albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
The shortage of cold and dry storage facilities is partially responsible for high post-harvest losses related to spoilage, together with low quality packing and inefficient handling and transport. The lack of high-quality warehousing limits bulking which would enable contracts with larger buyers and improve negotiating capacity. However, controlled temperature storage is among the most energy-intensive activities in the agro-food industry. In many rural areas reliable connection to the national grid is economically and logistically unfeasible, so that farmers need to resort to decentralised power production, based on renewable energy, fossil fuel or hybrid systems. Rising energy prices have a significant impact on production costs. This is both a matter of increasing agricultural yields during the main harvest season and through improved possibilities for year-round cultivation, but also opening up previously barren lands for cultivation.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. Similar to the private sector, the gender pay gap in the public sector is lower for younger workers and is higher at the upper end of the income distribution. Evidence suggests that governments that have taken proactive measures to ensure equal opportunity and gender balance are making progress in closing gender-representation gaps in the public sector. Persistent gaps remain in access to childcare and elderly care support.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
The immense power consumption is mainly the result of the proof-of-work (PoW) consensus mechanism. This consensus algorithm requires high computational power to solve a mathematical puzzle in order to validate transactions, while many computers compete with each other in order to solve the puzzle and extend the blockchain with new blocks. The decentralised approach to validating transactions and amending new blocks to the blockchain allows for resilience and immutability, yet, coming at the cost of high resource intensity.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
However, there is heterogeneity within the group of CDDCs. For example, small island developing States (SIDS) that are commodity dependent are even more vulnerable than some of the others. Due to their geographical location, for instance, these countries are confronted with the risk of rising sea levels and declining revenues from fisheries as global warming reduces fish production.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
Donors should see their role not as experts bringing solutions, nor as politically neutral ‘partners’, but as convenors, facilitators and politically aware contributors to serious debate” (Unsworth, 2009). While donors may wish to support civil society to provide evidence on government performance, such support must be based on a concept of empowerment rather than on “instrumental extraction of information from the poor” (Eurodad, 2006). Support to civil society must be designed so that donor procedural and reporting requirements do not undermine the capacity of citizen’s groups to collaborate according to their own agendas and for that reason donors should be cautious in funding social movements (Good Practice Note 8. Working with social movements).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Relevant negotiations to operationalize the Paris Agreement are planned to conclude at the twenty-fourth session of the Conference of the Parties (December 2018). This outcome is expected to provide modalities, procedures and guidelines which will define new data and reporting requirements under the Paris Agreement. There are a total of 49 indicators, 34 are core indicators, and an additional 15 indicators have been identified as "stepping stones" for future work.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
Travel and tourism account for 8 percent of GDP, and agriculture (including forestry) for 10.7 percent. Deforestation rates averaged 1.43 percent per year from 1990-2000 and 1 percent per year from 2000-2010. It is estimated that about 35 percent of tree cutting is illegal, used mostly in small sawmills and by households. The plan states that forests have three purposes: (i) climate change mitigation and adaptation, (ii) conservation and sustainable use of forests and biodiversity, maintaining forest cover at 32 percent (of which 29 percent under natural forest and 3 percent under plantation), and (iii) water resource protection.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Formularies are defined for each level of care. In the free-choice option plan, patients have to pay the full cost of pharmaceuticals, except for medicines considered in the Payment Associated to Diagnostic Program (PAD). Patients insured in the private system Isapres pay the full costs of medicines used in ambulatory care. On average, patients in the Isapres system had co-payments of 20% in 2010 for pharmaceuticals.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
By 1996, these measures had increased the share of the private sector in total investment to more than 50 per cent. The tertiary sector has generated most of the economic growth experienced since 1990, essentially due to the strong performance of tourism, which has also fuelled the growth of transport, construction, banking and insurance. This has allowed the achievement of free, universal and compulsory schooling for at least six years. This led to employment creation and high GDP growth rates, resulting in tourism overtaking fisheries as the largest sector in 1985 and contributing more than two thirds of GDP by 2013. The growth of tourism has been driven in part by the foreign private sector, with the support of government incentives and strategies, and facilitated by the absence of taxes and low rents.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Most countries rely on their coastal resources for tourism dollars, which in 2003 contributed about US$1 billion, or about 5 per cent of the region's GDP. Pelagic tuna-based offshore fisheries contribute about 11 per cent of the gross domestic product of all PICs (Gillet et al., On the other hand, coastal resources are the cornerstone of subsistence and domestic economic activities, contributing about 15 per cent of the region's GDP. Many PICs are also highly prone to natural disasters, such as cyclones, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
