albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
Drug money and corruption have become entrenched in the security services in Central America, paving the way for other forms of organized crime, including trafficking in firearms. Limited law enforcement capacity, corruption and weak governability in Central America and the Caribbean have facilitated the use of smuggling channels and drug trafficking activities. In February 2015, Jamaican legislators passed an amendment to the Dangerous Drugs Act to the effect that possession of two ounces or less of cannabis (56.6 g) is no longer a criminal offence and will no longer result in a criminal record. The use of cannabis for personal consumption has also been authorized for members of the Rastafari community, in the context of their religious activities.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
The last part covers the sustainability of tourism development with particular attention to the environment and local communities. Since 2007 the number of international arrivals has soared, reaching 14 million in 2017 and boosting Indonesia’s market share to around 1% (Figure 2). The authorities aim to reach 20 million foreign visitors by 2019.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
The number of meals served based in redistributed food has been estimated to about 1.67 mill in 2013, with about 926,000 in Copenhagen, 346,000 in Oslo and 400,000 in Gothenburg. Based in the figures, it is quite clear that the food banks are relatively more important for food security to low income people than to prevention of food waste, although the rapid growth in redistributed food by Matsentralen in Oslo indicate that there is a higher potential. However, the combined effects make food banks important actors also with regard to food waste prevention, and as one of several initiatives that are needed to cope with the food waste problem in society.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
Stronger rural-urban linkages can result in better economic and social development outcomes and benefits for all participants. These serve as just a few examples that highlight the importance of rural policies for the country’s development. While once focused almost entirely on agriculture, there is an increasingly multidimensional view of rural development that encompasses support for economic diversification. In equal measure, there has been a shift from a highly centralised top-down approach to policy making towards one where a broader array of actors are involved in elaborating and implementing policy, including community-based groups. Successive decentralisation reforms have been formative in promoting local community development, however, this process of decentralisation is by no means complete and moreover, silos between agricultural and rural development policies persist. As will be discussed, more could be done to align these incentives and improve the effectiveness of rural policies based on local conditions and needs.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
We study the relative merits of centralized and decentralized redistribution in a political economy context assuming cross-regional heterogeneity in average income and identity. While centralizing redistribution allows to pool and redistribute resources at the country level, it may decrease the degree of solidarity in the society as a result of group loyalty. We show that total welfare maximization is closely linked to the minimization of income inequality within and between regions. Analyzing separately two particular cases under direct democracy—no interregional inequality and no group loyalty—we stress the existence of a scope effect and a pooling effect of centralized redistribution, respectively. In both cases, centralization welfare-dominates decentralization, from which it follows that the rationale for decentralizing redistribution only arises when the two sources of cross-regional heterogeneity interact.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
These are crucial if countries are to meet the central goal of the Paris Agreement to keep the rise in the earth’s temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels by the year 2100, and pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1,5°C above pre-industrial levels. In these countries, economic cycles are synchronized with commodity price cycles, implying that their economies grow faster during commodity price booms but slow down during commodity price slumps. As episodes of commodity price slumps are generally longer than boom periods, CDDCs experience, on average, slower growth than other countries. Commodity dependence affects economic performance through several channels.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
As concerns about unfairness and discrimination in "black box" machine learning systems rise, a legal "right to an explanation" has emerged as a compellingly attractive approach for challenge and redress. We outline recent debates on the limited provisions in European data protection law, and introduce and analyze newer explanation rights in French administrative law and the draft modernized Council of Europe Convention 108. While individual rights can be useful, in privacy law they have historically unreasonably burdened the average data subject. "Meaningful information" about algorithmic logics is more technically possible than commonly thought, but this exacerbates a new "transparency fallacy"---an illusion of remedy rather than anything substantively helpful. While rights-based approaches deserve a firm place in the toolbox, other forms of governance, such as impact assessments, "soft law," judicial review, and model repositories deserve more attention, alongside catalyzing agencies acting for users to control algorithmic system design.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Open government is a worldwide trend. Many countries started implementation process a few years ago in different topics such as: information access, transparency, accountability and open data. However, this process has different outcomes and meanings related to the Open Government concept. The purpose of this panel is to discuss the use of the feasibility of the use of MOOCS in the virtual education program. Panelists use the example of the Transnational Open Government Virtual Education Project, sponsored by ERASMUS and promoted by the Spanish social network NovaGob. Some questions of discussion will address topics such as: government culture, MOOCS and virtual education challenges, open government education programs for bureaucracy.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Such analyses help to understand how harmful forms of drinking evolved over time, and to identify which population groups are most likely to engage in, and which are most affected by, hazardous and heavy episodic drinking. This work contributes to designing appropriate policy strategies to reduce harmful drinking. Alcohol Alcohol 44:229-43. The effect of alcohol consumption on earnings.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
