albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
The chapter also describes four broad principles used to justify the use of economic instruments for water management. At present, the country applies four categories of economic instruments for managing its water resources: fees for water abstraction, user charges for water supply and sanitation, irrigation water supply tariffs and fines for non-compliance with regulations concerning water resources. The chapter also discusses water pollution charges which were introduced in 1993 and then abolished in 2005. This is particularly important in present circumstances, where water infrastructure and services are chronically short of money for their operation, maintenance and new investment (Pegram and Schreiner, 2009). User charges, set at proper levels, are a reminder to water user sectors of the cost of the resource being consumed. Water prices are also useful to public decision makers (Ministers, regulators) in deciding the allocation of water when it is scarce and on the allocation of public budgets and investment programmes to water, rather than other types of public infrastructure and services.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
Whaling and sealing, though internationally controversial, form a small part of Norwegian fisheries (Box 6.5). For this reason, it resumed whaling in 1993 after a five-year break following the moratorium set by the International Whaling Commission (IWC). That year Norway became the only state in the world to resume commercial whaling, it had objected to, and thus opted out of, the moratorium. The IUCN Red List categorises the northern minke whale (the subspecies found in Norway) as of “least concern”, though it is listed in CITES Appendix I (threatened). No commercial or scientific whaling of other species takes place, and the whaling industry does not receive direct subsidies.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
Sustained increases in FDI inflows are often a sign of an improved general investment climate. For many countries, remittances are a major and stable source of external financing and thereby provide important means of implementation of sustainable development goals. As a result of increased globalization the importance of remittances has been rapidly increasing in the last decade. Reducing the material intensity of production and consumption of goods and services is essential to environmental protection and resource conservation.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Among all young people, relatively low levels (around 50%) report high life satisfaction, and that declines as students advance in age and move to higher grades through their school life. This is as might be expected, but life satisfaction also seems to be declining over time. There are also particular problems of psychological well-being for girls.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
About 74% of the Namibian households cannot afford conventional housing and only 57% of urban households have access to sanitation facilities, which has serious environmental and health implications. The government’s ongoing public housing programme will need to be completed with better urban infrastructure development programmes and further strengthening of rural growth points to create more rural jobs. Agriculture continues to drive the economy, and as it is mostly rain-fed, it is very much at the mercy of climate-related shocks. Economic prospects are quite good, mainly because of the expected expansion of extractive industries and more investment in agriculture and transport.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
It also relates to whether benefits are flat rate, earnings-related or actuarial, or a combination of those models. Third, the link between benefits, contributions and earnings is also associated with whether benefits keep track with earnings/prices in the retirement period (i.e., the rules for indexation) and whether life expectancies are taken into consideration for the calculation of benefits. All of these features define the distribution of benefits among individuals based on their individual lifecourses (including labour market participation, earnings and life expectancy).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Maintaining fresh-salt water gradients is a key ecosystem service that produces high biodiversity as well as highly productive fisheries. New policies to achieve water security objectives require a careful balancing of the marginal costs of inaction with the marginal costs of further reducing the associated impacts beyond those measures already in place. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 90% of the deaths from unsafe water supply, sanitation and hygiene involve children under five years old.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
Some studies do not use revealed preference methods and return to stated preferences, i.e. contingent valuation, with all the known caueats. Ultimately, the premise of a WTP as society’s marginal benefit for reducing a given social cost is solidly grounded in economic theory. The VSL, the extension of WTP into the area of mortality cost estimations, is also covered by economic theory. However, the notion of a single “true VSL” must be avoided to recognise the vastly different contexts and risk perceptions of damages.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
It also led to a nuclear disaster in Fukushima. But despite the large loss of human life and record financial costs—estimated at $210 billion—the impact could have been dramatically worse. The Tohoku earthquake, estimated at magnitude 9.0, was the world's fourth strongest since records began in 1900, and the ensuing tsunami waves reached heights of up to 40 metres and travelled up to 10 kilometres inland.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
