albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
This may be because the private benefits to firms acting alone were insufficient (whereas the recognition of social benefits makes the actions cost-effective), or because of too high a degree of uncertainty. There may also be a role for public involvement in R&D that will lead to applications with both private and social returns, but which may not otherwise be undertaken without public sector involvement. R&D will be especially important for progress in attaining energy efficiency in agriculture w'hen applied to systems involved in the production process, operational activity and capital goods or farm infrastructure engaged in production. Also, a prudent R&D portfolio includes high risk, potentially high payoff projects, along with those involving lower-risk, incremental improvements.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
In many years, it has been nearly double the national average rate. Youth have also been strongly affected by the growing incidence of non-regular forms of work. Freeter status, avoiding commitment to a stable job in the 1980s, was often seen as a choice of lifestyle, but more recently attention has focused on the problems of freeters who are unable to find a permanent job. In order to support young unemployed and freeters who wish to be employed as regular workers, special counters have been established at Hello Work offices to support the search for regular employment by holding seminars and joint-recruitment events, one-to-one consultations and guidance by full-time staff, exploring job offers and placement services, and guidance on adaptation to workplaces after being employed. In addition, Job Cafes - one-stop-service centres for young people - were established in 2003 to provide integrated counselling, training and guidance services (see Box 3.2).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
Civil society organisations should be actively involved in decision-making processes, for example, by participating in advisory bodies that are regularly consulted by the government. New' institutions and mechanisms for civic participation and social consensus - including new communication channels - need to be established to expand opportunities for engagement. Creating an enabling environment may require lowering barriers (e.g. distance, time, language, access) for those who wish to participate, and increasing incentives for those who are “unwilling to participate”. Accountability can be defined as an obligation to demonstrate that work has been conducted in compliance with agreed rules and standards or to report fairly and accurately on performance results vis-a-vis mandated roles and/or plans.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Transcalar approaches also need to be considered when identifying the “right” scale for stakeholder engagement as they can challenge the usual conception of levels of governance and governments and shed light on stakeholders that are active alternatively at different scales. As a result, it can contribute to making stakeholder engagement more inclusive and implemented at the relevant scale so it effectively contributes to formulating sustainable water policies and projects. But mappings are specific to given places and times, across which targets change and adapt. Such exercises should therefore be iterative, transparent, regularly assessed and adjusted each time targets change to allow actors to leave, and new ones to join, including from outside the water sector. Therefore, formulating rules on how to ascertain that engagement processes remain “fit-for-target” is important to guide decision making and implementation (Figure 3.16). Similarly, the Swiss private bank Pictet Asset Management has financed activities in water reuse and recycling, smart water grids, storm water management and decentralised integrated systems such as rainwater harvesting.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
These changes in purchasing and consumption patterns are occurring in smaller cities and towns as well as the largest cities. Through their research and marketing efforts, food companies, of course, are shaping as well as responding to these demands. This transition corresponds closely to rises in income and the structural transformation of the food system, as seen primarily in industrialized and middle-income countries. Popkin, Adair and Ng (2012, p. 3) describe this phenomenon as "the primary mismatch between human biology and modern society". Awareness of these characteristics and the key actors who shape food systems will help identify where to intervene and what to do to create systems that help achieve good nutrition. Figure 1 provides a schematic overview of the elements of food systems and the broader economic, social, cultural and physical environment within which they operate.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
This is due to the inelasticity of demand for electricity, itself due to the inability to store electricity and its character of an essential commodity. Even slight overcapacity will thus lead to very low prices, whereas under-capacity can lead to very high prices limited only by what is called the value-of-lost-load (VOLL), the cost of a shortfall of electricity to consumers, measured in the 1 000s of dollars. These asymmetric incentives create a tendency for private investors to under-provide capacity. The future might may hold even greater challenges for power sector investment at least in Europe (UCTE, 2005, p. 7). However, in recent years they were further increased by the following two factors: market liberalisation and unstable regulatory framework conditions.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Some adult members of the community, particularly, though not exclusively, in Malawi, perceive a father's interest in his daughter's life as a sign of him harbouring incestuous feelings toward his daughter. Fathers tend to distance themselves from their daughters when they reach adolescence in order to avoid such accusations. Humiliation and shame were experienced particularly acutely due to the strain that poverty placed on these women's family relations. Lone mothers reported being insulted by family members, being made to feel a burden and in some cases abused, all of which undermined their self-esteem. Moreover, the consequent loss of standing in the community, coupled with an inability to provide for their children, further eroded their sense of dignity. This reduces parental ability to fulfil parenting aspirations both for young children (Bray & Brandt, 2007) and for adolescents (Bray, 2009, Bray, 2014, cited in Posel & Ross, 2014).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
