ai4data/datause-dataset-rechunked huggingface dataset:
(5) Total annual regionally adjusted household expenditure (local currency, regionally deflated).
(6) Total food expenditure (nondeflated).
(7) Total housing expenditure (nondeflated).
(8) Total health and education expenditure (nondeflated).
(9) Total household energy expenditure (gas and electricity) (nondeflated).

*** p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.1. All regressions control for year and district fixed effects, urban dummy, age, and
years of education.

**7. Robustness for district-level estimations**

**7.2 Using production levels**

We continue by exploring the effects of mining intensity as proxied by district-level production

volumes. The estimation will be similar to equation (2), but we replace the indicator variable

for being an active mining district with annual gold production in the district:

𝑌���        - 𝛽�𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑_𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛��        - ∝�� 𝑔� �𝜆𝑋�� �𝜀���      �4�

The measure of gold production is in 10 tons of gold produced, and 𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑_𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛�� is

either _gold_year_district_, which equals the total production of all mines in a district in the

different survey years, or _gold_period_district_, which equals total production for the years

before the survey. For the 1993 survey, the period is 1990–93, for 1998 it is 1994–98, and so

on.

Using production levels instead of an indicator of having any production in the district has the
The primary needs identified within the Shona community include access to affordable housing, better integration

into the labor market, financial support for business development, and political representation. External support in

these areas, such as land allocation advocacy, education and skills training programs, and inclusion in national safety

programs, is essential for providing a foundation for sustained community growth and prosperity. Partnerships with

government agencies, NGOs, and international organizations could be instrumental in addressing these needs,

ensuring that the Shona community has the necessary resources and support to thrive in a post-citizenship era.

## **Nationality as a tool for development**

**Inclusive national identification systems are recognized as key enablers for development.** Allowing people to

establish and verify their identity is often a prerequisite for access to services and economic opportunities and

exercising a range of rights, such as property ownership and public participation. For governments and businesses,

**[www.unhcr.org](http://www.unhcr.org/)** 9
Even with the increase in unemployment and lower real wages, an increase in labour force means a higher wage pool, which means higher tax income.

Moreover, boosts in private consumption both due to increase in population as well as higher average spending rates means that refugees increased state income from taxation on consumption.
These effects will be strengthened by influx of capital from abroad. In total it is estimated that this increased the total income of the general government sector by 0.8-1.1% in 2022 and 1.05-1.45% in 2023.
Financially this respectively amounts to 10.1-13.7 billion PLN in 2022 and 14.7-19.9 billion PLN in 2023. Comparing this to government expenses on refugees (where although there are no accurate data about government spending on refugees, estimates quoted by a government official put it around 15 billion PLN in 2022 and around 5 billion in 2023 [46] ) we can conclude that the additional income from taxation more than offset the additional expenses [47] that were needed to accommodate them.
In the long term, refugees should increase yearly general government revenue by around 0.85-1.3%.

---
[47] Excluding spending of private households estimated as further 10 billion PLN.
##### **September/ October 2023 report**

### **MONITORING THE PROTECTION RESPONSE**

###### Venezuela

### **PERFORMANCE AND FUNDING**

The PC continues to reinforce the impor
tance of reporting, which allows it to

track funding and conduct advocacy.

Throughout the last years the number of

partners that regularly report 5Ws (cur
renly 345ws), including the implementing

partners of the lead agencies of the Clus
ter and AoRs, increased notoriously.

The activity monitoring dashboard co
vering latest data collection in October

2023 and other information products

[can be accessed in the protection clus-](https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiYzg3NGFkM2EtYjZhMS00YWNkLWE1NjItMjg0OThlMTAzMDM1IiwidCI6ImU1YzM3OTgxLTY2NjQtNDEzNC04YTBjLTY1NDNkMmFmODBiZSIsImMiOjh9)

[ter website, and currently 105 partners](https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiYzg3NGFkM2EtYjZhMS00YWNkLWE1NjItMjg0OThlMTAzMDM1IiwidCI6ImU1YzM3OTgxLTY2NjQtNDEzNC04YTBjLTY1NDNkMmFmODBiZSIsImMiOjh9)

are supporting the 345W reports. Please

note the list of Specific Objectives in

Figure 1 are aligned to the HRP 2022.

