albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
Data on MSW generation published by NEPA show the structure of MSW generation by individual streams (table 8.1). Collected MSW is stable at around 7 million tons/year and estimations of uncollected waste are around 2 million tons/year. The growth of waste in individual categories reflects improvements in monitoring waste amounts more than actual higher waste generation. Available statistics on service coverage are based on individual contracts on collection, as a result of which actual coverage is probably higher in reality than reported figures (table 8.2).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
Malgre les liens potentiels entre le commerce et Feconomie circulaire, les recherches existantes sur cette question sont limitees a ce jour. Le document presente d’abord brievement le concept d’economie circulaire et la maniere dont le commerce peut entrer en jeu, puis met en evidence les differentes manieres dont le commerce et Feconomie circulaire peuvent potentiellement interagir et enfin conclut brievement en proposant des pistes de progression et les prochaines etapes. Indeed, waste trade can provide potential opportunities to direct waste to countries with comparative advantage in sorting and processing activities that can help boost global recycling rates (OECD, 2018). Post-consumer materials and waste have intrinsic value for material and energy recover}' and therefore there is increasing recognition that non-hazardous waste could be traded for further processing and recovery under proper controls (Associate Parliamentary Sustainable Resource Group, 2013, European Commission, 2015a).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
In addition, there are differences in how climate finance effectiveness is assessed. This paper explores different aspects of climate finance effectiveness, for example in terms of climate finance outcomes (e.g. environmental, economic, developmental), delivery (e.g. institutions and governance), and time horizons (e.g. short-term vs. long-term results). The paper uses examples from different types of activities (both mitigation and adaptation) and explores the issue of effectiveness at a range of scales (projects, programmes, policies). The paper focuses on climate finance in the context of the UNFCCC, i.e. public climate finance, as well as the private climate finance mobilised by public interventions.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
The gender gap in median earnings of full-time employees, at 18.8 per cent in 2010, is among the highest in the advanced industrialized economies. The medianforthe28-coun-try Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is 14.3 percent,the United States ranks 7th from the bottom. One of the results is that poverty rates for single female-headed households are extremely high, reaching 34 per cent in 2011.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
There is also evidence of brain drain, with an estimated 350 000 Malaysians working abroad in 2008, over half of whom had tertiary education. In 2000, only 8.9% of the regional population had achieved tertiary level education. The economy has depended on importing labour from throughout Malaysia as well as from other countries. Within the Northern Corridor Economic Region, the State of Penang has a better educated population than the other three states, but in international comparison Penang is a low-skilled region. While there is a push to move to a high-skill, high-wage economy, Penang remains dependent on low-skill industries and occupations.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Unemployment assistance has been merged with social assistance in 2005. Initial eligibility conditions have also become more demanding in at least three countries, while none appear to have lowered the barriers to access the benefit system. Some countries raised benefit durations and ceilings - in two of them the rise in the first period was followed by a reduction in the second.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Expansion in coverage was accompanied by health spending growth well above other OECD countries, averaging 7.7% since 2002. As a share of GDP, health spending in Turkey went from 5.4% in 2002 to 6.1% in 2008. The training of new physicians as family physicians and retraining of existing GPs into the speciality have been national priorities. The introduction of a pay penalty for doctors not delivering a basic set of child and maternal health services led to remarkable improvements in the delivery of these services.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
This approach reveals the negative social repercussions that can arise from environmental and climate policies, reinforcing existing inequalities and injustices. Nevertheless, they face rising electricity prices. In the Global South, some green economy projects have led to “land grabbing” and the displacement of people for infrastructure and biofuel projects, often involving violations of customary land rights and the rights of indigenous populations.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
Law enforcement is decentralized. It is so despite documented interjurisdictional externalities which would justify its centralization. To explain this fact, we construct a political economy model of law enforcement. Under decentralization, law enforcement in each region is in accord with the preferences of regional citizens, but interjurisdictional externalities are neglected. Under centralization, law enforcement for all regions is chosen by a legislature of regional representatives which may take externalities into account. However, the majority rule applies for decisions made by the central legislature and this implies that the allocation of enforcement resources may be skewed in favour of those who belong to the required majority. We show that the choice between centralization and decentralization depends on the technology of law enforcement and the nature of the interjurisdictional externalities.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
