albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
Transnational regulatory power is increasingly exercised by bodies with no formal accountability to states, although such bodies affect the way individuals, organizations, and states themselves conduct their affairs. As a general rule, courts have been reluctant to engage with these transnational private regulators. This article argues that courts in Singapore and Canada are gradually, if haltingly, fashioning public law principles that enable them to judicially review decisions of domestic private regulators. These principles tend to focus not on the formal status of the body exercising power but on the nature of that power, essentially articulating a functional test. The article argues further that, as it has developed in Singapore and Canada, administrative law contains within it legal tools and principles that would enable courts to judicially review the decisions of transnational private regulators and allow them to play an important role in shaping the emerging norms that govern transnational regulation.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
If tax rates are raised above a certain threshold, w hich is, however, impossible to determine precisely, the behavioural response of those w'ho have to bear the greatest share of the tax burden may cause the tax base to shrink along with the economic activity that determines the tax base. One recent study has found that current top income tax rates in most OECD countries are well below' those at which the total tax yield would be maximized (Piketty, Saez and Stantcheva, 2011). According to this study, revenue-maximizing top marginal income tax rates range between 57 per cent and 83 per cent.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
In the last decade efforts have focused on developing a value-added production chain by attracting investments in high technology industries, medical technology, pharmaceuticals, and tourism, an effort that is ongoing. Determined efforts are being made to move away from dependence on exports towards boosting domestic demand. However exports continue to drive the economy.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
The extent to which either fits the available evidence has been questioned (Card and DiNardo, 2002, Goos and Manning, 2007). See Chapter 5 for more discussion on technological upgrading and skill composition. See McKinley (2009) for a recent exposition of Kuznets’s hypothesis in the context of the pro-poor growth debate.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
The effects of climate change are being integrated into policy development through the concept of “permanent adjustment”. This recognises that climate change is only one of a number of natural and socio-economic processes that will drive the extent and magnitude of natural hazards. The recurrence of torrents, avalanches and other natural hazards has led to a policy of “living with natural hazards and risks”. The relevant adaptation options in the Austrian NAS include support for individual risk prevention and management (one-stop shop for information about climate change adaptation and natural hazards, provision of climate-relevant information, improvement of early warning systems, increased awareness of private insurance options, promotion of technical options to protect assets), sustainable land-use planning to avoid exposure of assets to natural disasters, and water management through water retention and deliberate flooding to avoid discharge peaks. Additionally, the NAS includes a package of actions to improve disaster risk management, such as increased flexibility in financing for disaster risk responses and extension of training courses for disaster risk management coverage.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
Funded courses will enable graduates to develop a career in engineering having achieved a first degree in a non-engineering discipline (typically, students are not eligible for additional student loans when pursuing a degree at the same level as one which they already have). About GBP 1.7 million has been allocated to 28 projects as part of the Engineering Conversion course pilot scheme. The funding will support one collaborative project with higher education and industry that improves graduate employability and addresses identified skill needs. The funding is available to HEFCE-funded higher education institutions with existing course provision in computer science or information technology.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
Creating avenues for safe and successful migration both within a country and beyond its borders constitutes an important means of improving economic outcomes for youth facing widespread unemployment and poor job quality. Likewise, for developed economies experiencing a decline in the share of the working-age population, immigration provides an important means of sustaining employment-driven growth and supporting existing social safety nets. For large migrant-sending countries, workers' remittances from abroad provide an important source of household income and government revenue. Naturally, however, this comes with frictions and risks on both sides.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
In Greece, science parks have taken on a facilitator role given the absence of regional technology initiatives and the academic orientation of the universities. A set of research institutes within the Foundation for Research and Technology Hellas (FORTH) have promoted this model, seeking explicitly to provide the foundations for a new regionalised research, technology and development infrastructure and to provide technology transfer support, especially from FORTH and university research. As a relatively underdeveloped economy with low levels of R&D investment, Greece had been slow to develop science parks, although there are now parks in many of the larger towns and cities, such as Athens, Patras, Heraklion and Thessaloniki.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
