albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
Some countries have government-mandated quotas for the number of women on boards, on the basis that this is the only way of increasing participation. Others have judged that the quota system is not appropriate and that initiatives of some other type are required. Examples of such initiatives include a requirement for listed firms to publish a board diversity policy, the creation of processes for recruiting women with managerial skills, increased training, education and mentoring for women, and advertising and promotion of these positions (Deloitte, 2011).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Since the beginning of 2000s, various tax reforms have contributed to reducing the labour tax wedge in Denmark. Most recently, in 2012, the earned-income tax credit has been increased. The challenge is to support labour supply as population is ageing and public spending is under pressure. Cutting labour taxes has remained one of the reform priorities for Denmark in successive editions of the OECD Going for Growth report.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
They account for 58% of household income for the lowest income quintile in South Africa, about 20% in Chile and Mexico and almost 15% in Brazil (Figure 2.3, Panel A).8 However, this does not necessarily mean that cash transfers are well targeted because it does not take account of differences in income levels across households. Figure 2.3, Panel B, shows that in the three Latin-American economies, the largest part of expenditure on cash transfers goes to the bottom quintile (over 30%), while in South Africa over 35% of cash transfers go to the second lowest quintile and just about 20% to the bottom quintile. In general, the share of cash transfers going to the top quintile tends to be very small. These programmes are primarily intended to deal with social policy objectives, but may also have important implications for labour market outcomes. Liquidity constraints may affect labour market outcomes in different ways. South Africa: Child Support Grant, Care Dependency Grant, Disability Grants, Old Age Pension.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Rudimentary health care provided by an army of “barefoot doctors” was free to villagers before the economic reforms of the last three decades, with financial support from rural collectives. The rural household responsibility system (family unit-based agricultural production) of the post-reform era eliminated the financial bases for maintaining the services of these rural health-care workers. As a result, rural households now incur greater out-of-pocket expenses for health services (Grigoriou, Guillaumont and Yang, 2005).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Freedom of Information (FOI) laws, which guarantee access to government information, have been hailed for strengthening democratic accountability. By 2008 they had been passed by over seventy countries, including over forty in the developing world. This paper finds that FOI laws also have an economic impact, increasing FDI inflows in developing countries. FOI laws can impact FDI by leading to increased transparency and greater policy credibility. Using a panel study of developing countries from 1985 to 2008, I find that FOI laws increase FDI inflows, but only once in effect for three or more years. I also find that existing institutional quality is an important scope condition: the effect of FOI laws holds only where the rule of law is high. Instrumental variables models confirm the results are not an artifact of endogeneity. These results show that transparency and access to information can have an impact on economic outcomes.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
There are civil movements against pipelines, coal power plants, wind and solar power plants and, especially, nuclear power installation. Italy has phased out nuclear power and Germany, Sweden and Belgium took phase-out decisions at some point in time. An extreme example involves the licensing of the Konrad radioactive waste depository in Germany which took 25 years and included public consultations with almost 289,387 people who formally raised more than 1,000 issues.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Development, Trade, and the WTO: A Handbook, World Bank, Washington, DC. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. Democratising Development: The Politics of Socio'Economic Rights in South Africa, Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden, Boston, 131-149. Capital Market Liberalization and Development, Oxford University Press, New York, 1-47.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Despite progress in the past decade, Mexico has one of the highest child poverty rates in the OECD area, the second highest after Israel. In 2008 more than 1 in 4 Mexican children (25.8%) grew up in households living in relative poverty, conventionally defined as the percentage of the population earning less than half the median income. With children accounting for almost half of all Mexican poor, prolonging their marginalisation is particularly damaging as it increases the risk of a permanent damage, on top of the direct social costs caused by the loss of self-esteem and motivation. The high level of child poverty is also reflected in other standard-of-living indicators, such as child mortality (three times higher than the OECD average), maternal mortality (five times higher), and teenage births (almost four times higher).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Its aim is to represent the interest of women entrepreneurs before national and international organisations and institutions, to reinforce the presence and representation of women within employer organisations and national chambers, and to promote women’s entrepreneurship and the advancement of women-owned enterprises by providing a supportive framework responsive to the specific needs for assistance, training and information for women entrepreneurs. It also showcases the accomplishments of women entrepreneurs and encourages women to consider entrepreneurship as a career option. An innovative way of promoting women-owned enterprises and their products is the CNFCE branding initiative to encourage women entrepreneurs to use the “Made in Tunisia by Women Entrepreneurs” label. Soon after the formation of the Council, the local chambers of commerce within the UAE, including Dubai and Abu Dhabi were encouraged to establish their own Businesswomen’s Committees.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
