructures may be formed by using single-walled, sub-micron nanotubes.
Finally, because the speed of drying and the nature of the wetting process inherently depends on the fluid used to expose the nanofeatures, altering the nature of the fluid can also be used to control the nanostructure formation. For example, using surfactant solutions that have a surface tension lower than water allows for a more facile wetting process over a hydrophobic surface such as is found with carbon nanotubes. As a result, the liquid is able to penetrate within the mat of nanotubes and can wick outward over a long distance. Moreover, the viscosity and the vapor pressure of the solvent will also determine how the liquid wicks through the nanofeatures, how strong the capillary forces are on the nanofeatures, and how quickly the liquid dries. Changing any one of these parameters can have significant impact on the nature of the formed nanostructures. For example, FIG. 13 shows an example where acetone is used as the wetting fluid. It has been found that using such low viscosity, high vapor pressure fluids, such as acetone spur the formation of these linear formations. In addition, as mentioned in Table 1, non-traditional wetting fluids may be used, such as non-evaporative fluids, that can remain at the surface for long periods of time such that no barrier exists to the complete formation of the nanostructures on the surface, or fluids consisting of suspensions of solids in liquid materials. Such exotic materials are capable of creating unique surface structure, such as the “cracked” surface pattern shown in FIG. 14a. In this example a suspension of polystyrene microspheres in water was applied to the surface. As shown in the higher resolution image in FIG. 14b, the microspheres collect together in lines forming crack-like trenches in the nanofeature surface. Accordingly, as discussed in Table 1, altering the fluid to which the nanofeatures are exposed may also be used to control the nature of the nanostructures of the current invention.
As discussed in Table 1, the substrate can also be used to control the nanostructures formed in accordance with the current invention. For example, the substrate may be made of any material which can withstand the temperatures required for growth of the nanofeatures and which can be optionally modified to provide a nucleation area for controllably positioning the nanostructure on a specified area of the substrate for integration with a suitable nanomechanical device. Examples of suitable substrates include metallized Si oxide wafers, alumina, or sapphire. Moreover, although only rigid substrates are considered in the examples of the current application, as discussed in Table 1, the capillographic technique of the current invention is applicable with surfaces of arbitrary curvature, such as flexible or curved surfaces. For example, in one embodiment, the nanofeatures are first grown on a rigid substrate, such as Si, and then an adhesive, such as a flexible tape is applied to the top of the nanotubes. The adhesive force of the tape is such that, once applied, the nanotubes can be removed with the tape. In this manner the nanotubes can be transferred from a rigid substrate to a flexible substrate, and then operated on as usual. In addition, pre-growth conditioning of the substrate can also lead to controlled patterning of the nanofeatures grown thereon. For example, FIGS. 15a and 15b shows an embodiment where macro-scale scratches were made on the surface of the substrate prior to growth of the nanofeatures. As shown, during reorientation, the nanotubes are bent away from this feature forming deep trenches surrounded by well-ordered “nest” formations.
In addition, to modifying the actual material and condition of the substrate, the orientation of the substrate, and in turn the nanofeatures thereon can also be used to modify the nanostructures. Because the nanostructures formed by the capillography method of the current invention are created by fluidic forces pushing and pulling nanofeatures into new alignments, gravity plays a role on the form of the nanostructures. Accordingly, reorienting the substrate into a vertical or angled positioned can alter the orientation and structure of the nanostructures. For example, FIG. 16 shows the results of an experiment in which the substrate was held in a vertical orientation. As shown, the “nests” formed by the capillography process are deformed as a result of the gravitational forces acting perpendicular to the nanofeatures.
Where required, any suitable catalyzing metal can be used for the nucleation area on the surface of the substrate, such as, for example, nickel or cobalt. Alternatively, the catalyzing metal could be an alloy of two or more metals such as a Co/Ni or Ti/Ni alloy. The metal catalysts could also be produced by pyrolysis of inorganic or organic metal-containing compounds, such as, for example, Ferric Nitrate or Cobalt Chloride. Although not necessary for the current invention such catalyst regions could be controlled to a limit of sub-50 nm catalyst dots, thus it is possible to nucleate growth of a single nanotube at a catalyst location providing more than adequate control for ensuring proper placement of the nanostructure within a larger nanodetector. For nanoscale devices requiring energizing, integrated electrodes can also be produced by combining the catalyst regions with non-catalytic or catalytic electrodes. This ability to precisely locate and orient the growth of the nanostructure and make electrical contact to the nanofeatures provides the basis for fabrication of actuated structures.
