albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
As home ownership becomes more inaccessible for families at the lower-end of the socio-economic distribution, housing policy interventions should focus on outcomes that protect low-income tenants from rent increases. Targeting housing benefits towards low-income families, increasing social housing stock and prioritising placement of families with the greatest needs are options that can better help meet the housing needs of poor families. The reduction of child poverty could be identified as a specific objective of the recently launched poverty reduction strategy. The development of measures of children’s exposure to income poverty and of unmet needs in terms of food, health, education and housing would make it possible to set targets for children and monitor progress for this particular population group. The number of childcare places created, access for low-income children, and the quality of services provided will be important metrics to monitor in order to measure the results of public spending on poverty reduction. In this case, getting out of poverty and its consequences presupposes that barriers to employment are addressed, and that obstacles that limit access to care, quality housing can be eliminated, and that financial aid can be granted.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Since the 9/11 attacks on New York and Washington D.C., the fight against international terrorism has been a dominant issue in the political arena. Policy-makers (still) face the challenge to develop sound strategies for fighting this type of terrorist activity. Unfortunately, there is no universal strategy to counter terrorism. This is partly due to the diverse and clandestine nature of terrorist groups, and partly due to misperceptions, lack of precise knowledge as well as divergent interests and prioritization on part of policy-makers. The present chapter aims at providing a systematic overview on how to deal with (international) terrorism, taking on a law and economics perspective. More specifically, we will examine how the rule of law — both nationally and internationally (i.e., in terms of the international law) — interacts with international terrorism and how it can be sustained under the extreme conditions of terrorism.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Studies of changes in EPL for Chile and Colombia do find that weaker EPL is associated with declines in job tenure, higher separation rates, and increased hiring in the formal sector (Freeman, 2009). Using a firm-level dataset for a set of 16 industrialised and developing countries, Haltiwanger et al. ( If labour legislation reduces the ability of firms to adjust their workforce accordingly, particularly in downturns, it may have effects on aggregate performance.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
However, it is indeed noteworthy that one of the accomplishments of the international nuclear legal regime is the fact that there is a common definition of most concepts applicable to radioactive waste disposal strategies. The 1989 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal has played a similar role in establishing a comprehensive global framework with regard to non-radioactive hazardous wastes and has helped governments to define a set of potential waste management strategies. The same holds true for the 1972 London Dumping Convention and the 1992 OSPAR Convention which have served as drivers to introduce international environmental management principles into national policies. Once the strategies and policies have been established, national legal frameworks are developed to reflect those national priorities and policies, as illustrated for example by the issue of stakeholder involvement.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
In the context of ongoing monetary normalization in the United States, further policy rate cuts are unlikely, especially given that monetary policy stances are already very accommodative, with policy rates at a historic low in some countries. Only Indonesia has reduced its policy rate in recent months. In 2017, Indonesia recorded foreign investment in the digital economy worth $4.8 billion (Jakarta Post, 2018).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
This could suggest that the high level of points attributed to GPs for mental health services successfully rendered encourages patient selection and the deliberate exclusion of more difficult cases from the data. Concerns have also been expressed that GPs are directing attention away from activity not rewarded by the QOF, and as such care delivery quality is declining in some areas (Cashin et al., The recommendation by the Primary Care QOF Indicator Advisory Committee on behalf of NICE was that these indicators be withdrawn, and that a consideration process for new indicators was considered. At present these indicators remained in the QOF framework for 2011/12, although the points value of all of the indicators was reduced.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
The perception that there was a need for the study of the full or external costs of electricity generation beyond its plant-level production costs was very much motivated by concerns about the external cost of air pollution. While in the meantime climate change risks have assumed comparable importance, the costs of air pollution remain a top priority in the planning and regulation of sustainable electricity systems. These emissions arise during the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas or biomass) that impact primarily the respiratory system leading to bad health (morbidity) or premature death (mortality). Economics has long attempted to monetise these impacts by assessing an individual’s marginal willingness to pay for marginal changes in the probability of incurring mortality risk, from which the notion of the value of a statistical life (VSL) can be derived. Methodologies for monetising morbidity damages also exist but are less stabilised.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