For example, service integration in the Netherlands helped to bring down deaths from substance abuse. The experience of the Netherlands also gives some insights into treatment approaches for heroin use, including opioid and methadone treatment use (Box 4.4). Areas of focus are addiction to nicotine, alcohol, drugs, and sedatives and tranquilisers.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
Categorising tax-related changes (Table A6) in a similar fashion is less straightforward and was therefore not attempted. For people with short or interrupted employment records, reforms in Finland, France and the United Kingdom tended to make it harder to qualify for unemployment insurance (UI). Most countries also reduced benefit levels, either through discrete policy changes, or by not fully adjusting (“indexing”) benefits in line within-work earnings (Austria, Czech Republic, Finland, Japan, United Kingdom as well as Germany for jobseekers without children).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
The project is huge on several scales: at 4 800 MW, the plant will be the seventh-largest in the world, and the estimated construction costs of USD 17.8 billion is equivalent to 10% of South Africa’s GDP. The electricity from the plant will provide much-needed supply to South Africa’s mining and other industries, as well as generally supporting the quality of supply for household users. And being situated close to large low-cost domestic resources of coal provides a secure supply of fuel. The decision by the South African government to support this project was backed up by the World Bank which is providing just over USD 3 billion of loans, and USD 2.5 billion from the African Development Bank (Sovacool and Rafey, 2011).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
In the case of women, the pattern is reversed with currently married women having the lowest participation rates as a good percentage of them tend to be homemakers instead of in the labour market. Widowed/ divorced women, however, are compelled to get into the labour force for their survival and thus have the highest rates of LFPRs. The decline in the LFPRs of women between 1999-2000 and 2011-2012 was the highest among currently married women. Thereare significant variations in the pattern of women's LFPRs due to changes in age and marital status.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Factors such as family size, whether or not a child lives with both parents, the educational climate at home, ethnicity, geographical area, socioeconomic status, and gender, age, birth-order and other characteristics, provide a full picture of the children's situation and of generally overlooked aspects of child poverty. The drop in total and extreme child poverty levels has also been associated with a lesser intensity of poverty (understood as the number of simultaneous deprivations or violations of basic rights), albeit to differing degrees from one country to another. Whereas an individual analysis of deprivations by dimension is useful for identifying which rights are most breached among children and adolescents in general, a look at those dimensions among the poor or extremely poor specifically helps identify priority areas for the action of social policy and its sectoral components.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
A gradual move towards greater universality may also be desirable in countries where poorer population groups receive relatively small shares of overall benefit expenditures. Another alternative would be to keep mild eligibility conditions in place or have durations of basic income payments capped. A further option could be to introduce it gradually to different groups, such as future cohorts of young adults (OECD, 2017b, Browne and Immervoll, 2017).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Moreover, general medicine specialist training also includes tasks that require a deeper knowledge of common public health issues, mental health included (OECD Mental health questionnaire, 2013). As there is no gatekeeping in primary care to limit the access to specialist (mental) health services, many patients in need of treatment (for severe mental disorders in particular) may seek specialist level care directly. Psychiatric specialist services are mainly provided in psychiatric outpatient wards located in general hospitals.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
This disaggregate analysis highlights the heterogeneity across countries in relation to the role of the scale and intensity effects of emissions due to manufacturing activities. For instance, Figure 3.9 reports that the C02 emission per unit of real value added of many industries tends to decrease when income rises. The industries rubber and plastic, precision instruments, furniture as well as basic metals and chemicals emit high C02 emissions when active in countries at a low stage of development. However, some industries such as food and beverages and textile and wearing apparel exhibit a fairly robust emission pattern without a significant reduction as income rises. Nevertheless, while manufacturing as a whole tends to improve C02 emission intensity, the total growth of emissions could still increase substantially, especially in the middle-income stages due to an increase in output volume (Figure 3.8). The production process within a specific firm involves certain stages in which green technology can, for instance, be implemented to reduce negative emissions.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