Although nanotube nanoscale structures are shown in embodiments discussed above, it should be understood that any suitable nanoscale structure capable of being anchored to a surface may be used. However, in a preferred embodiment, as discussed above, a plurality of carbon nanotubes are utilized. Carbon nanotubes possess a combination of properties that make them well suited for use in the capillographic technique of the current invention. For example, nanotubes combine a nanometer scale diameter with a large aspect ratio, good electrical conductivity, and elastic bending. The small radius of curvature of the nanotubes induces large Van der Waals forces contributing to the “sticking” capabilities of the individual nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes are also hydrophobic, facilitating the interaction of the nanotubes when urged together in the liquid environment. Single-wall nanotubes also have a Young's modulus of approximately 1 TPa, which corresponds to a strength/weight ratio approaching 200 times that of steel. The combination of this high Young's modulus and the ability to withstand large strains ( ̃5%) suggests that SWNTs should also have very high breaking strengths, allowing for the application of large reassembly forces.
Any suitable method may be used for growing the dense mats of nanofeatures on a substrate, such as, for example, a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique. The basic technique to construct the alignment structures, such as the dense nanofeature substrate shown in FIG. 1a, uses a suitable substrate, such as Si or SOI. To ensure proper growth, the region upon which the nanofeatures are to grow may be coated with a thin catalyst film such as Ni, Co, or other metal-based mixtures or compounds to nucleate nanofeature growth. Regardless of the substrate utilized to form the supports and electrodes, a chemical vapor deposition process (CVD) is utilized to grow the nanotubes from the catalyst patterns. In one embodiment, a high pressure CVD process uses methane, ethylene, or carbon monoxide in pure form or in a mixture with hydrogen (or ammonia) and argon (or nitrogen) to produce nanotubes on a substrate heated to approximately 500-1000° C.
Again, although one method for the self-assembly of carbon nanotubes is described above, it should be understood that in order to incorporate the carbon nanotube oscillators on CMOS electronics, such as might be necessary when integrating the nanostructure with an analyzer it is necessary to provide carbon nanotube growth at temperatures compatible with processed CMOS circuits, i.e., below about 500° C. Although any suitable method of low temperature growth may be utilized, some exemplary methods include: 1) Murikami et al. (Appl. Phys. Lett. 76(13), 1776 (2000)) method for growing carbon nanotube arrays for field emission at <600° C. using bias-enhanced microwave plasma CVD on patterned, nickel-based catalyst at 1-3 Torr; 2) Li et al. (Appl. Phys. Lett., 79(11), 1670 (2001)) method of unaligned nanotube growth on glass at 570° C. using CVD at 100 Torr; 3) low temperature processes for growing carbon nanotubes on silicon (Choi et al., J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 18(4), 1864 (2000)): using 70 nm nickel films as a catalyst deposited on silicon substrates coated with TiN as an adhesion enhancement layer) and silicon dioxide (Lee et al., Chem. Phys. Lett. 327, 277 (2000)) between 500-550° C.; 4) Zhang and Iijima (Appl. Phys. Lett., 75(20), 3087 (1999)) method for growing single-walled carbon nanotubes at 400° C. using laser ablation technique with powdered catalyst containing Ni—Co; and 5) Chen et al. (J. Cryst. Growth, 193, 342 (1998)) method of growing graphitic nanofibers on nickel substrates at 350-400° C. All of which are incorporated herein by reference.
While the self-assembled nanostructures contemplated in the embodiments discussed so far have been constructed of dense mats of carbon nanotubes made from pyrolizing an ethylene feedstock over a substrate, the nanofeatures comprising the nanostructure can be of any shape and made by any process and from any material suitable for making self-assembled structures that are anchored to the substrate, such as, for example, spheres or pyramids made of other atomic materials or even biomolecules, such as, for example, proteins. In another embodiment, the nanofeatures may be further functionalized for a variety of applications, such as, for example, being made hydrophilic or hydrophobic, being charged either negatively or positively, or being derivatized with specific chemical groups, etc. In addition, although only an untreated carbon nanotube nanostructure have been shown thus far, in situ sidewall treatments could alter the electrical properties of the nanotubes, such as by increasing the charge differential induced by a given applied voltage.