The holding of free, democratic elections planned for 2016, within the constitutional deadline, is the country’s main political challenge to consolidate the achievements of the democratic process that began in 2006. Urban areas dominate the national economy and offer better living conditions than rural areas. However, there are risks associated with current urbanisation trends in the DRC: an increase in unplanned and informal neighbourhoods, poor quality of urban transport and congestion in cities, and limited access to social infrastructure. The country does not have a national urbanisation strategy, although it does have some measures and ongoing national initiatives which could directly or indirectly contribute to urban development, especially the land-use planning reform, construction projects for special economic zones and agro-industrial parks. It was driven by agriculture, investment, services and an improved business climate.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
It explained that the greening of government projects essentially sought to enhance the government’s environmental stewardship, and to incorporate environmental considerations in public policy-making and strategic planning in the private sector (ENACT 2001a). One of the products of this project was the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) that was prepared for the cabinet to guide the ‘integration of environmental issues into the formulation of policies, plans and programmes’ (ENACT and Cabinet Office 2001,6). It highlighted the importance of energy and water conservation and waste management, all of which later became points of emphasis for the green economy (Commonwealth Secretariat 2005).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
This leads to what Christensen refers to as the innovator’s dilemma, where successful organisations put too much emphasis on current success, and thus fail to innovate in the long run. These typically include, but are not limited to, regulations related to competition and product market regulation, to employment protection, to bankruptcy, and to access to finance. These framework conditions are crucial for ICT adoption as they influence the incentives to experiment with (disruptive) innovations, and the ability to scale up successful digital innovations and to scale them down if they turn out to be a failure.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Studies have suggested that widening wage inequality has reduced the returns to marriage, as low-skilled men’s relative wages have declined so too have the benefits of marriage, and having a child within marriage, for women. At the same time, improved labour market prospects have further reduced women’s incentive to marry. These changes may help explain some of the increase in single parenthood in recent decades, particularly in countries where inequality is high.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Because experts make scientific value judgements in the process of risk assessment, such as the use of default assumptions or scientific choices among a number of alternatives (FAO/WHO, 1997), the question has arisen of whether such judgements should be within the realm of risk management. Particularly in cases where assessment involves uncertainty, it is argued that how such scientific value judgements were undertaken must be clearly explained because they can affect the entire outcome. These were some of the focuses of discussions by several Codex committees (including the Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues, the Committee on Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Foods and the Committee on Food Additives) about the application of risk assessment policy,3 which comprises documented guidelines on the choice of options and judgements at decision points in the risk assessment that are established by risk managers in consultation with risk assessors and the relevant stakeholders in advance of risk assessment.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
Strive to make early warning systems multihazard and people-centred, keeping in mind the response requirements at the local level (‘the last mile’). Ensure that forecasters are mindful of the specific needs of the end users of different types of warning information, and tailor products and services accordingly. Seek effective communication channels with the people at risk, including by integrating the broadcast media into the early warning chain.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
Nuclear power is frequently considered a pure baseload technology working at the rated power level for long periods of time. This baseload working mode has two advantages: (a) technical, commercial and organisational simplicity, and (b) it is the commercially most advantageous form of operation in a context of stable prices for electricity. High load factors over long periods of time are essential to pay back the investment costs of high fixed-cost and low variable-cost technologies such as nuclear energy.7 Unsurprisingly, nuclear energy is thus used in baseload mode in most OECD countries. A high ratio of fixed costs to variable costs is a characteristic that nuclear energy shares with most renewable technologies.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Insufficient research attention has been paid to the way that electoral politics shape public policy on overseas development aid. Accordingly, this study makes an original contribution by examining party politicisation, issue-salience and the policy discourse of international aid in the principal parties’ manifestos in post-war UK state-wide elections. The findings show that over the past five decades a trend of increasing issue-salience has been accompanied by inter-party differences in policy framing, with the parties of the Left attaching greater priority to promoting international equality, articulating aid as an entitlement linked to rights and the elimination of poverty, and employing tropes such as humanitarianism, democracy and good governance. Crucially, comparison of manifesto discourse and subsequent government policy raises questions over parties’ accountability, for, having secured a mandate on specific aid proposals, a key disconnect is seen to operate between the rhetoric of aid and policy delivery.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Often, local radio stations are owned by men, the radio broadcasts are presented by men, and the topics are chosen by men. Radio programmes can also be combined with the use of mobile phones, encouraging listeners to call in to ask questions, or to intervene by sending an SMS. The Internet can make radio programmes available at all times, while also serving as a valuable resource for the radio producers.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