The percentage (%) in each chart (see

figure 1) represent the number of benefi
ciaries (individuals) reached against the

target set in the HRP 2022 - 2023.

**14**

353, 037 million USD were received

by the Venezuelan Republic so far in

2023 through the HRP plan, accord
ing to the Financial Tracking Service

(FTS). Requested funding for the Protec
tion Cluster was 101.2 million USD and

33,385,8929 million USD were granted.

According to FTS, the total coverage has
malnutrition), and weight-for-height (underweight) show that the children living in mining

communities before the mine started operating have the lowest scores of all four groups. The

outcomes seem to improve with mining, although not enough to offset the initial adverse

situation.

To test for exogeneity, we run regressions using baseline individual-level data to explore

changes in observable characteristics among women (the main part of the sample). Table 3

shows that there are no significant effects of the mine opening on the age structure, migration

history, marital status, fertility, or education, using the difference-in-difference specification

with a full set of controls. If anything, it seems that women in active mining communities are

marginally older, more likely to never have moved, and more likely to be or have been in a

cohabiting relationship or married. Given the women’s slightly higher age, it is not surprising

to find that they have higher fertility and lower schooling (assuming that schooling has

increased over time in Ghana). All these estimates are, however, insignificant.

**Table 3 Observable characteristics in the DHS individual data**

non- ever currently ever total any schooling

16
NAVIGATING HEALTH AND WELL-BEING CHALLENGES FOR REFUGEES FROM UKRAINE

# Executive summary

The war in Ukraine, now in its third year, continues to have devastating effects on the Ukrainian population, triggering one of the largest displacement crises in Europe since World War II. As of December 2024, over 6.2 million Ukrainian refugees have been recorded across Europe, the majority of whom are women, children, and older persons. The European Union extended the Temporary Protection Directive until March 2026, granting Ukrainian refugees access to essential health services, education, and other critical support. The Republic of Moldova followed this model and also introduced Temporary Protection for Ukrainian refugees.

In 2024, to assess the health and mental health situation of Ukrainian refugees, their access to services, and the barriers they face across countries, Regional Refugee Response Plan (RRP) health and mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) partners conducted a regional analysis of the Socio-Economic Insights Survey (SEIS) data from 10 refugee-hosting countries: Bulgaria, Czechia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Republic of Moldova, Romania, and Slovakia. The analysis includes a comparison with key indicators collected in 2023.

Key finding from the regional analysis include:

**3**
mortality and night lights (Benshaul-Tolonen, 2019) for gold mining countries in West and East

Africa (including Ghana). The baseline differences in observable characteristics – in particular,

lower levels of economic development preceding the mine opening - indicate that a cross

sectional approach using only the post-period may not be sufficient to understand the impact of

gold mining on socio-economic variables.

**Table 2 Summary statistics for women’s survey**

(1) (2) (3)         (4)

Before mining During Mining

>20 km <20 km >20 km <20 km

Mean Coefficient Mean Coefficient

_Woman Characteristics_
Age 28.79 0.836 28.95 -0.352
Total children 2.18 0.417* 2.56 -0.035
Wealth 3.85 -0.619** 3.33 -0.028
Nonmigrant 0.32 0.123** 0.33 -0.028
Urban 0.62 -0.300** 0.49 -0.150**
No education 0.17 -0.045 0.20 -0.042**
<3 years education 0.77 0.035 0.74 0.045**

15
**COUNTRY NATIONALS, %** **[1,2,3,4]**

Host country nationals Ukraine refugees Bulgaria Hungary Poland Romania Slovakia Region