It is calculated using the number of deprivations that the multidimensionally deprived children encounter, divided by the maximum number of dimensions considered, showing the average number of deprivations the deprived children experience. The child population per country is calculated multiplying the total population size in 2012 (retrieved from the World Bank Databank, Oct 2014) with the percentage of children as a share of the total population of each country (derived by authors' calculations based on DHS/MICS data, see Annexes 1 and 2). In 2012 these countries represented 78% of the total population of sub-Saharan Africa (and 10% of the world's population).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
As in other developing countries given the wide-spread labour market informality and population ageing, a payroll tax may not be the best funding instrument to raise sufficient revenue to fund adequate health care services. Funding the NHI through a higher value added tax or by general tax revenue would spread the financing burden more equitably across the population based on the ability to pay and will make financing less vulnerable to setbacks in the fight against labour market informality. Russian life expectancy was 69 years in 2010, more than ten years below the OECD average and about seven years shorter than in countries with a similar income level, such as Chile and Poland.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
It implies of course that in cases where absolute recipient numbers are presented, these are lower than the corresponding numbers for the entire population. An individual’s health status is not considered for sample selection, also because, in most cases, it cannot be observed in the data. Individuals with health issues thus remain in the sample and will be included among recipients in countries where SA benefits can be paid to those temporarily or permanently unfit for work.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Since the early 1990s, the OECD has sought to accurately measure regulations concerning the dismissal of regular employees and hiring of workers on temporary contracts. This chapter presents the latest estimates for OECD countries and selected emerging economies (including all G20 countries). They are the result of a comprehensive effort to update the OECD indicators, based on a more accurate collection methodology and taking account not only of legislation but also of national or branch-level collective agreements and case law, where relevant. This effort has also led to a significant revision of historical time series. First, countries with the strictest regulations as regards notification, negotiation and authorisation requirements before notice of termination of employment can be served tend to have also restrictive provisions in at least some other areas (e.g. severance pay or the definition and costs of unfair dismissals). Second, two alternative models of employment protection emerge.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Today, the annual abstracted quantity of surface w'ater is 8 km3, so there is still a great potential for increased use of water even if dry seasons and water shortages in some regions create certain limitations. The same scenarios show an effect on precipitation ranging from an increase of 10 per cent to 40 per cent (see box 4.5 in chapter 4). In the short term, it is expected that the annual w'ater flows will continue to increase due to increased melting of permanent snowfields and glaciers.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
Thirty-one operate as municipal enterprises and seven as joint stock companies. Water supply systems in rural areas are managed by water user associations with the status of NGOs. The main problem of the water supply and sanitation system is the uneconomically small areas of exploitation of some municipalities.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
The UK NEA has merely helped prioritise activities and is not a substitute to implementing the other approaches to natural capital accounting analysed in the context of this study. The accounts it provides may prove extremely useful for broader economic analysis, which is why EU Member States are already committed to implementing a whole range of its accounts under European legislation, but its direct applicability for decisionmaking relating to biodiversity is more limited (but still real with some room for improvement, especially if its accounts are better linked with life-cycle impact data on resources and goods which can be linked to specific sectors of the economy within the SEEA framework).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Policy design is also important, with policies that advantage existing firms or directly influence technology choice more likely to affect competition and entry. Further assessments of the competitiveness impacts of environmental policy, and greater development of the micro-data required for such studies, would also be useful. Such analyses could inform adjustments to policy design, the development of complementary policies or the pursuit of greater international harmonisation. It can underscore the importance of governments integrating longer-term perspectives that factor in interactions between the environment and economy when developing policy tools.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Second, in order to enable international energy trade, it is necessary to have the logistic infrastructure available. Worldwide, transport infrastructures such as roads, rail tracks, ports, pipelines and re-gasification terminals for LNG are thus required. For certain of these geographically isolated countries, imports of primary energy may also be more awkward due to the reliance on few and far-away suppliers.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
The strength of government commitment to schooling is reflected by a sustained high level of investment in schooling and favourable conditions for teaching across schools, as indicated by comparatively low class size and student-teacher ratios. Recent changes to the system for distributing operating grants and staffing went in line with substantial increases in the overall budget for schooling. Parental choice is supported by the school funding system, in particular the commitment of the Flemish Community to free education. Regardless of the choice of school, parents do not have to pay tuition fees for publicly recognised schooling and there is a uniform approach to recurrent funding of schools in all networks.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