This will allow companies to benefit from the scheme without distorting their commercial arrangements in relation to IP. In 2008, the R&D tax credit scheme for SMEs was extended to mid-size companies and the enhanced relief was increased to 175% (for SMEs) and 130% (for large companies) of eligible expenditure. The AmericanRecovery and Reinvestment Tax Actof2009 (P.L. 111-5, February 2009) increased the research credit for energy research and allowed for claiming a refundable credit for certain unused research credits in lieu of depreciation allowance for eligible qualified property. Legislation to extend the R&D tax credit continues to be considered in both chambers of the US Congress.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Traditionally, terrorism and counter-terrorism studies have been highly specialized fields, confined predominantly to the subject areas of political science, international relations and terrorism studies. Astonishingly perhaps, over the last ten years or so, there has been an enormous increase in the number of academics writing about terrorism and counter-terrorism from a wide range of different subject disciplines, including the arts, humanities and social science fields, such as policing studies, sociology, history, criminology, psychology, Islamic studies, religious studies, theology, law, anthropology and philosophy, alongside terrorism, critical terrorism studies, international relations and political science. Added to this, engineering, computer science and other ‘hard’ sciences have also increasingly focused upon questions of national security through developing and testing various new technologies that can be used for surveillance, risk identification and detection among other purposes.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
These figures assume that families register for a place at a municipality-run kindergarten. However, some parents may prefer to use privately-run day care centres if they require longer hours or childcare outside of normal working hours, which are significantly more expensive. The Unemployment Insurance Fund is able to give a childcare allowance of up to €352 per month to those returning to work for the first three months, and then local authorities make a contribution towards the cost (in Tallinn, the municipal contribution is €150 per month).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
Despite the fact that youth in the Million Programme areas live and work in an environment which in many respects is characterised by resignation and alienation, “business” is a widespread subject of conversation and many dream of achieving success through establishing their own business. The YUMP’s long-term objectives are to: 1) empower youth living in the Million Programme areas, 2) build bridges and networks between Swedish industry and the target group, 3) build mutual commercial levers for all parties involved, and 4) create methods and processes which also attract people from outside the Million Programme areas. The pilot project’s short-term objectives are to: 1) identify channels of communication with the target group to capture their interest and create a dialogue about entrepreneurship, 2) verify and develop an attractive process and pedagogy for the target group, and 3) point out to Swedish industry' the entrepreneurial power to be found within the target group and work for their desire to involve themselves.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Despite the theoretical distinctions, the practical implications of using one or the other dominate. Income is easier to measure when there are few sources of income and when income from those sources is recorded for administrative purposes, such as taxation or payroll contributions. Income information is also cheaper to collect in those settings, allowing for larger sample sizes and more precise measurement. For example, Atkinson, Cantillon, Marlier and Nolan (2002) interpret the US moving from different poverty lines for men and women to a common poverty line as a move from a standard of living to a rights approach. Whether income or expenditure data are used, if there are economies of scale in consumption, individuals in larger households will have their needs better met by the same level of income or consumption than individuals in smaller households. For this reason, equivalence scales are used, which count the number of "adult equivalents" (often male) in a household.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
However, buying urban and peri-urban property (housing land lots and flats) is an attractive investment for those who work abroad. Flat sales in Chisinau are growing 8% annually.64 This means that there is a growing demand for housing in the capital and in the immediate vicinities. However, the land is not yet used intensively. Chisinau, like most Moldovan cities, still has a lot of available land in developed blocks and some abandoned land lots. This non-intensive urban land use situation currently provides an opportunity for replacing, upgrading, and developing the physical infrastructure (e.g., utilities, transport), which is needed due to the growing demand for housing. With new constructions and land acquisition progressing, there is a need to have adequate spatial development plans in place.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Heat energy consumption by industry sector has been fluctuating in the period 2010-2014, w'hile household heat consumption increased almost tenfold in 2014 over the previous year (table 11.7). The biggest gain in energy consumption was seen in the transport sector, where energy consumption increased almost threefold since 2005 and equated to 118 ktoe in 2013 (table 11.8). The increased number of old, inefficient vehicles in Tajikistan accounts for the increase in total final energy consumption levels by the transport sector from 2005 onwards.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
