regulations (Figure 4). The DAH was described as an "umbrella" that manages all activities related to the veterinary drug value chain, and in the NAP, they are identified as the focal point for implementation. The central government (DAH and DLP) had a good understanding of ABR, ABU, and regulations, though they acknowledged that they were not always aware of the full ABR situation in Vietnam.

' I don't know exactly what the current situation is, many projects are working on antimicrobial resistance. (…) actually, I don't believe we have a full picture for the country. ' (Interview 12 (IW12), government authority)

The DAH and DLP also collaborated to develop the circular on mandatory prescriptions (circular 12). They are linked to a number of stakeholders (MARD, international partners, Sub- DAHLP,national private stakeholders), but not directly to small holdersanddrug sellers locally. Thecentral government'slegitimacy,resources, and connectionsprovided it influence overthe legislative process and the formulation of new regulations. The Sub-DAHLP was viewed as a link between central, district, and communal authorities.

Their missions

monitor everything related to antibiotic use, including drug agency

control (certificate of practice,

banned substances, and quality testing). However,

participants suggested that their mission had limitations

The Sub-DAHLP could also offer suggestions for the development of new regulations. Other stakeholders rated their knowledge as average, and in some provinces, they were perceived to lack the humanand technical capacity needed to enforce new regulations. Indeed, differences between provinces were observed in the five interviews conducted with Sub-DAHLP representatives, not only in terms of ABR and regulation knowledge, but also in technical capacity to enforce the regulations. The Sub-DAHLP was described as having a close relationship with all stakeholders in the veterinary drug value chain, particularly with drug agencies. Sub-DAHLP employees are responsible for controlling agencies, but they also frequently ownthemasa secondary source of income. A respondent raised the possibility of a conflict of interest between the competent authority and the private sector in terms of ABU management. The Sub-DAHLP also plays an important role in ABU and ABR research. They not only authorize data collection, but they also connect research projects, farms, and drugstores.

' What also surprised me is the link between the Sub-DAH vet and the drugshops. A lot of them, at least 30/50%, are owned by staff affiliated with Sub-DAH or former Sub-DAH staff. ' (IW28, international partner)

District veterinarians at the veterinary district station were not perceived to play a significant role in Vietnam's antibiotic reduction regulations. Other stakeholders perceived them to have limited knowledge of ABU and ABR, as well as limited capacity to implement regulations. Theywerealsodescribedas relaying information aboutnewregulationstofarmers and drug sellers. Communal veterinarians were perceived to have no role in regulatory development or implementation; their primary function was to organize mandatory vaccination. One of two