albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
Therefore, in the same way that we inoculate a population against a disease, we can immunise a whole population against road trauma by reducing rates of drink-driving and speeding, and increasing the rates of safety belt and motor cycle helmet wearing. For many individual drivers or passengers, the risks of a collision and death or serious injury are low, and they will choose to drive drunk (or ride with a drunk driver), exceed the speed limit routinely, or not wear a safety belt, without ever being involved in a collision. Their individual experience convinces them that their behaviours are harmless or at least very low risk.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
It then considers the public funding of R&D, specifically the overall trends in budgetary support, the main funding patterns by institutional type, and the use of selectivity and priority programmes. This is followed by a functional assessment of Russia’s innovation policy that takes a number of strategic tasks as its starting points. These include securing the availability of qualified human resources, adapting public R&D institutes to the requirements of a modern innovation system, promoting business R&D and innovation, fostering the development of competitive innovation-oriented industries, providing supporting infrastructure to innovators, harnessing global opportunities through international co-operation, and developing and mobilising regional innovation capabilities.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Old-age pensions and unemployment benefits account for a larger share in total transfers while family benefits are less important. The redistributive impact of household transfers is small, because of the low progressivity of the two main transfer components -old-age pensions and unemployment - reflecting their largely insurance-based nature. Estonia has not been included in the cluster analysis because most tax data were missing.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Total water consumption from industry dropped from 2004 to 2008. The major ground water users are water supply (21 per cent), industry (14 per cent), observation (14 per cent), agriculture (6 per cent), thermomineral (3 per cent), and 42 per cent not classified. Access to regular clean and safe drinking water is an essential part of public health (see Chapter 10). The percentage of connections to public water supply systems in the municipalities-urban areas is much higher than the average and higher compared to rural areas.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
One of the most important initiatives in this sense is the National Programme for Access to Technical Education and Employment (Pronatec) being carried out by the Ministry of Education in partnership with the Ministry of Social Development. The programme offers free professional training courses, lasting a minimum of 160 hours, for citizens 16 years and older, focused on those in the Single Registry for Social Programmes. Those who prefer to work autonomously are encouraged to register in the Brazil Without Poverty Plan as individual micro-businesses, enabling the Brazilian Small and Micro Businesses Support Service (Sebrae) to co-ordinate their participation in a programme that offers technical and managerial assistance.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Rent-to-buy schemes tend to be much smaller, at least in countries for which data has been provided. Australia and Chile both spend less than 0.003% of GDP for these programmes (Figure 9). Specifically, the spending data is missing for: Mexico and the Netherlands on financial assistance: Luxembourg and Spain on tax relief, Canada and France on rent-to-buy schemes, New Zealand on construction subsidies. Data for Austria, Denmark, Finland, Korea, Sweden, and Switzerland are not included as information on spending for two or more policy instruments is missing.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
For our analysis, we use the case of Jordan, a lower middle-income country that has come a long way in reducing child mortality, as evidenced by the drop in under-five mortality from over 80 per 1,000 live births in the 1970s to 26 per 1,000 in 2007.5 While this is a remarkable achievement, particularly at Jordans per capita income level, recent progress was slower than in many other middle-income countries. At this point, a fresh assessment of the main determinants is warranted to inform the policies needed to get the country back on track towards achieving MDG 4. The sample includes over 40,000 children born between January 1971 and September 2007. Differentiating between personal and biological factors, behavioural factors, and household and community factors, we find that behavioural factors such as birth spacing, smoking and breastfeeding seem to matter most for infant and under-five mortality in Jordan.6 This is in contrast to earlier studies on Jordan that had found a strong impact of household and community factors, most notably the area of residence— urban versus rural—and the mothers education level (Adlahka and Suchindran, 1985, ESCWA, 1991, Shakhatreh, Abbas and Issa, 1996).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
The country has also made significant progress in expanding the coverage of its rural population with drinking water supply from improved sources. As of 1 January 2015, 80.7 per cent of its rural population 1) had access to centralized and local water supply systems. In rural areasl), 37.9 per cent of the population had access to centralized and local sewerage systems as of 1 January 2015.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
The gap between girls and boys has also narrowed considerably in North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa and Western Asia. Overall, 64 per cent of countries in the developing regions reporting data by sex had achieved gender parity in primary education in 2012. More than half of the countries with gender disparity in primary education in 2012 (56 per cent) were in sub-Saharan Africa.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
