albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
International human rights treaties are argued to increase both the likelihood of domestic mobilized dissent and judicial constraint. These pressures pull leaders in conflicting directions: mobilized challenges undermine a leader’s position in power, increasing incentives to repress, courts raise the probability of litigation, decreasing incentives to repress. We argue authorities balance these pressures based on their job security. Politically insecure leaders, desperate to retain power, repress to control the destabilizing effects of dissent. Secure leaders are less likely to fall to citizen pressures, but the probability of facing an effective judiciary weighs heavily in their expected costs. Consequently, they repress less to avoid litigation. We find empirical support for the implications of our formal theory using data on commitment to the UN Convention Against Torture. Treaties have no effect on repression in states with insecure leaders but have a positive effect on rights protection in states hea...
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Unchecked construction has contributed to chaotic urban sprawl and invaded agricultural production areas and forests. The distribution of public services has thus been affected and areas with environmental value damaged and agricultural land reduced. The quality of housing and appropriate transport connections to urban centres and jobs can be taken as an indicator of population well-being.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Technical innovations in urban water management have proven crucial for conserving and reusing water and protecting cities from water-related risks. But resilient urban water management requires both hard and soft infrastructure. This is largely because water crises are primarily governance crises that go beyond issues of hydrology, financing and infrastructure.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
However, as prices of natural resources and commodities rise, as climate change deepens and accelerates, and as mountains of waste overflow landfills and stretch municipal budgets, sustainable consumption is emerging as a necessary condition for continued economic growth, even in developing countries. But as incomes in the region grow, consumption patterns become less and less eco-efficient. Sustainable consumption strategies make it possible to achieve eco-efficient economic growth while people rediscover, reinstate and revitalize rich Asian and Pacific cultural values and traditions.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
In addition to continuously updating their own knowledge of the subjects they teach, teachers are expected to work with multicultural classes, integrate students with special needs, be "assessment literate", work and plan in teams, assume some leadership roles and provide professional advice to parents, among other tasks. This chapter defines some of the knowledge, skills and character attributes required for effective teaching, including content and pedagogic knowledge, communication and organisational skills, and self-efficacy and motivation. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
This pattern is also confirmed by the OECD Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) Database, which shows that discriminatory social institutions are linked to higher inequality in unpaid work between men and women across the world (OECD, 2014a). By recording workers’ activities throughout the day, these surveys provide a precise estimate of the time devoted to paid work, unpaid work (including housework), leisure and personal care.0 Rather than simply classifying workers on the basis of their main activity (typically obtained from labour force data), these data provide a portrait of how time use is distributed across different activities. As the collection of this type of data is particularly onerous, time-use surveys are not conducted regularly and they are especially rare in emerging economies.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Various studies, such as by Irwin and Saunders (2010) and Gilbert (2009) provide differing conclusions as to whether index funds have caused the 2006-08 bubble in commodity prices. Price volatility refers to unpredictable price movement. The nature of volatility, in terms of periodicity of movements, either daily, monthly, yearly, or season of a year may have differing implications for producers or consumers depending on the commodity.3 Agricultural prices have followed a long run stagnant trend, punctuated by high spikes, at least one study has identified three major spikes over the period 1970 to 2008.4 In terms of causes, volatility fundamentally follows from the dependence of agricultural production on weather conditions, which can have direct impacts on the variability of yields.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
They are the places where new economic ideas crystallize and where heterogeneous groupings of people learn to co-exist as neighbours. They are the places where new economic ideas crystallize, where heterogeneous groupings of people learn to co-exist as neighbours, and where democratic experiments emerge to make way for previously excluded social groups to be included as genuine decision-makers. The high density of people in cities facilitates economic growth through better sharing, matching and learning, and as Alfred Marshal famously ^ said, just the sheer concentration of people leads to new Ideas because “ideas are in the air." Not only do cities feature high densities of people, but their high densities also force people of different religions, nationalities, ethnicities and sexual orientations to live and work alongside one another, and in doing so, they get to know “the other,” leading to a cosmopolitan respect for differences. The 2008-2009 Occupy Wall Street protests across cities in the US were a collective uprising by low and middle-class groups to protest against their exclusion from the sharing of urban wealth.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Interestingly, the basic family policy schemes have changed little in the recent past, even after the fall of communism. Indeed, countries introduced paternal leave mainly upon pressure from the European Union and, except for Hungary, the cut support for nurseries so producing further obstacles to the resumption of work among mothers with children under 3 years of age. Sweden has historically encouraged women to work and could rely on a traditionally unified, highly regarded child care system of nurseries with no minimum age requirements.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