This means that during this period, agricultural production growth outstripped population growth at a faster pace than what has occurred over the previous 40 years. Growth rates are compound annual growth rates, that is, the annual rate of growth fr) in prediction (QP) required so that production increases from that observed in period t to that in period t*n: 1+r = exp((ln{QPK,) - ln(QPi))/n). It should be noted that if QP in period t+n is abnormally low, the estimated compound annual growth rate will also be biased downwards.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
This effort gained new momentum and inspiration in 1994, when 179 governments gathered in Cairo for the International Conference on Population and Development and forged a plan for sustainable development grounded in individual rights and choices and the achievement of sexual and reproductive health for all. That plan, embodied in a Programme of Action, not only re-energized the global reproductive rights movement but also positioned UNFPA as the movement's custodian.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
Hare and partridge breeding programmes have been undertaken. Nearly all (98%) of the LP forests are certified under the internationally recognised Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) programme, making Poland the fifth largest FSC-certified area in the world (FSC, 2014). The world’s largest forest certification system, the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), was introduced in Poland in 2003.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
Recent reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (Porter et al., This will have great consequences on the national and local economy, especially in SSA, South Asia (SA), and Southeast Asia (SEA), where agriculture constitute the backbone of the economy, thus not only affecting the livelihoods and food security level of millions of people, but also economic security and development. These challenges necessitate urgent adaptation actions in the agricultural sector to meet future demand and changed conditions. Meanwhile, agriculture is not only impacted by climate change, but is also an important driver of climate change.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
Flood risk from storm water is particularly high in areas where storm-water infrastructure has not been adapted to elevated runoff in creeks coming from mountains, as in Santiago (Ebert, A. and J. McPhee [2009]). Urban expansion in the eastern part of Santiago towards the Andean piedmont has also increased the amount of impervious surfaces, contributing to increased risks from flood hazards (Romero, 2012). To reduce the risk of flooding and to increase absorption of storm water, between 2006-2010, the city of Chicago replaced the pavement in more than 100 alleys in the city with more permeable surfaces and plantings (OECD, 2012c, City of Chicago, 2010). Since 1997, storm-water infrastructure has been the responsibility of MOP and the Ministry of Housing and Urbanism (Ministerio de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano/MINVU).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Uniform categorization to capture and document gender-responsive and gender-transformative change has also been challenging. The evaluation found that, despite the introduction of multi-year funding frameworks, most gender budgets remain largely focused on short-term interventions, more in line with an approach focusing on equity (50/50) in access to income, public services and access to justice, for example. Even in the case of protracted or recurrent crises that extend for long periods, such as in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the changing context does not enable UNDP to take a consistent line in support of GEWE. This is partly because the funding remains segmented for short-term interventions and partly because there is not enough interest in and understanding of the importance of long-term processes.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
For decades, the Supreme Court has maintained a rhetorical commitment to an ad hoc, case-by-case, totality of the circumstances approach to evaluating probable cause and reasonable suspicion. Despite the Court’s insistence that there are so many factors involved in the assessment of Fourth Amendment probabilities that one case will seldom be useful precedent for future cases, it has with increasing frequency endorsed the use of presumptive rules in this context. Such presumptions provide an appealing balance between the often competing imperatives of providing clear guidance to lower courts and law enforcement officers, on the one hand, and retaining the flexibility to ensure results consistent with Fourth Amendment principles in idiosyncratic cases, on the other. Additionally, although courts might evaluate the suitability of some such presumptions using quantitative analysis, in other cases, the use of qualitative, intuition-based judgment is necessary.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