While biofuel use has rapidly increased in the last few years, Portugal is still far from meeting this target. Using biofuels remains more expensive than other GHG abatement options and requires subsidies adding further pressures to the government budget. Portugal should continuously assess its biofuel policy, taking full account of impacts on land use, agricultural input use, water quality and biodiversity.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
This chain of co-ordination and co-operation between agents can, if measures are taken, minimise risks (and associated costs) and maximise the value, reliability and speed of the supply. This restricts opportunities to harvest the abundance of tropical fruit in Seychelles and reduces farmers’ ability to sell surplus fruit to hotels and restaurants. To buy locally would be a dream’ — unequivocal support and preference for local produce over imported goods was clearly expressed by the hoteliers interviewed, so long as the supply was consistent.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
In the latter, the mayor took a progressive stance to locate high quality transport and cultural amenities in the poorest neighbourhoods. Consequently, new urban policies are needed to harness the benefits that arise from different groups of people living in close proximity to one another, rather than letting these heterogeneous urban conditions combust into intolerance, xenophobia and widening inequalities. In other words, the heterogeneity, density and diversity of cities, which is what makes them nodes of economic innovation and democratic progress, must be managed and planned, short of which these very variables that make successful cities can transform them into places of social exclusion and inequality.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Opening up the telecommunications network to private providers can increase competition, potentially reducing costs and improving service quality. Liberalisation of the telecommunications sector, opening mobile and internet markets to competition and establishing independent regulation can help to sustain and accelerate private sector-led economic growth (World Bank, 2015b). The 2011 events and aftermath heightened the many challenges faced by the Libyan labour market. These include overemployment in the bloated public sector, high unemployment - especially among youth and w'omen - low job creation, w'eak social protection and a lack of social dialogue. Libya’s resource curse further distorts the labour market and prevents it from functioning properly.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
The effective number of days a worker is entitled to may also depend on the worker's situation and status. Self-employed workers are excluded, since the concept of paid leave does not make sense in their case. Other forms of paid leave, which are not considered annual leave, include public holidays, sick leave, weekly rest and maternity and parental leave. Annual leave: defined with respect to national practices.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
This may differ from national definitions which use different hours thresholds. Part-time work is also further disaggregated into part-time temporary and part-time permanent jobs when the data is available. Permanent full-time employment remains nonetheless the norm in a majority of OECD countries, although there is substantial diversity across countries.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
This strategic mechanism can be further developed to create domestic demand. Various factors need to be addressed for public procurement to have the intended effect on local enterprises regarding demand (UNCTAD and BMZ, forthcoming). As noted in the Industrial Policy Action Plan of South Africa: “Much public procurement is currently conducted on an ad hoc rather than strategic basis and does not deliver adequately on either value-for-money or key industrial policy objectives” (South Africa, Department of Trade and Industry, 2010: 33).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Nonetheless, not all countries had enough room in their budgets to do so. Thus, the increase of public expenditure provoked large fiscal deficits which in turn led to large increases in public debt. As a result, the crisis soon evolved from a Financial to a Sovereign Debt Crisis in a number of countries.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
The Centres promote the introduction and spread of innovations throughout the agricultural sector. They train and educate small farmers in business and cultivation methods and help the farmers to organise themselves to set up start-ups, co-operatives and create partnerships with the private sector. The CGIAR partnership includes 15 Research Centres across the world hosting more than 8 000 scientists, researchers, technicians, and other staff.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
The empirical model tests the hypotheses and the model is mainly derived by Fredriksen (2013), where a particular type of spending is expressed as a function of a matrix of control variables and institutional variables. Following are the hypotheses to be tested. Pooled OLS estimation is used as the main statistical analysis tool.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Other programmes, such as health and nutrition interventions by Guatemala's Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama (INCAP), have even had positive impacts on the educational outcomes of targeted children (Maluccio and others, 2006, Hoddinott and Bassett, 2008). One example is the Food and Nutrition Security System (SISAN), created in Brazil in 2006, which coordinates several programmes aimed at reducing food insecurity (Robles and Mirosevic, 2013). Haiti has also made strides concerning feeding, with its National Plan for Food and Nutrition Security and the National School Meals Programme.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Even taking account of successive changes to the LDC criteria (as shown in box figure 1.1 of chapter 1), and the absence of provisions for graduation until 1991, this indicates very limited progress towards graduation. It also suggests that neither the domestic policy efforts of LDCs nor the international support measures (ISMs) established to support them have had a decisive effect in improving their development prospects. This chapter addresses the national dimension of this issue, focusing on the processes by which LDCs can emerge from the underdevelopment discussed in chapter 1 and progress towards graduation. Section C analyses the role of geographical factors in influencing graduation performance.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