This chapter describes the theories and analytic methods associated with Social Network Analysis (SNA), and considers the application of SNA in educational policy research. SNA is based upon an understanding that individuals in a social system are interdependent and that these underlying relationships shape opportunities and outcomes in ways that require distinct analytic techniques. In education, SNA remains an extremely powerful yet underutilized methodological approach. The chapter begins by providing detailed information regarding collecting and analyzing social network data. The chapter next discusses common theoretical lenses used in SNA studies, highlights SNA research in education and in education policy, especially around policy advocacy and policy implementation, and provides guidance to educational policy scholars as they consider ways to use SNA in their future work.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Firms can work with each other to demonstrate the benefits of participation and encourage new training places. Furthermore, such networks can give rise to other benefits which may occur through knowledge exchange, including innovation and improved production techniques. In many cases, public actors need to convince SMEs of the "business case” for changing prevailing practices, which may encourage low-quality working conditions. In Northern Ireland, a skills solution service has been established consisting of a small team of trained “skills advisors”.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
The data disseminated in these types of products can be detailed, organized in large tables and often are presented as absolute values or raw data that give specialists more flexibility in doing their own analysis. A gender perspective can be integrated into these products through the systematic sex-disaggregation of data and the systematic coverage of data needed to address gender issues. Data and other information may be compiled from more than one source and different statistical fields may be covered.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
But some of the success has been due to ‘one-off factors such as the ‘dash for gas’, reductions in non-C02 greenhouse gases in the 1990s and the recent recession, rather than explicit climate-change policies. The pace of decarbonisation of the power sector has been slow and the spread of renewable energy technologies limited. Implicit carbon prices vary across sectors, and should be harmonized to increase the cost efficiency of policy. The unevenness partly reflects the way in which policies have proliferated and overlap and a simplified structure would be desirable.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
This value is lower than one as farmers increase their input use due to the reduced fertiliser prices and as larger fertiliser quantities incur increasing production costs for this input. In this case, a dollar of input subsidies would result in a cost reduction for farm inputs of only 0.42 dollars (Figure 22). This is partly caused by the fact that relative to the fertiliser price, a given subsidy value is smaller under imperfect competition as the price includes the producers’ mark-up and is hence higher than under perfect competition.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
A national emission standard has been adopted for thermal power plants (MNS 6298:2011). In practice, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism does not issue permits for air pollution and payments for emission of air pollutants are not paid by major emission sources, such as thermal power plants, given that appropriate instruments for measuring and monitoring the emissions are lacking (chapter 3). For drilling a borehole or digging a well or channel, the prospective water user must submit an application to the aimag (or capital city) environmental authority', which registers the well or borehole and issues the permit. In January 2017, EITI Mongolia passed its international validation but was given one year to satisfy certain requirements that were deemed unsatisfactory, notably on data quality and assurance. Nonetheless, EITI Mongolia is an important and independent source of information and provides a degree of transparency in a sector in which public confidence is lacking.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
Vulnerable employment within the South-East Asia and the Pacific region remains a signficant challenge, and although progress has been made to reduce working poverty, this decline has slowed considerably in recent years (between 2008 -11). The Asian regions have therefore accounted for all of the catch-up in levels of labour productivity between thedeveloping and developed regions between 1991 and 2011. This, in turn, was driven largely by productivity growth in East Asia, where output per worker stood at 20 per cent of the level in the developed economies in 2011, against only 6 per cent in 1991.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
The Congressional Budget Office projects these changes in Title 1 will reduce outlays by USD 6 billion (nominal USD), or 25%, over the projected costs of continuing current commodity programmes. New US farm legislation in 2014 (cont.) Producers of covered commodities (wheat, feed grains, rice, oilseeds, peanuts and pulses) may choose to participate in either, but not both programmes, for the life of the 2014 Farm Act.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