It could also extend the use of public-private partnerships (PPPs) for partial or full management of protected areas, including environmental conservation. This would allow the public authorities to shift their attention from direct management to oversight of protected areas, which is less resource intensive, although it would require different staff capacities and skills. While a number of concessions for tourism activities are in place, the first example of a full management contract was concluded in 2015 (Box 5.7).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Responsibilities for addressing climate change are spread across various ministries, but in 2009 the Government Office of Climate Change was set up as a new central state administrative body directly responsible for climate change and for interdepartmental co-ordination of measures and policies. It is currently preparing a Climate Change Act, for adoption by the national assembly in 2011, which will provide for the inclusion of climate change mitigation and adaptation in national and sectoral policies on the basis of vulnerability studies. There is a range of water-related issues connected with tourist activities. These include heat and pollution discharged from swimming pools, the use of water areas for swimming pool facilities, morphological modifications of the coastline, the abstraction of water, drilling for underground water or abstraction of thermal hot water for swimming pools and natural resorts, the release of waste water from tourist facilities and restaurants (exceeding legally defined pollutant limits at releases from industrial facilities), and the abstraction of water for irrigation of non-agricultural land (e.g. for golf courses or artificial snow). The policy also supports the use of public transport.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
It demonstrated the need for member states to continue the implementation of regional legislation on e-transactions, data protection and cybercrime. At the ECOWAS level, the process of harmonization needs to consider all relevant areas, including e-money, online administration and new issues arising from cloud computing ({OECD-WTO aid-for-trade monitoring exercise 2017, Public sector case story 59). With the support of TradeMark East Africa, the Kenya National Chamber of Commerce and Industry has automated the application for and issuance of certificates of origin.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
In 2012 and 2013, we observed how the European Stability Mechanism (ESM) was adjudicated by “EU courts, plural”: a number of high courts of the Member States (among them “Kelsenian” constitutional courts as well as representatives of a more hybrid model of judicial review of constitutionality) and the European Court of Justice (CJEU) were seized by challenges to the mechanism. What attracted attention was the fact that only one court, the Supreme Court of Ireland, decided to submit a preliminary reference to the CJEU, while the other courts, as would appear from their judgments, did not even consider the option. This was a suboptimal example of judicial dialogue in the case of ESM adjudication.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
The result could be social unrest, sexual violence, and increased trafficking of girls and young women. An enabling legal and policy environment has long been identified as critical to improving women’s economic and social outcomes (OECD, 2010a, World Bank, 2011). For example, Tunisia introduced changes to its personal status law in 1993, establishing a minimum age of marriage and assigning men and women mutual obligations - the first country to introduce such reforms in the Middle East and North African region.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
In consultation with NZAid and the Tongan MoE, the IoE designed a study to identify the skills, knowledge and values that enable Pacific peoples to live sustainably in their communities. With IoE as the lead, and involving curriculum writers on the research team itself, the study collected rich data on local concepts of sustainable development and livelihoods, which in turn guided the development of a new national curriculum framework as well as new courses of study for primary schools. Tongan concepts such as poverty, wealth, livelihood and personhood (including the human relationship with the land) differ markedly from their non-Tongan equivalents, and working within such deeply-rooted local concepts was cited as a success factor in the work.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
While the OECD DAC statistical system provides the most consistent source of data on climate-related development finance across bilateral and multilateral providers, some data gaps remain: a) coverage of OOF data, especially from DFIs, is incomplete, and b) there is no clear method to isolate development finance flows that support private sector engagement activities in their entirety. Whilst party reporting is often based on climate-related development finance statistics, not all climate-related development finance is reported as climate finance as some members may apply additional quantitative methodologies to identify climate finance. Hence the two are not directly comparable. To this end, methodologies on specific financial instruments - guarantees, syndicated loans, shares in collective investment vehicles (CIVs), credit line and direct investment in companies -have been piloted and implemented. The OECD DAC is also investigating the suitability of their approach for complex finance structures.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