We did a simple simulation to estimate how many children were eligible to receive the Child Support Grant (CSG) based on the means test and the age eligibility criteria. Table 3.8 below compares our estimates of CSG-eligibility with the number of respondents reporting receipt of any form of child grant. The simulation suggests that a surprisingly small number of children who are not eligible are receiving the grant.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Some of the MDBs and climate funds (e.g. the International Development Association of the World Bank Group and the Global Environment Facility) also provide grants and concessional finance to the EECCA region. For instance, technical assistance contributes to filling knowledge gaps and raising countries’ awareness of climate risks and the importance of addressing them. This leads to increasing the capacity of stakeholders to design and implement policies to tackle climate risks.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
It has an enormous impact on ensuring that family members enjoy equal rights and duties. When care is not actively supported and distributed, this perpetuates unequal relations within the family and societies as care deficits tend to be filled by those with less power, mainly women and girls. Evidence shows that access to subsidized child and elderly care is associated with increases in the number of hoursin paid work for women.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Although Latvia is a small country, municipalities own most of the 30 hospitals in the country. Each municipality makes its own procurement and capital investment decisions, resulting in a large numbers of expensive pieces of equipment, such as MRI scanners (discussed further in Chapter 2). In contrast to municipality-owned hospitals, these are under more restrictive financing obligations, and also pay dividends to the central government.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
Poverty and extreme poverty rates among people living in rural areas remain well above those of urban areas. In 2017 46.4% of the inhabitants of rural areas were living in poverty, while 20.4% were living in extreme poverty. In the same year, poverty in urban areas stood at 26.3%, while extreme poverty was 7.8%. Between 2012 and 2014, poverty and extreme poverty rates fell slightly in rural areas, while remaining unchanged in urban areas.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
During the former periods, government budget deficits build up, and during the latter, surpluses amass, resulting in a relatively balanced national budget overthe medium-or long-run. Industrialized economies typically are more able to adopt such policies as evidenced during the Great Recession. That is, they tend to have greater fiscal space—the ability to borrow in order to deficit spend, due to credibility amongst lenders."
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
This article addresses the concept of strict scrutiny, the burden of persuasion test used by the courts to determine the constitutionality of affirmative action. Through a systematic analysis of U.S. Supreme Court decisions, it illustrates that strict scrutiny has been applied in an inconsistent, arbitrary manner and, therefore, should not serve as the basis for judicial review of affirmative action programs. It shows that the rule of law established under the Civil Rights Act provides an equally if not more compelling basis for judging the legality of affirmative action programs. Relying on the legal standards advanced by the courts under civil rights statutes provides managers with greater flexibility in developing and implementing affirmative action programs. In effect, the ability of governments to promote diversity of their workforces is greatly enhanced.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) establishes that developing countries are expected to suffer the most from the negative impacts of climate change. As their economies strongly rely on climate-sensitive sectors (noticeably agriculture) and are particularly exposed to the impacts of climate change due to their geographic and climatic conditions, these countries are likely to be the first victims of climate change. Moreover, they often display a low adaptation capacity due to institutional weaknesses, particularly in the financial sector.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
Half this cost is covered by the differential between the increased (+5%) electricity tariff paid by high-consuming domestic customers and the discounted tariff (-2.5%) paid by low-consuming ones. The remainder is covered by national and EU funds, and by the proceeds of the taxes on electricity consumption and on low energy efficiency lighting.12 Most of these resources are channelled to low-interest loans for investments in energy efficiency measures, “efficiency cheques” and the bonus for renewal of electric appliances (Section 4.2). Launched in 2008, the SGCIE broadens the scope of the 1986 Regulation for Energy Management to include a larger number of installations, thereby increasing potential energy savings. The SGCIE imposes binding energy audits: participating companies are obliged to implement multi-annual energy rationalisation plans to reduce their energy consumption and/or intensity, and to report periodically on their progress.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Due to their stationary nature and limited exposure to international competition, electricity sectors are frequently called upon to generate a major share of these emissions reductions. Beyond reductions in absolute consumption, this means substituting fossil-fuel based power generation with low-carbon technologies such as renewables or nuclear power. For instance, the Energy Roadmap of the European Commission (EC) envisions greenhouse gas emissions in 2050 to be at least 80% lower than in 1990, while the electricity sector is supposed to be carbon-neutral by that date (EC, 2011a).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
