ai4data/datause-dataset-rechunked huggingface dataset:
Full results are presented in Table 3. But these national results on exposure are not evenly be distributed across the country. The spatial analysis also allows us to examine which districts have the highest absolute and the highest relative exposure. We present results for the 25-year flood, for a historical and a high 6 Results presented are similar to a previous study analyzing the exposure to a 100-year return period flood without climate change impacts, which finds 40 million people to be exposed to that event (Jongman et al. 2014). While we had planned to compare our simulated results with national statistics, these statistics were unavailable at the time of analysis. However, we consulted our findings with individuals familiar with the Vietnam context who ended to agree that the numbers were in the range of plausible estimates.
In order to improve the situation, ideally information on (i) high spatial resolution of the coastal zone elevation, (ii) high spatial resolution of wetlands, (iii) clear delineation of current wetlands and (iv) location specific information on the wetland migratory potential are necessary. High spatial resolution of the coastal zone elevation will refine the estimates of exposed area to SLR. High spatial resolution wetlands information would allow a more accurate correspondence between the exposed area of SLR and wetland area. Precise delineation of wetlands is generally difficult from remotely sensed data and land cover data. Remotely sensed data measure the vegetation, but may not account for the soil type and the wetland plants may not be easily distinguished by remote sensing. Land cover products are often produced from composite imagery over a time period, so the frequency of the data or the smoothing of multiple observations may make the wetland delineation difficult. In addition, location specific information on the Wetland Migratory Potential would add accuracy to the areas where wetlands can migrate (e.g. excluding human altered landscapes such as urban areas). ###### **III.3 Economic losses** As indicated earlier, wetlands provide a flow of goods and services, which contribute to the welfare
(5) Total annual regionally adjusted household expenditure (local currency, regionally deflated). (6) Total food expenditure (nondeflated). (7) Total housing expenditure (nondeflated). (8) Total health and education expenditure (nondeflated). (9) Total household energy expenditure (gas and electricity) (nondeflated). *** p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.1. All regressions control for year and district fixed effects, urban dummy, age, and years of education. **7. Robustness for district-level estimations** **7.2 Using production levels** We continue by exploring the effects of mining intensity as proxied by district-level production volumes. The estimation will be similar to equation (2), but we replace the indicator variable for being an active mining district with annual gold production in the district: Y��� - β�gold_production�� - ∝�� g� �λX�� �ε��� �4� The measure of gold production is in 10 tons of gold produced, and gold_production�� is either _gold_year_district_, which equals the total production of all mines in a district in the different survey years, or _gold_period_district_, which equals total production for the years before the survey. For the 1993 survey, the period is 1990–93, for 1998 it is 1994–98, and so on. Using production levels instead of an indicator of having any production in the district has the advantage of capturing the intensity of
by the recipient (such as limited/restricted competitive bidding, request for quotations/shopping, direct contracting), will be consistent with the requirements set out in paragraphs 5.3 and 5.4 d. as appropriate. 13. **Publication (advertising).** The recipient is required to prepare and submit to the World Bank a General Procurement Notice. The World Bank will arrange for its publication in the United Nations Development Business online (UNDB online) and on the World Bank’s external website. Specific Procurement Notices for all procurement under international competitive procedures and requests for expressions of interest for all consulting services, estimated equivalent to US$300,000 and above, will be published in UNDB online and on the World Bank’s external website and at least one newspaper of national circulation in the recipient’s country or in the official gazette or on a widely used website or electronic portal with free national and international access. 14. **Procurement implementation arrangements.** The project does not foresee complex procurement activities. The hands-on experience gained under Government funded project will pave the way for improvements in organizing and performing the procurement functions more professionally to achieve the PDO. MoHAIS will delegate financial and Page 41
wetlands and GLWD Coastal Wetlands of SA amount to 900 and 840 square kilometers respectively. GLWD coastal wetlands Brackish / saline wetlands Square kilometers Square kilometers 10000 1969 SubSaharan Africa 938 Latin America & the Caribbean 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 1278 SubSaharan Africa Square kilometers 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 0 East Asia & the Pacific 691 Latin America & the Caribbean East Asia & the Pacific Freshwater marsh 10085 2217 4 7159 Middle East & North Africa 862 SubSaharan Africa 847 South Asia 12402 East Asia & the Pacific 2619 Middle East & North Africa 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 903 South Asia South Asia Middle East & North Africa 2908 Latin America & the Caribbean 2000 0 **Figure 1. Lost wetlands by types of wetlands and regions, for a 1m SLR** Freshwater marsh GLWD coastal wetlands Brackish / saline wetlands East Asia & the Pacific South Asia Middle East & North Africa Latin America & the Caribbean South Asia Middle East & North Africa Latin America & the Caribbean East Asia & the Pacific South Asia Middle East & North Africa Latin America & the Caribbean **Figure 2. Distribution of lost wetlands by types of wetlands across
