albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
The unequal tax treatment of income from different asset classes increases inequality in some cases and distorts the allocation of capital. However, the present paper suggests that it is even more important to focus on inequality at the bottom of the income distribution. Government transfers have an important role to play in guaranteeing that low-income households do not fall further back in the income distribution. This is not only restricted to cash transfers.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
This will, however, require a quantum increase in support for research and deployment in a relatively neglected area. In order for macrolevel gains to be reaped from end-use efficiencies, it is important that improved energy efficiency not be allowed to become the basis for an increase in activity and consumption in developed countries and that such increases be permitted only in countries that are still overcoming energy and income deficits. Most experts concur that Governments, in particular advanced economies, should promote the development of a broad portfolio of technologies (including renewables such as solar, wind, geothermal and hydropower) along the full chain of technology development (research, development and demonstration, market formation, diffusion and commercial adaptation). Most developing countries may opt for a more focused portfolio, given that their entry into energy technological transformation would take place at mature stages of the process.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
However, a considerable proportion of wastewater is not treated before being discharged or reused. Japan is the second largest producer of wastewater with 16.9 billion m3 generated in 2011, and 11.6 billion m3, or 69 per cent of the total treated. Singapore is the only country in Asia and the Pacific where all wastewater is treated, or 0.5 billion m3 in 2013. (
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
These hubs would provide an open space to innovate and create solutions aimed at solving development problems. Coders4Africa is currently in the process of securing support from donors and the private sector. In view of the need for tailored skills to perform various kinds of software development, it is often necessary for enterprises to invest in training their staff. The emphasis in recruitment on the ability to learn and the importance of tacit knowledge for some of the skills required further underline the need for firms develop in-house and on-the-job training.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
The insufficient number of centres and trained teachers, poor remuneration and weak enforcement of standards are among the challenges acknowledged by education authorities.15 Alternatively, some countries arrange for family-based day-care facilities, as occurs in the Colombian Community Mothers programme. Latin America and the Caribbean will experience an increase of more than 70 percent, and Africa and Asia over 60 percent, in the number of older persons by 2030. An already older population puts this figure at 23 percent in Europe.24 In contrast, the demographic transition is at an early stage in most sul>Saharan African countries, so the share of the population over 60 years of age is still, and will continue to be, small. They also include basic income security throughout the lifecycle, including for persons with disabilities.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
In its first judgment, the Constitutional Court of Saint Martin reviewed the constitutionality of the island’s new penal code in the light of both the government’s positive obligation to ensure the welfare of animals and the Strasbourg Court’s Vinter decision which calls into question the legitimacy of life imprisonment. In doing so, the Court could show the way to courts in The Netherlands and abroad, both for its acceptance of judicial review of statute law against fundamental social rights and its openness towards the European Court of Human Rights’ jurisprudence. In addition, the Court managed to strike a convincing balance between an all-too-conservative form of judicial restraint on the one hand, and excessive interference in political matters on the other.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Minimum standards of teacher education are ensured by the accreditation and approval of all teacher education programmes by the NZTC. All teacher education providers with programmes approved by the NZTC must demonstrate how they enable students to reach the Graduating Teacher Standards. Providers guarantee that students have met these standards and are “fit to be a teacher” when they graduate from the programme.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
A promising initiative - already exploited by a number of TIPOs - is to build partnerships with other digital platforms. They also have a role in helping SMEs to assess and manage similar risks. This is very difficult given that skills predictions change every few months. Nonetheless, these institutions need to react even if information is lacking.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
The degree of vulnerability of individual LDCs varied with the extent of dependence on trade, nature of demand structure, depth of fiscal space, extent of foreign exchange reserves, and strength of other macroeconomic fundamentals. Individual countries’ abilities to adopt counter-cyclical macroeconomic policies depended on the fiscal capacity to meet the necessary costs and the institutional capacity to implement such policies. This was especially the case if the countries were to contribute to protecting their societies’ poor and the vulnerable groups. Hence, it is important for the LDCs to be prepared to face such crises.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Similar farm enterprise budgets are published by most U.S. land grant university colleges of agriculture. Agriculture is a significant water user in the dry parts of the OECD countries, and water is an essential input to crop and livestock. Understanding and predicting water use patterns and economic outcomes produced by infrastructure repair and maintenance requires a comprehensive analysis of the economic factors influencing decisions by irrigators on their crop production and water use.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