Educational leadership has paid significant attention to educational research over the past two decades. In Hong Kong, education centres are encountering both opportunities and challenges due to the globalisation, knowledge economy, demographic changes, international higher education development, local educational reform and global culture diversity characterising the new millennium. An appropriate leadership style ensures that Hong Kong education centres achieve quality, accountability and market competitiveness. Based on Fullan's (1999) work, in this study, we present a real-world case study of the changes sustained by a Hong Kong education centre. In particular, we focus on the ongoing changes (i.e., initiation, implementation and institutionalisation) in this centre under transformational leadership over a period of about five years to observe and examine the effectiveness and suitability of the leadership model. This study is designed to analyse the centre's management and changes under transformational leadership. The centre achieves sustainable competitive advantages in the new century.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Many countries listed in the OECD database on fertiliser and biofuel also apply import tariffs on different categories of fertilisers. It focuses on policies supporting the production or use of fertilisers, but excludes regulatory measures related to the abovementioned environmental or consumer safety concerns. Consequently, for 15 of these the database shows no policy measure at all for fertilisers.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
Economic activities depending on water will be adversely affected. This, in turn, will exacerbate the already demanding challenge of balancing competing demands among different uses — navigation, hydropower generation, agriculture, industry, tourism/recreation, etc. — Additional attention should be given to water resources in such a changing environment, so as to ensure the functioning of ecosystems and the preservation of the natural capital.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
Meat tariffs are 31%, while those for dairy products are 36%. Applied tariffs on a number of commodities were lowered during the prices spikes after 2008. The impacts of these bans are evident in the charts of Box 2.2. They indicate a calibrated trade policy designed to stabilise prices in domestic Indian markets. In addition to these, some nontariff barriers also exist, such as sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures which may affect India’s trade.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
The process of choosing a hypothetical scenario (“counterfactual”), a core principle of impact evaluation, can be technically difficult, data-intensive and subject to significant uncertainties (see e.g. Clapp and Prag, 2012). Without meaningful baselines or counterfactuals, however, it is difficult to assess the causal relationship between the observed impacts and the goals of a specific intervention. This is especially relevant for indicators used to compare interventions or that are aggregated for tracking and reporting at larger scales, since data collected using dissimilar or vague indicators may not be comparable.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
Within water investments in 2010, 47% went on water treatment (USD 121 million), 41% on wastewater treatment (USD 105 million) and 12% on smart water and smart infrastructure (USD 31 million). Between 2006 to 2010 “smart technology ” accounted for 11% of total CleanTech venture capital funding (USD 3 910 million out of USD 35 210 million) with 2% of this going on Smart Water (USD 80 million). Smart w ater systems accounted for approximately 0.5-0.9% of the global water hardware market in 2010 and look set to account for 2.9-9.4% of the market by 2020.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
Little evidence is available on whether changing global rules so as to promote human rights can enhance development outcomes. The Convention on the Rights of the Child was almost universally ratified by the mid-1990s, but it is unclear whether treaty ratification was associated with better or wider protection of childrens rights. This paper uses an instrumental variable approach to investigate whether treaty ratification was associated with stronger effort at the country level on child survival, and particularly with higher rates of immunization coverage. The paper finds that ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child was correlated with a subsequent increase in immunization rates, but only in upper middle and high-income countries. Treaties can promote development outcomes, but require institutional support to do so.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
To measure job quality, each job is assigned a value, based on the occupational median wages, by linking external information on wages estimated from different data sources. Two external data sources were used to estimate median wages for jobs. It collects information from enterprises with at least ten employees operating in all areas of the economy except public administration (and, in some countries, also the education and health care sectors). At the time of writing, the SES data are available for only two reference years: 2002 and 2006. For sectors not covered by the SES, the median wage is supplemented by data from the European Survey of Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Partial information is available on infrastructure needs and on the costs of water resources management. In the OECD and Big 5 economies annual expenditures in the range of USD 770 billion are projected up to 2015 and over USD 1 trillion by 2025 (see OECD, 2006)!. Not least in OECD countries, environmental pressures will continue to grow, as will the expectations of the general public with respect to environmental protection and natural resource management. These factors are expected to add significantly to the costs incurred in the supply of water services and wastewater treatment.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
