Source: s3://data.kl3m.ai/documents/govinfo/USCOURTS/USCOURTS-akd-3_13-cv-00063/USCOURTS-akd-3_13-cv-00063-0/pdf.json

Nature of Suit Code: 190
Nature of Suit: Other Contract Actions
Cause of Action: 28:1441 Petition for Removal- Personal Injury

---

IN THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE DISTRICT OF ALASKA

ANCHORAGE, A MUNICIPAL 

CORPORATION,

Plaintiff,

v.

INTEGRATED CONCEPTS AND 

RESEARCH CORPORATION, PND 

ENGINEERS, INC., and CH2M HILL 

ALASKA, INC.,

Defendants. Case No. 3:13-cv-00063-SLG

ORDER RE MOTION TO REMAND AND RELATED MOTIONS

Before the Court at Docket 21 is a motion to remand this action to state court 

filed by Plaintiff Municipality of Anchorage (“MOA”) on May 10, 2013. Defendant 

Integrated Concepts and Research Corporation (“ICRC”) opposed the motion, and 

Defendant PND Engineers, Inc. (“PND”) joined in ICRC’s opposition.

1

 MOA replied.

2

 

Oral argument was held on July 12, 2013.3 For the reasons set forth below, the Court 

will deny the motion to remand.

After oral argument, at Docket 55, Defendant ICRC submitted a motion for leave 

to file a supplemental brief in opposition to the motion to remand. MOA opposed the 

motion, and ICRC replied.4 The Court will deny the motion to supplement as 

 1

 Docket 30 (ICRC Opp.); Docket 31 (PND Opp.).

2

 Docket 34 (MOA Reply).

3

 Docket 44 (Minute Entry).

4

 Docket 61 (MOA Opp.); Docket 63 (ICRC Reply). 

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 1 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 2 of 25

unnecessary.5 Also, at Docket 64, ICRC filed a Notice of Supplemental Authority, 

directing the Court to an audio recording of an oral argument that was recently held 

before the Ninth Circuit in Leite v. Crane Co.,

6 a district court decision cited in the 

parties’ briefing. At Docket 65, MOA moved to strike, and ICRC opposed at Docket 66. 

The Court will deny the motion to strike, as the Court has listened to the recording (and 

in fact had intended to listen to the recording before the Notice was filed). However, the 

oral argument has not been considered by the Court as persuasive authority, but rather

as an opportunity to learn how other judicial officers have reflected on the federal officer 

removal statute. 

FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND

In this litigation, Plaintiff MOA asserts that Defendants ICRC, PND, and CH2M 

Hill Alaska, Inc. (“CH2M”) defectively designed and executed construction of the Port of 

Anchorage Intermodal Expansion Project (the “Project). MOA owns the Project.7 The 

goals of the Project included “expansion of commercial dock space, barge terminal 

development, road and rail access development,” and other efforts “to improve and 

increase commercial operations” and “to establish a strategic platform and port of 

embarkation for the immediate deployment of U.S. military forces.”8

 5

 A cursory review of the motion to supplement indicates that a majority of cases cited in it had 

been previously cited to the Court or cited within those cases.

6

 Leite v. Crane Co., 868 F.Supp.2d 1023, 1028 (D. Hawaii 2012), No. 12-16864 (9th Cir. 

argued Oct. 8, 2013). 

7

 Docket 21-2 at 2 ¶ 4 (5/9/13 Cowles Decl.). 

8

 Docket 2-2 at 9-10 ¶¶ 11, 14-15 (Compl.); Docket 2-3 at 2 ¶ 4 (4/8/13 Carlson Decl.); Docket 

2-8 at 18 (Attachment E to Carlson Decl.: 05/03 Contract). 

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 2 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 3 of 25

I. Contract Between MarAd and ICRC

In March 2003, MOA and its department, the Port of Anchorage (the “Port”), 

signed a Memorandum of Understanding (“MOU”) with the U.S. Department of 

Transportation’s Maritime Administration (“MarAd”) to oversee the Project.9 Through 

this MOU, the “Port would retain “programmatic and technical controls” of the Project, 

with MarAd to “[p]rovide specialized technical expertise and input as appropriate.”10

MarAd, in turn, contracted with ICRC’s predecessor, and later with ICRC, to 

provide a wide variety of contract management services, including “technical 

management, staff augmentation, port planning, environmental documentation and 

permitting services, design management, construction management, contractor 

management, and military support services.”11 ICRC, in turn, contracted with 

Defendants PND and VECO, Alaska, Inc., now CH2M, for technical support and 

engineering services, including assistance inspecting the technology selected for the 

Project, the Open Cell Sheet Pile (“OCSP”).12 

 9

 See Docket 2-2 at 9-10 ¶¶ 14-15 (Compl.); Docket 2-12 (Attachment I to Carlson Decl.: 2003 

MOA Assembly Memorandum and MOU).

10 Docket 2-12 at 6, 10; see also Docket 30-1 at 2 ¶ 3 (5/28/13 Supp. Carlson Decl.).

11 Docket 2-3 at 5 ¶ 11 (4/8/13 Carlson Decl.); see also Docket 2-2 at 10-11 ¶¶ 18-21; Docket 

2-8 at 19-25 (Attachment E to Carlson Decl.: 05/03 Contract).