As a result, the government relies on donor funds to finance investments. Over the period 2010-15, the government of Moldova, supported by donors and international finance instutitions (IFIs), is estimated to have spent about USD 107 mln on energy efficiency and renewable energy. This is far from sufficient to cover urgent investment needs in energy infrastructure and clean energy. Such reforms require additional research and their social cost needs to be carefully assessed.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
The goal is to add economic value by introducing specific substances or tissue modifications. This could produce unintended environmental effects relating to the place of introduction or the nature of expression of GMOs. Despite these prevalent environmental implications, however, livestock contributes to the livelihoods of millions of the world’s poor, providing an income source, and sometimes the only source, for many. Therefore, measuring livestock impacts and driving efficiency in the production line is vital. Environmentally relevant statistics on livestock include the number and characteristics of live animals, as well as antibiotics and hormones used for them.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
In Egypt unemployment among university graduates was 34.2% in 2006. In South Africa it was 34.9% in 2007 (Table 6.2.). These high rates point at serious mismatch and school-to-work transition problems that will be discussed in more detail in the section on education later in this report. As was seen in the preceding section, young people with a university education not only have the highest unemployment rates, they also have the highest rates of wage employment. In addition, analysis of earnings provides evidence that those with higher level qualifications earn more when they are in employment (see annex 6.2.).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
The reserves in currently operating oil and gas fields alone, even with no coal, would take the world beyond i.5°C" (Muttitt, 2016). Remaining within a 2 °C threshold will require a rapid, but managed, decline in the fossil fuel industry. This must begin with cutting off government subsidies to fossil fuels.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
For example, whereas precarious employment and underemployment rise throughout the decade, unemployment and material deprivation both peak around 2007. While unemployment later falls even below its initial level, material deprivation remains high. Applying a multidimensional poverty cut-off of k=33 and an income poverty cut-off of 60% of the median net household equivalent income implies poverty rates of 11-13%.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
This is likely explained by the characteristics of the services sector in LDCs, wherein a large part consists of traditional and mostly informal services, which tend to consume more traditional forms of energy and fuel as compared with modern forms of energy. The reciprocal causality between electricity supply and structural transformation is found for agriculture and industry for both LDCs and ODCs. For those sectors which are most dynamic in ODCs — manufacturing and services — however, there is a difference between these groups of countries.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Key elements to achieve this are: empowering client communities to become active parties in decision-making instead of considering them mere subjects of consultations, incorporating information feedback loops to avoid knowledge being reserved for a selected few, and ensuring accountability at a personal, individual level so that policies, strategic plans, budgets, performance management systems and individual accountability and responsibility are all aligned. Finally, students and their families, users, affected groups, communities and taxpayers must play an integral part in defining the parameters and systems of monitoring and evaluation. In South Africa, although there seems to be higher educational achievement, many observers question the quality of education received in state schools, asking whether the pass rate actually reflects students’ learning achievements. A recent court judgment finding the Government in contempt of court for ignoring earlier court orders to provide textbooks for schoolchildren appears to support this argument (Nkosi, 2012).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
As mentioned in Box 1, blockchain projects tend to be developed within consortia due to the network nature of the technology. Consortia usually consist of a group of companies and partners, such as technology providers, but may also include regulators or other relevant institutions. It is beneficial to develop pilot programmes for blockchain applications that bring together the main stakeholders, as many additional topics need to be agreed upon (e.g. legal set-up), which are unique to consortia work. In the blockchain space, pilots generally consist of three phases: the design phase, implementation phase and operation phase.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Table 5.3 summarises the policy and regulation status of the countries targeted in this report. The two main electricity generators are the state-owned Bahamas Electricity Corporation (80 per cent of total electricity production) and the privately owned Grand Bahamas Power Corporation (20 per cent of total electricity production), and together they have a generating capacity of 137MW. Because of the archipelago geography of The Bahamas, its electricity system comprises 16 isolated grids, which leads to substantial diseconomies of scale. Except for Trinidad and Tobago, The Bahamas has the highest energy consumption per capita among the target countries.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
This sector's product is perishable and most is shipped with no prior knowledge of what price it will receive. There are “tree-to-consumer" schemes, where growers act as exporters. However, the industry is notable for many intermediaries who will only settle contracts with growers at the spot rate once they receive payment for the shipment.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
