albertmartinez/OSDG huggingface dataset:
For example, the UK Foresight study estimated the total adaptation investment needed to address flooding (coastal, river and intra-urban) over the next 80 years at between GBP 22 billion and GBP 75 billion for a portfolio of responses, depending on the scenario, implying average annual costs of up to EUR 1 billion per year. Similarly, a recently conducted assessment on flood protection and flood risk management in the Netherlands estimates that the implementation of a comprehensive set of adaptation measures will cost EUR 1.2-1.6 billion per year up to 2050 and EUR 0.9-1.5 billion per year during the period 2050-2100. A Swedish national study estimated potentially large investment costs for adaptation across a wider range of sectors (including transport, water treatment, infrastructure, flood protection) of up to EUR 10 billion (total) in the period 2010-2100. The lack of perception of a need for action or lack of perception of a benefit from the action presents two potential obstacles to timely or effective adaptation. Timing errors are likely in either direction - either too early or too late - with implications for the economic efficiency of adaptation.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
It is based on real word data rather than modelled data, which suggests that it has solid empirical roots. Furthermore, the approach has been applied in many countries and a whole range of the accounts have been in use and tested for a number of years already. Most countries have however focused on applying the specific parts of the SEEA that they had a specific interest in. The data which feeds into the SEEA tends to be widely accessible, for the most part - although some of the data is provided by industry in the context of non-disclosure agreements between statistical offices and the industry.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
They are reported at the school level, benchmarked against national and municipal averages, and adjusted for student characteristics, for school management and improvement. There is wide scope for improvement in the use of Lithuania’s well-developed assessment resources, including expanded use by school leaders and teachers for the purpose of improving school management and instructional practices, and by authorities outside of schools who are responsible for external quality assurance. Lithuania has established effective universal participation in a criterion-referenced national assessment in grades 4, 6, and 8. It should now conclude its use of the National Survey of Student Achievement, incorporating into its assessment sy stem those components of the National Survey, such as teacher and student questionnaires, that provide information judged to be valuable by teachers, school heads, and other stakeholders.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
It is also consistent with the results of recent OECD research, which showed a strong positive relationship between the amount of developed land per capita and the number of cars per 100 residents (see Annex 1.A2).5 However, Korea’s motorisation rate is below what many European countries, the United States and Canada registered at comparable income levels (Figure 1.6). It also remains one of the lowest in the OECD (Figure 1.7). This is likely the result of a comparatively efficient public transport system, coupled with population densities that allow for widespread use of public transport, which indicates bus and rail hereinafter except some cases including the national public transport master plan in Table 1.1. Korea’s low motorisation rate relative to its income level bodes well for its capacity to prevent further congestion and to enhance ecological sustainability. Org/l 0.1787/9789264235199-17-en.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
Both approaches were concerned with investment planning and both (albeit to different degrees) recognized that expanding output ahead of demand would give rise to further complementary investments and innovations. This was particularly true of infrastructure investments, given the significant indivisibilities those involved. Indeed, the two theories began w ith the challenge of a divergence between social and private returns, employed much the same conceptual framework - indivisibilities, externalities, increasing returns, complementarities in supply and demand - and acknowledged a central role for the state.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Statistical tests based on newly collected cross-sectional data suggest that countries which have more first-tier subnational governments relative to their population are more corrupt. I measure the strength of association between “corruption” and the variables “population per regional government” and “average area of first-tier unit,” both individually and combined as the interaction effect “size decentralization,” in 100 randomly selected countries. Two theoretical arguments may explain these associations: (i) the greater the quantity of first-tier subnational units with monopolistic powers, such as legal and regulatory sanctions, the greater the incentives for bribery and extortion, and (ii) elected authorities and public servants of smaller regional governments are more vulnerable to capture by a corrupt private elite, especially when control and accountability mechanisms are weaker than national ones. This paper also provides some support for existing corruption theories, namely that wealthy countries with Protestant societies use democratic systems more effectively to control corruption.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
This subcomponent organizes environment statistics on land cover, ecosystems and biodiversity, as well as their recordable changes over time and across locations. Land cover is defined by FAO as “the observed (bio) physical cover on the earth’s surface. Ecosystems can be broadly defined as a community of organisms, together with their physical environment, viewed as a system of interacting and interdependent relationships. Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part, including diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.29 It is also a measure of ecosystem health.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg6)