This article examines studies related to environmental justice in the criminological literature and from a criminological perspective. Criminologists have long been concerned with injustices in the criminal justice system related to the enforcement of criminal law. In the 1990s, following the emergence of green criminology, a handful of criminologists have drawn attention to environmental justice as an extension of more traditional criminological studies of justice and injustice. Relevant criminological studies of environmental justice are reviewed, and suggestions for future environmental justice research are offered.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Alternative working arrangements can ease the problem and improve urban transportation systems. Large numbers of workers in cities strain both road capacity and the limits of public transportation systems. Flexible working arrangements (FWAs) are not widely used in many countries in the region, but could be used to either reduce demand or to shift demand from peak hours.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Dealing with them as part of a broad-based tariff reduction exercise using request-offer or other negotiating approaches should facilitate cross-product and cross-sector trade-offs. The reason for this is compelling. Most NTMs are implemented with legitimate objectives or concerns of public policy in mind (e.g. technical regulations, sanitary standards or safety and health requirements). Here the challenge is to move towards a more harmonized approach to non-border regulation through the elaboration of rules that acknowledge the legitimacy of government intervention while seeking to minimise negative trade effects.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Means-tested schemes have known limitations (Mkandawire 2005, Ortiz and Cummins 2013). In addition, they are not always effective at reaching the people they aim to target, have higher administrative costs and often pose administrative hurdles for people to claim benefits. Eligible people can be singled out easily with no invasive or stigmatizing tests of means, income or assets.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
The choice of indicators has closely followed some of the health measures considered by the Framework on Health Statistics developed by the Inter-Secretariat on Health Statistics (Box 5.1), though this framework is not yet wide-spread and would benefit from further use and development. The chapter does not deal with indicators of health input (e.g. health expenditure), output (e.g. number of interventions) or drivers (e.g. life style behaviour). The role of risk factors, such as smoking and alcohol use, is also not explicitly considered oris considered only to a limited extent (e.g. obesity).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
Nonetheless, the Law has its limitations, as newly appointed heads of public administration organisations put pressure on administrative civil servants to vacate their positions “voluntarily”. Interviews for this Review indicated that both political and administrative civil servants at all levels are not so much accountable to citizens but to those who have the power to hire and fire them. This prevents the continuation of experienced staff in public employment, compromising capacity.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
In order to survive and achieve success in dynamic world markets, a country needs to constantly diversify and upgrade the range of products that it can produce. However, such diversification and upgrading are not possible without commensurate enhancement of the skills of the workforce. The choice of infrastructure and the setting of industrial priorities (not only in manufacturing but also in agriculture, forestry and energy) will need to be consonant with the task of meeting simultaneously the challenges of climate change adaptation and mitigation and those of improving the livelihoods of the poor.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Many farmers and authors note also that implementing or raising irrigation prices can be challenging in situations where the revenue is placed in general fund accounts, rather than used to improve irrigation services or invest in new facilities. Farmers choose crops and input combinations based largely on relative prices, often without due consideration for the off-farm impacts of their decisions. Higher irrigation prices might indirectly reduce nitrogen effluent, just as higher nitrogen prices might encourage farmers to plant more soybeans than corn.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
The RSF focuses on finding alternatives for adjusting the cost and size of the project. It helps prevent line ministries from deliberately underestimating project costs in the planning stage and prevents project costs from escalating once the project has been initiated. Second, the RDF was introduced in 2006 to prevent overestimation of demand.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
The highest unemployment rates are among the younger people (15 to 19 years of age) and are four times those of the adult population (see figure 11.12 a)). The unemployment rates reported on the basis of household surveys in Colombia, Panama and the Dominican Republic included hidden unemployment. The figures for Argentina correspond to Greater Buenos Aires, for Bolivia to eight main cities and El Alto, for Uruguay to urban areas and for Paraguay to Asuncion and Central Department. As reported in a recent study by ECLAC and the Ibero-American Youth Organization (OU) on the current situation of young people (ECLAC/OIJ 2008), it is precisely the poorest young people who are most affected by unemployment: around 2005, the average rate of unemployment among young people between 15 and 29 years of age belonging to the poorest per capita income quintile was slightly over 24%, a percentage which decreases gradually to reach 6.6% among young people in the richest quintile.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