Support groups appear to be popular with individuals with mental disorders, and with their carers, Meyer et al. ( Approaches that blend peer support and therapeutic approaches from eMental health are also beginning to emerge. Although individuals with mild-to-moderate disorders are much less likely to self-identify as mental health service users, and therefore less likely to seek help from such groups, the support offered by such groups - for example informally, or through an online forum - can be valuable (Box 2.4). Many OECD countries have sought to expand treatments for mild-to-moderate disorders using psychological behavioural therapies. Psychological therapies have come to be well-recognised as an important tool for increasing treatment availability, improving recovery rates, offering choice and quality of treatment, and closing the treatment gap for common mental disorders.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
The proportion of children living in deprived households differs across European countries with the lowest being 4.9% in Switzerland and highest reaching approximately 60% in Bulgaria. This implies immense differences in living standards for children across Europe. In countries such as Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania more than 90% of children in the bottom 10th percentile are living in deprived households. In Bulgaria the share of children reaches approximately 98% meaning that almost every child in the poorest decile lives in a deprived household.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Water use by households fell by 20%, mostly due to reform of water pricing.30 In 2007, the share of overall consumption for drinking was 46%, higher than industry’s 44% share (the respective shares in 2000 were 36% and 53%) (MoE, 2010a). Flooding of larger rivers typically results from snow melting in around March and April or from heavy rain mostly in July and August. Floods on smaller rivers tend to be flash floods that are caused by heavy short-term rainfall.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
It concludes by offering concrete recommendations to policy makers in the region to enhance compliance with international standards in gender equality and to reduce gender-based discrimination in domestic legislation. Yet some do not explicitly include the principle of equality between women and men, nor do they contain a definition of discrimination against women in the constitution. In additioa many other domestic laws tend to restrict women’s rights in a wide range of areas (e.g. family law, freedom of movement).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
This article addresses the role of formal institutions and informal networks on corporate governance practices. The existing corporate governance literature has mostly examined the formal institutions, such as the effect of legal systems. Our contribution is to consider the effect of informal “small world” characteristics of ownership and board networks. We use the case of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway and Sweden) to examine these effects. Our empirical results reveal large differences in formal board and ownership structures between the Scandinavian countries, but strong similarities in terms of law enforcement, political stability, government effectiveness, rule of law, control of corruption as well as voice and accountability. We find that all three countries can be characterized as “small worlds” in which trust, information diffusion and reputation mechanisms are active governance mechanisms. (Less)
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
A World Bank study has found that subsidising the upfront capital costs - rather than consumption - is more effective to promote investment in electrification projects (World Bank, 2008). In general, tariff subsidies disproportionately benefit the higher-income and higher-electricity-consuming social classes. In fact, connection costs to the electricity grid are still a major barrier (IEG, 2008). Alternative tariff structures could include the cost in monthly payments. Access to electricity increases economic output and income, in some cases, the benefits resulting from connection enable the user to later upgrade to higher power. The projected increased demand provides strong incentive for private companies, however, the need to transform the entire energy system creates additional risk.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
This was not intended to be representative of society in general, but that portion of society that might be considered as being more connected to the issue of marine litter and microplastics. With a sample of just under 4,000 respondents from over 16 mostly European countries, the MARLISCO survey found that the majority of respondents were concerned about marine litter and perceived the marine environment as being highly valuable to society. There was a belief that the situation regarding marine litter was worsening, and that most marine litter was derived from the sea (B. Hartley unpublished data).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
Over 2007-10,31 projects were approved and 22 were contracted, and six commercial projects were directed to the Croatian Bank for Reconstruction and Development. It provides support to establish technology transfer centres, business incubators and R&D centres. This includes: setting up specialised technology incubators for life sciences, including nanotechnology and information and communications technology (ICT), setting up technology transfer centres, providing equipment for the aquaculture R&D centre founded by the University of Dubrovnik and co-financed by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