12 There is some inconsistency in the briefing concerning whether it was ICRC or PND that 

initially contracted with CH2M. See Docket 2 at 7 (Notice of Joint Removal by ICRC and PND) 

(“ICRC contracted with Defendants PND . . . and CH2M . . . for technical support and 

engineering services required for the Project.”); Docket 21-2 at 6, 8 ¶¶ 15, 25 (5/9/13 Cowles 

Decl.) (“PND contracted with VECO to perform certain stability analyses underlying the use of 

the OCSP system”); see also Docket 21-20 (Ex. 16 to Motion to Remand: OCSP Wall Stability 

Analyses); Docket 21-21 at 13 (Ex. 17 to Motion to Remand: Geotechnical Analysis Report); 

Docket 30-8 at 2 (Attachment G to Supp. Carlson Decl: 2/24/06 ICRC Memorandum). This 

inconsistency does not affect this opinion. 

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 3 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 4 of 25

ICRC asserts that MarAd and other government agencies, including the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, exercised a “high level of control and supervision . . . over 

every aspect of ICRC’s role in the Project.”

13 But MOA asserts that ICRC was “an 

independent contractor (and not an agent of the Government).”

14

The 2003 contract between MarAd and ICRC’s predecessor was an indefinite 

delivery, indefinite quantity contract, which meant that ICRC would submit specifications 

with cost and time estimates to MarAd, which could modify those estimates before 

issuing task orders specifying the work to be performed by ICRC.15 The contract 

required that ICRC send MarAd periodic reports, setting forth “significant findings, 

problems, delays, inclusions, events, [and] trends, etc. of the reporting period which 

result from or affect the performance of the contract.”

16 

In 2005, MOA and MarAd entered into an addendum to the MOU, which 

“specifie[d] the manner by which MARAD agreed to accept Project work from ICRC.”

17 

The addendum indicated that ICRC would prepare a Certificate of Completion for 

completed work to be submitted to both the MOA and MarAd for review and approval.18 

 13 Docket 2-3 at 3 ¶ 7(4/8/13 Carlson Decl.); Docket 30-1 (5/28/13 Supp. Carlson Decl.).

14 Docket 21 at 1 (Mot. To Remand); Docket 21-2 at 2, ¶ 3 (5/9/13 Cowles Decl.) (“ICRC was 

acting as an independent contractor” to MarAd).

15 Docket 2-3 at 6 ¶ 12; Docket 2-8 at 4 ¶ F.1 (Attachment E to Carlson Decl.: 05/03 Contract); 

see also Docket 2-10 (Attachment G to Carlson Decl.: 11/4/09 Agenda) (describing various task 

orders). 

16 Docket 2-3 at 6 ¶ 12; Docket 2-8 at 4 ¶ F.4; see also Docket 21-10 at 3 (Task Order 111 

Statement of Work). 

17 Docket 2-3 at 8 ¶ 18.

18 Id.; see, e.g., Docket 2-13 (Attachment J to Carlson Decl.: 6/29/07 Cert. of Completion).

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 4 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 5 of 25

In July 2008, MarAd issued a second contract to ICRC, with terms similar to the 2003 

contract.

19

II. MOA Files a Lawsuit; Procedural History

MOA filed this action in Alaska Superior Court on March 8, 2013, asserting 

claims for breach of contract, professional negligence, and negligence.

20 In the 

complaint, MOA alleged that as of that time, “the Project work [wa]s currently on hold,” 

and that “the completion date for the Project ha[d] been significantly pushed back.”21 

MOA further alleged that there were “various deficiencies in the Project’s administration, 

design, and construction” attributable to the Defendants, including “[p]roducing an 

OCSP design that is inadequate”; “[p]rescribing” certain construction methods which 

negatively impacted the Project; “[f]ailing to develop a testing protocol to verify the 

interlock integrity” of the OCSP design; and “[i]gnoring signs [of] significant 

problems[.]”22

Defendants ICRC and PND removed this action to federal court on April 10, 

2013, asserting several grounds for federal jurisdiction, including: 

1. Removal pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1442, the federal officer removal statute;

and

 19 Docket 2-3 at 6 ¶ 13 (4/8/13 Carlson Decl.); Docket 2-9 at 2 (Attachment F to Carlson Decl.: 

07/08 Contract). 

20 Docket 2-2 at 1, ¶¶ 47-52 (Compl.).

21 Id. at ¶¶ 198-99.

22 Id. at ¶ 204.

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 5 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 6 of 25

2. Removal pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1441(a), the federal question removal

statute, because the events occurred on a federal enclave and because the 

claims involve federal questions.23

Defendant CH2M consented to removal.24 CH2M and PND then answered the 

complaint on April 15 and 17, 2013, respectively.25 On April 17, 2013, ICRC filed a 

Motion to Dismiss in lieu of answering.26 That motion is currently pending and is not 

addressed by this Order. 

On May 10, 2013, MOA filed the motion to remand this matter to state court.

27 

ICRC opposed the motion, asserting the same grounds for federal jurisdiction as had 

been asserted in the notice of removal.28 PND joined in the opposition,

29 and MOA 

replied.30 Oral argument was held on July 12, 2013.

In this Order, the Court concludes that it has federal jurisdiction pursuant to 

Section 1442(a)(1), the federal officer removal statute. The Court does not reach the 

alternative grounds for jurisdiction presented by Defendants. 

 23 Docket 2 (Notice of Joint Removal by ICRC and PND).

24 Docket 1 (Notice of Consent by CH2M). The Court notes, however, that for purposes of 

section 1442, a single defendant may unilaterally remove and obtain federal jurisdiction. See 

Durham v. Lockheed Martin Corp., 445 F.3d 1247, 1253 (9th Cir. 2006) (“Whereas all 

defendants must consent to removal under section 1441, . . . a federal officer or agency 

defendant can unilaterally remove a case under section 1442.”). 