The differences between countries are due to differences in load factors and the cost of back-up capacity. The system costs of the three key technologies increase from onshore wind to offshore wind and solar PV. These system-level costs come over and above the higher plant-level costs of renewables. Including the latter, based on the figures contained in the 2010 IEA/NEA study on the Projected Costs 0/ Generating Electricity as well as more recent figures for solar power, increases total generating costs by up to 30% for onshore wind, up to 50% for offshore wind and up to 200% for solar energy.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Because the farmers own the co-operative it has no incentive to extract a profit margin, which should maximise benefits to the individual farmer. However, w'hile co-operatives are in principle attractive solutions to the marketing challenge of small-scale farms, they have been found to be difficult to operate due to low volume, large numbers of producers and challenges in maintaining consistent quality. All of these add costs that have to be spread across all producers, which can reduce a farmer’s interest in participation.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Jansen and Piermartini (2005) show that the temporary movement of persons, by reducing transaction costs for merchandise trade between home and the host country, causes bilateral trade to expand in a statistically significant way. Walmsley and Winters (2005) have focused on the direct welfare effects of liberalising trade in mode 4 in a general equilibrium framework. They show that if OECD countries allowed temporary migration of workers to increase by the equivalent of 3 per cent of their labour force, the resulting global gains would be greater than those under full liberalisation of merchandise trade. Moreover, both developed and developing countries would share in the gains, which would be largest if migration of both professionals and unskilled workers were permitted.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
However, to the authors' knowledge, it has not been shown how this approach could be implemented at a scale commensurate with CSP. Water is required for mirror washing, steam cycle maintenance and often cooling. Air cooling is technologically feasible but lowers the plant efficiency and increases capital costs by roughly 10 per cent (USDOE, 2009,2012). The trend is toward more freshwater-efficient cooling technologies for CSP and other thermo-electric generation.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Moreover, annual run-off may decrease due to increased evaporation in large lakes. Possibilities of heavy rain floods even in summer time may increase, especially in small river systems. Flooding can cause overflows in treatment plants or problems with water abstraction, affecting also water quality. Groundwater level may increase in winter, and decline in summer. Reduced groundwater recharge may cause oxygen depletion in small groundwater bodies, and consequently increased metal concentrations in groundwater (e.g., iron, manganese). The river originates in Finland and its final recipient in the Baltic Sea basin is Lake Ladoga in the Russian Federation.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
The majority of the countries have national energy plans, policies and programmes in place to meet these challenges. Development partner support is crucial for many countries in achieving their energy targets. While it may be too early to measure the success of these activities, the targets set are very ambitious and will need continued efforts into the future. The largest proportion of energy consumption occurs in Viti Levu, where the majority of the people, a large part of the tourist industry, and Suva, the capital city, can be found.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Moreover, the domains of early learning are less differentiated than the outcomes that can be observed in older children and adults (National Research Council, 2008(i3j). The undifferentiated nature of skills in early childhood is due, in part, to the fact that early learning occurs across domains with gains in one domain contributing to gains in other domains (Demtriou, Merrell and Tymms, 2017[i53i). This ongoing cycle of reinforcement across domains means that early learning must be assessed using a whole-child approach, recognising the overlapping nature of outcomes for young children.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Most of the country’s agricultural policies in the next decade will be focusing on food security and how to invigorate agriculture to promote growth and employment in populous rural communities. Production increases were particularly pronounced for cereals, especially for wheat and maize which rose sharply to record levels due to good growing conditions in the main producing countries. Driven by soybeans, global oilseed production is setting a new record in 2013/14.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
This viewpoint came up in more than one interview. China also insists on there being no differentiation in mitigation responsibility among developing countries, regardless of the fact that rapidly developing countries such as China and Brazil are much more able to mitigate emissions than poorer countries such as Bangladesh and Cameroon. This point also explains why China is unlikely to agree to any binding international commitments as long as the domestic inertia on climate legislation in the United States continues. This explains why many observers view the two dominating emitters as playing "hide and seek" in a way that serves each country's domestic interests.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
On that basis, the negative relationship between the number of firms and the size of the shadow economy is traced in quadrant 5, where it can be seen that a reduction in the tariff from TO to T1 causes the shadow economy to grow from SO to S1. Quadrant 6 shows the 45° line used to construct the positive relationship between MANU and the tariff shown in quadrant 7, this is where higher tariffs correspond to higher shares of value added by the manufacturing sector in GDP. Quadrant 9 traces the 45° line used to show the shadow economy on the x axis in quadrant 10, where they axis represents the murder rate.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