In households with two parents, mothers spend about twice as much time caring for children as fathers, whether they work for pay or not (Parker and Wang 2013). Though most children live with both parents, an increasing proportion live with lone mothers. In 2012,24.4 per cent of children younger than 18 lived in lone mother households, up from 11 per cent in 1970.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
In other words, conventional producers can produce or not produce, have high or low costs, they will never affect the renewable producer who will generate electricity as a function of the weather but regardless of market conditions. Such lack of a feedback mechanism, however, is the defining hallmark of a true, technical externality that does constitute an economically suboptimal situation. In particular, the current situation will lead to underinvestment in dispatchable technologies and thus increase security of supply risks at times of low renewable production due to unfavourable meteorological conditions.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
It is important for the owner of the node to have full control, especially if multiple nodes of the same blockchain network are hosted at the same cloud provider. As with cloud hosting, the control of the node needs to be completely with the owning entity. All transactions are related to coin movements and data is added to those coins to enable additional functionality.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Declining oil revenue and a further cut in corporate income tax rates constrained revenue collection. For South-East Asia, total tax revenues as a share of GDP ranged between 12.4% in Indonesia and 19.6% in Thailand in 2013.20 While the “optimum” tax-to-GDP ratio would depend on a number of factors - such as a country’s preference for public goods, the availability of non-tax revenues and the structural characteristics of the economy - by all accounts, there seems to be room for increasing tax revenues in a number of countries. For instance, it was found in a study that Indonesia’s potential tax-to-GDP ratio is approximately 4-5 percentage points higher than the actual level (ESCAP, 2014a).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
The existing shape of the Latvian workforce, which is set out in Chapter 1, presents a number of challenges, including the geographic distribution of health professionals, the ageing workforce, the challenge of low' salaries and out-migration of health professionals, and of the need for the workforce to adapt to meet changing population health needs. Such a plan should consider training needs, based on expected retirement rates. Geographical shortages of health professionals should be considered, and Latvia could consider targeting recruitment for training towards populations in rural and under-served areas who may be more likely to wish to return to practice in the area (see Section 2.2). Financial incentives for physicians, nurses, pharmacists and other health professionals to serve in rural areas could be again considered, although so far higher salaries in rural areas does not appear to have encouraged specialists to re-locate. Other incentives, such as access to a broader range of services such as accommodation and child care, may prove more attractive.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
In these cases, it is the Chairman of the intercommunal body who will have primary responsibility for planning decisions (French Property, 2016). Expropriations for private uses of land are not possible. Reasons for expropriations include the construction of infrastructure, public buildings, and housing developments as well as the establishment of nature reserves.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Chile also saw poverty decrease, in this case between 2015 and 2017. The official estimates available for these countries corroborate the trends described, although the estimates are larger in Argentina and El Salvador, smaller in Costa Rica and similar in the other countries (see table II.2, figure II.3 and annex table II.A1.2). This is the case of Ecuador, Panama, Peru, the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Uruguay. Among the countries with data available to 2017, only Brazil showed a slight rise in poverty.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Pathways between TAFE institutes and universities are in general need of strengthening. Skills upgrading and general enhancement of qualifications would improve competencies of the work force. Upgrading the skills of the adult population is also likely to have a more direct effect on the region’s economic performance since adult learners are less mobile than younger students.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Special efforts should be made in countries where social norms are most conducive to occupational segregation, and gender gaps should be tackled early in students’ lives, when returns to education are highest and before gender-biased social norms may be absorbed. Work-based learning (WBL) and apprenticeship schemes can facilitate the transition from school to work and encourage labour market participation among young women at high risk of becoming inactive. Moreover, apprenticeships can be an effective measure to encourage women who have completed their science, technology and mathematics studies to work in scientific fields (OECD, 2012). Evidence from OECD countries shows that even when women pursue STEM studies, they are less likely than men to subsequently work in physics, mathematics and engineering.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