25 Docket 8 (CH2M Answer); Docket 10 (PND Answer).

26 Docket 12 (Mot. to Dismiss).

27 Docket 21 (Mot. To Remand).

28 Docket 30 (ICRC Opp.); see also Docket 2 (Notice of Joint Removal by ICRC and PND).

29 Docket 31 (PND Opp.).

30 Docket 34 (Reply).

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 6 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 7 of 25

DISCUSSION

Ordinarily, “removal statutes,” such as the general removal statute, 28 U.S.C. § 

1441, “are to be strictly construed, and any doubts as to the right of removal must be 

resolved in favor of remanding to state court.”

31 However, that standard does not apply 

to removals under 28 U.S.C. § 1442(a)(1), the federal officer removal statute. Section 

1442(a)(1) allows removal when an action in state court is commenced against the

United States, an agency of the United States, or “any officer (or any person acting 

under that officer) of the United States or of any agency thereof, in an official or 

individual capacity . . . .”

32 The Supreme Court has explained that, “one of the primary 

purposes of the removal statute -- as its history clearly demonstrates -- was to have 

such defenses litigated in the federal courts.”33 Indeed, “[i]f the federal government 

can’t guarantee its agents access to a federal forum if they are sued or prosecuted, it 

may have difficulty finding anyone willing to act on its behalf.”34 Accordingly, “the 

Supreme Court has mandated a generous interpretation of the federal officer removal 

statute,” and has instructed lower courts to avoid “a narrow, grudging interpretation of § 

1442(a)(1).”

35 

The party seeking removal under section 1442(a)(1) must demonstrate that: (1) 

the defendant is a “person” within the meaning of the statute that was “acting under” a 

 31 Durham, 445 F.3d at 1252 (restating district court’s analysis of law, noting it was supported 

by Gaus v. Miles, Inc., 980 F.2d 564, 566 (9th Cir. 1992)). 

32 28 U.S.C. § 1442(a)(1).

33 Willingham v. Morgan, 395 U.S. 402, 407 (1969).

34 Durham, 445 F.3d at 1253. 

35 Id. at 1251-52 (internal citations omitted).

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 7 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 8 of 25

federal officer; (2) there is a “causal nexus” between the defendant’s actions taken 

pursuant to a federal officer’s directions, and the plaintiff’s claims; and (3) the defendant 

can assert a “colorable federal defense.”

36

In determining whether it has subject matter jurisdiction, a court may review 

evidence in the record, including affidavits and documents.

37 However, when a 

defendant asserts federal officer removal jurisdiction, the Supreme Court has explained 

that a court should “credit the [defendant’s] theory of the case for purposes of [the 

causal connection and colorable defense] elements of [the] jurisdictional inquiry.”

38 

ICRC provides two declarations of Diana Carlson, a manager and Vice President of 

Operations at ICRC during the relevant time period, along with exhibits, to support its 

assertion that the district court has subject matter jurisdiction under section 

1442(a)(1).39 MOA provides the declaration of Todd Cowles, Port Engineer for MOA 

since 2005, along with exhibits, to support its position that ICRC fails to meet any of the 

 36 Id. at 1251 (citing Jefferson Cnty. v. Acker, 527 U.S. 423, 431 (1999)). Section 1442 cases 

sometimes list out a four-part test, but either test contains the same basic elements. See 

Bennett v. MIS Corp., 607 F.3d 1076, 1085 (6th Cir. 2010) (citing Jefferson Cnty., 527 U.S. at 

431). 

37 See Sesay v. Raytheon Aircraft Co., No. 2:11-cv-05876-JHN, 2012 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 1985, at 

*5 (C.D. Cal. Jan. 5, 2012); see also Bennett, 607 F.3d at 1087 n.11 (“When a district court’s 

subject matter jurisdiction is in question, it is empowered to review extra-complaint evidence 

and resolve factual disputes.”). 

38 Jefferson Cnty, 527 U.S. at 432. Jefferson County addressed removal under 28 

§ 1442(a)(3), which applies to judicial officers of the United States, but it provides for similar 

removal rights as under subsection (a)(1) at issue here.

39 Docket 2-3 at 3 ¶ 7(4/8/13 Carlson Decl.); Docket 30-1 (5/28/13 Supp. Carlson Decl.).

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 8 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 9 of 25

three requirements for federal officer removal jurisdiction.40 The Court addresses each 

requirement in turn. 

I. For Purposes of Section 1442 Removal, ICRC has Demonstrated that it was a 

“Person Acting Under” MarAd.41

In order to be “acting under” federal authority, a person’s actions “must involve 

an effort to assist, or to help carry out, the duties or tasks of the federal superior.”42 

These actions must “help[] officers [to] fulfill other basic governmental tasks . . . that, in 

the absence of a contract with a private firm, the Government itself would have had to 

perform.”43 Although certainly not limitless, “[t]he words ‘acting under’ are broad, and 

th[e Supreme] Court has made clear that the statute must be ‘liberally construed.’”44

MOA contends that ICRC was not “acting under” MarAd because this suit arises 

from ICRC’s actions “performing its independent contractual duties pursuant to its 

contract with MarAd.”

45 MOA also asserts that ICRC was not acting under MarAd 

because ICRC could not bind, make decisions for, or act on MarAd’s behalf.46

 40 Docket 21 (Mot.); Docket 21-2 (5/9/13 Cowles Decl.). 

41 MOA does not dispute that Defendants were “persons” for purposes of federal officer 

removal; rather, it disputes whether the Defendants were “acting under” MarAd. 