This means that some children are already advantaged over others when they begin formal schooling, while in turn school results exert a strong influence on their university outcomes (Boarini et al., Moreover, people with higher education and skills are more likely to undertake on-the-job training (OECD, 2010c). The way that inequalities are compounded means that educational deficiencies should be tackled as early as possible and that pupils from a lower socioeconomic background should receive adequate support in schools to compensate for their initial disadvantage.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Using corn for ethanol increases the price of US beef, chicken, pork, eggs, breads, cereals and milk by more than 10-30 per cent, which exacerbates food and fuel shortages and raises major nutritional and ethical concerns around the world. Much of this effect is the result of deforestation for grazing and the processes that many countries are still using to produce meat, which require the animals to live longer than do other, more economically efficient processes. Nathan Fiala (2008) reported that beef production accounts for the majority of CO2 production and is increasing, though pig products also have a large aggregate impact owing to their high use.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
One example is a family, upon the loss of their home, moving in with extended family or friends. This transitionally homeless but “housed” family may be counted as both homeless and overcrowded. Despite this attempt at a common standard, national data collection strategies and estimates vary significantly.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
As a result, the socio-economic differences across schools are largely predictive of a school’s performance in the OECD PISA assessments. Policies that target disadvantaged schools, but also disadvantaged students, can therefore be particularly effective in raising performance and equity levels. Grade repetition is frequent, and this has proven an ineffective way to support poorly performing students. Around one third of students had repeated grades at least once by age 15 in 2012.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Improving energy efficiency will require environmental pricing mechanisms, regulatory measures such as building codes and fuel-economy standards, and public awareness and information measures such as labelling, training and education (OECD, 2015a). As of January 2014,23 countries had used the framework to develop indicators that suit their national circumstances, fifteen of which were developing or emerging economies. The environmental productivity of OECD economies in terms of carbon, energy and materials has improved since 1990, but overall carbon emissions continue to rise, fossil fuels continue to dominate the energy mix, the consumption of material resources remains high and many valuable materials continue to be disposed of as waste.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
With heterogeneous methods used for the estimation of trips and distances travelled (Annex A and B), extra care should be taken regarding interpretation of differences across cities. On the other hand, they contribute to a significant risk of VRUs, such as pedestrians, being killed in collisions with cars (Scholes et al., Table 1 does not account for that phenomenon and more research in this area is needed.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Illicit drug policy has long been an area that has attracted international policy intervention, however, the European Union has declared it an area of subsidiarity, leaving ultimate control to national governments. Nevertheless, European Union preoccupation with the illicit drug issue and international drug trafficking and organised crime concerns have ensured that continued and increased cooperation in illicit drug policy is never off the agenda. This article examines the history of European integration in contrasting areas of policy and considers both the desirability and the viability of an increasingly harmonised drug policy for Europe. Finally, it proposes a model of integrated illicit drug policy that is strongly connected to developing patterns of European social policy, calling on multi-level governance and close involvement at the level of the citizen.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
This problem is also complemented by the overpriced and inefficient private parking spaces that exist. There are also 15,000 temporary parking places that can accommodate 191,500 cars. For example, Polotsk city’s mobility plan, currently under development, envisages the integrated development of different urban mobility modes and the optimization of transport routes (box 13.5).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
While the allowance only covers those affiliate (i.e., in formal jobs), most low-income families are in informal work. Nevertheless, the programme (slightly) reduces income inequality and poverty, as its distribution is less unequal than the distribution of income (Nunez, 2009). In 2013, the benefit’s reference level in Arauca (the highest) was 35% higher than the national average, in Choco (the lowest) the reference level was 25% lower than the national average. Similarly, the proportion of workers eligible to the benefit ranged from 27% in Norte de Santander to 88% in Cordoba.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
The annual number of natural disasters in Southeast Asia increased from 13 in 1970 to 41 in 2014, resulting in a surge of both economic damages and the number of persons affected. Floods, typhoons, hurricanes and earthquakes are the most frequent types of disasters occurring in the region, sometimes bearing severe human and economic losses. The frequency and impacts of such disasters are expected to increase in the future, as a result of a combination of climate change impacts (such as sea-level rise), uibanisation and socio-economic changes.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