1. The poverty rate is defined as the share of individuals with an
equivalized disposable income that is less than 50% of the host country median 2. Calculations for Moldova were not conducted, as this country is not included into the [EU statistics on income and living conditions (SILC)](https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/microdata/european-union-statistics-on-income-and-living-conditions)
[survey, which the OECD uses as the basis for host country poverty](https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/microdata/european-union-statistics-on-income-and-living-conditions) assessments 3. Results for the Czech Republic not individually presented due to sampling limitations 4. The host country poverty rate was based on [OECD indicators for](https://stats.oecd.org/)
[2021 that were indexed towards 2023 using consumer price index](https://stats.oecd.org/) (CPI) data Refugee households also report having to engage in harmful coping strategies to meet basic needs.
Some 8% and 15% had to resort to emergency 5 Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, the Republic of Moldova, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia 6 Defined as the total after-tax income of the household (including wages, transfers, social protection benefits, etc.) divided by the square root of the household size
Had to skip a Adults had to meal eat less to feed small children Source: Survey data, SAG estimates

**Employment remains closely associated with significantly lower poverty rates, but size of**

**employment income is key**

Just like in the case of 2023 data, the current survey round suggests a strong link between employment and poverty. Whereas for individuals living in households with no one employed the poverty rate stands at a staggering 62%, it drops to 10% for those with at least one person working. That said, after correcting for excessive housing costs, the poverty rate in the latter group grows to 25%, which is more than double the host country rate. This implies that while employment at refugee household level is important, it is not sufficient to ensure a decent living.

Households that are less financially vulnerable receive more of their income from employment. For those with very low income (below the poverty line), only 26% of their total income comes from work. This figure grows to 67% for those identified as having an income below the poverty threshold after correcting it for housing costs, and to 88% for those living above the poverty line.

**8**
A feature of our modelling approach is that the resulting GDP gains are reduced due to increased competition on the labour market, which slightly increases the unemployment rate by 0.18-0.3 pp. in 2023, corresponding to 33-54 thousand additional people being unemployed. This effect also slows down real wage growth by 0.65-1.15% in 2023.
In reality, these negative effects are likely to be compensated by positive productivity gains, in the form of adjustments on the part of native workers (by their occupational upgrading, see papers by Peri and Sparber, 2009; Foged and Peri, 2016) and firms (by skill-biased technical change, see papers by Lewis and Peri, 2015, or Lewis, 2013), as econometric studies find only small effects on native wages, clustered around zero (Peri, 2014). The case of refugees from Ukraine in Poland is studied in an early paper by Gromadzki and Lewandowski (2023), who find no effect on earnings,
documentation has been a major contributor. The acquisition of citizenship has provided some new avenues,

especially for the youth, such as working in the hospitality industry and the ability to obtain driving licenses, which

has opened job opportunities in the transportation sector. However, most of the community still relies on traditional

trades such as carpentry and basket weaving. The competitive nature of these trades, coupled with a lack of

diversification in skills and economic opportunities, is prompting members to explore new economic avenues. This

situation highlights the need for economic development initiatives that are tailored to the community's unique

needs and skills, offering sustainable and diversified economic opportunities.

The youth within the Shona community demonstrate a keen interest in enhancing their skills and seeking

opportunities beyond conventional trades. The improvement in access to education is a positive development, yet

the challenge of transitioning into the formal labor market remains significant. Citizenship has facilitated easier

mobility and enabled traditional vending activities, but it has not led to substantial changes in long-term career

prospects. This underscores the need for targeted youth development programs focusing on vocational training,

career counseling, and job placement services to help bridge the gap between education and employment.
Co-nationals can provide important information to refugees about employment opportunities. In Germany, Battisti, Peri, and Romiti (2022) found that immigrants initially located in places with more conationals, as well as well as refugees and repatriated ethnic Germans dispersed to such places, are more likely to be employed in the first 3 years. It was found, however, that these groups had lower probability of investing in human capital. In Swiss data, Martén, Hainmueller, and Hangartner (2019) found that refugees dispersed to locations with more co-nationals are more likely to find work, especially in the first 3 years. In Danish data, Damm (2014) found that higher skill levels of non-Western immigrant men in an area raises employment probability of refugee men, while higher employment rates of their co-national men raises their earnings. Also in Danish data, Damm (2009) found that larger size of ethnic network in an area increases earnings of refugees.
In Swedish data, Edin, Fredriksson, and Aslund (2003) found that refugees dispersed to areas with more co-nationals experience higher earnings.