Although the reliability of this theory as a predictive tool cannot be absolute, analyses of actual sources of cost reduction (as in the IEA Technology Roadmaps publications) show that its foundations are solid (Box 1). For example, Nemet (2006) studied the cost reductions of electricity from crystalline silicon PV modules from 1975 to 2001, and sought to disaggregate historic cost reductions - of factor 20 during this period - into observable technical factors. He identified three major factors of cost reductions from 1980 to 2001: manufacturing plant size, module efficiency and silicon cost. From its academic origin (Arrow, 1962), learning-by-doing is sometimes seen in the very narrow sense of "increased workers' productivity" due to experience, other factors remaining constant.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
In order to better track mainstreaming outcomes, it would be useful to have agri-environmental indicators that are common across countries including indicators that explicitly account for biodiversity. For example, the percentage of forest area under forest management plans varies considerably across the countries examined, ranging from about 10% in Brazil, to 40% in France and Peru, to 100% in India and Myanmar (FAO, 2015). Policy instruments that mainstream and internalise the external costs of biodiversity loss in forestry, so as to reconcile the objectives of forest biodiversity, and the development of forestry as a commercial productive sector are increasingly being adopted. These include community-based forestry, payments for ecosystem services and sustainable timber certification schemes.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
As a result, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action contained an extensive section on women's human rights and declared that "the human rights of women and of the girl-child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights". This violence seriously inhibits women's ability to enjoy rights and freedoms on a basis of equality with men. The adoption of this general recommendation was a critical precursor to the recognition of this issue at the Vienna World Conference.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Proposals for other increases to the duration of schooling - including a lengthened school year and an earlier start to compulsory schooling (at age six) have been discussed, but neither has been implemented. Three options - or their combination - could be adopted to extend compulsory instruction time: an increase in the number of instruction days per year, extending the number of years of compulsory schooling, or an increase in the number of instruction hours per day. For instance, school vacations could be shortened to gain more instruction days a year. Among top PISA 2015 performers, Japan, Korea and Australia have fairly long school years of 190 days or more. This option could be especially attractive for Lithuania for two reasons. First, Lithuania’s instruction year (168 days in lower secondary) is among the shortest in comparison to OECD member countries (on average, 184 days) with frequent interruption for breaks, including almost three-month long summer holidays.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
This argument is spurious because a middle-income country is in a position to address such poverty from its own national income. If the government of a middle-income country chooses not to redistribute national income it should not expect other societies to address the poverty of its people with their own income. In contrast, in an LDC poverty cannot be solved through redistribution: there is not enough national income to redistribute. The quality of policies and institutions is measured annually by the World Bank and published in its highly influential Country Policy and InstitU' tional Assessment (CPIA).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Quality standards, indicators and monitoring frameworks are much less developed in primary care. This may be because hospital-based care is more procedural, and so is more amenable to standardisation and measurement. The strengths of primary care (comprehensiveness, co-ordination and continuity) are harder to define and measure.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
In the post-apartheid higher education system, technological universities have a mandate to undertake applied research. To support R&D and innovation, the CUT has established a number of research centres and developed a Technology Transfer and Innovation Centre, an African Entrepreneurship Centre and an IT Hub with a telecommunications network in Welkom. At the national level, within a relatively short space of time, 152 public colleges were merged to 50 diverse multi-site colleges.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Potential roles for business to support peace in conflict situations have provided a new area for research, sometimes termed peace entrepreneurship, peace through commerce, peace business, or corporate peacemaking. In this essay, the term “business” encompasses microbusinesses, small and medium-size businesses, and transnational corporate social responsibility: applying contact theory and mediation corporations (TNCs). As a key economic actor which impacts national economies, employment, investment, natural resources, and media, business can strengthen structural and cultural peacebuilding for conflict prevention and postconflict reconstruction. The potential also exists for business to support peacemaking under conditions of direct violence. Business can do this by initiating or supporting interventions such as mediation or by providing resources and administrative and logistical support for such interventions.      Keywords:    peace entrepreneurship,  business,  transnational corporations,  mediation,  peacebuilding,  peacemaking,  conflict resolution,  social entrepreneurship,  human rights,  contact theory,  extended contact
