albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
As inequalities become wider, marginalized and excluded groups face growing deficiencies in opportunities to expand and apply their capabilities and to influence the institutions and policies that determine the subsequent distribution. Antipoverty programmes have been opposed in some countries because they do not benefit the middle class, an important political constituency.150 One result is that redistribution programmes can have limited coverage among the poorest population and exhibit substantial leakage to the middle class and elites. Some programmes tie eligibility for transfers to employment in the formal sector in order to gain the support of the middle class.151 In Tanzania distributing vouchers for agricultural inputs disproportionately benefited the households of village officials, who received 60 percent of the vouchers.152 These approaches increase political support, but miss those who are most in need of support.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Electronic government is the use of Information and Communication Technology in the transformation of government, primarily aiming to the improvement of accessibility, effectiveness and responsibility. It is based on the diffusion of the information and the information policy development. Electronic government guides to increasing citizens' participation and active citizens' development affecting the mechanisms of democracy. Electronic democracy (e-democracy) includes technological innovations that allow improvement and empowerment of democratic institutions with or without the use of internet. E-democracy aims the production of functional democratic processes like communication, information providing and decision-making after electronic public dialogue and voting. E-democracy is the cornerstone in a social system as citizens can have an active participation in the public issues. This paper describes the electronic government implementations promoting electronic democracy through electronic participation (e-participation) and appearing benefits for the citizens, the enterprises, the public administration and the society.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
It considers the level and distribution of resources within the education system and reviews the main time trends. It analyses the operation of the school grants system and considers both its strengths and challenges. Special attention is paid to incentives for effective use of school funding and the accountability mechanisms in place to achieve it.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Given existing inequalities in health between the native Danish population and some immigrant groups, this additional fee may present an obstacle for some patients, although it is unclear how large a population group would be affected by the measure. The recent reduction in cost-sharing will also help low-income groups improve access to care. That said, cost-sharing remains the most repressive form of financing health systems. International evidence shows that cost sharing applied indiscriminately is a blunt instrument for controlling cost, because it reduces both desirable as undesirable health service utilisation. A starting point would be to review the effectiveness of current exemption policies and monitor health utilisation patters and out-of-pocket expenditure for other vulnerable categorises not currently benefiting from exemptions.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
ABSTRACTIn the United States, constitutional and statutory law reinforce the right of all children to receive an education, regardless of their citizenship or immigration status. In a time of heightened anti-immigrant sentiment and law enforcement, however, partnerships among school districts, local law enforcement, and the U.S. Departments of Justice and Homeland Security subject undocumented and unaccompanied minor students to indefensible levels of risk for detention and deportation. We identify three stances that U.S. schools may take in the face of a potential ‘school-to-deportation pipeline.’ Schools that engage in intentional collaboration actively increase detention and deportation by referring students to immigration officials for criminal, non-criminal, and even non-disciplinary activity. Schools that engage in predictable complicity may not intend to subject their undocumented and unaccompanied minor students to detention or deportation, but still put students at risk by involving police in sch...
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
However, since 2009, the population of most monotowns has risen (if usually at a slower pace than in urban Kazakhstan as a whole), as opposed to the steep demographic decline in the previous decade. Population declined in only 8 of the 27 monotowns in the 2009-2016 period, most dramatically in Serebryansk (which has experienced rapid out-migration) and Zyrianovsk. In the same period, around half of monotowns experienced negative net migrations (i.e. net migration outflows, see Figure 1.31).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
These adoption patterns should offer telecommunication operators some assurance that rural households are a viable market, especially for wireless broadband. Another incentive for using wireless broadband to connect rural communities is that the installation of wireless broadband equipment generally requires less investment than wired infrastructure. To further facilitate the development of wireless broadband, policy-makers should provide incentives for rural deployment.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Increasing wind speeds, the occurrence of stronger, more frequent storms and further expansion of wind turbine deployment could place more pressure on existing infrastructure. This is especially relevant in winter and during the months in autumn and spring when maintenance is usually carried out, because the capacity of the grid is reduced when maintenance occurs. Both cases also identified climate policy to be a concern for distribution companies.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Croatia has adopted an Energy Development Strategy until 2020 with the objective of increasing investments in the construction of energy infrastructure for the next seven years in order to reduce its dependence on energy imports. An environmental impact assessment prepared after mounting pressure from civil society was published in March 2013, and identified potential negative impacts on a large number of cave species. In addition, Croatia is supporting the construction of small hydropower plants of less than five MW on six watercourses.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Employment in agriculture in Chihuahua in 2008 was under 10% of total employment compared to over 20% in 1980 and a national average of 13% (Scott, 2009). In this transition the role of unpaid family labour has declined while part-time paid workers have become more important. Full-time workers are most common on the largest farms.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