The Government has prepared a draft law on waste management and a National Waste Management Strategy which was approved by the parliament in 2013. Data are requested from waste collection companies, which report annual waste volumes collected. Data on generated MSW are not available but, considering that only the urban population is served by regular collection, only about 50 per cent of waste generated in the Republic of Moldova was collected in 2011.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
This is likely due to the Islamisation of Indonesian law following independence (Cammack and Feener, 2012, Lukito, 2013, and Salim, 2008). By 2000, it can be observed that the majority of the world’s countries for which there is data had equal inheritance rights, although the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region remains as a belt of unequal rights. In 1913, only New Zealand, Australia, Finland and Norway had granted women the vote. Among these countries, in 1893 New Zealand became the first to extend the franchise to women. The 1950 map makes clear that the interim period has seen a substantial extension of suffrage to women, as countries where women have the vote now outnumber those where only men could vote. Figure 12.4 below shows that the two big jumps in extending the vote to women came after the First and Second World Wars.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
For a household with two adults and two children, the threshold level of income guaranteed by the RSI has dropped from 62% of the poverty line in 2009 to 46% in 2013. The changes have hardly affected the incidence of poverty, since most of the affected incomes below the poverty line. However, the reforms have made the poor poorer.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
The assessment further suggested that “many of the evaluation and task-management skills that are essential for online navigation may also he taught and learned with conventional, analogue pedagogies and tools’’ (OECD, 2015(23])- Further investments in high quality education are essential for building a strong ICT sector and preparing young people for the jobs of the future. The increasing popularity of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) provided by many universities and other companies and institutions have the potential to transform consumers of digital content into entrepreneurs. Both private and public stakeholders are engaged in using online education for improving digital skills in developing countries. Google’s Digital Skills for Africa project aims to train Africans in digital skills and online marketing through its online portal.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
The principle of NDA is to regulate the leaching of nitrogen at the output level and leave some flexibility to farmers with respect to their farming practices as long as they observe pollution limits. Around 100 livestock farms operating in the Lake Taupo catchment area are now being allocated their discharge allowances based on the measurements of the nitrogen they are leaching. The NDAs can be traded among farmers. This underscores one important feature of pollution trading schemes, such as NDA: they typically enable cost-effective solutions for specific environmental problems, but can be demanding in terms of design and administration. Since the mid-1980s, a series of studies in New Zealand have focussed on this issue. Although covering different farm/industry types and done in different economic and policy situations, these studies help to understand the relative importance of farming risks and to see how the farming risk environment has changed over time.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
Due to the fact that the use of the patented substance is subject to the patentee’s consent, unauthorized third parties engaging in the manufacturing of similar products risk patent infringement suits. The granting of pharmaceutical patents may therefore entail considerable challenges for generic drugs producers. A patent granted on the pharmaceutical substance is therefore usually considered to be a more serious obstacle for generic producers than a patent granted for the process of making or using a drug.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
The importance of considering products and services in terms of their complete lifecycle is introduced and explained. This remains the single most important of the Millennium Development Goals. Economic growth is thus of key importance to developing countries and many of their policymakers believe that developed countries, having already accomplished a high level of satisfaction of their needs, now wish to suggest frugality and restraint on consumption in the developing world. China, for instance, is now considered the "factory to the world”.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg12)