Understanding these differences could help low- and middle-income countries formulate immigration and integration policies that maximise the development potential of immigration. They were selected based on their interest in the project, a substantial (but varying) share of immigrants and a relatively low share of humanitarian immigrants. By working with a diverse group of countries in terms of their geographic location and economic and immigration history and characteristics, the project aimed to provide an indication of the range of possible economic impacts of immigration in developing countries. It therefore addressed not only stakeholders in the ten partner countries, but equally policy makers and other interested parties in other low- and middle-income countries with mid-sized to large immigrant populations.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg8)
Introduction - recovering from civil conflict, Edward Newman and Albrecht Schnabel post-conflict peacebuilding and second-generation preventive action, Albrecht Schnabel "transitional justice" - the impact of transnational norms and the UN, Edward Newman the UN, peacekeeping and collective human security - from "an agenda for peace" to the Brahimi report, Sorpong Peou on the challenges and achievements of reforming UN peace operations, Jean-Marie Guehenno World Bank, NGOs and the private sector in post-war reconstruction, Vesna Bojicic-Dzelilovic peace operations finance and the political economy of a way out, Jean Daudelin and Lee J.M. Seymour post-conflict elections - constraints and dangers, Benjamin Reilly current international civil administration - the need for political legitimacy, Sally Morphet refugees and post-conflict reconstruction - a critical perspective, B.S. Chimni demobilization, reintegration and peacebuilding in Africa, Kees Kingma building peace after mass crimes, Beatrice Pouligny.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
One example of such an initiative was the development grants awarded by the Teacher Development Agency in the United Kingdom, which provided funding to trainers for development in the area of ICT without specifying the exact content. This had a positive impact on the development of new tools and resources for use in teaching and teacher education as it encouraged staff, such as teacher trainers, to become more active in researching the field. At the policy level, it is important that teachers and trainers are provided with incentives for development that are flexible and not too prescriptive. The existence of strong ICT national policies and strategies has been an important driver in some cases, particularly when developed bottom-up.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg4)
But despite growing popularity and increasing recognition of the potential benefits of an accessibility-based approach, governments face the challenge of developing accessibility-based decision-making frameworks i.e. policy, planning and investment frameworks in which accessibility considerations are central criteria systematically guiding decisions. This report examines how accessibility indicators can support such a shift. Figure 1 summarises this transition and highlights the weak and imperfect link between physical movement and the objectives of overall well-being and sustainability.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
These active ingredients have previously been patented in separate medical products. The generic producers would need a license from the patent holder(s) for all of these ingredients for production and sale of the new FDC. The owner of a patent on a pharmaceutical active ingredient may choose not to license the invention to any third party to remain the only supplier on the market for that active ingredient.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg3)
Again, it is important to note how Thailand and Myanmar define their primary forests as explained above. Myanmar has the greatest total remaining forest area but has also seen the greatest forest loss among the Mekong countries. Most of the decrease has been in the other naturally regenerated forests, with a much smaller portion of deforestation being reported in the remaining primary forests. The total population in 2015 was 15.6 million - it increased by approximately 73 percent during 1990 to 2015, with a 62 percent increase in rural population and a 130 percent increase in urban population.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
The analysis also assumes a 50% increase in gas tariff by 2020. This flaw in the methodology limits operators’ investment, because they need to account for the risk that these investments may not be profitable and may not even cover the costs of capital. Also, there is a need to set asset value based on economic and not on accounting value, which in the case of old assets has a significant effect on the capacity of the operator to replace assets.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Good governance—which includes accountability, transparency, an effective bureaucracy, regulatory quality, electoral competition, political checks and balances and rule of law—is considered the single most important factor in eradicating poverty and promoting development. The article discusses changes that have taken place in India with regard to governance reforms, focusing on reforms related to decentralisation. A review of available evidence does not provide any definitive conclusion about the effectiveness of decentralisation in facilitating democratic deepening and improving the responsiveness of government. In most cases, decentralisation has failed to bring popular participation and accountability to local government, thereby making it less responsive to citizens’ desires and less effective in delivering services. Appropriate institutions, rules and incentive mechanisms are needed to link the citizens with government. Capacity development of the citizens and conscious and combined efforts by govern...