In particular, collective bargaining strength in the private sector remains weak. Although the percentage of contracts that are negotiated through collective bargaining has risen since 2001, only 11 percent of all contracts were collectively bargained in 2011. Collective bargaining in Chile has significant levels of decentralization and fragmentation, where negotiation occurs at the level of the firm, but in contrast to similar cases such as in Japan for example, in Chile the coordination is particularly weak.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Lake Lammijarv between Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe and Lake Pihkva is, according to Estonian classification, partly moderate (Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe side), and partly bad (Lake Pihkva side). At the time of the first Assessment (2007), the ecological status of the Narva River was reported as good, and the transboundary impact was assessed to be insignificant. The Lake Peipsi/Chudskoe retains some of the pollution load, which improves water quality in the Narva.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
This shift in the labour intensity of economic growth could be related, among other factors, to the characteristics of foreign direct investment (FDI). In the first phase, FDI focused on acquisitions —often of State-owned enterprises— which resulted in layoffs, while in the second phase the generation of new production capacities (greenfield investment) predominated (ECLAC, 2014a). As a result of these transformations, it was noted that in the recent period of growth, larger enterprises —which are generally more productive and competitive— accounted for an increased share of the employment structure (Wei ler and Kaldewei, 2013: pages 70 and 71). However, it emphasized that these effects were modest and often limited to certain groups of workers.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
The case for undertaking policy analysis has been made by a number of scholars and practitioners. However, there has been much less attention given to how to do policy analysis, what research designs, theories or methods best inform policy analysis. This paper begins by looking at the health policy environment, and some of the challenges to researching this highly complex phenomenon. It focuses on research in middle and low income countries, drawing on some of the frameworks and theories, methodologies and designs that can be used in health policy analysis, giving examples from recent studies. The implications of case studies and of temporality in research design are explored. Attention is drawn to the roles of the policy researcher and the importance of reflexivity and researcher positionality in the research process. The final section explores ways of advancing the field of health policy analysis with recommendations on theory, methodology and researcher reflexivity.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
They need to cope with the emerging challenge of vulnerability to increased frequency and extreme climate events coupled with sea level rise resulting from global climate change. Such challenges are further exacerbated by their geographical isolation within the region, as well as from their main export markets. The small island states have many islands scattered across a large area under their national jurisdiction, with poor domestic transport infrastructure and communication adding to their challenges. Growing population in most countries and increasing emphasis on consumerism has encouraged a focus on economic development goals, with often cursory regard for their impact on the environment or on social equity. The international call for the protection of key species and their habitats is often at odds with the economic development desired by the people to support their needs and aspirations and encouraged by governments. The Pacific leaders have recognised the need to balance conservation for international good and economic development for the benefit of their citizens.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
They include the conditional cash-transfer programmes Bolsa Floresta and Bolsa Verde and the National Plan to Promote the Production Chain of Socio-Biodiversity Products (PNPSB). As Chapter 4 noted, Bolsa Floresta and Bolsa Verde aim at rewarding and improving the quality of life of traditional and poor communities that live from the use of natural resources and are committed to reducing deforestation and using resources sustainably. As many beneficiary families live in protected areas, these programmes contribute to the economic viability of living in such locations.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Median estimates of total system costs show a range of costs of USD 15 per MWh for onshore wind, USD 20 per MWh for solar PV and about USD 25 per MWh for offshore wind at a penetration level of 10%. At 30% penetration level, system costs increase significantly, reaching about USD 25 per MWh for onshore wind and about USD 40 per MWh for solar PV and offshore wind. In comparison, system costs of dispatchable technologies, such as coal, gas, nuclear or hydro, are at least one order of magnitude lower.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Women’s responsibility for social reproduction. Women bear most of the responsibilityforthetime costs of children and an increasing share of the monetary costs, as reflected in rising rates of single motherhood and the lack of public support for chi Id rearing. The United States has a relatively high female labour force participation rate among mothers. About two thirds of women with preschool-aged children and three quarters of those with school-aged children work for pay.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