Finally, although the above discussion has focused on the construction and structure of the basic nanostructure, it should be understood that a device such as a detector made with the nanostructure according to the invention may also include a body, a self-contained power supply, and any additional machinery or circuitry necessary for the device's operation. For example, the body of the nanomechanical device itself can be made of any material suitable for micromachining utilizing standard lithographic or MEMS techniques to enclose the nanostructure, such as, for example, aluminum oxide or silicon. In a preferred embodiment, the body further comprises a cap layer, which can be of any design, such that the cap layer protects the controlled nanostructure from unwanted contact with the external environment. Such a cap layer could be made of any suitable material, such as, for example, aluminum oxide or silicon. Such a cap layer could be formed by any conventional MEMS process, such as growth or deposition over a sacrificial layer (not shown) deposited to encapsulate the self-assembled nanostructure wherein the sacrificial layer can subsequently be removed to expose the nanostructure itself. Alternatively, these support structures could be formed in a single deposition step with the self-assembled nanostructure. In a more preferred embodiment, one of the substrate, the cap layer, or walls of the nanomechanical device is transparent such that an optical source can be used to interrogate or activate the nanostructure.
In another alternative embodiment, a device having a controlled nanostructure in accordance with the current invention may comprise an array of multiple such nanostructures such that multiple or parallel processing can be carried out at one time. In this embodiment, the nanostructures can be integrated into a single circuit or detector. It should be understood that while arrays of nanostructures are discussed above, any suitable alternative geometry of nanostructures may be utilized. Such an embodiment could be used to develop a mobile nanostructure detector device on a chip for mobile detection and analysis of samples. In such an embodiment a portable power source (not shown) would also be integrated into the device.
Further, although the above discussion has been directed to the actual controlled nanostructures and methods of forming those controlled nanostructures according to the present invention, it should be understood that the invention is also directed to suitable nanomechanical devices comprising the nanostructures shown schematically in the above figures.
The scope of the invention will also be understood with reference to the following, non-limiting examples, which are provided to show how the operation of some of parameters discussed herein can be used to alter the nanostructures formed in accordance with the method of the current invention.
EXAMPLE 1
Nanotubes of 35 microns in length, a from about 20-30 nm diameter were grown on a quartz (amorphous SiO2, a glass slide) substrate metallized with 2 nm of Fe, then exposed to 0.5 CMC (Critical Micellar Concentration, which is about 8.2 mM for SDS) SDS for 10 minutes with a fan blowing across the surface and sitting under a microscope objective (for imaging). The resulting pattern is comprised of nests (semi-circular) of roughly 100 microns in mean diameter as well as immature patterns of disjointed ridges, effectively forming long canyons and trenches that do not reach the substrate surface. An SEM of the nanostructures formed according to this method is provided in FIG. 10a. 
EXAMPLE 2
The method described in Example 1 was used, except that it was exposed for 25 minutes and had no fan blowing across the surface of the substrate. The method resulted in regular highly polygonal nests of mean diameter around 60-70 microns. An SEM of the nanostructures formed according to this method is provided in FIG. 9a. 
EXAMPLE 3
Nanotubes of 4 microns in length, and about 35-50 nm diameter were grown on SiO2 metallized with 2 nm of Ni and 2 nm of Ti, then exposed to a pure water and bacterial spore solution with low volume fraction overnight under well-ventilated conditions. The pattern that formed was a highly regular distribution of nearly circular nests with a mean diameter of 4 microns, with comparatively wide barrier ridges between them (e.g., the ratio of width to diameter is large). SEMs of the nanostructures formed according to this method are provided in FIGS. 7a to 7d. 
Although specific embodiments and exemplary embodiments are disclosed herein, it is expected that persons skilled in the art can and will design alternative controlled nanostructures and nanostructure combinations and methods to produce the nanostructures that are within the scope of the following claims either literally or under the Doctrine of Equivalents.