42 Watson v. Philip Morris Co., 551 U.S. 142, 152 (2007) (emphasis in original).

43 Id. at 153-54.

44 Id. at 147.

45 Docket 21 at 12 (Mot.).

46 Id. at 12-13.

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 9 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 10 of 25

ICRC asserts that “[t]he Complaint . . . effectively establish[es] that the 

Defendants were working at the direction of, and subject to the approval by, MARAD.”47 

ICRC further asserts that, “the government contracts between ICRC and MarAd clearly 

set forth duties, that in the absence of the contracts with ICRC, the Government itself 

would have had to perform.”48

MOA cites Cabalce v. VSE Corp.,

49 a case in which the District Court for the 

District of Hawaii granted a plaintiff’s motion to remand. The district court found that the 

claims were not removable under the federal officer removal statute as defendant failed 

to satisfy either the “acting under” or “causal nexus” requirements.

50 In so finding, the 

court noted that it had previously found that the defendant was an “independent 

contractor” acting “without day-to-day control or supervision by the government,” such 

that the United States could not be held liable for the defendant’s acts under the Federal 

Tort Claims Act. But whether a federal contractor is termed an “independent contractor”

is not dispositive of section 1442 removal. The focus for this inquiry is instead whether 

the contractor assisted or helped the government, and performed duties that the 

government would otherwise have to perform. In any event, Cabalce is distinguishable 

from the case at hand because in Cabalce, the court concluded that the government did 

not exercise day-to-day control over the contractor, while here, Carlson’s declarations 

 47 Docket 2 at 11 (Notice of Joint Removal by ICRC and PND); Docket 30 at 9 (ICRC Opp.).

48 Docket 30 at 7 (ICRC Opp.).

49 Cabalce v. VSE Corp., 922 F.Supp.2d 1113, 1122 (D. Hawaii 2013).

50 Id. at 1124. Cabalce considers together the “acting under” and “causal nexus” requirements.

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 10 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 11 of 25

assert that MarAd did exercise day-to-day supervision through daily communications,

51

by maintaining an on-site representative at ICRC’s offices in Anchorage, through MarAd 

representatives’ “frequent” visits to ICRC’s offices,

52 and by requiring ICRC to provide 

“periodic progress reports.”

53

Here, there is no factual dispute that MOA entered into an MOU with MarAd, 

which then contracted with ICRC to provide a range of management services for the 

Project. Likewise, there is no factual dispute that MarAd executed task orders directing 

ICRC to perform specific work. That is, MarAd enlisted ICRC to assist MarAd to 

accomplish MarAd’s responsibilities under the MOU. As noted above, the “acting 

under” requirement is to be liberally construed.54 On the current record before the 

Court, ICRC has demonstrated that it was “acting under” MarAd for purposes of 

section 1442 removal jurisdiction.

II. For Purposes of Section 1442 Removal, ICRC has Demonstrated a “Causal 

Nexus.”

To satisfy the second element of the test for federal officer removal, the removing 

party must show a “‘causal connection’ between the charged conduct and asserted 

official authority.”

55 That is, “the removing party must show that it is being sued 

 51 Docket 2-3 at 7 ¶ 15 (Carlson Decl.).

52 Docket 2-3 at 7 ¶¶ 14, 16, 18 (Carlson Decl.).

53 Id. at 7, 14 ¶¶ 14, 33.

54 See Watson, 551 U.S. at 147.

55 Jefferson Cnty, 527 U.S. at 431 (quoting Willingham, 395 U.S. at 409).

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 11 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 12 of 25

because of the acts it performed at the direction of the federal officer.”

56 A causal nexus 

requires “the defendant to show that it acted at the federal government’s command” with 

respect to the charged conduct.57 But “demanding an airtight case on the merits in 

order to show the required causal connection” would “defeat the purpose of the removal 

statute.”58 Rather, a defendant’s evidence in support of the requisite causal connection 

should be generously interpreted in favor of federal office removal.59

MOA claims that ICRC negligently performed various obligations that it had 

related to the Project. MOA asserts that “because ICRC and its subcontractors had 

discretion over many items, including development and implementation of the [OCSP] 

design, [t]he conduct that injured MOA was not the result of direct and detailed control 

by MarAd, but simply ICRC’s own failures and negligence in the design, construction 

and management of the Project.”60 MOA provides several examples of ICRC’s alleged 

negligence, including: (1) selection and implementation of the OCSP technology; and 

(2) selection and oversight of subcontractors.61 

With respect to the OCSP design, MOA maintains that MarAd “did not dictate 

that ICRC recommend the OCSP design.”62 In Cowles’s declaration, he states that 

 56 Bennett, 607 F.3d at 1089.

57 Leite, 868 F.Supp.2d at 1041 (quoting Hagen v. Benjamin Foster Co., 739 F.Supp.2d 770, 

785 (E.D. Penn. 2010)).

58 Jefferson Cnty., 527 U.S. at 432.

59 Durham, 445 F.3d at 1253.

60 Docket 21 at 14 (Mot.).

61 See Docket 2-3 at 3 ¶ 6 (4/8/13 Carlson Decl.); Docket 21 at 9-10, 14 (Mot. to Remand). 

62 Docket 21 at 13.

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 12 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 13 of 25

“ICRC was intimately and critically involved in analyzing the viability of the [OCSP] 

design at the Project,” that “MarAd relied upon ICRC’s analysis to determine the viability 

of the [OCSP] design,” and that “[b]oth MarAd and MOA relied upon ICRC . . . for 

analysis and validation of the OCSP design recommended by ICRC.”63 However, 

Cowles does not directly address the key question of how much oversight MarAd 

exercised over ICRC. In contrast, Carlson states that “[t]he Port made the initial 

suggestion that OCSP technology be used instead of alternative methods,”64 that 

MarAd supervised “the initial evaluation and selection of technology,”

65 and that MarAd 

issued task orders related to the selection of the OCSP technology, including a request 

for an environmental assessment comparing the different technologies.