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
The end of the Cold War witnessed a renewed attempt to deal with massive human rights violations. Efforts to establish accountability in Cambodia and East Timor through war crimes tribunals or truth commissions regarding the Khmer Rouge and Suharto's Indonesia have been obstructed by domestic forces and outside powers. Since the domestic courts lack impartiality and resources, tribunals and truth commissions must be integrated in a comprehensive and international manner to administer justice and begin the process of reconciliation. Dilemmas of justice versus peace, and amnesty versus accountability are subordinate to the role of great powers. Thus, individual criminal responsibility must apply to those directly responsible but also to the decision-makers of great power patrons such as China and the United States, which aided the Khmer Rouge and Indonesian military, respectively. Therefore, the time span of the conflict must be broadly defined to incorporate the harmful role of all actors.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
It is therefore necessary to devise policies that will bring about changes in the production structure and its orientation so that demand-led factors may open the way for a type of growth that is more solidly based on equity, with equity being a policy goal in its own right, rather than being seen as an “add-on". This will require breaking down major labour-market entry barriers so that social protection can be combined with labour and economic policies that will provide reliable, ongoing funding for integrated service systems. Labour policy should focus on ensuring that the employment regime incorporates the needs associated with the family life cycle and that employment regulations designed to afford social protection are applied equally to men and women so that women will not be seen as “expensive” workers by potential employers and so that the hours that women work in the labour market are matched by a positive impact on aggregate demand, productivity and growth.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
On the tax side, the total tax-to-GDP ratio stands above the OECD average (37% and 35%, respectively, in 2008) while the progressivity of household taxes is close to the OECD average. However, the progressivity of the personal income tax and social security contributions is steeper at the lower end than at the upper end of the income distribution. Where the solid line falls inside the OECD average, the variable considered stands below the OECD average.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
They do not capture how change processes were initiated and if they were on track to achieve intended objectives. Backlash raises the issue of sustainability of results. Gender analysis and monitoring and evaluation of gender results have been inconsistent in tracking gender reversals. This effect, sometimes described as ‘one step forward, two steps back’, was mentioned most often in democratic governance results, followed by institutional gender mainstreaming and then the poverty and MDG area.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
With the 2003 adoption of the UN Convention Against Corruption, good-governance norms have achieved—on the formal level at least—a degree of recognition that can fairly be called universal. This reflects a centuries-long struggle to establish the moral principle of “ethical universalism,” which brings together the ideas of equity, reciprocity, and impartiality. The West’s success in promoting this norm has been extraordinary, yet there are also significant risks. Despite expectations that international concern and increased regulation would lead to less corruption, current trends suggest otherwise. Exchanges between countries perceived as corrupt and countries perceived as noncorrupt seem to lead to an increase in corruption in the noncorrupt states rather than its decrease in the corrupt ones. Direct good-governance interventions have had poor results. And anticorruption has helped populist politicians, who use anti-elite rhetoric similar to that of anticorruption campaigners.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg16)
The length of the agreement is based on the project duration, which is often up to three years. However, the payment disbursements schedule also varies depending on the type of activities being implemented. For instance, for reforestation activities that require purchasing plants and seedlings, payments are made up front.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
The period since the 1995 Beijing Plan of Action has seen the ascension of African women to key decisionmaking positions, including the election and re-election of Africa’s first female presidents. Joyce Banda became President of Malawi in 2012, and H.E. Catherine Samba-Panza took over the Presidency of the Central African Republic in 2014. In 2015, H.E. Ameenah Gufrib-Fakium became President of Mauritius.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg5)
The delivery of energy services is a multisectoral phenomenon, and thus considerations of the linked vulnerabilities of major infrastructures should be part of an analysis of potential adaptation options. One of the biggest challenges is that some utilities are facing declining loads. Owing to the economic downturn and more wealthy customers opting to switch to self-generation energy options (including solar PV systems with battery), some utilities have found that their annual energy production has declined year on year - in some cases for the first time ever. A majority of this is from customers connecting small, distributed renewable energy systems (predominantly solar PV) to the grid.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)