in Africa. The probability of adoption of irrigation increases in regions with lower temperatures (for example Egypt and South Africa), while it decreases in warmer regions. Irrigation in cooler regions is more profitable because it requires less water and the crops are more productive. Similarly, in regions of higher precipitation or available flow, the probability of adopting irrigation decreases. Irrigation is less profitable in wetter locations because the fixed cost of irrigation remains the same but the net increment to production declines. In the probit model, we controlled for water flow by including the log transformation of a long run average (30 years) of estimated mean flow. The coefficient on this variable is positive and significant. In the selection model, we also controlled for soils. The soil variables reflect the proportion of a district with a particular soil type. The inclusion of certain soils specific to a particular region or district results in the model not being full rank (thereby making the interpretation of the statistical significance of the coefficients unreliable). As a result, we included only those soils that are jointly significant for both irrigated and dryland farms. We then turned to estimating the second stage model of net
agricultural extension officers from MoA. (b) **Co-investments in subprojects.** While all eligible farmers and cooperatives will receive TA, only a subset will receive investment from the project for assets or working capital. Eligible farmers will be incentivized to apply for financing through well-organized cooperatives, common interest groups or producer groups. Eligibility criteria might include (i) businesses already operating with well-maintained financial records, (ii) climate-smart business plan, (iii) potential demand for products or services, (iv) financial viability and technical feasibility of business plan, (v) willingness to take up climate adaptation and mitigation measures, and (vi) preference for women and youth. Precise selection criteria will be developed by the service provider in consultation with local officials from the MoA, with proposals screened by a committee of local sector experts. Up to 70 percent of business proposals will be funded through the project. The co-investee farmers or cooperatives will receive additional technical support on the operation and maintenance of purchased assets. A grants’ manual will be developed. 36 World Bank. 2023. _Zambia Gender Assessment_ . 37 Finscope Survey 2020 and in-person consultations at Meheba settlement 2022/23. Page 19
spent migrating. Finally, reforms contributed to higher agricultural yields and profits through three channels, namely (i) greater rental market activity that transferred land to more productive producers; (ii) substitution of purchased inputs for labor; and (iii) a shift out of grains towards vegetables, corn, and oilseeds, all of which offer higher levels of profitability. All of these findings are consistent with the notion that, without reforms, tenure insecurity and transaction cost in factor markets undermined investment and functioning of land and labor markets, preventing high value peri-urban land from being used most effectively and reducing job creation, especially for the less affluent and educated. As China considers how to build on what has been achieved, pilot results point to important substantive lessons in terms of key elements of reform implementation and elements of what has been done in Chengdu reform are thus likely to form an integral part of any future reform package. While we can only estimate impacts of the entire reform package rather than individual components, careful design of future reforms, with an emphasis on evaluation right from the start, could help to further enhance lessons 18 Reform-induced increases in supply of (young) own labor noted above are
**The World Bank** Costa Rica Results in Education (CORE) (P181174) according to the National Household Survey data for age cohorts from the National Institute for Statistics and the Census, while a little over 40 percent of individuals aged 55-59 in 2023 had completed at least lower secondary education (9 years of education), this number more than doubles to 85 percent of 20-24 year olds. The 2020 Human Capital Index shows that a child born in Costa Rica can expect to be 63 percent as productive with the current education and health services as he or she could be if he or she enjoyed complete education and full health, which is slightly higher than the LAC average of 60 percent. [9] Costa Rica aspires to go beyond being among the best in the LAC region, to be on the global vanguard of the digital age, with education outcomes on par with the OECD, a highly skilled workforce, and a transformative digitalization and management agenda. **Foundational Learning** 5. **National assessments show weakness in foundational learning, and learning outcomes are strongly correlated** **to socioeconomic conditions, which points to the need for foundational learning with deeper attention to the education** **outcomes of students from
and often complex. [5] The rapid loss of the global coastal wetland stock in the 20 [th] century was primarily caused by direct land reclamation. While significant losses due to human actions are likely to continue in the future, it is projected that stresses on wetland areas may be further aggravated in the 21 [st] century due to climate change. Wetlands face a number of hazards including rise in sea-level, increased atmospheric 4 A precise and widely agreed upon definition of wetland is not available. RAMSAR convention, a UNESCO-based intergovernmental treaty on wetlands adopted in 1971, defines wetlands as (Article 1.1): areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water with the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters, and highlights (in Article 2.1) that wetlands may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six meters at low tide lying within the islands. 5 These causes include sea-level rise, waves, erosion, subsidence, storms and biotic effects. Human actions include drainage for agriculture & forestry,
#### **Impact of Property Rights Reform to Support China’s Rural-Urban** **Integration:** **Household-Level Evidence from the Chengdu National Experiment [¶]** Klaus Deininger [†], Songqing Jin [‡], Shouying Liu [♯], Fang Xia [♦] †World Bank, Washington DC ‡Michigan State University, East Lansing MI ♯Development Research Center of the State Council, Beijing ♦Central University of Finance and Economics, Beijing **JEL Codes O1, O43, R14, R3** **Keywords: Urban development, land use change, China, financial development** - Email: kdeininger@worldbank.org; jins@anr.msu.edu; liusy@drc.gov.cn; xia.fang.fx@gmail.com. We thank NBS, in particular Pingping Wang, Wei Wu, Yilin Feng, and Jianliang Di, as well as the Chengdu Statistical office, especially Taixiang Zhao, Xiaoying Gu, Yuan Lin, Yufang Chen, Qiuyan Chen, and Shiming Ren for access to data and support, Ting Shao for communication with NBS and the Chengdu Statistical office, and Yihao Li for research assistance. Funding support from the Knowledge for Change Program is gratefully acknowledged.