66 Carlson adds 

that ICRC’s work was “subject to vigorous review, comment and modification by 

MARAD and the Port,” as well as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

67 Carlson further 

asserts that after MarAd approved the OCSP design, ICRC could not unilaterally 

change the specifications without MarAd’s written approval.68 Liberally construing 

Carlson’s declarations and the supporting documents, ICRC has sufficiently 

 63 Docket 21-2 at 8, ¶ 27 (5/9/13 Cowles Decl.). 

64 Docket 2-3 at 10 ¶ 21 (4/8/13 Carlson Decl.).

65 Id. at 3 ¶ 7.

66 See id. at 3, 10-11 ¶¶ 7, 21, 23; Docket 21-2 at 8 ¶¶ 22-23. Carlson also asserts that “ICRC 

did not independently prepare the . . . EA” because “MARAD and the Port had a heavy hand in 

drafting the EA.” Docket 30-1 at 3 ¶ 6 (5/28/13 Supp. Carlson Decl.). 

67 Docket 2-3 at 10 ¶ 23.

68 Id. at 10-12 ¶¶ 22, 25.

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 13 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 14 of 25

demonstrated the requisite causal nexus between MarAd’s instructions and the 

selection of the OCSP technology as required for federal officer removal jurisdiction. 

MOA also asserts that ICRC was negligent in its selection and oversight of 

subcontractors. As one example, in his declaration, Cowles describes the process 

involved in the issuance of Task Order 312, through which ICRC requested certain 

funding related to subcontractor PND.

69 Cowles states that after ICRC requested the 

funding, MarAd provided no substantive comments before issuing that particular task 

order, and that “MarAd typically did not provide any significant comments.”70 But

Cowles’s declaration is not determinative—his statement that MarAd typically did not 

provide significant comments to ICRC is not conclusive as to whether it sometimes did

provide significant commentary. In contrast, Carlson’s declarations provide specific 

examples of alleged government oversight. For instance, Carlson asserts that during 

the RFP process, ICRC alerted the Port and MarAd that several contractors sought to 

propose alternatives to the OCSP design, and requested that the terms “or similar” be 

placed in the pending RFPs near each OCSP reference, but that MarAd rejected 

ICRC’s suggestion.71 As another example, Carlson describes how when a 

subcontractor proposed using armor rock in the North Backlands, ICRC was unable to 

“act unilaterally” on the recommendation.72 Instead, ICRC forwarded the proposal to 

MarAd for approval, which then required that ICRC take certain steps, including seeking 

 69 See Docket 21-2 at 6 ¶ 13 (5/9/13 Cowles Decl.). 

70 Id.

71 Docket 30-1 at 5 ¶ 10 (5/28/13 Supp. Carlson Decl.). 

72 Docket 2-3 at 12-13 ¶¶ 27-28 (4/8/13 Carlson Decl.).

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 14 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 15 of 25

endorsement from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, before MarAd would issue 

approval.73 Again, ICRC has sufficiently demonstrated for purposes of section 1442

removal jurisdiction the requisite casual nexus between MarAd’s oversight and ICRC’s 

actions.

III. For Purposes of Section 1442 Removal, ICRC Presents a “Colorable” Federal 

Defense.

The Supreme Court has explained that “federal officer removal must be 

predicated on a federal defense.”

74 And yet at the removal stage, the defense need not 

“be clearly sustainable.”

75 Rather, for purposes of obtaining federal jurisdiction, the 

contractor need only show a “plausible” or “colorable” defense.76 Such a showing 

entitles a defendant to a federal forum in which to litigate the validity of the federal

defense.77 For purposes of determining whether a defense is colorable, the facts are 

viewed in the light most favorable to the defendant.78

 73 Id.; Docket 2-20 at 5 (Attachment Q to Carlson Decl.: 7/25/06 MarAd email to ICRC); Docket 

21-26 (Ex. 22 to Motion to Remand: ICRC Letter to Port re 405 North Backlands).

74 Mesa v. California, 489 U.S. 121, 130 (1989).

75 Leite, 868 F.Supp.2d at 1028 (quoting Willingham, 395 U.S. at 407); see also Magnin v. 

Teledyne Continental Motors, 91 F.3d 1424, 1427 (11th Cir. 1996) (The “ultimate validity” of the 

defense “is not to be determined at the time of removal.”). 

76 Bennett, 607 F.3d at 1089; see also Black’s Law Dictionary 282 (9th ed. 2009) (A “colorable 

claim” is a “claim that is legitimate and that may reasonably be asserted, given the facts 

presented and the current law (or a reasonable and logical extension or modification of the 

current law).”).

77 Leite, 868 F.Supp.2d at 1028 (quoting Willingham, 395 U.S. at 407).

78 Leite, 868 F.Supp.2d at 1030-31; Thompson v. Crane Co., No. 11-cv-638-LEK-RLP, 2012 

U.S. Dist. LEXIS 84569 (D. Hawaii Jun. 19, 2012). 

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 15 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 16 of 25

Here, ICRC asserts that jurisdiction is proper under either of two alternative 

colorable federal defenses: the government contractor defense or derivative sovereign 

immunity.79 This Order addresses only the government contractor defense. 