Analysis of the impact of refugees from Ukraine on the economy of Poland
systems, conducting community-based identification campaigns, and facilitating cross-border collaboration to

address statelessness among migrant populations. Providing technical and financial assistance to countries with

high numbers of stateless individuals would further enable the implementation of comprehensive registration and

citizenship programs. The new Global Alliance to End Statelessness provides a multi-stakeholder platform to

strengthen these joint efforts.

**5. Expand efforts to generate evidence on the impacts of statelessness and post-citizenship integration globally,**

**with a focus on Kenya.**

Stakeholders should invest in continued, longitudinal studies to track the Shona community’s socioeconomic

progress over time and take advantage of the pre- and post-citizenship data that is already available, enabling a

better understanding of post-citizenship outcomes. Additionally, research should be expanded to include the

Makonde, Pemba, Rundi and other communities alongside the national population, providing comparative insights

**[www.unhcr.org](http://www.unhcr.org/)** 11
NAVIGATING HEALTH AND WELL-BEING CHALLENGES FOR REFUGEES FROM UKRAINE

# Health analysis

### **Health remains a** **priority need**

Access to health services has remained a priority need and is ranked among the top three priorities by 33% of households, second only to employment and livelihoods support. The identification of health as a priority is consistent with 2023, where 34% of households ranked health among their top three needs.

Variations exist across countries, health care was the top priority need for respondents in half the countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, and Latvia). In 2024, health care became a top priority for 49% of households in Romania, a shift from 38% in 2023, potentially indicating barriers and changes in the level of access.

(2023 N=9,466, 2024 N=7,140)

- Not included in 2023 survey

**TOP 10 PRIORITY NEEDS (OUT OF THOSE WHO REPORTED)**

2023 2024 Employment, livelihoods Healthcare services Accommodation Language course Education for children Medicines Food Trainings, education adults Legal status* Registration, legal assistance
Analysis of the impact of refugees from Ukraine on the economy of Poland

## Literature

Acemoglu, D. (2002). Directed Technical Change, Review of Economic Studies 69(4):781-80.

Aleksynska, M., & Tritah, A. (2015). The Heterogeneity Of Immigrants, Host Countries' Income And Productivity: A Channel Accounting Approach. Economic Inquiry, 53(1), 150-172.

Aleksynska, M., & Tritah, A. (2013). Occupation–education mismatch of immigrant workers in Europe: Context and policies, Economics of Education Review 36:229-244.

Babakova, O., Gomon, T., Naranovich, K., & Oliński, P. (2024). Ułatwienia w zatrudnianiu cudzoziemców spoza UE, Kierunek Polska. Rekomendacje dla polskiej polityki migracyjnej, Forum Obywatelskiego Rozwoju, July, ISBN 978-83-63408-04-6.

Beerli, A., & Peri, G. (2018). The labor market effects of opening the border: Evidence from Switzerland, NBER Working Paper No. 21319.

Brell, C., Dustmann, C., & Preston, I. (2020). The labor market integration of refugee migrants in high-income countries. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 34(1), 94-121.

Brücker, H., Glitz, A., Lerche, A., & Romiti, A. (2021). Occupational recognition and immigrant labor market outcomes. Journal of Labor Economics,39(2) Cassidy, H., & Dacass, T. (2021). Occupational licensing and immigrants. The Journal of Law and Economics, 64(1), 1-28.
It is a general equilibrium model using consumer and producer optimalisation to calculate changes in the economy in response to shocks. This allows to assess the impact of shocks considering supply and demand channels as well as connections between different sectors of economy. This provides information about their total impact on many aspects of the economy including the labour market, government revenue as well as main economic aggregates. It is deemed the most appropriate tool to account for refugees’ multi-layered impact. To account for the effects of other shocks happening in the economy (such as the energy crisis) counterfactual analysis was performed using the newest data for the Polish economy. In other words, we were able to isolate the refugee inflow from all other shocks in the economy, like the other macroeconomic consequences of the war in Ukraine. The results were calculated for 2022 and 2023 with additional long-term analysis to check how the economy would adapt assuming no new shocks including no counter-shocks [35] .