The teacher uses a template to provide the answers with a required maximum number of pages per answer. The marking of the portfolio relies on a detailed set of assessment rubrics describing the meaning of Unsatisfactory, Basic, Competent and Outstanding performance across the different aspects assessed within each component. Both academic centres are required to develop a system of automatic marking for multiple-choice questions and to select and train external markers to assess the test open-ended questions and the portfolios. The monetary reward is broadly equivalent to an extra monthly salary per year for ten years (distributed in two annual instalments).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Understanding these trends, together with the underlying factors, is an essential part of monitoring the transition to green growth. Environmental services include natural resources and materials, including energy, and pollutants and other residuals with their implied use of environmental services like the atmosphere. Tracking trends in decoupling of inputs to production from economic and sectoral growth is an important focus for monitoring.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
Underqualification is more widespread among both South African- and foreign-bom workers. The incidence of underqualification decreased considerably between 2001 and 2011, but it still affects close to 30% of the workers in both groups. The decrease of underqualification was also stronger for foreign-born workers.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
As a result, they might lead to long, costly and uncertain judicial battles, whose results often depend on the subjective appraisal of the randomly assigned judge (see e.g. Fischman, 2011a, 2011b, Ichino and Pinotti, 2012). At the opposite side of the spectrum, in India, legislation stipulates that, for establishments with 100 or more workers, the employer must also obtain permission from a government authority before dismissals can take place (except in the case of disciplinary action). In Germany, Indonesia and, in the case of unionised workers only, Slovenia and Latvia, if the works council or union representatives are opposed to the dismissal, the latter cannot be effective without authorisation of the relevant authority or a court judgement.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
The system was introduced in 1991 and was modified in 2008 with the opportunity to choose between the 25% or 33% tax rate (including labour market contribution the tax rates are 31 % and 38.4%). The purpose is to make an opportunity for more resources to flow research that benefits the public. As of 1 January 2008, the limit of the development reserve was increased from 25% to 50% of the pre-tax profit.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Note: The changes are expressed with respect to the no crisis scenario. Following implementation of this policy, the rates of monetary poverty are lower than in the reference scenario: 48.52%, 49.62%, 49.77% and 49.80%, respectively for the years 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011, corresponding respectively to 3.38%, 0.86%, 0.56% and 0.62% reductions in the number of children experiencing monetary poverty across the country. It eliminates the growth in poverty in 2008 and reduces this poverty growth by about a quarter in 2009, 2010 and 2011.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Even with sophisticated energy-management practices, good information and appropriate incentives, time-constrained managers typically focus only on large projects, overlooking more modest industrial energy-efficiency options. Empirical studies find that investment analysis is frequently conducted late in decision-making and often to validate decisions already made. What determines whether an investment goes ahead is its contribution to the firm’s objectives - including how much it would contribute to competitive advantage (Sorrell, Mallett and Nye 2011). A review of the use of formal capital budgeting tools for investment decision-making found that even when financial calculations were properly undertaken, they were not fully used (Cooremans 2009).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
The country's capacity to collect taxes also needs to be improved in view of persistent revenue shortfalls in recent years. For the purpose of development, what matters is where and how the deficit is being spent. Is it, for instance, being spent for enhancing human, physical or social capital that would improve productivity and hence economic growth? If that is the case, then public debt, even though it rises in the short term, would be sustainable.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
This paper analyzes the impact of bureaucratic decision costs on agency expertise. The analysis shows that the effect of the cost associated with adopting a new regulation (the enactment cost) on agency expertise depends on what the agency would do if it remains uninformed. If an uninformed agency would regulate, increasing enactment costs increases agency expertise, if an uninformed agency would retain the status quo, increasing enactment costs decreases agency expertise. These results may influence the behavior of an uninformed overseer, such as a court or legislature, that can manipulate the agency's enactment costs. Such an overseer must balance its interest in influencing agency policy preferences against its interest in increasing agency expertise. The paper explores the implications of these results for various topics in institutional design, including judicial and executive review of regulations, structure-and-process theories of congressional oversight, national security, criminal procedure, and constitutional law.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)