A contractor establishes this defense by demonstrating that: (1) the government 

approved reasonably precise specifications; (2) the project conformed to those 

specifications; and (3) the contractor warned the United States about the dangers of the 

project specifications that were known to the contractor but not to the United States.80 

The government contractor defense is intended to “protect[] a government contractor 

from liability for acts done by him while complying with government specifications during 

the execution of performance of a contract with the United States.”81

 Before turning to the three elements of the defense, the Court must first 

determine whether ICRC may plausibly invoke the defense with respect to the Port 

project. On this issue, MOA cites to the Ninth Circuit’s decision in Snell v. Bell 

Helicopter Textron, Inc., where the court stated that the government contractor defense 

is “only available to contractors who design and manufacture military equipment” in 

accordance with the government’s specifications.82 MOA argues that because “ICRC 

 79 Docket 2 at 14, 19 (Notice of Joint Removal by ICRC and PND).

80 Getz v. Boeing Co., 654 F.3d 852, 861 (9th Cir. 2011) (citing Boyle v. United Techs. Corp., 

487 U.S. 500, 512 (1988)) (describing three elements of the defense in the context of helicopter 

manufactured and sold to United States government); McKay v. Rockwell Int’l Corp., 704 F.2d 

444, 448 (9th Cir. 1983); Leite, 868 F.Supp.2d at 1028. 

81 McKay, 704 F.2d at 448 (discussing Yearsley v. W.A. Ross Construction Company, 309 U.S. 

18 (1940)).

82 Docket 21 at 13 (Mot.) (citing Snell v. Bell Helicopter Textron, Inc., 107 F.3d 744, 746 n.1 

(9th Cir. 1997) (internal citations omitted). However, as Snell involved a military helicopter, its 

statement as to the scope of the defense could be considered as dicta. See also Rodriguez v. 

Lockheed Martin Corp., 627 F.3d 1259, 1265 (9th Cir. 2010) (in a case involving military 

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 16 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 17 of 25

did not design and manufacture military equipment, but rather contracted with MarAd, a 

civilian agency, to design and construct a local infrastructure project,” the defense is 

completely unavailable to it.

83

ICRC concedes that “the Ninth Circuit has not . . . applied the government 

contractor defense outside of military contracts.”

84 But ICRC asserts that by “logical 

extension” of the U.S. Supreme Court’s decisions in Yearsley v. W.A. Ross 

Construction Company85 and Boyle v. United Technologies Corp.,

86 ICRC can advance

a plausible government contractor defense. 87

In Yearsley, a Supreme Court case decided in 1940, the government contracted 

with a private company to construct dikes.

88 The plaintiff later sued the private 

company, claiming that the dikes caused erosion to his property. In its analysis, the 

Supreme Court recognized the policy that supports the modern-day government 

contractor defense: 

 

equipment, the Ninth Circuit described defense as shielding contractors from “[l]iability for 

design defects in military equipment”).

83 Docket 21 at 14 (Mot.).

84 Docket 30 at 12 (ICRC Opp.).

85 Yearsley, 309 U.S. 18.

86 Boyle, 487 U.S. at 512.

87 Docket 30 at 12 (ICRC Opp.).

88 Yearsley, 309 U.S. 18.

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 17 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 18 of 25

[I]f this authority to carry out the project was validly conferred, that is, if 

what was done was within the constitutional power of Congress, there is 

no liability on the part of the contractor for executing its will.89 

But the Yearsley decision seemed to “[l]imit[] the applicability of the defense [as applied 

in that case] to principal-agent relationships where the agent had no discretion in the 

design process and completely followed government specifications.”90 It does not 

appear that MaRad exercised that level of control over ICRC. But this Court also notes 

that Yearsley did not involve a military contract and yet still recognized that a 

government contractor may avoid liability when following government directives. 

In 1988, the Supreme Court recognized the government contractor defense, in its 

current form, in Boyle.

91 In that case, an individual had drowned when he was unable to 

escape a Marine helicopter that crashed into the ocean because of a design defect. 

The individual’s father sued the helicopter’s manufacturer, which invoked the federal 

contractor defense. Explaining the defense, taking into account the policy expressed in

Yearsley, the Supreme Court stated:

The federal interest justifying th[e] holding [in Yearsley] surely exists as 

much in procurement contracts as in performance contracts; we see no 

basis for a distinction.92

 89 Id. at 22. This policy may also support a claim for derivative sovereign immunity. But see 

Rodriquez, 627 F.3d at 1265 (“Although the source of the government contractor defense is the 

United States’ sovereign immunity, we have explicitly stated that ‘the government contractor 

defense does not confer sovereign immunity on contractors.’” (quoting United States ex rel. Ali 

v. Danie, Mann, Johnson & Mendenhall, 355 F.3d 1140, 1147 (9th Cir. 2004))). 

90 Hanford Nuclear Reserv. Litig. v. E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. (In re Hanford Nuclear 

Reserv. Litig.), 534 F.3d 986, 1001 (9th Cir. 2008) (discussing Yearsley, 309 U.S. 18).

91 Boyle, 487 U.S. at 512. 

92 Id. at 506; see also Bennett, 607 F.3d at 1089 (stating “it is at least plausible that the 

government contractor defense could apply outside the military procurement contract context,” 

and noting that defense originated in Yearsley); Cabalce, 922 F.Supp.2d at 1124 (noting 

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 18 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 19 of 25

This Court finds that the stated policy from Yearsley and Boyle supports a finding that 

the government contractor defense could plausibly be invoked by a contractor hired by 

a federal civilian agency to design and construct a local infrastructure project.