33 [Economics of climate change | Deloitte Australia](https://www.deloitte.com/au/en/services/economics/services/economics-climate-change.html)
34 [Analiza ryzyk klimatycznych – badanie scenariuszy z modelem D.Climate | Deloitte](https://www2.deloitte.com/pl/pl/pages/risk/solutions/analiza-ryzyk-klimatycznych-badanie-scenariuszy-z-modelem-DClimate.html)

---
[35] E.g. refugees keep having lower productivity rather than adapt to level of natives.
_UNHCR   Discussion   Paper   –15   June   2013_

**7.** **OPERATIONAL   FRAMEWORK**

While   positive   developments   already   undertaken   by   the   Government   point   to   an
eventual   return   of   refugees   from   Thailand,   the   timing   of   the   return   remains   difficult   to
predict.      The   Government   of   Myanmar   has   indicated   that   its   initial   priority   will   be   to
commence   facilitating   solutions   for   IDPs,   followed   by   the   voluntary   repatriation   of
refugees.   The   strategy   for   the   South-­‐East   shall   therefore   be   phased   in   its   approach
starting   by   strengthening   involvement   in   IDP   operations   to   be   better   positioned   to
receive   returning   refugees   under   organized   repatriation   in   the   future.   Beyond   the
planned   phases   UNHCR   and   partners   shall   however   remain   alert   to   sudden   changes   in
the   political   environment   and   being   ready   to   respond.

The   decision   to   shift   between   phases   will   be   dictated   by   the   operational   context,
particularly   changes   in   peace   and   security,   access,   conditions   in   return   areas,   and
indications   of   readiness   of   IDPs   and   refugees   to   return.   It   is   expected   that   UNHCR   and
partners’   presence   and   activities   in   one   phase   could   also   contribute,   for   instance,   to
improvements   in   return   conditions,   thereby   catalysing   a   shift   to   the   next   phase.
**ranked lowest on both measures.**
Ukrainian refugees earn the highest wages in manufacturing, health, and accommodation and food service activities, while the lowest in education, other services, and construction. A comparison to median earnings in these sectors in the economy as a whole (after recalculation from gross to net earnings) changes that order, with Ukrainian refugees employed in accommodation and food service activities, and construction earning more than 100% of all workers median, and education, health services, and transportation and storage on the lowest ranks. Earnings relative to the total economy would be lower, if gross wages were compared, because Ukrainian refugees are less likely to have employment contracts and pay social contributions on their entire earnings. [16] Ukrainian refugees employed in education have the lowest median net wages when compared to other sectors. This is likely due to occupational regulations that prevent persons with nonEU citizenship from working as teachers in public schools, which is further discussed in chapter 4.

4,198 4,216 Source: Deloitte own elaboration based on SEIS UNHCR survey and GUS data.

© UNHCR / Anna Liminowicz

---
[16] As refugees more often than average in the Polish economy work based on civil law contracts or self-employment, they may not be covered by employee
2. Regulatory Environment and Governance

the introduction of accelerated procedures in the 2023 Decree, some asylum-seekers with vulnerabilities
wait for a first-instance asylum decision for several months. It is crucial to note that asylum-seekers do not
have the same rights as recognized refugees, limiting their socio-economic integration. Additionally, the
budget of CNARR remains mostly funded by UNHCR.

The asylum legislation, available in French and Arabic, is not well-known among some local administrative
authorities and host communities. Despite ongoing information sessions and capacity development
conducted by CNARR with UNHCR support, the impact is constrained by high personnel turnover in central
and provincial administrations. CNARR, supported by UNHCR, has launched a campaign to disseminate
information about the new refugee Law. Additional efforts are essential for effective dissemination, especially
in remote areas hosting refugees and asylum-seekers, particularly with the recent release of the 2023
Decree implementing the 2020 Asylum Law.