The ESCOs have also taken a very active role in promoting the instrument and have recently formed an association. ( Energy Efficiency Watch 2012). Energy Efficiency and Renewable Sources Fund (EERSF) is the result of a public-private partnership, which now has the combined capacity of a lending institution, a credit guarantee facility and a consulting company.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Market deregulation should be followed by strong policies and regulations to guarantee reliable services and fair pricing. The limited involvement of the private sector in electricity production can be a barrier to deploying renewable energy™. On the other hand, private electricity markets that lack strong and clear regulation, as in the case of Lebanon, create a chaotic market that hinders investment in renewable energy. The region is also blessed with a growing availability of locally sourced capital from banks and funds, and an expert community of developers and technical and other advisors. In 2015 in the Arab region, wind and solar developments broke new low-cost records, which attracted strong international interest and resulted in new project developments and investment.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
On a state level, the energetic refurbishment of the building stock would help increase the overall social well-being and the reduced demand for energy would lead to a greater security of energy supply. In a study of economic benefits of renovation of apartment buildings in Estonia it was found that 17 jobs per EUR 1 million of investment in renovation were generated per year (Pikas etal. Out of these 17 jobs, 10 had been created on the construction site, 1 in the consultancy and 6 in manufacturing industries. Direct tax revenue was between 32-33%, depending on the renovation project (ibid.).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Finally, international development finance is a more traditional channel for mobilising finance, whereby a portion of this can also contribute to biodiversity objectives. They provide a brief overview of the mechanism, including its general purpose and applicability, review the finance that has been mobilised and discusses the extent to which it could be scaled up, and then examine the key design and implementation issues that need to be considered so as to ensure that the mechanism is environmentally effective, economically efficient and distributionally equitable. The range reflects different levels of ambition. The GEF6 Needs Assessment provides a number of estimates that differ according to a) level of ambition b) whether or not incremental reasoning is applied c) level of co-financing (no co-financing, 1:2, 1:4, 1:6) (CBD, 2012a).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Cities have always experienced a degree of violence that radically differs from that of rural areas. While cities become more populated and social problems become more complex, the population faces increasing levels of violence. For example, in the last five years, there were over 20,000 gang-related murders in Guatemala. In Brazil alone, more than 100 people are killed by guns every day. This paper examines the legal regimes that regulate these new urban realities. It argues that international humanitarian law might not be the appropriate regime to provide protection as it tends to legitimize violence. However, can domestic law enforcement regimes and human rights adequately prevent the suffering of innocent victims and the recruitment of children into organized gangs? The paper suggests that the Inter-American System of Human Rights might provide some answers.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
This paper examines the basis of the theoretical interrelationships between poverty and (violent) conflicts in the context of modern African societies that are characterized by weak institutions. The paper proposes a model in which interactions between poverty and weak institutions produce and sustain (violent) conflicts with declining welfare. The paper then examines the major sources of conflict within this model, and argues that permanent resolution of the conflict requires the simultaneous attainment of stronger and effective institutions and lower poverty levels. One implication of these results is that reducing poverty, or enacting new laws (that often only restrict political freedom without simultaneously strengthening the domestic institutions would exacerbate rather than resolve conflicts and is welfare-reducing. The paper therefore calls on governments to concentrate on strengthening the domestic institutions especially by reducing corruption and promoting transparency in law enforcement.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
As previously indicated, multilateral development banks issue an annual report on the climate finance that they provide and mobilise. The IDFC also issues an annual report on “green finance”. As the MDBs (as well as all other entities that have been accredited under the Adaptation Fund and GEF) are all accredited entities of the GCF, it may be that future guidance from the COP to the GCF could be transmitted by the GCF to encourage its accredited entities to report specific information and/or in a specific manner.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
The proliferation of carbon sink credits under the J-VER system is vital as a test case. The Montreal Process is the Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests, formed in 1994. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Teachers’ classroom practice upheld village traditions against modem values as planned in the curriculum, for example, through a change in the content of a school play (discussed in Cuban, 1992). Local competition for students and recourses between “innovative” and “traditional” schools may end up benefiting the latter (Fink, 2000, see also McCulloch, 1998). For example, research on quasi-market forces in education suggests that many empowered consumers reveal preferences that are not necessarily supportive to innovation in terms of curricular and pedagogical approaches.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