Ultimately, it is hoped that this initiative will help increase the number of Arab countries adopting and integrating protocols for the prevention of and protection from all discriminatory or harmful practices, including those manifested in child marriage, into their respective policies and programs, in line with the requirements of international instruments. Desk research consisted of a thorough examination of available literature (both analytical and programmatic reports) on relevant issues, especially those related to child, early, and forced marriage, refugees and humanitarian assistance, girls’ rights, and conflict across the Arab region. Research also included a review of related national laws relevant to marriage and pertaining to refugees in both sending and receiving countries, and corresponding international conventions and agreements on child marriage and the rights of female refugees and IDPs. Human Rights Watch, Save the Children, UNFPA, and UNHCR.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
First, these industries do not require high levels of technologies and skills, therefore, entry into such industries is easier. Second, even in low- and middle-income countries, demand for these consumption goods is high because they satisfy fundamental human needs. Third, the existence of preferential market access schemes (a generalised system of preferences and duty-free, quota-free access for least developed countries) provide ready access to large consumer markets if rules of origin and other non-tariff measures can be successfully navigated.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
First, it can offer engineering advice and powerful platform scalability to optimise the functionality of an NGO’s specific skills and focus. It can also help facilitate the rollout of reporting applications and functionalities that can be used for analysis and enforcement. Willing host nations can thus be introduced to a rich source of immediately available information that is far more accessible than in the past.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Micro-data, on the other hand, tend to indicate that owning a home makes people more likely to be employed than when renting, thereby pointing at a positive effect at the individual level. Recent research highlights the role of negative externalities in explaining these contradicting findings (Isebaert et al., Given the severe contraction in the housing market, the potential magnitude of this problem is significant.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
ABSTRACTEconomic globalization and, in particular, foreign direct investment (FDI) have often been considered to be catalysts for economic reform and political liberalization. It is argued that openness to foreign investment spurs democratization by empowering pro-liberalization actors and undermining elite cohesion. This article explores and tests three alternative hypotheses linking FDI and autocratic regime survival. The liberalization hypothesis claims that FDI promotes democratization. The state-capture hypothesis suggests that FDI, by increasing the value of power, may raise the risk of an autocratic transition. Lastly, the stabilization hypothesis, contrary to the first two, claims that FDI can enhance dictatorships’ stability by opening new opportunities for distributing benefits to regime elites. The empirical analysis, covering about 100 countries for the time period 1970–2008, uses data on autocratic breakdowns and transition types to test the above hypotheses. The reported evidence does not su...
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
In India, for example, the Bangalore Electricity Supply Company allows customers with no arrears on electricity bills to purchase Compact Fluorescent Light (CFL) bulbs from approved retailers, either via direct purchase at a discounted price or via payment in instalments over 9 months through electricity bills (Arquit Niederberger, 2008). In Mauritius, the Central Electricity Board provides CFLs at half price, supported by a government grant under the Maurice Isle Durable programme. Decoupling reverses that logic by providing an incentive for utilities to promote EE.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
While some causal links are identified and highlighted as important, relevant constraints are sometimes not extensively discussed, and few concrete policy options to act on those links are provided. Going forward, it would be important to assess whether the messages contained in UN flagship reports adequately reflect the state of scientific knowledge and the lessons learnt from development programs that focus on education in relation to specific SDGs. The systematic analysis provided here can offer a basis for an integrated analysis of policy priorities for education as a whole.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
There is some variation across countries in the extent of the decline. Notably, Germany has managed to buck the relative fall in output experienced elsewhere, but even there the employment share has still fallen. On average across the OECD, the share of workers in low-skilled and high-skilled occupations rose by 2.5 and 4.3 percentage points respectively between 1995 and 2015.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
This suggests that there is scope to raise more tax revenues to meet growing public spending needs in education and health. To change this, the government has introduced a tax reform aimed at increasing general government revenues by 3 percentage points of GDP over the period 2015-2018 (Box 2). The tax reform will reduce inequality as more than 75 % of revenue increase will come from higher taxes on the top 1% (World Bank, 2015), eliminating tax expenditures and fighting tax evasion and avoidance. In practice, evasion and avoidance by the top income earners is a significant contributor to the low impact of income taxes (Fairfield and Jorrat, 2014).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)