## Claims

1. A method of controllably patterning a plurality of nanofeatures comprising:
providing a plurality of nanofeatures anchored on at least one end to a substrate;

disposing a quantity of a fluid onto at least a portion of the plurality of nanofeatures;
flowing the fluid onto the plurality of nanofeatures such that the fluid penetrates between the plurality of nanofeatures; and
controllably dissipating the fluid from the plurality of nanofeatures such that the nanofeatures are reoriented by the capillary forces of the dissipating fluid to form a plurality of repeating nanostructures from the reoriented nanofeatures,
wherein the size and optionally at least one of the density and shape of the nanostructures are determined by controlling the rate at which the fluid dissipates from the substrate and by selecting the surface tension of the dissipating fluid.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of providing the nanofeatures includes growing said nanofeatures using a chemical vapor deposition technique.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanofeatures are nanotubes.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the nanotubes are made of carbon atoms.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein fluid is a high volatile liquid such that the nanofeatures are reoriented to form trench structures on the surface of the substrate during dissipation of the fluid.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein the fluid is an organic solvent.

7. The method of claim 6, wherein the fluid is one of either methanol or acetone.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein the fluid is a curable polymer material, and wherein the method further includes the step of crosslinking the polymer prior to dissipation of the fluid such that the removal of nanofeatures from the substrate during dissipation is substantially eliminated.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein the polymer is one of either a PDMS or an RTV.

10. The method of claim 8, wherein the polymer is disposed on the substrate in a layer having a height no greater than the height of the nanofeatures.

11. The method of claim 1, wherein the substrate is substantially curved.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein the substrate is substantially flexible.

13. The method of claim 12, wherein prior to the step of disposing the fluid to the nanofeatures the method further comprises the steps of:
applying a flexible adhesive material to the top surface of the nanofeatures;
removing the adhesive material such that the nanofeatures are removed from the substrate but remain attached to the adhesive material such that the adhesive material becomes the substrate for the remaining steps of the process.

14. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanostructures formed are nest structures.

15. The method of claim 1, wherein decreasing the rate of dissipation at the surface of the nanofeatures increases the density of nanostructures formed.

16. The method of claim 1, wherein decreasing the rate of dissipation at the surface of the nanofeatures increases the average size of the nanostructures formed.

17. The method of claim 1, wherein decreasing the rate of dissipation at the surface of the nanofeatures increases the number of fully formed nanostructures.

18. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of controlling the rate of dissipation of the fluid comprises controlling the average humidity at the surface of the nanofeatures.

19. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of controlling the rate of dissipation of the fluid comprises controlling the temperature at the surface of the nanofeatures.

20. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of controlling the rate of dissipation of the fluid comprises controlling the flow of air over the surface of the nanofeatures.

21. The method of claim 1, wherein the average size of the nanostructures can be adjusted between about 1 μm and 1000 μm.

22. The method of claim 1, wherein decreasing surface tension of the fluid increases the size of the nanostructures formed.

23. The method of claim 22, wherein the average size of the nanostructures can be adjusted between about 1 μm and 1000 μm.

24. The method of claim 1, wherein the fluid is a low molecular weight PDMS.

25. The method of claim 1, wherein the fluid is chosen such that no evaporation of the fluid occurs during dissipation.

26. The method of claim 25, wherein the fluid is a high molecular weight PDMS.

27. The method of claim 1, wherein fluid comprises a suspension of microparticles.

28. The method of claim 27, wherein the suspension comprises a mixture of polystyrene microspheres in water.

29. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanofeatures have a height of less than a micron such that sub-micron nanostructures are formed during dissipation.

30. The method of claim 1, wherein the substrate is oriented in such a manner that the gravitational pull on the individual nanofeatures is in a direction other than normal to the top surface of the substrate.

31. A material having controllably patterned nanostructures made in accordance with the method described in claim 1 disposed thereon.

32. The material of claim 31, wherein the material is designed for use as an emitter material for field emission displays, a superhydrophobic hull material for full-scale hydrodynamic vehicles, a thermal radiator material for computer chipsets, and a micro-template material for biological tissue growth.