A case could also be made for other rights, such as the right to education—years of schooling and highest grade reached differ substantially between poorer and richer segments of the population—or freedom of expression and assembly, which the dispossessed feel unable to exercise for material or psychological reasons. If inequality is an obstacle to the enjoyment of human rights, an equitable distribution of wealth becomes a decisive variable for the overall system of protection of human rights, as well as for the advantages stemming from development. Important among such effects is the increasing vulnerability of people resulting from large-scale development projects.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
An alternative reason is that African women entrepreneurs generally rely on smaller business networks and might have greater difficulty in dealing with bank officials. One indication of the networking disadvantage women face as entrepreneurs is the fact that only 2.5% of African female-owned firms have suppliers who offer them credit or customers who pay advances (versus 5.2% of men-owned firms). Data on micro-enterprises (less than 15 employees) in Brazil, Mexico and South Africa show that the great majority of business owners did not use loans to start up, but relied entirely on their own funds and on support from family and friends (Figure 27.3, Panel A).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
The only ridership growth has taken place in Chicago’s central neighbourhoods (Metropolitan Planning Council, 2013). Although the regional comprehensive plan “GO TO 2040” adopted the goal of doubling public transport ridership by 2040 as a means of increasing mobility and creating more liveable communities, some parallel policies at various government levels are stimulating car use. Such policies include generous parking policies, a gas tax that is relatively low' from an international perspective, and the lack of congestion charges or parking fees in most areas.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Teachers are trained to adapt their teaching to different learning needs and styles of students. There is also emphasis on the teaching practicum which includes a minor portion of basic teaching skill practice in front of peers in student groups, and a more significant portion of required teaching practice at teacher training schools run by the university or at affiliated schools. In addition, other teacher groups, such as pre-primary teachers and vocational teachers, are required to have a tertiary education degree.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
The medical school selection process will be altered to favour students who excel at teamwork as well as interpersonal and cross-cultural communications. Furthermore, considering the current underinvestment in health infrastructure and personnel in the Galilee, systems of collaboration should be created among hospitals and between hospitals and the new medical school. Joint research centres between hospitals and the medical schools could be established in the areas that focus on the epidemiology of the region, including genetics, metabolic diseases and health promotion. The new school and research institute provide an opportunity to link Israel's leadership in the IT industry with more effective health care delivery - from new individualised computer-based medical records systems to the use of telemedicine to reach isolated populations.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Coniferous forests are spread in the highlands, mixed forests in the mid altitudes, and broadleaf forests in low-level terrain. The structure of state-owmed forests is better than that of private forests, which could be seen by their lower share of coppices and higher share of high forest. The average stock of all forests is 192.4 m3/ha, with high forests 243.3 m3/ha and coppice forests 85.2 m3/ ha.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
It is also key for ensuring interoperability and facilitating the adoption of new technologies, especially by SMEs. Although private sector actors may have the technical knowledge to develop complex standards,303 without transparency, accountability and other forms of consumer protection, these market players may be tempted to abuse their rule-making power.304 Change in the area of standardization is putting pressure on governments in developing countries to reform and develop their standardization infrastructure.305 For national quality infrastructure bodies, guiding principles in the digital standards system should be mediation, neutrality, consumer protection, and competition. As neutral arbiters, they can mediate between the interests of businesses and consumers of digital goods. They can focus fheir activities on safety and interoperability.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
In the local perspective, the emphasis is on the local and decentralised optimisation of the available resources that are physically close to the final consumer generator or the load. The global approach looks at the system as a whole, and aims at using the best available generation mix by connecting all available resources. The idea is based on integrating the smaller-scale local generation close to the consumers (e.g. PV on rooftops).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
These figures most likely underestimate the contribution of off-farm earnings because they capture only the income coming from activities integrated from the accounting standpoint either fully or partly within the farm business. However, studies on rural diversification indicate that the majority of alternative enterprises of agricultural households are financially and structurally independent of the farm business (OECD, 2009e). For example, around 20% of living expenses of those households involved in dairying and sheep and beef farming originate from off-farm income (MAF, 2009e).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)