(1.614) Effect of payout at average payout 3.46 1.68 1.75 4.17 3.55 0.63 Observations 1534 1534 1534 459 459 459 R-squared 0.061 0.118 0.047 0.084 0.285 0.069 _Notes_ : Observations are aggregated at the village level. The dependent variable is the number of insurance purchasers in a village. Panel A includes the sample of villages in 2005 and 2006 in which insurance coverage was offered in the village the following year. Panel B is restricted to villages in which at least on person purchased insurance the following year. The effect at average payout is the overall increase in purchasers estimated at the average payout level. In Panel A, the average ratio of payout to premium is 2.68; in Panel B it is 3.25. All regressions contain state fixed effects. Errors are clustered at the weather station level. ***p _<_ 0.01, **p _<_ 0.05, *p _<_ 0.1. _Source_ : Authors’ analysis based on data from BASIX. In panel B, I restrict the analysis to villages that had at least one buyer the year after insurance outcomes, creating a sample analogous to the “Marketing Restricted Sample” in table 3. The logic behind this is, if a village had zero buyers, it is
**The World Bank** Socio-economic Inclusion of Refugees & Host Communities in Rwanda Project Phase II (P509677) health facilities and market-linked skills training. [7] The 2024 Rwanda FinScope survey also showed relatively low takeup of finance for investments or credit for productive purposes by Rwandese and refugees, limiting business and income-generating opportunities. [8] 7. **High poverty rates and minimal economic activity in the hosting districts constrain self-reliance prospects** **for refugees and host communities alike.** The national non-monetary poverty rate in Rwanda of 30 percent is exceeded in all five districts that host refugee camps. Gisagara, where the Mugombwa camp is located, ranked as the poorest district in the country in the 2022 Census at 45 percent. [9] By comparison, the City of Kigali has the lowest percentage of poor people (9.5 percent). Core elements of the non-monetary poverty index include health, education and living standards, highlighting the dual need to: (a) invest in economic opportunity and access to services in the hosting districts; and (b) at the same time, facilitate refugee mobility out of the camps and rural areas into urban centers, where more opportunities are available and self-reliance is more achievable. 8. **Building on the ongoing Phase I of Jya
for expecting mothers and newborns. Component 2.1 will enhance women’s access to healthcare through improved infrastructure, including all-weather roads, clean energy, and water, as well as investments in maternity wards. These improvements will support reproductive health, prenatal care, and the treatment of issues related to FGM/C. Additionally, the project will foster women’s economic empowerment by supporting livelihoods for women-only Affinity Support Groups (GEAs) and female-led businesses. 16. **Climate change exacerbates the vulnerabilities of already underserved and rural communities in Djibouti** . The country’s harsh climate is characterized by high temperatures and extreme water scarcity. Djibouti has no perennial rivers, 12 [USAID (2024), Djibouti Assistance Overview](https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/2024-08/USAID-BHA_Djibouti_Assistance_Overview-August_2024.pdf) 13 WFP (2024), [WFP Djibouti Country Brief November 2024](https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000163674/download/?_ga=2.195641900.1223889895.1738425185-377343974.1738425185) 14 Malaeb, B., Duplantier, A., Maarraoui, G., Fluet, E. (2023). Towards a More Equitable Development: Constraints and Opportunities of Women in Djibouti. The World Bank, Washington 15 Country Profiles for Early Childhood Development, 2023. 16 According to Malaeb B. et al. (2023), women-owned businesses have higher rates of using informal methods of financing (53 percent compared to 33 percent); women-owned enterprises are usually micro-sized (80 percent of women businesses are sole-proprietorships), informal (42 percent of women businesses are informal), and young (42 percent of women businesses
countries: Number of people exposed to significant flood risk (and as share of total_ _regional population)_ Considering the absolute population exposure figures above biases attention towards large and populous regions. Notably, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Bihar are the three most populous sub-national regions in the world. Instead, considering relative population exposure, i.e. the share of the overall population that is exposed to flood risks, can help identify regions in which flood risks are prevalent across large parts of the population. Figures 10 and 11 present relative flood exposure estimates, which demonstrate that in various regions the vast majority of the population is facing significant flood risks. The sub-national region with the highest relative exposure to flood inundation risk is the Pool region in the Republic of Congo. The region, home to Pool Malebo, has a population of approximately 360,000 people, 91% of whom are exposed to significant flood risk. In all of the top 10 subnational regions in terms of relative population exposure, over two-thirds of the population are estimated to face significant flood risks. Strikingly, regions with high flood exposure can be found in all regions, and in low- and high-income 15