The result is a fragmentation of programmes that lack critical mass, synergies and complementarities. In fact the dilution of governance responsibilities and the gap between the formal responsibilities entrusted to CONCYTEC by the 2004 S&T Law and its ability to carry them out call for a new institutional framework and possibly new legislation. The reform process should not jeopardise efficiently managed support programmes. Given the potential volatility of revenues derived from its traditional exports in an increasingly global competitive environment, an overarching objective for Peru should be to lose no time in moving towards a more innovation-led sustainable growth path in order to increase productivity and competitiveness across a wider spectrum of activities, alleviate poverty and better address social needs.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Many women left the smaller fishing towns for a more diversified labour market and career opportunities in the capital region and regional centres (Julmsdottir et al. This lead to an increased number of foreigners (mainly young women from Scandinavia and Northern Europe) working seasonal jobs in the countryside. In their study of women having chosen to remain in the small community Husavi'k, Karlsdottir and Ingolfsdottir (2011) emphasise that many of the women who were willing to adapt to the changing labour market have found employment in the tourist industry.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
A meaningful interpretation of the relationship of EP to economic DF will require additional information. Also, the relationship between economic DF and EP, more often than not, is complex. Most DF have multiple environmental effects, and most EP are generated by multiple DF, which, in turn, are affected by societal responses. Changes in decoupling may thus be decomposed in a number of intermediate steps.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
Hence, a differentiation at zone level will not adequately internalise the environmental impact, and therefore charges should be differentiated to reflect this variation. Reflecting such changes in the value of w'ater (environmental or opportunity costs of using w'ater) can drive private investment in water storage. An example from the UK (see Annex 3.A2) provides some guidance on how to incorporate such variations in the value of water. In practice, most OECD countries consider that seasonal variations in abstraction charges add a lot of complexities and seldom use them.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
The remainder of the chapter is devoted to reporting some of the findings of this new database, notably estimates of the overall global value of the ocean economy on the basis of the ocean industries selected, approximate employment levels in the different industries, and a breakdown by sector and broad geographic regions. It consists of 169 coastal countries and aims to improve the coherency and consistency of the assumptions, indicators and measurement methods used to estimate the size of the ocean economy. The database draws heavily on UN and OECD sources to collect industry-specific data on physical capital stock, employment and value added for those ocean-based industries defined in ISIC Rev.3 (International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities). Where official data were patchy, proxies were used based on national reports and secondary sources (for details on the methodology, see OECD, forthcoming).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
At the same time, policy decisions tended to place a greater emphasis on achieving fiscal balance, and much less than in the past on other macroeconomic or development needs. The general tendency to reduce the role of the State in the economy meant that whenever budgetary adjustment was considered necessary, it was sought through spending cuts rather than by raising additional revenue. These institutions also emphasized the need to strengthen the financial position of the public sector and reduce government interference in the allocation of resources (TDR 2006, chap. It argues that more progressive taxation can help to reduce inequality in the distribution of income and wealth without curtailing incentives to undertake investment in fixed capital, innovation and skills acquisition.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Nuclear energy as a provider of dispatchable back-up capacity has a lot to gain from electricity markets that allocate the costs and benefits of electricity production at the system level in a more precise manner. In liberalised markets, however, their integration represents a challenge as they are not yet competitive against conventional sources of energy. A broad array of quantity- or price-based support mechanisms (IEA, 2008) have therefore been put in place in OECD countries to make renewable energies attractive for private investors by isolating the investment decisions regarding renewable energies from the conditions prevailing in electricity markets.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
They are more promising approaches to the subsidising of contribution-based systems for informal workers than standard tools (tax deductions or tax credits) because the latter do not reach most informal workers. However, the available evidence from Mexico indicates that take-up rates have so far been low (Ferreira and Robalino, 2010). A similar scheme, the West Bengal Provident Fund, operates in the state of West Bengal in India.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
As in most developmental endeavours, this strategy is being implemented in partnership with international institutions. An example is the goal of the African Union/New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) initiatives to bridge the educational gap in collaboration with UNESCO and other international donors. Other priorities of AU/NEPAD's Programme of Action include reversing the brain drain and up-scaling Africa's use of science and technology to promote development by expanding education in those fields.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)