A Guide for Catchment Management has also been developed as a “how to” handbook to translate lessons learnt from the pilot phase into useful guidance and reference materials. Stakeholder engagement at the watershed level (cont.) Between January and March 2010, the Catchment Management Agency engaged in extensive stakeholder participation (including business, farmers, mining companies, municipalities, civil society, etc.),
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
The batches of schools sewed by the programme are spread across England, with each group taking into consideration geography, commercial viability and the degree of need. Schools in the worst condition were prioritised for the first batch in case of overlap of batches. A limitation of this model that remains is cross-default, i.e. that one project is negatively affected by other projects in the same batch.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Challenges such as the cost of fuel and poor state of roads result in delays, which present a significant problem for effective treatment. Unless the trends change, dozens of countries will miss the mark by a wide margin (see Figures 1.5 and 1.6). South Asia will not achieve the neonatal target until 2049 and sub-Saharan Africa will reach it after mid-century.84 The average annual rate of reduction in neonatal mortality required for India to reach the target is almost double the current level.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
Other findings that were perhaps less commonly expected include the result that subsidies on variable inputs are the most production- and trade-distorting among all measures analysed, and that area-based payments can induce significant cross commodity effects. Where a policy instrument reduces the variability of farm income, it acts like an insurance. At the same time a policy that increases expected farm income, and hence raises implicit farm wealth, may lead the farmer to adopt riskier behaviour. Both the insurance and the wealth effect can result in an expansion of production if farmers are risk averse - an attitude that is found in many empirical studies.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
The inference that may be drawn is that other factors are more decisive in homeownership than retirement considerations and what people can expect to receive from pension systems. It also points to the difficulty of making housing wealth an important factor in retirement income policy. Homeownership is not distributed uniformly across populations, and national housing policies, individual preferences, and even local culture are probably powerful influences.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
More importantly, the challenge lies in building synergies across other sectoral strategies: political dialogue and negotiation are indispensable in cases where conflicting objectives are identified. In their review of the European experience, Nordbeck and Steurer found that “better policies usually emerge from conflicts between specialists advocating competing solutions, not from a vague consensus” (p. 14). Nonetheless, the coordinating agency has an important role to play in ensuring that all relevant actors are integrated in the policy process and in fostering synergies with their own sectoral needs.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
This will increase the social security contributions of the domestic service sector and make this type of employment into a gateway to the social protection system for female domestic workers —most of whom are poor— and, ultimately, for their children as well. Fiscal incentives such as tax exemptions for persons employed as caregivers, tax reductions that help offset the cost of employing a domestic worker, progressive taxation systems and personal benefits can all be used to foster behaviours that will improve the workings of the economy and the way in which society is organized. The valuation of the contributions made by women and their families to the care system can take the form of cash transfers to households whose members include children or older adults or persons with a disability'. A contributoiy or non-contributory approach could be used whereby the determination of access to the social protection system would take, for example, the number of dependent children into consideration.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
On the other hand, in temperate regions and tropical highlands, production may increase due to warmer weather. Generally, production and trade flows of high-latitude and midlatitude products are expected to increase, with products such as cereals and livestock products being exported towards low-latitude regions. However, the exact nature of these shifts remains unclear, and more research is needed before policy-makers can properly understand the likely implications.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
Poverty: measures, incidence and recent developments (cont.) First, current per capita expenditure is computed, adjusted by a spatial price deflator to account for regional differences in the cost of the family basket. Households are then ordered by this measure and an iterative method is applied to select the reference population (percentiles 30 to 59).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Looking ahead, the Healthcare Authority (NZa) expects shortages to develop as a result of demographic trends and an increasing share of part-time GPs (NZa, 2009). In this context, the government rightly aims at expanding the capacity of medical schools and the number of hospital training positions, as both are identified causes of supply restriction (Capaciteitsorgaan, 2011). Foreign doctors represent another potential source of doctors. In this domain, European candidates (from the European Economic Area) enjoy relatively easy access as their diplomas are recognised, while non-European candidates are subject to a governmental standardised assessment of medical skills and a language test. To facilitate entry for the latter group, it could be considered to exempt holders of diplomas from top universities from the medical-skills components of the assessment. However, restricting the number of specialists is no longer a solution in a more market-oriented system, as it would reinforce their bargaining position and hence their ability to influence prices upwards.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