the lowest quintile of the PISA index were below level 2. Foundational learning (literacy and numeracy) in early grades paves the way for future learning, and differences in educational attainment become magnified through youth and adult life in the acquisition of human capital. Without any claims regarding causation, it is useful to look at labor earnings, which are more closely related to human capital than earnings from other assets. OECD figures show that 32 percent of 25–64-year-olds in Costa Rica with low levels of educational attainment (below upper-secondary education) earned less than half of the median earnings for the country and were thus at risk of poverty, if not already poor. [10] **Employability** 6. **In addition to foundational learning, Costa Rica’s education system requires a renewed emphasis on** **competencies for employability, including cognitive, technical and digital skills, socioemotional competencies, and** **English language skills.** Costa Rica’s economy diversified from agricultural commodity exports in the 2000s to an economy centered on high-tech manufacturing and services. Costa Rica contributes to at least 5 major high-tech global value chains: electronics, medical devices, automotive, aeronautic/aerospace, and film/broadcasting devices. However, the education system has not been highly effective in keeping up to the changes by providing
construction land (18.7% and 22.6% of villages with a mean of some 6 disputes). Even where disputes emerged, most cases were resolved by local institutions: in villages with conflict, a total of 1.2 cases required intervention by institutions above the village. After certification, contracts with a length exceeding 30 years were issued for all construction land and more than 95% of all other land use types. Permanent land use contracts were given in close to 72% of cases overall, from 85% of residential and construction land to 80% of collective land, and some 50% and 48% of arable and forest land. Survey data point toward a total cash cost for the program of about Y 8.6 per mu of which close to half (38%) was contributed by the village and the remainder from outside. Villagers contributed close to 2,000 man-days of labor (about 3 days per household) and, with somewhat more than 10 person-months of labor by outsiders, contributions from above the village remained limited. **4. Econometric results** The reform is estimated to have led to a significant increase of 7.7 percent in per capita consumption that was most pronounced for less educated and less wealthy households, and an increment
between Africa and Asia through Israel‘s southern border with Egypt. The asylum seekers originate mainly from Sudan and Eritrea, as well as other Sub-Saharan countries. At the time of writing, it is estimated that around 26,000 asylum seekers have entered Israel and a few hundred more continue to cross the border every month (Nathan 2010). _Sources: UNHCR Statistical Yearbooks. No data available for 2003. UNHCR has not yet published_ _data for 2010._ The Sinai desert serves as a geographical barrier between the countries and only short, 'sensitive' strips of the 260 kilometres are fenced. The asylum seekers often pay large sums to Bedouin smugglers (operating from both sides) who traffic them through the desert. In a border characterised by an active trade of drugs, tobacco, weapons and 2 As I demonstrate below the ̳refugee terminology‘ is contentious. In the interest of coherence I predominantly use the term ―asylum seekers‖, a term which does not tells us much about motivation but refers to the claim, which ought to stand evaluation. Thus, in this work, a person is considered an asylum seeker, until proven otherwise. 2
non-exposed areas are those grid cells where the flood level is zero. This is a measure of extent rather than depth, and has been used in previous studies to examine exposure to floods (Jongman et al. 2014; Winsemius et al. 2015; Ceola et al. 2014). Furthermore, while we lose information by using extent rather than depth (we have depths in our flood data), we decided to use extent since our flood data assumes no protection. Protection is more likely to impact the depth, rather than the extent, of the flood results. [4] 4 There is also a good reason for examining extent over depth, in terms of the hazard modeling; flood depths within a large scale flood model are very uncertain, and there is much more certainty about extents.