However, the expected median size increased from 0.5 MW in 2010 to 1 MW in 2015 to 3 MW in 2020. In other words, the Chinese project of 200 MW skewed the mean in IEA/NEA (2015: p. 50). There appear to be many small, “large” PV projects and a few large “large” projects, most of which are being built outside OECD countries.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
For the Chinese, kinship and interpersonal guanxi ties are crucial in financing business start-up, development and growth as well as in developing networks of suppliers and clients. Networking is highly relevant for Chinese students in job search and business start-ups. Since the 1970s, the Government of Malaysia has encouraged their entrepreneurship systematically.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
If well conducted, such a process could in fact be healing and empowering. At a minimum, information on violations (e.g. extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances, torture, deprivation of liberty, GBV, etc.) This is key to determining the gender specificities of human rights violations as well as to giving an accurate account of the particular experience of women, girls, men and boys and to identifying potentially discriminatory practices or targeting (e.g. based on ethnicity, religion, political affiliation, sexual orientation, disability, etc.).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Paints designed to reduce biofouling and agents to clean biofouled materials (e.g. aquaculture nets) are often toxic and harmful to the environment. Marine biotechnology may lead to the development of naturally occurring marine organisms or derivatives that prevent biofouling. Rocks or crustaceans devoid of barnacles and other biofouling, often found in coastal regions, are an obvious source of such organisms.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
In the past, oversized infrastructure generated financial and operational difficulties (see Figure 2.13 below). In certain cases, it would make more economic sense to build a smaller plant than to rehabilitate the existing one. Final Report, OECD, Paris. Operational costs remain high, in part due to inadequacy of oversized infrastructures with declining demand. Tariffs have increased, but remain low in most countries.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
The question remains whether these savings are sufficient and could have been achieved at a lesser cost through a combination of policy instruments, including economic ones. The development of the Smart Water Management in Korea (see Chapter 4) confirms that Korean authorities are looking for alternative options to address water scarcity and flood risks and make the best use of available w'ater and assets, while minimising or postponing investment in additional infrastructure to augment supply. Economic instruments can play an important role and complement the technical fixes used so far in Korean water management.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
Couples living in poverty are thus more likely to divorce than the non-poor. Male unemployment in particular is thought to be a trigger for divorce. More recent work has, however, argued that it is not poverty resulting from male unemployment which leads to divorce. Charles and Stephens (2004) show that divorce increases only after lay-offs and not after plant closures.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
In addition to raising water fees and earmarking the revenue, the law requires departmental and municipal governments to spend a minimum of 1% of their current income to purchase and/or manage lands that protect municipal water sources or for payment for ecosystem services (PES). However, the fees have been set too low to achieve these objectives (Garcia and Calderon, 2013). The fee collection rate has also been a problem, though it improved from 40% in 2007 to 67.5% in 2010.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Several OECD countries have systems in place which contact individuals directly to invite them to screening tests, maintaining contact if further tests are due or if the individual fails to attend. The recent initiative in the Czech Republic to use insurers’ databases as source of demographic information to establish a similar call-recall system is a welcome move and should be closely monitored in terms of its impact. In particular, recent systematic reviews of effective interventions to promote uptake of screening have underlined the strong evidence underpinning one-to-one education (Sabatino et al.,
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
Until 2014, these taxes were at least partially paid by Belarus to the budget of the Russian Federation. In 2014, this practice was discontinued when the Russian Federation partially reallocated the fiscal burden from the export tax on petroleum products to the domestic tax on oil extraction. At present, the Russian Federation considers the cost of export taxes levied by Belarus on petroleum products a subsidy from its budget to that of Belarus (revenue foregone by the Russian Federation but collected by Belarus). This annual subsidy can be estimated to be at least USD 2.1 bln, based on an oil price of USD 45 per barrel (Manenok, 2017).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Its original function was to provide funeral services and to support bereaved family members morally and financially, but its scope is now much wider (Abay, Kahsay and Berhane, 2014). In Lesotho, the cash transfer had no impact on credit, borrowing or debt (Daidone, Davis, Dewbre and Covarrubias, 2014). Also, Paraguay's Tekopara programme had a positive impact on access to credit, but only for the moderately poor, not the extremely poor. Beneficiary households had, on average, 7 percent higher access to credit than non-beneficiary households.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