India plans to auction acreages for shale gas exploration in 2011. Transmission pipelines exist mainly in the northeast. The first major long-distance gas transportation pipeline is the Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) line built by GAIL, which is state-owned and the largest Indian gas transmission company.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Child benefits are not taken into account for assessing eligibility in the guaranteed minimum income scheme RSI. Education benefits contribute to the living expenses and tuition costs of tertiary students, and are also subject to means-testing. While tertiary education benefits support those who should expect above-average incomes in the future, on top of the subsidies financing tertiary education, almost 80% of the benefits go to the lowest two income quintiles (IMF, 2013). Such measures can be a powerful tool to enhance intergenerational mobility and improve the equality of opportunities.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
The inclusion of something as basic as the sex of family farmers in agricultural censuses is vital to ensure the visibility of women's contribution to this work (see Story of Change, "The simple scheme that's driving a quiet revolution for Brazil's family farmers"). There is no global database that brings together national statistics on migration flows to enable a better understanding of migrant family life. These data limitations, in all regions, should be addressed through sustained investment in national statistical systems and in methodological development at global, regional and national levels.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
As ITQs initially were introduced on the background of an ecological and economic crisis the original implementation had been matter of closing access and distributing the limited rights in a sound and accepted system. However, these initial beneficiaries have since then been able to enjoy a steady stream of wealth, to lease out parts of orto once and for all sell their quota share. This becomes even clearer once the resource has recovered and the same quota share (in percentages) result in much larger actual allocations (in kilos).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
Effluent charges for surface water generate CZK 300 million per year for the State Environmental Fund, while effluent charges for groundwater generate CZK 2 million for the municipalities. The rate of cost recovery is 100% when only operating costs are included, but drops to 10-20% when renewal and new investment costs are included. This is partly driven by the failure to account for the full depreciation of the infrastructure assets. Costs for WRM amount to 3-7% of the water bill.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
For example, taxes can incentivize new investments, while low-cost loans facilitate behaviour change. Given one third of China's territory is reported to be affected by acid rain, and local air pollution affects major cities across the country, reducing sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions has been the key environmental target in China. While initially only newly- built installations were to be equipped with such facilities, subsequently also most of existing coal power plants needed to be retrofitted. The payment scheme is supported by other policies for power plants equipped with flue gas desulfurization (FGD) that give priority to them for connections to grids, permission to operate longer than plants that do not install desulfurization capacity and priority dispatching in Shandong and Shanxi Provinces.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Globally, inclusion of conflict prevention and conflict resolution was low at around 10% of social science textbooks over 2000-2011. High-quality, equitable education that increases respect for diversity can make a positive contribution, albeit only in the long term. An open classroom climate that accepts critical viewpoints needs to be embraced. Country reporting on the implementation of the 1974 UNESCO Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms provides the basis for global indicator 4.7.1.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
The 19th-century French scientist, Claude Bernard, famously wrote that science is a "superb and dazzling hall, but one which may be reached only by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen".2 Osborne, Simon, and Collins (2003), writing more than a century later, comment that "The essential irony of a discipline that offers intellectual liberation from the shackles of received wisdom is that the education it offers is authoritarian, dogmatic and non-reflexive." ( Cross-country differences in science teaching, and their association with students' performance and interest in a science-related career are presented in Chapter 2 ofVolume II.) In a majority of countries and economies, students from advantaged backgrounds are more likely to expect a career in science - even among students who perform similarly in science and who reported similar enjoyment of learning science. Several actions have been suggested to close this gender gap and, more generally, to encourage more young people, especially those from groups that are now under-represented in science-related fields, to participate in further science-related study and work.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
In particular, FDI targeting mining, road construction and manufacturing industries are at risk. Indeed, important road and infrastructure projects are already on hold or lagging, likely because of the crisis. According to projections by the DGEP, FDI was 36.5 billion CFA francs in 2008, more than three times lower than in 2007, and appears to be continuing to deteriorate with the contracting global economy. According to the latter, foreign capital inflows are expected to fall by 86 billions of CFA francs, representing 0.8 per cent of GDP. As risk aversion increased following the global financial crisis, these investments were partly liquidated in late-2008 and early-2009.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)