This last chapter provides an outline of the most important social research ethics principles and values that should be considered by social science researchers and research ethics committees (RECs) who review social science research projects. The principle framework of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights (2005) is primarily used to organise the relevant ethics principles and considerations. The following ten principles are considered: (1) Respect for human dignity, (2) Beneficence and non-maleficence, (3) Autonomy and informed consent, (4) Vulnerability, (5) Privacy, anonymity and confidentiality, (6) Equality, justice and equity, (7) Non-discrimination and non-stigmatisation, (8) Respect for cultural diversity and pluralism, (9) Social responsibility and integrity, and (10) Benefit sharing. Lastly, the most important and relevant ethics review questions for each of the principles and values that should be posed by social science RECs during ethics reviews and deliberations are indicated.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
For the latter, the figure shows the percentage of a particular purpose travel of all travels occurring per every hour of the day. At the same time, however, the ticket fare should not exceed the level at which the passengers would consider the ticket fare to be affordable. Too high prices can cause the demand for mobility shifting from public transport to other modes.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Their respective quota might be allocated by transferring the appropriate amount of tokens via a smart contract-triggered transaction. This could also be extended towards other trading methods prevalent in the EU ETS, such as auctioning and OTC trading. Blockchain-based solutions for OTC trading have been proposed on the market to improve efficiency and lower transactions costs. This would also be the case for international emissions trading, linking different markets (e.g. between the EU ETS and the Swiss ETS) by eliminating many of the standardisation issues currently faced by ETS (e.g. registry designs, compliance periods), although some conceptual problems need to be addressed regardless of the technology used (e.g. nature of cap, offset provisions) (Kachi et al.,
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
For similar reasons, households may underinvest in the education and health of their children, as well as adopt negative risk-coping strategies such as distress sales of assets, reducing the quantity and quality of food consumption, begging or taking children out of school, and exploiting natural resources in an unsustainable manner. It helps households manage risk. A growing body of evidence shows that social assistance programmes not only prevent households from falling into deeper poverty and hunger when exposed to a shock but, by helping the poor overcome liquidity and credit constraints and manage risks more effectively, it also allows them to invest in productive activities and build assets.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
The new body will be the voice of the industry at the national level and promote a viable and sustainable seafood industry' w'ith representation from the wild-catch, aquaculture and post-harvest sectors. World's total values of production for catch and aquaculture were sourced from the FAO Yearbook, Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics, 2015. Both numbers have been corrected adding the value of seaweed production, aquaculture has also been adjusted to account for the value of Chinese production reported to the OECD.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
The empirical evidence suggests, however, that this does not “condemn” countries to permanent specialization in low-tech exports, rather, with consistent policy direction, export diversification into higher-end products will be promoted (Rodrik, 2007a, Cornia, 2006, Ocampo and Vos, 2008). This requires a rethinking of the priority given to inflation targeting14 which has often resulted in exchange-rate overvaluation, undermining export growth and diversification (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2003). Needed would be a broader approach to agricultural development policies, focusing on access to land, extension services, improved inputs, credits and rural infrastructure so as to secure a greater and more predictable marketable surplus and income to farmers and inputs for agroindustrial development.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Nevertheless, a more in-depth analysis shows that perceptions of distributive justice have varied in recent years. This may not suggests that these changes be associated exclusively with economic issues and with the crises that have occurred, but also with political and institutional arrangements that have been put in place during the past decade, and which, although they were initially expressed through intense social conflicts, later culminated in political responses that to a certain extent channelled the population’s principal demands. Another factor that might affect perception of distributive justice is the specific composition of the welfare regimes of certain countries, such as Costa Rica (see box 1.7). In addition, although the figure fell between 1997 and 2002, the proportion of the population that believed that income distribution was very unfair increased by 15% from 2002 to 2007, placing Chile in second place in the region (with 45% of the population believing in 2007 that distribution was very unfair), only behind Paraguay with 55%.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)