93

The Court next addresses whether ICRC has demonstrated that it may plausibly 

satisfy the three elements of the government contractor defense. The Court considers 

the facts in the light most favorable to ICRC, and concludes that ICRC has made out a 

“colorable defense” for purposes of section 1442 jurisdiction.

A. The Government Approved Reasonably Precise Specifications.

To meet the first element—that the United States approved reasonably precise 

specifications—a contractor must show that the government’s approval was “more than 

a cursory ‘rubber stamp’ approving the design.”

94 It must show that the approval 

resulted “from a ‘continuous exchange’ and ‘back and forth dialogue’ between the 

contractor and the government.”

95 For example, if the “government engages in a 

thorough review of the allegedly defective design and takes an active role in testing and 

implementing that design,” the first element is met.96 

 

“significant split in authority” on question of whether government contractor defense applies in a 

non-military context, but noting that Boyle was derived from Yearsley).

93 See also Merritt, Chapman, & Scott Corp. v. Atkinson, 295 F.2d 14 (9th Cir. 1961) (after jury 

trial, private firm that contracted with government to build a dam was found not to be protected 

by government contractor defense because critical construction decisions left to contractor’s 

discretion). 

94 Getz, 654 F.3d at 861 (internal citations omitted).

95 Id.

96 Id.

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 19 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 20 of 25

MOA asserts that ICRC cannot demonstrate that it followed reasonably precise 

specifications because “ICRC was responsible for identifying construction requirements, 

developing Task Orders for construction, executing the construction contract, and 

managing and inspecting the construction of the Project.”97 MOA also asserts that 

ICRC, “not MarAd, performed the thorough review of the defective OCSP design.”98

Essentially, MOA argues that ICRC, not MarAd, determined the specifications.

ICRC, through Carlson’s declarations, describes MarAd as having had an active 

role in developing and approving the specifications. Carlson asserts that “MARAD 

either mandated or meaningfully reviewed, revised, verified and ultimately approved the 

detailed specifications used for every aspect of the Project.”

99 This occurred through 

the task order process, through which MarAd issued task orders to ICRC.

100 According 

to Carlson, ICRC may have made the initial proposals, but MarAd would modify them as 

it determined necessary prior to issuing the task orders.

101

ICRC’s evidence regarding the selection of the OCSP technology provides a 

useful example of MarAd’s involvement in developing and approving specifications. 

Carlson asserts that the Port initially proposed use of the OCSP technology.102 Before 

proceeding with that technology, however, MarAd requested that ICRC prepare draft 

 97 Docket 21 at 15 (Mot.).

98 Docket 21 at 15 (Mot.).

99 Docket 2-3 at 10 ¶ 21 (4/8/13 Carlson Decl.).

100 Docket 2-3 at 6, 10 ¶¶ 12, 23; see also Docket 2-10 (Attachment G to Carlson Decl.: 

11/4/09 Agenda) (describing various task orders). 

101 Docket 2-3 at 6 ¶ 12. 

102 Id. at 10 ¶ 21.

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 20 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 21 of 25

assessments, comparing the environmental impact of OCSP with alternative 

technologies.103 ICRC’s assessments, including an environmental assessment (“EA”), 

were subject to review, comment, and modification by MarAd and the Port.104 After 

reviewing these assessments, MarAd and the Port approved the OCSP design as the 

“preferred alternative,” noting that the EA “ha[d] been independently evaluated by the 

MARAD/POA,” which took “full responsibility for [its] accuracy, scope, and content[.]”105 

Once MarAd approved the OCSP design, ICRC could not unilaterally change the 

specifications without MarAd’s written approval.106

As further evidence of MarAd’s involvement in developing and approving 

specifications, Carlson describes the regular communications between MarAd and 

ICRC. She asserts that representatives of MarAd and ICRC communicated on a daily 

basis,107 that MarAd maintained a representative physically located in ICRC’s 

Anchorage office “to supervise, review, and approve ICRC’s execution of its contract 

responsibilities,”

108 and that MarAd engineers, environmental staff, and construction 

experts were also “frequently” on site to deal with Project issues.109 

 103 Id. at 10 ¶ 23. 

104 Docket 2-3 at 10 ¶ 23 (4/8/13 Carlson Decl.).

105 Id. at 10-11 ¶¶ 22-23; Docket 2-16 at 3 (Attachment M to Carlson Decl.: MarAd Finding of 

No Significant Impact).

106 Docket 2-3 at 10, 12 ¶¶ 22, 25 ( “only MARAD had the authority to modify the contract and 

update the Project specifications”).

107 Id. at 7 ¶ 15.

108 Id. at 7 ¶¶ 14, 18.

109 Id. at 7 ¶ 16.

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 21 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 22 of 25

Pursuant to Carlson’s declarations, and viewing the facts in the light most 

favorable to ICRC, it has plausibly demonstrated that MarAd did not “rubber stamp” 

ICRC’s proposed task orders, but rather that there was a regular dialogue between 

MarAd and ICRC which included MarAd’s approval of reasonably precise specifications. 

Thus, MarAd has plausibly satisfied the first requirement of the government contractor 

defense for purposes of federal officer removal jurisdiction.

B. The Project Conformed with the Government Specifications.

The second element of the government contractor defense requires the 

contractor to demonstrate that the project conformed with the approved 

specifications.

110 “The operative test for conformity with reasonably precise 

specifications turns on whether ‘the alleged defect . . . exist[ed] independently of the 

design itself.’”111

MOA does not specifically address this element, but its failure to do so is 

understandable—because MOA argues that there were no government approved 

specifications, it could not separately argue that ICRC failed to comply with them. 