Since the wage premium varies with labour income, its share in labour income increases along the earnings distribution. On average in Europe, the rent share is 16% for financial sector employees in the bottom 90% of the overall earnings distribution and 27% for those in the top 10% (Table 1). Observations are weighted to make the sample representative of the actual population. The bottom 90% and top 10% refer to the overall income distribution.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg10)
Historically, however, SMEs have been largely overlooked in the global agenda. The same goes for a more advanced role for women, for productive capacity in the developing world, for jobs that are decent and move people out of poverty, and so on. They can follow up by taking action and making commitments linked to specific Global Goals. There is a long menu to choose from, including issues like climate, water, health and education.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg9)
Payments are withheld if a supplier fails to meet the specified conditions. Conditional payments are used in a number of jurisdictions as a compliance mechanism. In the Biobanking scheme in New South Wales, Australia a biobanking agreement is made between a landowner and the New South Wales Minister for the Environment at the establishment of a biobank site which includes the details of the estimated land management costs in perpetuity.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg15)
It may refer to an absolute or to a relative standard. An absolute poverty line usually reflects a minimum cost necessary to cover basic caloric and non-caloric needs, without reference to social context or norms. A relative poverty line is defined relative to the average or median income or consumption in a particular society.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
The level of the transfer is a critical factor. In PWPs, wages are often kept low because of perceived concerns about “handouts” and disruptions to local agricultural casual labour markets and rates (McCord, 2013). Jalan and Ravallion (2003, cited in McCord, 2013) find that in the Maharashtra Employment Guarantee Scheme (MEGS), taking the forgone wage labour opportunities into account, the net value of the wage decreases to half of the gross wage. Evidence from the PSNP demonstrates that it can protect food security and asset levels in the presence of repeated shocks. In Ethiopia, households living in areas that experienced a minimum of two droughts but that also received PSNP payments for two or more years were able to maintain their existing levels of food consumption (HLPE, 2012).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg2)
The Constitution (72nd Amendment) Act, 1992, prescribes two new institutions to regulate the flow of funding to municipalities. One new institution is the Central Finance Commission, which both suggests new taxation and financial policies that the states can apply to the municipalities under their sway, but under the new arrangements since 1992, the Governor of a state is required set up a finance commission to review the local system, to propose new taxes, and to govern grants in aid to municipalities from the consolidated funds of the state.37 in spite of these constitutional requirements, results have been limited. With only 1.1 percent of GDP, municipal expenditures in India compare very unfavourably with OECD countries, but even with other BRICS countries such as Brazil, Russia and South Africa.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg11)
The resultant slowdown is likely to affect the behaviour of the poverty line next year, potentially prolonging the less favourable trend forecast for 2008. In this setting, it will also be difficult for real wages to improve significantly, and on average they are expected to remain unchanged. Accordingly, average real household income from employment —the main financial source for most of the population— cou Id fall in per capita terms. This group consists predominantly of own-account workers and wage earners in precarious jobs, which are usually more sensitive to the business cycle. This would also make their incomes more vulnerable, e Caribbean (ECLAC).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
Furthermore there are examples where adaptation efforts have linkages to mitigation approaches, for instance Antigua and Barbuda where increasing desalination capacity will be achieved through use of renewable energy sources. For each issue, more detailed discussions and examples are provided in the Annex. About one-third of the adaptation components of INDCs (the adaptation components) do not mention timeframes.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg13)
Given that approximately 20% of poor children in two-parent families lived with a father who was not working for most of the year in 2013, increasing coverage of unemployment and/or social assistance benefits could improve the standard of living of many poor children. Relative poverty is 16% among households headed by a non-regular worker compared to only 5% in those headed by a regular worker (OECD, 2016): reducing the barriers between regular and non-regular employment is key to improving the living standards of one-earner households. For example, one option may be to further limit opening hours.
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg1)
One of the most important policy documents is the Energy Strategy of the Republic of Moldova until 2020, which has been published in 2007 and has three strategic objectives: security of energy supply, promoting energy and economic efficiency, and liberalization of the energy market and restructuring of power industry. The Ministry of Economy monitors the progress of strategy implementation on a quarterly basis. Energy efficiency is a priority in the Republic of Moldova and strategic policy objectives for energy conservation have been defined in the National Programme of Energy Conservation (2003).
(Sustainable Development Goal: sdg7)