Cotton ginning has been extremely volatile, falling from 99 297 tonnes in 1990 to 68 968 in 1995, peaking at 143 091 tonnes in 2005 and falling back to 97 062 tonnes in 2009. About 80% of foreign food processing entities are small enterprises, however, the share of medium and larger foreign enterprises has increased since 2001. No complete official data exist on the total number of wholesale enterprises, as not all of them are registered. Among the registered wholesale enterprises, the largest number is engaged in purchase and sales of grain, sunflower, and vegetables.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
The rise of online platforms has enabled customers to become more engaged with sellers and to leave feedback and reviews, which can be valuable information. This allows firms to understand buyer expectations better and react to them more quickly and effectively. Such feedback can aid research and development (R&D), design, production and marketing processes, creating additional benefits by better matching consumer tastes.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Mover rates remain higher in the United States - at around 11% of the population - than those in the European Union, where annual mover rates affects around 6% and are within the same country. Although gross flows appear larger, net migration flows are relatively small (Figure 1.13). Elsewhere in the OECD, underlying migration patterns tend to be from rural and intermediate regions to urban agglomerations, particularly from rural regions with poor accessibility to cities.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
Ethiopia's legal system largely belongs in the civil law system. Conversely, the case law system is a distinguishing feature of the common law system.Recently, the Ethiopian Federal legislature has enacted a legislation which introduces a rule whereby a judgment rendered by the Cassation Bench of the Federal Supreme Court would be binding upon all subordinate courts at federal and regional levels.This paper investigates how the case law system would fit into the Ethiopian legal system.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Reviews of the theoretical literature on the economics of household waste management can be found in Choe and Fraser (1998) and Fullerton and Kinnaman (2002). As first best solution, a majority of the theoretical results identify deposit-refund schemes, a system with a tax or charge at production or consumer purchase and a refund to consumers that recycle and/or firms that collect or reprocess recycled materials. As an alternative first best solution (when illegal disposal such as dumping is not a problem), the results usually support the use of a virgin material tax or a tax on households' disposal choices.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
For example, drivers may be offered the option of slower, free lanes or faster lanes with tolls. Each pricing system has evolved out of a different uiban context and philosophy. The spatial structure of European cities tends to be monocentric and sometimes radial, with a “natural” boundaiy, and are more likely to introduce a cordon, or corridor around the urban area, while typical US cities are polycentric and are based on a grid structure. Another reason for the difference in pricing systems lies in different perspectives on congestion fees.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Tracking Tool for Climate Change Mitigation Projects,Washington, D.C., http://www.thegef.org/gef/tracking_tool_CCM. Philippines Climate Change Adaptation Policy Initiatives - National Climate Change Action Plan, Manila, Philippines. National Development Plan -2030, National Planning Commission, http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFile Action?id= 154431.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
This article reports findings from an ethnographic study of welfare reform in which the discursive negotiation of policy implementation at the local level was key to understanding the phenomenon of unintended consequences. Using policy give-aways or ‘freebies’ as a primary source of data, the article demonstrates how, despite the rhetoric of evidence based policy and practice, the meanings of policy are open to interpretation. The artifacts brand, materialize, reify, and attempt to discursively govern a range of somewhat abstract or paradoxical policy ideas in the course of implementing welfare reform. Whilst at first sight these hyper-visible manifestations of public policy may appear to be ephemeral data, on closer examination they turn out to be highly significant. They symbolize the commodification of public services, the fluid nature of policy, the uneven course of reform and the challenges of policy implementation.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Virtually all SVEs and LDCs are engaged in trade negotiations, at the bilateral/biregional (both South—South and North-South), regional (within existing integration processes such as the Southern African Development Community (SADC), South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)) or multilateral level (i.e. within the WTO, for those countries that are Member States). These processes — while varying significantly in their geographical scope, liberalisation ambition, implementation timeline and sector coverage - can potentially create large trade adjustment costs for SVEs and LDCs that can, particularly in the short to medium term, offset the political, economic and social gains from trade liberalisation. This study analyses the collection and analysis of TRA1 flows, and compares it with the stated adjustment needs of SVEs and LDCs. Certain changes to the classifications have been made to the CRS to accommodate the AfT categories.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Several non-Annex II countries’ BRs do include this information, but it is not currently reviewed in the UNFCCC context. In particular, the Paris Agreement indicates that “the purpose of the framework for transparency of support is to provide clarity on support provided and received”, but does not mention clarity on mobilised climate finance - even though this is an important part of developed countries’ “aggregate financial support” to address mitigation and adaptation in developing countries. In addition, no explicit provision for review of mobilised climate finance is included in the Paris Agreement, although reporting this information is required under Article 9.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