Thus, for the development of linkages, it matters which infrastructure investments are prioritized. This in turn will depend upon how the stock of infrastructure has evolved historically relative to income, the pattern and pace of urbanization, the economic and institutional structures of countries (Fay et al , 2017) as well as how the investments are likely to induce linkages with local private sector activity. However, even at low levels of infrastructural development, there is no guarantee that new infrastructure of the same kind w ill result in similar outcomes across countries or sectors. For example, although there is a link between power outages and productivity of firms, these impacts will vary between countries and sectors, depending on how acute the problem of power provision in the country is, and how dependent a sector is on continuous power provision for its production (Moyo, 2013).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
The policies in question can be classified into three levels according to their scope of incidence (IFAD, 2009). At the intermediate level are policies that determine the availability and mechanisms of access to various components of the financial infrastructure and to productive development tools, along with components of the infrastructure and distribution networks that enable small-scale rural producers to increase their productivity, sales and profit margins. Lastly, at the micro level, the relevant policies are aimed at strengthening the capacities of both the users and the providers of financial services, and of the authorities responsible for regulation and supervision of the system. To that end, best public-policy practices are identified by contrasting the experience of five countries in different phases of the process of formulating and implementing comprehensive financial-inclusion strategies.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Any EECCA countries that wish to pursue a direct access modality under the GCF or the Adaptation Fund can usefully consider potential candidates for a national or regional implementing entity that can directly access certain types of climate finance sources. Some of the countries, such as Uzbekistan, have started to prepare for direct access. However, since finding such candidates and developing their capacities to be accredited is often time consuming, it is unlikely that direct access will become the favoured modality of EECCA countries in the short term.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
This chapter explores how members of Masonic lodges in Israel extend the logic of friendship to a broader organizational and civic context. The study follows the intersections of interpersonal, public, and collective intimacy in members’ ritual activities and everyday life. Lodge members take on the roles of citizen, bureaucrat, priest, and president concurrently, partly collapsing the distinctions between personal and collective ties, between the familiar and the revered. Their understanding of fraternity carries over to questions of citizenship and patriotism and straddles particularist and universalist interpretations of national solidarity, a tension best captured in the model of civic-nationalism.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Many countries (among them the United States, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Greece, Portugal, the United Kingdom and Ireland) have levels of market income inequality similar to those seen in Latin America and the Caribbean, but are able to achieve very significant reductions in inequality (between 12 and 26 Gini index points, see annex table I.A.l). The bulk of that redistribution may be attributed to transfers, and within transfers, to contributory public pensions, which account for 55% of all transfers on average in OECD member countries (Journard and others, 2012). The region's high levels of inequality are not reversed through public intervention, as they are in the OECD member countries, basically because the region's labour markets have a high rate of informality, which in the long run translates into very limited access to pensions.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
They should also establish the research capacity necessary to assess the effects of climate or environment change on fish stocks and aquatic ecosystems. ( Some countries consider that fisheries management can be improved, under the responsibility of the administration, by the active participation of management bodies and by the use of management instruments that enhance fisher’s sense of shared involvement in solutions. For some other countries, co-management frameworks that provide for input from fishers are considered to be valuable by providing improved user right and stewardship over the resource, in addition to being a valuable source of information.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
Milk production increased over six times, from 20.8 million tonnes in 1970, to 133 million tonnes in 2012. Production of beef from the buffalo herd has recently been undertaken for export shipments, putting India into the top three bovine meat exporters in the world (Box 7.2 in Chapter 7). As the second largest producer of fish in the world, India’s production has grown almost four times since 1980, including a 12-fold increase in aquaculture production during this period. Both events are described below. To ensure market support, the Food Corporation of India and the mechanism of market support prices were established in the mid-1960s.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
Obese people earn 18 per cent less than people who are not obese (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2012a). Therefore, the first concern will be increasing agricultural productivity, in particular in countries where the prevalence of hunger is higher and where large productivity gaps still exist. The main challenge, however, is to increase food production while minimizing the environmental impact and increasing natural resource use efficiency.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
The States Parties to the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance considers the obligation of States under the Charter of the United Nations to promote universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms. The States parties consider the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, recalling the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other relevant international instruments in the fields of human rights, humanitarian law and international criminal law.Keywords: enforced disappearance, human rights, international criminal law, international humanitarian law, United Nations