1. International human rights and the challenge of legitimacy Johan Karlsson Schaffer, Andreas Follesdal and Geir Ulfstein 2. The legitimate authority of international human rights: on the reciprocal legitimation of domestic and international human rights Samantha Besson 3. On the legitimate authority of international human rights bodies Steven Wheatley 4. Equality, human rights, and political legitimacy Kristen Hessler 5. The legitimacy of international interpretive authorities for human rights treaties: an indirect-instrumentalist defence Basak Cali 6. Torture and the politics of legitimation in international law Ian Hurd 7. Legitimacy, institutional power, and international human rights institutions: a conceptual enquiry Lynn Dobson 8. Legitimacy, global governance and human rights institutions: inverting the puzzle Johan Karlsson Schaffer 9. The democratic legitimacy of international human rights conventions: political constitutionalism and the Hirst case Richard Bellamy 10. Much ado about nothing? International judicial review of human rights in well-functioning democracies Andreas Follesdal.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
This chapter focuses on ways in which the police deal with more serious problems, specifically terrorism and organized crime. On first examination, there appear obvious differences between the genres. Whilst terrorism is politically motivated and aims to bring social change using extreme violence against people, locations and events (Hoffman, 2006), the fundamental aim of organized crime is to achieve personal profit. However, on closer inspection some overlap is apparent. Organized crime offenders may engage with terrorists if it adds to the profitability of their actions, whilst terrorists will reciprocate if the liaison either assists their activity or provides them with the necessary illegal goods or services to facilitate their actions. Further, as terrorists and organized crime offenders are sophisticated conscious opponents, and often transnational in nature, they also share operational characteristics, meaning that the law enforcement approach to tackling these crimes also share similarities.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
The creation of non-contributory programmes alongside contributory ones allows for an increase in social protection coverage, notably for health. However, such non-contributory programmes should be designed so as to minimise the disincentives that may arise to work formally. This can be done by enforcing means-tested fees with a subsidy element which decreases as income rises, thus allowing a smooth transition towards the contributory programme. An alternative would be to switch to a universal tax-financed health system, as was done in Brazil.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Flooding may also have a negative impact on tourism infrastructure and increase the cost of operating a tourism business. The spread of diseases such as diarrhoea is at times associated with poor water quality, which may make some places unattractive to potential tourists. Destinations whose attractions rely on substantial water resources will be affected, as well as specific forms of tourism, such as golf tourism or visits to botanical gardens.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
Therefore, total investment is underestimated and certain forms of investment are undervalued in macroeconomic analysis. This can bias macroeconomic policy decisions—for example, when cuts are made to public social expenditures based on the assumption that these are ‘consumption’ items that do not yield future benefits. The policy stances adopted by many countries in recent decades, including tax cuts and trade liberalization, have tended to reduce public revenues relative to the size of the economy, meaning that fewer resources are available to finance government outlays. Given the reduction in government revenues, efforts to control budget deficits have emphasized reductions in spending, with cuts often disproportionately affecting women.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Working Paper, Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. As a statistical system, the DAC uses standard, internationally agreed definitions and reporting categories, from currency conversion rates to types of financial instruments. Activity-level data on financial flows is available in the Creditor Reporting System (CRS) database.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
The FFRMC and LFRMC and the SC annually review and evaluate the progress of the ecosystem based FSRP and recommend any revisions or supplementary items for individual policy. First, while the conventional fisheries management policy does not have a clear goal of stock rebuilding, ecosystem based FSRP specifies the target fish stock recovery in policy. However, the new ecosystem based FSRP premises the voluntary participation of fishermen, allowing fishermen to voluntarily participate in setting up and executing the plan as well as making them responsible for the outcome. But ecosystem based FSRP requires an analysis on a management measures by species of fish, type of fisheries, and sea area before and after an operation so that fisheries management measures can be utilized more effectively. Accordingly, resource management also enforced measures for fishing effort for each fishery and technique restrictions instead of managing individual species separately.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
Its size is calculated to sustain the bank’s operation. At the programme level, MRV is used to evaluate the success of the design in achieving programme objectives and should ideally be undertaken for several elements of an offsets programme, including its ecological, legal and operational, and distributional performance. Regular evaluations informed by MRV may be used to improve a programme design over time. At the project level, the MRV is essential for determining compliance with the conditions of development approval.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)