However, the full capacity of the site was not reached, of the designed 44.2 million m only 19 million m3 was used. The designed waste generation rate was overestimated and the Tintareni landfill has potential to receive waste from Chisinau for another 20 years. Due to the closure of Tintareni landfill, “I.M. Regia Autosalubritate” does not have any other option than dumping waste in a temporary location in the vicinity of the waste transfer station, without any measures to control potential pollution.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
The highest among all LDCs is Tuvalu, where fixed broadband reaches ten percent of the population. Wired broadband pricing is generally much more costly than mobile broadband, is often only available in rural areas, and the market is frequently not very competitive, all of which discourage demand. Significant investment is required to expand or upgrade wired networks.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
In addition, high wages reduce profits, which may dampen investment. This negative demand effect (on exports and investment) can potentially outweigh the positive effect on consumption, especially if exports are price elastic (as in the case of commodities). This will lower average wages in the economy as a whole and boost its competitiveness (Kucera, 2002) and may thus have a positive impact on exports. A more thorough analysis of this and other possible channels for gender-related impacts would require a broad sample of countries and detailed information on their internal demand structures. Efforts to raise women’s wages in the interests of greater equity may lead to growth in a non-profit-led economy, but they may also spark an economic contraction as a result of their negative effects on investment and exports. These short-term disturbances in demand may not only reduce male employment and output but may also make it difficult to achieve long-term growth.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Concerns about the problem of over-research have been reported in communities around the world, and across a wide range of fields of social science research practice for decades. Yet, despite this, over-research remains under-addressed by social scientists as a significant research concern. In this article, we discuss the problem of over-research as articulated by the residents of the Shatila Palestinian refugee camp in Beirut, Lebanon – a camp which is probably one of the most heavily researched neighbourhoods anywhere, and certainly within the Palestinian diaspora. Concerns voiced by Shatila residents focus on three issues, in particular: the relationship of research to expectations and promises of social change, alienation from researcher practices and questions and misgivings about researcher identities and agendas, and the impact of research on social relationships and identities within the Shatila camp itself.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Reforms that increase the autonomy of the universities have been introduced or planned in all of the Nordic countries. Among other things, it is important that gender equality is integrated into the agreements entered into between the ministries and the institutions. Before introducing reforms or new research policy strategies or measures, an analysis should be conducted of the ramifications of these for gender equality.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
The development of heat supply systems is now based on TCP 45^1.02-204-2010 “Heat Supply Schemes of Settlements. Design Rules”, which considers the development of these schemes based on actual heat consumption data. All cities in Belarus now have their heating system modernization programmes based on their heat supply schemes.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Private banks would still be responsible for determining the creditworthiness of borrowers and thus retain a great deal of autonomy in lending practices. Thus, even with the use of ARRs, governments must adopt additional tools to expand access to credit for women entrepreneurs and farmers. One approach is for the central bank to offer guarantees on loans to targeted groups.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Sections 3 and 4 discuss issues relevant to climate finance mobilised and received. Conclusions are highlighted in Section 5. In particular, reporting this information to the UNFCCC is mandatory for Annex II countries. This section reviews this experience in relation to climate finance and highlights implications for the transparency framework to be developed under the Paris Agreement.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
The evidence from the Chilean government’s strategy to reduce poverty showed its inability to reach the poorest, who at the same time were excluded from accessing social services (Barrientos, 2010, Palma and Urzua, 2005). During this phase, Chile moved to a social assistance based model of social protection, adopting conditional cash transfers (CCTs) as the main instrument, thus following the trend in many other Latin American countries over the last twenty years (Ferreira and Robalino, 2010). As with other CCTs, it provides monetary transfers to indigent families enabling them to move out of extreme poverty in the short term, while it tries to support vulnerable people by creating opportunities for a better future in the long term.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
The present chapter deals with terrorism in Europe in the period from 1945 until present. The major episodes and trends of terrorist activity in Europe are described on the basis of four databases (the Global Terrorism Database, the Worldwide Incident Tracking System, the European Situation and Trend report, and the Centre for Defense and International Security Studies Terrorism Database). The intersection of terrorism and homicide is discussed and analyzed.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)