These factors interrelate with the scale effect of economic growth and are at the heart of a “decoupling” of GHG emissions from economic growth - a major challenge (and opportunity) currently confronting governments. This Review argues that such a “decoupling" is technologically, economically and socially feasible, if based on cost-saving and income-generating activities. From a policy-making viewpoint, this entails mainstreaming climate change in economic development policies, that is, identifying and pursuing mutually supportive mitigation, adaptation and growth strategies. But the opposite is also true: climate policies can strengthen development policies. For example, more efficient utilization of energy and materials also means greater economic competitiveness and energy security, and this in turn can fuel sustainable income-generation activities and job creation.33 Early action on climate change (pre-emptive adaptation and mitigation) is more cost-effective than delayed action (responsive adaptation and mitigation). Therefore, the corollary for developing countries whose production and technological patterns have not yet been locked in is: early movers will benefit from a competitive edge.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
This includes only expenditures on inspection of domestically produced commodities at first level of processing and border inspection for exported commodities. Import control activities are not included. Production and trade data may be used to make an approximate estimation of a differentiation between export and import inspections. In case that such a separation is not possible, the entire expenditure on food safety and inspection should be included and mention should be made in the documentation. Water subsidies granted to individual farmers and investment subsidies to on-farm irrigation infrastructure are included in the PSE. In the case of large investments, such as dams, with multiple outputs (irrigation, water retention, flood prevention, hydro-energy), the GSSE accounts only for the share of the outputs used by primary agriculture.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
Factors that affect demand include the difficulties in accessing financial services through traditional rural channels, the scarce and inadequate supply of available products, and the users' limited entrepreneurial and financial skills. This opens up the possibility of offering non-real-estate collateral, although progress in the creation of centralized registers is uneven. In addition, most countries are taking steps to digitize public transfers and payments, which reduces administrative costs and encourages the use of financial instruments. At the macro level, the five countries recognize that a comprehensive financial inclusion strategy requires the coordination of public policies that go beyond the regulation and supervision of the financial system, including monetary, financial, productive development, and rural and territorial development policies.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Taking food availability as an example, risk comes from a shortfall in food supply due, for instance, to a significant crop failure. Government policies need to be able to manage, in a coordinated way, food supplies coming from production, imports and stocks so that the whole set of trade and agricultural policies play a role in responding to availability risks. As for access, it is the role of the government to enhance households’ access to efficient risk management strategies, whether through economic diversification or the use of community or market insurance or, in the most extreme cases, public safety nets that can be scaled up in the case of a crisis. Finally, as for utilisation, direct nutritional intervention may be needed.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
By 2015,27 countries have improved the proportion of total government expenditures on health. As of 2010, only Rwanda, Liberia, Malawi and Togo met the targets of the Abuja Declaration while Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, Mali, Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso were close to achieving the target - they recorded 12.0 per cent and above (WHO, 2014b). Policies are necessary at a Continental level in order to bring countries in line with the 15 per cent benchmark set by the Abuja Declaration.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Addressing structural inequalities also requires an approach that cuts across silos. For example, promoting women’s business ownership requires a smart policy mix, which, among others, takes into consideration gender impacts of regulatory policies and competition frameworks, while removing potential barriers in access to public procurement and finance. These efforts must be coupled with an enabling social infrastructure (e.g. accessible and affordable child/elderly care) to reduce the burden of unpaid care work, as well as partnerships between the public and private sectors.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
The Committee, in its general recommendation No. It also comments on article 12 on the right to health, stating that certain traditional practices perpetuated by culture and tradition are harmful to the health of women and children. These practices include dietary restrictions for pregnant women, preference for male children and female circumcision or genital mutilation.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)