Rather, MOA asserts that “construction of the Project was controlled by ICRC.”112 

ICRC, on the other hand, asserts that the Project conformed with the government’s 

specifications, explaining that “MARAD accepted Project work as conforming to the 

detailed specifications through email and memoranda . . . .”113 For example, as 

 110 Getz, 654 F.3d at 864 (internal citations and quotation marks omitted).

111 Id.

112 Docket 21 at 15 (Mot.).

113 Docket 2 at 16 (Notice of Joint Removal by ICRC and PND). 

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 22 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 23 of 25

discussed above, ICRC maintains that it conducted work on the Project pursuant to task 

orders, and that MarAd “indicated acceptance of Project work when it closed out 

contract task orders,”

114 or when it approved and executed Certificates of Completion 

for fulfilled task orders.115 Viewing the facts in the light most favorable to ICRC for 

purposes of the present motion, ICRC has made a plausible showing that it conformed 

with the government specifications for the Project.

C. The Contractor Warned of Dangers and Risks Known to the Contractor but 

not the United States.

To satisfy the third element—that the contractor warned the United States about 

dangers that were known to the contractor but not to the United States—the contractor

must show that it warned “the government of dangers about which it ha[d] actual 

knowledge.”

116 

MOA asserts that “ICRC cannot identify any facts to demonstrate that it warned 

MarAd or MOA about the dangers in using the OCSP design.”

117 Instead, MOA asserts 

that, “[t]hrough its consultants and sub-consultants, ICRC concluded and validated that 

the OCSP design would ‘be able to withstand seismic events’ . . . and that the OCSP 

design was appropriate for the Project.”118

ICRC, on the other hand, asserts that MarAd and the Port were “intimately 

aware” of the issues and challenges that arose with the OCSP design because of the 

 114 Docket 2-3 at 7-8 ¶ 19 (4/8/13 Carlson Decl.).

115 See id. at 7 ¶ 18.

116 Getz, 654 F.3d at 865.

117 Docket 21 at 16 (Mot.).

118 Id.

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 23 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 24 of 25

regular communication with ICRC.119 Carlson further asserts that “[w]hen ICRC learned 

of new issues . . ., it promptly communicated the same to MARAD and the Port.”120 

Carlson describes two examples in which ICRC raised concerns about the OCSP 

technology to the government. First, as discussed supra in Discussion Section II 

(“causal nexus”), during the RFP process, ICRC notified the Port and MarAd that 

several contractors sought to propose alternatives to the OCSP design.121 But Carlson 

asserts that MarAd determined that it would not permit proposals that included “similar” 

but alternative technology to the OCSP design.

122 Second, Carlson asserts that ICRC 

provided a warning to MarAd through the 2004 Terracon Global Stability Report (the 

“Terracon Report”), which noted that the Pile-Supported Deck concept (an alternative 

technology to OCSP) “has a primary benefit over the OCSP concept with respect to 

global and structural stability.”123 That Terracon Report recommended that “[a] test 

section of the OCSP structures should be constructed early in the first phase of port 

construction” to “provide a field trial . . . .”124 That advice was not followed.125 MOA 

disputes that Terracon Report was an adequate warning because “Terracon prepared 

several reports after the 2004 report,” that those later reports “stated that the OCSP 

 119 Docket 2-3 at 14-15 ¶¶ 33-34 (4/8/13 Carlson Decl.).

120 Id.

121 Docket 30-1 at 5 ¶¶ 10-11 (5/28/13 Supp. Carlson Decl.); see also Docket 2-7 (Attachment 

N to Carlson Decl.: 12/21/06 Addendum 3 to RFP). 

122 Docket 30-1 at 5 ¶¶ 10-11. 

123 Docket 30-7 at 7 (Terracon Global Stability Report). 

124 Id.

125 Docket 30-1 at 4 ¶ 8. 

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 24 of 25
3:13-cv-00063-SLG, MOA v. ICRC et al. 

Order Denying Motion to Remand

Page 25 of 25

system was suitable for use at the Project,” and that ICRC never specifically 

“highlighted or echoed this concern to MarAd.”126 

The Terracon Report, standing alone, may well not constitute an adequate 

warning for purposes of demonstrating a plausible government contractor defense. 

Likewise, ICRC’s communications to MarAd about prospective contractors inquiring as 

to design alternatives may not constitute an adequate warning for purposes of the 

government contractor defense. But viewing these facts together in the light most 

favorable to ICRC for purposes of this jurisdictional motion, ICRC has plausibly 

demonstrated that it warned MarAd of dangers and risks that were known to ICRC. 

Accordingly, ICRC has demonstrated that removal of this action to federal court 

under 28 U.SC. § 1442(a)(1), the federal officer removal statute, was proper. In so 

ruling, the Court finds only that the government contractor defense is colorable or 

plausible for purposes of subject matter jurisdiction.

CONCLUSION

For the foregoing reasons, IT IS HEREBY ORDERED that: 

1. Plaintiff’s Motion to Remand at Docket 21 is DENIED.

2. Defendant ICRC’s Motion to Supplement at Docket 55 is DENIED. 

3. Plaintiff’s Motion to Strike at Docket 65 is DENIED. 

DATED at Anchorage, Alaska this 21st day of November, 2013.

/s/ Sharon L. Gleason

UNITED STATES DISTRICT JUDGE

 126 Docket 21 at 16 (Mot.); Docket 34 at 11 (Reply).

Case 3:13-cv-00063-SLG Document 67 Filed 11/21/13 Page 25 of 25