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
However, the courses vary in the extent to which they focus on diversity, as well as the resources available for their implementation (European Commission, 2017(152]). Communication and relationships: Developing communication competences for diversity emerges from the capacity of teachers to be empathic and reflexive about their own beliefs, cultural and socioeconomic differences (Rychly and Graves, 2012[,54]). Management and teaching: Teachers should also have relevant management and pedagogical skills to respond adequately to diversity through teaching (Elbers, 2010(154]).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
P4P is typically an add-on payment which promotes evidence-based and preventive services that are linked to specific “targets”. In 2012, nearly two-thirds of OECD countries reported having at least one P4P scheme in place (OECD, 2014). The popularity of P4P schemes also appears to be increasing, the number of countries reporting such schemes also rose between 2008 and 2012.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
The goal is to create at least 100,000 direct jobs by 2015, mainly for women. This example illustrates a non-grid solution to clean energy for the poor, especially powerful because: (i) it is a commercial and microfinance-driven initiative, and (ii) it substitutes kerosene (the usual lighting fuel, held responsible for respiratory diseases) with PV- and biogas-generated electricity. A number of challenges abound. One challenge is the “perverse” pressure of shareholder-value-driven management approaches and unrealistic profit expectations caused by the financialization of non-financial entities.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
By providing extensive and internationally comparable information on students' skills and their family and community backgrounds, PISA offers a unique measure to assess progress towards the SDGs and to analyse inclusion and fairness in education 1 international perspective. In this light, education systems where a large proportion of 15-year-olds has not learned the basic skills needed to fully participate in society are not considered as sufficiently inclusive. First, access to schooling can be seen as a precondition for children to benefit from education. Access is chiefly reflected in school enrolment rates, more equitable and inclusive systems succeed in minimising the share of school-age youth who are not enrolled or are significantly delayed in their progression through school. Using the innovations developed by the most skilled workers requires a workforce that has acquired at least basic skills.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Public action is not sufficient to offset the relatively higher rate of poverty among children. Consumption among children and youth in the region is basically financed through private channels, especially for early childhood. Whereas in the European countries and the United States, about 47% of consumption among children and youth under the age of 24 is publicly financed, in the Latin American countries the government contributes less than 25% of the total, with the remaining 75% provided by the family (Mason and Lee, 2011). In such unequal societies with such divergent fertility patterns between socioeconomic groups, this means that a high proportion of children will not receive adequate investment in their nutritional, health or educational development.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
The strong fiscal dependency of education financing on the central government has exacerbated fiscal sustainability, since the fiscal responsibility for education financing is not linked to the beneficiaries of regional education services. The education financing system in Korea now' encounters a new' paradigm for inclusive grow'th. The new paradigm might be the reform of fiscal decentralisation of the education financing system.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Urban-rural disparity follows the concentration of industries and jobs in higher-skill sectors, which are usually located in urban areas while the majority of the population resides in rural areas depending on agriculture for subsistence (UNDP, 2014). According to the IMF, weakening of macroeconomic indicators including the inflation rate and public deficit have been due to over-optimistic revenue projections and increases in expenditure, as well as a too accommodating monetary policy (IMF, 2016). Apart from the production of oil, the macroeconomic outlook is affected by commodity prices and capital flows, and the risk of too high public expenditures in relation to revenues.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
Packages stress public investment in physical infrastructure but little emphasis on social infrastructure, which has higher concentration of female workers and can help to free women’s time from non-remunerative activities. Moreover, the dominant perception of women as farm helpers and not as main farmers affects the way in which assets, information and productive inputs are directed to farming families. Emphasis should be placed on strengthening the social infrastructure, the provision of care for young children and old persons, health and education services and specific segments of physical infrastructure, such as water and energy supply.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)