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
Development in this case is tantamount to a process of poverty reduction. Note that we have earlier defined the unskilled reservation wage to be equal to the minimum cost of living that would be necessary to ensure a person’s continued survival and continued capacity as a labourer. This could be seen as in line with a threshold level of income for absolute poverty.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
In most advanced economies, primary and secondary education is usually available free of charge. But early childhood education is subsidised to different degrees in different countries. The same is true of tertiary or college education, which may mean that parents in some countries must try to put aside significant sums even when their children are still young.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
External assessments may be applied to a full student cohort or only in some schools and classrooms (for example, on-demand assessments that schools can use to measure their own progress and benchmark themselves against national averages). For example, there are also hybrid forms of assessment that are developed externally but implemented and marked internally by the students’ own teachers. How to best design assessment frameworks drawing on a mix of internal and external approaches in order to achieve stated summative and formative purposes will be another guiding question throughout this chapter. These terms are briefly defined below, as they will be used frequently throughout the chapter.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
The targeting process considered two different steps: first geographical targeting according to the incidence of child labour, second household targeting via a proxy means test. Thanks to this detailed methodology, the programme achieved a good targeting performance, given that approximately 66 per cent of benefits reached households in the poorest quintile (Fiszbein and Schady, 2009). The amount of the monthly cash transferred was different according to the recipients' area of origin, ranging from R$25 in rural areas to R$40 in urban areas for each child registered.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
It also provides an overview of key recent policy developments. Many member and non-member economies are undertaking important structural and policy reform in their fisheries sector, and new governance structures and management instruments are being put in place. Finally, this general survey offers an overview of the activities of the OECD Committee for Fisheries (COFI) and the OECD Fisheries Secretariat.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg14)
1999|H5|, Ares Abalde, 2014[ij). The small number of students and teachers in these schools shapes the ways in which schools can use the time of teachers and students, and how these are grouped by grades and abilities (Mulcahy, 2009[ii6i). Parents may be concerned about their children learning together with children of different ages in the same classroom (Cornish, 2006[ii7j), but research suggests that multigrade teaching is not necessarily less effective than in age-specific classes.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
The standard is expected to offer a range of benefits, such as providing a logical and consistent methodology for identifying and implementing EE improvements across facilities, offering guidance on benchmarking, measuring, documenting and reporting energy intensity improvements and their projected impact on reductions in GHG emissions, and assisting facilities in evaluating and prioritizing the implementation of new energy-efficient technologies. For example, the EU Energy End-Use Efficiency and Energy Services Directive sets a 9 per cent energy saving target by 2016, and the United Kingdom’s Energy Efficiency Action Plan 2007 expects a saving of 18 per cent (DEFRA, 2007). The payment for the services delivered is based, either wholly or in part, on the achievement of energy efficiency improvements and on the meeting of the other agreed performance criteria (an EU Directive definition).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
However, so far results have been mixed, with progress made on a new provider (DRG) payment system but stalled implementation of hospital reorganisation plans and continued accumulation of debts. Numbers of physicians and particularly nurses are low compared to the EU average. Following the country's accession to the EU, the outward migration of health workers to other Member States has increased and contributed to the workforce shortage in the Croatian health system.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
Some of the blame for weak agricultural performance, however, also lies with the developing countries, which have neglected agriculture and particularly the potential of smallholder agriculture. That is, they may not have die cash to be able to buy food. Both the rural and urban poor face such physical and economic access issues.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
Not only the resource as such which embeds the carbon component is of relevance, in fact this risk is exacerbated by changes in global climate policies in the negotiations of which many individual countries may have a very limited role. If ceteris paribus the issue of climate change is to be embraced and to be transformed into stringent carbon reduction policy in the economically leading countries and regions across the world, this would be expected to boost the role of nuclear in securing power supply. This is particularly relevant for fair comparisons involving coal- and gas-based technology with application of carbon capture and storage (CCS). Numerous publications of CCS promoters and official statistics providers present estimates (or rather projections assuming deployment of cutting-edge technology and contestably high learning rates), comprising GHG emissions at the generating plant only.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)