The WRC aims to achieve this goal by challenging people to speak out and think about their actions, language and beliefs, educating youth on violence against women, raising public awareness on the issue, and partnering with women’s organisations, the private sector and media. The campaign is driven by community groups in towns and cities throughout New Zealand and is rapidly becoming part of the annual events calendar. White Ribbon Day events and activities are increasingly supported by businesses, cultural groups, sporting teams, local government, and a wide range of community and government agencies.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
But inevitably, benefit-cost ratios do tend to influence decisions on the allocation of funds across sectors and between dissimilar projects. This strategy puts an emphasis on improving connections: between people and employment, people and services, and business and economies (Cooper and Penrose, 2018). Scheme promoters are expected to develop five cases: financial, commercial, management and - most importantly, strategic and economic.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
This leaves Denmark among the OECD countries with the most favourable tax treatment of interest expenses (OECD, 2018(27)), higher than in both Norway and Sweden. Denmark is among only three OECD countries (Australia and Estonia in addition) with a pure land tax, considered one of the most efficient taxes. In addition, the recent property tax reform will ensure valuations are updated every second year and maintains an element of progressive taxation.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
The major obstacle to local borrowing is the absence of reliable medium-term and long-term budget planning at the local level, because of the uncertainty surrounding the government policy concerning the allocation of taxes between the national and local budgets and the rate of budget withdraw'als (Makhmutova, 2006). Quotas for annual local borrowing and total local debt are fixed annually by the Budget Law. In 2009, the government determined new' subnational government borrowing limits (in a given fiscal year, annual payment and debt servicing costs were not to exceed 10% of the local budget revenues, and total debt 75% of local budget revenues).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
There are 30 LDCs with access to the sea, making it possible to establish landing stations to connect to international submarine cables. All sea facing LDCs except for six (Box 2-8) have now established connections to international submarine cables. The 16 landlocked LDCs are often at a disadvantage depending on the distance between submarine cables and their territories and transit charges levied by coastal countries.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
These agreements may take numerous forms, such as conditions on development permits, and mitigation bank instruments or other forms of landowner contracts, depending on the institutional arrangements on which the system relies (see also Chapter 3). Whatever form they take, offset agreements must be clearly defined, transparent and enforceable in order to provide a robust foundation for MRV and compliance at both the policy and the individual site level. Offset supply agreements may be based on the supply of inputs or outputs that lead to biodiversity outcomes or on the biodiversity outcomes themselves (Box 4.5). Such differences have driven many of the documented failures of offset projects in the past (Kenny, 2006). In the Biobanking scheme in New South Wales, Australia and the Native Vegetation Regulations in Victoria, Australia, offset supply agreements define regulatory compliance as the completion of pre-defined land management actions over time (DSE, 2012, NSW OEH, 2012).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
However, it is up to individual countries to adopt an approach that suits the needs of their children best, as the SDGTarget 1.2 calls for national definitions of multidimensional poverty. There are inevitable trade-offs between international comparability of a child poverty measure and its suitability to the national context. Counting and Multidimensional Poverty Measurement. Journal of Public Economics, 95(7), 476-487.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Any discussion of application of EU competition rules by courts cannot ignore arbitration. We examine, first, the historical dimension of the position of arbitration in the context of competition law enforcement, second, the powers of arbitrators to apply EU competition law, third, the private international law questions pertaining to the main theme, fourth, the links between arbitration and competition authorities (notably the European Commission), and finally, the question of the review of arbitral awards on public policy grounds, which remains an appropriate final safeguard and ensures a balanced relationship between arbitration and competition law enforcement.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
The aim is for all elements of the fleet, big and small, to be economically viable and operating without long-term subsidy. Through the Act UK Administrations are now in the process of introducing new systems for marine planning and licensing within the policy framework provided by a UK Marine Policy Statement adopted by all UK administrations in March 2011. England's first marine plans (for the East inshore and offshore areas) were adopted in April 2014 and, following consultation in 2013, a National Marine Plan for Scotland is expected to be adopted in early 2015.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
Regulations and labelling programmes have improved the energy efficiency of appliances and equipment. However, the approach to energy efficiency and demand management has been piecemeal. Brazil can gain from systematically integrating energy efficiency criteria in sectoral policies, including for housing, urban planning and transport.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)